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The Stellar Consensus Protocol - A federated model for Internet-level consensus
The Stellar Consensus ProtocolA federatedmodel for Internet-level consensus
David Mazières
Stellar Development Foundation
Wednesday, December 6, 2017
Obligatory disclaimer
"Prof. Mazières's contribution to this workwas as a paid consultant, and was notpart of his Stanford University duties or
responsibilities. "
2 / 44
https: / / doresearch.stanford.edu / research-scholarship / conflicts-interest / coi-policies # stanford-r | [
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The Stellar Consensus Protocol - A federated model for Internet-level consensus
The Stellar Consensus ProtocolA federatedmodel for Internet-level consensus
David Mazières
Stellar Development Foundation
Wednesday, December 6, 2017
Obligatory disclaimer
"Prof. Mazières's contribution to this workwas as a paid consultant, and was notpart of his Stanford University duties or
responsibilities. "
2 / 44
https: / / doresearch.stanford.edu / research-scholarship / conflicts-interest / coi-policies # stanford-r | [
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equirements-for-faculty-consulting-activities-and-agreements
Internet payments
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O � eror Bid Askbank4 60.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
bank2 0.93 EUR @ bank3 1.00USD @ bank1
1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR
Say youwant to send $1 fromU.S. to a customer of bank4 in IndiaBank4may have a nostro account at a European bank3- Will disburse 60.0 INR in exchange for 0.93 EUR on deposit at bank3Some bank2may have nostro accounts at bank3 and your bank1 | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 2 |
- O � ers 0.93 EUR at bank3 in exchange for 1.00USD at bank1Goal: implement quick, secure, atomic, irreversible payment
3 / 44
Internet payments
bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4
has account at has account at has account at
O � eror Bid Askbank4 60.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
bank2 0.93 EUR @ bank3 1.00USD @ bank1
1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR
Say youwant to send $1 fromU.S. to a customer of bank4 in IndiaBank4may have a nostro account at a European bank3- Will disburse 60.0 INR in exchange for 0.93 EUR on deposit | [
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at bank3Some bank2may have nostro accounts at bank3 and your bank1- O � ers 0.93 EUR at bank3 in exchange for 1.00USD at bank1Goal: implement quick, secure, atomic, irreversible payment
3 / 44
Internet payments
bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4
has account at has account at has account at
O � eror Bid Askbank4 60.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3bank2 0.93 EUR @ bank3 1.00USD @ bank1
1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR
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bank3- Will disburse 60.0 INR in exchange for 0.93 EUR on deposit at bank3Some bank2may have nostro accounts at bank3 and your bank1- O � ers 0.93 EUR at bank3 in exchange for 1.00USD at bank1Goal: implement quick, secure, atomic, irreversible payment
3 / 44
Internet payments
bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4
has account at has account at has account at
O � eror Bid Askbank4 60.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3bank2 0.93 EUR @ bank3 1.00USD @ bank1
1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR
Say youwant to send $1 fromU.S. to a cust | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 5 |
omer of bank4 in IndiaBank4may have a nostro account at a European bank3- Will disburse 60.0 INR in exchange for 0.93 EUR on deposit at bank3Some bank2may have nostro accounts at bank3 and your bank1- O � ers 0.93 EUR at bank3 in exchange for 1.00USD at bank1Goal: implement quick, secure, atomic, irreversible payment
3 / 44
Strawman: Two-phase commit
Buy Sell
0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
atomic transaction
Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively excha | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 6 |
nging deposits at one bank for ones at another
Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no longer valid
4 / 44
Strawman: Two-phase commit
Buy Sell
0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
atomic transaction
Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively exchanging d | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 7 |
nging deposits at one bank for ones at another
Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no longer valid
4 / 44
Strawman: Two-phase commit
Buy Sell
0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
atomic transaction
Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively exchanging d | [
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eposits at one bank for ones at another
Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no longer valid
4 / 44
Strawman: Two-phase commit
bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4
Buy Sell
0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
atomic transaction
1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR
%
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eposits at one bank for ones at another
Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no longer valid
4 / 44
Strawman: Two-phase commit
bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4
Buy Sell
0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
atomic transaction
1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR
%
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rt
Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively exchanging deposits at one bank for ones at another
Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no longer valid
4 / 44
Strawman: Two-phase commit
bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4
Buy Sell
0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 11 |
rt
Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively exchanging deposits at one bank for ones at another
Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no longer valid
4 / 44
Strawman: Two-phase commit
bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4
Buy Sell
0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3 | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 12 |
atomic transaction
1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR
!
commit commit commitcommit
Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively exchanging deposits at one bank for ones at another
Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no longer valid
4 / 44
Strawman: Two-phase commit
bank1 bank2 bank3 bank4
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y Sell
0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
atomic transaction
1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR
%
commit commit commitabort
Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively exchanging deposits at one bank for ones at another
Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no long | [
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y Sell
0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
atomic transaction
1.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR
%
commit commit commitabort
Decompose payment into a series of trades- E � ectively exchanging deposits at one bank for ones at another
Combine them into atomic transactionUse well-known two-phase commit protocol across 4 banks- Send transaction to every institution concerned- Commit only if all participants unanimously vote to do so- E.g., bank2 can abort transaction if its o � er no long | [
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er valid
4 / 44
The problem: Failure
bank1 bank2 bank3 bank41.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR
commit commit commit
FAILFAIL
What if bank2 disappears mid transaction?- Don't knowwhether or when it will come back online...- Now your original dollar is tied up pending transaction resolutionWhat if bank2 lies and changes vote?- Bank2might convince bank1 of commit and bank3 of abort...- Now bank2 receives USD at bank1 without paying EUR at bank3!- Note bank4 can collude with bank2, or create chain of "Sybil" banks- | [
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Anymajority-based scheme is useless with unknownmarket makersWe need secure transactions across unknown, untrusted parties
5 / 44
https: / / www.microsoft.com / en-us / research / wp-content / uploads / 2002 / 01 / IPTPS2002.pdf
The problem: Failure
bank1 bank2 bank3 bank41.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR
commit commit commit
EVILEVIL
commit abort
What if bank2 disappears mid transaction?- Don't knowwhether or when it will come back online...- Now your original dollar is tied up pending transaction resolutionWha | [
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t if bank2 lies and changes vote?- Bank2might convince bank1 of commit and bank3 of abort...- Now bank2 receives USD at bank1 without paying EUR at bank3!- Note bank4 can collude with bank2, or create chain of "Sybil" banks- Anymajority-based scheme is useless with unknownmarket makersWe need secure transactions across unknown, untrusted parties
5 / 44
https: / / www.microsoft.com / en-us / research / wp-content / uploads / 2002 / 01 / IPTPS2002.pdf
The problem: Failure
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 18 |
3 EUR 0.93 EUR
commit commit commitBuy Sell0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
atomic transaction
Buy Sell
0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
atomic transaction
!%
EVILEVIL
What if bank2 disappears mid transaction?- Don't knowwhether or when it will come back online...- Now your original dollar is tied up pending transaction resolutionWhat if bank2 lies and changes vote?- Bank2might convince bank1 of commit and bank3 of abort...- Now bank2 recei | [
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3 EUR 0.93 EUR
commit commit commitBuy Sell0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
atomic transaction
Buy Sell
0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
atomic transaction
!%
EVILEVIL
What if bank2 disappears mid transaction?- Don't knowwhether or when it will come back online...- Now your original dollar is tied up pending transaction resolutionWhat if bank2 lies and changes vote?- Bank2might convince bank1 of commit and bank3 of abort...- Now bank2 recei | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 20 |
ves USD at bank1 without paying EUR at bank3!- Note bank4 can collude with bank2, or create chain of "Sybil" banks- Anymajority-based scheme is useless with unknownmarket makersWe need secure transactions across unknown, untrusted parties
5 / 44
https: / / www.microsoft.com / en-us / research / wp-content / uploads / 2002 / 01 / IPTPS2002.pdf
The problem: Failure
bank1 bank2 bank3 bank41.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR
commit commit commitBuy Sell0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
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ves USD at bank1 without paying EUR at bank3!- Note bank4 can collude with bank2, or create chain of "Sybil" banks- Anymajority-based scheme is useless with unknownmarket makersWe need secure transactions across unknown, untrusted parties
5 / 44
https: / / www.microsoft.com / en-us / research / wp-content / uploads / 2002 / 01 / IPTPS2002.pdf
The problem: Failure
bank1 bank2 bank3 bank41.00USD 0.93 EUR 0.93 EUR
commit commit commitBuy Sell0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
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atomic transaction
Buy Sell
0.93 EUR @ bank2 1.00USD @ bank160.0 INR @ bank4 0.93 EUR @ bank3
atomic transaction
!%
EVILEVIL EVILEVIL
What if bank2 disappears mid transaction?- Don't knowwhether or when it will come back online...- Now your original dollar is tied up pending transaction resolutionWhat if bank2 lies and changes vote?- Bank2might convince bank1 of commit and bank3 of abort...- Now bank2 receives USD at bank1 without paying EUR at bank3!- Note bank4 can collude with bank2, or create chain of | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 23 |
"Sybil" banks- Anymajority-based scheme is useless with unknownmarket makersWe need secure transactions across unknown, untrusted parties
5 / 44
https: / / www.microsoft.com / en-us / research / wp-content / uploads / 2002 / 01 / IPTPS2002.pdf
Is this a job for blockchain?
6 / 44
What blockchain really gives us
1. Coin distribution- Distribute new tokens or "cryptocoins" while limiting supply
2. Irreversible transactions *- Can securely exchange or transfer purely digital tokens
What if bank1, bank4 i | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 24 |
"Sybil" banks- Anymajority-based scheme is useless with unknownmarket makersWe need secure transactions across unknown, untrusted parties
5 / 44
https: / / www.microsoft.com / en-us / research / wp-content / uploads / 2002 / 01 / IPTPS2002.pdf
Is this a job for blockchain?
6 / 44
What blockchain really gives us
1. Coin distribution- Distribute new tokens or "cryptocoins" while limiting supply
2. Irreversible transactions *- Can securely exchange or transfer purely digital tokens
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ssue digital tokens representing USD, INR?- Would blockchain give us irreversible fiat money transactions?
* under certain assumptions7 / 44
What blockchain really gives us
1. Coin distribution- Distribute new tokens or "cryptocoins" while limiting supply
2. Irreversible transactions *- Can securely exchange or transfer purely digital tokens
What if bank1, bank4 issue digital tokens representing USD, INR?- Would blockchain give us irreversible fiat money transactions?
* under certain assumptions7 / 44
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 26 |
ssue digital tokens representing USD, INR?- Would blockchain give us irreversible fiat money transactions?
* under certain assumptions7 / 44
What blockchain really gives us
1. Coin distribution- Distribute new tokens or "cryptocoins" while limiting supply
2. Irreversible transactions *- Can securely exchange or transfer purely digital tokens
What if bank1, bank4 issue digital tokens representing USD, INR?- Would blockchain give us irreversible fiat money transactions?
* under certain assumptions7 / 44
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 27 |
What blockchain really gives us
1. Coin distribution- Distribute new tokens or "cryptocoins" while limiting supply
2. Irreversible transactions *- Can securely exchange or transfer purely digital tokens
What if bank1, bank4 issue digital tokens representing USD, INR?- Would blockchain give us irreversible fiat money transactions?
* under certain assumptions7 / 44
Bitcoin's key insight: Mining
Definition (Mining)Obtaining cryptocoins as a reward for making digital transactionsharder to reverse.
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 28 |
-reinforcing solution to coin distribution + irreversibilityProof-of-work-basedmining (popularized by Bitcoin)- Solve hard to compute but easy to verify function on transaction set- To reverse transaction, attacker's work is as hard as miners'- Currently Bitcoin miners making ~ $30M / day in aggregate
Proof-of-storage or -memory (burn non-computation resource)
Proof-of-stake-basedmining (many variants)
8 / 44
Blockchain forks
In July 2016, Ethereum executed an irregular state change- 85% of miners opted | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 29 |
-reinforcing solution to coin distribution + irreversibilityProof-of-work-basedmining (popularized by Bitcoin)- Solve hard to compute but easy to verify function on transaction set- To reverse transaction, attacker's work is as hard as miners'- Currently Bitcoin miners making ~ $30M / day in aggregate
Proof-of-storage or -memory (burn non-computation resource)
Proof-of-stake-basedmining (many variants)
8 / 44
Blockchain forks
In July 2016, Ethereum executed an irregular state change- 85% of miners opted | [
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to bail out DAO contract (lost $50M to bug)- Remaining miners kept original rules, became Ethereum ClassicMore recently Bitcoin split (Bitcoin, Bitcoin cash, Bitcoin gold...)What would this mean for token counterparties?- Could bank1 be liable for twice as many digital dollars as it issued?- Spoils of defrauding bank1might exceedmining rewards!
9 / 44
https: / / blog.ethereum.org / 2016 / 07 / 20 / hard-fork-completed /
Blockchain forks
In July 2016, Ethereum executed an irregular state change- 85% of m | [
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to bail out DAO contract (lost $50M to bug)- Remaining miners kept original rules, became Ethereum ClassicMore recently Bitcoin split (Bitcoin, Bitcoin cash, Bitcoin gold...)What would this mean for token counterparties?- Could bank1 be liable for twice as many digital dollars as it issued?- Spoils of defrauding bank1might exceedmining rewards!
9 / 44
https: / / blog.ethereum.org / 2016 / 07 / 20 / hard-fork-completed /
Blockchain forks
In July 2016, Ethereum executed an irregular state change- 85% of m | [
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iners opted to bail out DAO contract (lost $50M to bug)- Remaining miners kept original rules, became Ethereum ClassicMore recently Bitcoin split (Bitcoin, Bitcoin cash, Bitcoin gold...)What would this mean for token counterparties?- Could bank1 be liable for twice as many digital dollars as it issued?- Spoils of defrauding bank1might exceedmining rewards!
9 / 44
https: / / blog.ethereum.org / 2016 / 07 / 20 / hard-fork-completed /
Blockchain forks
bank1USD
bank1USD
In July 2016, Ethereum executed an irr | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 33 |
iners opted to bail out DAO contract (lost $50M to bug)- Remaining miners kept original rules, became Ethereum ClassicMore recently Bitcoin split (Bitcoin, Bitcoin cash, Bitcoin gold...)What would this mean for token counterparties?- Could bank1 be liable for twice as many digital dollars as it issued?- Spoils of defrauding bank1might exceedmining rewards!
9 / 44
https: / / blog.ethereum.org / 2016 / 07 / 20 / hard-fork-completed /
Blockchain forks
bank1USD
bank1USD
In July 2016, Ethereum executed an irr | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 34 |
egular state change- 85% of miners opted to bail out DAO contract (lost $50M to bug)- Remaining miners kept original rules, became Ethereum ClassicMore recently Bitcoin split (Bitcoin, Bitcoin cash, Bitcoin gold...)What would this mean for token counterparties?- Could bank1 be liable for twice as many digital dollars as it issued?- Spoils of defrauding bank1might exceedmining rewards!
9 / 44
https: / / blog.ethereum.org / 2016 / 07 / 20 / hard-fork-completed /
Today's talk: Internet-level consensus
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 35 |
egular state change- 85% of miners opted to bail out DAO contract (lost $50M to bug)- Remaining miners kept original rules, became Ethereum ClassicMore recently Bitcoin split (Bitcoin, Bitcoin cash, Bitcoin gold...)What would this mean for token counterparties?- Could bank1 be liable for twice as many digital dollars as it issued?- Spoils of defrauding bank1might exceedmining rewards!
9 / 44
https: / / blog.ethereum.org / 2016 / 07 / 20 / hard-fork-completed /
Today's talk: Internet-level consensus
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bank4
commitcommit
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Don't needmining for digital money tokens backed by banksInstead, wait for token counterparties to commit transactions- They commit only when their counterparties do, and so forthGuarantees you agree with everyone you depend on- E.g., never diverge from bank1, bank4 where you redeem USD and INR- Through transitivity anyone you'd ever care about will agree
10 / 44
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Don't needmining for digital money tokens backed by banksInstead, wait for token counterparties to commit transactions- They commit only when their counterparties do, and so forthGuarantees you agree with everyone you depend on- E.g., never diverge from bank1, bank4 where you redeem USD and INR- Through transitivity anyone you'd ever care about will agree
10 / 44
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Today's talk: Internet-level consensus
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Don't needmining for digital money tokens backed by banksInstead, wait for token counterparties to commit transactions- They commit only when their counterparties do, and so forthGuarantees you agree with everyone you depend on- E.g., never diverge from bank1, bank4 where you redeem USD and INR- Through transitivity anyone you'd eve | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 39 |
r care about will agree
10 / 44
Insight: the Internet hypothesis
The Internet is a globally connected network- Structure results from individual peering & transit relationships- Decentralized decisions could have yielded many internets, but didn't- Transitively, everyone wants to talk to everyoneHypothesis: counterparty relationships transitively converge- Clearing houses are e � ectively the tier one ISPs of banking
11 / 44
Outline
Consensus background
Voting and neutralization
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 40 |
reement (FBA)
The Stellar consensus protocol (SCP)
12 / 44
The consensus problem
v1in: 3out: 9
v2in: 9out: 9
v3in: 7out: 9
messages
Goal: For multiple agents to agree on an output valueEach agent starts with an input value- In payments, value is an ordered batch of transactions to execute
Agents communicate following some consensus protocol- Use protocol to agree on one of the agent's input values
Once decided, agents output the chosen value- Output is write-once (an agent cannot change its value)
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reement (FBA)
The Stellar consensus protocol (SCP)
12 / 44
The consensus problem
v1in: 3out: 9
v2in: 9out: 9
v3in: 7out: 9
messages
Goal: For multiple agents to agree on an output valueEach agent starts with an input value- In payments, value is an ordered batch of transactions to execute
Agents communicate following some consensus protocol- Use protocol to agree on one of the agent's input values
Once decided, agents output the chosen value- Output is write-once (an agent cannot change its value)
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44
Bivalent states
v1in: 3out: 7
v2in: 9out:
v3in: 7out: 7
messages
FAILFAIL FAILFAIL
v2 failed?
Recall agents chose value 9 in last example
But a network outagemight be indistinguishable from v2 failing
If protocol fault tolerant, v1 and v3might decide to output 7
Once network back, v2must also output 7
Definition (Bivalent)An execution of a consensus protocol is in a bivalent state when thenetwork can a � ect which value agents choose.
14 / 44
Univalent and stuck states
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44
Bivalent states
v1in: 3out: 7
v2in: 9out:
v3in: 7out: 7
messages
FAILFAIL FAILFAIL
v2 failed?
Recall agents chose value 9 in last example
But a network outagemight be indistinguishable from v2 failing
If protocol fault tolerant, v1 and v3might decide to output 7
Once network back, v2must also output 7
Definition (Bivalent)An execution of a consensus protocol is in a bivalent state when thenetwork can a � ect which value agents choose.
14 / 44
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 44 |
)An execution of a consensus protocol is in a univalent state whenonly one output value is possible. If that value is i, call the statei-valent.
Definition (Stuck)An execution of a [broken] consensus protocol is in a stuck statewhen one or more non-faulty nodes can never output a value.
Recall output is write once and all outputs must agree- Hence, no output is possible in bivalent state
If an execution starts in a bivalent state and terminates, it mustat some point reach a univalent state
15 / 44
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)An execution of a consensus protocol is in a univalent state whenonly one output value is possible. If that value is i, call the statei-valent.
Definition (Stuck)An execution of a [broken] consensus protocol is in a stuck statewhen one or more non-faulty nodes can never output a value.
Recall output is write once and all outputs must agree- Hence, no output is possible in bivalent state
If an execution starts in a bivalent state and terminates, it mustat some point reach a univalent state
15 / 44
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ntuition
Consider a terminating execution of a bivalent system
Letm be the last message received in a bivalent state- Sincem caused transition to univalent state, call it decidingmessage
Suppose the network had delayedm- Other messages could cause transitions to other bivalent states- Then, receivingmmight no longer lead to a univalent state- In this case, we saym has been neutralized
Overview of FLP proof.1. There are bivalent starting configurations.2. Fault tolerance = ⇒ network can neutralize any deci | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 47 |
ntuition
Consider a terminating execution of a bivalent system
Letm be the last message received in a bivalent state- Sincem caused transition to univalent state, call it decidingmessage
Suppose the network had delayedm- Other messages could cause transitions to other bivalent states- Then, receivingmmight no longer lead to a univalent state- In this case, we saym has been neutralized
Overview of FLP proof.1. There are bivalent starting configurations.2. Fault tolerance = ⇒ network can neutralize any deci | [
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dingmsg3. Hence, the system can remain bivalent in perpetuity.
16 / 44
Outline
Consensus background
Voting and neutralization
Federated Byzantine agreement (FBA)
The Stellar consensus protocol (SCP)
17 / 44
Strawman consensus: Vote on valueQuorum A Quorum B
v0vote: 9
...vN − Tvote: 9
...vT − 1vote: 9
...vN − 1vote: 7FAI
LFAIL
Suppose you have N nodes with fail-stop behaviorPick a quorum size T > N / 2If any T nodes (a quorum) all vote for a value, o | [
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dingmsg3. Hence, the system can remain bivalent in perpetuity.
16 / 44
Outline
Consensus background
Voting and neutralization
Federated Byzantine agreement (FBA)
The Stellar consensus protocol (SCP)
17 / 44
Strawman consensus: Vote on valueQuorum A Quorum B
v0vote: 9
...vN − Tvote: 9
...vT − 1vote: 9
...vN − 1vote: 7FAI
LFAIL
Suppose you have N nodes with fail-stop behaviorPick a quorum size T > N / 2If any T nodes (a quorum) all vote for a value, o | [
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] | The Stellar Consensus Protocol A Federated Model for Internet level Consensus | 50 |
Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger
Technology For Open Environment
Faraz Masood
Department of Computer Science
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh, India
fmasood@myamu.ac.in
Arman Rasool Faridi
Department of Computer Science
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh, India
ar.faridi.cs@amu.ac.in
Abstract—Distributed Ledger Technology is getting famous
day by day. Not only investors, financial organizations and
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] | [
"Con",
"##sen",
"##sus",
"Al",
"##gor",
"##ith",
"##ms",
"In",
"Di",
"##st",
"##ri",
"##buted",
"Led",
"##ger",
"Technology",
"For",
"Open",
"Environment",
"Con",
"##sen",
"##sus",
"Al",
"##gor",
"##ith",
"##ms",
"In",
"Di",
"##st",
"##ri",
"##buted",
"Led",
"##ger",
"Technology",
"For",
"Open",
"Environment",
"Far",
"##az",
"Ma",
"##so",
"##od",
"Department",
"of",
"Computer",
"Science",
"Ali",
"##garh",
"Muslim",
"University",
"Ali",
"##garh",
",",
"India",
"f",
"##mas",
"##ood",
"@",
"my",
"##am",
"##u",
".",
"a",
"##c",
".",
"in",
"Arm",
"##an",
"Ra",
"##so",
"##ol",
"Far",
"##id",
"##i",
"Department",
"of",
"Computer",
"Science",
"Ali",
"##garh",
"Muslim",
"University",
"Ali",
"##garh",
",",
"India",
"a",
"##r",
".",
"far",
"##id",
"##i",
".",
"c",
"##s",
"@",
"am",
"##u",
".",
"a",
"##c",
".",
"in",
"A",
"##bs",
"##tract",
"—",
"Di",
"##st",
"##ri",
"##buted",
"Led",
"##ger",
"Technology",
"is",
"getting",
"famous",
"day",
"by",
"day",
".",
"Not",
"only",
"investors",
",",
"financial",
"organizations",
"and",
"technical",
"personnel",
"are",
"interested",
"in",
"this",
"technology",
",",
"but",
"also",
"government",
"and",
"nearly",
"every",
"other",
"organization",
"are",
"showing",
"interest",
"in",
"this",
"evolving",
"technology",
".",
"This",
"technology",
"deals",
"with",
"the",
"settlement",
"of",
"transactions",
"without",
"the",
"need",
"of",
"any",
"third",
"party",
".",
"But",
"it",
"also",
"requires",
"that",
"different",
"nodes",
"distributed",
"all",
"over",
"the",
"world",
"should",
"have",
"the",
"same",
"state",
"of",
"the",
"data",
"to",
"prevent",
"fault",
"##y",
"transactions",
"for",
"which",
"there",
"is",
"a",
"need",
"of",
"consensus",
"algorithms",
".",
"Many",
"algorithms",
"have",
"already",
"been",
"developed",
"and",
"implemented",
".",
"This",
"paper",
"discusses",
"some",
"of",
"the",
"algorithms",
"that",
"are",
"widely",
"accepted",
"or",
"talked",
"about",
"and",
"also",
"compares",
"them",
"in",
"terms",
"of",
"central",
"##ization",
",",
"energy",
"consumption",
",",
"transaction",
"rate",
"etc",
".",
"Key",
"##words",
"—",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Work",
",",
"I",
"##OT",
"##A",
",",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"N",
"##G",
",",
"By",
"##z",
"##co",
"##in",
",",
"Nan",
"##o",
"I",
".",
"IN",
"##TR",
"##OD",
"##UC",
"##TI",
"##ON",
"As",
"the",
"human",
"race",
"grew",
"the",
"system",
"of",
"exchange",
"of",
"goods",
"was",
"transferred",
"from",
"bar",
"##tering",
"to",
"coins",
",",
"then",
"to",
"paper",
"notes",
",",
"to",
"ch",
"##e",
"##ques",
"or",
"bank",
"draft",
"##s",
"and",
"in",
"modern",
"time",
"it",
"is",
"digital",
"transfer",
"of",
"money",
"over",
"the",
"network",
".",
"The",
"major",
"issue",
"here",
"is",
"how",
"to",
"trust",
"different",
"parties",
"over",
"the",
"network",
"so",
"that",
"they",
"may",
"not",
"deny",
"of",
"the",
"fund",
"transfer",
"(",
"re",
"##pu",
"##diation",
")",
",",
"or",
"they",
"may",
"not",
"manipulate",
"the",
"transaction",
"data",
",",
"or",
"one",
"person",
"may",
"not",
"spend",
"more",
"than",
"the",
"actual",
"amount",
"in",
"his",
"account",
"etc",
".",
"So",
"for",
"that",
",",
"a",
"trusted",
"third",
"party",
"is",
"needed",
",",
"which",
"is",
"usually",
"government",
"operated",
"bank",
".",
"This",
"trusted",
"third",
"party",
"resolve",
"##s",
"the",
"conflicts",
"between",
"users",
"and",
"prevents",
"illegal",
"transactions",
"[",
"1",
"]",
".",
"This",
"third",
"-",
"party",
"leads",
"to",
"an",
"in",
"##ef",
"##ficient",
"system",
".",
"To",
"send",
"money",
"from",
"one",
"country",
"to",
"another",
",",
"they",
"charge",
"a",
"significant",
"amount",
"of",
"money",
".",
"Also",
"for",
"some",
"transactions",
",",
"it",
"takes",
"time",
"to",
"settle",
"e",
".",
"g",
".",
"credit",
"card",
"transactions",
"take",
"3",
"to",
"7",
"days",
".",
"Generally",
",",
"these",
"transactions",
"are",
"fully",
"controlled",
"by",
"one",
"organization",
"and",
"they",
"can",
"monitor",
"all",
"the",
"transactions",
"between",
"the",
"parties",
"leading",
"to",
"the",
"invasion",
"of",
"privacy",
"of",
"the",
"users",
".",
"If",
"this",
"central",
"party",
"is",
"compromised",
"or",
"ha",
"##cked",
"then",
"the",
"whole",
"system",
"will",
"collapse",
".",
"This"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 51 |
Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment
Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger
Technology For Open Environment
Faraz Masood
Department of Computer Science
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh, India
fmasood@myamu.ac.in
Arman Rasool Faridi
Department of Computer Science
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh, India
ar.faridi.cs@amu.ac.in
Abstract—Distributed Ledger Technology is getting famous
day by day. Not only investors, financial organizations and
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"Con",
"##sen",
"##sus",
"Al",
"##gor",
"##ith",
"##ms",
"In",
"Di",
"##st",
"##ri",
"##buted",
"Led",
"##ger",
"Technology",
"For",
"Open",
"Environment",
"Con",
"##sen",
"##sus",
"Al",
"##gor",
"##ith",
"##ms",
"In",
"Di",
"##st",
"##ri",
"##buted",
"Led",
"##ger",
"Technology",
"For",
"Open",
"Environment",
"Far",
"##az",
"Ma",
"##so",
"##od",
"Department",
"of",
"Computer",
"Science",
"Ali",
"##garh",
"Muslim",
"University",
"Ali",
"##garh",
",",
"India",
"f",
"##mas",
"##ood",
"@",
"my",
"##am",
"##u",
".",
"a",
"##c",
".",
"in",
"Arm",
"##an",
"Ra",
"##so",
"##ol",
"Far",
"##id",
"##i",
"Department",
"of",
"Computer",
"Science",
"Ali",
"##garh",
"Muslim",
"University",
"Ali",
"##garh",
",",
"India",
"a",
"##r",
".",
"far",
"##id",
"##i",
".",
"c",
"##s",
"@",
"am",
"##u",
".",
"a",
"##c",
".",
"in",
"A",
"##bs",
"##tract",
"—",
"Di",
"##st",
"##ri",
"##buted",
"Led",
"##ger",
"Technology",
"is",
"getting",
"famous",
"day",
"by",
"day",
".",
"Not",
"only",
"investors",
",",
"financial",
"organizations",
"and",
"technical",
"personnel",
"are",
"interested",
"in",
"this",
"technology",
",",
"but",
"also",
"government",
"and",
"nearly",
"every",
"other",
"organization",
"are",
"showing",
"interest",
"in",
"this",
"evolving",
"technology",
".",
"This",
"technology",
"deals",
"with",
"the",
"settlement",
"of",
"transactions",
"without",
"the",
"need",
"of",
"any",
"third",
"party",
".",
"But",
"it",
"also",
"requires",
"that",
"different",
"nodes",
"distributed",
"all",
"over",
"the",
"world",
"should",
"have",
"the",
"same",
"state",
"of",
"the",
"data",
"to",
"prevent",
"fault",
"##y",
"transactions",
"for",
"which",
"there",
"is",
"a",
"need",
"of",
"consensus",
"algorithms",
".",
"Many",
"algorithms",
"have",
"already",
"been",
"developed",
"and",
"implemented",
".",
"This",
"paper",
"discusses",
"some",
"of",
"the",
"algorithms",
"that",
"are",
"widely",
"accepted",
"or",
"talked",
"about",
"and",
"also",
"compares",
"them",
"in",
"terms",
"of",
"central",
"##ization",
",",
"energy",
"consumption",
",",
"transaction",
"rate",
"etc",
".",
"Key",
"##words",
"—",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Work",
",",
"I",
"##OT",
"##A",
",",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"N",
"##G",
",",
"By",
"##z",
"##co",
"##in",
",",
"Nan",
"##o",
"I",
".",
"IN",
"##TR",
"##OD",
"##UC",
"##TI",
"##ON",
"As",
"the",
"human",
"race",
"grew",
"the",
"system",
"of",
"exchange",
"of",
"goods",
"was",
"transferred",
"from",
"bar",
"##tering",
"to",
"coins",
",",
"then",
"to",
"paper",
"notes",
",",
"to",
"ch",
"##e",
"##ques",
"or",
"bank",
"draft",
"##s",
"and",
"in",
"modern",
"time",
"it",
"is",
"digital",
"transfer",
"of",
"money",
"over",
"the",
"network",
".",
"The",
"major",
"issue",
"here",
"is",
"how",
"to",
"trust",
"different",
"parties",
"over",
"the",
"network",
"so",
"that",
"they",
"may",
"not",
"deny",
"of",
"the",
"fund",
"transfer",
"(",
"re",
"##pu",
"##diation",
")",
",",
"or",
"they",
"may",
"not",
"manipulate",
"the",
"transaction",
"data",
",",
"or",
"one",
"person",
"may",
"not",
"spend",
"more",
"than",
"the",
"actual",
"amount",
"in",
"his",
"account",
"etc",
".",
"So",
"for",
"that",
",",
"a",
"trusted",
"third",
"party",
"is",
"needed",
",",
"which",
"is",
"usually",
"government",
"operated",
"bank",
".",
"This",
"trusted",
"third",
"party",
"resolve",
"##s",
"the",
"conflicts",
"between",
"users",
"and",
"prevents",
"illegal",
"transactions",
"[",
"1",
"]",
".",
"This",
"third",
"-",
"party",
"leads",
"to",
"an",
"in",
"##ef",
"##ficient",
"system",
".",
"To",
"send",
"money",
"from",
"one",
"country",
"to",
"another",
",",
"they",
"charge",
"a",
"significant",
"amount",
"of",
"money",
".",
"Also",
"for",
"some",
"transactions",
",",
"it",
"takes",
"time",
"to",
"settle",
"e",
".",
"g",
".",
"credit",
"card",
"transactions",
"take",
"3",
"to",
"7",
"days",
".",
"Generally",
",",
"these",
"transactions",
"are",
"fully",
"controlled",
"by",
"one",
"organization",
"and",
"they",
"can",
"monitor",
"all",
"the",
"transactions",
"between",
"the",
"parties",
"leading",
"to",
"the",
"invasion",
"of",
"privacy",
"of",
"the",
"users",
".",
"If",
"this",
"central",
"party",
"is",
"compromised",
"or",
"ha",
"##cked",
"then",
"the",
"whole",
"system",
"will",
"collapse",
".",
"This"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 52 |
echnical personnel are interested in this technology, but also
government and nearly every other organization are showing
interest in this evolving technology. This technology deals with
the settlement of transactions without the need of any third
party. But it also requires that different nodes distributed all
over the world should have the same state of the data to prevent
faulty transactions for which there is a need of consensus
algorithms. Many algorithms have already been developed and
imple | [
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25864,
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"##oc",
"##ur",
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",",
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"t",
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",",
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",",
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"III",
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"practically",
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".",
"Section",
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".",
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"##SU",
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":",
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".",
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"the",
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"proposes",
"the",
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"value",
",",
"then",
"all"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 53 |
echnical personnel are interested in this technology, but also
government and nearly every other organization are showing
interest in this evolving technology. This technology deals with
the settlement of transactions without the need of any third
party. But it also requires that different nodes distributed all
over the world should have the same state of the data to prevent
faulty transactions for which there is a need of consensus
algorithms. Many algorithms have already been developed and
imple | [
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"type",
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"transfer",
"of",
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"is",
"centralized",
"and",
"to",
"overcome",
"this",
"Sato",
"##shi",
"Na",
"##ka",
"##moto",
"[",
"2",
"]",
"proposed",
"the",
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"##ral",
"##ized",
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"development",
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"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
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"after",
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",",
"a",
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"of",
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"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cies",
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".",
"Now",
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"and",
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"invalid",
"transactions",
",",
"we",
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"'",
"t",
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",",
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"an",
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"##table",
"ledge",
"##r",
".",
"In",
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"Section",
"II",
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"what",
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"consensus",
",",
"why",
"do",
"we",
"need",
"consensus",
"algorithms",
"and",
"the",
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".",
"Section",
"III",
"introduces",
"most",
"famous",
"and",
"practically",
"implemented",
"consensus",
"algorithms",
".",
"Section",
"IV",
"analyses",
"different",
"consensus",
"algorithms",
"and",
"section",
"V",
"concludes",
"the",
"paper",
".",
"II",
".",
"CO",
"##NS",
"##EN",
"##SU",
"##S",
":",
"W",
"##HA",
"##T",
"AND",
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"##H",
"##Y",
"?",
"Con",
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"##sus",
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".",
"It",
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".",
"Re",
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",",
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".",
"It",
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"'",
"s",
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"as",
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"III",
".",
"Con",
"##sen",
"##sus",
"is",
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"Di",
"##st",
"##ri",
"##buted",
"ledge",
"##r",
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"(",
"DL",
"##T",
")",
"but",
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"databases",
"e",
".",
"g",
".",
"in",
"bank",
"transactions",
"it",
"is",
"necessary",
"to",
"have",
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"distributed",
"database",
",",
"in",
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"replication",
"it",
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"replica",
"##te",
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"and",
"output",
"##s",
"to",
"other",
"nodes",
"in",
"the",
"network",
",",
"in",
"case",
"of",
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"clock",
"s",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##oni",
"##zation",
"consensus",
"is",
"also",
"necessary",
"etc",
".",
"If",
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"are",
"no",
"fault",
"##y",
"nodes",
"then",
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"can",
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"by",
"message",
"passing",
"system",
"in",
"which",
"individuals",
"broadcast",
"their",
"choice",
"or",
"value",
"and",
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"receiving",
"all",
"the",
"values",
"nodes",
"can",
"apply",
"some",
"function",
"to",
"come",
"to",
"a",
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".",
"But",
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"ma",
"##lic",
"##ious",
"nodes",
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"##lic",
"##ious",
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"e",
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"i",
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"e",
".",
"if",
"all",
"the",
"individual",
"proposes",
"the",
"same",
"value",
",",
"then",
"all"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 54 |
mented. This paper discusses some of the algorithms that
are widely accepted or talked about and also compares them in
terms of centralization, energy consumption, transaction rate etc.
Keywords— Proof of Work, IOTA, Bitcoin NG, Byzcoin, Nano
I. INTRODUCTION
As the human race grew the system of exchange of goods
was transferred from bartering to coins, then to paper notes, to
cheques or bank drafts and in modern time it is digital transfer
of money over the network. The major issue here is how | [
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"##ren",
"##cies",
".",
"It",
"was",
"initially",
"presented",
"by",
"D",
"##work",
"and",
"Na",
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"in",
"1992",
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"against",
"junk",
"emails",
"in",
"which",
"if",
"someone",
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"[",
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"it",
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"checked",
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"that",
"email",
"will",
"be",
"considered",
"as",
"junk",
"email",
".",
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"are",
"two",
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"proof",
"of",
"work",
"protocol",
".",
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"one",
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"/",
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"the",
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"##er",
",",
"request"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 55 |
mented. This paper discusses some of the algorithms that
are widely accepted or talked about and also compares them in
terms of centralization, energy consumption, transaction rate etc.
Keywords— Proof of Work, IOTA, Bitcoin NG, Byzcoin, Nano
I. INTRODUCTION
As the human race grew the system of exchange of goods
was transferred from bartering to coins, then to paper notes, to
cheques or bank drafts and in modern time it is digital transfer
of money over the network. The major issue here is how | [
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"It",
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"If",
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"S",
"##ync",
"##hr",
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"##fine",
"##d",
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".",
"III",
".",
"CO",
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"##SU",
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"AL",
"##G",
"##OR",
"##IT",
"##H",
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"In",
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",",
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"of",
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"promising",
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"algorithms",
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".",
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"(",
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",",
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] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 56 |
to
trust different parties over the network so that they may not
deny of the fund transfer (repudiation), or they may not
manipulate the transaction data, or one person may not spend
more than the actual amount in his account etc. So for that, a
trusted third party is needed, which is usually government
operated bank. This trusted third party resolves the conflicts
between users and prevents illegal transactions [1].
This third-party leads to an inefficient system. To send
money from one country to | [
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"##er",
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"##rification",
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".",
"The",
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"Sol",
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"V",
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"##fication",
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"##er",
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"provider",
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"##rification",
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"##ographic",
"has",
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"first",
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"##h",
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"##co",
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".",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
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"uses",
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"SH",
"##A",
"##25",
"##6",
"has",
"##h",
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".",
"In",
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"##T",
"##s",
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"feasible",
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"##co",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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",",
"summary",
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"##rk",
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"There",
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"##rs",
".",
"These",
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"##cha",
"##in",
",",
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"applying",
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"##h",
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"by",
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"non",
"##ce",
"until",
"mine",
"##r",
"finds",
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"##h",
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"e",
".",
"g",
".",
"has",
"##h",
"starting",
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"a",
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"number",
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"zero",
"##s",
".",
"After",
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",",
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"##r",
"broadcast",
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".",
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"##h",
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"##r",
"and",
"if",
"the",
"majority",
"of",
"them",
"find",
"the",
"block",
"to",
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"valid",
"then",
"that",
"block",
"will",
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"added",
"in",
"the",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
".",
"The",
"complexity",
"of",
"finding",
"a",
"non",
"##ce",
"is",
"such",
"that",
"it",
"is",
"difficult",
"to",
"find",
"a",
"new",
"block",
"and",
"it",
"is",
"uncertain",
"that",
"which",
"mine",
"##r",
"will",
"mine",
"the",
"next",
"block",
".",
"This",
"makes",
"it",
"ta",
"##mper",
"proof",
"as",
"every",
"block",
"is",
"made",
"up",
"of",
"a",
"has",
"##h",
"of",
"the",
"previous",
"block",
"so",
"if",
"an",
"attacker",
"wants",
"to",
"make",
"changes",
"in",
"any",
"previous",
"transaction",
"then",
"he",
"has",
"to",
"change",
"the",
"entire",
"chain",
"even",
"before",
"the",
"new",
"block",
"is",
"found",
"by",
"another",
"mine",
"##r",
"which",
"require",
"very",
"fast",
"com",
"##putation",
"which",
"is",
"not",
"possible",
"with",
"current",
"hardware",
".",
"This",
"also",
"solve",
"##s",
"Double",
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"as",
"every",
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"is",
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"##mu",
"##table",
"chain",
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"and",
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"it",
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"easy",
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"whether",
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".",
"The",
"best",
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"about",
"Po",
"##W",
"is",
"s",
"##cal",
"##ability",
"as",
"a",
"large",
"number",
"of",
"users",
"can",
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"the",
"network"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 57 |
to
trust different parties over the network so that they may not
deny of the fund transfer (repudiation), or they may not
manipulate the transaction data, or one person may not spend
more than the actual amount in his account etc. So for that, a
trusted third party is needed, which is usually government
operated bank. This trusted third party resolves the conflicts
between users and prevents illegal transactions [1].
This third-party leads to an inefficient system. To send
money from one country to | [
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"uses",
"the",
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"##A",
"##25",
"##6",
"has",
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".",
"In",
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"##T",
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"[",
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"##rs",
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"##r",
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"the",
"next",
"block",
".",
"This",
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"##mper",
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"as",
"every",
"block",
"is",
"made",
"up",
"of",
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"has",
"##h",
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"the",
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"block",
"so",
"if",
"an",
"attacker",
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"in",
"any",
"previous",
"transaction",
"then",
"he",
"has",
"to",
"change",
"the",
"entire",
"chain",
"even",
"before",
"the",
"new",
"block",
"is",
"found",
"by",
"another",
"mine",
"##r",
"which",
"require",
"very",
"fast",
"com",
"##putation",
"which",
"is",
"not",
"possible",
"with",
"current",
"hardware",
".",
"This",
"also",
"solve",
"##s",
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"spending",
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"##W",
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"s",
"##cal",
"##ability",
"as",
"a",
"large",
"number",
"of",
"users",
"can",
"join",
"the",
"network"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 58 |
another, they charge a significant
amount of money. Also for some transactions, it takes time to
settle e.g. credit card transactions take 3 to 7 days. Generally,
these transactions are fully controlled by one organization and
they can monitor all the transactions between the parties
leading to the invasion of privacy of the users. If this central
party is compromised or hacked then the whole system will
collapse.
This type of transfer of money is centralized and to
overcome this Satoshi Nakamoto | [
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"but",
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"i",
".",
"e",
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".",
"some",
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"rest",
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".",
"Million",
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"has",
"##hes",
"are",
"com",
"##puted",
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"second",
"all",
"over",
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"a",
"block",
",",
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"thereby",
"increasing",
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".",
"Bit",
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"##in",
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"##s",
"around",
"73",
"T",
"##W",
"##h",
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"[",
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"]",
".",
"Mon",
"##op",
"##oly",
"problem",
"is",
"also",
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"as",
"if",
"any",
"mine",
"##r",
"gains",
"control",
"of",
"51",
"%",
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"the",
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"then",
"it",
"can",
"control",
"the",
"whole",
"network",
"and",
"as",
"with",
"time",
"mining",
"reward",
"decreases",
"chances",
"to",
"gain",
"control",
"increases",
"as",
"new",
"miners",
"will",
"be",
"discouraged",
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"the",
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".",
"B",
".",
"Pro",
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"St",
"##ake",
"(",
"Po",
"##S",
")",
"Po",
"##S",
"[",
"10",
"]",
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"in",
"2011",
"by",
"a",
"member",
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"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"Forum",
".",
"When",
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"are",
"widely",
"distributed",
"using",
"Po",
"##W",
"then",
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"can",
"make",
"a",
"transition",
"from",
"Po",
"##W",
"to",
"Po",
"##S",
".",
"In",
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"Po",
"##W",
",",
"the",
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"a",
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"##r",
"on",
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"other",
"hand",
"in",
"case",
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"##S",
"it",
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"the",
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"##r",
"(",
"valid",
"##ator",
"in",
"case",
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"Po",
"##S",
")",
"holds",
"and",
"ready",
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"put",
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"on",
"a",
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".",
"So",
"if",
"a",
"valid",
"##ator",
"holds",
"x",
"percent",
"of",
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"total",
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"then",
"he",
"has",
"1",
"/",
"x",
"probability",
"that",
"he",
"can",
"valid",
"##ate",
"next",
"Po",
"##W",
"block",
".",
"This",
"kind",
"of",
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"reduce",
"monopoly",
"problem",
"because",
"the",
"initial",
"assumption",
"is",
"that",
"by",
"the",
"proof",
"of",
"work",
"base",
"system",
"the",
"coin",
"is",
"widely",
"distributed",
"and",
"every",
"mine",
"##r",
"will",
"be",
"able",
"to",
"participate",
"in",
"the",
"mining",
"procedure",
".",
"Po",
"##S",
"-",
"based",
"system",
"provides",
"increased",
"protection",
"as",
"making",
"an",
"attack",
"is",
"expensive",
"and",
"one",
"has",
"to",
"put",
"more",
"coins",
"on",
"a",
"stake",
".",
"It",
"also",
"helps",
"to",
"tackle",
"51",
"%",
"attack",
"as",
"to",
"generate",
"an",
"attack",
"attacker",
"needs",
"to",
"have",
"a",
"huge",
"amount",
"of",
"coins",
"and",
"if",
"an",
"attacker",
"already",
"has",
"a",
"huge",
"amount",
"of",
"coins",
"that",
"means",
"he",
"will",
"be",
"the",
"most",
"affected",
"by",
"the",
"attack",
".",
"There",
"are",
"multiple",
"variants",
"of",
"stake",
"some",
"of",
"them",
"are",
"listed",
"below",
":",
"1",
")",
"Random",
"##ized",
"block",
"selection",
":",
"All",
"coins",
"are",
"generated",
"at",
"the",
"start",
"and",
"no",
"coins",
"are",
"generated",
"during",
"block",
"generation",
".",
"It",
"uses",
"a",
"random",
"##ization",
"function",
"that",
"takes",
"the",
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"coins",
"2",
"as",
"an",
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"subsequent",
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"##ator",
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"applying",
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"has",
"##h",
"value",
"when",
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"with",
"the",
"size",
"of",
"the",
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".",
"Using",
"this",
"it",
"will",
"be",
"easy",
"for",
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"to",
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"the",
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"##ator",
"as",
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"are",
"public",
"and",
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"know",
"the",
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"##ator",
",",
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"used",
"in",
"the",
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"##ization",
"function",
"can",
"be",
"called",
".",
"N",
"##x"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 59 |
another, they charge a significant
amount of money. Also for some transactions, it takes time to
settle e.g. credit card transactions take 3 to 7 days. Generally,
these transactions are fully controlled by one organization and
they can monitor all the transactions between the parties
leading to the invasion of privacy of the users. If this central
party is compromised or hacked then the whole system will
collapse.
This type of transfer of money is centralized and to
overcome this Satoshi Nakamoto | [
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] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 60 |
[2] proposed the
decentralized peer to peer transfer of money which resulted in
the development of first cryptocurrency Bitcoin and after that,
a large number of cryptocurrencies followed. Now to resolve
conflict and to remove invalid transactions, we don't need the
third party, but we need consensus algorithms which are
designed in such a way that only valid transactions will be
added to an immutable ledger.
In this paper Section II discusses what is consensus, why do
we need consensus algorithm | [
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] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 61 |
[2] proposed the
decentralized peer to peer transfer of money which resulted in
the development of first cryptocurrency Bitcoin and after that,
a large number of cryptocurrencies followed. Now to resolve
conflict and to remove invalid transactions, we don't need the
third party, but we need consensus algorithms which are
designed in such a way that only valid transactions will be
added to an immutable ledger.
In this paper Section II discusses what is consensus, why do
we need consensus algorithm | [
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] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 62 |
s and the difficulties involved.
Section III introduces most famous and practically
implemented consensus algorithms. Section IV analyses
different consensus algorithms and section V concludes the
paper.
II. CONSENSUS: WHAT AND WHY?
Consensus is a procedure to reach a common agreement in
a distributed platform. It is necessary that nodes or persons
involved in a distributed system must reach a consensus to
ensure reliability and fault tolerance. Reliability and fault
tolerance means that in a dece | [
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"can",
"take",
"several",
"days",
"or",
"weeks",
"depending",
"upon",
"the",
"size",
"of",
"the",
"storage",
"of",
"the",
"mine",
"##r",
".",
"P",
"##lot",
"##ting",
"needs",
"to",
"find",
"non",
"##ce",
"by",
"repeated",
"has",
"##hing",
"of",
"some",
"data",
"that",
"includes",
"account",
"ID",
"of",
"the",
"mine",
"##r",
"as",
"well",
".",
"Each",
"non",
"##ce",
"is",
"made",
"of",
"81",
"##9",
"##2",
"has",
"##hes",
"that",
"are",
"divided",
"into",
"s",
"##co",
"##ops",
"each",
"containing",
"two",
"has",
"##hes",
"and",
"s",
"##co",
"##ops",
"are",
"numbered",
"from",
"0",
"to",
"40",
"##9",
"##5",
".",
"So",
"in",
"plot",
"file",
",",
"there",
"are",
"many",
"non",
"##ce",
"and",
"within",
"them",
",",
"there",
"are",
"40",
"##9",
"##6",
"s",
"##co",
"##ops",
".",
"During",
"mining",
",",
"mine",
"##r",
"first",
"finds",
"the",
"s",
"##co",
"##op",
"number",
"and",
"then",
"uses",
"s",
"##co",
"##op",
"data",
"for",
"that",
"s",
"##co",
"##op",
"number",
"for",
"every",
"non",
"##ce",
"to",
"calculate",
"deadline",
"and",
"from",
"them",
"find",
"the",
"smallest",
"deadline",
".",
"This",
"deadline",
"represents",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"seconds",
"that",
"all",
"miners",
"should",
"wait",
"before",
"adding",
"the",
"new",
"block",
".",
"If",
"that",
"time",
"is",
"passed",
"and",
"nobody",
"added",
"a",
"block",
"then",
"that",
"mine",
"##r",
"can",
"add",
"the",
"block",
"and",
"claim",
"the",
"reward",
".",
"D",
".",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Burn",
"(",
"Po",
"##B",
")",
"In",
"the",
"case",
"of",
"Po",
"##B",
",",
"mine",
"##r",
"should",
"show",
"a",
"proof",
"that",
"they",
"have",
"burned",
"some",
"coins",
".",
"By",
"burning",
"means",
",",
"the",
"mine",
"##r",
"has",
"to",
"send",
"it",
"to",
"a",
"ve",
"##ri",
"##fia",
"##bly",
"un",
"##sp",
"##end",
"##able",
"address",
".",
"So",
"the",
"idea",
"here",
"is",
"that",
"it",
"is",
"as",
"expensive",
"as",
"Po",
"##W",
"but",
"unlike",
"investing",
"in",
"physical",
"resources",
"like",
"computational",
"hardware",
"and",
"power",
"consumption",
"here",
"one",
"has",
"to",
"spend",
"digital",
"or",
"logical",
"resources",
"which",
"are",
"coins",
".",
"So",
"miners",
"have",
"to",
"spend",
"certain",
"coins",
"to",
"participate",
"in",
"the",
"mining",
"procedure",
"to",
"show",
"their",
"interest",
"in",
"generating",
"the",
"block",
".",
"If",
"the",
"attacker",
"wants",
"to",
"attack",
"the",
"system",
"then",
"the",
"attacker",
"has",
"to"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 63 |
s and the difficulties involved.
Section III introduces most famous and practically
implemented consensus algorithms. Section IV analyses
different consensus algorithms and section V concludes the
paper.
II. CONSENSUS: WHAT AND WHY?
Consensus is a procedure to reach a common agreement in
a distributed platform. It is necessary that nodes or persons
involved in a distributed system must reach a consensus to
ensure reliability and fault tolerance. Reliability and fault
tolerance means that in a dece | [
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"to"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 64 |
ntralized environment there are
multiple individual parties who can take their own decision, of
these parties some may behave maliciously and it is necessary
that in spite of having them, the system must have a common
viewpoint. It is difficult but necessary to bring all the
individuals in consensus and that's why various consensus
algorithms are developed as presented in section III.
Consensus is not only needed in Distributed ledger
technology (DLT) but these algorithms are also needed in
distri | [
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] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 65 |
ntralized environment there are
multiple individual parties who can take their own decision, of
these parties some may behave maliciously and it is necessary
that in spite of having them, the system must have a common
viewpoint. It is difficult but necessary to bring all the
individuals in consensus and that's why various consensus
algorithms are developed as presented in section III.
Consensus is not only needed in Distributed ledger
technology (DLT) but these algorithms are also needed in
distri | [
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".",
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"can",
"only",
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"once",
"coins",
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"widely",
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"##W",
".",
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"##in",
"[",
"18",
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".",
"E",
".",
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"##ET",
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".",
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"Here",
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"making",
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".",
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",",
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"code",
".",
"F",
".",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"N",
"##G",
"In",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"Po",
"##W",
"protocol",
"mine",
"##r",
"adds",
"a",
"new",
"block",
"almost",
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"minutes",
".",
"It",
"is",
"like",
"selecting",
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"leader",
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"miners",
"and",
"make",
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"new",
"block",
".",
"It",
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"s",
"##cal",
"##ability",
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"a",
"new",
"leader",
"is",
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"this",
"delay",
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"wait",
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"##ue",
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"only",
"7",
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".",
"So",
"one",
"option",
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"to",
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"was",
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"In",
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"##co",
"##in",
"N",
"##G",
"[",
"21",
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"two",
"key"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 66 |
buted databases e.g. in bank transactions it is necessary to
have consistent distributed database, in case of state machine
replication it is necessary to replicate states and outputs to
other nodes in the network, in case of distributed clock
synchronization consensus is also necessary etc. If there are no
faulty nodes then consensus can be achieved by message
passing system in which individuals broadcast their choice or
value and after receiving all the values nodes can apply some
function to co | [
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"blocks",
"which",
"are",
"called",
"micro",
"##block",
"##s",
".",
"Key",
"blocks",
"are",
"generated",
"by",
"the",
"proof",
"-",
"of",
"-",
"work",
"mechanism",
"that",
"will",
"contain",
"the",
"public",
"key",
"of",
"the",
"mine",
"##r",
"who",
"has",
"been",
"able",
"to",
"solve",
"the",
"challenge",
"and",
"mine",
"##r",
"who",
"own",
"that",
"round",
"will",
"work",
"as",
"a",
"leader",
"for",
"some",
"duration",
".",
"Now",
"that",
"particular",
"leader",
"will",
"be",
"able",
"to",
"generate",
"micro",
"blocks",
"which",
"will",
"contain",
"the",
"set",
"of",
"transactions",
".",
"Content",
"##s",
"of",
"the",
"Key",
"block",
"is",
"similar",
"to",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"block",
"but",
"it",
"also",
"contains",
"a",
"public",
"key",
"of",
"the",
"mine",
"##r",
"and",
"that",
"is",
"why",
"we",
"have",
"the",
"name",
"Key",
"block",
".",
"The",
"intervals",
"between",
"two",
"key",
"block",
"are",
"in",
"general",
"ex",
"##po",
"##nent",
"##ially",
"distributed",
"and",
"the",
"average",
"duration",
"is",
"just",
"10",
"minutes",
"similar",
"to",
"the",
"standard",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"protocol",
".",
"As",
"a",
"leader",
",",
"the",
"node",
"is",
"allowed",
"to",
"generate",
"the",
"micro",
"blocks",
"which",
"are",
"generated",
"at",
"a",
"rate",
"smaller",
"than",
"a",
"pre",
"##de",
"##fine",
"##d",
"maximum",
".",
"Micro",
"##block",
"header",
"is",
"similar",
"to",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"block",
"but",
"it",
"also",
"contains",
"the",
"signature",
"which",
"is",
"generated",
"based",
"on",
"the",
"standard",
"digital",
"signature",
"mechanism",
"using",
"the",
"private",
"key",
"of",
"the",
"mine",
"##r",
".",
"So",
"that",
"ve",
"##ri",
"##fie",
"##r",
"will",
"be",
"able",
"to",
"verify",
"this",
"signature",
"using",
"the",
"public",
"key",
"of",
"the",
"mine",
"##r",
"who",
"has",
"generated",
"this",
"particular",
"Key",
"block",
".",
"G",
".",
"By",
"##z",
"##co",
"##in",
"By",
"##z",
"##co",
"##in",
"[",
"22",
"]",
"[",
"23",
"]",
"uses",
"a",
"combination",
"of",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"N",
"##G",
"and",
"P",
"##ractical",
"Byzantine",
"F",
"##ault",
"To",
"##ler",
"##ance",
"(",
"P",
"##BF",
"##T",
")",
"[",
"24",
"]",
"algorithm",
".",
"P",
"##BF",
"##T",
"like",
"mechanism",
"is",
"used",
"to",
"reach",
"consensus",
"and",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"N",
"##G",
"mechanism",
"is",
"used",
"to",
"generate",
"new",
"blocks",
"as",
"well",
"as",
"leaders",
".",
"Unlike",
"P",
"##BF",
"##T",
"that",
"has",
"Method",
"Au",
"##the",
"##nti",
"##cation",
"Code",
"##s",
"based",
"authentic",
"##ation",
",",
"By",
"##z",
"##co",
"##in",
"uses",
"Co",
"##S",
"##i",
"[",
"25",
"]",
"protocol",
"that",
"com",
"##press",
"##es",
"thousands",
"of",
"signatures",
"into",
"one",
"which",
"can",
"be",
"verified",
"easily",
"and",
"reduces",
"q",
"##uad",
"##ratic",
"computational",
"complexity",
"to",
"log",
"##ari",
"##th",
"##mic",
"and",
"constant",
"time",
"ve",
"##rification",
".",
"Like",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"N",
"##G",
",",
"By",
"##z",
"##co",
"##in",
"contains",
"both",
"Key",
"Block",
"and",
"micro",
"##block",
".",
"A",
"mine",
"##r",
"who",
"successfully",
"mines",
"a",
"new",
"Key",
"Block",
",",
"gains",
"entry",
"into",
"the",
"consensus",
"group",
",",
"proof",
"of",
"membership",
",",
"rewarded",
"with",
"consensus",
"group",
"share",
"and",
"becomes",
"the",
"leader",
"for",
"the",
"next",
"group",
".",
"A",
"fixed",
"-",
"size",
"sliding",
"window",
"is",
"used",
"that",
"constitutes",
"all",
"the",
"available",
"shares",
".",
"The",
"voting",
"power",
"of",
"a",
"mine",
"##r",
"is",
"determined",
"by",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"shares",
"that",
"mine",
"##r",
"holds",
"in",
"the",
"sliding",
"window",
",",
"any",
"share",
"beyond",
"the",
"window",
"is",
"invalid",
".",
"In",
"By",
"##z",
"##co",
"##in",
"Key",
"block",
"mining",
",",
"the",
"reward",
"is",
"not",
"only",
"given",
"to",
"the",
"mine",
"##r",
"but",
"also",
"to",
"the",
"members",
"of",
"the",
"consensus",
"group",
".",
"Due",
"to",
"proof",
"of",
"membership",
",",
"live",
"##ness",
"of",
"the",
"system",
"is",
"ensured",
".",
"Micro",
"##block"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 67 |
buted databases e.g. in bank transactions it is necessary to
have consistent distributed database, in case of state machine
replication it is necessary to replicate states and outputs to
other nodes in the network, in case of distributed clock
synchronization consensus is also necessary etc. If there are no
faulty nodes then consensus can be achieved by message
passing system in which individuals broadcast their choice or
value and after receiving all the values nodes can apply some
function to co | [
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"leaders",
".",
"Unlike",
"P",
"##BF",
"##T",
"that",
"has",
"Method",
"Au",
"##the",
"##nti",
"##cation",
"Code",
"##s",
"based",
"authentic",
"##ation",
",",
"By",
"##z",
"##co",
"##in",
"uses",
"Co",
"##S",
"##i",
"[",
"25",
"]",
"protocol",
"that",
"com",
"##press",
"##es",
"thousands",
"of",
"signatures",
"into",
"one",
"which",
"can",
"be",
"verified",
"easily",
"and",
"reduces",
"q",
"##uad",
"##ratic",
"computational",
"complexity",
"to",
"log",
"##ari",
"##th",
"##mic",
"and",
"constant",
"time",
"ve",
"##rification",
".",
"Like",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"N",
"##G",
",",
"By",
"##z",
"##co",
"##in",
"contains",
"both",
"Key",
"Block",
"and",
"micro",
"##block",
".",
"A",
"mine",
"##r",
"who",
"successfully",
"mines",
"a",
"new",
"Key",
"Block",
",",
"gains",
"entry",
"into",
"the",
"consensus",
"group",
",",
"proof",
"of",
"membership",
",",
"rewarded",
"with",
"consensus",
"group",
"share",
"and",
"becomes",
"the",
"leader",
"for",
"the",
"next",
"group",
".",
"A",
"fixed",
"-",
"size",
"sliding",
"window",
"is",
"used",
"that",
"constitutes",
"all",
"the",
"available",
"shares",
".",
"The",
"voting",
"power",
"of",
"a",
"mine",
"##r",
"is",
"determined",
"by",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"shares",
"that",
"mine",
"##r",
"holds",
"in",
"the",
"sliding",
"window",
",",
"any",
"share",
"beyond",
"the",
"window",
"is",
"invalid",
".",
"In",
"By",
"##z",
"##co",
"##in",
"Key",
"block",
"mining",
",",
"the",
"reward",
"is",
"not",
"only",
"given",
"to",
"the",
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"##r",
"but",
"also",
"to",
"the",
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"of",
"the",
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"group",
".",
"Due",
"to",
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"of",
"membership",
",",
"live",
"##ness",
"of",
"the",
"system",
"is",
"ensured",
".",
"Micro",
"##block"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 68 |
me to a consensus. But if malicious nodes are
present then it will be difficult to achieve consensus because
malicious nodes broadcast different choice or values to
different nodes which leads to an inconsistent state.
Consensus algorithms should lead to termination i.e. one of
the non-faulty node must terminate the algorithm, and decide
one value, and that value should be the correct one. Now after
termination validity is done i.e. if all the individual proposes
the same value, then all correct in | [
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"##FT",
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".",
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".",
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"##rum",
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"s",
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"decent",
"##ral",
"##ization",
"unlike",
"B",
"##FT",
"as",
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"nodes",
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"##uo",
"##rum",
"slice",
"##s",
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".",
"I",
".",
"R",
"##ip",
"##ple",
"R",
"##ip",
"##ple",
"[",
"29",
"]",
",",
"[",
"30",
"]",
"was",
"mainly",
"created",
"for",
"banks",
"so",
"that",
"cross",
"-",
"border",
"payment",
"could",
"easily",
"take",
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".",
"R",
"##ip",
"##ple",
"uses",
"servers",
"to",
"run",
"R",
"##ip",
"##ple",
"Server",
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"ledge",
"##r",
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"records",
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"of",
"currency",
"in",
"each",
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"account",
".",
"Led",
"##ger",
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"which",
"does",
"not",
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"most",
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"ledge",
"##r",
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"is",
"called",
"Last",
"Close",
"##d",
"ledge",
"##r",
".",
"Each",
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"a",
"set",
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"##ried",
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"called",
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"Server",
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"need",
"to",
"add",
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".",
"Every",
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"at",
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"point",
"combines",
"the",
"candidate"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 69 |
me to a consensus. But if malicious nodes are
present then it will be difficult to achieve consensus because
malicious nodes broadcast different choice or values to
different nodes which leads to an inconsistent state.
Consensus algorithms should lead to termination i.e. one of
the non-faulty node must terminate the algorithm, and decide
one value, and that value should be the correct one. Now after
termination validity is done i.e. if all the individual proposes
the same value, then all correct in | [
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] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 70 |
dividual accept that value.
Also, integrity should be maintained such that every individual
accepts only one value which is proposed by a non-faulty node.
2018 4th International Conference on Computing Communication and Automation (ICCCA)
978-1-5386-6947-1/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE 1
When every nonfaulty node come to an agreement then the
consensus is reached.
In a distributed system it may happen that the node
becomes unavailable or get crashed during the transmission,
such type of faults are call | [
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"."
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 71 |
dividual accept that value.
Also, integrity should be maintained such that every individual
accepts only one value which is proposed by a non-faulty node.
2018 4th International Conference on Computing Communication and Automation (ICCCA)
978-1-5386-6947-1/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE 1
When every nonfaulty node come to an agreement then the
consensus is reached.
In a distributed system it may happen that the node
becomes unavailable or get crashed during the transmission,
such type of faults are call | [
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] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 72 |
ed a crash fault. It may also happen
that crashing of any node leads to the partitioning of the
network and the partitioned networks have their own consensus
but not overall general consensus, such faults are called
network or partitioned faults. If any node starts behaving
wickedly then it is called Byzantine faults [3]. Another problem
arises when an attacker tries to fill the network with the nodes
under his control. Such type of attack is called Sybil Attack [4].
Achieving consensus becomes mor | [
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] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 73 |
ed a crash fault. It may also happen
that crashing of any node leads to the partitioning of the
network and the partitioned networks have their own consensus
but not overall general consensus, such faults are called
network or partitioned faults. If any node starts behaving
wickedly then it is called Byzantine faults [3]. Another problem
arises when an attacker tries to fill the network with the nodes
under his control. Such type of attack is called Sybil Attack [4].
Achieving consensus becomes mor | [
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] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 74 |
e difficult in case of
asynchronous systems. Synchronous systems are those in which
we expect a reply from all the nodes within a predefined time.
Fischer et al. [5] suggested that it is impossible to achieve a
consensus with a deterministic solution in a purely
asynchronous distributed system. So the consensus mechanism
should handle all these problems.
III. CONSENSUS ALGORITHMS
In this section, we have illustrated the working of some of
most the practical and promising consensus algorithms that | [
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"##H",
"##MS",
"A",
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".",
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"##T",
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"##cha",
"##in",
",",
"D",
"##AG",
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".",
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"rate",
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"being",
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"in",
"three",
"levels",
"i",
".",
"e",
".",
"low",
",",
"medium",
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"high",
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".",
"As",
"in",
"Po",
"##W",
"energy",
"consumption",
"is",
"a",
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"##T",
"##s",
"so",
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"are",
"compared",
"based",
"on",
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"relative",
"to",
"each",
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".",
"For",
"centralized",
"system",
"we",
"depend",
"on",
"a",
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"third",
"party",
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"it",
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"##riz",
"##e",
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"e",
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"[",
"34",
"]",
".",
"One",
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"is",
"the",
"tolerance",
"of",
"fault",
"##y",
"nodes"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 75 |
e difficult in case of
asynchronous systems. Synchronous systems are those in which
we expect a reply from all the nodes within a predefined time.
Fischer et al. [5] suggested that it is impossible to achieve a
consensus with a deterministic solution in a purely
asynchronous distributed system. So the consensus mechanism
should handle all these problems.
III. CONSENSUS ALGORITHMS
In this section, we have illustrated the working of some of
most the practical and promising consensus algorithms that | [
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"##tooth",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"N",
"##G",
"Block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"Mode",
"##rate",
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"-",
"trusted",
">",
"33",
"%",
"Low",
"fault",
"##y",
"key",
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"is",
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"only",
"at",
"the",
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"not",
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"Wave",
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"By",
"##z",
"##co",
"##in",
"Block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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"##rate",
"Medium",
"Semi",
"-",
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">",
"33",
"%",
"Low",
"Low",
"T",
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"Cy",
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"N",
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"Medium",
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"##r",
"R",
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"-",
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">",
"33",
"%",
"Medium",
"Central",
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"an",
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"##ization",
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"##ed",
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"delegate",
"##d",
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"Nan",
"##o",
"5",
"reporting",
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"local",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
"to",
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"this",
"lattice",
".",
"No",
"##des",
"need",
"to",
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"able",
"to",
"detect",
"if",
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"an",
"issue",
"or",
"conflicting",
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"then",
"this",
"q",
"##uo",
"##rum",
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".",
"IV",
".",
"AN",
"##AL",
"##Y",
"##SI",
"##S",
"OF",
"AL",
"##G",
"##OR",
"##IT",
"##H",
"##MS",
"A",
"simplified",
"comparison",
"of",
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"algorithms",
"has",
"been",
"shown",
"in",
"Table",
"I",
".",
"Al",
"##gor",
"##ith",
"##ms",
"are",
"categorized",
"based",
"on",
"DL",
"##T",
"type",
"i",
".",
"e",
".",
"Block",
"##cha",
"##in",
",",
"D",
"##AG",
"and",
"Led",
"##ger",
".",
"Their",
"transaction",
"rate",
"is",
"being",
"categorized",
"in",
"three",
"levels",
"i",
".",
"e",
".",
"low",
",",
"medium",
"and",
"high",
"as",
"compared",
"to",
"non",
"DL",
"##T",
"based",
"solutions",
".",
"As",
"in",
"Po",
"##W",
"energy",
"consumption",
"is",
"a",
"major",
"issue",
"for",
"DL",
"##T",
"##s",
"so",
"algorithms",
"are",
"compared",
"based",
"on",
"energy",
"consumption",
"relative",
"to",
"each",
"other",
".",
"For",
"centralized",
"system",
"we",
"depend",
"on",
"a",
"trusted",
"third",
"party",
"so",
"it",
"was",
"necessary",
"to",
"cat",
"##ego",
"##riz",
"##e",
"distributed",
"algorithms",
"on",
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"basis",
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"i",
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"e",
".",
"if",
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"mechanism",
"depends",
"on",
"a",
"known",
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"node",
",",
"then",
"that",
"model",
"will",
"be",
"trusted",
",",
"if",
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"depends",
"on",
"some",
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"as",
"trusted",
"nodes",
"then",
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"is",
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"-",
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"else",
"it",
"will",
"be",
"un",
"##tr",
"##ust",
"##ed",
"node",
"[",
"34",
"]",
".",
"One",
"of",
"the",
"main",
"challenges",
"in",
"distributed",
"systems",
"is",
"the",
"tolerance",
"of",
"fault",
"##y",
"nodes"
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 76 |
work in an open environment.
A. Proof of work (PoW)
This is one of the famous consensus algorithm and is used
in Bitcoin blockchain and many other cryptocurrencies. It was
initially presented by Dwork and Naor in 1992 to fight against
junk emails in which if someone wants to send an email then
he has to do some work which discourages attackers [6]. The
work should be moderately hard but feasible to do and it
should be easy to verify that the work has been done. So if
work is not done or imprope | [
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".",
"Table",
"1",
"shows",
"the",
"percentage",
"of",
"non",
"-",
"fault",
"##y",
"nodes",
"for",
"different",
"algorithms",
"so",
"that",
"attacks",
"can",
"be",
"prevented",
"e",
".",
"g",
".",
"in",
"case",
"of",
"Po",
"##W",
"it",
"is",
"51",
"%",
"but",
"recent",
"studies",
"show",
"that",
"for",
"Po",
"##W",
"it",
"can",
"be",
"as",
"low",
"as",
"25",
"%",
".",
"The",
"main",
"aim",
"of",
"DL",
"##T",
"was",
"decent",
"##ral",
"##ization",
"but",
"some",
"consensus",
"algorithms",
"make",
"it",
"centralized",
".",
"So",
"we",
"have",
"analyzed",
"the",
"extent",
"of",
"central",
"##ization",
"and",
"categorized",
"them",
"as",
"low",
",",
"high",
"and",
"medium",
"for",
"example",
"in",
"I",
"##OT",
"##A",
"a",
"coordinator",
"is",
"needed",
"to",
"detect",
"fault",
"##y",
"nodes",
"that",
"is",
"managed",
"by",
"I",
"##OT",
"##A",
"team",
"therefore",
"central",
"##ization",
"is",
"high",
"in",
"I",
"##OT",
"##A",
".",
"Table",
"1",
"also",
"shows",
"some",
"of",
"the",
"main",
"draw",
"##backs",
"and",
"widely",
"accepted",
"applications",
"of",
"these",
"algorithms",
".",
"V",
".",
"CO",
"##NC",
"##L",
"##US",
"##ION",
"AND",
"F",
"##UT",
"##UR",
"##E",
"W",
"##OR",
"##K",
"There",
"is",
"a",
"lot",
"of",
"potential",
"in",
"Di",
"##st",
"##ri",
"##buted",
"Led",
"##ger",
"Technology",
"and",
"a",
"large",
"number",
"of",
"applications",
"are",
"being",
"continuously",
"developed",
"but",
"for",
"every",
"implementation",
",",
"a",
"consensus",
"algorithm",
"is",
"needed",
".",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Work",
"is",
"the",
"most",
"widely",
"accepted",
"and",
"tested",
"consensus",
"algorithm",
"but",
"it",
"is",
"very",
"energy",
"consuming",
".",
"New",
"algorithms",
"are",
"continuously",
"being",
"developed",
"e",
".",
"g",
".",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"N",
"##G",
"but",
"all",
"these",
"algorithms",
"have",
"some",
"flaws",
".",
"This",
"ne",
"##cess",
"##itate",
"##s",
"testing",
"of",
"these",
"algorithms",
"on",
"large",
"scale",
"and",
"also",
"there",
"is",
"a",
"need",
"to",
"develop",
"new",
"algorithms",
"that",
"are",
"more",
"decent",
"##ral",
"##ized",
",",
"s",
"##cal",
"##able",
",",
"efficient",
"and",
"can",
"tolerate",
"more",
"than",
"33",
"%",
"of",
"the",
"fault",
"##y",
"node",
".",
"R",
"##EF",
"##ER",
"##EN",
"##CE",
"##S",
"[",
"1",
"]",
"F",
".",
"Ma",
"##so",
"##od",
"and",
"A",
".",
"R",
".",
"Far",
"##id",
"##i",
",",
"\"",
"An",
"Over",
"##view",
"of",
"Di",
"##st",
"##ri",
"##buted",
"Led",
"##ger",
"Technology",
"and",
"its",
"Applications",
",",
"\"",
"no",
".",
"10",
",",
"pp",
".",
"1",
"–",
"6",
",",
"2018",
".",
"[",
"2",
"]",
"S",
".",
"Na",
"##ka",
"##moto",
",",
"\"",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
":",
"A",
"P",
"##eer",
"-",
"to",
"-",
"P",
"##eer",
"Electronic",
"Cash",
"System",
",",
"\"",
"W",
"##w",
"##w",
".",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
".",
"Or",
"##g",
",",
"p",
".",
"9",
",",
"2008",
".",
"[",
"3",
"]",
"L",
".",
"Lam",
"##port",
",",
"R",
".",
"S",
"##hos",
"##ta",
"##k",
",",
"and",
"M",
".",
"P",
"##ease",
",",
"\"",
"The",
"Byzantine",
"General",
"##s",
"Problem",
",",
"\"",
"vol",
".",
"4",
",",
"no",
".",
"3",
",",
"pp",
".",
"38",
"##2",
"–",
"401",
",",
"1982",
".",
"[",
"4",
"]",
"J",
".",
"R",
".",
"Do",
"##uce",
"##ur",
",",
"\"",
"The",
"S",
"##y",
"##bil",
"Attack",
",",
"\"",
"pp",
".",
"1",
"–",
"6",
".",
"[",
"5",
"]",
"J",
".",
"Fischer",
",",
"A",
".",
"Lynch",
",",
"and",
"S",
".",
"Paterson",
",",
"\"",
"I",
"##mpo",
"##ssi",
"##bility",
"of",
"Di",
"##st",
"##ri",
"##buted",
"Con",
"##sen",
"##sus",
"with",
"One",
"F",
"##ault",
"##y",
"Process",
",",
"\"",
"vol",
".",
"32",
",",
"no",
".",
"2",
",",
"pp",
".",
"37",
"##4",
"–",
"38",
"##2",
",",
"1985",
".",
"[",
"6",
"]",
"C",
".",
"D",
"##work",
"and",
"M",
"."
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 77 |
work in an open environment.
A. Proof of work (PoW)
This is one of the famous consensus algorithm and is used
in Bitcoin blockchain and many other cryptocurrencies. It was
initially presented by Dwork and Naor in 1992 to fight against
junk emails in which if someone wants to send an email then
he has to do some work which discourages attackers [6]. The
work should be moderately hard but feasible to do and it
should be easy to verify that the work has been done. So if
work is not done or imprope | [
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".",
"Table",
"1",
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"the",
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"of",
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"fault",
"##y",
"nodes",
"for",
"different",
"algorithms",
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"that",
"attacks",
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"e",
".",
"g",
".",
"in",
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"of",
"Po",
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"it",
"is",
"51",
"%",
"but",
"recent",
"studies",
"show",
"that",
"for",
"Po",
"##W",
"it",
"can",
"be",
"as",
"low",
"as",
"25",
"%",
".",
"The",
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"DL",
"##T",
"was",
"decent",
"##ral",
"##ization",
"but",
"some",
"consensus",
"algorithms",
"make",
"it",
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".",
"So",
"we",
"have",
"analyzed",
"the",
"extent",
"of",
"central",
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"categorized",
"them",
"as",
"low",
",",
"high",
"and",
"medium",
"for",
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"I",
"##OT",
"##A",
"a",
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"is",
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"I",
"##OT",
"##A",
"team",
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"##ization",
"is",
"high",
"in",
"I",
"##OT",
"##A",
".",
"Table",
"1",
"also",
"shows",
"some",
"of",
"the",
"main",
"draw",
"##backs",
"and",
"widely",
"accepted",
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".",
"V",
".",
"CO",
"##NC",
"##L",
"##US",
"##ION",
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"F",
"##UT",
"##UR",
"##E",
"W",
"##OR",
"##K",
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"a",
"lot",
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"##st",
"##ri",
"##buted",
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"##ger",
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",",
"a",
"consensus",
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".",
"Pro",
"##of",
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"Work",
"is",
"the",
"most",
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"and",
"tested",
"consensus",
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"it",
"is",
"very",
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".",
"New",
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"e",
".",
"g",
".",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"N",
"##G",
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"all",
"these",
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"have",
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".",
"This",
"ne",
"##cess",
"##itate",
"##s",
"testing",
"of",
"these",
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"on",
"large",
"scale",
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"a",
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"new",
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"decent",
"##ral",
"##ized",
",",
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"##cal",
"##able",
",",
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"more",
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"33",
"%",
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"the",
"fault",
"##y",
"node",
".",
"R",
"##EF",
"##ER",
"##EN",
"##CE",
"##S",
"[",
"1",
"]",
"F",
".",
"Ma",
"##so",
"##od",
"and",
"A",
".",
"R",
".",
"Far",
"##id",
"##i",
",",
"\"",
"An",
"Over",
"##view",
"of",
"Di",
"##st",
"##ri",
"##buted",
"Led",
"##ger",
"Technology",
"and",
"its",
"Applications",
",",
"\"",
"no",
".",
"10",
",",
"pp",
".",
"1",
"–",
"6",
",",
"2018",
".",
"[",
"2",
"]",
"S",
".",
"Na",
"##ka",
"##moto",
",",
"\"",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
":",
"A",
"P",
"##eer",
"-",
"to",
"-",
"P",
"##eer",
"Electronic",
"Cash",
"System",
",",
"\"",
"W",
"##w",
"##w",
".",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
".",
"Or",
"##g",
",",
"p",
".",
"9",
",",
"2008",
".",
"[",
"3",
"]",
"L",
".",
"Lam",
"##port",
",",
"R",
".",
"S",
"##hos",
"##ta",
"##k",
",",
"and",
"M",
".",
"P",
"##ease",
",",
"\"",
"The",
"Byzantine",
"General",
"##s",
"Problem",
",",
"\"",
"vol",
".",
"4",
",",
"no",
".",
"3",
",",
"pp",
".",
"38",
"##2",
"–",
"401",
",",
"1982",
".",
"[",
"4",
"]",
"J",
".",
"R",
".",
"Do",
"##uce",
"##ur",
",",
"\"",
"The",
"S",
"##y",
"##bil",
"Attack",
",",
"\"",
"pp",
".",
"1",
"–",
"6",
".",
"[",
"5",
"]",
"J",
".",
"Fischer",
",",
"A",
".",
"Lynch",
",",
"and",
"S",
".",
"Paterson",
",",
"\"",
"I",
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"of",
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"##ri",
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"with",
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"C",
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"and",
"M",
"."
] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 78 |
rly done then it will be easily
checked and then that email will be considered as junk email.
There are two classes of proof of work protocol. First one is
called Challenge-Response protocol in which a requester
requests a service from a service provider. Then service
provider sends a challenge/puzzle to the requester, requester
solves the challenge and sends it to a service provider which
after verification provides the services. The second one is
Solution Verification protocol in which the puzzle | [
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] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 79 |
rly done then it will be easily
checked and then that email will be considered as junk email.
There are two classes of proof of work protocol. First one is
called Challenge-Response protocol in which a requester
requests a service from a service provider. Then service
provider sends a challenge/puzzle to the requester, requester
solves the challenge and sends it to a service provider which
after verification provides the services. The second one is
Solution Verification protocol in which the puzzle | [
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is already
known but based on the request, solution is different. Requester
directly provides the solution to the service provider who
provides service after verification of the puzzle.
The cryptographic hash function can be used as a proof of
work which was first introduced in Hashcash [7] and also used
in Bitcoin protocol. Bitcoin protocol uses the Double SHA256
hash function. In most of the DLTs it is not feasible to achieve
consensus for every transaction so in case of Bitcoin
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] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 81 |
is already
known but based on the request, solution is different. Requester
directly provides the solution to the service provider who
provides service after verification of the puzzle.
The cryptographic hash function can be used as a proof of
work which was first introduced in Hashcash [7] and also used
in Bitcoin protocol. Bitcoin protocol uses the Double SHA256
hash function. In most of the DLTs it is not feasible to achieve
consensus for every transaction so in case of Bitcoin
Blockchain a b | [
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lock is created which is a type of data structure
made up of timestamp, hash of the previous block, some
number of transactions, summary of transactions in a form of
Merkle tree [8] and nonce. There are some special nodes
known as Miners. These miners wait for a certain duration
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] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 83 |
lock is created which is a type of data structure
made up of timestamp, hash of the previous block, some
number of transactions, summary of transactions in a form of
Merkle tree [8] and nonce. There are some special nodes
known as Miners. These miners wait for a certain duration
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] | Consensus Algorithms In Distributed Ledger Technology For Open Environment | 84 |
Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks: A Reputation Approach
1549-7747 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCSII.2019.2901746, IEEE
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Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks: A Reputation Approach
1549-7747 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TCSII.2019.2901746, IEEE
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"Inc",
"##ent",
"##iv",
"##izing",
"Hon",
"##est",
"Mining",
"in",
"Block",
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"##in",
"Networks",
":",
"A",
"Rep",
"##uta",
"##tion",
"A",
"##pp",
"##roach",
"154",
"##9",
"-",
"77",
"##47",
"(",
"c",
")",
"2018",
"IEEE",
".",
"Personal",
"use",
"is",
"permitted",
",",
"but",
"republic",
"##ation",
"/",
"red",
"##ist",
"##ri",
"##but",
"##ion",
"requires",
"IEEE",
"permission",
".",
"See",
"http",
":",
"/",
"/",
"www",
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"##e",
".",
"org",
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"publications",
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"/",
"publications",
"/",
"rights",
"/",
"index",
".",
"html",
"for",
"more",
"information",
".",
"This",
"article",
"has",
"been",
"accepted",
"for",
"publication",
"in",
"a",
"future",
"issue",
"of",
"this",
"journal",
",",
"but",
"has",
"not",
"been",
"fully",
"edited",
".",
"Content",
"may",
"change",
"prior",
"to",
"final",
"publication",
".",
"Citation",
"information",
":",
"D",
"##O",
"##I",
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".",
"110",
"##9",
"/",
"T",
"##CS",
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"2019",
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",",
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"Trans",
"##actions",
"on",
"Circuit",
"##s",
"and",
"Systems",
"II",
":",
"Express",
"B",
"##rief",
"##s",
"1",
"Inc",
"##ent",
"##iv",
"##izing",
"Hon",
"##est",
"Mining",
"in",
"Block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"Networks",
":",
"A",
"Rep",
"##uta",
"##tion",
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"Chang",
"##bing",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"and",
"Z",
"##hong",
"##long",
"Zheng",
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"##bs",
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"of",
"proof",
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"of",
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"work",
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"block",
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"networks",
",",
"relies",
"on",
"Po",
"##W",
"consensus",
"algorithm",
"and",
"requires",
"miners",
"solving",
"a",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##o",
"-",
"puzzles",
"of",
"has",
"##h",
"com",
"##putation",
".",
"However",
",",
"the",
"mining",
"process",
"in",
"the",
"block",
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"is",
"resource",
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"intensive",
"where",
"only",
"the",
"first",
"mine",
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"who",
"complete",
"##s",
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"be",
"rewarded",
".",
"Therefore",
",",
"miners",
"exhibit",
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"behaviors",
"which",
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"distributed",
"com",
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",",
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".",
"In",
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",",
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"a",
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"based",
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"##cent",
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"to",
"conduct",
"honest",
"mining",
".",
"Based",
"on",
"the",
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"theory",
",",
"we",
"design",
"a",
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"-",
"based",
"algorithm",
"to",
"encourage",
"honest",
"mining",
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"miners",
",",
"and",
"thereby",
"increase",
"the",
"overall",
"revenue",
"of",
"the",
"pool",
".",
"In",
"addition",
",",
"numerical",
"illustrations",
"are",
"also",
"presented",
"to",
"support",
"the",
"performance",
"of",
"our",
"proposed",
"mechanism",
".",
"Index",
"Te",
"##rms",
"—",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"Pro",
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"IN",
"##TR",
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"##B",
"##it",
"##co",
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"S",
".",
"Na",
"##ka",
"##moto",
"[",
"1",
"]",
",",
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"##cha",
"##in",
"data",
"structure",
",",
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"and",
"access",
"with",
"the",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##ography",
",",
"and",
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"and",
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"data",
"with",
"the",
"intelligent",
"con",
"-",
"tracts",
"[",
"2",
"]",
",",
"[",
"3",
"]",
".",
"As",
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"integrated",
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"distributed",
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"storage",
",",
"point",
"-",
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"-",
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",",
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",",
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] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 86 |
nsactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs
1
Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks: A Reputation
Approach
Changbing Tang, Member, IEEE, Luya Wu, Guanghui Wen, Senior Member, IEEE and Zhonglong Zheng
Abstract—The core security of proof-of-work (PoW) based
blockchain networks, relies on PoW consensus algorithm and
requires miners solving a crypto-puzzles of hash computation.
However, the mining process in the blockchain is resource-
intensive where only the first miner who complet | [
117,
3510,
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] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 87 |
es full PoW
will be rewarded. Therefore, miners exhibit malicious behaviors
which cause a waste of distributed computation resource, even
posing a threat on the efficiency of blockchain networks. In
this paper, we propose a new reputation-based mechanism for
the PoW computation in the blockchain, in which miners are
incentivized to conduct honest mining. Based on the game theory,
we design a reputation-based algorithm to encourage honest
mining of miners, and thereby increase the overall revenue of
the po | [
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] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 88 |
es full PoW
will be rewarded. Therefore, miners exhibit malicious behaviors
which cause a waste of distributed computation resource, even
posing a threat on the efficiency of blockchain networks. In
this paper, we propose a new reputation-based mechanism for
the PoW computation in the blockchain, in which miners are
incentivized to conduct honest mining. Based on the game theory,
we design a reputation-based algorithm to encourage honest
mining of miners, and thereby increase the overall revenue of
the po | [
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] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 89 |
ol. In addition, numerical illustrations are also presented
to support the performance of our proposed mechanism.
Index Terms—Blockchain, Proof-of-Work, reputation-based
mechanism, game theory.
I. INTRODUCTION
BLockchain was first proposed in the white paper ofBitcoin by S. Nakamoto [1], which is used to verify and
store data with the blockchain data structure, to ensure the
security of data transmission and access with the cryptography,
and to program and manipulate data with the intelligent con-
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] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 90 |
ol. In addition, numerical illustrations are also presented
to support the performance of our proposed mechanism.
Index Terms—Blockchain, Proof-of-Work, reputation-based
mechanism, game theory.
I. INTRODUCTION
BLockchain was first proposed in the white paper ofBitcoin by S. Nakamoto [1], which is used to verify and
store data with the blockchain data structure, to ensure the
security of data transmission and access with the cryptography,
and to program and manipulate data with the intelligent con-
trac | [
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] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 91 |
ts [2], [3]. As an integrated application of distributed data
storage, point-to-point transmission, consensus mechanism,
and encryption algorithm, blockchain has recently generated
explosive interest from both academia and industry [4]–[7]. A
survey of this topic can be referred to [8].
As one of the most successful applications of the blockchain
technology, the security of bitcoin system relies on blockchain
technology [9], in which the transactions are written into the
open ledger in the form of blocks | [
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] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 92 |
. To prevent alterations of
previous transactions and maintain the integrity of the ledger,
the participants (also called miners) contribute their computa-
tional power to generate PoW by solving a hash computation
crypto-puzzles [10]. The miner solving the problem with the
fastest speed will get right to account the block and acquire
the bitcoin reward from the system [11]. After the solution is
solved by some miner and propagated to the Bitcoin network,
This work was supported in part by the National N | [
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] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 93 |
atural Science Founda-
tion through Grant 61751303, Grant 61672467, Grant 61877055 and Grant
61872323, in part by the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of
China through Grant LY16F030002 and in part by the Australian Research
Council through Grant DE180101268. (Corresponding author: Guanghui
Wen.)
C. Tang and L. Wu are with the College of Physics and Electronics
Information Engineering, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China
(e-mail: tangcb@zjnu.edu.cn). C. Tang is also with the Sc | [
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] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 94 |
hool of Engineering,
RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC. 3001, Australia.
G. Wen is with the School of Mathematics, Southeast University, Nanjing,
211189, China, and also with the School of Engineering, RMIT University,
Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia (e-mail: wenguanghui@gmail.com).
Z. Zheng is with the College of Mathematics and Computer Science, Zhe-
jiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China (e-mail: zhonglong@zjnu.cn).
the block is generated. Later, a new round starts and all miners
begin to solve | [
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a new cryptographic puzzle.
However, the mining process of the blockchain is very
resource-intensive, which results in intense competitions and
malicious behaviors among miners, such as interception at-
tacks, selfish mining, eclipse attacks and stubborn min-
ing [12]–[15]. Take the block withholding (BWH) attack as an
example, where the infiltrating miners from other pools only
submit partial proof of work (PPoW) to the attacked pool [16],
[17]. At last, the revenue of the attacked pool is shared among
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more miners, which results in the fact that each miner earns
less compared to solo mining or honest mining. Such attack
makes the pool reward system unfair for malicious miners
receiving unearned rewards, which threatens the efficiency of
the bitcoin system greatly. Therefore, it is necessary to design
an effective and fair mechanism to make miners accountable
for any malicious behaviors, and thereby promote the efficient
of blockchain networks.
To address the challenge, several literatures have been
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] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 97 |
used on the study of the malicious behaviors for pool
mining. In [18], authors investigated a solution to prevent
unfair supervisors and lazy miners from cheating, in which the
technique can be applied for preventing misbehaving miners
in the pool of blockchain networks. Moreover, the authors
in [19] provided a game theoretic analysis of bitcoin, and
argued that the honest strategy constitutes an NE, implying
incentive-compatibility. In [20], Eyal and Sirer introduced
selfish mining, in which the miners o | [
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f a coalition keep their
discovered blocks private and continue to verify more blocks
privately until they get a sub-chain. Furthermore, Johnson et
al. explored the trade-off among DDoS attacks with a series
of game-theoretical models of competition between two pools
of varying sizes, and found that pools have a greater incentive
to attack large pools than small ones [21].
On the other hand, reputation mechanism and some related
distributed mechanisms can provide an incentive to prevent
the malicious beh | [
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] | Incentivizing Honest Mining in Blockchain Networks A Reputation Approach | 99 |