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This week the Supreme Court takes up same-sex marriage, amid shifting American mores and a healthy debate about equality. Yet the two cases before the High Court are less about the institution of marriage than the sanctity of democratic institutions and the proper role of the courts. Over time, through popular consent, the law comes to reflect an evolving social consensus. On gay marriage, state by state, election by election, voters are extending to gay and lesbian couples the same rights and responsibilities that pertain to a union between a man and a woman. Those choices are the pith of self-government, even if fair-minded voters in other states preserve the traditional meaning. If the Supreme Court now reads a right to gay marriage into the Constitution and imposes that definition on all states, it won’t settle the debates Americans are conducting. It will inflame them and ensure they never end, prematurely aborting the give-and-take on contentious moral and social issues the Constitution is designed to encourage. Five Justices—or fewer, if they split into pluralities—could further polarize the body politic and make compromise more difficult. In Hollingsworth v. Perry, the Court will review Proposition 8, a 2008 California referendum that overturned that state’s supreme court ruling creating a right for gays and lesbians to have their relationships legally identified as marriage. The claim is that the one man, one woman definition violates the Fourteenth Amendment’s guarantee of equal protection. That is also among the claims in U.S. v. Windsor, which challenges the Defense of Marriage Act, the 1996 law that uses the traditional definition for federal law and says one state’s definition cannot bind another’s. Liberals do not merely contend that laws based on sexual orientation lack any “rational basis.” They also claim the only motivation for such laws is prejudice against gays. They therefore want the Court to designate homosexuals as a legally protected group like minorities or women and apply to Proposition 8 the highest levels of constitutional protection, called strict or heightened scrutiny. The Court has not used the equal protection clause to create a new category of people who need extra legal defenses in three decades, largely because doing so disrupts the ebb and flow of the ordinary political process. Such caution is prudent, especially here. Homosexuals are not disenfranchised like blacks in the mid-20th century, as the very progress of the gay rights movement shows. Nine states and the District of Columbia now recognize same-sex marriages, up from zero less than a generation ago. Though the early states were ordered to do so by their courts, more recent gains came through legislatures, as in New York. Last year, proponents won three of three popular referenda in Maine, Maryland and Washington state. Through persuasion, gay marriage has come to enjoy a slight popular majority. A mere 17 years ago the Defense of Marriage Act, or Doma, passed with bipartisan majorities in the House (342 to 67) and Senate (85 to 14). Only a year ago President Obama opposed gay marriage. Now gay marriage is the default position of the Democratic Party, Bill Clinton is apologizing for signing Doma, and Mr. Obama’s Attorney General not only refused to defend this federal statute but is urging the Court to overturn it. Growing numbers of Republicans endorse gay marriage as well. The Court ought to conclude on the merits that marriage as historically understood does have a “rational basis.” This version of the equal protection test properly defers to the deliberative judgment of voters and their elected representatives. Traditional marriage laws may support legitimate goals like promoting intact, reasonably stable wedlock between mothers and fathers for children, or simply stem from a desire to not experiment with a core unit of civil society. Other states revise marriage arrangements to reflect new values and norms, but neither judgment is irrational. That’s the genius of the U.S. federalist system. It would be an act of judicial imperialism to declare that the meaning of marriage that has prevailed across the Western world for millennia is suddenly unconstitutional because it is “irrational” and force the new concept on everyone. A one-fell-swoop ruling would also contradict numerous precedents, in particular Romer v. Evans in 1995. Writing for a 6-3 majority, Justice Anthony Kennedy held that a Colorado constitutional amendment forbidding local gay rights legislation lacked a rational basis because it singled out gays, but he expressly declined to establish gays as a class that needs special antidiscrimination treatment. In 2003 in Lawrence, the Court overturned Texas laws that criminalized certain forms of sexual behavior, but an infringement of individual liberty is not the same as a demand to create new individual rights. Short of an outright resolution, the Court could honorably rule that the private parties who filed the case don’t have Article III standing to sue. California declined to appeal when Proposition 8 was dissolved by a district court and thus there is arguably no longer a “case or controversy.” Mr. Obama’s Justice Department is offering the Justices another legal off-ramp—at least for California and the seven other states that have created civil unions for gays. The argument is that because civil unions have essentially the same rights as marriages with a different label, the “marriage” label can no longer be denied in those eight states. At least this would not impose California’s law on all 50 states. Which brings us to the Defense of Marriage Act, which liberals and some libertarians argue is an affront to federalism. We disagree. Under their police powers, the states govern domestic arrangements—marriage, divorce, child custody, etc.—and for two centuries the federal government borrowed the state definitions. This was unsettled in 1993 when the Hawaii supreme court legalized gay marriage, confronting Washington and the states with the possibility of many competing interpretations. In this unprecedented context, refusing to take a position was itself taking a position, so Congress decided to clarify a uniform national standard for the purposes of the 1,100 federal laws that rely on marriage. For example, Doma’s Section 3 defines who is a spouse for Social Security benefits and which couples can file joint tax returns. Doma doesn’t usurp state prerogatives or outlaw experimentation, or else those nine states could not have legalized gay marriage since Doma passed. In the Constitution’s system of dual federal-state sovereignty, each coequal sovereign has the power to define marriage for its own sphere. Some scholars of federalism claim Doma was meant to express a policy judgment about gay marriage that is not supported by the federal government’s enumerated powers. But Doma embodies federalism at its best by keeping the channels of democracy open. Section 2 says one state does not have to accept another state’s definition under the Constitution’s full faith and credit clause, preserving each sovereign’s right to decide for itself. In 1996 it was rational for Congress to choose for itself the definition that prevailed in most states. If more states redefine marriage, then Doma’s constitutionality as a way-station could be in doubt. The law will probably be repealed soon enough anyhow, though recognizing all gay marriages would constitute a multibillion-dollar shock to the federal fisc. For now, however, Congress still has compelling reasons to retain a uniform approach across the federal government. The marriage debate has often been difficult, but it also affirms America’s political tolerance and adaptability. The best tradition of U.S. democracy is to mediate controversies, giving all sides a fair hearing. Not everyone will like the results at the ballot box, but at least they can accept them as legitimate. A same-sex marriage ukase would achieve that rare thing, harming advocates and opponents and everyone in between. Since marriage is more than an intimate relationship but an expression of legitimacy in the eyes of society, Supreme Court-mandated marriages would confer fewer benefits on gays and lesbians than would popular acceptance. Meanwhile, the Court would tell millions of Americans that their deep moral convictions are artifacts of invidious bigotry. The Supreme Court does not have a good record legislating cultural change. A ruling on behalf of same-sex marriage could enshrine Hollingsworth and Windsor with Roe v. Wade, the 1973 abortion decision that imposed a judicial diktat even as laws in many states were liberalizing. Instead of finding a rough consensus inside the political mainstream, abortion became an all-or-nothing combat that still rages. The same-sex marriage cases are an opportunity for the Court to show it has learned from that mistake. Justice Kennedy and his colleagues can incite another Forty Years War or they can return their social jurisprudence to the measured, incremental approaches the Constitution intends. A version of this article appeared March 25, 2013, on page A16 in the U.S. edition of The Wall Street Journal, with the headline: Marriage and the Supreme Court.

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Experts have welcomed the Indonesian government’s announcement it will approve a commercial forest preservation project aimed at generating carbon credits but have said local people should share the profits. Indonesia is seen as a key player in the fight against climate change because its vast tracts of tropical rainforests and carbon-rich peat lands help trap greenhouse gases and slow down global warming. Indonesian officials announced at climate talks in Doha that it would approve a project called Rimba Raya, which aims to generate trade-able carbon credits from the preservation of nearly 80,000 hectares of Kalimantan forest, as part of a UN-backed scheme called Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+). In other words, the project aims to make it more profitable to save the forest than to log it or clear the land for lucrative crops such as palm oil. Dr Luca Tacconi, Director of the ANU’s Asia Pacific Network for Environmental Governance and an expert on REDD said it was good that the Indonesian government had said it would approve the Rimba Raya project. “The important part is that it’s a commercial based project. They will be able to issue carbon certificates and that is an important step for Indonesia,” he said. Other REDD+ projects in Indonesia had been pilot projects, including those funded by the Australian government, but Rimba Raya was the first private REDD+ project to get approval, he said. “People in the government and the private sector can now see that the project is feasible. It takes time to get approval but it’s feasible and it is sending the message that the Indonesian government seems to be behind this approach,” said Dr Tacconi, but added that there was still disagreement at global climate talks on exactly how REDD+ would be implemented and how carbon credits could be monitored and verified. “To me, the important thing is to see how the project will benefit the local communities as well. There is the expectation it will contribute to their livelihoods so it will be very interesting to see how they implement it,” he said. ANU researcher Dr Piers Gillespie, who recently published a paper in the journal Asian Studies Review on palm oil and local communities in Indonesia also welcomed the government’s announcement it would approve the Rimba Raya project. “This much delayed approval for the Rimba Raya project is a great step forward in terms of hopefully demonstrating how the international carbon market can provide alternative income sources to assist the Indonesian government roll out its low carbon, high development initiatives,” said Dr Gillespie, who is also Business Development Manager for Daemeter Consulting in Jakarta, a firm that works with plantation companies to promote profitable and sustainable management of natural resources. “As an political scientist and anthropologist, I am most interested in how the disbursement of carbon funds will be divided up locally as well as internationally; who will benefit and who may be left behind in such an engagement.” Dr Gillespie said REDD+ payments are potentially an important part of a holistic approach to manage the protection of Indonesia’s remaining forests. “However there is a need to understand the complexities of the political-economic environment in Indonesia vis a vis regional development, rural poverty, and decentralisation and governance realities before coming to the table prematurely with potentially unrealisable promises,” he said. “It is also important to understand the role of oil palm as a proven tool for rural development and work with the oil palm industry to provide business alternatives that align interests and compliment environmental outcomes. This is not easy, but to do otherwise is naive.”

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The Leading eBooks Store Online for Kindle Fire, Apple, Android, Nook, Kobo, PC, Mac, Sony Reader... Intercultural and Multicultural Education Enhancing Global Interconnectedness By addressing intercultural and multicultural education in a global context, this volume brings together the dynamic discussions and lively debate of intercultural and multicultural education taking place across the world. Not content with discussion of theory or practice at the expense of the other, this collection of essays embodies dialogical praxis by weaving together a variety of epistemologies, ideologies, historical circumstances, pedagogies, policy approaches, curricula, and personal narratives. Contributors take readers to the countries, schools, and nongovernmental agencies where intercultural education and multicultural education, either collectively or singularly, are active (often central) concepts or practices in the daily educational undertaking and discourse of society. Readers are also informed about how intercultural education and/or multicultural education within a country came to be and will learn about the debates over intercultural education and/or multicultural education at both the government and local level. 352 pages; ISBN 9781136949371 , or download in or More from this author - Academic > Education > Special aspects of education > Social aspects of education > Education and the state > Public school question. Secularization. Religious instruction in the public schools - Academic > Education > Special aspects of education > Types of education > Multicultural education (General) - Education > Higher - Education > Philosophy & Social Aspects

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Bacteria Oxalobacter formigenes - a potential cure for kidney stones A recent study published in Journal of the American Society of Nephrology has robbed of million’s pain who suffer from kidney stone. The researchers in Boston University’s Slone Epidemiology Center have found that a type of bacteria can reduce the risk of persistent kidney stones by about 70%. The bacteria known as Oxalobacter formigenes can break down oxalate in the intestinal tract, as most of the kidney stones are composed of calcium oxalate (CaC2O4), thus reducing the persistent pain due to kidney stone in a person by breaking it down. The bacteria are found in large number in human population. During the research, the data was collected from 247 adult patients with regular calcium oxalate stones were compared with 259 age, sex and region –matched controls. The colonisation of bacteria was studied by culture of stool samples along with this; information was gathered on dietary habits through questionnaire and interview. Also oxalate excretion and other urinary risk factors for 24 hours were measured in a subset of 139 cases and 138 controls. It was later assessed that the bacteria was present in 17% among the person with kidney stones while 38% of it was found among controls. Professor David Kaufman, the lead researcher of the team said, “We observed a strong inverse association between colonisation with Oxalobacter formigenes and recurrent CaC2O4 kidney stones, with a 70 per cent reduction in overall risk.” “Our findings are of potential clinical importance. The possibility of using the bacterium as a probiotic is currently in the early stages of investigation,” he added. Kidney stones may be of different types but predominantly the stones found are composed of Calcium oxalate. The normal breakdown of food produces waste in the body, the waste through blood reaches kidney for its removal in the urine, which if not removed can form stones. Generally small stones can pass through urine but larger stone may get stuck in a ureter, the bladder, or the urethra causing great pain. Thus treating patients with bacteria may be an effective way of reducing their risk of repeatedly developing painful kidney stones. Earlier researches too have found that the bacteria colonising the large intestine in human which if absent, cannot degrade calcium oxalate in the intestinal tract and stones can recur. Read More: University Grants Commission (UGC) | American Samoa | Guru Nanak Dev University | Daxini Society | Azad Society | Chandkheda Society Area | Ambika Society Kalol | Kalol Society Area | Patel Society Area Tso Nad | 3 Eme Center | Madanapalle Society Colony | Spinning Mills Center | Theosophical Society Gdsso | David Beckham | Pondicherry University Latest News | Central University of Tibetan Studies | Osmania University Hyderabad | University of Madras | Janata Dal (United) information | Allahabad University 7 ROB ATM MACHINE FILLED WITH CASH June 18, 2013 at 8:35 PM SALWA JUDUM SPO BRUTALLY BEATEN UP BY POLICE OFFICER (NNIS SPECIAL) June 18, 2013 at 8:25 PM BJP SAYS, IT IS SETTING THE AGENDA FIRST FOR DELHI POLLS June 18, 2013 at 8:19 PM

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Critics of social media often complain they encourage frivolous recordings of what people are eating for lunch or where they're having drinks after work. But what if social media could help detect and track global disease outbreaks weeks earlier than traditional surveillance methods, allowing officials to introduce treatment and reduce the spread of a potential pandemic? A growing segment of the medical community believes that is a realistic possibility and is increasingly looking at ways to harness the power of blogs, news outlets and social-networking websites to detect disease patterns around the world. Dozens of researchers gathered Monday at a pandemic conference in Toronto to hear about the progress one expert has made toward achieving those goals. John Brownstein, an epidemiologist who works as a researcher at Children's Hospital Boston, told researchers instead of relying solely on government-based disease-surveillance systems, they should recognize the power of clues coming from individuals on the ground. Dr. Brownstein and his colleagues have created HealthMap, an ambitious website and mobile application that constantly trolls the Internet for emerging outbreaks of the flu or a new respiratory illness. HealthMap uses news sites, eye-witness reports, government disease-tracking systems, wildlife disease-surveillance websites and other sources to identify new patterns in disease and where they are occurring. The scope is impressive; HealthMap automatically scrolls through tens of thousands of websites an hour, Dr. Brownstein said. "We're constantly mining the Web," he said. Researchers recently used HealthMap to illustrate on a world map the location of new cases of E. coli infection as they were identified, following a massive illness outbreak that was eventually linked to German sprouts. Informal online-surveillance methods should never replace traditional public-health disease-tracking systems, Dr. Brownstein told the conference. But they can help enhance data and uncover patterns quickly, especially considering some limitations of traditional surveillance. For instance, many government tracking systems may have geographical limits that could fail to take into account disease patterns in a neighbouring country. The system is far from perfect: Dr. Brownstein said HealthMap identified a new pattern of respiratory illness in Mexico in 2009 well before public-health officials realized a new influenza pandemic was emerging. Yet, researchers didn't recognize the seriousness of the threat it posed. HealthMap often identifies new disease patterns in various countries around the world, but researchers haven't developed a sound method of determining which ones pose serious threats and which are run-of-the-mill pockets of illness. The possibilities for early detection of emerging infectious diseases are enormous and could allow public-health authorities to identify serious outbreaks or pandemics much faster than they do currently, which could save lives and a significant amount of money. In fact, Dr. Brownstein wants to see the expansion of non-traditional surveillance methods to place a greater emphasis on social media. One early venture into this territory is Outbreaks Near Me, a smart-phone application created by Dr. Brownstein and his colleagues. It allows people to submit information, such as if a family member falls ill or if there is a lineup at a local vaccination clinic. Such information can allow researchers to detect patterns and possible outbreaks. "The mass of information can help us to find signals of what is happening in the population," Dr. Brownstein said. While it's not foolproof and could be vulnerable to errors from individuals who purposefully submit erroneous data, a growing number of researchers believe that taking advantage of the millions of public online conversations that take place daily could yield enormous results.

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|| || || || || | Governor Olson was the first witness before the House committee, headed by Rep. John H. Tolan (D., Cal.) The committee is studying problems connected with emergency migration, with particular emphasis on removal of alien Japanese from strategic areas. The governor said he thought a distinction should be made in the handling of German and Italian aliens as compared with the Japanese. Because of the extreme difficulty in distinguishing between loyal Japanese- Mayor Fletcher Bowron of Los Angeles, following Governor Olson as a witness, criticized the wartime work of the FBI and said he thought its duties more properly could be performed by the military authorities. It is a wonderful peacetime organization but is not adequate in wartime, Mayor Bowron said. There has not been sufficient co-operation between the FBI and Army and Navy intelligence. The FBI in opinion is not the proper agency to handle the military angles involved in wartime problems. The San Francisco News March 6, 1942

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On Oct 31, 2011, the human population will likely reach 7 billion. The event has special resonance for the author of this editorial, who is expecting to become the father of a child who will contribute to our passing this milestone. That planet Earth now supports more people than have lived in all of human history is cause for reflection on how we got here, and what might be done to produce a stable population with an acceptable quality of life. The rapid growth in our number has taken place only in the past 200 years. As detailed in The State of World Population 2011 , a report from the UN Population Fund (UNFPA), it was as recently as 1804 that the human population reached 1 billion, after which things started to speed up: 2 billion in 1927, 3 billion in 1959, 4 billion in 1974, 5 billion in 1987, 6 billion in 1999, and 7 billion in 2011. It is a reasonable assumption—and a sobering thought—that the human population has doubled during the lifetimes of most readers of this journal. Population growth (or decline) is determined by a complex interplay of mortality and fertility. Since the early 1950s, average life expectancy worldwide has risen from 48 years to about 68 years for men and 72 years for women. Worldwide, infant mortality has declined from 133 deaths per 1000 births in the 1950s to 46 per 1000 now. Great disparities exist, of course: in sub-Saharan Africa, life expectancy at birth is 54 years for men and 56 years for women, whereas in high-income countries the numbers are 75 years and 82 years. Similarly, mortality under the age of 5 years in 2009 was 130·1 per 1000 livebirths in sub-Saharan Africa versus 7·1 in high-income countries. Fertility rate, defined as the average number of children a women is likely to have during her childbearing years, has declined worldwide in the past 60 years from about six to 2·5. Again there are disparities: 1·7 births in developed counties—well below the rate of 2·1 at which women have enough babies to replace themselves in the population—versus 4·8 in sub-Saharan Africa. Fertility falls with economic development and reductions in poverty, which go hand in hand with improvements in maternal and child health, the education of women, and their empowerment over reproductive choices. By some predictions, the world population will peak at around 10 billion before the end of this century; however, for this to happen the fertility rate must continue to fall. The human population is both younger than before and getting older. 43% of the world's population is younger than 25 years. Conversely, there are now about 900 million people older than 60 years worldwide, and that number is predicted to increase to 2·4 billion by the middle of the century as fertility declines and today's young people move into middle age. The two factors that have almost certainly had the greatest influence over human population size are improvements in nutrition and our ability to control infectious diseases. When our ancestors were hunter—gatherers, the human population probably did not exceed 15 million. Development of agriculture allowed the population to grow to around 300 million people 2000 years ago, a number that did not increase in magnitude until the agricultural and industrial revolutions of the latter part of the past millennium. Thus the Haber process for nitrogen fixation, and hence the production of nitrogen fertiliser and vast improvements in agricultural productivity, is among the most important inventions in human history. The industrial revolution also brought about improvements in sanitation—safe disposal of waste and access to clean water—that protected people from exposure to pathogens. Here it is illuminating that in some countries with the fastest growing populations—India and Nigeria, for example—fewer than a third of people have access to what the UNFPA report calls an “improved sanitation facility”. The most recent development in changing population dynamics is immunisation, particularly against childhood diseases, which has saved the lives of incalculable millions from infection. Few would disagree that human numbers cannot continue growing without limit—at current rates of mortality and fertility, the world population would be an unimaginable 3·5 trillion by 2300. However, attempts to limit fertility by—for example—China's one-child policy, are coercive and unlikely to be sustainable. Recent history shows us that people will limit their own fertility if they have a high degree of confidence that their children will reach adulthood. Although not sufficient on their own, to achieve stable numbers, it is surely essential that all human beings have access to the measures that protect against premature death from infection.

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According to figures released by Statistics Canada on Thursday, in the previous winter around 6 out of 10 children aged 12 didn’t receive the H1N1 flu vaccination. The statistics showed that around 41% people in Canada, excluding the territories, got the flu shots, that is, around 11.6 million people and around 60% didn't go for vaccination. The pandemic vaccine was given to two-thirds of health-care workers and around 55% with chronic conditions also received the vaccination. The survey found that 74% people felt that they ‘did not think it was necessary’. People who were surveyed between January and April this year said that they have still not gone for vaccination. Many people cited the reason ‘fear’ for not going for vaccination. For Canadian Community Health Survey, as many as 20,000 Canadians were questioned. On the other hand, in the United States, it is estimated that around two-thirds may already be immune to H1N1 swine flu. Experts say that unless the flu virus mutates, around 59% people in America can't get H1N1 swine flu. The top researchers at the National Institutes of Health believe that increased rate of vaccination in this flu season among children and young adults may lead to the extinction of the pandemic bug.

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As we explained in Lesson four, wireless computer networks are becoming a major part of the networking market. This is true not only for residences, but also for commercial installations. The wireless LAN system (802.11), is similar to 802.3 (traditional Ethernet), in that both are designed to support multiple users on a shared system. In standard Ethernet operations (IEEE 802.3), a special protocol (CSMA/CD) regulates how Ethernet stations detect and handle collisions that occur when two or more devices try to simultaneously communicate over the LAN. In a wireless LAN, collision detection is not possible, so 802.11 uses a form of collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). A station wishing to transmit senses the medium (in this case, air). If the station senses no activity, it waits an additional, randomly selected period of time and then transmits if the air is still free. If the packet is received intact, the receiving station issues an acknowledgment frame. If the sending station does not detect the acknowledgment frame, it assumes a collision; after waiting another random amount of time, it retransmits the packets. This adds operations to a wireless LAN that a cabled LAN does not have. For that reason, the wireless LAN will always have a somewhat slower performance than an equivalent cabled LAN. The 802.11 wireless LAN system uses two spread-spectrum radio techniques. These operate within the 2.4-GHz Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band. These frequency bands are recognized by international regulatory agencies in the United States, Europe and Japan, for unlicensed radio operations. As such, 802.11-based products do not require user licensing or special training. The 802.11 standard specified data rates of 1 and 2 Mbits/sec via radio waves using frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS). FHSS and DSSS are fundamentally different signaling mechanisms and will not interoperate. But 802.11b is based on DSSS, making migration from a 2-Mbit/sec DSSS system to an 11-Mbit/sec system easy. 2-Mbit/sec DSSS systems will be able to coexist with 11-Mbit/sec systems, enabling a smooth transition to the higher-data-rate technology. Any LAN application, network operating system or protocol will run on an 802.11-compliant wireless LAN as easily as it will run over Ethernet — just more slowly. Since IEEE 802.11b wireless LANs communicate using radio waves that can penetrate or may reflect around many indoor structures, how much more slowly is primarily determined by the quality of the design. To establish a wireless LAN, you must install and configure the access points and network-interface cards (NICs). In addition, you will probably need to add cable from the existing network infrastructure to the access points, because they are rarely located near existing outlets. The number of access points depends on the coverage area, number of users and types of services required. The single most important part of the installation is placement of the access points to ensure proper coverage. Most manufacturers provide a site-survey tool. Place the access points and use the site-survey tool to record signal strength and quality while roving within the intended coverage area. Once the access points are installed, access points and NICs must be configured. Configuration options vary according to the manufacturer. When you are designing a wireless LAN, the cost of the equipment is just one concern; you must also consider installation and maintenance expenses. Although all 802.11b-compliant products are based on a single standard, the standard offers no guarantee that access points, NICs and other equipment from various manufacturers will interoperate. Talk to your suppliers to be sure that you'll have no problems. In a few years, everything will probably be seamlessly interoperable; but for the moment, make a few phone calls to be sure. INTEROPERABILITY AND INTERFERENCE Since users are not likely to walk around with a pocketful of different NICs (network interface cards), manufacturers have formed a group (the Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance, or WECA), to certify cross-vendor interoperability of 802.11b wireless networking products. This group has created tests to certify interoperability and announced the “WiFi” (wireless fidelity) standard, which is an awarded seal for those wireless LAN products that have successfully completed prescribed interoperability testing. The seal provides assurance that products bearing the logo will work together. Many of the industry's leading wireless LAN manufacturers belong to the group. The WiFi effort is effective to the extent it reaches, but understand its limitations. Not all wireless products are 802.11b-based. For example, both IEEE 802.11 and Bluetooth share common spectrum in the 2.4-GHz ISM band. With 11-Mbit/sec data rates now possible, IEEE 802.11 DSSS radios can provide a mobile extension to wired networks in large installations, and even completely replace a cabling infrastructure in small and home office environments. Meanwhile, Bluetooth is becoming essential to the mobile worker and business traveler by facilitating e-mail to a laptop using a cellular telephone, synchronization with palmtop devices and access to local printers. It's inevitable that 802.11b and Bluetooth will bump into each other at some point. Currently, studies are underway to see exactly what the effects will be. But it's known that IEEE 802.11b susceptibility to Bluetooth interference increases as the distance between DSSS wireless nodes and DSSS access points increases. For this widespread acceptance of 802.11b to continue, compatibility among the various wireless standards is imperative. (See Fig. 1 for an example of Bluetooth and 802.11 coverage areas.) Recently, the IEEE standards board approved a new project within 802.11 to increase the data rate of wireless LANs operating in the 2.4-GHz band from the current 11 Mbits/sec to greater than 20 Mbits/sec. THE SITE SURVEY Before a wireless network can be installed, the installer or designer is first required to do a thorough site survey. Do not skip this step. Essentially, setting up a wireless network is the same as setting up a cellular telephone system, except on a smaller scale. If you do not do a thorough site survey, your network may end up with a lot of dead zones where no signal can be transmitted. Elevator shafts, kitchens with metal cabinets, thick concrete walls, steel studs and even large metal fans can seriously restrict the effectiveness of a wireless installation. A good site survey addresses two primary concerns: First of all, it examines the signal coverage requirements for your site. In other words, you must determine how far the signal goes for each basic service set, or cell. Secondly, the site survey enables you to understand your overall networking and system requirements. Does the existing backbone have adequate bandwidth to handle the overlaid wireless network? Are there sufficient resources to support the wireless capabilities you want? When performing the site survey, you should use the tools and equipment provided by your wireless vendor. If you are installing, designing or selling a wireless LAN for the first time, it would be a good idea to have specialist come in and walk you through the process. Afterward, do it yourself. There are six major areas to consider when designing the site: Future use. The customer may want to expand or modify the system at some later date. Build in plenty of excess capacity if at all possible. Coverage. Define the area in which you want wireless coverage, and its characteristics. Indoors or outdoors? Do you need coverage to be isolated to certain spaces? A wireless access point's typical range is spherical, and each area will generally need four access points, with cells overlapping by about 30% to achieve optimum coverage. Access point and antenna ranges differ by vendor specification; make sure you know the ranges for your system. (See Fig. 2.) Capacity. How many users are you expecting? What sorts of applications will they run? What types of equipment do you plan to use? These factors will affect the number of access points you need. Site capacity can be increased by adding more access points. While wireless LANs operating at 1 to 2 Mbits/sec are available, you should try to stay with the 802.11b rate of 11 Mb/s; this allows the user to transfer high-quality video signals in real time, which is soon to be an important application. These higher data rates have a much shorter range, however, and such installations generally require more access points. In some cases, it may be better to use the slower speeds and wider service areas. Interference. What are your potential sources of interference now and in the future? These can include sensitive equipment, previously installed systems and the upcoming Bluetooth initiatives for very-short-range mobile communications. In outdoor installations, moving vehicles such as trucks, planes or other equipment may also be large enough to temporarily block signals. In such difficult locations, you may need to place access points at very high locations for vertical signal penetration. Or, access points may be placed at opposite sides of the yard, so that if one is shadowed, the signal may still be transmitted through the other. You should also examine potential antenna performance patterns to decide on an omnidirectional or directional antenna. Interference avoidance design requires a combination of sufficient signal strength, the appropriate technology and intelligent access point and antenna placement. Connectivity and power requirements. What are your environment's networking constraints? All your networks must be based on the same standards, usually Ethernet. One cannot assume the current environment will be able to handle the increased workload, and you don't want 40 new access points suddenly over-straining your system. You should also calculate your installation based on the network device with the least range, so that every device is sure to transmit clearly. Connecting to the wired infrastructure may also require different cabling alternatives. Wireless access points are typically installed in ceilings for better coverage, which means that AC power and data cabling will need to be run in some difficult locations. Cost and ease of installation. Performing a site survey provides a realistic understanding of your wireless installation's cost before you sign a contract. Perhaps the site has unusually high interference issues to resolve, or capacity is greater than you anticipated. Based on a good site survey, you can put together a reasonable cost estimate, so there are no surprises on any side of the transaction. Trying to build a wireless LAN in stages is a complex undertaking. Many installers have found themselves in the midst of a communications disaster as sessions drop out and cell locations are lost. Because wireless systems simply fit in on top of existing environments, however, you can anticipate limited work interruptions during the installation process. Setting up temporary antennas and access points. This process includes assessing every part of the site with a software survey tool installed on a handheld computer or laptop that monitors the signal and identifies failure zones. Such site-survey tools measure performance between access points, identify sources of interference and help determine access-point placement. Site surveys differ in their complexity and level of effort, based on technology and space. Small facilities may not require one at all, and you can often use only product specifications and a good set of blueprints. However, larger installations are another story. The site survey offers a level of security in an arena in which, unlike wired networks, there are many variables to consider and few fixed rules. A thoughtful, accurate and effective assessment of coverage and system requirements will make your wireless LAN installation more straightforward and less expensive, while laying the groundwork for ongoing expansion. The most important task when installing a wireless network is to do a site survey. INSTALLATION AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Following are several installation tips to remember. There are three typical interfaces between the hardwired and the wireless network: cable modem, DSL and simple dial-up. For cable modems, the jack should be placed in the center of the facility. DSL and dial-up are apt to be somewhat simpler, since the interface can be to any RJ-11 telephone jack, and the jack can be installed wherever telephone wires run. The standard wireless network is the 11 Mb/s 802.11b system. As mentioned earlier, this system has a smaller radius of coverage than slower systems. Be familiar with it and its related standards. Begin with small, simple systems, then move on to larger and more complex systems. Have your vendor's representatives show up on the job site at first, and help you through the process. Most wireless LAN products for offices cover a cell about 300 feet in diameter. The residential products are rated at 150 feet, or enough to cover a typical 2,500-square-foot home. Ratings should be more conservative in the home, because an average home has more sources of interference. Unforeseen problems do arise. For example, wireless LAN devices typically operate in the 2.4 GHz band, which is unlicensed. Other devices can interfere. It's important to check noise and signal-to-noise ratios and to re-set channels to different frequencies if there is interference. Wireless networks distribute their signals in concentric circles; it's quite possible to have an installation that's 11Mb inside the first 50-foot circle, but only 5 Mb at 150 feet and 2 Mb at 400 feet. If certain users demand full signal speeds, make sure they are close to the Access Points. This is shown in Fig. 3. INSTALLATION: COMMON MISTAKES Probably the most common error in wireless networking (as in most telecommunication work) is the improper installation of cable connectors. In particular, the coaxial connections to the antennas seem to be a problem area. That's nice, because it is an easy problem to fix, and to avoid. (Train your people well.) Improper installation of data communications interconnections is probably next. This includes both mechanical connections, and using incompatible products or protocols. Again, train your people well. Have the manufacturer's rep come in and spend a few hours with your people. Another common mistake is simply not following the manufacturer's specifications. Remember, this is sensitive equipment, and if not installed correctly, it will not work. This work is far removed from the old telephone company days when connections were made under the rule of, “If they're touching, they're talking.” To be continued next month.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://ecmweb.com/cee-news-archive/wireless-lans-part-2

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|— census-designated place —| |• Total||3.174 sq mi (8.221 km2)| |• Land||2.918 sq mi (7.558 km2)| |• Water||0.256 sq mi (0.663 km2) 8.07%| |Elevation||335 ft (102 m)| |• Density||200/sq mi ( 75/km2)| |Time zone||Pacific (PST) (UTC-8)| |• Summer (DST)||PDT (UTC-7)| |GNIS feature IDs||1658034| |U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Bend, California| Bend is a census-designated place in Tehama County, California, United States. Bend is located on the Sacramento River 6 miles (9.7 km) north-northeast of Red Bluff. Bend had a post office from 1897 to 1935. The community was originally known as Horsethief Bend; the name was changed to Sander's Bend and later shortened to Bend. The population was 619 at the 2010 census. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP covers an area of 3.1 square miles (8.2 km²), 2.9 square miles (7.6 km²) of it land and 0.3 square miles (0.7 km²) of it (8.07%) water. The 2010 United States Census reported that Bend had a population of 619. The population density was 195.0 people per square mile (75.3/km²). The racial makeup of Bend was 570 (92.1%) White, 4 (0.6%) African American, 15 (2.4%) Native American, 3 (0.5%) Asian, 0 (0.0%) Pacific Islander, 14 (2.3%) from other races, and 13 (2.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 48 persons (7.8%). The Census reported that 619 people (100% of the population) lived in households, 0 (0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized. There were 250 households, out of which 67 (26.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 165 (66.0%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 10 (4.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 11 (4.4%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 15 (6.0%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 2 (0.8%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 51 households (20.4%) were made up of individuals and 22 (8.8%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48. There were 186 families (74.4% of all households); the average family size was 2.80. The population was spread out with 125 people (20.2%) under the age of 18, 29 people (4.7%) aged 18 to 24, 132 people (21.3%) aged 25 to 44, 191 people (30.9%) aged 45 to 64, and 142 people (22.9%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48.3 years. For every 100 females there were 105.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 107.6 males. There were 275 housing units at an average density of 86.6 per square mile (33.5/km²), of which 206 (82.4%) were owner-occupied, and 44 (17.6%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.4%; the rental vacancy rate was 6.4%. 512 people (82.7% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 107 people (17.3%) lived in rental housing units. - U.S. Census - U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Bend, California - Durham, David L. (1998). California's Geographic Names: A Gazetteer of Historic and Modern Names of the State. Quill Driver Books. p. 193. ISBN 9781884995149. - All data are derived from the United States Census Bureau reports from the 2010 United States Census, and are accessible on-line here. The data on unmarried partnerships and same-sex married couples are from the Census report DEC_10_SF1_PCT15. All other housing and population data are from Census report DEC_10_DP_DPDP1. Both reports are viewable online or downloadable in a zip file containing a comma-delimited data file. The area data, from which densities are calculated, are available on-line here. Percentage totals may not add to 100% due to rounding. The Census Bureau defines families as a household containing one or more people related to the householder by birth, opposite-sex marriage, or adoption. People living in group quarters are tabulated by the Census Bureau as neither owners nor renters. For further details, see the text files accompanying the data files containing the Census reports mentioned above.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bend,_California

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Factory Method Pattern An important facet of system design is the manner in which objects are created. One of the most widely used creational patterns is the Factory Method Pattern. Creational patterns describe object-creation mechanisms that enable greater levels of reuse in evolving systems Let’s consider that, the client is an object that requires an instance of another object (the product) for some purpose. Rather than creating the product instance directly, the client delegates this responsibility to the factory. Once invoked, the factory creates a new instance of the product, passing it back to the client. Put simply, the client uses the factory to create an instance of the product. CLIENT ---uses----> FACTORY (Creator) ----create---->PRODUCT The Factory completely abstracts the creation and initialization of the Product from the Client, which helps client to focus on its discrete role. As the product implementation changes in future, the client remains unchanged. “Factory Method Pattern defines an interface for creating an object but let’s subclass decide which class to instantiate” Most implementations of the Factory method pattern use two abstract classes, Factory and Product. Consider the following example for Factory Method Pattern. Let consider AbstractProduct.java class as abstract product class which return the cost of the product. This abstract product class is extended and two concrete classes are created i.e. ProductSubClass_One.java and ProductSubClass_Sec.java ProductSubClass_One.java-This class extends AbstractProduct class and provide first concrete implementation of getProductCost() method. ProductSubClass_Sec.java-This class extends AbstractProduct class and provide second concrete implementation of getProductCost() method. Next consider the Factory (Creator) class AbstractCreator.java is an abstract class which contains one method createProduct(String) method for creating the Product. Now we will create a concrete class of the Factory (creator) i.e. ConcreteCreator.java which override the createProduct (String) method to return object of the concrete Product Sub Class based on the type. Till now we have created Factory and Product related classes, now we will create a Client class which in turn uses Factory (creator) class to obtain a Product object. Here in this class we are creating a Factory (creator) object and using this factory object to obtain the product based on “type” which passed as argument in createProduct (String) method. When we run the Client.java class we will get object of ProductSubClass_One class which gives following output. Factory method pattern should be used, - When the object creation depends upon the user data or some event; - When object which is getting created is abstracted from the user; - When the type of object created is to be decided at runtime.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://technical-tutorials.blogspot.com/

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Mortgage is a loan which is secured by real property. Mortgage is security interest on real property. When the time comes to issue a mortgage loan the value of property matters a lot. This is because the lender has to make sure if he can lend you the money or not. He will only lend the money if the value of your property is worth the amount you are issuing from him. During this process many things are left understood by the people. They get confused between appraised value and estimated value. In order to understand the mortgage process its important that a person should understand few basic things regarding their property and its value. People are often confused by the term used as Estimated Value. While issuing mortgage loan your lender may ask you the estimated value of your property. Estimated value is the value which is actually the real value of your property. It is the estimate of what the actual property is. It is an obvious and understood question. There are many websites which can help you in finding the proper estimated value of your property. This can be done very easily. You just have to type your house details and your country and you will get the estimated value of your property. As you move further during the process of issuing mortgage loan. The next question would be about appraised value. The bank will require with an appraisal of your property before you issue the loan. Appraisal value is the upfront part of the closing costs of the loan. The lenders company will take pictures of the property and will prepare notes relating your property. They will also measure the area and check if all the documents given by the borrower are real and proper. After this information they assess the appraised value of your property. They will look the data for the sale which is comparable with the property. They have to compare your home with the homes which are similar to it to look if they are sold within six months of time. They go through this analysis and once its completed they assign an appraised value and this is the value which now the bank will be the used for loan. An appraiser may also list an after-improved-value if your home will be needing any repairs. Repairing includes painting, flooring or any other safety issues. Once you understand both these terms, issuing a mortgage loan can become easy.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.loanmortgagecredit.com/mortgage-loans/

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The history of Kew Palace has humbler origins in the first half of the previous century. In 1631 Samuel Fortrey, a successful Flemish merchant, built this smart, brick villa beside the Thames. For his new home he chose the site of a former courtier of Elizabeth I, perhaps that of her favourite, Robert Dudley. (The undercroft of the building suvives from this time.) It was something of a status symbol for a man of the City, whose family had escaped religious persecution in France. He married Catherine de Latfeur and had several children. Their fondness for each other may be guessed from the lovers’ knot, with the intitials S and C intwined, carved over the front door to the house. The house remained in Fortrey’s family for another generation and then passed through a succession of wealthy tenants, including Sir Richard Levett, who became Lord Mayor of London in 1699.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.hrp.org.uk/KewPalace/sightsandstories/buildinghistory/arichmerchantinlove

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The humble spud. A steakhouse staple and frequent side dish at holiday dinners, the baking potato has more uses than you might think. Here are five not-so-common ways to use this common ingredient. Pick up glass. The next time you need to pick up shattered or broken glass, try slicing a potato in half, then slide and blot it along the surface to pick up any small shards (use a flashlight to better see any small pieces). Soak up excess salt. A salty soup or stew can be saved by sticking in a peeled raw potato for a few minutes; the potato will soak up some of the excess salt. Light bulb remover. If you’ve broken a light bulb within the lamp socket, you can easily remove the broken part with a potato. Simply cut a potato in half, push it into the bulb base, and twist it out. Be sure to unplug the light fixture first. Make a stamp. Rubber stamping is a popular trend nowadays, but if you don’t want to invest in a collection of stamps or just want a stamp for a certain occasion, use a potato. Slice the potato in half, draw the desired shape on the potato, and carve away the negative space (don’t cut out the shape itself). Use it to stamp your own greeting cards, wrapping paper or other items. Start a plant. Store white or red potatoes in a cool, dark place until the “eyes” (little indentations on the potato skin) sprout, sending up a leafy stem. Cut off the top of the potato and plant it in a pot filled with potting soil, with the sprouted eye above the soil level. Water and place it in a sunny spot.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.thebudgetfashionista.com/archive/five-uses-for-potatoes-budget-food-tip/

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en

Johann Ludwig Gerard (Louis) Krefft, Curator and Secretary 1861-1874 Gerard Krefft had a broad knowledge of zoology and geology but his special interest was snakes. Ahead of his time in many respects, Gerard Krefft was one of the few Australian scientists to accept and propagate Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.Krefft’s diverse contributions had considerable and far-reaching significance, and he was responsible for elevating the Australian Museum to its place in the international world of science. Krefft was born in Brunswick, Germany. In 1850 he migrated to the United States, then onward to the Victorian goldfields in 1852. In 1857-58 he was the collector on Wilhelm Blandowski’s expedition to the lower Murray and Darling Rivers. He made over 500 drawings of specimens and Aborigines, and was subsequently employed at the National Museum, Melbourne, to catalogue the expedition’s collection. On the recommendation of the Governor of New South Wales, Sir William Denison, Krefft was appointed Assistant Curator and Clerk at the Australian Museum in June 1860. After the death of Simon Pittard he was made Acting Curator, and then Curator in 1864. Development of collections He built up the museum’s collections, arguing that taxonomy must be supplemented by physiological and anatomical studies, and won international repute as a scientist. He published some 200 scientific articles and described many new species of snakes and marsupials, and in 1870 he gave the first scientific description of the Queensland lungfish, in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. In 1866 he explored the Wellington caves and described their fossils. His published works include The Snakes of Australia (1869); A Short Guide to the Australian Fossil Remains in the Australian Museum (1870); Mammals of Australia (1871); and A Catalogue of Minerals and Rocks in the Australian Museum (1873). Krefft regarded many of the Museum’s Trustees as inefficient and corrupt, and following a protracted dispute was dismissed from his position. After barricading himself inside the museum he was dramatically removed from the premises in September 1874. A Trustee, Edward Smith Hill, obtained the services of two prize-fighters, who broke into Krefft’s living quarters and carried him ‘bareheaded from the place’, still seated in his chair. Krefft’s main supporters, William Clarke and George Bennett, both resigned from the Board in protest.

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http://australianmuseum.net.au/Johann-Ludwig-Gerard-Louis-Krefft-Curator-and-Secretary-1861-1874

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Pre-Algebra, Algebra 1, and Algebra 2 all require you to master new math skills. Do you find solving equations and word problems difficult in Algebra class? Are the exponents, proportions, and variables of Algebra keeping you up at night? Intercepts, functions, and expressions can be confusing to most Algebra students, but a qualified tutor can clear it all up! Our Algebra tutors are experts in math and specialize in helping students like you understand Algebra. If you are worried about an upcoming Algebra test or fear not passing your Algebra class for the term, getting an Algebra tutor will make all the difference. Pre-algebra - The goal of Pre-algebra is to develop fluency with rational numbers and proportional relationships. Students will: extend their elementary skills and begin to learn algebra concepts that serve as a transition into formal Algebra and Geometry; learn to think flexibly about relationships among fractions, decimals, and percents; learn to recognize and generate equivalent expressions and solve single-variable equations and inequalities; investigate and explore mathematical ideas and develop multiple strategies for analyzing complex situations; analyze situations verbally, numerically, graphically, and symbolically; and apply mathematical skills and make meaningful connections to life's experiences. Algebra I - The main goal of Algebra is to develop fluency in working with linear equations. Students will: extend their experiences with tables, graphs, and equations and solve linear equations and inequalities and systems of linear equations and inequalities; extend their knowledge of the number system to include irrational numbers; generate equivalent expressions and use formulas; simplify polynomials and begin to study quadratic relationships; and use technology and models to investigate and explore mathematical ideas and relationships and develop multiple strategies for analyzing complex situations. Algebra II - A primary goal of Algebra II is for students to conceptualize, analyze, and identify relationships among functions. Students will: develop proficiency in analyzing and solving quadratic functions using complex numbers; investigate and make conjectures about absolute value, radical, exponential, logarithmic and sine and cosine functions algebraically, numerically, and graphically, with and without technology; extend their algebraic skills to compute with rational expressions and rational exponents; work with and build an understanding of complex numbers and systems of equations and inequalities; analyze statistical data and apply concepts of probability using permutations and combinations; and use technology such as graphing calculators. College Algebra – Topics for this course include basic concepts of algebra; linear, quadratic, rational, radical, logarithmic, exponential, and absolute value equations; equations reducible to quadratic form; linear, polynomial, rational, and absolute value inequalities, and complex number system; graphs of linear, polynomial, exponential, logarithmic, rational, and absolute value functions; conic sections; inverse functions; operations and compositions of functions; systems of equations; sequences and series; and the binomial theorem. No matter the level of the algebra course that the student is taking, we have expert tutors available and ready to help. All of our algebra tutors have a degree in mathematics, science, or a related field (like accounting). We are so confident in our algebra tutors that you can meet with them for free. Just ask your tutoring coordinator about our Meet and Greet program. Our Tutoring Service We offer our clients choice when searching for a tutor, and we work with you all the way through the selection process. When you choose to work with one of our tutors, expect quality, professionalism, and experience. We will never offer you a tutor that is not qualified in the specific subject area you request. We will provide you with the degrees, credentials, and certifications each selected tutor holds so that you have the same confidence in them that we do. And for your peace of mind, we conduct a nation-wide criminal background check, sexual predator check and social security verification on every single tutor we offer you. We will find you the right tutor so that you can find success!

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.advancedlearners.com/albuquerque/algebra/tutor/find.aspx

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en

Tuning and Temperament in Music Well Temperament - A Subtle but Certain Difference by Frank French Although Equal Temperament has long been accepted as standard for modern keyboard instruments was by no means standard during the 18th and 19th centuries when the vast amount of keyboard literature still played today was written. These centuries comprise the periods of Baroque, Classical and Romantic music which is considered standard piano repertoire even in the 21st century. While we seem to grow ever more distant from the times during which such music was first created the desire by pianists to play the earlier music is undiminished today. Baroque, Classic and Romantic music remain the steady source of piano study for serious pianists throughout the world. With the music we hear as the ultimate goal let it be noted that there is a subtle but significant difference in the way the music sounds on keyboard instruments when played in the temperaments used during the period of the music's creation. I assert that these temperaments influenced choices and decisions made by composers at the time of creation and can still exert an influence on how the music is interpreted even today The musical scale, specifically the diatonic scale in use from at least 1600 to 1900 had been derived from the earlier ecclesiastical or "church" modes used during previous centuries. The origin of the scale was postulated by Pythagoras in ancient times on the basis of mathematical subdivisions of the string giving rise to the diatonic scale through the partial divisions of the string by two, by three, by four and so forth The science of acoustics was thus born. The modes in use throughout the middle ages and renaissance are known to us most familiarly by the white notes on the keyboard. The various modes or "moods" result by moving the tonal center. Today students of music theory become acquainted with the various modes by the following names based on the starting or "tonic" note. These modes were used in secular and sacred music for centuries and prescribed rules for their came about as experimentation gave way to convention. It was through trial and error that composers developed the science of counterpoint, and rules for its use as well, as determined by what sounded pleasing to The gradual introduction of the non-white keyboard notes probably came about through the desire on the part of composers to search out new possibilities for sounds and color in music. By the 17th century the church modes were appearing in transposition making use of the black keys and soon the use of sharps and flats became standard in coloring music. In was inevitable that alterations would have to be made in the existing system of tuning keyboard instruments in order to accommodate the newly-introduced tones and make best use of the existing twelve tones within the octave. The Pythagorean tuning system based on division the string and tuning through a circle of twelve fifths, resulted in some very sour sounding intervals as one got farther away from the key of C. These intervals ( sound resulting from space between two given notes) were known as "wolf" tones. In order to eliminate these wolf tones in became necessary to modify the way in which the various notes within the octave were tuned. Illustration: circle of fifths. The modification of the tuning system became know as "tempering" the intervals within the span of the octave. Music was evolving, moving forward, but with its feet still planted firmly in tradition. The Greek names given to the modes denote the obvious ancient origin of the modes and resulting musical traditions in the West, which spanned the course of close to two millennia. Tradition was still a strong force in all musical minds in the 17th and 18th century and composers were sill using "classical" models in opera with ancient Greek and Roman themes and titles. This was no less true in more abstract symphonic music, for example in Moazrt's late Jupiter Symphony in C major. The color of the modes and traditional associations exerted a powerful influence on composers right up until the 20th century. Modal color, or characteristic had become assimilated into "tonal" characteristics as the system of major and minor scales and Tonal characteristics, or "character of keys" became an unwritten doctrine in the minds of composers. Conscious or unconscious choice of key for a musical work at the outset provided clearly defined criteria for musical expression. Tempering of notes within the octave smoothed out certain rough intervals and gave a certain edge to other intervals as a result. Modulation was another inevitable result of the introduction of the five non-white keys. The coloring, or chromaticism inherent in the possibility for using all twelve tones gave rise to new possibilities through the ingenious use of counterpoint as practiced during the time of J. S. Bach (1685-1750), and by all great composers subsequently. Yet the composers remained rooted in the traditions that provided all the raw material for their creations. It was during the time of Bach that various means of tuning keyboard instruments were propounded and proposed by eminent music theorists, who were most intrigued by the possibility of being able to play and express music in all twelve tonalities. Musicians of all types were concerned with the seemingly unlimited possibilities for modulation and expression while preserving the traditions of the modes. In the minds of theorists and musical idealists The key of C major would have its own mood or character as would the key of D minor. Each tonality would have its own identity and new identities would be established for the previously obscure keys, which could now be fully employed through the use of temperament. Sooner or later it would come to pass that a set of keyboard pieces in every major and minor key would be created, and indeed such sets were created. The most notable work of this period is J.S. Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier, a set of 24 preludes and fugues, one in each major and minor key first appearing in 1721 with a subsequent set of 24 preludes and fugues coming out ten years later. Here it is necessary to stress that a "well-tempered" scale is not the same as an equal-tempered scale. Equal temperament standardized in the 20th century is a theoretical proposition that the distance between all twelve tones is mathematically the same, or that the octave is divided into twelve equal parts. Well-temperament, is fundamentally an unequal division of the octave, and derives from a more subjective view based in the individual characteristics of each tonality. How this was accomplished and how it evolved has been amply documented and explored by music scholars, the most notable among these today being Owen Jorgensen, who has compiled an exhaustive study of historical It suffices to say that well temperament as practiced during the time of Bach was an empirical science based in the ancient concept of moods in music. Its use exerted a powerful influence on conception and creation of musical works, choice of tonalities, choice of intervals, and other practical decisions on the part of composers. It follows that 18th and 19th century music sounds best when heard in the temperaments in use used during the time the work was created. In this way the re-creation of the music and re-discovered ways of hearing the music will give rise to interpretative possibilities that may have been lost to us over time. The subtle but certain difference in musical shading achieved by unequal temperaments, or in the case of Bach through the use of well-temperament will bear proof that hearing is believing. for further reading please see the Owen Jorgensen on posted at this site this page is currently being revised...

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Agricultural Emergencies & Disasters Current DATCP Projects In addition to division specific work, the Agency also has a number of other biosecurity-focused initiatives which are important to the safety and security of our agricultural system: - Characterizing Wisconsin's Food Distribution System - 44 page PDF In order for DATCP to effectively regulate the food supply or respond to a food-related emergency, it must understand the components, processes, and stages which define our food system, from farm to fork. - Developing a State-Wide Emergency Food Distribution Plan DATCP has initiated a Food Distribution Focus Group – a group of stakeholder representatives involved in the emergency food distribution system: private industry, volunteer organizations, and various levels of government. The purpose of this group is to develop a statewide emergency food distribution plan which can be implemented if there were ever a major disruption to Wisconsin’s food distribution system. - Coordinating a Multi-Agency Agricultural Emergency Response Plan DATCP in partnership with the University of Wisconsin Extension and Wisconsin Agro-Security Resource Network is hosting a series of training and exercise opportunities throughout the State. The purpose of these sessions is to examine the capabilities and responsibilities of industry and county, state, and federal government while responding to or recovering from an agricultural emergency. The product of these conversations will be a series of tools which will enhance coordination of efforts during future agricultural emergencies. - Documenting Quarantine and Stop Movement Procedures and Protocols DATCP understands that the severity of a foreign animal disease (FAD) outbreak is directly related to the amount of time spent on control and stop movement efforts during the initial phase of the outbreak. Therefore, DATCP is involved in multiple projects intended to help clarify and expedite these processes. DATCP is working with producers, processors, veterinarians, UW Extension, USDA, and various other stakeholder partners to define and document Wisconsin’s Quarantine and Stop Movement Procedures and Protocols for all levels of FADS. Once these procedures and protocols have been documented they will be tested for effectiveness before being distributed throughout the state as the guidebook/resource guide for Wisconsin’s quarantine and stop movement efforts. - Agricultural Emergency Response Exercise Toolkit In an effort to assist Count Emergency Managers and Agricultural Extension Agents with agricultural emergency preparedness planning, DATCP has created a toolkit of agricultural emergency response exercises. Each exercise is designed to test a variety of target capabilities and improve communication and awareness between local stakeholders. Two exercise packages currently exist with each package containing a SitMan, Power Point Presentation, and Exercise Evaluation Guide.

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Last week, the Federal Government’s National Water Commission (NWC) delivered its third biannual assessment of the national water initiative (NWI). And for the first time, the NWC is looking seriously at water use in coal seam gas (CSG) mining. The NWI is the Commonwealth Government’s blueprint for water reform in Australia. It brings together state and Commonwealth governments to coordinate policies and actions affecting water use in this country. The aim is a more cohesive national approach to the way Australia manages, measures, plans for, prices and trades water. The assessment looks at whether the NWI has improved the management of Australia’s water. It sounds fairly boring and rather irrelevant if you are not a farmer or living on the Murray-Darling River. But it isn’t. This is an important assessment of a crucial and highly emotive issue that is currently debated in schools, businesses, government and farmhouses: CSG extraction and its effect on water resources in Australia. Taking a closer look at mining and water The NWI has long recognised that the mining and petroleum sector has special water requirements. In fact, Clause 34 of the NWI notes that specific mining and petroleum proposals need to be assessed according to environmental, social and economic considerations. But further management arrangements for water use in these sectors fall outside this agreement. Mining definitely has special water requirements. The giant Olympic Dam uranium mine in South Australia uses 12,000 megalitres of water per year (one megalitre is equal to 1 million litres). This one mine operator takes 12 billion litres of water from the Great Artesian Basin every year. In the past few years, there have been many other mining and petroleum activities that have similarly competed for the use of water resources. The most thirsty of all is the extraction of CSG. The extraction of CSG in eastern Australia, particularly in NSW and Queensland, has created a yawning gulf between farmers, mining companies and governments, as farmers attest to the effects of CSG extraction on water resources. There have been many exposes on the alleged affect of CSG on water: burning water bores due to CSG intrusion into water reserves, contaminated water sources and increasingly salty water in some areas. These alleged affects have occurred in prime agricultural land and farmers contend that agricultural production in Australia is threatened. CSG companies argue there is no cause for alarm. How is water used in CSG mining? The fracking of one CSG well can require as much as 5 million litres of water, although often only 2-3 million litres of water is used. In this process, a high-pressure mix of water, sand and chemicals is injected into the reservoir to release gas. The number of CSG wells will probably peak at 40,000 in the next 10 years – that’s an awful lot of water use. If we are going to use 2-3 million litres of water down 40,000 wells, then the same amount of water will return to the surface. When the water comes to the surface after fracking, it will in all probability have an increased salt content (brine water) and contain chemicals that were used in the fracking process. This returned water, known as “produced water”, requires some form of treatment or storage. It cannot be released back into the water cycle unless treated. If it is released untreated, it can cause major contamination of surface and ground water resources. Is there a plan for all this water? Until now the NWI has focused on the balance between agricultural water use and the water needs of the environment. For the first time, the assessment has considered the use of water by mining and petroleum industries. The NWI has recognised that access to, and use of, water by the burgeoning CSG sector has a number of unique features that need to be considered. The assessment notes that CSG activities have an impact on ground water and surface water resources through both the fracking process and dewatering. There can be a substantial impact on the water system as a whole. Perhaps most importantly, the NWI assessment recognises there are significant uncertainties about the impact on ground and surface water resources. This can create risk for third parties such as farmers. It says mining has not yet been properly integrated into water planning and management frameworks. Indeed, it says “produced water” is a risk to the sustainable management of water resources in those areas. This is because of the volumes of water involved and the uncertain impacts of such water use. States heading in the right direction, but must march in step The message for the NWI assessment, regarding water use and CSG extraction is clear. The affected states have changed water management regimes for mining activities. But the regulatory framework for mining and petroleum activities is not particularly well aligned with state water management frameworks. This can lead to suboptimal regulation. As a result, they call on all states and territories to review their mining and petroleum regulatory frameworks to ensure that water resource use and impacts are addressed. Managing water from mining must be integrated into a regime that is consistent with the National Water Initiative. As the CSG industry emerges, and significant amounts of water are consumed, this use of water needs to be covered in an integrated matter rather than through a separate management framework.

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As an aristocrat of the canine world, this ancient breed has been known by a variety of names throughout the centuries including the Melitaie Dog, "Ye Ancient Dogge of Malta", the Roman Ladies' Dog, the Comforter Dog, the Spaniel Gentle, the Bichon, the Shock Dog, the Maltese Lion Dog and the Maltese Terrier. The Maltese stands just 10 inches tall at the shoulder and weighs only seven pounds at his heaviest. His coat is long, straight, silky, white, and falls to the ground. Daily grooming is necessary. A shorter, pet clip may help reduce the amount of grooming necessary. The Maltese has soulful dark eyes that give him an endearing expression. An alert, animated little dog, the gentle-mannered Maltese makes a good watchdog. He is also affectionate, friendly, and playful. Principally bred to be a companion, he fits well into the smallest accommodation. He enjoys being petted and fussed over but he is a sturdy little dog who enjoys a good romp. Although he has a reputation for being good-natured, he may be intolerant of small children or other dogs. He can be protective of his owner and will bark or may bite if animals or people infringe on his territory or are perceived as a threat. The Maltese is intelligent and easy to train but he can be strong-willed. Training should begin early. He requires minimal exercise but does enjoy getting outside for a walk.

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By Sandi Halimuddin “Who believes what happens in African until it happens in America?” asked Keith Klugman, chair of Emory University’s global health department. During his presentation “Influenza and the Pneumococcus- A Deadly Synergism,” Klugman raised global health issues, such as the disparity of research and awareness between diseases affecting the developing and developed worlds. The 2009 H1N1 pandemic is evidence of this claim; the high incidence rate in developed worlds contributed to significant media coverage and a call to action. In contrast, many developing countries lack advanced pandemic preparedness programs and strategies. According to Klugman’s research on pandemics, a majority of deaths during the 1918 and 2009 influenza pandemics were “associated with the synergistic lethality of bacterial infections.” During the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, bacterial pathogens were implicated in at least a third of mortalities, said Klugman. From his research, Klugman expressed his hopes for exploring different strategies for increased prevention against influenza. According to his research, “pneumococcal vaccines may reduce mortality and morbidity associated with viral respiratory infections including pandemic influenza and should be considered as an essential part of pandemic flu planning.” Klugman was one of many lecturers during the University of Washington’s Global Health Week, which runs from May 7-May 11.

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The province of New York had a strong loyalist reputation during the American Revolution. This opinion extended to its largest municipality, New York City, derisively referred to by one rebel as "Torytown." This assessment has been subsequently echoed by many historians, most notably Alexander C. Flick at the turn of the 20th Century. The colony's reputation for loyalism was not entirely groundless; New York possessed strong pockets of loyalist support in western Long Island and upstate in Tryon County. The cautious actions of New York's political leadership also contributed to this reputation ñ although prudence in such uncertain times does not automatically prove loyalist sentiment. In order to evaluate whether New York City really was a loyalist stronghold, this paper examines the course of events in the city during the rebellion's first year. In the years preceding the Revolution, New York City witnessed patriot agitation as was found elsewhere in the American colonies. New Yorkers observed boycotts of British goods, erected liberty poles, harassed loyalists, and established a Committee of Correspondence to facilitate communications with their counterparts in other colonies. Although New Yorkers erected a great equestrian statue of King George in appreciation of the 1766 repeal of the Stamp Act, during the early 1770s anti-British attitudes began to harden. In imitation of the Boston Tea Party, aroused patriots dumped several boxes of tea from the merchant ship London into New York Harbor. After the British Government closed the port of Boston, New Yorkers refused to provide supplies and labor to General Gage's garrison, and joined fellow Americans in providing relief to the city. William Smith, a royal judge of strongly loyalist sympathies, ruefully recorded the growing public hostility towards the King: It is astonishing to observe to what a Pass the populace has arrived. Instead of that Respect they formerly had for the King, you now hear the very lowest Orders call him a Knave or a Fool, & reproaching him for the Diversity of his & his Grandfather's Conduct. The patriots were divided between radicals and moderates. The former included many artisans, mechanics, and other disenfranchised individuals with fewer stakes in the status quo, and fewer qualms about using violence and intimidation to further their aims. They were directed by determined leaders such as Isaac Sears, a privateer from the French and Indian War, and John Lamb, who nursed a personal grievance against the British since the Sugar and Molasses Acts ruined his lucrative West Indian trade. The moderate patriot faction included many merchants, property holders, and others of the more affluent classes. Their relative prosperity gave them a stronger desire for stability and order than their more radical social inferiors, so they favored boycotts and petitions over violence and lawbreaking. As anti-British resentment spread, moderate leaders such as Isaac Low, John Jay, and the Livingstons took a more active role, challenging the radicals for leadership. The loyalists seemed to defy any neat categorization in New York City. As would be expected, they included many royal officials with a direct personal stake in the status quo. However, loyalist support could be found among all social and economic classes. Most religions were also represented, although Anglicans predominated. As a general rule, ethnic and religious minorities ñ many of whom looked to the crown for protection ñ had a greater propensity towards loyalism. Suspicion of the more militant New England rebels may have been a contributing factor towards loyalism; New York and New England had long maintained a mutual antipathy that predated the Revolutionary era. Most loyalists concurred with the patriots' jealous defense of their colony's rights against Parliamentary usurpation, but would demur at armed rebellion. The popular Royal Governor, William Tryon, and his octogenarian Lieutenant Governor, Cadwallader Colden, could still rely on the loyalist-leaning New York Provincial Assembly, elected to office in 1769. Early in 1775, it had voted down successive resolutions approving the proceedings of the First Continental Congress, thanking New York's delegation for their work, and appointing delegates to the Second Continental Congress. Meanwhile, New York patriots created the Committee of Sixty, an extra-legal body to enforce the Continental Congress' anti-British boycott. Many in New York began to look to the Committee as the colony's real government. On March 4, the Committee proposed the creation of a Provincial Convention to elect delegates to the Continental Congress. This Convention assembled on March 20 and selected twelve men to represent the colony, including Jay, George Clinton, and Robert R. Livingston. New York City learned of the fighting at Lexington and Concord with the arrival of a dispatch rider on the morning of April 23. The news immediately threw the city into a great commotion, as noted by Smith: It is impossible fully to describe the agitated State of the Town since last Sunday, when the News first arrived of the Skirmish between Concord & Boston. ñ At all corners People inquisitive for News ñ Tales of all Kinds invented, believed, denied, discredited. The radicals took matters into their own hands as throngs of aroused citizens paraded the city's main streets. That evening many of them assembled before the City Hall demanding access to the armory. When they were denied the keys they broke in anyway, carrying off hundreds of muskets, bayonets, and cartridge boxes. Some went so far as to propose attacking the vulnerable royal garrison of just over 100 soldiers commanded by Major Isaac Hamilton, but nothing came of it. Instead, angry patriots vented their resentment by assaulting prominent loyalists such as James Rivington, publisher of an outspokenly loyalist newspaper. The President of King's College, Myles Cooper, barely escaped upon the warning from a student who ran ahead of the mob coming for him. Less than a week later on April 28, 360 armed men led by Sears closed the Customs House in order to prevent trade with the British. The merchants of the town dared not complain for fear of drawing the mob's wrath. Many remarked at the strength of rebel sympathy in New York City. A letter from New York printed in London stated "in this city it is astonishing to find the most violent proposals meeting with universal approbation. The next day, an assemblage of six or seven thousand gathered to hear an address by Low beseeching them to sign an Association declaring their resolve: Low and other leading citizens of the city proceeded to sign the document as the crowd roared their approval. Over the next hour another thousand affixed their signatures. Copies were later posted throughout the city so that others could sign. Although many thousands throughout the colony ultimately refused to sign the Association, residents of the city itself appeared to support it for the most part. As the initial fervor passed, however, the conduct of New York's moderate leadership took on a decidedly ambivalent appearance. Although they retained their resentments against the Crown, and provided assistance to the war effort, the prospect of actual fighting seems to have given many pause. This ambivalence was manifest in an open letter from Henry Remsen to Lieutenant Governor Colden printed in the May 22 edition of a New York newspaper. After reciting the familiar litany of grievances against the Royal Government ñ Parliamentary taxation, the blockade of Boston, the Quebec Act ñ Remsen implored Colden to exercise his influence to divert the war away from New York City: It is our ardent Wish, Sir, that the same Tranquility and good Order may be permanent. We look forward therefore with deep Concern at the expected Arrival of Troops from Great-Britain, an Event that will probably be attended with innumerable Mischiefs. Their presence will doubtless revive the Resentment of our Inhabitants, at the repeatedly avowed Designs of subjugating the Colonies by Military Force. Mutual Jealousies may break out into reciprocal Violence. Thousands will in that case, be poured in upon us from other Counties and the neighboring Colonies, who, we are well assured, have resolved to prevent this City from being reduced to the present Situation of Boston. Thus, instead of being a secure Garrison Town and Place of Arms, as is vainly expected by some, the Streets of New York may be deluged with Blood. These fears could only have been intensified by the arrival of the British warship Asia in New York Harbor on May 27, soon to be joined by the Kingfisher. Lieutenant Governor Colden had sent for the Royal Navy to protect loyalists from further harassment. Henceforth, moderate rebel leaders trod carefully for fear of provoking a devastating bombardment. For his part, Captain Vandeput of the Asia was reluctant to fire on the town. Loyalists owned many of the buildings likely to be damaged, and the British were already looking forward to making New York a base of operations at some future time, and wanted to preserve the town intact. Nonetheless, New Yorkers couldn't have known this with certainty at the time. Meanwhile, the rebels moved to replace the loyalist-leaning Provincial Assembly ñ which was never to meet again. The Committee of Sixty called for the election of a Provincial Congress, which met for the first time on May 22. Despite the outbreak of hostilities in Massachusetts, moderates were still reluctant to make a complete break with Britain and her institutions. They grappled with the radicals for control of the Provincial Congress as it charted an erratic course over the coming months. The Provincial Congress acted to recruit and supply the militia, and directed military operations in upstate New York. But, moderates blocked a vote approving the proceedings of the First Continental Congress ñ just as the discredited Provincial Assembly had done earlier ñ and won approval of a letter to the Second Continental Congress urging a peaceful resolution of the rebellion. The Provincial Congress appointed a Committee of Safety to manage executive matters during its periodic recesses. Over the coming months, the Committee played an important role raising and equipping troops for the defense of New York, and watching loyalists suspected of assisting the British. Yet, while the Committee prepared for war, it also allowed the British courts and magistrates to operate unmolested, and even permitted the provisioning of the British warships in the harbor. His force dwindling as desertions mounted, Major Hamilton decided to withdraw his beleaguered garrison to the British warships. Although he received assurances from the Provincial Congress that he could retire unmolested, an angry crowd soon gathered around the small column and forcibly divested them of several cartloads of arms and ammunition. Several soldiers deserted on the spot. The Provincial Congress insisted that the perpetrators return the plundered supplies, but their command apparently fell on deaf ears. The Provincial Congress's ambivalence was further exemplified by their dispatch of separate delegations to welcome both General George Washington and Royal Governor William Tryon upon their separate arrivals in New York City on June 25. Washington was passing through town on his way to take command of the rebel force besieging Boston. An enthusiastic crowd greeted him with loud huzzas as he landed in the city. Later that evening the well-liked Tryon returned from England to a friendly reception, although most accounts recall it as less enthusiastic than the one accorded to Washington. William Smith noted that the amiable welcome for Tryon was more a reflection of New Yorkers' personal regard for him, rather than for his office. Tryon soon discovered his irrelevance to the colony's governance; the people of New York now followed the dictates of the Provincial Congress. Early in July, the Provincial Congress declined to participate in a formal welcome address to the Governor: Though this Congress entertains the highest respect for his Excellency, yet it will be altogether improper for the said Corporation, or any other body corporate, or individuals, in this Colony, to address his Excellency at this most critical juncture. As the moderates vacillated, the radicals acted. After several boxes of saltpeter were removed from the Royal Magazine at Turtle Bay in early June, the Provincial Congress sent some members to try and get the supplies returned, and directed the army to keep an eye on what was left. At the urging of Sears and Lamb, a sloop manned by New England rebels divested the magazine of its remaining arms and ammunition, and carried them back to Connecticut. Many New Yorkers were angered by this raid by New Englanders, which struck them as analogous to the British raid on Concord. After a mob destroyed a small boat from the Asia, the Civil Magistrates of the city arranged to have a replacement boat built ñ which was destroyed in turn before carpenters could complete it. A small skirmish occurred during the night of August 23 as a detachment of men, acting on orders from the Provincial Congress, commandeered twenty-one royal cannon from the Battery at the southern tip of Manhattan. One British soldier was killed in a brief exchange of gunfire between the rebels and some British troops in a barge hovering just offshore. The Asia loosed a few broadsides into the town to support their men. Although it did minor damage to nearby buildings, the evening's encounter threw the whole city into a panic; many packed-up their belongings and fled to the countryside. A day later, talks between local officials and Captain Vandeput, mediated by Tryon, seemed to cool the passions of some rebels who advocated "rash measures." Nonetheless, the exodus from the city continued, as recorded by a loyalist-leaning Moravian pastor, Reverend Shewkirk: "the City looks in some streets as if the Plague had been in it, so many houses being shut up." On July 29, after condemning the Asia for unwarrantedly firing on the city, the Provincial Congress reiterated the ongoing policy of allowing New Yorkers to provide supplies to the royal squadron in order to "preserve the peace, quiet the minds of the inhabitants, and prevent the Officers and Men belonging to any of his Majesty's Ships...from coming to this City, under pretence of procuring supplies." On September 1, the Congress prohibited New York residents from providing supplies to the British army and navy, but apparently maintained an exception for the British warships hovering menacingly in the harbor. Tryon's position within the city grew increasingly untenable. On August 22, the Continental Congress voted to secure all crown officials. Fearing bombardment from the British navy in reprisal, the Provincial Congress declined to arrest the Governor. In October, Tryon learned of a plot by Sears and others to arrest him and send him to confinement in Connecticut. Tryon offered to remove himself to the Asia in order to save the town from shelling should his person be violated. Although local officials asked him to remain, they offered him little physical protection. So, Tryon withdrew to the safety of the royal squadron in the harbor on October 19. The Governor was still allowed to receive visitors from the city, and made a pretense of running the colony from aboard ship. By this time, Isaac Sears, fed up with the caution of New York's moderate leadership, had removed himself to Connecticut where he publicly denigrated his hometown's patriotism. He wouldn't stay away long. On November 20, he led a small band of mounted rebels from New Haven into Westchester County just north of New York City and arrested some prominent loyalists, sending them back to Connecticut under guard. Joined by some local patriots, the band proceeded to New York City. Entering the town at noon on November 23, they destroyed the press of loyalist printer James Rivington, and carried off his types. Their business done, they rode out of town to the cheers of onlookers. While many of the more radical New Yorkers applauded the action, the moderates objected to the interference of Connecticut men in their internal affairs. The Provincial Congress fired off an indignant petition to Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull protesting the affair: "While we consider this conduct as an insult offered to this Colony, we are disposed to attribute it to an imprudent, though well intended, zeal for the publick cause...we cannot but consider such intrusions as an invasion of our essential rights as a distinct Colony." The petition went on to request the release of the Westchester loyalists, and the return of Rivington's types: "We are fully sensible of his demerits; but we earnestly wish that the glory of the present contest for liberty may not be sullied by an attempt to restrain the freedom of the Press." Governor Trumbull shortly released the Westchester men, but would not return Rivington's property. The strategic importance of New York City to the rebel cause was widely agreed upon by its leaders. The Hudson Valley provided a navigable highway far into the interior of the colony, so the possession of the city by the British threatened to divide New England from the rest of the colonies. In early January 1776, General Charles Lee, scarcely able "to sleep from apprehensions on the subject," proposed to General Washington that he be sent to secure New York with volunteer troops recruited from Connecticut. Washington was concerned about the possible presence of loyalists in New York, as well as by reports that the British at Boston were outfitting an amphibious expedition that might be intended for the city, but he was unsure of the extent of his powers as the young nation's first Commander in Chief. However, after John Adams assured him that such action was within his authority, Washington agreed to send Lee to New York. General Charles Lee was arguably one of the most fascinating characters to participate in the Revolution; he was certainly one of the most controversial. Physically, he was tall, skinny, slovenly in dress, and fairly ugly. He was frequently stricken by gout, which may have contributed to his rather cantankerous and fickle demeanor. He was loquacious, vulgar, and prone to sarcasm. His constant companions were a large train of yapping dogs, which at times seemed his only true friends. Later in the war, Lee was court-martialed after a falling out with Washington during the Battle of Monmouth, and died in ignominy in 1782. But, in early 1776 he was widely considered a rising star of the young Continental Army due to his extensive military experience. As he took command in New York City he had no ambiguity as to the situation; he understood clearly that America was at war, and that half measures would not suffice. Lee proceeded to Connecticut where he easily raised a small force of volunteers for his expedition, and set off for New York in late January. However, Lee's progress alarmed the citizens of New York, prompting an exodus of noncombatants from the city in the dead of winter. While professing themselves "as unanimously jealous in the cause of America as any representative body on the continent," the Committee of Safety nonetheless implored Lee to proceed no further than the colonial boundary with Connecticut until March. They informed him that the situation in New York was precarious. No defensive positions had been prepared. Furthermore, ammunition supplies were low, and the presence of Lee's force might provoke the small British squadron in the harbor to interrupt clandestine ammunition shipments into the port. The ever-present prospect of bombardment by the Royal Navy, against which the city had no effective deterrent, was also on their minds. Delaying hostilities until warmer weather in March would have at least eased the plight of the fearful refugees. Lee assured the Committee that he had no plans to harass the Royal Navy squadron as long as they behaved, and that in any event "the destruction of the seaport towns would if possible be a severer stroke to the Ministry and their Instruments than to the Inhabitants themselves." He proposed to bring only part of his force into the city, while leaving the main body in western Connecticut for the time being. He felt compelled to conclude by diplomatically assuring the Committee that: I am not one of those who have entertained a bad opinion of the virtue of N. York, or made it my business to asperse them; on the contrary, I have condemn'd loudly the illiberal, impolitic and unjust reflections I have heard frequently thrown out. However, his report to Washington on the affair struck a different tone: The whigs, I mean the stout ones, are it is said very desirous that a body of troops should march and be stationed in their City: timid ones are averse, merely from the spirit of procrastination, which is the characteristic of timidity. The letter of the Provincial Congress, you will observe breathes the very essence of this spirit; it is wofully hysterical. American Archives, Series 4, Vol. 2-5. The Papers of General Nathaniel Greene, vol. 1 (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1976). Lee Papers (New York: New York Historical Society, 1871). Historical Memoirs of William Smith, edited by William H. W. Sabine (New York: Colburn & Tegg, 1956). The New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury The Papers of George Washington: Revolutionary War Series, Vol. 3-6 (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1988). Carl L. Becker, The History of Political Parties in the Province of New York, 1760-1776 (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1909). Alexander C. Flick, Loyalism in New York During the American Revolution (New York: The Columbia University Press, 1901). Agnes Hunt, The Provincial Committees of Safety of the American Revolution (Cleveland: Press of Winn & Judson, 1904). Henry P. Johnson, The Campaign of 1776 Around New York and Brooklyn (Brooklyn, NY: Long Island Historical Society, 1878). Bernard Mason, The Road to Independence: The Revolutionary Movement in New York, 1773-1777 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1966) William H. Nelson, The American Tory (New York: 1961). M. Christopher New, "James Chalmers and ëPlain Truth:' A Loyalist Answers Thomas Paine, The Early American Review (http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/fall96/loyalists.html) (Fall, 1996) New York Division of Archives and History, The American Revolution in New York: Its Political, Social, and Economic Significance (Albany, NY: 1926). New York Historical Society, Narratives of the Revolution in New York (Kingsport, TN: Kingsport Press, Inc.; 1975). Phillip Ranlet, The New York Loyalists, (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986). John Shy, A People Numerous and Armed (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1990) Thomas Jefferson Wertenbaker, Father Knickerbocker Rebels: New York City During the Revolution, (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1948). Letter of March 21, 1776 from the John Eustace to Charles Lee; Lee Papers (New York: New York Historical Society, 1871) p. 362. Ranlet, pp. 66-7. Alexander Flick, Loyalism in New York During the American Revolution (New York: The Columbia University Press, 1901). Phillip Ranlet, The New York Loyalists, (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1986) pp. 5-7. William H. Nelson, The American Tory (New York: 1961) pp. 102-3. Thomas Jefferson Wertenbaker, Father Knickerbocker Rebels: New York City During the Revolution, (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1948) , pp. 11-2, 20-1, 24. Wertenbaker, p. 13. Wertenbaker, p. 34. Wertenbaker, p. 43-4. Journal entry of September 7, 1774; Historical Memoirs of William Smith, edited by William H. W. Sabine (New York: Colburn & Tegg, 1956) pp. 192. Carl L. Becker, The History of Political Parties in the Province of New York, 1760-1776 (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1909) p. 51. Wertenbaker, pp. 10-1. Becker, pp. 51, 82-3. Wertenbaker, p. 35-8. Flick, pp. 31-36. Ranlet, pp. 3-4, 182-6. Nelson, pp. 89-90. Flick, p. 52. Ranlet, p. 182. Wertenbaker, p. 44-6. Becker, p. 176. Wertenbaker, p. 53. Journal entry of April 29, 1775; Historical Memoirs of William Smith, p. 222. Wertenbaker, p. 53. Journal entries of April 24 & 27, 1775; Historical Memoirs of William Smith, pp. 221-2. Ranlet, p. 59. Bernard Mason, The Road to Independence: The Revolutionary Movement in New York, 1773-1777 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1966) pp. 76-7. Becker, pp. 196-7, Wertenbaker, p. 56. Mason, p. 77. The New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, May 22, 1775. Wertenbaker, p. 62. Ranlet, p. 52. Agnes Hunt, The Provincial Committees of Safety of the American Revolution (Cleveland: Press of Winn & Judson, 1904) p. 63. American Archives, Series 4, Vol. 2, pp. 1785-6, 1792. Hunt, p. 63-7. Hunt, p. 67. Wertenbaker, p. 62. Becker, p. 219. Wertenbaker, p. 58. Proceedings of the New York Provincial Congress for June 3, 1775; American Archives, Series 4, Vol. 2, p. 1274. Journal entry of June 25, 1773, Historical Memoirs of William Smith, pp. 228c-d. Ranlet, p. 61. Becker, p. 218. Wertenbaker, pp. 60-1. Proceedings of the New York Provincial Congress for July 5, 1775; American Archives, Series 4, Vol. 2, p. 1341. Proceedings of the New York Provincial Congress for June 29, 1775; American Archives, Series 4, Vol. 2, p. 1331. Ranlet, p. 61. Wertenbaker, p. 58. Proceedings of the New York Committee of Safety for July 13 and 18, 1775; American Archives, Series 4, Vol. 2, pp. 1791, 1812. Wertenbaker, p. 62. Diary entries of August 24 & 25, 1775 by Reverend Shewkirk; in The Campaign of 1776 Around New York and Brooklyn by Henry P. Johnson (Brooklyn, NY: Long Island Historical Society, 1878) Part II, pp. 103. Letter of August 24, 1775, from Captain Vandeput to the Mayor and other Magistrates of the City of New York; American Archives, Series 4 Vol. 3 p. 550. Wertenbaker, pp. 62-3. Diary entry of August 28, 1775 by Reverend Shewkirk; Johnson, Part II, pp. 103. Proceedings of the New York Provincial Congress for July 29, 1775; American Archives, Series 4, Vol. 3, p. 565. Proceedings of the New York Provincial Congress for September 1, 1775; American Archives, Series 4, Vol. 3, p. 573. Becker, p. 225. Ranlet. p. 61. Ranlet, p. 62. Nelson, p. 100. Wertenbaker, pp. 64-5. Ranlet, p. 4. Becker, p. 245-6. Proceedings of the New York Provincial Congress for December 12, 1775; American Archives, Series 4, Vol. 4, p. 402. Letter of January 5, 1776 from Charles Lee to George Washington; The Papers of George Washington: Revolutionary War Series, Vol. 3 (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1988) pp. 30-1. Letter of January 6, 1776 from John Adams to George Washington and letter of January 8, 1776 from George Washington to Charles Lee; The Papers of George Washington, Vol. 3; pp. 36-8, 53-4. John Shy, A People Numerous and Armed (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1990) pp. 135-62. Letter of January 21, 1776 from the New York Committee of Safety to Charles Lee; Lee Papers, pp. 242-4. Johnson, pp. 51-3. Letter of January 23, 1776 from Charles Lee to the Chairman of the New York Committee of Safety; Lee Papers, Vol. 1 (New York: New York Historical Society, 1871) pp. 256-8. Letter of January 24, 1776 from Charles Lee to George Washington; Lee Papers; Vol. 1, p. 259. Hunt, pp. 69-70. American Archives, Series 4, Vol. 4, p. 1096. Diary entry of January 5, 1776 by Reverend Shewkirk; Johnson, Part II, pp. 105-6. Letter of February 5, 1776 from Charles Lee to George Washington; Lee Papers; p. 271-2. Extract of a Letter from New York, to a Gentleman in Philadelphia, Dated February 5, 1776, American Archives, Series 4, Vol. 4, p. 942. Letter of February 19, 1776 from Charles Lee to George Washington; Lee Papers; p. 309. Report on the Defense of New York, March, 1776; Lee Papers; pp. 354-6. Wertenbaker, pp. 70-1. Letter of February 14, 1776 from Charles Lee to George Washington; Letter of February 26, 1776 from George Washington to Charles Lee; Lee Papers, pp. 295, 326-7. Letters of February 16 & 20, 1776 from Charles Lee to the President of Provincial Congress of New York; Lee Papers, pp. 301, 315. Letter of February 20, 1776 from the Provincial Congress of New York to Charles Lee; Lee Papers, p. 315-6. Becker, p. 248. Letter of February 29, 1776 from Charles Lee to George Washington; Lee Papers, pp. 335, 338. Becker, p. 249. Johnson, pp. 59-60. Johnston, p. 63. Letter of April 17 from George Washington to the New York Committee of Safety, the Committee's reply of April 18, and Washington's proclamation of April 29; The Papers of George Washington, Vol. 4, pp. 77-9, 81, 164-5. Proceedings of the New York Committee of Safety for April 18, 1776; American Archives, Series 4, Vol. 5, pp. 1453-4. General Orders issued on April 27, 1776 by General Washington; The Papers of George Washington, Vol. 4, p. 140-1. General Orders issued on May 14, 1776 by General Washington; The Papers of George Washington, Vol. 4, p. 296. General Greene's Orders of May 5, 1776, The Papers of General Nathaniel Greene, Vol. 1 (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1976) p. 212. Wertenbaker, p. 78. Diary entry of June 13, 1776 by Reverend Shewkirk; Johnson, Part II, pp. 108. New York Division of Archives and History, The American Revolution in New York: Its Political, Social, and Economic Significance (Albany, NY: 1926) pp. 65-6. M. Christopher New, "James Chalmers and ëPlain Truth:' A Loyalist Answers Thomas Paine, The Early American Review (http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/fall96/loyalists.html) (Fall, 1996) Becker, pp. 265-70. Mason, pp. 172-5. New York Historical Society, Narratives of the Revolution in New York (Kingsport, TN: Kingsport Press, Inc.; 1975) pp. 25-31. New York Division of Archives and History, pp. 67-9. Becker, pp. 271-4. Wertenbaker, p. 84. Letter of September 8, 1776 from George Washington to John Hancock; The Papers of George Washington, Vol. 6, pp. 248-52. Letter of September 11, 1776 from "Certain General Officers" to George Washington; The Papers of George Washington, Vol. 6, p. 279. Council of War Minutes for September 12, 1776, and a letter of the same date from George Clinton to George Washington; The Papers of George Washington, Vol. 6, p. 289-92. Letter of September 3, 1776 from John Hancock to George Washington; The Papers of George Washington, Vol. 6, p. 207. Becker, p 206. Letter of October 23, 1775 from Nathaniel Greene to Samuel Ward, Jr.; The Papers of General Nathaniel Greene, p. 139. Ranlet, p. 7. Diary entry of September 16, 1776 by Reverend Shewkirk; Johnson, Part II, pp. 117. Mason, pp. 78-9. Ranlet, pp. 79-82.

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Can student creativity be assessed in a meaningful way? Should it even be evaluated? And if so, how? These are some of the questions explored in a new working paper published by the global Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. "Creativity is widely accepted as being an important outcome of schooling," according to the paper, by researchers at the Centre for Real-World Learning at the University of Winchester in England. "Yet there are many different viewpoints about what it is, how best it can be cultivated in young people, and whether or how it should be assessed." The research comes at a time when U.S. political and business leaders increasingly are raising concerns about the need to better nurture creativity and innovative thinking in young people. In fact, last year I wrote about a push in several states to develop a "creativity index" for schools. In the new paper, the researchers put forward a definition for creativity focused on five "core dispositions." They field-tested their work in a dozen schools. A creative mind, they say, is: (wondering and questioning, exploring and investigating, challenging assumptions) (sticking with difficulty, daring to be different, tolerating uncertainty) (playing with possibilities, making connections, using intuition) (sharing the product, giving and receiving feedback, cooperating appropriately) (developing techniques, reflecting critically, crafting and improving) Based on the field trials, the researchers reached three key conclusions: First, they say it is possible to create an assessment instrument that teachers find useful. Second, this framework seems most useful for students ages 5 to 14. And finally, they emphasize that the "primary use of the tool is enabling teachers to become more precise and confident in their teaching of creativity and as a formative tool to enable learners to record and better develop their creativity." Put another way, the teachers showed little appetite for developing an assessment intended to document student creativity and compare it across students or schools. Of course, experts often argue that assessments end up being used for purposes well beyond what was initially conceived. So I can imagine some folks may get a little nervous if measuring student creativity picks up steam in this country. Policymakers may find it tempting to start judging students, teachers, and schools on creativity. To be clear, in my recent EdWeek story on creativity indexes, I explained that the focus was not on measuring student creativity, but rather gauging the extent to which schools provide opportunities to foster creativity and innovative thinking. Advocates said the idea was to promote a better balance in the curriculum, as well as to ensure more campus offerings before and after school that foster these qualities, especially in an era of high-stakes testing in reading and math. I highlighted three statesCalifornia, Massachusetts, and Oklahomawhere the matter was being explored. In my reporting for that story, I heard from Robert J. Sternberg, an expert in intelligence-testing from Oklahoma State University who has studied creativity extensively. He said he was encouraged by the idea of an index, but cautioned that there are risks. "We don't want an index that trivializes creativity, such as by counting numbers of activities that, on their surface, sound creative, rather than exploring what is actually done in the activities to encourage creativity," he said. "We don't want to encourage quantity over quality of activities." You can learn more about research on creativity in this 2011 EdWeek story.

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The U.K. Department of Energy and Climate Change proposed new sustainability criteria for biomass sourcing last September and a comment period wrapped up at the end of November, but the official standards are yet to be released. As proposed, a biomass power facility would have to demonstrate that 70 percent of the wood used to manufacture the pellets it procures has chain-of-custody (COC) certification, from the forest of origin to the final user. Severe weather swings caused by climate change are occurring more frequently and cause problems with drought, blow downs, insect infestations and invasive species in Minnesota. Minnesota State Forester Forrest Boe, said the state presents challenges and opportunities for thermal biomass utilization. German Pellets plans to open a second giant wood pellet plant in U.S.. Just as it is readying to opening a 500,000-metric ton wood pellet production facility in Woodville, Texas, German Pellets announced that it plans to build an additional 1 million-metric ton plant in Louisiana, with construction slated to begin this month. The plant will be located in the central Louisiana town of Urania, which has a population of about 1,300. The Woody Biomass Joint Venture is a partnership between the USDA Forest Service and US Endowment for Forestry and Communities, that began working in 2010 to establish a US/Canadian comprehensive wood-to-energy database. The searchable database open to anyone with interest in the state of wood to energy conversion at a national, state/provincial or local operating level. The Department of Sustainable Biomaterials at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University hosted visitors last month from as far away as New York and Guatemala at the Thomas M. Brooks Forest Products Center. The occasion? Demonstrations of the Department's new portable biomass power plant. Australia could be fueling its airplanes with plantation timber and waste from crops within three to five years according to a key research institute. The Future Farm Industries Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) is part of an international researchers team aiming to make five percent of the worlds aviation fuel out of biomass by 2020. The ash that underwent tests in this study did not display any toxicity in the biotests carried out. Chemically, it was characterised as having a high, but not corrosive pH, an adequate magnesium content for fertilizer purposes, and a quantity of heavy metals at concentrations below those present in nature. Wood is an amazing material. What other natural resource is completely renewable in a sustainable manner and comes in both great volume and in great variety? Wood's structure enables it to function well at the molecular, fiber, and macro level in an unbelievable array of uses and situations. State legislation that could make it more attractive to produce electricity from biomass, such as forest slash from tree thinning projects, cleared its first committee last week. The Senate Bill would amend New Mexico's Renewable Energy Act by allowing Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) to be issued for electricity produced from thermal energy derived from biomass materials. The Service Mark for the National Association of State Foresters has been registered with the United States Patent and Trademark Office as of April 11, 2000. The Service Mark and the name ‘National Association of State Foresters’ are registered at Reg. No. 2,340,477. Reproduction or use of the NASF logo without permission is prohibited. Photographs for the site came from many different sources. This institution is an equal-opportunity employer. This website is made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.

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Ken Jennings Shocker: Mt. Everest Is Not the Highest Point on Earth If there’s one thing everyone knows about mountains—and given the state of geography education today, that may be a pretty accurate estimate—it’s that Mount Everest, in the Himalayas, is the Earth’s highest point. But what if it wasn’t? What if Everest, with its famous 29,029-foot peak, was actually dwarfed by a mountain you’ve probably never even heard of, an Ecuadorian volcano called Chimborazo? View Mount Chimborazo in a larger map - Mount Chimborazo is an Andean stratovolcano in central Ecuador, looming so impressively over the country that, on a clear day, you can see it all the way from the large port city of Guayaquil, 90 miles away. Chimborazo is Ecuador’s highest point, but in terms of elevation, it’s far from the highest peak in the Andes. In fact, there are almost 40 more impressive mountains in South America, many of which (like Aconcagua, the continent’s highest peak) are located farther south, near the Chile-Argentina border. - So how is the 30-somethingth highest mountain in the Andes simultaneously the highest point on Earth? The central problem here is that Pythagoras, Columbus, and your elementary school teachers were all wrong: Earth isn’t really round. Well, it’s round-ish, but it’s not a sphere. The combined effects of gravity and rotational centrifugal force have pushed the Earth’s mass outward around its middle. Imagine hula-hooping for a few hours after a big Thanksgiving dinner and you’ll get the idea. The resulting shape is often called an “oblate ellipsoid”: slightly flatter at the poles and bulgier at the equator than you’d expect. - This bulge isn’t huge—a deviation of about one part in 300 from a perfect sphere—but it’s enough to mess with cartography. Chimborazo tops out at 20,702 feet, almost two miles lower than Everest. But that’s only compared to sea level. If we take the equatorial bulge into account—in other words, if we measure what peak is farthest from the center of the Earth—Chimborazo sticks more than 7,000 feet farther into space than any of the Himalayas do, since they’re located thousands of miles north of the Equator. So, to quote Obi-Wan Kenobi, “what I told you was true—from a certain point of view.” - Hawaiians are quick to point out that Mauna Kea, the volcano that forms the peak of the state’s big island, is also taller than Everest—if you measure from its base. Everest only rises about 13,000 feet above its base, less than half of Mauna Kea’s 33,000-foot rise. The problem, of course, is that the Hawaiian mountain’s “base camp” sleeps with the fishes at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean. Give Mauna Kea a fair start by moving it to the Himalayas, and it would be by far the highest peak on Earth. - Ken Jennings Shows Us the Last River to Be Added to the U.S. Map - Friedrichstrasse Station: The Cold War's Three-Dimensional Border - Ken Jennings Finds the World’s Lowest Highest Point - Ken Jennings Quotes TLC, Finds Hard-to-Chase Waterfall - Five Things that Surprised Ken Jennings on His Trip to Antarctica

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Homeowners often inquire about what kinds of fruiting plants they can grow that require minimal care yet produce an abundant harvest. Blueberries are frequently recommended because they are easy to grow, require minimal maintenance, and are relatively free of any major pests. They are one of the few fruit crops in production today that are native to Georgia. The plants have a multitude of uses in the landscape: they can be grown as a hedge to screen out unsightly views, to line driveways and side yards, and to serve as a barrier. Most importantly, blueberry plants provide delicious fruit that have many culinary uses. There are three types of blueberries grown in Georgia: northern highbush, southern highbush and rabbiteye. The southern highbush and northern highbush blueberries require higher levels of maintenance, are grown commercially and are not recommended for the homeowner in the Atlanta area. Rabbiteye blueberries are the most adaptable, productive and pest-free of the three types of blueberries. Early season varieties of rabbiteye blueberries include "Climax," "Alapaha," and "Premier," midseason varieties include "Brightwell," "Austin," and "Powderblue," and late season varieties include "Delite," and "Baldwin." Blueberries are not self-fruitful. This means they require the planting of a minimum of two different varieties in order for the plants to pollinate and set fruit. Blueberries need at least six to eight hours of sun a day. They require moist but well-drained soils with the addition of organic matter such as peat moss, compost, or manure. Consider having your soil tested for its pH and nutrients content through Gwinnett County Extension for pH and fertility. The plants grow best in acidic soils with a pH of 4.0 to 5.3. If the soil pH is above this range, apply wettable sulfur (90 percent sulfur) or ammonium sulfate to the soil. Do not apply fertilizer immediately after planting. Fertilizer should be applied four weeks after planting, and in the following years after new growth begins in March. Apply 2 ounces of an all-purpose fertilizer such as 12-4-8, 10-10-10, or an azalea fertilizer to each plant. Refertilize again in May and July. Spread the fertilizer evenly beneath the plants. Apply three inches of pine bark or pine straw mulch around them. Blueberries produce their fruit from buds on 1-year-old wood, so they should be pruned enough to encourage the production of vigorous new growth each year. For the first five years after planting, minimal pruning will be required. Remove the low spreading branches and those growing through the center of the bush, especially weak and older branches. After a few years of growth, if the plants become too large for ease of harvest, remove one-third of the older stems during the dormant season to improve light and air penetration. Blueberries, if planted and maintained properly, are a relatively easy fruit to grow. A great opportunity to purchase blueberries and some other excellent plants is through the 2012 Annual Gwinnett County Extension Plant Sale. Go to the extension website at www.gwinnettextension.org to download the order form or call the Gwinnett County Extension office for a form to be mailed to you. The deadline for ordering is Friday. The order pick-up day will be March 29 from 10 a.m. to 6:30 p.m. at the Gwinnett County Fairgrounds. Timothy Daly, MS, Agricultural and Natural Resource Extension Agent, Gwinnett County Extension. Tim may be contacted by phone at 678-377-4010 or by email at email@example.com.

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The GENERAL CONTEXT of such use is: habitus: (a) durable training; the product of internalization of the principles of a cultural arbitrary capable of perpetuating itself after pedagogic action has ceased and thereby of perpetuating in practices the principles of the internalized cultural arbitrary. (b) The word disposition seems particularly appropriate to express what is covered by the concept of the habitus (defined as a system of dispositions): it expresses, first, the result of an organizing action, with a meaning very close to that of words such as 'structure'; it can also denote a manner of being, a habitual state (especially of the body), and, in particular, a predisposition, a tendency, propensity or inclination. Father Jerome's DICTIONARY of KEYWORDS/PHRASES used in his scientific writings and at his QUFD website Father Jerome's PSYCHOSOCIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY of Terms/Phrases used in Monograph III of his QUALIA Series Father Jerome's SPECIALIZED DICTIONARY of KEYWORDS/PHRASES pertaining to Bose-Einstein Condensates of Non-Matter and Incorporeality, as used in his Works, in QUFD Physics and in the 'QUFD Textbook' Website Also see Father Jerome's BLOG, for info about his latest Book, "God, Lucifer and You! A ScienceBook of Quantum Physics and Reality, for 5 year old Kids and Adults!"

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English researcher John Urquhart says that deaths anddeformities caused by fallout from the 1986 Chernobyldisaster, the world worst nuclear accident, may extendbeyond the Ukraine, Russia and Belarus. The radioactivecloud it sent over Europe could have increased infant deathsand birth defects in England and Wales in the three yearsafter the accident. Urquhart thinks that at least 200 morechildren than normal died during those three years. "We'veprobably been too complacent about the health effects fromChernobyl in western Europe," he says. He thinks the falloutmay have caused more than 600 extra cases of Down'sSyndrome, spina bifida, cleft palate and other abnormalities. He studied the deaths and birth defects in children born in15 health regions of England and Wales between 1983 and1992, and found that most of the increased deaths anddeformities occurred in just five regions, spread throughoutthe two countries. "Death rates fell every year except for1986, with the extra deaths mostly occurring in four of thefive same regions. The odds that the overlap occurred bychance are 1 in 200," he says. However, studies carried out by the National RadiologicalProtection Board after the disaster show that theradioactive plume which reached the U.K. did not even reachsouthwest England, although it did pass over north Wales,Cumbria and southern Scotland. Dr. Michael Clark, of theNRPB, says, "The assertion that the U.K. received 40% of theradiation dose of the Ukraine is simply not true. Otherstudies, in Hungary and Germany, and even in Ukraine itself,have found no link between the disaster and infantmortality. There have been other health effects in Ukraine,such as an increase in thyroid cancers, but not infantmortality." Meanwhile, a large shipment of radioactive blueberries wasseized in Moscow last week in an effort to stop the annualinflux of fruit infected by the Chernobyl disaster. Theradioactive berries came from Ukraine and Belarus, the areaswhich were worst hit by the 1986 explosion at the Chernobylnuclear power plant. The blueberries tested high forradioactive cesium-137 and were found in 10 markets in Moscow. All of the berries were found before they went on sale,since ever since Chernobyl, markets have had to test foodbefore it?s sold. The danger comes from unofficial dealerswho are not subject to this kind of control, especiallyfarmers in the affected regions who still want to sell theirproduce. With India and Pakistan, as well as terrorists, threateningto use nuclear weapons, we may have to begin testing our ownberries soon. There?s evidence in ancient Hindu tests of nuclear warfarein the past. To learn about it, read ?A Hitchhiker?s Guideto Armageddon? by David Hatcher Childress,click here. To read about the spread of radiation,clickhere. To read a refutation of these findings,clickhere. To read about radioactiveberries,clickhere. NOTE: This news story, previously published on our old site, will have any links removed.

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Reading Form Data Before delving into how a servlet can read data submitted via a form, it is necessary to understand how data from an HTML form is passed to the webserver by the browser. Their are too common ways of passing data from the webbrowser to the webserver. They are called POST and GET. Both of these methods pass the data in a 'key=value' format. The key for each data field is specified as part of the tag describing the relevant field. Using the GET method (Assume the following form is part of a web page located on the webserver http://www.someserver.com.) When submitted, the browser would execute the following URL :- http://www.someserver.com/servlets/aservlet?thisIsAKey=xxxx&anotherKey=yyyy See that the data is appended onto the end of the URL, using a '?' to separate the data from the main body of the URL, with '&' characters used to separate the individual key/value pairs. There is no reason why this URL, with the data appended couldn't be put straight straight into an Anchor tag thus :- This can enable you to dispense with the need for a form altogether for cases where user input is not required for any of the key/value pairs. eg click here to try out the servlet below using a fixed URL. Using the POST Method In some cases it may not be desirable to display all of the data submitted by the user as part of the URL, for example if the user were submitting a password. The POST method of submitting data from a form allows the data to be passed to the webserver seperatly from the URL in a 'hidden' format. Excepting that this method cannot be used to pass key/value pairs from an Anchor tag, this will function in the same way as GET in all other ways. A Form Reading Servlet The following code is a simple example of a servlet which is reading parameters that have been supplied by an HTML form. This servlet interprets information from the following HTML form. It users the POST method, but you can change this to GET if you wish to try both methods. The web page must be located on the same server and accessed via that server (not with a file:open in your browser), or you get '404 file not found' error messages when trying to use it. When called, this servlet will look for a parameter supplied in the HttpServletRequest called 'yourname' and then construct its reply using the data stored in this parameter. Notice that the 'getParameterValues' method actually returns an array of Strings, rather than a single string. This is because some HTML form elements can return more than one item, eg a list which allows multiple selections. If you want to try this servlet out, just use the form below : The information contained in this form will be received by the webserver and passed to the servlet as part of the HttpServletRequest object. Tims Home Page | Page last modified : 19 May 2003

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Enterprise and endeavour, these two words symbolize the essential spirit of the people of Punjab. Since Independence, over 5 decades, the state has earned its epithet: "of Granary India" through the enterprising spirit, and untiring toil of its people.Its average growth rate of 10% is amongst the highest in the country, clearly reflecting the progressive economy of the state .Punjab also boasts a 58% literacy rate and the highest per capita income in India. Today's Punjab has become a land of boundless opportunities, offering distinct advantages for investment and industry. Since the recent liberalization of India's economy, Punjab has started making its mark on the global business mainstream, with major players from around the world forming joint ventures in the field of agri-business. Privileged by nature and the dynamism of its people, Punjab is a land of rivers, fertile soils and steady achievement. With its inimitable style of transforming every potential opportunity into a success story, the state was the first to translate agricultural technology into the "green revolution", recording highest growth rate in food production. From a minor producer it emerged a major rice surplus state. Providing the impetus for the "White revolution", during Operation Flood, it was Punjab that recorded the highest per capita availability of milk.Today's Punjab has over 2.04 lakhs of small and medium industries and about 600 large scale industries. It leads in the manufacture of machine and hand tools; printing and paper cutting machinery; auto parts and electrical switch gear. The state also provides more than 75% of the country's requirement for bicycles, sewing machines, hosiery and sports goods. At par with the highest quality standards in the world, these products have carved a niche for themselves in markets across the globe. Facts about Punjab 50,362 square kilometers (Punjab occupies 1.54 % of the country’s total geographical area.) Punjab is situated in the northwest of India, it is bordered by Pakistan on the west, the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir on the north, Himachal Pradesh on its northeast and Haryana and Rajasthan to its south. 243.59 Lakh for the year 2001 Rural: 160.96 Lakh Urban: 82.63 Lakh Punjabi and Hindi. Many people are fluent in English and Urdu Rupee (100 paise equals one rupee) Black Buck - Locally called kala hiran, the Black Buck is a graceful antelope is blessed with a striking colour and spiraled horns. The fawn’s coat is yellowish but it becomes turns black at maturity. It is found in the plains and avoid forests and hilly tracks. Mostly found in herds of 20-30, large herds may number several hundreds. With a keen eyesight and speed, it responds to alarm call by leaps and bounds. Baz (Eastern Goshawk) Find Punjab on the globe at 29’30’’ N to 32’32’’ N latitude and 73’55 E to 76’50 E longitude, Climatically the state has three major seasons. Hot weather (April to June) when temperature rises as high as 110F. Rainy season (July to September). Average rainfall annual ranges between 96 cms sub-mountain region and 46 cms in the plains. Cold weather (October to March). Temperature goes down as low as 40F. Major Land Features: Most of Punjab is a fertile plain; toward the southeast one finds semi-arid and desert landscape; a belt of undulating hills extends along the northeast at the foot of the Himalayas. Four rivers, the Ravi, Beas, Satluj and Ghaggar flow across the state in a southwesterly direction. They have numerous small and seasonal tributaries. In addition, Punjab is watered by an extensive canal system. Punjab leads the nation in infrastructure. The Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) infrastructure index gives Punjab a rating of 191 – highest in the country. Even the most industrially developed State of Maharashtra figures at a low level of 111 only, against the national average of 100. Highest per capita generation in the country, which is 2.5 times the national average. Quality power without power cuts is available at cheaper rates. Future planned projects ensure easy availability. Concessional tariff for night loads has been introduced in the state. Punjab has surplus electricity and industry gets electric connections without any delay subject to system constraints. The quality of power is also far better than any state in the Northern India and the tariff is one of the lowest. The generation of power continues to get priority treatment from the state. All 12,484 villages in Punjab have been electrified since 1974. For More Details Telephone and Allied facilities are available to all cities and small towns. It is possible to directly dial for International calls from a large number of villages also. For More Details There are 2,478 branches of scheduled commercial banks in Punjab. The state is also served by a network of 635 branches of the Punjab State Cooperative Bank. On an average, each branch services a population of 9,414, an area of 24 square kilometers or a cluster of five villages. There are 230 allopathic (western medical system) and six ayurvedic (Indian medical system) hospitals (one 105 bed hospital at Patiala and five 10 bed hospital at jalandhar, Bathinda, Ludhiana, Hoshiarpur and Amritsar) and one Homeopathic hospital in the state. They range from 50-bed hospitals in smaller towns to larger hospitals attached with the five medical colleges - one each at Patiala, Faridkot and Amritsar and two at Ludhiana having facilities for dealing with complicated cases and acting as referral hospitals and teaching colleges. The Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research at Chandigarh has facilities equal to the best available in any metropolis. Private medical facilities are also reliable and are available even in the semi-urban and rural areas of the state. At the level below the district one finds smaller hospitals: there are 1,450 allopathic, 473 Ayurvedic,Dispensaries, 17 ayurvedic Swasth Kendras and 34 Unani (Arab/Persian medical system) and 105 homeopathic dispensaries. In addition the state has 446 Primary Health Centers and 105Community Health Centres. There is one doctor for every 1,589 of the population and one hospital bed for every 864 people - ratios which are probably the best in the country.About 76 per cent of the villages have protected drinking water supply.Life expectancy for men and women is 66.6 years which is second highest in the country. All these factors add up to a healthy hardworking population. Punjab is a land hallowed by saints and scarred by battles, an ancient land yielding archaeological treasures, a land of palaces and museums. A visitor to Punjab can see the Golden Temple at Amritsar, the sword of Hazrat Ali at Anandpur Sahib, the world's highest straight gravity dam at Bhakra, India’s Steel City – Gobindgarh, and the world‘s biggest grain market at Khanna. No one has ever gone back from Punjab without leaving a part of himself behind and taking part of Punjab with him. Punjab is easy to reach by road, rail or air. From Delhi, Chandigarh, the state capital is 246 km and Amritsar, the northernmost city of the state is 446 Kms. The total road mileage in Punjab is 35,501 Kms of state roads and rural link roads. In addition, the length of national highways is 964 Kms. All the 12,342 villages in the state are linked by all-weather roads and major towns of all adjoining states are connected by national highways. One can drive from one extreme end of the state to the other in six hours. Road travel time from Delhi is about four hoursAll districts and sub-divisional towns have direct bus services to the state capital, Chandigarh. All villages have bus services linking them with the sub-division and district headquarters towns. In addition, there are excellent deluxe bus services between New Delhi and Patiala, Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Amritsar and Chandigarh. Air conditioned luxury buses ply at almost hourly intervals between New Delhi and Chandigarh. Taxi services between various towns and Chandigarh and to New Delhi are dependable and comfortable. All major towns and district headquarters have excellent rail links for both passenger and goods traffic. Chandigarh, Ludhiana, Amritsar, Ferozepur and Jalandhar are on the main line and have excellent daily train services to New Delhi including convenient overnight trains. Super fast Shatabdi Express trains connect Delhi to Chandigarh (a comfortable three-hour trip) and Delhi to Amritsar via Ludhiana (equally comfortable and just a little less than six hours). The Shan-e-Punjab train links Amritsar and New Delhi, the Himalayan Queen links Chandigarh and New Delhi and there are numerous trains from Jammu / Amritsar, linking these towns as well as Ludhiana and Jalandhar with New Delhi For more information of various trains and availability schedules, click through the Indian Railway WebSite There is an international airport at Amritsar located in Rajasansi which is about 11 kilometers from the main city. Outside the aiport, you would find cabs that are not necessarily painted yellow and black. The word ‘Taxi’ would be written on each cab. There is also a car rental facility available in front of the International Arrival Hall.Other domestic airports are located at Chandigarh (12 kilometers from the city), Ludhiana, Pathankot. For more information on flight schedules, availability and book tickets online, go through websites of Air India Site, Jet Airways or Air Sahara. This is a city with a hallowed history. The present city dates back to the 15th century but it’s association with India’s national epic, the Ramayan, shows that it’s sacred heritage must be measured, not in centuries but millenniums. The holiest shrine of the Sikh faith – the Golden Temple – is located in heart of Amritsar and no visit to the city is complete without a glimpse of the temple. In terms of industry and commerce, Amritsar is a city famous for woollen mills and textile processing. a town of great antiquity. The most important town of area is known as the 'Bastis' (Basti Bawa Khel, Basti Guzan, Basti Danishmandan and others) tell the story of the domination of this place by Pathan rulers. Jalandhar known for its sportsmen as well as its sports industry is a growing industrial town having steel and iron re-rolling, rubber goods, electric goods, automobile parts and sewing machine factories. Handloom products are also manufactured at Jalandhar. Ludhiana an important industrial city, is Known as the Manchester of India. It is famous the world over for its hosiery goods. Woollen garments produced here are sold in prestigious shopping centres from Moscow to Montreal and Bangkok to London and New York. The famous Punjab Agricultural University patterned after the land-grant colleges of America, is situated on the outskirts of the city. Rural Olympics of Qila Raipur, Chhapper Mela and Kissan Mela at PAU attracts lakhs of visitors every year. This city was once the capital of a princely state and traces of royal grandeur are still plain to see here. From the imposing fortress, Qila Mubarak, that occupies the centre of town, to the 19th century palaces, Moti Bagh and Sheesh Mahal at the edge of the city, the wealth, imagination and typically Punjabi sensibilities of old Punjab are on display. The people of Patiala consider themselves the torchbearers of Punjabi language and culture. Patiala has long been a centre of trade and commerce but in recent years it is also developing rapidly as a manufacturing city producing a wide range of goods Entertainment and Recreation: TV & Cinema: The entire Punjab is on the TV map of the country. The southern districts near Kasauli receive telecasts from New Delhi. The central, northern and south-western districts are serviced by the Jalandhar Doordarshan Kendra and the relay stations at Amritsar and Bhatinda. All India Radio stations at Chandigarh and Jalandhar, apart from organising programmes, like the TV station at Jalandhar, also relay the National Programme. Cable television has also reached to the farthest corners of the state. The state has over 200 cinema houses and, like the rest of the country has been touched by the video revolution. Almost all the district headquarters have excellent clubs; Chandigarh, Amritsar, Ludhiana, Jalandhar and Patiala have outstanding clubs offering all standard facilities of a club in any metropolis such as tennis and squash courts, libraries, card rooms, entertainment, billiards and bar. Many of them have reciprocal membership arrangements with well known clubs in other towns of the country. Almost every district town offers facilities for tennis but a few like Patiala, Amritsar, Jalandhar and Chandigarh have resources for track/field, squash, horse-riding, indoor sports and swimming pools. There are golf courses at Chandigarh, Patiala, Jalandhar and Amritsar. Being close to the hills, Punjab is an ideal base for treks in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. For the less adventurous, the hill stations of Shimla and Dalhousie are within driving distance from any part of Punjab. Hotels and Restaurants: Hotels offering three or four star facilities are available at Chandigarh, Ludhiana, Jalandhar and Amritsar. Smaller towns like Patiala, Ferozepur or Bhatinda offer two to three star facilities while in very small towns like Hoshiarpur, Sangrur and Ropar, it would be advisable to either depend on the facilities of the Tourism Corporation or the Government Dak Bungalows.The bigger towns have noteworthy restaurants and caterers. The Punjab Tourism Development Corporation has developed picnic spots at Ropar, Neelon (near Ludhiana), Ludhiana, Kartarpur (near Jalandhar), Sirhind (near Patiala), Pathankot and operates well-run restaurants on the Grand Trunk road and other highways as part of its highway tourism facilities. Culture and History Punjab is the cradle of the Indus Valley Civilization, more than 4000 years old. Archaeological excavations, throughout the state, have revealed evidences of the magnificent cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro, that lived and died along the banks of the mighty Indus and its tributaries. The Mahabharata, which narrates life between the 7th and 5th century BC, contains rich descriptions of the land and people of Punjab at that time. It is believed that parts of the Ramayana too, were written around the Shri Ram Tirath Ashram, near Amritsar; and it was in these forests that Lav and Kush grew up.Other great historical discoveries have been unearthed at Ropar, Kiratpur, Dholbaha, Rohira and Ghuram. These relics throw light on the culture and changing architectural styles of Punjab, since the Harappan age. At Sanghol, in Fatehgarh Sahib district near Ludhiana, sites associated with great Mauryan Dynasty, have yielded remarkable relics that record the presence of Buddhism in the region. ANCIENT FORTS OF THE PUNJAB The forts and fortresses, though become very largely obsolete in the context and content of modern warfare, due mostly to vulnerability from the air, were deemed until quite recently as the sine quo non of military defense and the last refuge of a combatant power put sadly on the defensive. When defeat seemed imminent or inevitable, they could repair to these citadels of security in the final resort and fight an obviously losing game to vantage through the protraction of the struggle for an incredibly long time and infliction of heavy losses on the investing enemy forces on whom ceaseless fire could be poured by the garrisoned troops nestling in comparative security behind the thick and impregnable walls. Given ample armament, stores and food supplies, the besieged could hold out almost indefinitely taking full advantage of the exposed enemy positions and rendering the batteries directed against them ineffective, sometimes even putting them completely out of action. It happened not infrequently that the continually battered attacking army found it almost impossible to persevere in this unequal contest and was forced to raise the siege on its failure to storm the fort by assault. These edifices, varying in size according to their need or the strategy of their position, were constructed more or less on a uniform plan all over the world, sharing several features of similarity. To begin with there was the moat or ditch spanned by a drawbridge or bridges which could be filled with water so as to impose the first impediment before an investing force. Behind it was the outer wall, generally of great height and enormous thickness, strengthened with towers, bastions or, battlements, at regular intervals and pierced with loopholes, through which arrows, missiles, musket shots or small battery cannonade could be discharged at the assailants. The main entrance through the outer wall was protected by the barbican, with its narrow archway, and strong gates and portcullis. Inside there was usually the outer and inner court, and strong, more or less, detached buildings comprising the military headquarters and the residence of the potentate. In massiveness and strength these buildings were of a piece with the castle-walls to which the defenders retreated only in the last extremity. The Punjab or the Land of Five Rivers has been studded with solid defenses in the form of forts due to its vulnerability from the north through the Khyber and other passes which opened time and again to let in a turbid flood of invaders from time immemorial. Even the incoming Aryans found the Dasyu castles, presumably of the Indus Valley Civilization, interposing a serious check to their advance lower down into the country. The sacred literature of the Aryans is replete with stories of almost incessant fighting against an enemy which, from behind the defenses of their fortified positions, rained death and fire on them through its skill in magic and the black arts. It took the people of the bow and arrow and the horse chariot an immeasurably long time to prevail against the indigenous inhabitants, who resisted them successfully from behind there impregnably fortification of solid masonry. The Aryans, in their turn, on their victorious establishment in the land emulated the example of the conquered enemy through the construction of forts and fortifications as they had come to realize only too grimly the dangers and perils of their exposed positions. On their establishment at Kurkshetra or Thanesar (Sthaneshwar of the Sanskrit terminology) of the first Aryan settlement, styled as Brahmrishidesha, they set up fortifications in the manner of their former enemies and the foundations of the fort constructed by the legendary Dilipa of the Mahabharata can still be traced among the ruins of this ground hallowed by the sanctity of age. In the center of Sthaneshwar, a veritable graveyard of antiquity and archaeology still stands on old ruined fort, about 1,200 ft. square. The remains of towers and bastions indicate the imposing and massive character of the structure.It would seem that in course of time every city or town of any consequence came either to possess a separate fort of its own or was fortified at least as a necessary part of its defensive plan. The town of Karnal, though not quite able to dispute antiquity with Thanesar, is a very ancient place all the same and according to the Mahabharata was founded by Raja Karna. It has ever been a walled town as far as it is possible to trace and may even have had a citadel one time. The town of Panipat, being one of the pats referred to in the Mahabharata, and standing on a high mound consisting of ruins and debris of ages, has an old fort occupying a high mound adjoining, but separate from the town itself. Likewise, Sonepat too had a fort, now reduced to a heap of undistinguished ruin, which has furnished a vast quantity of staple building material in the form of old brick. Traversing higher up to the north, we find that the original town of Ambala too was a walled town once and Ludhiana still has an old fort lying to the north of it. Phillaur ten miles further north has a nice little old fort, which is rendered very conspicuous by its large barbican. It was an important artillery arsenal and magazine up to the time of great uprising of 1857 and had a detachment in garrison, which however kept there. It is today the seat of the Punjab Police Training School. A mention may also be made of the fort of Gobindgarh at Amritsar, lying midway between the Railway Station and the city, which is a rather old-fashioned stronghold surrounded by a deep ditch. Other forts of the Punjab lying further to the northwest such as Lahore, Multan, Dipalpur, Attock and Jamrud, though reeking rich with history, are now in West Pakistan. Almost all the important hill chiefs had small forts perched safe upon inaccessible mountain crests from where they could fight the assailant enemy to advantage. When attacked they would repair to these for security making it extremely difficult and hazardous for the foe to pursue them there.The ancient city and Fort of Sirsa , the ruins of which adjoin the present town, are said to be of great antiquity and are said to have been, founded some fourteen centuries ago by Raja Saras. In the early eighteenth century it became the headquarters of the marauding Bhatti Rajputs who from here and the forts scattered all around it, of which the runs are still clearly identifiable, made raids on the surrounding regions making them devoid of population as well as cultivation. It is on record that in the time of the adventurous career of George Thomas, sometimes designated as the Irish Raja in these parts, the Bhatti clans were able to bring 20,000 men into the field. The Forts of Sirsa, Bhatnair, Abohar and Bhatinda , situated at the angles of a figure nearly square with a side about fifty miles long, were built each on the same plan and of the same dimensions, thus forming a sort of quadrilateral in the path of the invaders from the North-West. Often they interposed a successful barrier in the path of the steadily piercing Muslim hordes. They accordingly obtained considerable celebrity, almost disproportionate with their intrinsic importance, because of their position on the direct route of invasion from Central Asia and Afghanistan. Bhatnair, though actually situated in Rajasthan, would seem to fall in the schematic plan of strategic undivided Punjab forts. Timur attacked it in 1399 in the course of his whirlwind and devastating invasion of India. Muhammad Ghazni captured it in AD 1001 and Khetsi Kondahalt sacked it in 1527. In 1549 Mirza Kamran, brother of the Emperor Hamayun, took the fort by assault on which occasion Khetsi died in the field with 500 Rajputs. It was afterwards taken and retaken down to 1800, when it capitulated to the celebrated George Thomas. The other forts of this series shared much the same vicissitudes and history. The town of Hissar too had a well-known fort as its name so clearly signifies. But time's tyrannous claim appears to have triumphed over it so completely as to reduce it to a mass of undistinguishable ruin. Only maunds of brick cover a large space from which we might obtain a glint of the past importance of the place. The old Fort of Hansi situated right in the heart of Haryana has had a varied and checkered history. It is deservedly celebrated in Indian History on account of its massive strength and reputation for impregnability. Over fifty thousand invaders lie entombed in its immediate vicinity, a living proof of the grim fighting that raged here time and again when the successive waves of marauders tried to wrest this mighty stronghold from its legitimate and rightful masters. Ala-ud-Din captured it in 1200, though not before 20,000 of his tried warriors had kissed the dust and lay stretched in the field. When George Thomas's mercenaries captured Hansi, Hissar, Mehem, the Irishman selected the fort of Hansi as the capital of the New Kingdom. He strengthened and repaired its walls and fortifications. He established a mint, cannon foundry, factories for powder, muskets, matchlocks and other small arms within the fort. It was here that he fought the last battle of his life but it was like playing a losing game. His absence in the Punjab had done the mischief. With supplies all but cut off and treachery rife in the camp Thomas, despite all his dash and intrepidity, was unable to cope with the situation. Perron's gold had bought over most of the officers of the garrison and held their families as hostages. Thomas stood valiantly to his guns and put up a most heroic defense but the odds against him were such that he was eventually obliged to yield the fort. Another old fort calling for mention is that of Ferozepur fort . Now used for commissariat purposes for three-quarters of a century, it must at one time have been a place of considerable strength. It is an irregular building, one hundred yards long and about fifty broads surrounded by a ditch ten feet wide and ten feet deep. It is described as being picturesque and almost English in appearance. Through repeated alterations it has, however, been changed quite out of recognition. It was the scene of the grand durbar and review that Lord Auckland held there in 1838 at which Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Lion of Punjab, with his generals was present and witnessed the elaborate maneuvers purposely arranged to impress him and to bring conviction home to him that it would be catastrophic for him to embroil himself in the Afghan War. The spick and span turn out of the troops, the mimic warfare and display of discipline, tactics and strategy so impressed Ranjit Singh that throughout the Afghan campaign, despite its reverses and changes of fortune, he continued in an attitude of benevolent neutrality at least. There are three forts in the territory formerly comprised in the erstwhile Patiala State which seem deserving of more than a mere passing mention. In the first place there is Fort Bhatinda around which grew a city bearing the same name. It is one of the oldest towns in Punjab and of considerable historical importance. The fort is reputed to have been built by a Hindu Raja, named Dab in the second century of the Christian era. That means that it has been in existence for about 1900 years. It is constructed of large archaic type of brick, which was used for construction long before the advent of Islam. The origin of the name Bhatinda is variously explained. It may have been called as Bhattian da kot or Bhattian da adda, meaning the fort of the Bhattis or the abode of the Bhattis, which through the inevitable corruption of words was changed into the name now current. The Bhattis were an ancient Rajput tribe, which flourished in these environs. Many of them turned Muslim and before the partition of the province were divided fifty-fifty between the faith of their fathers and the creed of between the faith of their fathers and the creed of Muhammad and still took legitimate pride in their proud Rajput ancestry. The fort of Bhatinda constituted the twin capital with Lahore of the well-know Brahman dynasty of the Pals, of which Jai Pal and Anand Pal were among the last scions, who were subdued and supplanted by the Ghaznavids though not without valiant but unsuccessful resistance. On the conquest of northern India Muhammad Ghori appointed his favorite slave and general Kutb-ud-Din Aibak, and later king in his own right and the founder of the slave dynasty, to the governorship of the Bhatinda fort for the coercion and subjugation of the turbulent Bhattis. That ill-starred Queen, Razia, the daughter of King Altamash, who was the first woman to assume the throne in India, was first incarcerated here on her defeat and dethronement. The fort next became the scene of her unsuccessful attempts to regain her throne. The rest of its history is steeped in oblivion but it was an important point d' appui both of the Sultanate of Pathans and the Empire of the Mughals. In the middle of the eighteenth century on the decadence of the Mughal rule it passed into the hands of Ala Singh of Patiala. It was renamed as Gobindgarh by Maharaja Karam Singh of Patiala in commemoration of the reputed visit of Guru Gobind Singh to the place in the days when from his venue in the jungles of Bhatinda he was challenging and fighting the mighty Mughal Empire. A muafi of 50 ghumaons of land was assigned for the upkeep of the Gurudwara in the fort. The fort of Bhatinda still stands grim and gaunt in its lordly vaunt of having shared for ages a notable part in the schematic plan of India's defense. The walls of the citadel which slope from base upwards are of extraordinary massiveness and strength, tapering upwards from 53 feet below to 35 feet at the top and rising to a height of hundred feet. The bastion tower of burj is 120 feet above the ground level and is still in a wonderful state of preservation. There are in addition four large bastions one at each corner and 32 smaller ones, i.e., 8 to each wall. The larger bastions have a circumference of 291 feet at the top. Taken all in all it is one of the mightiest structures in its line built nobly and well. The Qila Mubarik or the fort of triumph, of which the foundation is attributed to Baba Ala Singh, was completed by his grandson and successor Maharaja Amar Singh. It contains the royal palace and other appurtenant subsidiary buildings. Then there is the beautiful Fort of Bahadurgarh , situated nearly five miles from the town of Patiala, which though only 123 years old and not an ancient for exactly, is a stately, graceful and imposing. Begun in 1837 by Maharaja Karam Singh, it took eight years to build entailing a cost of millions of rupees. Two circular walls or ramparts surround the fort, the outer wall being 110 feet apart from the inner one. A pacca moat or ditch 25 feet deep and 58 feet wide surrounds the outer wall, which is 29 feet high. The circumference of the fort is nearly 1 1/3 miles. Maharaja Karam Singh gave the fort its present name in commemoration of the sacred visit of Guru Tegh Bahadur in the time of Saif Khan, who was a brother of Fidai Khan and a foster brother of Aurangzeb himself. The legend goes that the Guru had predicted the rising of a fort on the self-same spot. The Maharaja also built two Gurudwaras, one inside and another outside the fort. This fort like that of Phillaur, was used one time as the Training School for Police. The Pathankot fort is reputed to have been built as far back as the 12th century AD by one Raja Jet Pal. Through nothing over-brilliant and falling in the category of modest and minor structures, this edifice is a stern reminder of the days when a Rajput was pledged to hold his own even against mighty odds. If the worst came to the worst, he could retire to his fort and fight his own feud out like a man with his back to the wall. These citadels of security whatever they be were yet the hall-mark of respectability and a man was a man for all that. From this fort a road strikes east to Dharmsala and the Kangra Valley. As we ascend the valley from Pathankot the first parao or halting station is reached at Nurpur, a small commercial town, where yet another ancient Fort of the Pathania rajas meets us rising along the precipitous edge of a hillock to the west of the town. It is built in the typical Mughal style, though representing two varieties of architectural developments. It would seem that the fort, though commenced and party built in Akbar's time, was not completed until about a century later in the time of Aurangzeb since the impress of these two variant epochal building crafts is only too clearly discernible to leave one in any doubt. The earlier portions are in the style of Akbar with which Fatehpur Sikri has made us only too familiar, while the superstructure is definitely of the time of Aurangzeb. Its construction is attributed to have been undertaken by one Raja Vasudeva who presumably was a contemporary of Akbar but he did not apparently live to complete it which one of his successors did. Out attention is specially drawn by the basement of an ancient temple which was recovered after careful digging from within the precincts of the fort in 1886. Experts were of the view that the temple was much anterior to the fort in date as indicated by the profuse decorations and patterned carvings on the outer walls. The pride of place in the line of forts, however, goes to the Kangra Fort , from which the town of Kangra or Nagarkot (the city of the fort) itself derives its name. It is perhaps the oldest extant structure in the land to have defied alike time's tyrannous claims. The earthquake of 1905 played great havoc with it to which battered wall and fissured battlements bear ample evidence. It occupies a picturesque and strategic position above the Ban-Ganga torrent, not far from its confluence with the river Beas, overlooking the scenery of Kangra Valley, which has been described as possession "sublime and delightful contrasts. The valley is a picture of rural loveliness and repose; it is irrigated by numerous streams; interspersed with homesteads amidst groves and fruit trees, and in the background are lofty mountains with oak forests on their sides, above them pine trees, and above all the eternal snows and masses of bare granite, on the southern slopes of which the snow cannot rest." The fort which is three miles in extent enjoys great local as well as historical prestige as its roots lie dug deep in myth and legend some claiming for it and age contemporaneous with the Mahabharata itself. Be that as it may, its possession by the Katoches of Jalandhara is confirmed as going back to 1800 years or more. It long enjoyed a reputation for invulnerability and was first assailed by Muhammad of Ghazni as treachery was rife in the house. In no other way can one explain his sudden side-deflection to this mountainous region from the direct line of his advance soon after having surmounted the confederacy of Anand Pal and his associates unless he had been hid in the fort of Kangra together with the rich treasures accumulated by the devotions of endless generations of the Hindus in the temple of the goddess Vajreshvari or Mata Devi. Vast quantities of coined money and gold and silver bullion were carried off. The treasure included a house of white silver, like to the houses of rich men, the length of which was thirty yards and the breadth fifteen. It could be taken to pieces and put together again. And there was a canopy, made of the fine linen of Rum, forty yards long and twenty broad, supported on two golden and two silver poles, which had been cast in moulds. "The Sultan returned to Ghazni with his booty and astonished the ambassadors from foreign powers by the display of jewels and unbored pearls and rubies, shining like sparks, or like wine congealed with ice, and emeralds like fresh sprigs of myrtle, and diamonds in size and weight like pomegranates." The celebrated golden image was sent to Macca, where it was trodden under foot by the faithful. The fort was held by the Muslim garrison for thirty five years after which it was recovered by the Hindus who made good the damage to the fort and the buildings comprised in it which it had suffered in the process of this abysmal holocaust and the subsequent occupation. The descendants of the Katoches of hoary antiquity remained in undisturbed possession and control of it till AD 1360. Firuz Tughluq, who like his imperialist predecessors wanted to bring as much territory under his away as possible, was an ardent and fanatical Muslim and could thus ill brook these Hindu Rajas flaunting their independence behind the protection of their mountain citadels. He must subdue them to submission and reduce them to the position of feudatories like all the rest. He accordingly organized an expedition against Kangra, the haughtiest and strongest of the lot. Not being able to check the king's advance through an open engagement, the Raja made the necessary preparations to defy the enemy and offer resistance from behind the walls of the fort. Firuz, accordingly invested the fort with a view to storming it to surrender not thinking into be a difficult proposition really, but these who had learnt to enjoy the blessings of mountain nymph sweet liberty could not be divested of it so easily. The garrison despite great privations clung on to their posts remarkably well inflicting losses on the besiegers at every available opportunity in order to force them to raise the siege. It stood out a protracted siege of six long months without displaying the least sign of weakness, hesitation or irresolution. Firuz Tughluq who had not witnessed such dauntless courage in his career of triumph so far was averse to dealing with people cast in such heroic mould too drastically and sent an emissary to the Raja to sound him about submission and unconditional capitulation, assuring him on his part full pardon and generous treatment. There had been as earlier offer too but since it bore no guarantee the Raja had turned it down with haughty disdain that he would much rather die as a Raja than be reduced to the state of a miserable, cringing beggar. He would think twice before turning down the present one since he realized quite fully that the protracted siege had exhausted the patience of combatants on either side, nerves had been frayed and tempers soured and that he was finding himself in dire extremities. Discretion was the better part of valor in the existing situation and the Raja made an unreserved submission. The king on his part received him most kingly, admired the gallantry and bravery of a proud Rajput that he had shown so demonstrably and by way of a pun on the Raja's previous reply made the generous gesture publicly in order to dispel his misgivings finally, "You are a Raja today and you will be a Raja for ever." The fort was restored to him together with his conquered dominion and the king contented himself with the bare acceptance of nominal suzerainty.Two hundred years later the fort was taken and permanently occupied by the Emperor Akbar. But the Rajputs proved most troublesome to the Mughal governors of the Punjab and repeated expeditions had to be launched in their territory to check them in their recalcitrant and refractory career. The Emperor Jehangir visited the fort and the town in person is still known as the Jehangiri Darbaza. The sanatoria of the Kangra valley doubtless offered him sites for residence in the summer months but he presumably exchanged if for the superior attractions of Kashmir. The vigorous rule of the Emperor Shah Jahan reduced the Rajas of the hills to the conditions of tributaries, enjoying a good deal of power, and possessing the privilege of building forts and making war on one another. It is presumed that one or other branch of the Kotach family remained in occupation of the fort as it gained or acquired ascendancy in the ancestral hereditas. Guru Gobind Singh when he took up cudgels on behalf of the oppressed in his fight with tyrannous and persecuting rulers, encouraged the hill Rajas to flout the skirts of the hills between the Sutlej and the Yamuna, lent assistance to the Rajas in their frank revolt against Imperial officers and joined with them in defeating the local governor. Thus the hill chiefs became practically independent in the sequel. The last of the Katoch family who reigned as Raja at Kangra was Sansar Chand, who succeeded in gaining possession of the renowned old fort in 1784. He was very ambitious, and sought to extend his dominions on every side; but in 1803 he had to contend against Ranjit Singh, who was then becoming an important power in the Punjab. Defeated by him in the plains, Sansar Chand turned his arms against Kahlur; but the Raja of that little state called in the Ghurkas to assist him. They defeated the invader, but could not take his fort. A period of anarchy followed, both parties plundering the country in turn; till at last Sansar Chand asked Ranjit Singh to help him. The required assistance was given, and the Ghurkas were defeated; but Ranjit Singh, though he had promised to allow Sansar to retain his dominions, gradually encroached upon them. The old Katoch Raja eventually surrendered the fort and lost his kingdom forever. It was annexed by Ranjit Singh who offered the dispossessed sovereign a jagir , but Sansar Chand refused to accept it, and supported himself by a revenue of Rs. 20,000, which he had assigned for the support of his female household; this property Ranjit Singh left untouched, and it forms the jagir of Raja Shamsher Singh, the present representative of the family. Sansar Chand died in 1824. He had a most colorful personality and was famous for his patronage of art and music. He assiduously nursed the Kangra Valley School of Painting, which constitutes a fitting memorial to him for all time. At this time all the small hill states fell one after the other into Ranjit Singh's hands. After the defeat of the Sikhs and at the annexation of the Punjab, the Fort of Kangra stood a siege, and the valley, including the Jalandhar Doab, and the hills between the Sutlej and the Ravi, came under British administration. Punjab, the land of five rivers and integrated cultural history, is a treasure trove for an avid tourist. For this land of the great gurus not only boasts of ancient monuments but throbs with historical embodiments. It is no secret that whoever comes to this land of yellow fields with blue mountains providing the romantic and picturesque backdrop has never gone back without imbibing the essence of Punjab. There is no dearth of breathtaking palaces, for Punjab was the seat of royalty, as the imposing Quila Mubarak will tell you. Museums galore and so are the religious places with the Golden Temple offering succour to the mind and soul of any one visiting. If you are a wild life freak, then Punjab can take you on a tour of the sanctuaries, which are hot favourites with migratory birds. Since this state borders Pakistan, there are two main posts from which you can peep into the land that was once an integral part of Punjab and experience the feelings of the people separated by a line. The much truncated India's portion of present Punjab is divided into three natural regions :the Majha,the Doaba and the Malwa. Amritsar – Ram Tirath - Sarai Amanat Khan -Wagha Border – Amritsar Ram Tirath takes us back to the times of Ramayana, at Sarai Amanat Khan we come down to a highway inn of the Mughul times, at Wagha Border we suddenly land into the present. The pageant of the beating of the retreat and the change of guard within handshaking distance of the Indian and Pakistani forces here makes the most charming of the spectacles as a daily evening drill. Ascertain the timings before you leave to see this spectacle since these are changed seasonally. Amritsar - Dera Baba Nanak -Qadian-Kala naur-Gurdaspur-Pathankot. At Dera Baba Nanak the first Prophet of Sikhism, Sri Guru Nanak Dev Ji spent the last days of his life. At the historic Gurudwara built in his memory holy robes that were presented to him at Mecca are still preserved. Qadian is the home of the founder of the Ahmedyia Sect of the Muslims. At Kalanaur,Akbar-the-great was coronated. Pathankot is India's link city to the State of Jammu and Kashmir and the best tourist destinations of Himachal Pradesh. Amritsar-Tarn Taran-Hari-Ke-Pattan - Goindwal Sahib - Sultanpur Lodhi – Kapurthala( Kanjli lake) –Jalandhar A majestic gurudwara with a golden dome and a large holy pool having healing powers is built at Tarn Taran in the memory of 5th Prophet of Sikhism, Sri Guru Arjan Dev ji.Hari-Ke-Pattan is a wild life sanctuary of international fame. Goindwal Sahib was the seat of Sikhism during the life time of the 3rd Prophet of Sikhism Sri Guru Amar Dass ji. It has a deep well with 84 steps. The faithful say that if you recite Jap Ji Sahib, a composition of the first Prophet of Sikhism at each step after a bath you cross the cycle of 84,000 lives and attain moksh. At Sultanpur lodhi Sri Guru Nanak Dev ji spent 12 years in the service of Nawab Daulat Khan Lodhi. It was from here in 1500 A.D. that he had begun his first holy travel towards the east and the south to preach the Word of God. Kapurthala is renowned for beautiful palaces and buildings. Kanjli lake receives several species of migratory birds and is a fulfilling picnic spot. Amritsar - Baba Bakala – Kartarpur - Jalandhar. At Baba Bakala the 9th Prophet of Sikhism Sri Guru Teg Bahadur Ji had revealed himself to Makhan Shah Lobana. Kartarpur was founded by the 5th Prophet of Sikhism. The authenticated , handwritten copy of Sri Guru Granth Sahib complied and edited by him and having his seal is located here. It is also famous for the manufacture quality world-furniture. Jalandhar is the oldest city of Punjab. Today it is internationally famous for the manufacture of sports goods and landmarks connected with the Hindu religion. Chandigarh , Ropar (Rup Nagar), Anandpur Sahib, Bhakra - Nangal, Ropar, Chandigar Ropar is famous for its archeological funds. The valley of river Sutlej, from Kiratpur Sahib to Anandpur Sahib was the seat of Sikhism for almost 80 years and is full of historical gurudwara, Takhat Sri Keshgarh Sahib being the most important becauseon the day of Baisakhi in 1699 the 10th Prophet of Sikhism had consummated the Sikh into the Khalsa -saint soldier. Within Ropar town there is a wetland thrown up by river Sutlej . The valley is also full of historical landmarks. At Bhakra we have the world's highest straight gravity dam. Ludhiana - Moga - Ferozepur - Bhatinda - Malout - Muktsar-Faridko Ludhiana is Punjab's home of industry and famous Punjab Agriculture University. At Moga the multinational Nestle Company manufactures a large variety of food specialties . The border town of Ferozepur is known for its memorials to the freedom fighters of India. At a nearby town on Ferozepur- Moga road called Zira a beautiful Jain Swetembar Temple with ancient icons and wall paintings is located. Bathinda has an 1800 years old fort and a multinational firm Pepsi has set up plants here to manufacture Agro products. Malout is an old mandi town,where produce from surrounding areas is brought for sale. Muktsar is connected with the victory of the Sikh forces commanded by the 10th Prophet Sri Guru Gobind Singh over the Mughal forces of the Governor of Sirhind in 1705. Faridkot, the capital of erstwhile Phulkian state, is famous for its fort and palace having remarkable paintings, mirror - work and frescoes designed all over their walls. Patiala-Nabha-Malerkotla - Ludhiana - Fatehgarh Sahib - Chandigarh. Patiala is renowned for its palaces, museums, sports, cuisine, fashionware. Nabha a smaller State became famous as the venue of the freedom struggle where Pandit Nehru had come to court arrest. Horlicks, the British firm runs a flourishing tonic food plant here to enrich beverages. Malerkotla is a Muslim Pathan state in Punjab . When the Governor of Sirhind had ordered the entombment of the two younger holy sons of the 10th Sikh Prophet,Sri Guru Gobind Singh Ji, the ancestor of the Nawab of Malerkotla had protested. In recognition of this act this state was not molested during the holocaust of 1947. For embroidery , insignias and handiwork artifacts Malerkotla is famous in India. Fatehgarh Sahib and Sirhind nearby have several historical buildings, especially of the Muslim era. Chandigarh is an ideal starting point for visiting Punjab. Jalandhar-Hoshiarpur, either back to Jalandhar or Ropar-Chandigarh. Connected both by rail and road the old town of Hoshiarpur is famous for its Vedic Research Institute, Bhrigusamhita system of astrology, manufactures, especially, inlay work and lacquer finish furniture , musical instruments and an archaeological museum.

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Upward Bound is one of the Federal TRIO Programs. These programs are educational outreach programs designed to motivate and support students from disadvantaged backgrounds. TRIO includes five distinct outreach programs targeted to serve and assist students to progress from high school to post-baccalaureate programs. Upward Bound, the oldest of a series of programs known as TRIO programs, was created as part of President Lyndon B. Johnson's "War on Poverty". Specific legislation for the program was initially authorized under the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 and later moved to be included under Title IV of the Higher Education Act of 1965. While much of President Johnson's "War on Poverty" and the "Great Society" initiatives dealt with the problems of jobs and housing, this legislation which authorized the TRIO programs sought to provide educational opportunity for all Americans regardless of race, ethnic background or economic circumstance.

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Thousands of onlookers gathered on Sunday to watch and film the planned implosion of the Texas Stadium in Dallas. The 65,000-seat-stadium was home to the Dallas Cowboys for 38 years and was witness to some thrilling football moments–but all good things must come to an end. The stadium was demolished because the team moved to the new billion-dollar, state-of-the-art Cowboys Stadium last season. An 11-year-old named Casey Rogers, the winner of a local essay-writing contest, pushed the button that triggered the implosion, and thus set off 1.5 tons of explosives that brought down the stadium in a systematic manner. In the end, just three pillars stood leaning, leading Herbert Gears, mayor of the Dallas suburb of Irving where the stadium was located, to joke to AFP: “Now we’ve got Stonehenge.” Not only were curious onlookers on hand to observe the implosion, but so were a group of seismologists. In a project nicknamed “Demolicious,” a team led by Jay Pulliam of Baylor University in Waco, Texas used seismometers around the stadium to try and get a clearer picture of the region’s geological features. Nature News reports: Pulliam and his team hope that seismic waves from the planned explosion can help to image Earth’s crust in the region, an area of interest to seismologists because it is where the Ouachita deformation was created when a supercontinent of Africa and South America crashed into North America about 300 million years ago. The team also hopes to improve understanding of why small earthquakes occurred in the region in 2008–09 after waste water was pumped deep underground in the process of extracting natural gas from shale. Earlier last month, Pulliam and his team set up their instruments–a seismometer, an accelerometer, and a clock linked to a GPS–near the stadium. The instruments were set up to record the exact timing of the implosion and the rate at which the seismic waves traveled through the ground. However, Pulliam wasn’t quite sure what to expect from the implosion’s seismic waves. Speaking to Nature News before the big event, he called the process a “terrific experiment.” Meanwhile, here’s a video of the implosion: Discoblog: Chile Quake Shifted Earth’s Axis, Shortened the Length of a Day 80beats: Why Chile’s Massive Earthquake Could Have Been Much Worse 80beats: NASA Jet Studies Haiti’s Fault Lines For Signs of Further Trouble 80beats: Where in the World Will the Next Big Earthquake Strike? 80beats: Haiti Earthquake May Have Released 250 Years of Seismic Stress 80beats: Science Via Twitter: Post-Earthquake Tweets Can Provide Seismic Data Image: Dallas Morning Observer

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FEEDBACK is keeping Saturday 27 October free. That's when American artist James Downey intends to paint the Moon red. His ideahe describes it as "a collaborative work of celestial art"is to ask millions of people to aim their laser pointers at the Moon at the same time (11 pm if you live on the East Coast of the US). "For five minutes we can all touch the Moon, if only with our laser pointers," he says on www.paintthemoon.org. But one thing stands in Downey's way. The online magazine Space.com asked Donald Umstadter, a laser expert at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, to calculate how many people with pointers would be needed. "The number required is not millions of people, but millions of millions of millions of people," says Umstadter. Downey is unfazed, however, and is even planning a second attempt on 24 November in case of cloud cover first ... To continue reading this article, subscribe to receive access to all of newscientist.com, including 20 years of archive content.

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To assist with the control of H1N1 Influenza Type A (Swine Flu) on the campus, it is extremely important that the Student Health Center be able to monitor the prevalence of flu within our campus population. As a contagious disease, knowing where incidences of flu are occurring on campus is an important tool in managing the outbreak and allows for targeted outreach. We want to remind principal officers that the campus has instituted a web-based Influenza Incident Reporting tool. Reporting is voluntary, but important because of the public health implications. The information, compiled weekly, is shared with public health officials in Santa Cruz County and emergency preparedness staff in UC's Office of the President. Please encourage your managers or supervisors to report weekly the number of known or suspected influenza-like illness incidents for staff and academic employees in their units. Supervisors are asked to report ALL incidents of influenza-like illness - not just confirmed incidents of H1N1. Reports should be made by close of business on Thursday of each week at: Influenza-like symptoms include fever and chills AND a cough or sore throat. For academic employees, academic department managers were previously asked to coordinate the reporting of incidents by requesting that academic employees inform the department office if they are ill with flu-like symptoms. For more information regarding the H1N1 virus and recommendations for flu prevention and preparedness, please visit the UCSC web site H1N1 Flu: Helping you Stay Informed and Healthy.

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December 23, 2011 | 5 During a recent reporting trip to South Africa for a forthcoming feature article on a new fossil human species called Australopithecus sediba, I asked readers to submit their questions about this dazzling find. Inquiries about the nearly two-million-year-old hominin–which has been held up as a possible ancestor of our genus, Homo–came in via Twitter, Google Plus and the comments section of this blog. I put them to paleontologist Lee Berger of the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, who found the Au. sediba remains at a site called Malapa, some 30 kilometers north of Johannesburg. Reader questions and Berger’s answers follow below. @milst1 on Twitter asked: Was Australopithecus sediba polygamous? Polyandrous? Lee Berger: We don’t know. However, primate models can offer some clues. Living primates tend toward polygamous, male-dominated societies. As a general rule of thumb, the higher the level of observable physical difference—or sexual dimorphism–between males and females of a species, the more patriarchal their social structure. (Orangutans are an exception to this rule, living more solitary lives.) We expect early humans were troupe animals with lower degrees of violent interaction between males competing for females than are seen among most modern mammals. Clues come from features like the reduction the size of male canine teeth, which in other creatures are used for fighting. Australopithecus sediba appears to have an even lower level of sexual dimorphism than is seen in other early human species, and is more like modern humans in this regard. It also has very reduced canines, like we do. So members of this species probably lived in polygamous societies, just as humans in many societies do today, possibly with groups of related males cooperating to a greater degree than we see in even chimpanzee troops. One of the great things about Malapa is that we have every reason to believe that we will one day have a good representation of the troop structure of Au. sediba, which of course may eventually turn this relatively speculative answer into one with more concrete evidence behind it. @zzace on Twitter asked: Were Homo habilis and Australopithecus sediba contemporaries? If so, is there any evidence that they interacted? Were they rivals or did they interbreed? LB: There is in our opinion no convincing fossil evidence that Homo habilis existed much before about 1.8 million years ago. That does not mean the species did not exist prior to this, but Au. sediba, with its mosaic of australopithecine-like and Homo-like traits, shows us that you can’t use isolated areas of anatomy to identify species in the way we paleoanthropologists have been doing. Extraordinary claims take extraordinary evidence, and the claim for the earliest evidence of the genus Homo is an extraordinary one. The isolated teeth and bits and pieces that have been attributed to early Homo older than about 1.8 million years ago do not meet the criteria for extraordinary evidence. At the same time people have criticized Au. sediba saying it’s too young [to be a candidate ancestor of Homo]. Since the evidence for early Homo of an equal age or older is so poor, we don’t think it is. But we are also not claiming in any way, shape or form that this is the first nor last existence of this species. It certainly existed before Malapa and probably after. As for the question of whether the two species interacted, a lot will depend on how we eventually sort out the relationship between the two species. Were they genetically close enough to interbreed in same way we now know modern humans and Neandertals hybridized? A few years ago that might have seemed like an unanswerable question, but the fossil record is now producing extraordinary things that might actually allow us to answer such questions in the future. The first order of business here would be to establish that they overlapped in time and space. Calvin Phuong on Google Plus asked: Is Australopithecus sediba a descendant of Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy)? LB: Good question! Most present models have put Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy’s species) as the ancestor of all later hominid species. However, certain aspects of the anatomy of Au. sediba do draw into question whether this is true or not. Of what has been published so far the ankle, and in particular the heel bone, in sediba appears to be more primitive than that seen in the more-than-a-million-years-older afarensis, which has a more humanlike heel bone. Thus in this one area of anatomy it does beg the question of whether an already derived foot give gave rise to what appears to be a more primitive foot. If the answer is no, then Lucy’s species did not give rise to sediba and there’s something else out there [that did]. If the answer is yes it did, then it raises the intriguing question of why a primitive heel–and not just any primitive heel, but one that looks more apelike–would evolve once one has already become a terrestrial biped. Dredd on ScientificAmerican.com asked: Are there any inquiries yet as to whether or not microbes had become symbiotic to that species as they are to Homo today? LB: We quite simply don’t have the answer to that question at this time. As we are working on the possible organic material–and I stress the word “possible” here as we have yet to prove it is organic tissue–we will have to first establish, and prove to the scientific community that it is what it appears to be: fossil skin. If it is fossil skin, and the level of preservation is fine enough to preserve structures at the micron level such as hair and pore structures, then all bets are off as to what we can find. It is just these sorts of questions that emphasize why we are involving the entirety of the scientific community in this analysis and not just one lab, as there are so many potential questions one could ask if such fossil material were available. Sauce23 on ScientificAmerican.com noted that you have hinted at the preservation of soft tissue and tools at the site, and wants to know more about this. LB: If we were to find soft tissues preserved from a fossil hominin, particularly skin, a myriad of important questions once thought unanswerable could possibly be answered. Did early hominins have hair or fur? What was the distribution pattern of the hair or fur? Did they have sweat gland distribution like a human or had this not evolved yet? The answer to that question would tell us something about how they moved about the landscape. We might even get a sense of color–after all, researchers have identified color in dinosaur feathers. And there are probably questions that we as scientists have simply never thought to pose given that we really just didn’t conceive that one day we might actually be looking at fossil skin from two million years ago. One of the important things about this research is that it now makes us at least explore the possibility that organics exist in the hominin fossil record and I would bet that, just like dinosaur feathers and skin, we will now find that such preservation is more commonplace than we once thought. Concerning the presence of tools or not, certainly sediba’s hand looks like the hand of a toolmaker–it has all the critical criteria we would typically associate with one: a long thumb, reduced curvature of the finger bones and other features. Tools have been found [elsewhere] pre-dating sediba by almost 600,000 years. However, with sediba’s small brain, the [discovery of associated tools] would require some remodeling of hypotheses about the necessary changes in this area of anatomy that were needed for complex stone tool manufacture. The presence of stone tools in direct association with sediba would be of major importance. What did the tools look like? How complex were they? Do they fit our present ideas of what tools should look like at two million years ago. All these are critical questions that we simply cannot answer until we excavate, and the answers are too important to speculate on in the meantime. Unfortunately, we will just have to wait, but Malapa is certain to hold more surprises as we dig into this remarkable assemblage.

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On May 29, 1913 in Paris, Igor Stravinsky debuted perhaps his greatest work, The Rite of Spring ballet. Up until that point, most ballets were graceful and elegant, full of traditional music. Rite was different. Stravinsky had written intentionally inharmonic notes and arranged around pagan themes. Within minutes of the show’s start, the audience began to boo the performers. Supporters rallied against the discontented audience members, and the show quickly degenerated into an all-out riot. Before the first intermission arrived, police had to intervene to calm the raging crowd. During the second half of the performance, riots broke out again. Surprised by the reaction, Stravinsky fled the theater before the show even ended. Of course, history would vindicate Stravinsky. The Rite of Spring is now regarded as a milestone in the history of ballet and musical composition. Yet, even this legendary idea was initially rejected, which likely came as quite a shock to Stravinsky after he spent years crafting and refining the piece. Similar rejections can leave us wondering what we did wrong or why others just couldn’t appreciate our creative idea. Fortunately, recent research in human psychology is finally shedding some light on how our brains accept (or reject) new ideas. Creativity Requires an Element of Novelty. For a work to be truly creative, it has to depart from the status quo at some point. That departure makes many people uncomfortable. Despite our oft-stated desire for more creativity, we also hold a stronger desire for certainty and structure. When that certainty is challenged, a bias against creativity develops. This bias was first discovered in two studies by researchers from Cornell, Penn and the University of North Carolina. The research team, led by Penn’s Jennifer Mueller, studied our perceptions about creative ideas when faced with uncertainty. In the first study, the team divided participants into two groups and created a small level of uncertainty in one group, telling them they would be eligible for additional payment based on a random lottery. The participants were then given a series of tests. The first test presented pairs of words on a computer to the participants and asked them to select their preferred pairing. The pairings shown always came from two groups: creative versus practical (novel, original, functional, useful) or good versus bad (sunshine, peace, ugly, vomit). In each round, participants would chose their preference between pairs like “novel vomit” or “useful peace.” The test, known as an “Implicit Associations Test” uses the speed of participants’ reaction time to measure the strength of their mental associations. The second test was more overt; it measured participants’ explicit perceptions of creativity by asking them to rate their attitudes toward creativity and practicality on a seven-point scale (from strongly negative to strongly positive). When the researchers calculated the results from both groups, they found that the baseline group (the one given no chance at extra compensation) held both implicit and explicit associations between creativity and practicality. The uncertainty group, however, was different. This group held an explicitly positive association between the two, but implicitly their minds separated creative from practical. In other words, they had an implicit bias against creativity relative to usefulness. Novelty Provokes Uncertainty. If this bias is present in most people during periods of uncertainty, then it could well explain why society has a history of rejecting its greatest innovations. To test this thesis, the research team returned to the lab and this time studied a new group of participants’ ability to judge a creative product idea. The participants were again divided into two groups – this time into groups with a high tolerance or a low tolerance for uncertainty. The high tolerance group was primed by being asked to write an essay supporting the idea that multiple solutions existed for every problem. The low tolerance group was primed by writing an essay arguing the opposite. Both groups were given the same implicit and explicit associations tests and then asked to rate a creative idea for a new product, a running shoe that automatically adjusted its fabric thickness to cool the foot in hot conditions. As anticipated by the first study, the low uncertainty tolerance group showed the same implicit bias against creativity and was more likely to rate the running shoe idea poorly. Mueller’s results have powerful implications as we think about how to “sell” our own ideas. We now know that regardless of how open-minded people are, or claim to be, they experience a subtle bias against creative ideas when faced with uncertain situations. This isn’t merely a preference for the familiar or a desire to maintain the status quo. Most of us sincerely claim that we want the positive changes creativity provides. What the bias affects is our ability to recognize the creative ideas that we claim we desire. Thus, when you’re pitching your creative idea, it may not be the idea itself that is being rejected. The more likely culprit could be the uncertainty your audience is feeling, which in turn is overriding their ability to recognize the idea as truly novel and useful. If the implicit bias against creativity is triggered by uncertainty, then crafting your pitch to maximize certainty should improve the odds of the idea being accepted. You can do this in a variety of ways. Reaffirming what the client or your manager knows is true about their project should prime them to be more accepting of novel ideas. Connecting the idea to more familiar ideas, such as previous successful projects or similar works, will also increase the odds that your idea will be seen as practical and desirable. Lastly, try leading clients toward your idea with a series of statements they agree with and then pitching your idea as if it’s theirs. Thus, counteracting the bias against creativity with an even more powerful bias – the bias for our own ideas! Have Your Ideas Been Rejected? Have you had great ideas shot down? Do you think that minimizing uncertainty could help your idea succeed next time?

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Science Fair Project Encyclopedia In pragmatics (linguistics), entailment is the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one requires the truth of the other. For example, the sentence The president was assassinated. entails The president is dead. Entailment differs from implication, where the truth of one suggests the truth of the other, but does not require it. For example, the sentence Mary had a baby and got married implicates that she had a baby before the wedding, but this is cancellable by adding -- not necessarily in that order. Entailments are not cancellable. Entailment also differs from presupposition in that in presupposition, the truth of what one is presupposing is taken for granted. The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

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There is much talk today of Syria and its chemical and biological weapons. Syria promised to unleash chemical weapons if they are attacked. This open admission sparked a flurry of discussions, concerns, and reports. Lebanon, and the world, attacked Syria's threat as monstrous. The US weighed in with saying that Syria's threat was unacceptable. Israel's Haaretz newspaper engaged in some hand-wringing, "Israel is unprepared to face the threat of Syria's chemical weapons", Netanyahu warns against Syrian weapons falling into the hands of terrorists, but in practice 47 percent of Israelis do not have protective kits and it will take two years to make all the needed ones." There are warnings from the US to Syria not to use chemical weapons as a last-ditch effort to maintain Assad's hold on the regime. HuffPo reports that Israel would strike Syria to secure their chemical arsenal. A few days ago, US and Israel discussed destroying Syria's chemical weapons. Suddenly it's all about Syria and its arsenal of chemical weapons. But is it really so sudden? I've been concerned about this for a long time. Two years, as a matter of fact. Let's go back one year first: One year ago I wrote the following: If Syria's regime fails, what happens to its chemical weapons? In that blog essay I excerpted the following news piece from the Washington Post-- Syrian unrest raises fears about chemical arsenal "The Middle Eastern state with the dangerous chemicals was not Libya, whose modest stockpile was thrust into the spotlight last week because of fighting there. It was Syria, another violence-torn Arab state whose advanced weapons are drawing new concern as the country drifts toward an uncertain future. A sudden collapse of the government of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad could mean a breakdown in controls over the country’s weapons, U.S. officials and weapons experts said in interviews. But while Libya’s chemical arsenal consists of unwieldy canisters filled mostly with mustard gas, the World War I-era blistering agent, Syria possesses some of the deadliest chemicals ever to be weaponized, dispersed in thousands of artillery shells and warheads that are easy to transport." The article goes on to explain that Syria does indeed have sophisticated weaponry of the chemical and biological kind. We read: "Deadly, large cache: "Syria first developed chemical weapons in the 1970s and slowly amassed a sophisticated arsenal under the close supervision of then-President Hafez al-Assad and, later, his son Bashar, the current president. Using technology obtained in part from Russian scientists, the Assads sought to create a strategic deterrent against Israel, its vastly more powerful southern neighbor, whose forces humiliated Syrian troops in the 1967 Arab-Israeli war and captured the strategic Syrian plateau known as the Golan Heights. Many countries, including the United States and Russia, gradually eliminated their chemical-weapons arsenals, but Syria refused to sign the U.N. Chemical Weapons convention and proceeded to develop an ever larger and deadlier stockpile." In that same blog essay I also quoted a Jerusalem Post editorial that posed the scenario which we are seeing coming to the fore today: "Further, a desperate Assad (or even post-Mubarak Egypt) might escalate to non-conventional weapons in a bid to retain power: the massive Israeli retaliation would end internal uprisings." BINGO! Last year's speculation is exactly the news today. Most people do not know how sophisticated Syria's bio & chemical arsenal is. Two years ago, on July 9, 2010, I wrote about these exact concerns from consultant to the NATO Defense Establishment in bio-warfare and counter terrorism expert Dr. Jill Dekker regarding the Syrian chemical stockpile. She stated, "Contrary to how the US State Department and other agencies tend to downplay the sophistication of the Syrian biological and nuclear programs, they are very advanced. Syria has always had the most advanced chemical weapons program in the Middle East." At that time, Dr. Dekker said that Syria had shifted in their philosophy of using bio-weapons from special weapons to conventional arsenal, and they have the will to do it. "Why? Realizing they have no practical opportunity to reach parity with Israel or the US on conventional weapons, they decided to pursue bio-weaponry and were at that time fixing conventional missiles with a highly virulent anthrax germ with the help of Russian scientists. Ominously for the world, the US nor the UN were particularly reactive to the Syrians' re-definition of bio-weaponry as conventional and offensive. Ominously for prophecy, the Syrians run their biological programs out of the Syrian Scientific Research Council (SSRC) in Damascus." I had linked to the entire interview with Dr. Dekker. It is in the New England Review, and you can read it here. It is chilling. Some more excerpts: "Dr. Dekker’s answers give a foreboding picture of how large and refined the Syrian bio-warfare programs are and how little Western Intelligence knows about how the programs were developed. The potential exists for a significant WMD threat in the Middle East and the West, especially, against America." "Syria’s biological weapons capability today is closely tied to the former and current Soviet and Russian programs respectively, the DPRK, Iran and the former Iraq regime. A major concern is their strategic concept of use - which has gone from one of ‘special weapons’ to incorporation into their ‘conventional arsenal.’ That is a significant shift and one that seems to have eluded the US." "The Syrians run their biological programs out of the Syrian Scientific Research Council (SSRC) in Damascus. They have separate wings for separate pathogens. They also have a number of programs running in Aleppo. The Syrians are 100% committed to deniable operations as their modus operandi. Biological weapons, particularly those which might occur naturally, are the ultimate in deniability, for example, their cryptosporidium program for force reduction. The Wednesday Report noted a few years ago that in terms of the Syrian anthrax program, Syria has extensive expertise in the industrial cultivation of germs and viruses for the civilian production of anthrax (and smallpox) vaccines." "It also noted that Russian experts, contracted by Syria, are apparently helping them to cultivate a highly virulent anthrax germ for installation in missile warheads. Their pharmaceutical infrastructure is fully integrated with their defense structure. Syrians cannot reach parity with US and Israeli conventional weapons. However, they view their bio-chemical arsenal as part of a normal weapons program. This is a huge shift in thinking by the Syrian military. It means they condone the use of biological pathogens as 'offensive' weapons. NATO and the United States should be very concerned about that re-designation.' I'm more than a little stunned and dizzied by these things coming true now. Remember, Damascus will be destroyed, it will be a heap of ruins. (Isaiah 17:1). "At evening time, behold, terror! Before morning, they are no more!" (Isaiah 17:14a) Is now the time? Only the Lord knows. But the global concerns of Syria's open admission and the heinous threat from Damascus just brought us that much closer.

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For years, researchers have worked on fascinating methods to scavenge power from kinetic energy -- humming air conditioning ducts, roads that vibrate as cars pass over, etc. Now, engineers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory are integrating viruses into small devices that convert mechanical energy into electricity. The harmless viruses exhibit natural piezoelectric properties -- when stress is applied to them, they accumulate charge. In this prototype viral-electric generator, tapping a finger on the virus-coated electrode cranks out enough current to drive a tiny LCD display. "Berkeley Lab Scientists Generate Electricity From Viruses" The milestone could lead to tiny devices that harvest electrical energy from the vibrations of everyday tasks such as shutting a door or climbing stairs. It also points to a simpler way to make microelectronic devices. That’s because the viruses arrange themselves into an orderly film that enables the generator to work. Self-assembly is a much sought after goal in the finicky world of nanotechnology. “More research is needed, but our work is a promising first step toward the development of personal power generators, actuators for use in nano-devices, and other devices based on viral electronics,” says Seung-Wuk Lee, a faculty scientist in Berkeley Lab’s Physical Biosciences Division and a UC Berkeley associate professor of bioengineering.

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The House of Lords is Parliament's second chamber. Its main job is to 'double check' new laws to make sure they are fair and will work. There are 675 members of the Lords. They are not elected. They come from many different backgrounds. The House of Lords does not have the power to stop a new law that the commons wants, but it can delay it. It can do this because bills must go through both Houses before they become 'Acts' (laws).

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Types of Heart Diseases Besides the regular heart attack that most of us are aware of, there are other numerous problems that can go wrong with the heart. This is a condition where the arteries feeding the heart muscle, called coronary arteries, become damaged, leading to poor blood circulation, and many times causing a heart attack. For more information refer this post about the cardiovascular system and related diseases. This is similar to cardiovascular disease. It is a condition where the coronaries arteries are partially blocked, but not completely. It is a condition that must be diagnosed by a cardiologists through a variety of tests. For more information refer to angina. The heart rhythm is controlled by a bundle of cells on the heart muscle called the sino atrial (SA) node. Although everyone is a bit different, the normal resting heart rate is between 60-80 beats per minute. Malfunctioning of the SA node results in either bradycardia (lower than normal) or in tachycardia (faster than normal). Bradycardia can result in poor circulation, tiredness, dizziness, and fainting. Tachycardia can result in palpitations. Treatment of this condition is usually treated with medications, lifestyle alterations (e.g. less caffeine, less stress), and sometimes surgery. This condition is defined as damaged heart muscle, which results in week muscle walls, and a decreased ability to function properly. It can be a thickening of the heart walls, or the walls become weak, or the walls become stiff. Regardless, it results in the heart not being able to pump as effectively. Some of the warning signs can include things like weakness, feeling tired, fast but weaker pulse, shortness of breath, etc. Treatment can include medication and surgery. Congenital Heart Failure When the heart is not strong enough to pump blood adequately it can result in blood pooling in areas that it shouldn't be, e.g. the lungs resulting i what's called pulmonary edema, which is life threatening. Congenital heart failure is the result of weak heart muscle. This can occur because of heart disease, high blood pressure, infection, malfunction of the valves, drugs, or diabetes. Treatment usually involves medications or surgery. Valves in the heart prevent blood from flowing the opposite direction. If these valves do not close properly then blood may 'back flow.' Although these valves are very strong and durable, they can be susceptible to damage. Back flow can cause poor circulation, characterized by things such as weakness, out of breath, dizziness, chest pain, etc. Stenosis is narrowing of the valves and blood flow is hampered. Prolapsed is where the valves do not close evenly, like a door not lining up with its frame. The heart is surrounded by a membrane. When this membrane becomes infected it is called pericarditis. Sometimes the condition goes away on its own, other times medication is required. The danger of pericarditis is that it may affect the proper functioning of the heart.

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SUMMARY: Physicians are no less susceptible to prejudice than others with a similar level of education - including lawyers. Substandard care may arise when their caregivers disapprove of or dislike and consequently discriminate against their patients. Skillful enquiry at Examinations for Discovery may provide corroboration that prejudice caused or materially contributed to substandard care. Race and ethnicity There is abundant US research evidence of racial discrimination in the provision and delivery of medical services. 1 This indictment has provoked corrective action in delivery of health services generally, 2 in emergency medicine 3 and in the management of chronic pain. 4 Gender Sexist discrimination in a number of aspects of the investigation and management of coronary artery disease has been documented in the clinical research literature. 5 Age Despite research evidence to the contrary, general practitioners attribute to lack of therapeutic benefit their failure to treat depression and suicidal ideation in the elderly with the same vigour as they do in younger patients. 6 Obesity. The obese experience societal prejudice and discrimination, often as the greatest burden of their condition, 7 and such discrimination is self-evident to a casual observer of a proportion of caregivers in an Emergency Department. Such prejudiced attitudes have been documented in a minority of nurses. 8 Sexual orientation The medical and nursing professions are not free from homophobia. This prejudice may impact collegial relationships as well as patient care. 9 HIV-infected A substantial minority of sufferers correctly or incorrectly perceive prejudice by caregivers, physician in particular. 5 Further research is needed to determine to what degree such perception is justified. 10 Drug and alcohol abuse Clinical assessment of acute alcohol intoxication and chronic alcohol abuse is demonstrably inaccurate when compared with blood alcohol concentration and the Short Michigan Alcohol Screening Test and CAGE questionnaire. 11 "...Patients with a negative blood alcohol concentration were more likely to be falsely suspected of intoxication if they were either young, male, perceived as disheveled, uninsured, or having a low income..." Conversely, an intoxicated patient who has suffered a head-injury may have his depressed Glasgow Coma Scale score wrongly attributed to the intoxication. 12 Addiction Patients who are narcotic-addicted are frequently diagnosed as drug-seeking without adequate evaluation of potentially serious symptoms. 13 Substandard care may be caused by, or materially contributed by, prejudice arising from patient characteristics that are correctly or incorrectly perceived to be chosen. Substandard care may arise when their caregivers disapprove of or dislike and consequently discriminate against their patients. Language Racial and ethnic prejudice may be compounded by language difficulties and cultural misperceptions. Personality disorder Patients who suffer from a personality disorder are more prone to cursory assessment 14 because of the discomfort of the caregiver in dealing with them. 15 Aggression Patients with acute or chronic traumatic brain injury, hypoglycemia and other metabolic conditions may be combative and/or verbally aggressive. Mentally ill People with psychiatric conditions also develop physical illnesses but their symptoms may be attributed prematurely to psychiatric origins. Physicians commonly have varying degrees of difficulty in providing medical services to fellow physicians and even nurses with whom they work. They are prone to make unwarranted assumptions about the degree of knowledge and understanding of their colleague-patients, and to cut corners. Patients who are unusually attractive to a caregiver are not only at risk of sexual violations but may also be treated in a non-standard fashion. The health professional may not want to hear or believe some personal facts that conflict with their fantasies about the patient and thereby make an erroneous diagnosis. On the other hand, s/he may uncharacteristically and dangerously over-investigate in a misguided attempt to achieve a near-perfect outcome. Communication difficulties may contribute to substandard care in a number of ways Skillful enquiry at Examinations for Discovery may provide corroboration that prejudice caused or materially contributed to substandard care. Plaintiff and claimant counsel may suspect, rightly or wrongly, that their clients have suffered substandard care and/or discriminatory medical decisions as a result of prejudice. Examinations for Discovery can be structured to uncover such prejudice and discrimination. Avoiding direct confrontation, counsel can thereby document prejudicial attitudes and unexplained deviations from caregivers' professed standard management. It is self-evident that, in the absence of similar prejudices in the judge, such demonstration will strengthen the claimant's position. Prejudice and discrimination can be uncovered at Examinations for Discovery, without confronting in an alienating style

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For pure water, the boiling point is 100 degrees Celsius (212 Fahrenheit) at one atmosphere of pressure, and the melting point is 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit) at one atmosphere of pressure. At lower pressures (at high altitudes, for example, in Denver, Colorado), the boiling point will be perhaps a couple of degrees lower. For saltwater, the boiling point is raised, and the melting point is lowered. By how much depends on how much salt there is. I'll assume the salt is sodium chloride, NaCl (table salt). The melting point is lowered by 1.85 degrees Celsius if 29.2 grams of salt are dissolved in each Kg of water (called a "0.5 molal solution" of salt. The Na and Cl dissociate right away when dissolved, and so for a 0.5 molal solution of salt, there is a 1.0 molal concentration of ions). The boiling point is raised by 0.5 degrees Celsius for water with 29.2 grams of salt dissolved in each kg of water. If your concentrations of salt are different, then you can scale the boiling point elevation and melting point depression predictions directly with the concentration. These numbers come from the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. (published on 10/22/2007)

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Gifts and Perils of Landslides Catastrophic rockslides and related landscape developments are an integral part of human settlement along upper Indus streams Large rockslides and the rock avalanches they can generate will destroy any living thing or built structure in their path. In mountain valleys they can form dams impounding lakes that may burst suddenly with devastating consequences. The January 4, 2010, Atabad landslide, which dammed the Hunza River about 70 kilometers north of Gilgit, Pakistan, offers a stark reminder (see sidebar, page 416). Not surprisingly, the hazards of landslides have tended to drive scientific study. Less often noted is how they also create resources and opportunities for mountain people. Recently, more than 340 large landslides have been identified along the Indus streams in the Karakoram, Hindu Kush and northwest Himalayan ranges. Most predate historical records but continue to influence landscape developments. Land use is closely adapted to landforms controlled by the landslides. Many villages and some small towns sit amid landslide rubble, as do ancient cultural sites, modern roads, airfields and tourist facilities. The environmental knowledge and stories of local people reveal an understanding of these events, and the geohazards they present. The landslide-related benefits are notable because so much of the region is inhospitable. Two-thirds of the upper Indus basin lies above 3,500 meters elevation in climates too severe for permanent settlement. Glaciers cover 20,000 square kilometers and permafrost an even larger area. Rain-shadowed valley floors tend to be arid or semi-arid whereas, high above, snowfall is heavy. Precipitous rock walls are the dominant landform. The landslides themselves reflect this rugged terrain, the mountain-building forces at work and valleys deeply excavated in recent geological time. Indeed, where rivers are cutting down vigorously into bedrock to match high rates of tectonic uplift, life has very few and precarious footholds. Surprisingly, however, most sections of the upper Indus streams flow not in bedrock, but over thick and extensive valley fill sediments. Scientific observers have long been impressed and puzzled by so much deposition within rugged mountains. They realized that the deposits must record events that overwhelm or interrupt stream incision, causing sedimentation along the valleys. Until recently, however, very few of the landslides were identified as such, and their role went unrecognized. Here I will focus on how the rivers are responding to the many landslides that have blocked valleys. I will also describe for the first time the positive effect on the availability of habitable land. Although the article outlines the science behind the discovery and nature of the landslides to introduce their place in settlement geography, we will remain mindful of the major disaster risks that accompany them. » Post Comment

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Over the course of centuries, the original fauna of this territory has undergone numerous and significant changes: during long ice ages, typically nordic animals migrated southward to these areas to settle. Subsequent climatic and environmental changes and the overall increase in temperature led to the disappearance of some species, while other succeeded in adapting to new conditions. The variations resulting from this gradual adaptation to the new climate determined a differentiation of some characteristics of these animals compared to their ancestors. In this way, some of the most important and precious examples of nordic fauna managed to survive in these high and isolated forested environs, especially but not exclusively in the Abruzzo National Park, comprising a wildlife treasure of great scientific and naturalistic interest as well as a tourist attraction. This small stretch of the Apennines offers incredible observation opportunities: today it is the realm of numerous animal species, like the Abruzzo or Apennine chamois, a subspecies of the chamois that inhabits the Pyrenees yet different from the species that lives in the Alps, that today numbers about 700 specimens. Large and with it unmistakable coat, this is the easiest animal to come across, especially in the Camosciara, in Val di Rose, and on Mount Amaro in the Abruzzo National Park, but also on Gran Sasso and the Majella, following a series of reintroductions to these areas. In contrast to the chamois, the Apennine wolf is the eternal wanderer of the Apennines, making it particularly difficult to catch a glimpse of one. Persecuted for centuries and at risk of extinction, this predator is not enjoying a comeback on all of the massifs of Abruzzo, from the Majella to the Gran Sasso and the Sirente, but the most important colony of wolves (numbering over one hundred individuals) has settled on the mountains of the Park of Abruzzo, Lazio, and Molise. Although rare, it is possible to meet the Marsica brown bear, the symbol of this region: today it is believed that they number between 50 and 80, mostly in the Abruzzo National Park, with smaller nuclei wandering around the Majella, on the Sirente, and perhaps on the Simbruini and Gran Sasso. Other large mammals include deer and roe deer, even though they are less common than in the Alps, and boar, which were introduced for hunting. However, the thick beech woods, the pastures, and meadows are likely spots for encountering the numerous species of small mammals living in this region: from extremely rare lynx to more common animals like the fox, wildcats, martens, beech martens, hedgehogs, hares, badgers, dormice, weasels, harvest mice, and southern squirrels. The clearer rivers of the Majella massif are home to a few rare otters, raised for research and reintroduced into the WWF oasis of Lake Penne. A true treasure chest of wildlife, Abruzzo also hosts countless species of reptiles, like the Orsini viper, the common viper, the grass snake and four-lined snake, and amphibians, including the Italian newt, the yellow-bellied toad, the emerald toad, the rare spectacled salamander, and the fire salamander. During the spring and summer on the Majella massif, there is a blooming of butterflies with nearly all the Italian diurnal species – 116 out of 131 - and nocturnal species accounted for. Indigenous insects in this region include the Polydrusus lucianae beetle in the beech woods and the Italopodisma lucianae orthopteran in the high altitude meadows. Abruzzo is brimming with surprises for bird watching aficionados as well. No matter where you look, from the sea to the mountains, from swampy zones to woodlands, the list of species to be found seem almost infinite: birds of prey, like buzzards, kites, harriers, falcons, long-eared owls, brown owls, owlets, ravens, choughs – and of course, the golden eagle - , herons, water birds, and other birds that inhabit swamps and coastal lands, passerines, woodpeckers… Last but not least, there is the sea: in the Adriatic, along the coast of Abruzzo, it is possible to see cetaceans, like the bottlenose dolphin, the striped dolphin, and the common dolphin. Bears of Abruzzo

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Reducing your impact on the earth is not just a question of what you drive but also of what you live in. Residential energy use accounts for 16% of greenhouse-gas emissions. If you begin thinking green at the blueprint stage, however, low-tech, pragmatic techniques will maximize your new home's efficiency. Installing those systems from the ground up is cheaper than retrofitting. "Doing simple things could drastically reduce your energy costs, by 40%," says Oru Bose, a sustainable-design architect in Santa Fe, N.M. For example, control heat, air and moisture leakage by sealing windows and doors. Insulate the garage, attic and basement with natural, nontoxic materials like reclaimed blue jeans. Protect windows from sunrays with large overhangs and double-pane glass. Emphasize natural cross ventilation. "You don't need to have 24th century solutions to solve 18th century problems," Bose says. Next, consider renewable energy sources like solar electric systems, compact wind turbines and geothermal heat pumps to help power your home. When you're ready to get creative, GreenHomeGuide.com will help you find bamboo flooring, cork tiles, and countertops made from recycled wastepaper.

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Log In to Anagrammer Scrabble word: EXCITON In which Scrabble dictionary does EXCITON exist? Definitions of EXCITON in dictionaries: - An electrically neutral excited state of an insulator or semiconductor, often regarded as a bound state of an electron and a hole. - n - a phenomenon occurring in an excited crystal There are 7 letters in EXCITON: C E I N O T X Scrabble words that can be created with an extra letter added to EXCITON All anagrams that could be made from letters of word EXCITON plus a wildcard: EXCITON? Scrabble words that can be created with letters from word EXCITON 7 letter words 6 letter words 5 letter words 4 letter words 3 letter words 2 letter words Images for EXCITON - exciton binding energies in semiconductors and insulators - Ideas Inventions And Innovations UC San Diego Physicists Find ... - Ultrafast Microscopy of Semiconductor Nanostructures and Devices ... - ... only the bulk radius varies relative to the fixed Bohr-exciton radius - exciton states of dynamic DNA double helices alternating dCdG ... - Teddy Huang Haiming Zhu Ye Yang William Rodriguez Cordoba Tarak ... - field-dependence of fine-structure splitting energy and QD exciton ... - Chair of Atomistic Modelling and Design of Materials University of ... - Figure 1. An exciton is an electron-hole pair that is created when an ... - images of TiO2 nanotube arrays fabricated by anodization. exciton ...

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Sean Klepper M.D. Artur Zembowicz M.D.... Also known as: superficial granulomatous pyoderma, atypical plaque-like folliculitis in HIV, vegetative pyoderma gangrenosum - An exaggerated inflammatory reaction to bacterial infection, especially Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and β-hemolytic streptococci. - Typically affects patients with immunosuppression or lymphoproliferative disorders - Presents with single to disseminated verrucous plaques with multiple pustules, usually affecting the head and neck, extremities or intertriginous areas - This disorder typically responds well to antibiotics. - The causative organism can usually be cultured from the lesions, even if it is not apparent on Gram stain. - A diffuse mixed inflammatory infiltrate is present in the upper reticular dermis. - The infiltrate often displays a zonation effect: a central area of neutrophils and a few eosinophils is surrounded by macrophages and giant cells, which are surrounded by a peripheral rim of lymphocytes and plasma cells. - Pseudoepithelial hyperplasia is often present. - The inflammation may center on the hair follicles in some cases.

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How would you like to be able to use your cell phone, not only as a video camera or a digital camera, but also as a projector? Be patient; two companies are working on it. A company based in Cambridge, England, is working on miniaturized projection technology. Light Blue Optics, founded in 2004 by four photonics experts from the Cambridge University Engineering Department, secured $2.5 million in venture capital funding in July, and the company hopes to accelerate its product development efforts with the funding. Light Blue Optics' technology, PVPro, uses laser light sources and diffractive techniques to power what the company calls "light engines." These light engines will be used to create miniature digital video projectors in accessories for cell phones, laptops, PDAs and other battery-powered devices, or in the devices themselves. The technology uses laser light sources and a phase-modulating liquid crystal on silicon (LCOS) microdisplay. A hologram (or diffraction) pattern is displayed on the display, and when the microdisplay is illuminated by coherent laser light, the physical process of diffraction results in the formation of the desired image. The models of the light engines that Light Blue Optics is using to demonstrate the technology to potential customers are the size of a matchbox, and the company hopes to make engines that are even smaller. The consumer applications of these miniaturized projectors are varied and plentiful. For example, the automotive industry may use them for instrument displays (especially the kind that drivers will look up to see) or in-car entertainment. Dr. Edward Buckley, a co-founder of Light Blue Optics, says that by giving a bigger screen to consumers' cell phones, iPods, digital cameras or portable games consoles, this technology will allow several people to see the same picture or view the same movie. It will also enable large-screen displays by using an array of small projectors to create the same large image. But there are business applications as well, such as the possibility of using your cell phone to project stored images onto a screen. Buckley says there are also possible uses in the aerospace industry, such as in the projection of head-up displays. Light Blue Optics is demonstrating the technology to manufacturers of cell phones and other electronic devices. "We plan to manufacture and supply projection subsystems (light engines) to our customers, who will then build these into complete end-user products," Buckley says. "This maximizes the market potential for our products, and allows our customers to innovate around the idea of miniature projection." That means that launch dates for products like these will actually be determined by Light Blue Optic'ss customers. Buckley says that the company expects PVPro to be shipped in commercially available products by the end of 2008. Meanwhile, DigiSlide, a communications products company in Adelaide, South Australia, also has a technology for giving projection capabilities to cell phones and other battery-powered devices. The technology is called DigiSmart, and the company is seeking private equity investment.

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National Price: $295.00 Fostering Cooperative Learning, Discussion, and Critical Thinking in Elementary Math - Course Description: Highly developed collaborative and critical thinking skills are what your students need to meet standards and perform in high-stakes testing. Expand your collection of strategies for sharpening these skills using classroom technology. Discover activities designed to support collaboration and problem solving within the curriculum while addressing National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) standards. Classroom Link-Access to students recommended. PBS Classroom Link courses ask learners to implement lessons with their class or with a small group of students (options for learners without access to students are available). For assignments and evaluation details, see the full Syllabus. The number of hours identified for each course reflects time spent online, but does not reflect the total time spent completing offline coursework and assignments. All learners are different and you will likely spend double the indicated number of hours completing all coursework depending on your learning style and work habits. - Graduate Credit Information: - Graduate credit may be obtained from the provider(s) listed below, for an additional fee after the course begins. - Adams State University - 2.0 credits - pricing - Northwest Nazarene University - 2.0 credits - pricing - Madonna University - 2.0 credits - pricing - Central Michigan University - 2.0 credits - pricing - University of Missouri - Kansas City - 2.0 credits - pricing - University of Central Missouri - 2.0 credits - pricing - Washburn University - 2.0 credits - pricing - University of Sioux Falls - 2.0 credits - pricing - James Madison University - 2.0 credits - pricing - Boise State University - 2.0 credits - pricing - Sierra Nevada College - 2.0 credits - pricing - Morningside College - 2.0 credits - pricing - Subject Area: - Mathematics, Instructional Technology, Instructional Strategies - Grade Level:

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22 febrero 2008 | EN | 中文 Only two per cent of smokers have quit One million Indians will die every year in the 2010s as a result of tobacco consumption, a study predicts. Published last week (13 February) in the New England Journal of Medicine, the study assessed smoking in 1.1 million homes throughout India. About one third of men and five per cent of women aged 30–69 smoke cigarettes, or bidis — smaller amounts of tobacco wrapped in the leaf of the temburni plant. The researchers looked at the smoking histories and cause of death of 74,000 deceased adults and compared them with the smoking histories of 78,000 living controls. They found that smoking is the cause of one in every five male deaths and one in 20 female deaths in the study group. Smoking contributed to deaths from tuberculosis, respiratory disease, vascular disease and cancer. Using population projections, the researchers predict that there will be around one million smoking deaths per year in the 2010s. The study is based on an ongoing 14-year project being carried out by the Government of India's Census authorities to track cause of death in India. Lead researcher and author of the report, Prabhat Joshi of the Centre for Global Health Research (CGHR), at the Canada-based University of Toronto, says that the study reveals new key findings. "[The study] found that any amount of smoking can be lethal. Whether it is one cigarette a day or seven, the risks remain the same, taking lives in the prime of life," says Joshi. It also found that just two per cent of smokers in India have quit — possibly reflecting a lack of awareness regarding the dangers of smoking. Joshi points out that 50 per cent of the people who died were illiterate and 80 per cent were from rural areas where information is difficult to reach. He hopes to present more findings on other diseases over the course of the project, due to end in 2014. K. Srinath Reddy, an anti-smoking activist and cardiologist from New Delhi who heads India's Public Health Foundation, told SciDev.Net that the study is significant as it covers massive numbers of people and establishes a link between smoking and tuberculosis. Reference: New England Journal of Medicine doi 10.1056/NEJMsa0707719 (2008) Todos los comentarios están sujetos a revisión. Nos reservamos el derecho de editar los comentarios que contengan un lenguaje inapropiado o inadecuado. SciDev.Net mantiene los derechos de autor de todo el material que se publica en el portal. Por favor lea las condiciones de uso para más detalles. Todo el material de SciDev.Net se puede reproducir gratuitamente siempre que se de crédito a la fuente y al autor. Para más detalles ver Creative commons.

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Please Read How You Can Help Keep the Encyclopedia Free This doctrine was introduced as a methodological precept for the social sciences by Max Weber, most importantly in the first chapter of Economy and Society (1968 ). It amounts to the claim that social phenomena must be explained by showing how they result from individual actions, which in turn must be explained through reference to the intentional states that motivate the individual actors. It involves, in other words, a commitment to the primacy of what Talcott Parsons would later call “the action frame of reference” (Parsons 1937: 43–51) in social-scientific explanation. It is also sometimes described as the claim that explanations of “macro” social phenomena must be supplied with “micro” foundations, ones that specify an action-theoretic mechanism (Alexander, 1987). A contrast is often drawn, following J.W.N. Watkins (1952a), between methodological individualism and methodological holism. This is usually tendentious, since there are very few social scientists who describe themselves as methodological holists. There are, however, forms of social-scientific explanation with more active adherents that methodological individualism precludes or downgrades. These include, most importantly, functionalism, many types of sociobiology, “memetics” or evolutionary cultural explanation, psychoanalytic and “depth hermeneutic” methods, and any form of explanatory generalization grounded in purely statistical analysis. Defenders of methodological individualism generally claim that it is an innocent doctrine, devoid of any political or ideological content. Weber himself cautioned that “it is a tremendous misunderstanding to think that an ‘individualistic’ method should involve what is in any conceivable sense an individualistic system of values” (Weber 1968: 18). Nevertheless, the doctrine of methodological individualism became embroiled in a number of highly politicized debates during 20th century, largely because it was often invoked as a way of discrediting historical materialism. There were two distinct rounds of controversy on this score. The first occurred primarily during ‘50s, in response to the work of Friedrich von Hayek and Karl Popper. The second round occurred during the ‘80s, in response to Jon Elster, this time as part of critical debates within the movement known as “analytical Marxism.” During the latter period, methodological individualism became widely associated with what many called “rational choice imperialism.” - 1. Weber - 2. Hayek - 3. Popper - 4. Elster - 5. Others - 6. Criticism - Other Internet Resources - Related Entries The phrase methodische Individualismus was actually coined by Weber's student, Joseph Schumpeter, in his 1908 work Das Wesen und der Hauptinhalt der theoretischen Nationalökonomie. The first use of the term “methodological individualism” in English was again by Schumpeter in his 1909 Quarterly Journal of Economics paper, “On the Concept of Social Value” (see Udehn 2001, 214). However, the theoretical elaboration of the doctrine is due to Weber, and Schumpeter uses the term as a way of referring to the Weberian view. In Economy and Society, Weber articulates the central precept of methodological individualism in the following way: When discussing social phenomena, we often talk about various “social collectivities, such as states, associations, business corporations, foundations, as if they were individual persons”(Weber 1968, 13). Thus we talk about them having plans, performing actions, suffering losses, and so forth. The doctrine of methodological individualism does not take issue with these ordinary ways of speaking, it merely stipulates that “in sociological work these collectivities must be treated as solely the resultants and modes of organization of the particular acts of individual persons, since these alone can be treated as agents in a course of subjectively understandable action” (Weber 1968, 13). For Weber, the commitment to methodological individualism is very closely related to the commitment to verstehende (or interpretive) patterns of explanation in sociology. The reason for privileging individual action in sociological explanation is that only action is “subjectively understandable.” Weber reserves the term “action” to refer to the subset of human behavior that is motivated by linguistically formulated or “meaningful” mental states. (Generally speaking: coughing is behavior, apologizing afterwards is action.) Updating the terminology somewhat, we can say that the defining characteristic of an action is that it is motivated by a mental state with propositional content, i.e., an intentional state. The importance of action for Weber is that we have interpretive access to it, by virtue of our capacity to understand the agent's underlying motive. This permits the social scientist to “accomplish something which is never attainable in the natural sciences, namely the subjective understanding of the action of the component individuals” (Weber 1968, 15). Action-theoretic explanation is central to social-scientific analysis, therefore, because without knowing why people do what they do, we do not really understand why any of the more large-scale phenomena with which they are embroiled occur. Thus methodological individualism is a slightly misleading term, since the goal is not to privilege the individual over the collective in social-scientific explanation, but rather to privilege the action-theoretic level of explanation. This privileging of the action-theoretic level is methodological because it is imposed by the structure of interpretive social science, where the goal is to provide an understanding of social phenomena. Actions can be understood in a way that other social phenomena cannot, precisely because they are motivated by intentional states. Yet only individuals possess intentional states, and so the methodological privileging of actions entails the methodological privileging of individuals. Thus the “individualism” in methodological individualism is more a byproduct of its central theoretical commitment than a motivating factor. This is what defenders to the doctrine have tried to communicate, with greater or lesser degrees of success, by claiming that it is politically or ideologically neutral. It is worth emphasizing the difference between methodological individualism, in Weber's sense, and the older traditions of atomism (or unqualified individualism) in the social sciences. Many writers claim to find the origins of methodological individualism amongst economists of the Austrian School (especially Carl Menger), and doctrines articulated during the Methodenstreit of the 1880s (Udehn 2001). Others trace it back to Thomas Hobbes, and the “resolutive-compositive” method elaborated in the opening sections of the Leviathan (Lukes 1968, 119). Yet the distinctive character of this type of atomism was summed up quite clearly by Hobbes, with his injunction to “consider men as if but even now sprung out of the earth, and suddainly (like Mushromes) come to full maturity without all kind of engagement to each other” (1949 , 8:1). The atomistic view is based upon the suggestion that it is possible to develop a complete characterization of individual psychology that is fully pre-social, then deduce what will happen when a group of individuals, so characterized, enter into interaction with one another. Methodological individualism, on the other hand, does not involve a commitment to any particular claim about the content of the intentional states that motivate individuals, and thus remains open to the possibility that human psychology may have an irreducibly social dimension. Thus one way of accentuating the difference between atomism and methodological individualism is to note that the former entails a complete reduction of sociology to psychology, whereas the latter does not. Finally, it should be noted that Weber's commitment to methodological individualism is closely related to his more well-known methodological doctrine, viz., the theory of ideal types. Historical explanation may make reference to the actual content of the intentional states that motivated particular historical actors, but the sociologist is interested in producing much more abstract explanatory generalizations, and so cannot appeal to the specific motives of particular individuals. Thus sociological theory must be based upon a model of human action. And because of the constraints that interpretation imposes, this model must be a model of rational human action (Weber writes: “it is convenient to treat all irrational, affectually determined elements of behavior as factors of deviation from a conceptually pure type of rational action” [1968, 6].) Thus one of the most important consequences of Weber's methodological individualism is that it puts rational action theory at the core of social-scientific inquiry. This is why subsequent generations of social theorists, under Weber's influence, sought to bring about the methodological unification of the social sciences by producing what came to be known as a “general theory of action” – one that would broaden the economic model of action in such a way as to incorporate the central action-theoretic insights of (primarily) sociologists, anthropologists, and psychologists. The work of Talcott Parsons in the first half of the century was the most important in this regard, with the unification movement reaching its apogee in the collaborative publication in 1951 of Toward a General Theory of Action, co-edited by Parsons and Edward Shils. Yet shortly thereafter, partly due to problems with the unification program, Parsons abandoned his commitment to both methodological individualism and action theory, adopting a purely systems-theoretic view. This led to an overall lapse in the project of producing a general theory of action, until it was revitalized in 1981 by the publication of Jürgen Habermas's The Theory of Communicative Action. It has never escaped anyone's attention that the discipline that most clearly satisfies the strictures of methodological individualism is microeconomics (in the tradition of neoclassical marginalism), and that homo economicus is the most clearly articulated model of rational action. Of course, this tradition has not always been in the ascendancy within the economics profession. In particular, there are many who have felt that macroeconomics could be a completely self-standing domain of inquiry (reflected in the fact that the undergraduate economics curriculum is still often divided into “micro” and “macro.”) There have always been those who would like to plot the movements of the business cycle, or of the stock market, in a way that disregards entirely the motives that individual actors may have for doing what they do. Similarly, many have tried to discover correlations between macroeconomic variables, such as unemployment and inflation rates, without feeling the need to speculate as to why a change in one rate might lead to movement in the other. Thus there has always been a very lively debate within the economics profession about the value of the “rational actor” model that is at the heart of general equilibrium theory. One of the earliest iterations of this debate occurred during the so-called Methodenstreit between members of the Austrian School in Economics and the German Historical School. However, members of the “first generation” of the Austrian School, such as Carl Menger, were atomists (Menger defended his individualistic method in terms of conceptual gains achieved by “reducing complicated phenomena to their elements” [Menger 1985 (1883), 93]). It was only members of the second generation, first and foremost Friedrich von Hayek, who would explicitly identify themselves with the Weberian doctrine of methodological individualism and defend it through reference to the demands of interpretive social science. The key text is Hayek's paper, “Scientism and the Study of Society,” serialized in Economica (1942–44), and later published as the first part of The Counter-Revolution of Science (1955). In Hayek's view, the desire on the part of social scientists to emulate the physical sciences creates an exaggerated fear of teleological or “purposive” concepts. This leads many economists to eschew any reference to intentional states and to focus purely upon statistical correlations between economic variables. The problem with this focus is that it leaves the economic phenomena unintelligible. Take, for example, the movement of prices. One might notice a constant correlation between the date of the first frost and fluctuations in the price of wheat. But we do not really understand the phenomenon until it has been explained in terms of the rational actions of economic agents: an early frost reduces yields, leading to less intense price competition among suppliers, more among consumers, etc. Thus Hayek insists that, in effect, all macroeconomic analysis is incomplete in the absence of “micro” foundations. It is important to note, however, that while Hayek has a model of rational action as the centerpiece of his view, his is most emphatically not a form of rationalism. On the contrary, he puts particular emphasis upon the way that various economic phenomena can emerge as the unintended consequences of rational action. Even though the outcomes that people achieve may bear no resemblance to the ones that they intended, it is still important to know what they thought they were doing when they chose to pursue to course of action that they chose – not least because it is important to know why they persist in pursuing that course of action, despite the fact that it is not producing the intended consequences. Of course, part of Hayek's motivation for endorsing methodological individualism and demanding that social-scientific explanations specify a mechanism at the action-theoretic level is that he wants to emphasize the limitations of the individual's actor's perspective. It's fine to talk about macroeconomic variables like “the inflation rate,” but it is important to remember that individual actors (generally speaking) do not respond directly to such indicators. All that they can see are changes in the immediate prices that they must pay for production inputs or consumption goods, and this is what they respond to. The large-scale consequences of the choices they make in response to these changes are largely unintended, and so any regularity in these consequences constitutes a spontaneous order. This is a crucial element of Hayek's information-based argument for capitalism: economic actors do not have access to the same information as economic theorists, thus it is only when we see the operations of the economy through their eyes that we can begin to see the advantages of a decentralized system of coordination like the market. To illustrate the importance of the individual's perspective, Hayek gives the example of the process that leads to the development of a path in the woods. One person works his way through, choosing the route that offers the least local resistance. His passage reduces, ever so slightly, the resistance offered along that route to the next person who walks though, who is therefore, in making the same set of decisions, likely to follow the same route. This increases the chances that the next person will do so, and so on. Thus the net of effect of all these people passing through is that they “make a path,” even though no one has the intention of doing so, and no one even plans out its trajectory. It is a product of spontaneous order: “Human movements through the district come to conform to a definite pattern which, although the result of deliberate decisions of many people, has yet not been consciously designed by anyone” (Hayek 1942, 289). The problem with ignoring the agent's perspective, in Hayek's view, is that it can easily lead us to overestimate our powers of rational planning and control, and thus to fall into “rationalism.” By contrast, the central virtue of methodological individualism is that it helps us to see the limitations of our own reason (Hayek 1944, 33). Formulating theories that refer directly to the “interest rate,” or “inflationary pressures,” or “the unemployment rate” can mislead us into thinking that we can manipulate these variables, and thus intervene successfully in the economy. We forget that these concepts are abstractions, used not to guide individual action, but rather to describe the net effect of millions of individual decisions. The key characteristic of methodological individualism is that it “systematically starts from the concepts which guide individuals in their actions and not from the results of their theorizing about their actions” (1942, 286). It therefore encourages, in Hayek's view, greater modesty with respect to social planning. Hayek does not mention methodological individualism after the 1950s. Indeed, the role that evolutionary explanations come to play in his later work implies a tacit retraction of his commitment to the doctrine. For many years, the term methodological individualism was associated primarily with the work of Karl Popper. This is due to the extensive debate triggered by Popper's papers, “The Poverty of Historicism” (1944/45), and later his book, The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945). Popper, however, although making use of the term, did little to defend his commitment to it. Instead he left this job to his former student, J.W.N. Watkins. It was this debate between Watkins and his critics that (perhaps unfairly) solidified the association in many people's minds between Popper and methodological individualism. (It was also this debate that brought the doctrine to the widespread attention of philosophers.) Unfortunately, the version of methodological individualism that Popper bequeathed to his student Watkins was considerably more difficult to defend than the one he inherited from Hayek. Since the beginning, the precepts of methodological individualism were thought to have been imposed by the special requirements of the social sciences. For both Weber and Hayek, it was the reflection of a key difference between the Geisteswissenschaften and the Naturwissenschaften. Popper, however, denies that there are any significant methodological differences between the two. Indeed, his initial discussion of methodological individualism in “The Poverty of Historicism,” occurs in a section called “The Unity of Method,” in which he claims that both are simply in the business of “causal explanation, prediction and testing.”(1945, 78). He goes on to deny that “understanding” plays any special role in the social sciences. The problem that this creates for the doctrine of methodological individualism is readily apparent. A social science that aims at interpretation, or that uses interpretation as part of the centerpiece of its explanatory strategy, has a very clear methodological reason for privileging explanations that refer to individual actions – since it is precisely the underlying intentional states that serve as the object of interpretation. But if social scientists are merely in the business of providing causal explanations, just like natural scientists, then what is the rationale for privileging individual actions in these explanations? There no longer appears to be any methodological reason for doing so. Thus critics like Leon Goldstein (1958), and later Steven Lukes (1968), would argue that methodological individualism was actually just an oblique way of asserting a commitment to metaphysical or ontological individualism. In other words, Popper's “methodological individualism” was actually a claim about what the world “really” consisted of, little more than a fancy way of saying “there is no such thing as society.” Watkins went on to reinforce this impression by reformulating the thesis as the claim that the “ultimate constituents of the social world are individual people” (1957, 105). Watkins also provoked doubts about the methodological status of the principle by distinguishing between “unfinished or half-way explanations” of social phenomena, which might not specify an action-theoretic or individualistic mechanism, and so-called “rock-bottom explanations,” which would (1957, 106). Yet in so doing, he grants that these half-way explanations (the example he gives is the relationship between inflation and the unemployment rate), while they may not tell us everything we would like to know, need not be meaningless or false. This creates problems, as Lars Udehn points out, since the mere fact that one can explain social phenomena in terms of individuals “does not imply the methodological rule that they should be explained this way” (2001, 216) – especially not if the “half-way” knowledge obtained is sufficient for our (extra-scientific) purposes. Finally, it should be noted that Popper introduced a contrast between methodological individualism and “psychologism,” viz., the view that “all laws of social life must be ultimately reducible to the psychological laws of ‘human nature’”(1945, 89). Nevertheless, in Popper's formulation, methodological individualism does appear equivalent to at least some form of psychological reductionism. At very least, his formulation – and later Watkins's – left many commentators confused about how one could affirm the former without committing to the latter (Udehn 2001, 204). For both Hayek and Popper, the primary motivation for respecting the precepts of methodological individualism was to avoid “grand theory” in the style of Auguste Comte, G.W.F. Hegel and Karl Marx. Yet the motivation for avoiding this sort of grand theory was not so much that it promoted bad theory, but that it promoted habits of mind, such as “collectivism,” “rationalism,” or “historicism,” that were thought to be conducive to totalitarianism. Thus the sins of “collectivism,” and “collectivist” thought patterns, for both Hayek and Popper, were primarily political. Yet as time wore on, and the dangers of creeping totalitarianism in Western societies became increasingly remote, the fear of collectivism that underlay the debates over methodological individualism became increasingly attenuated. Thus the concern over methodological individualism began to fade away, and might have disappeared completely had it not been for the sudden explosion of interest in game theory (or “rational choice theory”) among social scientists in the 1980s. The reason for this can be summed up in two words (and an article): the prisoner's dilemma. Social scientists had always been aware that individuals in groups are capable of getting stuck in patterns of collectively self-defeating behavior. Paul Samuelson's “The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure” (1954), Garrett Hardin's “The Tragedy of the Commons,” (1968), and Mancur Olson's The Logic of Collective Action (1965), had all provided very clear examples of cases where the mere existence of a common interest among individuals nevertheless failed to provide them with an incentive to perform the actions necessary to realize that interest. What the story of the prisoner's dilemma – and more importantly, the accompanying game matrix – provided was a simple yet powerful model that could be used to represent the structure of all these interactions (see R. Hardin 1982). This in turn gave renewed impetus to methodological individualism, because it allowed theorists to diagnose with unparalleled precision the errors that social theorists could be (and often were) led into if they ignored the action-theoretic level of analysis. Methodological individualism became important, not as a way of avoiding the political thought-crime of “collectivism,” but rather as a way of avoiding demonstrably fallacious inferences about the dynamics of collective action. For example, the traditional “interest group” theory of democratic politics generally presupposes that groups who share a common interest also have an incentive to promote that interest, by lobbying politicians, funding research, and so on. Olson's major contribution was to have driven home the point that the existence of such a common interest just as often generates a free-rider incentive. Individuals would benefit from acting to promote that interest, but they would benefit even more by sitting back while the other members of the group acted to promote it. As a result, no one may act to promote it. However, Olson confined this observation to large groups. The prisoner's dilemma, on the other hand, demonstrated the ubiquity of this incentive structure. Jon Elster's contribution to the history of methodological individualism must be understood against this background. He presents the doctrine as part of a friendly yet trenchant critique of the use of functionalist explanations in the Marxist tradition; particularly those that seek to explain events as ones that “serve the interests of capital.” The problem with these explanations, Elster argues, is that they “postulate a purpose without a purposive actor” (1982, 452), and therefore (he claims) entail a commitment to some form of objective teleology. In itself, there is very little new in this criticism. As G.A. Cohen argued, in his response to Elster, there is no reason that the Marxian functionalist cannot provide “elaborations” (Cohen 1982, 131) of these explanations, ones that specify how the benefit produced evokes the phenomenon, without reference to any objective teleology. This could be done either by appealing to an intentional mechanism at the action-theoretic level or else a Darwinian “selection” mechanism (Cohen 1982, 132). In such cases, Elster's critique of functional explanation becomes just another version of Watkins's demand for “rock-bottom” rather than “half-way” explanations. Thus what made Elster's attack so forceful was not the accusation of objective teleology in Marxist theory, but rather the suggestion that much of Marxian “class analysis” overlooked the potential for collective action problems among the various world-historical actors. Consider, for example, the familiar claim that capitalists retain a “reserve army of the unemployed” in order to depress wages. This means that individual capitalists must stop hiring new workers at a point where marginal benefits still exceed the marginal costs. What is their incentive for doing so? They have an obvious free-rider incentive to keep hiring, since the benefits stemming from depressed wages would largely be enjoyed by rival firms, whereas the benefits of further hiring would flow to the bottom line. In other words, the mere fact that it is in the “interests of capital” to have a reserve army of the unemployed does not mean that individual capitalists have an incentive to take the steps necessary to maintain such a reserve army. An even more disturbing consequence of the “rational choice” perspective is the observation that the working class faces a major collective action problem when it comes to carrying out the socialist revolution (Elster 1982, 467). Fomenting revolution can be dangerous business, and so absent some other incentive (such as class solidarity), even workers who were convinced that a communist economic order would offer them a superior quality of life might still fail to show up at the barricades. Yet these possibilities were largely overlooked, Elster suggests, because the failure to respect the precepts of methodological individualism, along with the promiscuous use of functional explanation, had led generations of Marxian theorists simply to ignore the actual incentives that individuals face in concrete social interactions. Beyond the critique of functional explanations, Elster does not advance any original argument in support of methodological individualism. He does, however, return to the earlier Weberian formulation of the position, with its emphasis on intentional action (Elster 1982, 463): “The elementary unit of social life is the individual human action,” he argues. “To explain social institutions and social change is to show how they arise as the result of the actions and interaction of individuals. This view, often referred to as methodological individualism, is in my view trivially true” (Elster, 1989, 13). Here one must assume that when he says “trivially true,” he is using the term in the vernacular sense of “platitudinous” rather than the philosophical sense of “tautologous,” since he goes on to derive a number of very substantive doctrines from his commitment to methodological individualism. For example, he goes on to claim at various points that methodological individualism commits him to psychologistic reductionism with respect to sociology (although he does not offer an argument for this claim). Elster does not draw as sharp a distinction as he might have between the commitment to methodological individualism and the commitment to rational choice theory. Indeed, he also assumes that the latter flows directly from the former. The version of rational choice theory that Elster endorses, however, is one that is based upon a traditional instrumental (or homo economicus) conception of rationality, according to which “actions are valued and chosen not for themselves, but as more or less efficient means to the a further end” (Elster 1989, 22). He claims that this conception of rationality is implied by the fact that decision theorists are able to represent the rational actions of any agent possessing a well-behaved preference ordering as the maximization of a utility function. Yet whether utility-maximization implies instrumentalism depends upon the version of expected utility theory that one subscribes to. So-called “world Bayesian” versions of decision theory, such as Richard Jeffrey's (1983) do not impose an instrumental conception of rationality, since they permit agents to have preferences over their own actions. Thus Elster's move from methodological individualism to the instrumental conception of rationality is based upon a non sequitur. Nevertheless, as a result of Elster's arguments, methodological individualism became synonymous in many quarters with the commitment to rational choice theory. Such an equation generally fails to distinguish what were for Weber two distinct methodological issues: the commitment to providing explanations at an action-theoretic level, and the specific model of rational action that one proposes to use at that level (i.e., the ideal type). There are multiple permutations. For instance, there is no reason that one cannot be a methodological individualist while choosing to employ Habermas's theory of communicative action rather than rational choice theory as the model of rational action. In fact, this would make greater sense, since game theory, strictly construed, has never purported to offer a general theory of rational action. The Nash solution concept, which provides the standard definition of a game-theoretic equilibrium, specifically excluded all forms of communication between the players (and the solution does not work in cases where communication does intrude [Heath 2001]). Thus much of the furor over rational choice imperialism has been based upon a failure to appreciate the limitations of that model (in many cases both by its defenders and its critics). In the philosophy of mind, the phrase “methodological individualism” is commonly associated with a claim made by Jerry Fodor concerning the individuation of psychological states (1980, 1987, 42). It is important to emphasize that Fodor's use of the term has nothing in common with its traditional use in the philosophy of social science. Fodor introduces it by way of a distinction between “methodological individualism” and “methodological solipsism.” His goal is to deal with variations on the twin-earth problem, introduced by Hilary Putnam. The question is whether an individual with a belief about water on earth, where water is made up of H2O, has the same belief as an individual with a belief about water in a parallel universe, where water has the same appearance and behavior, but happens to be made up of XYZ. The “externalist” is one who says that they are not the same, whereas an “internalist” like Fodor wants to say that they are – speaking roughly, that the content of beliefs is determined by what is in the agent's head, and not what is in the world. The issue comes down to one concerning the individuation of mental states. How do we determine what is and is not the “same” belief? Fodor begins by introducing the constraint that he calls “methodological individualism,” viz., “the doctrine that psychological states are individuated with respect to their causal powers” (1987, 42). This implies, among other things, that if one psychological state is incapable of causing anything different to happen than some other psychological state, then the two must be the same. “Methodological solipsism” is the stronger claim that “psychological states are individuated without respect to the semantic evaluations” (1987, 42). This implies, among other things, that even if one state is “true” in some context and another is “false,” the two may still turn out to be the same. As Fodor goes on to point out, the semantic evaluation of a mental state will typically be relational, e.g. whether certain beliefs about water are true will depend upon how things happen to stand with water in the world; thus methodological solipsism has the consequence of precluding one type of relational property from playing a role in the individuation of mental states. It is therefore “individualistic” in the everyday sense of the term, since it suggests that what's going on in the agent's head does most or all of the work in the individuation of mental states. Methodological individualism, on the other hand, “does not prohibit the relational individuation of mental states; it just says that no property of mental states, relational or otherwise, counts taxonomically unless it affects causal powers”(1987, 42). Thus it is very unclear why Fodor chooses to call this a form of “individualism,” since these relations could also be relations to other speakers, and not just the physical word. There is considerable infelicity in Fodor's choice of terms. He is able to offer a cogent account of why methodological individualism counts as a methodological constraint. He argues that the desire to align terminological distinctions with objects having different causal powers is “one which follows simply from the scientist's goal of causal explanation and which, therefore, all scientific taxonomies must obey” (1987, 42). Thus it is a methodological precept. (Although one can see clearly here the stark contrast between Fodor's use of the term and that of Weber or Hayek, for whom the ability of the social scientist to provide something beyond merely causal explanation was what imposed the methodological commitment to the action-theoretic level of analysis.) It is simply unclear why Fodor chooses to call it individualism. With methodological solipsism, on the other hand, one can see why he calls it solipsism, but it is unclear what makes it methodological. Indeed, Fodor goes on to state that “solipsism (construed as prohibiting the relational taxonomy of mental states) is unlike individualism in that it couldn't conceivably follow from any general considerations about scientific goals and practices. ‘Methodological solipsism’ is, in fact, an empirical theory about the mind.”(1987, 43). Thus in Fodor's use of the terms, “methodological individualism” is not really individualistic, and “methodological solipsism” is not really methodological. Much of the critical discussion of methodological individualism in the philosophy of social science concerns the relationship between what Watkins called “rock-bottom” explanations and “half-way” ones – or those that do and those that do not specify an action theoretic mechanism. In general, there is no question that, given any particular half-way explanation of a social phenomenon, it would always be nice to know what agents are thinking, when they perform the actions that are involved in the production of that phenomenon. The question is whether the explanation is somehow deficient, or unscientific, in the absence of this information. The answer to that question will depend upon one's broader commitments concerning the status and role of the social sciences. Nevertheless, it is worth noting two very common types of social-scientific inquiry that fall short of providing the sort of rock-bottom explanations that methodological individualism demands: Consider the following example of a social-scientific debate: During the 1990s, there was a precipitous decline in violent crime in the United States. Many social scientists naturally began to apply themselves to the question of why this had occurred, i.e., they set out to explain the phenomenon. A number of different hypotheses were advanced: the hiring of more police, changes in community policing practices, more severe sentencing guidelines for offenders, decreased tolerance for minor infractions, an increase in religiosity, a decline in the popularity of crack, changes in the demographic profile of the population, etc. Since the decline in crime occurred in many different jurisdictions, each using some different combination of strategies under different circumstances, it is possible to build support for different hypotheses through purely statistical analysis. For example, the idea that policing strategies play an important role is contradicted by the fact that New York City and San Francisco adopted very different approaches to policing, and yet experienced a similar decline in the crime rate. Thus a very sophisticated debate broke out, with different social scientists producing different data sets, and crunching the numbers in different ways, in support of their rival hypotheses. This debate, like almost every debate in criminology, lacks microfoundations. It would certainly be nice to know what is going through people's mind when they commit crimes, and thus how likely various measures are to change their behavior, but the fact is we do not know. Indeed, there is considerable skepticism among criminologists that a “general theory” of crime is possible. Nevertheless, we can easily imagine criminologists deciding that one particular factor, such as a demographic shift in the population (i.e., fewer young men), is the explanation for the late-20th century decline in violent crime in the United States, and ruling out the other hypotheses. And even though this may be a “half-way” explanation, there is no question that it would represent a genuine discovery, one that we could learn something important from. Furthermore, it is not obvious that the “rock-bottom” explanation – the one that satisfies the precepts of methodological individualism – is going to add anything very interesting to the “half-way” explanation provided by the statistical analysis. In many cases it will even be derived from it. Suppose that we discovered, through statistical analysis, that the crime rate varied as a function of the severity of punishment multiplied by the probability of apprehension. We would then infer from this that criminals were rational utility-maximizers. On the other hand, if studies showed that crime rates were completely unaffected by changes in the severity of punishments or the probability of apprehension, we would infer that something else must be going on at the action-theoretic level. Results at the action-theoretic level might also prove to be random or uninteresting, from the standpoint of the explanatory variables. Suppose it turns out that the decline in crime can be explained entirely by demographic change. Then it doesn't really matter what the criminals were thinking – what matters is simply that a certain percentage of any given demographic group has the thoughts that lead to criminal behavior, so fewer of those people translates into less crime. The motives remain inside the “black box” – and while it might to nice to know what those motives are, they may not contribute anything to this particular explanation. In the end, it may turn out that each crime is as unique as the criminal. So while there is a concrete explanation in terms of actual people's intentional states, there is nothing that can be said at the level of a general “model” of rational action. (In this context, it is important to remember that methodological individualism in the Weberian sense explains actions in terms of a model of the agent, not the actual motivations of the real people.) Consider another social-scientific debate, this time the controversy over the data showing that stepparents have a far greater propensity to kill very young children in their care than biological parents. What would be involved in providing a rock-bottom explanation for this phenomenon, one that satisfied the precepts of methodological individualism? How informative would this be? It does not take much effort to imagine what people are thinking, when they shake a baby or hit a toddler. The motives are all-too familiar – almost everyone experiences episodes of intense frustration or anger when dealing with children. But that clearly does not explain the phenomenon. The question is why one group systematically fails to exercise control over these violent impulses, relative to some other group. Since very few people do it as part of a well-conceived plan, it is not clear that there is going to be an explanation available at the level of intentional states, or even that a complementary account of what is going on at this level will be in the least bit informative. The problem is that the behavior is generated by biases that function almost entirely at a subintentional level (Sperber, 1997). This suggests that an explanation in terms of intentional states is not really “rock bottom,” but that there are deeper layers to be explored. It is not difficult to imagine how such an explanation might run. People experience a reaction to juvenile (or neotenous) characteristics of the young that is largely involuntary. This reaction is very complex, but one of its central characteristics is the inhibition of aggression. People are also quite poor at articulating the basis of this reaction, other than by repeated references to the fact that the child is “cute.” Of course, the overall strength of this reaction varies from individual to individual, and the particular strength varies with different children. Thus it is possible that biological parents simply find their own children “cuter” than stepparents do, and that this translates into a slightly lower average propensity to commit acts of aggression against them. Because they are unable to articulate the basis of this judgment, any analysis at the intentional level will simply fail to provide much in the way of an explanation for their actions. Furthermore, it would seem that much “deeper” explanations of these behavioral tendencies are available. Most obviously, there is an evolutionary account available, which explains parental investment in terms of inclusive fitness (and also explains “new mate infanticide” in terms of sexual selection). Because of this, proponents of methodological individualism are open to the charge that they are promoting half-way explanations, and that the evolutionary perspective offers rock-bottom ones. More generally, any theory that purports to explain the origin of our intentional states in terms of deeper underlying causes, or that claims to explain much of human behavior without reference to intentional states (such as Freudianism, which treats many of our beliefs as rationalizations, our desires as sublimations), will be unmoved by the methodological individualist's demand that pride of place be assigned to explanations formulated at the action-theoretic level. The primary methodological goal, among social scientists, for adopting a commitment to methodological individualism was to caution against certain fallacies (ones that were quite common in 19th century social science). Perhaps the greatest of these fallacies was the one based on a widespread tendency to ignore the potential for collective action problems in groups, and thus to move far too easily “down” from an identification of a group interest to the ascription of an individual interest. One way of avoiding such fallacies was to force social scientists to look always at interactions from the participant's perspective, to see what sort of preference structure governed his or her decisions. At the same time, it is worth noting that too much emphasis on the action-theoretic perspective can generate its own fallacies. One of the most powerful resources of sociological inquiry is precisely the capacity to objectivate and aggregate social behavior using large-scale data collection and analysis. Furthermore, the analysis of social phenomena at this level can often generate results that are counterintuitive from an action-theoretic perspective. Too much emphasis on the action-theoretic perspective, because of its proximity to common sense, can generate false assumptions about what must be going on at the aggregate level. As Arthur Stinchcombe observes in his classic work, Constructing Social Theories, constructing “demographic explanations” of social phenomena often requires a break with our everyday interpretive perspective. Too much focus upon individual attitudes can lead us to make illegitimate generalizations about the characteristics of these attitudes in groups (1968, 67). For example, the stability of a belief in a population only very rarely depends upon its stability in individuals. There can be considerable volatility at the individual level, but so long as it runs with equal force both ways, its prevalence in the population will be unchanged (68). If ten per cent of the population loses their faith in God every year, yet ten per cent have a conversion experience, then there will be no change in the overall level of religiosity. This may seem obvious, but as Stinchcombe observes, it is “intuitively difficult for many people” (67), and inattention to it is a common source of fallacious sociological thinking. It is also worth nothing that the action-theoretic level of analysis, with its focus upon the intentional states of the agent, can generate considerable mischief when combined haphazardly with evolutionary reasoning. The most common fallacy arises when theorists treat the “self-interest” of the individual, defined with respect to his or her preferences, as a stand-in for the “fitness” of a particular behavior (or phenotype), at either the biological or the cultural level, then assumes that there is some selection mechanism in place, again at either the biological or cultural level, that will weed out forms of behavior that fail to advance the individual's self-interest. The problem is that neither biological nor cultural evolution function in this way. It is an elementary consequence of “selfish gene” theory that biological evolution does not advance the interests of the agent (the most conspicuous example being inclusive fitness). For similar reasons, cultural evolution benefits the “meme” rather than the interests of the agent (Stanovich 2004). Thus the evolutionary perspective imposes a much greater break with the rationality-based perspective than many social theorists appreciate. Thus methodological individualism can sometimes impede the sort of radical objectivation of social phenomena that the use of certain sociotheoretic models or tools requires. - Alexander, Jeffrey. 1987. The Micro-Macro Link. Berkeley: University of California Press. - Cohen, G. A. 1982. “Functional explanation: Reply to Elster,” Political Studies, 28 (1): 129–135. - Elster, Jon. 1982. “The Case for Methodological Individualism,” Theory and Society, 11: 453–482. - –––. 1985. Making Sense of Marx. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - –––. 1989. Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Fodor, Jerry. 1980. “Methodological Solipsism Considered as a Research Strategy in Cognitive Science,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3: 63–73 - –––. 1987. Psychosemantics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - Goldstein, Leon. 1958. “The Two Theses of Methodological Individualism,” The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 9: 1–11. - Habermas, Jürgen. 1984/87. The Theory of Communicative Action, 2 vols. trans. Thomas McCarthy, Boston: Beacon Press. - Hardin, Garrett. 1968. “The Tragedy of the Commons,” Science, 162: 1243–1248 - Hardin, Russell. 1982. Collective Action. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. - Hayek, Friedrich von. 1942. “Scientism and the Study of Society I,” Economica, 9: 267–91. - –––. 1943. “Scientism and the Study of Society II,” Economica, 10: 34–63. - –––. 1944. “Scientism and the Study of Society III,” Economica, 11: 27–39. - –––. 1955. The Counter-Revolution of Science. New York: Free Press. - Heath, Joseph. 2001. Communicative Action and Rational Choice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. - Hobbes, Thomas. 1949. De Cive, or the Citizen. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. - Jeffrey, Richard. 1983. The Logic of Decision, 2nd edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. - Lukes, Steven. 1968. “Methodological Individualism Reconsidered,” The British Journal of Sociology, 19 (2): 119–129. - Menger, Carl. 1985 . Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics, trans. Francis J. Nock. New York: New York University Press. - Olson, Mancur. 1965. The Logic of Collective Action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. - Parsons, Talcott. 1937. The Structure of Social Action, 2 volumes. New York: Free Press. - Parsons, Talcott, and Edward Shils, eds. 1951. Toward a general theory of action. New York: Harper & Row. - Popper, Karl. 1944a. “The Poverty of Historicism I,” Economica, 11: 86–103. - –––. 1944b. “The Poverty of Historicism II,” Economica, 11: 119–137. - –––. 1945. “The Poverty of Historicism III,” Economica, 11: 69–89. - –––. 1966. The Open Society and Its Enemies. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. - Samuelson, Paul A. 1954. “The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure,” Review of Economics and Statistics, 36: 387–89 - Schumpeter, Joseph. 1908. Das Wesen und der Hauptinhalt der theoretischen Nationalökonomie, Leipzig: Duncker & Humbolt. - –––. 1909. “On the Concept of Social Value,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 23: 213–32. - Sperber, Dan. 1997. “Individualisme méthodologique et cognitivisme,” in R. Boudon, F. Chazel & A. Bouvier (eds.) Cognition et sciences sociales. Paris: Presse Universitaires de France, pp 123–136. - Stanovich, Keith. 2004. The Robot's Rebellion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. - Stinchcombe, Arthur. 1968. Constructing Social Theories. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. - Udehn, Lars. 2001. Methodological Individualism. London: Routledge. - Watkins, J.W.N. 1952a. “Ideal Types and Historical Explanation,” The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 3: 22–43. - –––. 1952b. “The Principle of Methodological Individualism,” The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 3: 186–189. - –––. 1955. “Methodological Individualism: A Reply,” Philosophy of Science, 22: 58–62. - –––. 1957. “Historical Explanation in the Social Sciences,” British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 8: 104–117. - Weber, Max. 1968. Economy and Society, ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich, Berkeley: University of California Press. - Weber texts at Sociosite, maintained by Albert Benschop (University of Amsterdam). atomism: 17th to 20th century | Comte, Auguste | functionalism | game theory | Habermas, Jürgen | Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich | hermeneutics | Hobbes, Thomas | Marx, Karl | Marxism | moral dilemmas | Popper, Karl | prisoner's dilemma | psychologism | sociobiology | Weber, Max

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Soviet cosmonauts usually returned to Earth by landing on the ground, often in vast stretches of wilderness. They had to be prepared to survive until pickup, and even went armed to ensure their safety. Current Russian cosmonauts return the same way. To prepare themselves for the rigors of landfall during winter, they train at a facility in Kazakhstan. Their training includes starting fires and building shelters during brutal weather. View several more pictures at the link. Link | Photo: Yuri Garagain Cosmonaut Training Center

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MARCADO CREEK. Marcado Creek rises next to the Victoria Regional Airport in central Victoria County (at 28°51' N, 96°56' W) and flows eastward for fifteen miles to its mouth on Garcitas Creek, near Farm Road 444 just west of the Jackson county line (at 28°50' N, 96°45' W). The stream, intermittent in its upper regions, flows through level to gently sloping land surfaced primarily with sandy and clay loams that support a variety of grasses and crops. It crosses the original land grant issued on January 25, 1833, to Martín De León, empresario and colonizer of Victoria County, and was the site of one of the retaliatory campaigns against the Comanches following their 1840 raid on Victoria and Linnville (see LINNVILLE RAID OF 1840). As part of a larger group led by Ben McCulloch, Victoria and Cuero men joined a force of 120 commanded by Capt. Adam Zumwalt and battled the Indians, who "skirmished cautiously and evinced a disposition to avoid battle," according to McCulloch's contemporary biographer, Victor M. Rose. The Comanches then "silently folded their tents in the night and stole away," in the words of John J. Linn, only to be crushed at the battle of Plum Creek near the site of present Lockhart. Roy Grimes, ed., 300 Years in Victoria County (Victoria, Texas: Victoria Advocate, 1968; rpt., Austin: Nortex, 1985). John J. Linn, Reminiscences of Fifty Years in Texas (New York: Sadlier, 1883; 2d ed., Austin: Steck, 1935; rpt., Austin: State House, 1986). Victor Marion Rose, The Life and Services of Gen. Ben McCulloch (Philadelphia, 1888; rpt., Austin: Steck, 1958). The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article."MARCADO CREEK," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rbm11), accessed May 23, 2013. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.

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This tutorial at http://www.learncpp.com/ (which I think may be one of the best tutorials by the looks of it, though I don't know C++) had some suggestions. It said that an "an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) contains all of the things you need to develop, compile, link, and debug your programs." I am new to programming. But I think compilers and IDE's are the same. The page says you should really get and IDE, and the website I'm on explains why, one of the reasons is that most have a good, programming-oriented notepad for you to write your programs. The website points out the benefit of this "Second, we need an editor. It’s possible to write a program using any editor you want, be it Window’s notepad or Linux’s gedit. However, we strongly urge you to use an editor that is designed for coding. A typical editor designed for coding has a few features that make programming much easier, including: 1) Line numbering. Line numbering is useful when the compiler gives us an error. A typical compiler error will state “error, line 64″. Without an editor that shows line numbers, finding line 64 can be a real hassle. 2) Syntax highlighting and coloring. Syntax highlighting and coloring changes the color of various parts of your program to make it easier to see the overall structure of your program. 3) An unambiguous font. Non-programming fonts often make it hard to distinguish between the number 0 and the letter O, or between the number 1, the letter l (lower case L), and the letter I (upper case i). A good programming font will differentiate these symbols in order to ensure one isn’t accidentally used in place of the other." and IDE also has other useful and time saving things such as described "Note that steps 3, 4, 5, and 6 all involve software. While you can use separate programs for each of these functions, a software package known as an integrated development environment (IDE) bundles and integrates all of these features together. With a typical IDE, you get a code editor that does line numbering and syntax highlighting. The IDE will automatically generate the parameters necessary to compile and link your program into an executable, even if it includes multiple files. And when you need to debug your program, you can use the integrated debugger. Furthermore, IDE’s typically bundle a number of other helpful editing features, such as integrated help, name completion, a class hierarchy browser, and sometimes a version control system." I've heard of those other compilers, and they may be good. I too dislike how Microsoft tries to put their stamp on everything and replicate things to monopolize the industry. Sometimes these replications are even bad. But Nathandelane is right, not all Microsoft creates is bad, and I don't know if any of it is really bad (though I do hear things like C# are bad). But I only hear these things. The tutorial uses the Microsoft Visual whatever compiler, and also uses the cross-platform IDE Code::Blocks . I'm just browsing to see if I'd want to learn C++, so I'm not expert yet.

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Tag: "mollusks" at biology news Scientists discover 5 new species of sea slugs from the Tropical Eastern Pacific ...an Malacological Bulletin. Nudibranchsa group of mollusks lacking outer shellshave developed sophisticated chemical defense mechanisms, which is particularly important because promising industrial and medicinal products have been isolated from known species. New species may provide cures for diseases that ... AGU Journal highlights -- February 23, 2007 ...periments, the calcification rates of two types of mollusks kept in closed laboratory environments declined linearly with increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the air. Such creatures grow their shells by a process of calcification, or deposition of calcium carbonate. Data from the third assessment of the In... How many genes does it take to learn? Lessons from sea slugs ...ings are especially important for scientists using mollusks in experimental systems, according to Edgar Walters, Ph.D., a professor of integrative biology and pharmacology at the University of Texas Medical School at Houston, who was not involved in the research. "Few animals other than Aplysia allow scien... Ice-breaker Polarstern to explore uncharted seafloor ...rticles, as well as clusters of large clams. These mollusks and their associated fauna probably depend on chemical energy from the Earth, rather than one driven by photosynthesis from the sun or from hot emissions rising from inside the planet. OUTREACH OPPORTUNITY: A MEDIA CONTACT OFFICER ONBOARD A major ... Tropics source of much of world's biodiversity ...imals - oysters, clams, scallops and other bivalve mollusks - about three-quarters of today's genera originated in the tropics and spread outward toward the poles, while only one-quarter originated at higher latitudes. Other plants and animals probably have an overwhelmingly tropical origin also, said coauth... Scientist's persistence sheds light on marine science riddle ... www.data.acnatsci.org/wasp ) documents species of mollusks in the Western Atlantic, from Greenland to Antarctica. Scientists have suggested several explanations for the evolution of body size in animals isolated on islands: reduced area, fewer predators, less competition, and resource limitation. "Only reso... Ocean seep mollusks may share evolutionary history with other deep-sea creatures The unusual mollusks of oceanic cold seeps--strange clams, mussels and ...record is a full epoch earlier than that of marine mollusks in general, according to Steffen Kiel and Crispin Little of the University of Leeds. These findings... Mussels evolve quickly to defend against invasive crabs ... Freeman. "We wanted to know, how is it that these mollusks can recognize a crab that is historically not present in North America?" Freeman exposed mussels native to the northern above mid-coast Maine and southern New England to both Carcinus and the Hemigrapsus. Both populations thickened their shells w... A dichotomy in migration patterns found for sea turtles in east Atlantic ...nt-were larger, and they feed on thearthropods and mollusks that are normally abundant in this food-richecosystem. In contrast, adults foraging in the open ocean are smaller, havea more limited capacity for diving, and most likely feed on a somewhatdifferent set of prey that includes small, floating plants an... Study finds evolution doesn't always favor bigger animals ...regulate their internal body temperatures, such as mollusks to turtles, also follow this rule. "It is a bit of a puzzle why Bergmann's Rule holds in cold-blooded animals like ostracodes," said Hunt. Hunt and Roy found that as ocean temperatures declined by some 10 degrees centigrade, from 40 million years a... New techniques study the brain's chemistry, neuron by neuron ...l neuropeptides in a range of neuronal models from mollusks to mammals. "We work with sea slugs, whose simple brains contain 10,000 neurons; we work with insects possessing one million neurons; and we work with mice having 100 million neurons," said Sweedler, who also is a researcher at the Beckman Institute ... Discovering an ecosystem beneath a collapsed Antarctic ice shelf ...t have already begun to bury the delicate mats and mollusks established within the underwater environment. He added that there may be a sense of urgency to investigate the unusual seafloor ecology below the Larsen shelf because of the likelihood of increased sediment deposition. In addition, he suggests that ... 500 million years of errors: Brachiopod shells record shadow of arms race in ancient oceans ...uncommon in modern seas that 25 percent or more of mollusks are done in by voracious drilling killers such as ...tes, and there have also been extensive studies on mollusks in the more recent fossil record, this is the first comprehensive study of predation on brachiopods ... Highlights of chemical society national meeting in San Diego, March 13-17 ..., oysters may boost libido For centuries, marine mollusks such as clams, oysters and scallops have been thou...he chemical composition of tissues from a group of mollusks commonly consumed in Mediterranean countries and found that they contain D-aspartic acid and NMDA (N... Oceans more vulnerable to agricultural runoff than previously thought, study finds ... which release toxins in the water that can poison mollusks and fish. Excessively large blooms can also overwhelm a marine ecosystem by depleting oxygen in the water. Scientists suspect that many harmful blooms are artificially fueled by fertilizer runoff from farms, which dump tons of excess nitrogen into ri... Researchers discover direct link between agricultural runoff and massive algal blooms in the sea ... which release toxins in the water that can poison mollusks and fish. Excessively large blooms can also overwhelm a marine ecosystem by creating oxygen-depleted "dead zones" in the ocean. Scientists have long suspected that many harmful blooms are fueled by fertilizer runoff from farming operations, which in ... How the sea urchin grows new spines ... same strategy is used by immature sea urchins and mollusks in the larval stage to build internal skeletons, t...de variety of spiny and shelled sea creatures like mollusks and corals. In addition, the idea of growing single crystals by first creating the material in an am... Are museum collections of ancient life representative? ...n terms of diversity and abundance compared to the mollusks preserved as fossils in nature from these time periods. A bulk collection is "when you chop a cubic meter of sediment out of a river bank, for instance," Barbour Wood said. "The larger the sample, or more samples you collect, the more likely you are...

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Washington State University SAFETY POLICIES AND PROCEDURES MANUAL Radiation Safety Office Radiation Safety Philosophy WSU personnel working with ionizing radiation are required to make every practicable effort to maintain radiation exposures and releases of radioactive materials as low as is reasonably achievable (ALARA). WSU personnel must exert this effort in addition to efforts to ensure compliance with the requirements of this chapter (Chapter 9, Radiation Safety) and Washington Administrative Code Title 246. The phrase, as low as is reasonably achievable, means as low as is readily achievable taking into account: - The state of technology, and - The economics of improvements in relation to: The state of technology, Benefits to the public health and safety, Other socioeconomic considerations, and See WAC 246-220-007. Utilization of nuclear energy, ionizing radiation, and radioactive materials in the public interest.

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International Pages > Brazilian Genealogy Search Brazilian Genealogy Search Search the best family history sites of Brazil brought to you by World Vital Records. Related Keywords: Brazil. Brasil, genealogia, Brazilian genealogy Background: Following three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazil became an independent nation in 1822 and a republic in 1889. By far the largest and most populous country in South America, Brazil overcame more than half a century of military intervention in the governance of the country when in 1985 the military regime peacefully ceded power to civilian rulers. Brazil continues to pursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of its interior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool, it is today South America's leading economic power and a regional leader. Highly unequal income distribution remains a pressing problem. Brazilians are mostly descendants of Brazil's indigenous peoples, colonial Portuguese settlers, African slaves, along with several groups of immigrants who arrived in Brazil mostly from the 1820s until the 1970s. Most of the immigrants were Italians and Portuguese, but also significant numbers of Germans, Spaniards, Japanese, and Lebanese. The Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) classify the Brazilian population among five categories: white, black, pardo (brown), yellow (Asian) or Indigenous, based on skin color or race. The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census found Brazil to be made up of 93,000,000 Whites, 80,000,000 brown people, 11.7 million Blacks, and 1.3 million Asian or Amerindian. [from Wikipedia] note: Brazil conducted a census in August 2000, which reported a population of 169,799,170; that figure was about 3.3% lower than projections by the US Census Bureau, and is close to the implied underenumeration of 4.6% for the 1991 census; estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2007 est.) 0-14 years: 25.3% (male 24,554,254/female 23,613,027) 15-64 years: 68.4% (male 64,437,140/female 65,523,447) 65 years and over: 6.3% (male 4,880,562/female 7,002,217) (2007 est.) Religions: Roman Catholic (nominal) 73.6%, Protestant 15.4%, Spiritualist 1.3%, Bantu/voodoo 0.3%, other 1.8%, unspecified 0.2%, none 7.4% (2000 census) Ethnic groups: white 53.7%, mulatto (mixed white and black) 38.5%, black 6.2%, other (includes Japanese, Arab, Amerindian) 0.9%, unspecified 0.7% (2000 census) Brazilian Genealogy Search Info: This search engine currently searches 90 websites related to doing genealogy on Brazilian Ancestry. Leave Us Feedback Do you have a site you would like us to add or do you have a suggestion? Just fill out the form below.

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Learn Evolution's Fatal Flaws - Thursday, March 04, 2004 Perhaps no other theory has so revolutionized society as Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. But since Darwin's time, scholars have uncovered the theory's many flaws. It's crucial for Christians to understand these flaws so they can defend truth of the biblical account of creation. Here are some of the fatal flaws in the theory of evolution, which you can remember by the acronym FARCE: Fossil Follies: No legitimate, verifiable transitions from one species to another have been found in the fossil record, despite the fact that a huge abundance of fossils have been uncovered worldwide. Moreover, the genes of each creature are finely tuned and highly integrated to reproduce only that same species, without any gradual changes to any new species. Ape-Men Fiction, Fraud, and Fantasy: "Hominids" that evolutionists have said are modern humans' ancestors have been shown on closer examination not to be close relatives. Saying that hominids are closely related to humans simply because they can walk is like saying that a hummingbird and a helicopter are closely related because they can both fly. Also, there is a major difference between an ape and a person who can compose a symphonic masterpiece or send astronauts to the moon. Chance: Consider the implausibility of our universe - our anything in it - merely appearing by random chance. Think about how absurd it would be to imagine, for example, that Leonardo da Vinci's "The Last Supper" had simply painted itself. Study the vast complexity of a human eye or an egg, for example. Think of the miraculous fine-tuning God did when He created Earth (if we were closer or farther away from the sun, our temperatures would not be compatible with life; if water were like virtually any other liquid, it would freeze from the bottom up rather than the top down, killing aquatic life and destroying the oxygen supply, etc.). Moreover, consider how molecular biology has now shown that there is no such thing as a "primitive" cell, but all cells are incredibly complex right from their beginning. Recapitulation: This is the notion that an embryo repeats the evolutionary history of its species while it's developing in the womb (for example, an emerging human is at first a fish, then a frog, and so on until finally becoming a human before birth). Molecular research has shown without a doubt that the DNA for a fish is completely separate and distinct from the DNA for a frog, an ape, or a human. Each species' DNA is uniquely programmed to reproduce only within that same species. Empirical Science: The law of energy conservation states that while energy can be converted from one form to another, it can neither be created nor annihilated. It is illogical to believe that something can come out of nothing. The law of entropy states that everything runs inexorably from order to disorder and from complexity to decay. But evolution contradicts this law by asserting that the universe runs in the opposite direction - from chaos to order and complexity. Adapted from "Fatal Flaws," copyright 2003 by Hank Hanegraaff. Published by W Publishing Group, a division of Thomas Nelson, Inc., Nashville, TN., www.wpublishinggroup.com. Hank Hanegraaff is host of the "Bible Answer Man," heard daily throughout the United States and Canada. He is president of the Christian Research Institute International and author of such award-winning bestsellers as "Resurrection" and "The Prayer of Jesus." Hank and his wife, Kathy, live in California and are the parents of nine children. Recently on Spiritual Life Have something to say about this article? Leave your comment via Facebook below! Listen to Your Favorite Pastors Add Crosswalk.com content to your siteBrowse available content

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According to the Pew Research Center, in 2000, 46% of American adults had access to the internet, 5% of U.S. households had broadband connections and 25% of American adults looked online for health information. Now, 74% of American adults go online, 57% of American households have broadband connections and 61% of adults look online for health information. Those are big numbers. As with many other aspects of daily living, digital has changed how we get stuff done. Today a patient experiences a set of symptoms or learns of a possible condition and it’s off to “Dr. Google.” This of course isn’t limited to the patients themselves. A growing number of people say the Internet has played a crucial or important role in helping another person cope with a major illness. Thought leaders in the space are using a number of labels to signal the digital-healthcare trend. Health 2.0, Participatory Medicine, e-health, e-patients, all of these speak to the underlying reality that patients supported with digital technologies are seeking information and exercising control over their health choices. Given the ubiquity of digital media and the essential nature of health, it’s no surprise that we’re witnessing something of an e-patient movement. Consider these figures from the same Pew Research Study on e-patients, featured in a landmark whitepaper published in 2007 by the e-Patient Scholars Working Group. - 93 percent of e-patients (patients using the Internet) said that it was important that the Internet made it possible to get the medical information they needed when it was most convenient for them. - 92 percent said that the medical information they found was useful. - 91 percent of e-patients looked for information on a physical illness. - 83 percent of e-patients said that it was important that they could get more health information online then they could get from other sources. - 81 percent said that they learned something new. - 80 percent of e-patients visited multiple medical sites. A few visited 20 sites or more. - 72 percent of e-patients searched for medical information just before or after a doctor’s visit. Clearly e-patients are finding their digital searches worthwhile. Indeed digital technologies and social media forms are supporting and encouraging active involvement not just by patients, but all connected parties. Patients, caregivers, healthcare professionals, and pharmaceuticals—all are connecting as part of a larger ecosystem. Given all this networking activity, it follows that healthcare providers must be able to answer, “Yes” to two fundamental questions: - Do I have the information and help that patients and their families seek? - Am I making it available to them in the time and place of need? Truth is, these questions represent an on-going challenge for healthcare providers. Many providers are responding. Many are not. Hospitals specifically, have a unique role and opportunity here. While patient needs are vast and diverse, hospitals can take a few simple steps and greatly impact care and the vitality of their hospital system. Social Media for Engagement and Transformation Broadly, what we’re suggesting is for hospitals to initiate a Social Media Strategy & Plan. If that sounds complex, far-reaching or overly ambitious, worry not, there are some easy steps hospitals can take. There are some basic actions to take to set a course for positive, significant change and in-step with the e-patient revolution. To get the ball rolling, we suggest doing five things: 1. Form a simple strategy. Don’t be thrown by the word strategy. All we’re suggesting is identifying… A) The Who—the patients and other key stakeholders B) The What—the information and help they seek C) The How—the channels we can deliver through Put all that down on a single page summary and you’ll have all the “strategy” needed to direct a smart and meaningful effort. 2. Form an informal taskforce. Given the wide use Facebook, Twitter, Youtube and the like, chances are there are individuals throughout the hospital system that are not only social media savvy but intrinsically motivated to be involved with such an initiative. So pull a handful of people together who have the “bug” (that’s a good bug) from across the system, set a simple strategy (step 1, above) select the social media platforms (step 3, below) and go. 3. While there are ever-dizzying array of social media platforms available, don’t get confused. There are a couple of no-brainers that can bring about enormous positive change. Two things every hospital should have (and most don’t) are: - Patient care websites such as Carepages.com or Caringbridge.org. Patient care websites allow families and friends stay in touch during serious health events. Through personalized websites members can relate their stories, post photos and update friends and family instantly. - Facebook Fan Page. A Facebook Fan Page is a public profile that enables you to share information about your hospital and services. It can be created in just minutes. Fan Pages are useful because you can include everything that relates to the hospital: contact info, press releases, videos, news, events, etc. And given its social nature and flexibility, you can post frequently without all the headaches normally associated with updating your official website. 4. Distribute the learning. Here’s a way you can leapfrog most organizations that have limited their social media to marketing and public relations groups. These groups might in-fact be best equipped to facilitate this function, but don’t stop there. It’s becoming clear that the best use of social platforms is to make them enterprise-wide. Get everyone in. 5. And finally, regroup in three months. Once you’ve been at it for several months, it’s likely that you’ll see the way forward. You’ll learn. Your caring culture will evolve naturally and the next steps can be made clear. And there you have it. It’s only the beginning, but real actions that can deepen your understanding, engagement and ability to deliver care. It’s time to join the e-patient revolution.

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The ability to post on this web site ended on May 1, 2003. You can post effective messages in the discussion forms by following these basic tips. First and foremost, please read the Dialogue Paper and other resources on this Web site, and relate your comments to those materials. - Keep your messages short. - Stay on topic. - Prepare a summary with keywords and place it at the beginning. - Watch for response to your messages. - Consider others' ideas, and relate your messages to them. - Think and compose off-line; communicate on-line. - Be as constructive as possible. If you raise a problem, suggest a solution. You may post as an individual or as part of an organization. Identify yourself or your group and you are more likely to be taken seriously in our news summaries and in our final report. Please read the Dialogue paper and other resources on this Web site, and relate your comments to those materials. Effective Practices for Posting - Give your messages clear titles - When you post a new message or a reply, check the subject line to ensure it reflects the content of the message. Label your topics clearly to give readers an idea of what to expect. - Create single-subject messages whenever possible - This makes it easier for people to respond to the original topic. If several issues are raised in one posting, offshoot conversations may start up under the one topic making it harder to dig them out when you need to in the future. - Don't hesitate to start a new topic - If what you want to say doesn't fit into any of the existing topics, start a new one. If you're responding to an existing topic, but your response engenders a new thread of discussion, start a new topic and point people to the new one in your response to the - When replying - Generally, if you want to respond to a topic, it is better to reply than to start with a new topic. This ensures that discussions remain organized and threads of discussions can develop. When in doubt, reply! - Quote selectively - Quoting someone's previously posted text can be helpful when done correctly, but remember: people do not want to read word for word what they have previously read. Replying to a message will create a "thread" that will indicate to participants which message you are responding to. If you still want to include quotes, only repeat enough text to help you build on the original point. If you are responding to more than one area of a message, quote the individual parts of the message you are responding to, and insert you responses right after the quotes - this helps everyone follow your logic. - Edit your replies - When replying to a message, quote only the text required to put your reply in context. Cut-and-paste quotes into new messages. Edit out needless lines in replies and forwarded material. - Re-read your messages - Once a message is sent, it's gone forever. You can't get it back. Your message will become part of the public record. Be sure to re-read your messages before you send them, particularly ones dealing with sensitive issues, to make sure the words you have typed are really communicating what you intend to say. It's easier to make changes before the message leaves your computer, than to make apologies or give explanations. - Don't shout - Typing your messages in ALL CAPITAL LETTERS comes across as SHOUTING on-line. It's also hard on the eyes. Regular sentence case is the norm, although some people tend to the other extreme of all lower case, which also seems generally acceptable. - Watch your language - If your list subscribers don't all speak the same language, avoid using slang or idioms, unless you're prepared to explain them. Also, beware of accented characters as some older software programs cannot recognize them. - Develop tolerance for informality - Messages on-line tend toward informality. Many people choose to write in their own unique mix of upper and lower case characters, and use more free-form punctuation. You'll also notice a lot more spelling mistakes on-line than off-line. - Exercise patience and tolerance for the views of others - Everyone feels strongly about their own point of view. The discussions forums are available for an exchange of viewpoints. Try to stress what you can learn, as much as what you have to teach. When in doubt, please re-read the Civil Rules that guide all moderation of messages posted to this electronic consultation. Dr. Liss Jeffrey, with materials from the Canadian classic: From Workplace to Workspace Using Email Lists to Work Together by Maureen James & Liz Rykert (IDRC Books Renouf Publishing Co. Ltd.)

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The UK has committed to building a series of new nuclear power stations as part of its long term energy strategy. This major ‘nuclear renaissance’ programme has been driven by increasing demand, concerns about the security of energy supplies, fluctuating fossil fuel prices, the push to reduce green house gases and a strategy of having a balanced energy mix. The planned new build programme in the UK is now approved, and projects are being developed to meet the long term programme and despite minor delays caused as a result of the Fukushima disaster, full scale development programs are beginning to start. The operation of our existing nuclear power plants and the decommissioning and subsequent waste treatment/storage of our existing sites is an on-going legacy, which demands high level skill sets, and stringent Health and Safety regimes. Enzen has in house, and is developing, high level teams to deal with the critical demands across this sector, and to enable us to provide effective solutions to the prime customers and supply chain requirements. Our teams can provide support for ‘Structured Nuclear Projects for Success’, through the Governance & Assurance, Programme Management, Systems and Plant Integration, Testing Services, Commissioning, Engineering Management, Control Systems Integration and Validation. - Operational Management Operating and maintaining nuclear power plants and reprocessing facilities is a complex matrix of processes and skills. From particle physics to civil and mechanical engineering, many specialist skills are required and applied to keep nuclear plants operating efficiently, effectively and safely. Many European nuclear power plants are reaching their end of life and large scale decommissioning programmes are underway. Highly specialised skills are required to achieve the safe shut down of a nuclear plant and the safe disposal or containment of Nuclear waste. Opportunities exist in process re-engineering, systems, civil and mechanical work, monitoring systems and many other areas. - Waste Management and Storage Radioactive material that results from the Nuclear fission process in a reactor presents particular management, disposal and storage challenges. Specialist skills are required at all levels to ensure that the materials are managed and stored safely for the very long term. - New Build In many countries, including in the UK, Governments have decided to enter a new era of building Nuclear Power plants. These new plants will contribute to carbon reduction targets and will deliver a significant proportion of the nations energy requirements, however they come with a cost. Large scale investment in the new build programme is already underway and new challenges and opportunities exist in all areas. - Research and Development Nuclear energy and physics are a highly technical and scientific branch of the energy landscape. A continuous investment in research and development is being made to ensure greater safety, efficiency and productivity.

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The Parenting Education Program in Fairfax County What is the Parenting Education Program and what is its philosophy? The Parenting Education Program is a curriculum used by the Department of Family Services that offers caring, comprehensive classes to parents and their children to help them learn new ways to work together as a family. The program is based on the philosophy that parenting is learned – the way parents were raised directly influences the way they raise their children. The Parenting Education Program teaches positive and effective ways parents can interact with their children at every age and stage of development. The focus is on the family - where children learn the values and beliefs that shape their futures. Who participates in the Parenting Education Program? Families enroll in the program to make their families stronger and closer. This program helps participants understand nurturing behaviors and learn how nurturing behaviors can work within their family environment. Together the family learns to: - Build and develop the ability to recognize and value the thoughts and feelings of others. - Handle uncomfortable feelings such as stress and anger. - Communicate in non-threatening ways. - Establish consistent, nurturing routines for fun family activities. - Use alternatives to physical punishment. - Take charge of their own feelings and behaviors, and interact with others in positive ways. Who may participate in the program? Families living in Fairfax County who want to build healthy interactions and create positive change within their family. What is the cost? Classes are FREE and include an evening meal and child care. What are the requirements for participating? - Participants must agree to complete the program as a family. - Participants should be comfortable in a group learning environment. - Participants must commit to attend the first three sessions to allow the group learning process to develop. Participants of the Parenting Education Program have indicated that the classes: - Help build strong, positive relationships with family members. - Increase understanding and respect for the needs of family members. - Provide information about what to expect from children at different ages and developmental stages. - Increase the self-confidence of parents and children by focusing on strengths. - Offer alternatives to hitting, spanking and yelling. In partnership with our community and with a commitment to quality service, the program promotes self-reliance in families and individuals by providing essential knowledge and resources tailored to the needs of the children, adolescents and adults. Parents and Children (Newborn to 4 years old) Offered in English and Spanish. 21-24 sessions Parents learn to recognize and understand feelings; nurturing parenting routines; infant massage; child development; and ways to foster positive selfesteem in themselves and their children. Parents and Children (5 to 11 years old) Offered in English and Spanish. 13 sessions Parents and children learn to increase their empathy, discover new ways to encourage appropriate behaviors, build positive self-concept and self-esteem, and learn how to have fun as a family. Parents and Adolescents (12 to 18 years old) Offered in English. 12 sessions Family members learn nurturing communication strategies, how to recognize each other’s needs, how to understand the developmental stages of adolescence, and ways to build their own personal power, self-concept and self-esteem. Parents and Children: Family Focused African-American – Focusing on Culture Offered in English. 12-21 sessions The core program for this curriculum is the same as the basic Parenting Education Program but it also emphasizes how African-American history has affected the parenting style for African-Americans. Good Touch/Bad Touch (Pre-K to 6th grade) Offered in English. 1 session Parents enroll their children in the curriculum designed to teach children to prevent or interrupt sexual abuse, deal with bullies, effectively handle sad or angry feelings and stay safe from strangers who may cause them harm. Teen Parenting Offered in select high schools. Teen parents learn new nurturing skills and how to raise healthy children. Read about Curriculum Topics (PDF) in the various classes. Here's how you can become involved with parent education as a volunteer or partnering organization. For more information about this program, call or write: Fairfax County Department of Family Services Children, Youth and Family Division Child Abuse Prevention 12011 Government Center Parkway, Fairfax, Virginia 22035 English: 703-324-7745 • TTY:711 Spanish: 703-324-7405 • TTY: 711 African American Cultural Focus: 703-324-3617 • TTY: 711 Partnering and Community Involvement: 703-324-7745 • TTY 711 Volunteer Manager: 703-324-7871 • TTY 711

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Vejas Liulevicius, Lindsay Young Associate Professor of History, recently published The German Myth of the East, 1800 to the Present. This is a study of the way in which Germans have viewed the lands and peoples of Eastern Europe over the last two centuries and up to the present day. Their perceptions have been a complex mixture of attraction and repulsion, fascinations and fears, covering a spectrum from Romantic sympathies to the racial hatreds espoused by the Nazis. This book argues that this crucial international relationship has been vital to how Germans have defined their own national identity and position in the world. Liulevicius is an internationally known scholar of modern German history, WWI, and diplomatic history. He is also the Director of UTK’s Center for the Study of War and Society. (Forthcoming) “Das Besatzungsregime von Ober-Ost im Vergleich in Besatzungserfahrungen in Europa (1914-1945), ed. Nicolas Beaupré et al. (Klartext, 2008) [translation in German of 2006 article from Histoire et Societes]. (Forthcoming) “German-Occupied Eastern Europe” in The Blackwell Companion to the First World War, ed. John Horne (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2010). The German Myth of the East: 1800 to the Present (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). “Building Nationalism: Monuments, Museums, and the Politics of War Memory in Interwar Lithuania” in Nordost-Archiv, vol. XXII ( 2008) : 230-47. “German Military Occupation and Culture on the Eastern Front in World War I”, in The Germans and the East, ed. Charles Ingrao, et al. (Purdue University Press, 2008) : 201-208. Visit the Quest Gallery at Trace, UT’s digital archive, to access publications of other Quest Scholars of the Week.Tags: Center for the Study of War and Society • History • Vejas Liulevicius

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GREEN VINE SNAKE — by request a example of convergent evolution Oxybelis is a genus of colubrid snakes known commonly as Vine Snakes. They are found through Central America, to the northern countries of South America. Though similar in appearance to the Asian species of vine snake of the genus Ahaetulla, they are not related, and are an example of convergent evolution. Convergent evolution describes the acquisition of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages. The wing is a classic example of convergent evolution in action. Although their last common ancestor did not have wings, both birds and bats do, and are capable of powered flight.

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|Date Added: September 29, 2009 12:00:35 AM| |Category: Ear,Nose and Throat: Nose and Paranasal Sinuses: Sinusitis| Generally speaking a sinus infection is inflammation or swelling of your sinuses. Normally, your sinuses are filled with air. When the sinuses become blocked and filled with fluid, bacteria can grow there and cause sinus infection. This infection is called sinus infection. Everyone having a sinus problem. Mostly children are affected for sinus problem. Thick yellow unpleasant smelling nasal discharge, pressure or uncomfortable pain around the face and eyes, headache, nasal obstruction and congestion, fever or cough is common sinus symptoms. But if the pain around your face & eyes and the yellow thick discharge persists for more than a week you may have sinus problem. The major cause of sinus infections is the condition in which sinus drainage channels are blocked. Such are due to colds, allergy, non allergy rhinitis, and nasal polyps, which are small growths in the lining of your nose. Sinus allergies are due to pollen which is nothing but small particles released by flowering plants enter our body while breathing. The mucus present in the sinuses provides a defense to enter these in the lungs. However, over the time, these pollen allergies prevent the mucus from draining property, which then accumulates and becomes the leading ground for viruses and bacteria. This leads to blocks and infections. Sinus Remedies and treatment To cure sinus is possible with proper medications and sometime even a sinus surgery is performed in chronic sinusitis. There are a wide number of treatments and medications suggested for sinus like allopathic medication, herbal, ayurvedic and Chinese as well. It is always recommended to follow the treatment or medications after consulting your physician. Sinus Surgery is the last treatment after utilize all medication. Home remedies for sinuses Use of mangoes has been considered a very effective remedy for the treatment of sinusitis as they produce healthy epithelium which prevents frequent attacks of sinuses. The main reason is that mangoes are very rich in vitamin A. Garlic and onions are also very useful for sinus infection. Their pungent smell is beneficial. You should start with mild doses and then addition should be made gradually to get best results. Tea of fenugreek seeds is also very effective remedy in acute sinusitis. Cumin seeds are also used to cur sinus. Inhalation of teaspoon of seeds that have been tied in a thin cotton cloth will give you a relief from sinusitis. This is a best remedy for sinusitis. Also if you use a mixture of 100grms of ground roasted cumin seeds with honey you will get excellent results.Vitamin A and C have always proved very useful for sinus treatment. Diets which are rich in these vitamins are very effective.

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A refugee schoolgirl has a chance to learn and build a better future Just across the border from Sudan, in the arid countryside of eastern Chad, wind and dust whip through an open-air school where groups of girls struggle to study. Scattered trees offer little shelter, but in spite of the difficult conditions, the children persevere with their lessons. These girls are among the tens of thousands of refugees from Darfur, many of whom have never been to school before. For girls in particular, this is probably their first opportunity. “After we left home, we went to my mother’s village, which was very far from the nearest school. So after two years I had to drop out,” says 14-year-old Fatna. “I hope I can stay in school now. It would be advantageous to me. Once I know how to read and write and everything, maybe I can become someone in a good position with a responsible job.” Fatna and her family fled Darfur after janjaweed militia attacked their community and killed her sister, along with many others. “She died in front of us,” says Fatna. “We weren’t even able to bury her. We had to run. We had to leave her there.” Finding refuge in the classroom Although her life in a refugee camp is full of challenges, Fatna has been able to go to school here. School has offered her a safe space to regain a sense of stability and normalcy. It also helps protect her and other children from violence, abuse and exploitation. UNICEF has set up semi-permanent and temporary schools at 12 camps for refugees in eastern Chad. The organization supplies teaching equipment and materials and helps train teachers. Lessons follow the Sudanese curriculum so that the children are able to continue their education when they return home. Getting girls to school is a challenge because of discrimination and cultural traditions. Girls are expected to work inside the home and look after other children, and they are sometimes forced into early marriage. In the Darfur refugee communities in Chad, UNICEF is working to stress the importance of girls’ education – and almost every child in the camps is now enrolled in a school. “The women in the community have understood the importance of sending girls to school,” says UNICEF Education Officer Paola Retaggi. “The replies that we get from them are that they want to give girls a better chance, a chance they didn’t have in Sudan.” Even Fatna’s father is now convinced of the benefits of sending his daughter to school. “It’s important to educate girls,” he says. “If the girl goes to school, then she knows everything. Sometimes it’s even good for the family. If a girl goes to school, she can aid her family.” For many girls, education is the only way to end poverty and discrimination. It is also a determinant of how much influence a woman can have in household decision-making. Read more about inequality in the household. - Audio interview: Ann Marie Goetz, chief advisor on Governance, Peace and Security at UNIFEM - Millennium Development Goals - Additional real-life stories - Multimedia feature: Gender and the life cycle - Photo essay: The double dividend of gender equality - UNICEF’s work in education and gender equality - United Nations Girls' Education Initiative - The Impact of Conflict on Women and Girls

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The Lancet, Volume 380, Issue 9843 , Pages 705 - 706, 25 August 2012 doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61025-3Cite or Link Using DOI 40 years of innovation in sexual and reproductive health The UN has been involved in matters concerning human reproduction since 1951, when the Indian Government requested assistance from WHO to introduce the rhythm method of family planning. The climate at that time was highly conservative; for example, the suggestion that WHO participate in the UN World Population Conference of 1954 resulted in threats by some member states to quit the organisation. It took more than 10 years before the WHO Director General could publicly state that issues in human ... This article is made available free of charge, as a service to our users. Please login to access the full article, or register if you do not yet have a username and password. Already Registered? Please Login New to TheLancet.com? TheLancet.com is the online home of: - The Lancet - The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology - The Lancet Infectious Diseases - The Lancet Neurology - The Lancet Oncology - The Lancet Respiratory Medicine Please register to access selected articles for free, personalize and interact with this site. Registration is free, takes no more than two minutes, and offers you many benefits.

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Kansas Geological Survey, Bulletin 6, pt. 1, originally published in 1920 Start--Chapters 1, 2, and 3 [11. For a very complete summary of all the hypotheses relative to the formation of petroleum, see Hofer, H. V., Das Erdol, 1906, v. 1, p. 160-229; and Engler, C. and Höfer, H. V., Die Geologie, Gewinnung und der Transport des Erdols, 1909, v. 2, ; Liepzig, p. 59-142. See also, Clarke, F. W., Data of Geochemistry: U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 616, 1916, p. 726-737; Campbell, M. R., Historical Review of Theories Advanced by American Geologists to Account for the Origin and Accumulation of Oil; Economic Geology, v. 6, 1911, p. 363-395; and White, David, Some Relations in Origin Between Coal and Petroleum; Washington Academy of Science, Journal, v. 5, 1915, p. 189-212, map.] That the gaseous, liquid, and solid hydrocarbons which occur in petroleum and natural gas are closely related, is evident from the fact that liquids identical with those distilled from petroleum may be condensed from natural gas; similarly, that the gases given off by petroleum are like those predominating in natural gas; and finally, that exposure of many petroleums to the air results in change to a viscous mass, which on drying becomes a solid asphalt or paraffin-like substance. Petroleum is rarely free from natural gas, although the gas may sometimes be formed alone, as in coal mines or from decaying vegetation. The question of the origin of these hydrocarbon compounds has great scientific interest as well as a fundamental importance in the economic development of these materials. It has engaged the attention of naturalists and others for more than a hundred years and has been the subject of considerable speculation and no little controversy. The hypotheses which have been so far advanced for the origin of oil and gas may be divided into two main categories: (1) the inorganic, advanced chiefly by chemists on the basis of laboratory experimentation, and (2) the organic, held chiefly geologists and those familiar with the geologic occurrence of oil and gas. The same evidence, interestingly enough, has been used in certain cases by persons holding opposite views. It is not possible or desirable in this report to consider in detail the almost innumerable hypotheses that have been advanced, but it will be valuable to review briefly the most important. That oil and gas may be derived entirely from inorganic sources was first definitely suggested by the French chemist Berthelot.12 On the assumption that the interior of the earth might contain free alkaline metals, he stated that mineral oil was produced by purely chemical action, similar to that employed in the manufacture of acetylene. Other hypotheses of like nature have been proposed by other chemists, one of the most noteworthy of which is that of the Russian chemist, Mendeléef.13 This ascribes the formation of petroleum to the action of surface waters, which, percolating downward through the rocks to the heated interior of the earth, become converted into steam and attack iron carbides to form the hydrocarbons which make up oil and gas. From a chemical standpoint this more or less satisfactorily meets the requirements, but the circulation postulated is questionable and the actual existence of the carbides in nature remains to be proven. For example, if oil and gas were thus formed we should expect to find them most widely distributed and abundant in the oldest rocks of the earth's crust, an expectation which is distinctly contrary to fact. The production of hydrocarbons from cast iron,14 the formation of various metallic carbides in the electric furnace,15 and various reported occurrences of gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons in association with volcanic emanations and igneous rocks,16 seem to accord with inorganic hypotheses. The association of oil and gas with igneous rocks is not common, but even in the occurrences known there is no proof that the oil and gas originated in the igneous rock. Admitting that small quantities of different hydrocarbons may be formed by various inorganic agencies, the evidence seems to indicate clearly that this is not the origin of the large commercially important accumulations of the natural hydrocarbons. [12. Berthelot, E. M. P., Annales Chem. Phys., 4th series, v. 9, 1866, p. 481.] [13. Mendeléef, D., Ber Deutch. chem. Gesell., v. 10, 1877, p. 229; Jour. Chem. Soc., v. 32, p. 283; also, Mendeléef's Principles of Chemistry, Eng. trans., 1891, p. 346-366.] [14. Hahn, Williams, and Clofz, Compt. rend., v. 75, p. 1,003.] [15. Moissan, Compt. rend. v. 122, 1896, p. 1,362.] [16. Analyses of volcanic gases from Sicily, Santorin, and West Indies (Clarke, F. W., Data of Geochemistry: U. S. Geological Survey. Bull. 616, 1916, p. 263, 268) show the presence of methane (CH4). Basaltic lavas near Etna contain small amounts of oil and paraffin (Silvestri, O., Gazz, chim. ital., v. 7, 1877, p. 1, v. 12, 1882, p. 9, cited by Clarke (1916, p. 727), and the petroleum of certain Javan and Mexican fields is closely associated with igneous rocks. (Clarke, F. W., 1916, p. 727.)] An overwhelming and increasing majority of those who have studied the accumulated geologic evidence, and who are familiar with the natural conditions under which petroleum occurs, are of the opinion that oil and gas are of organic origin. The organic hypotheses suggest that the natural hydrocarbons have been formed by the decomposition of organic matter buried in the rocks, though the precise character of the organisms and the exact nature of changes involved are not entirely certain. Petroleum has been prepared by the distillation of certain animal oils and is produced by the natural decomposition of some seaweeds. It is found chiefly in sedimentary rocks containing more or less abundant fossilized remains of various organisms. Gaseous hydrocarbons, especially methane, are certainly derived from decaying vegetation, either as "marsh gas" in swamps, or "fire damp" in coal mines. Methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and nitrogen are produced in the decay of seaweeds.17 That hydrocarbons analogous to natural gas, petroleum and asphalt may be derived from either plant or animal matter or both has been demonstrated. The genesis of the larger accumulations of mineral oil, however, has not been proved. The fact that natural petroleum shows an optical activity similar to that of sugar, lactic acid, and other organic compounds, which inorganically synthesized oil does not possess, is claimed to indicate undoubtedly the organic origin of petroleum. [17. Phillips, F. C., Am. Chem. Jour., v. 16, p. 427, 1894, cited by Clarke, Data of Geochemistry; U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 616, p. 729, 1916.] While the evidence seems to indicate the organic origin of oil and gas, there is a difference of opinion as to whether they have been derived from accumulations of plants, the remains of animals, or both. Plant origin. It was held very early that oil and gas were derived from the natural distillation of carbonaceous matter such as the remains of plants in coal. That plants have been very abundant in the past is shown by the numerous plant fossils which have been found in the rocks of almost every geologic age, including plants living on the land, and others found only in the sea. An apparent relation between oil and gas and certain land plants is indicated by the facts that hydrocarbons similar to those found in petroleum have been reported18 in some bituminous coals, and that in at least one locality in West Virginia gas wells produce from the Pittsburg coal bed.19 Plant spores, the so-called "algal remains" of boghead coal, are very abundant in some highly bituminous or petroliferous coals and shales, and may be in some form or other a source of petroleum.20 Opposed to this it is observed that in general there is a striking lack of any association between petroleum and coal or lignite, that it requires a relatively high temperature, from a geologic standpoint, to convert wood into liquid bitumen without traces of its original structure, and that there is a great chemical difference between petroleum and the tar oils from coal and lignite. It does not seem that terrestrial vegetation would generally give rise to petroleum. [18. Frazer, J. C. W., and Hoffman, E. J., The Constituents of Coal Soluble in Phenol: U. S. Bureau of Mines, Tech. Paper 5, 1912.] [19. Johnson, R. H., and Huntley, L. G., Principles of Oil and Gas Production, p. 19, 1916.] [20. Jeffrey, E. C., On the Composition and Qualities of Coal: Econ. Geology, v. 9, p. 741, 1914.] It is possible, in accordance with the arguments of many, that marine plants such as seaweeds are largely the source of petroleum and natural gas. Sea plants along the coasts of Sweden and Sardinia give rise to petroleum as a product of decomposition.21 As observed in the California fields, oil is very closely associated, in many instances, with deposits of diatoms.22 The occurrence of petroleum in these diatomaceous deposits is so widespread that the diatom formations have been reliable guides in prospecting-a fact which furnishes the best evidence of the diatomaceous origin of the oil in these districts. Also, the saline water associated with some oils carries iodine,23 an element characteristically present in sea water. It seems likely that petroleum is at least in part derived from marine plants. [21. Redwood, Sir Boverton, Petroleum and Its Products, 3rd edition, 1913, v. 1, p. 132, 148.] [22. Arnold, Ralph, and Anderson, Robert, Geology and Oil Resources of the Santa Maria Oil District, Santa Barbara County, Cal.; U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 322, p. 109, 1917. Anderson, Robert, and Pack, R. W., Geology and Oil Resources of the West Border of the San Joaquin Valley, North of Coalinga, Cal.; U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 603, p. 198, 1915.] [23. Watts, Cal. State Min. Bur., Bull. 19, p. 202, cited by Ries, H., Economic Geology, 4th edition, p. 82, 1916.] Animal origin. The theory that petroleum is formed by the decomposition or destructive distillation of animal matter entombed in the strata has many adherents. Under conditions easily reproducible in the chemical laboratory, animal matter of almost any sort can be decomposed into mixtures of oils closely resembling petroleum. The chemical processes involve the elimination of nitrogen and nitrogen compounds and a destructive distillation of the fats to form mixtures of hydrocarbons. Since there is indubitable evidence of the former existence of hosts of animal life of various kinds in the strata now containing petroleum, it seems very possible that, at least in part, the natural hydrocarbons are products of animal remains. In support of this belief it may be noted that certain petroliferous beds in Europe are very rich in fossil fish or the remains of mollusks.24 Shells filled with petroleum have been observed by various writers.25 The nitrogen bases of certain California petroleums furnish strong evidence that animal proteids contribute their share and are indication of the animal origin of these particular oils. Numerous objections, more or less valid, have been raised against an exclusively animal origin of the natural hydrocarbons. Since limestone is formed almost entirely by the accumulated shells and other hard parts of various sea animals, it might be supposed that oil and gas would be particularly closely associated with such formations. On the contrary, limestones are in most cases compact and massive, very ill-suited, except where rendered porous by strong jointing, solution, or dolomitization, to act as reservoirs for oil or gas. It has been pointed out26 that were oil derived from animal remains to any large extent there should be a certain proportion of phosphates in the composition of petroleum, since these are characteristic constituents of almost all animal life. The accumulation and burying of the dead animals in such a manner as to account for the great quantity of petroleum deposits known, is also to be considered. It seems necessary, however, to conclude that in certain cases petroleum and natural gas are largely derived from animal remains of various sorts. [24. Clarke, F. W., loc. cit., p. 730.] [25. Phillips, F. C., On the Occurrence of Petroleum in the Cavities of Fossils: Am. Phil. Soc. Proc., v. 36, p. 121-126, 1897. Fraas, O. F., Bull. Soc. sci. nat. Neuchatel, v. 8, 1868, p. 58. Clarke, F. W., loc. cit., p. 731, 732.] [26. Craig, E. H., Cunningham Oil Finding, p. 9, 10, 1912.] The statements which have been made at once suggest an intermediate group of hypotheses which assume a mixed origin for petroleum-animal matter in some cases, vegetable matter in others, or both together. Suggestions of this sort have been made by a large number of writers,27 probably the most detailed statement being that of Engler and Höfer28 This states that petroleum is derived from the natural decomposition in situ of the fatty remains of marine organisms, both animal and vegetable, and indicates the probable chemical stages of the change. Some contend that oils having an asphalt base are derived from animal matter, and that those having a paraffin base, from vegetable matter, but little can be advanced in proof. It seems clear that under the proper conditions both plants and animals may supply the essential hydrocarbon constituents of oil and gas. [27. Haworth, Erasmus, Kansas Univ. Geol. Survey, v. 1, 1896; Bownocker, J. A., Geol. Survey Ohio, 4th ser., Bull. 1, 1903; Blatchley, W. S., Ind. Dept. Geol. and Nat. Hist., 28th Ann. Rept., 1904; McGee, W. J., U.S. Geol. Survey, 11th Ann. Rept., 1891, p. 589; Campbell, M. R., Econ. Geol., v. 6, 1911, p. 363-395.] [28. Engler, C., and Höfer, H., Das Erdol., v. 2, p. 59-102, 1909. See also, Engler, C., Petroleum Industry, v. 1, p. 24-26, 1916.] Differences in the quality of the oils are possibly in part due to differences of capillarity, heat, pressure, and extent of the migration of the oil,29 but none of the suggestions along this line has been definitely proved. It has been intimated recently by Richardson30 that phenomena of surfaces and films, as demonstrated by recent developments of colloidal chemistry, open an entirely new viewpoint for the interpretation of the origin of petroleum. According to this view the origin of all forms of petroleum must be attributed to surface action between a natural gas and the "sands" (using this term in a general sense) with which it comes in contact. [29. Petroleum can be separated by simple filtration through fuller's earth into fractions that differ in density, viscosity, and composition as shown by D. T. Day (Cong.Internat. Petrole., Paris, 1900, p. 53).] [30. Richardson, D. Jour. Ind. Eng. And Chem., v. I, p. 4, 1916, cited by Bacon and Hamor, loc. cit., p. 32.] An interesting and apparently a genetically important correlation between the quality of the oil and the degree of deformation of the containing strata has been made by David White.31 He has shown that in general the oils associated with the low volatile coals are of light specific gravity. This is attributed to the formation of a new very light oil of dynamo-chemical32 origin, which is contributed to the reservoir, or else to the dynamic transformation of the old oil. White33 has considered the ingredient materials of coal and oil rocks; the biochemical and dynamo-chemical processes of alteration of the organic detritus; its devolatilization; its regional alteration, and the corresponding regional differences in petroleums, and the occurrence of higher-rank oils in regions of greater alteration of the carbonaceous residues. His conclusions are as follows: (1) Petroleum is a product generated in the course of the geodynamic alteration of deposits of organic debris of certain types buried in the sedimentary strata. (2) The quantity and characters of the oils generated are determined by: (a) the composition of the organic deposit at the beginning of alteration; (b) the stage in the progress of this; (c) the elimination of the heavier and more viscous hydrocarbons through filtration incident to migration. It is probable that the composition of the mother organic deposit largely regulates the types of oils; it may account for the nitrogen and sulfur content, color, etc. (3) The rank of the oils is proportional to the degree of alteration of the carbonaceous deposits. (4) The change is marked by concentration of hydrogen in the distillates and of carbon in the residues. (5) Abnormally light oils are in most cases due to filtration. (6) In general, the oils found in successively underlying formations are progressively higher in rank. (7) In regions where the progressive devolatilization of the organic deposits in any formation has passed a certain point (usually 65 to 70 percent fixed carbon) commercial oil pools are not present in that or underlying formations, although gas may occur. (8) Wherever the regional alteration of the carbonaceous residues passes the point marked by 65 to 70 percent of fixed carbon in the pure coals, the light distillates appear in general to be gases at rock temperatures. [31. White, David, Some relations in origin between coal and petroleum: Wash. Acad. Sci. Jour., v. 5, p. 189-212, 1915.] [32. The word dynamo-chemical is used to include the action of the heat generated by the pressure as well as the pressure itself.] [33. White, David, Wash. Acad. Sci., Jour., v. 5, p. 189, 1915.] It may be said that nearly all of the proposed theories to account for the origin of petroleum include certain elements of truth; in regard to some of the theories considerable experimental proof and geologic field evidence have been adduced. Hydrocarbons similar to those found in petroleum and natural gas may be formed by chemical processes from entirely inorganic sources. The volcanic hypothesis is supported by the fact that hydrocarbons occur among volcanic emanations, and perhaps by the limited occurrence of hydrocarbons in certain igneous rocks. As pointed out by Clarke,34 however, any attempt to discover the origin of petroleum must take into careful account the quantitative adequacy of the suggested sources. On this basis it seems clear that in none of the known petroleum fields are any of the inorganic hypotheses competent to explain the origin of the oil and gas. The organic origin of petroleum appears to be best maintained by the geologic relations of the hydrocarbons and by a consideration of all the factors involved. On the whole, the Engler-Höfer dual theory has the largest number of adherents. Campbell, who has considered the available evidence in a searching manner,35 states that the testimony favors the animal origin of most petroleum, although a certain amount has probably been derived from the fatty portions of plants. The factors that must be considered are of extreme variety and complexity, and it is doubtful if any dogmatic statement concerning the origin of the natural hydrocarbons applicable to all occurrences can be made. [34. Clarke, F. W., loc. cit., p. 735.] [35. Campbell, M. R., Petroleum and natural gas resources of Canada: Canada Dept. of Mines Branch, v. 1, p. 76, 1914.] Whatever may be the source of petroleum and natural gas, and whatever the character of reactions which operate in their production, it is almost certain that they first appear in a state of dissemination. If this is true, question must be raised as to the conditions that have caused them to move through the rocks and to accumulate in the pools of varying size which have been encountered in drilling. These problems will be briefly considered before discussing the geological occurrence of oil and gas. The movement of oil and gas through the rocks seems referable to five main causes. These are (1) gravitation, (2) capillary attraction, (3) displacement, (4) gas pressure, and (5) difference in specific gravities. (1) Oil and gas, in common with all other substances, are affected by gravitation, but due to the intervention of more powerful forces it operates as a cause of migration only under conditions in which other agencies are relatively inactive. Where the rocks are dry and sufficiently porous, gravity causes a downward migration of the oil, which is pulled through the pores of the rocks until the spaces between the grains of the rock become too narrow or water is encountered. The movement of oil under the influence of gravity, however, is weak, and probably has played a very small part in the great migration of oil which has produced the large oil pools. (2) Capillary attraction is effective in producing movement of oil and is probably a much more important agent than gravitation. Capillarity, which may be illustrated by the absorption of ink in the fine pores of a blotter, or the rise of kerosene in a lamp wick, affects all liquids. The amount of movement of oil in the rocks due to capillarity depends on the material of the rocks, the diameter of the pores, and the temperature. Day36 has shown that petroleum will diffuse readily in all directions through dry clay and shale, the oil becoming separated in the diffusion into fractions of different specific gravities. The migration of the oil depends on the extremely small size of the pores, the amount of attraction being inversely proportional to their diameter. Movement ceases where the diameter of the pores becomes too great. In the absence of water, capillarity will draw oil into the fine pores and will probably not operate to produce any considerable migration of the oil. The differential capillary attraction of oil and water is, however, as shown by Washburne,37 an important factor in causing movement. Since water has a surface tension almost 50 percent higher than that of oil, it tends to be drawn into the fine openings in the rocks with a correspondingly greater force than that of oil. The water, therefore, moves with more readiness from sandstone to shale than in the reverse direction, while gas and oil tend to move in the opposite way. The net result is the concentration of the gas and oil in the coarsest available spaces in the rocks. As shown by experiment,38 water-wet shale is practically impervious to oil and gas, and is, therefore, admirably fitted to serve as a cap rock, holding oil and gas which have accumulated in a porous rock beneath. Capillarity is doubtless effective in moving oil and gas from the less to the more porous rocks, but is probably not an important factor in the broad migration of these fluids. [36. Day, David T., The conditions of accumulation of petroleum in the earth: Am. Phil. Soc. Of Phil., Proc., v. 36, p. 112-155, 1897; also, Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Trans., v. 41, p. 212-224, 1910.] [37. Washburne, C. W., The capillary concentration of gas and oil: Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Bull., no. 93, p. 2365-2378, 1914; also, Capillarity, practical oil geology, Dorsey Hager, p. 8, 9, 1916.] [38. Day, David T., loc. cit.] (3) An effective cause of the migration of oil and gas is the displacement of these materials by agencies which drive them from places previously occupied to new positions in the rocks. One of the most important agencies of displacement is the compacting of oil- and gas-containing strata by weight of the overlying rocks. The muds or shales, in which the oil and gas may be assumed largely to originate, permit much greater compacting than associated sands or sandstones, and the fluid hydrocarbons of the former are squeezed out more or less completely into the porous rocks of the latter type, or along any other line or relief. If joints or fractures are present in associated competent strata there is ready movement along these, but in most cases the only avenue of escape is through the minute spaces between the grains of porous rocks. Since the oil and gas are not regular in their initial distribution through the rocks, and since, due to variation in the weight of overlying beds and differences in the composition and texture of the rocks compressed, the degree of compacting of the strata is not uniform, the squeezing out of the oil and gas is probably by no means the same in different localities. A second agency of displacement which is probably active in many instances is the reduction of the volume of pore space in the oil- and gas-containing strata by deposition of cement between the grains of the rock. Cementation probably increases as the rocks become more deeply buried, since the load of dissolved material is very much greater in the ground water of the lower levels. In many rocks, even those of very coarse grain, cement may completely fill the interspaces between the grains, making it impossible for them to serve as a reservoir for oil and gas. A third cause of displacement may be cited in the effect of temperature, which rises gradually with increase of depth within the earth. Since gas, oil, and rock do not expand at the same rate when heated, the expansion of the first and second being much greater than that of the last named, the gas and oil must, in general, be forced upward. Fluctuations, such as take place in the geologic history of most oil and gas reservoirs, produce repeated changes both in temperature and pressure, which affect the volume relations of the reservoir. (4) Gas pressure, which is probably responsible in large part for the tremendous force with which the oil is expelled from most wells of the "gusher" type, and for the more quiet flow of many other wells, is a fourth cause of the migration of oil and gas through the rocks. As gas accumulates in the rocks its pressure increases, causing it to expand and drive with it any liquid in its path. Pressure in addition to that of accumulated natural gas of the ordinary type is exerted where new gas is formed by dynamo-chemical agencies acting on organic matter under the increased heat and pressure of the deeper rocks. Such gas is known to be formed from certain of the deeper coals, and in the eastern oil and gas fields an apparent increase in the proportion of gas to oil and water at increased depths has been observed. This gas pressure will cause movement until equilibrium is reached by the capillary attraction of oil or water in the fine pores of the rocks or by compensating hydrostatic pressure. When by any chance the containing reservoir of the oil and gas is breached, as by erosion, or by a fault, gas pressure may cause the more or less complete escape of the lighter oil and gas. (5) Difference in the specific gravities of water, oil, and gas is a very effective and important cause of the migration of oil and gas through the rocks. As the oil and gas are lighter than the water, they tend to rise to the surface of the water in the rocks, and may be raised by the pressure of the water up the dip of the inclined porous beds. Consequently, where the rocks are saturated, the oil and gas have been accumulated in the highest part of the reservoir. It has been argued by Munn39 that the movement of the oil and gas is due to the circulation of the water, the particles of oil being carried along by the water. In many regions, however, there is little to indicate such a general circulation, and the theory has not met with general acceptance. In any case, the presence or absence of water in the rocks has played a very important part in the movement and accumulation of oil and gas, and in the study of any district it is necessary to determine at the outset whether the rocks are wet or dry. [39. Munn, M. J., Studies in the application of the anticlinal theory of oil and gas accumulation: Econ. Geology, v. 4, p. 141-157, 1909.] The movements of oil and gas in the rocks due to the presence of water have been summarized by Campbell40 in accordance with the generally accepted ideas of oil geologists: "Urged on by the difference in specific gravity, the oil will rise through the interstitial pores in the rock. If the rock consists of a great mass of sandstone the oil will be forced to the top of the bed, unless it has been arrested in transit by a barrier of impervious sand or clay-sealed fault. After reaching the top of a particular 'sand,' be it thick or thin, the oil, if still forced by the water behind, will seek to escape into the overlying bed, but if this bed be composed of impervious clay or shale the oil will be confined to the one stratum. When so confined its movement will depend almost entirely upon the attitude of the bed, or, in other words, upon the geologic structure. If the bed lies nearly horizontal there is manifestly no place to which the oil can migrate, and then it collects in the uppermost layers of the sand. Beds of rock, however, seldom retain their horizontality for any great distance. If they rise, the oil will tend to move in this direction, but whether this tendency develops into actual motion will depend largely upon the degree of inclination of the bed. If the dip is slight the pressure resulting from the difference in specific gravities of the water and oil may not be sufficient to drive the oil through the open sand, but in case the bed is sharply tilted the oil will move freely, provided that the sand maintains its open character." [40. Campbell, M. R., Petroleum and natural gas resources of Canada: Can. Dept. of Mines, Mines Branch, part 1, p. 82, l914.] The agencies which have been discussed in describing the movements of oil and gas through the rocks may, under proper conditions, operate to form at least partial accumulations of these materials. In very porous, dry rocks gravitation may cause a downward migration of oil into the lowest available spaces, such as the bottoms of synclines, as observed in parts of the West Virginia and Pennsylvania oil fields. In general, however, the conditions requisite for accumulation of oil by gravitation are absent, and as gravity is at best a rather ineffective cause of oil movement, concentration by it must be regarded as exceptional. Capillary attraction, especially the difference in capillarities of oil and water, is competent to produce an initial concentration of oil and gas in the coarsest and most porous available strata, but such accumulations ire probably in few cases sufficiently large to be treated as commercial pools. Similarly, displacements and gas pressure may produce concentrations of oil and gas, but probably not in important amounts. Difference in specific gravities tends to concentrate the gas, oil, and water at definite levels in the rocks (figs. 2, 3, 4, and 7), the degree of the separation depending on the porosity of the rock, and to a certain extent, in many cases, on the motion of the materials through the strata. The separation and concentration due to specific gravities are especially important in producing commercial pools of oil and gas, the character of the accumulations depending, of course, on geologic structure and other conditions. It is especially important in the very broad, lens-shaped reservoirs that are the largest producers in the midcontinent field. Even where the reservoir has not been tilted from the horizontal, the roof is sufficiently inclined in most cases to permit a separation according to specific gravities and hence an accumulation of gas and oil. In the first-discovered fields oil and gas were found in porous, sandy strata which varied in texture from fine-grained sandstones to conglomerates. These rocks were termed sands,41 and the porous part of the sands containing oil or gas, pools. Discoveries in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Texas, and recently in Oklahoma and Kansas, have shown that oil and gas may occur in limestone. Much of the oil from the Bend limestone of Texas and the Mississippian in northern Oklahoma and the El Dorado district of Kansas appears to come from very porous, cherty beds in the limestone. In a few fields (Florence, Colo., and parts of California) the oil has accumulated in fissures in shale. In a few recorded instances oil has been found in igneous and crystalline rocks, though generally not in sufficient amounts to be important (Thralls, Tex.). The term "sands," as applied broadly to any oil- and gas-containing rock, is not, therefore, an accurate lithologic term, although most oil and gas accumulations are actually in sand or sandstone. [41. The proper usage of the various terms applied to various portions of oil- or gas-containing rocks, such as sandbody, pay, pool, and oil sand, have been summarized recently by Johnson and Huntley, Principles of oil and gas production, p. 39, 40, 57, 59, 1916.] The name reservoir is commonly applied to the sufficiently porous part of the sand or other rock that is capable of holding and yielding a commercial quantity of oil or gas if they are present. It includes the whole porous volume of the rock, whether it contains water, oil, or gas, or if part of the space is dry. The fundamental requisite of an oil and gas reservoir is porosity. Shales have a relatively slight amount of pore space and the existing pores are very fine. Therefore, even though a shale is saturated with oil, a well drilled into it will hardly obtain a showing of oil, because the fineness of the openings in the rock hinders the escape of the oil. Limestones are, in the majority of cases, compact and rather fine grained, containing a relatively low amount of available pore space. The percentage of pore space in average sandstone is higher, but is by no means so large as that of most sands and conglomerates, because the cementing material which binds the grains of the sandstone together, to a greater or less degree, fills the pores. In average sandstone it varies from 5 to 15 percent, while in unconsolidated sands it may amount to 15 or 25 percent, and in conglomerates to as much as 30 percent. The porosity of the sands and the sandstones varies with a number of factors, such as the size of the grains, the uniformity of their shape, and the amount of clayey matter or cement between the grains (see plate IV). Spherical grains of uniform size, without any cement, would have a maximum pore space; grains of irregular shape and size, with abundant cement, have a minimum pore space. In case the spaces between the grains are completely filled with solid matter the rock may be absolutely compact and impervious (plate IV G). In sandstone of this type there can naturally be no commercially important accumulation of oil. Dry, nonporous sandstone may occur as local "dry spots" in the midst or porous sand reservoirs containing abundant oil and gas, or dry sandstone may be extensive enough to separate adjacent pools. Since lack of porosity is a matter of the rock texture, such irregularities cannot be predicted or defined except by drilling. Plate IV--Pore space of rocks. A. Hypothetical rock with large spherical grains, maximum pore space. B. Hypothetical rock with large spherical grains, minimum pore space. C. Hypothetical rock with small spherical grains, maximum pore space. D. Hypothetical rock with small spherical grains, minimum pore space. E. Irregular grains without cement, showing maximum pore space. F. Irregular grains with interspaces partly filled with cement, showing reduced pore space. G. Irregular grains with interspaces completely filled with cement, no pore space. The total amount of pore space in A and C, or in B and D, is the same, but a fluid may be drained much more quickly and completely from the coarse-grained rock. There is a not uncommon belief that oil is derived from underground lakes that are encountered by the drill. From the statements which have been made it is obvious that this is not a necessary assumption with regard to oil reservoirs, as the small pore spaces between the grains of the rock offer quite sufficient room for the accumulation of enormous quantities of oil and gas. Thus, in each 100 cubic feet of a sand containing 20 percent pore space, 20 cubic feet of oil might occur. An acre of such sand, 10 feet thick, would contain, if saturated, 15,553 barrels of oil, and greater thicknesses correspondingly greater amounts. It should be noted, however, that the total oil actually contained in a reservoir is never entirely capable of recovery. Indeed, under present methods of extraction, probably not more than 15 to 25 percent of the oil is, on the average, obtained from the reservoir. An all-important requirement for the accumulation of oil and gas is an impervious cover or retaining roof which will hold the oil and gas in the porous reservoir. Such an enclosing cover may consist of almost any very fine or compact rock, such as shale, closely cemented sandstone or dense limestone. If the fine pores of the cover rock are filled with water, it is the more effective in retaining the contents of the reservoir below. In the absence of a suitable cover the oil and gas will escape from the reservoir, the lighter oil becoming volatilized and leaving behind a heavy residue. The abundant and heavy shales of the oil-bearing strata in Kansas have hindered the escape of the oil and gas, but at the outcrop of certain interbedded sands in Missouri (in the vicinity of Higginsville and elsewhere) heavy asphaltic deposits have been formed, due to the escape and evaporation of petroleum formerly present in the rocks. Impervious strata occur beneath as well as above most oil- and gas-containing beds. The lateral extent of the reservoir rocks is a matter of importance. If the sand is lenticular in shape (fig. 2), the capacity to hold oil and gas is gradually reduced in all directions until at the point where the sand disappears it is zero. If such a lenticular reservoir is enclosed between relatively impervious shale beds it may contain a large accumulation of oil and gas, even where inclined steeply, the shale at the end of the sand serving to retain the oil and gas. A very large number of the oil and gas reservoirs of the world are of this type. They are especially common in the midcontinent field. Figure 2--Diagram showing oil and gas in porous lenses. The gas, oil and water accumulate in the order of their respective specific gravities, being hindered from escaping by the pinching-out of the reservoir between beds of essentially inpervious shale. Notice that there is no indication in the geologic structure of the existence of such oil deposits. The inclination of the beds is considerably exaggerated. The accumulation of oil and gas has a fundamental relation to the geologic structure of the rocks containing them. There is rarely, if ever, a sufficient quantity of oil and gas initially distributed throughout a reservoir to permit commercial production, and consequently there must be a concentration of these materials in the reservoir. This further concentration is chiefly due to the geologic structure. In perfectly horizontal strata there is no force compelling accumulation of the oil and gas at any particular place in the reservoir rock. Where the rocks are tilted there is a tendency, which is proportional to the amount of tilting and the degree of porosity of the rocks, for the oil to move along the strata. If the reservoir is very dry and sufficiently porous the oil will move downward under the force of gravity, but if the rocks are saturated with water, the oil and gas will be floated upward along the stratum. In the first case, which is exceptional, the oil may become concentrated at the bottom of a syncline or where water or some other obstacle is encountered (fig. 3). Oil accumulations of this type occur in the folded rocks of Pennsylvania and West Virginia and in at least one field (Spring valley, Uinta County) in Wyoming. In some instances a small syncline is filled with oil on account of its position on the limb of a larger anticlinal structure in which the oil and gas are concentrated. Downward movement of the oil tends rather to dispersion than concentration. Figure 3--Diagram showing oil in a syncline. This diagrammatic, geologic cross section shows the occurrence of oil in a synclinal fold in which one porous stratum (a) is entirely dry, and in which another (b) is partly filled with water. It will be noted that in the dry stratum the oil sinks to the bottom of the fold, but in a partly filled bed it is floated on the water a certain distance up the sides of the fold. The vertical scale is greatly exaggerated. In the second case the oil and gas are elevated as far as the water rises. If the water advances only a portion of the possible distance, the oil and gas may be partially concentrated and will not be under pressure (fig. 3, bed b). If, however, the pressure of the water is strong, they will be forced through the porous bed until they reach the earth's surface and escape, or until some obstacle is encountered which hinders further movement, when they may be compressed to occupy a minimum of volume. The obstacles to unimpeded upward migration of gas, oil, and water are various. If the reservoir rock is lenticular in shape the terminal upper portion of the lens will retain the fluid contents of the rock by reason of the inclosing impervious beds, the gas accumulating at the top, the oil next below, and the water occupying the lowermost portion of the reservoir (fig. 2). In some cases the reservoir stratum is broken across by a clay-sealed fault (fig. 4) or fine-grained igneous intrusion, which obstructs the movement of the gas, oil, and water through the rocks, and accumulation takes place in the same manner. Where an oil- and gas-containing bed crops out at the surface the oil and gas may escape, but in some instances the outcropping reservoir is effectively sealed by the very viscous or solid paraffin or asphaltic residues, which remain in the pores of the rock after the partial escape and evaporation of oil. Such a barrier may operate effectively to produce a concentration of the oil remaining in the reservoir. Figure 4--Diagram showing oil sealed in by a fault. The oil in the porous bed has accumulated above the water, but is hindered from escaping by the impervious shale and clayey matter which cut across the oil reservoir. Oil formerly in the stratum to the right of the fault has escaped. Slight oil seepage may occur where the fault appears at the surface, but a well drilled here has missed the oil pool. By far the most important obstacle to continued movement of oil, gas, and water along the reservoir, and hence a most significant cause of oil and gas accumulation is a marked lowering of the angle of inclination or a reverse tilting of the upwardly inclined reservoir stratum, forming a monoclinal or anticlinal fold (fig. 7) or dome. Under these conditions the oil and gas are raised into the uppermost part of the structure, where they are prevented from further movement or escape by the impervious cap rock which overlies the reservoir bed. The gas, by reason of its lightness, will accumulate at the top of the structure immediately beneath the cap rock; the oil, having a specific gravity lower than the water, will be separated in a zone or layer between the gas and water, and the water will occupy the lowest parts of the reservoir. In proportion to the sharpness of the anticline and the steepness of the inclination of the strata on either side, the oil and gas will be concentrated into narrow limits and the pressure will tend to increase. In some districts in California and parts of the Rocky Mountain fields, the oil-containing strata stand vertically, or are even overturned, and the amount of the arching or folding may be from 500 to 5,000 feet. In many cases, on the other hand, the anticline is so very broad and gentle, or the structural terrace (monocline) is so poorly defined, that the accumulation is not very effective. In Oklahoma and Kansas the strata have everywhere a very slight inclination, and the amount of folding or uplift is rarely more than 100 or 200 feet. For example, the vertical distance from the top of the anticline to the bottom of the adjoining syncline at Cushing, the most productive pool in the midcontinent field, and one of the most remarkable in the world, is but 160 feet. Such low deformations occur in most cases in a distance of one-half mile to a mile. It should be observed that not all folds, even well-defined anticlines in oil regions, are productive of oil or gas. In some cases a structure is thought to be "dry" when the only difficulty is in the insufficient depth of drilling. Scores of instances might be cited from various localities in Kansas where, after many unsuccessful tests, oil has been discovered in quantity by merely drilling to greater depths. Some folds contain very good oil and gas deposits in certain portions of the structure, but are barren in others. This is due to variation in the porosity of the reservoir, the nonproductive part being so low in percentage of pore space as to contain little or no oil and gas, the productive part showing all the characteristics of the normal porous reservoirs. Such a lack of uniformity in the reservoir is rather the rule than the exception, and the existence of a single dry well does not by any means condemn a structure. In other instances, however, the structure is absolutely barren, the conditions having been unfavorable in various ways for the accumulation of oil and gas. Some of these unfavorable conditions are local absence of matter from which oil and gas are derived, or lack of proper initial conditions for preservation and distillation; lack of porous rocks suitable for reservoirs; lack of water to saturate the reservoir and force oil and gas to the top of the structure, in which case the oil, if present, will lie on the sides of the folds or in the bottom of the synclines; presence of intrusives or old land mass (granite of central Kansas) below the central portion of the fold. In summary, the essential general facts with reference to commercially important pools of oil and gas may be stated as follows: (1) All42 so far discovered occur in sedimentary or water-laid rocks, such as sands, sandstones, conglomerates, limestone's, and shales; (2) the containing reservoir is porous rock, the amount of porosity and size of the pores directly controlling the possible accumulation and production of oil and gas; (3) the reservoir is capped or covered by practically impervious beds of shale, limestone, or sandstone, similar impervious beds in most cases also underlying the reservoir; (4) water is present in almost all cases in the oil and gas reservoir, and because of its greater specific gravity, tends to occupy the lowermost portion of the reservoir; (5) commercial oil and gas deposits are closely related to the structural character of the associated rock strata, occurring for the most part in the higher parts of folds, such as anticlines, domes, and monoclines. [42. With the exception of the peculiar and relatively unimportant occurrence at Thralls , Tex.] The evidences of the presence of petroleum or natural gas which are commonly noted by geologists, and used by them in the exploration of commercial pools and their development, are not such as can be properly evaluated by the average layman. These may for convenience be divided into (1) direct surface indications, and (2) indirect evidences. The former, which offer the more definite evidence of the existence of oil in the rocks, either in the particular locality of their occurrence or at a distance, include (a) oil seepages, or springs, (b) natural-gas springs, and (c) outcrops of sand impregnated with bitumen. The indirect are the structural features of the region that are so important in the accumulation of oil and gas. (1) Oil seepages may exist where the outcrop of an oil sand reaches the surface, or where there is a crevice or fault through which the oil may rise to the surface. Seepages are most common in the lowlands or along small streams, sometimes appearing only as a faint scum43 on the water. In certain oil regions the occurrence of these scums on the surface of rivers lakes and ponds is rather common, but in the midcontinent field oil seepages are rather rare. The reason for this is that the beds in this region are so slightly tilted that for the greater part they remain unbroken, and there have been no means by which the oil could reach the surface except, perhaps, in the minutest quantity. Where the oil-bearing formations reach the surface in the midcontinent field the oil has doubtless already leaked away, owing to the fact that the productive strata are of considerable geologic age and there has been ample opportunity during long periods of erosion for the oil and gas to escape. [43. Distinction must be made carefully between true oil scums and those of other substances on water. For instance, iron scum has been very commonly mistaken for petroleum, and some operators have invested thousands of dollars on such slight evidence. As a rule, where a film of petroleum is present it can be distinguished from that of iron by its odor. A small stick thrust into an iron scum will break it up into separate patches, while an oil scum is so thin and cohesive that it will retain its unbroken appearance and its iridescent color.] Figure 5--Topographic map of a small area, showing the position and elevation of outcrops of a prominent limestone bed. The lines, called contours, drawn around the hills are of constant elevation above mean sea level and are drawn at regular vertical intervals. Thus they show the actual elevation of the country, the shape of the hills and valleys, and the character of the slopes. The limestone formation traced by geologists appears at different elevations over the area, indicating definitely that the strata are not horizontal. A-B shows the line of vertical cross section, figure 7. (2) In some oil and gas fields bubbles of gas rise in minute quantities through the water to the surface of streams, and at a few localities there are great gas springs. One such spring in the Baku district of Russia is reported to have been burning for thousands of years.44 [44. Clapp, Frederick G., The geology of petroleum: Am. Petroleum Industry, by Bacon and Hamor, v. 1, p. 36, 1916.] (3) Outcrops of sand impregnated with bitumen, the so-called tar or asphalt sands, are not common, but exist in several parts of the world. One of the best-known occurrences in North America is that along the Athabasca and other rivers of northern Alberta, in Canada. Recently an asphalt-impregnated sandstone has been reported from the vicinity of Higginsville, in Missouri. These surface indications have certain association with petroleum or natural gas, but commercially important pools of these materials in many instances lie at a distance from the point where the evidence appears at the surface. For example, where oil, gas or asphalt seepages occur at the outcrop of a gently inclined formation the important commercial deposits of oil may exist at a distance of several miles from the exposed outcrop. For this reason it is generally inadvisable to drill on or near seepages unless there is evidence that the main deposit of petroleum occurs directly below. In many cases it is possible for a geologist to locate the field from which the oil or gas has escaped. Figure 6--Structure contour map of area shown in figure 5, indicating the elevation and structure of prominent limestone bed. It should be imagined that the portion of the limestone bed which has been eroded away (see fig. 7) is restored and that all of the beds overlying the limestone are removed. The surface of the limestone would then appear as a low dome sloping away gently on all sides. If the area were flooded with water standing at 1,920 feet above sea level, the contour at this elevation would represent the shore line, and if the water were raised by 20-foot intervals the successive shore lines would be represented in turn by the higher contours. Thus if the water level were lifted to 2,100 feet only a small island in the center of the area would indicate the surface of the limestone bed. From what has been said of the conditions governing the accumulation of oil and gas in the porous rock strata, it is evident that another class of surface indications may be used in exploration for these materials. This is the presence of folding in the rock strata, which, if pronounced, may be observed readily with the eye. If the folding is very slight it may be detected only with the aid of instruments by which the elevation of the outcrops of given strata may be noted and the direction and amount of their dips registered. By studying and mapping these indications of the rock structure carefully, a geologist is able to define fairly closely the general structure of the underground strata (fig. 6). Hence, if oil and gas are present in the strata at all, the position of their accumulation with reference to the observed geologic structure may be predicted and the most favorable area of probable production definitely and scientifically indicated. In the case of a well-defined anticline or dome (fig. 7), the central portion of the dome would be most likely to contain gas and oil. Wells drilled on the sides of the structure would probably strike oil or water. Figure 7--Vertical cross section along line A-B across area shown in figure 5. The vertical scale is exaggerated about 4 1/2 times. It is evident that the structure of the rocks has little or nothing to do, necessarily, with the character of the surface topography. Thus, the crest of a rock anticline may directly underlie a valley at the surface. (Fig. 7 and Plate V.) In most oil regions, and especially in Kansas, there are numerous places where the solid rocks can be found in outcrops from point to point over the land. In most cases the ravines and creeks cut into the rocks in their natural bedding, and exposures may also be found along roadways or in railroad cuts. These are very important in gathering data for the geologic map. Indeed, without rock outcrops or other indication of the character and attitude of the strata, the geologist can do little. In practice, a single prominent bed, such as a limestone horizon or coal bed, is selected, and the measurements of geologic structure are either made directly on the chosen stratum or are referred to it. Since the sedimentary rocks of the earth are bedded more or less regularly one above another, the folding of the top layers indicates more or less accurately the folds of the lower layers. Consequently, the structure of the key bed at the surface indicates the structure of the oil and gas strata perhaps some thousands of feet below. This relation between the rocks at the surface and those deep below must be understood clearly to appreciate the work of the geologist. It should be borne in mind that vast quantities of rock have been removed from the surface of the earth by erosion. Ledges on one side of a valley match those on the opposite side, and the beds of one hill those of another. What erosion has taken away must, in imagination, be restored in order to form a picture of the original continuous extent of the key layer. A very common mistake among prospectors for oil and gas, especially in the early development of petroleum in the United States, has been the belief that oil and gas pools run in uniform directions through the rocks. Accordingly, in certain fields thousands of wells have been drilled along definite lines and at given angles from existing pools that were supposed to represent the position of new deposits. However, pools are by no means always arranged in a definite system. Plate V--Stereogram showing surface topography and underground structure of a typical oil and gas pool. The upper part shows the area mapped in figure 5 and below it a slightly folded gas- and oil-bearing sandstone layer the structure of which was indicated by observation of the outcrop of a prominent limestone bed (figs. 6 and 7). The line of the cross section A-B and wells (fig. 7) are indicated. Notice that the configuration of the land at the surface does not in this case have any relation to the underground structure. The modern business of oil and gas production is in its present state a rather complicated and highly developed industry. There are many important factors to success, and the large companies are organized with minute attention to all the various details connected with the business. In the development of a new oil or gas pool, for example, the geologic structure is first located and carefully mapped by competent geologists. Oil and gas leases on the lands overlying the structures are obtained, and when all the desirable land has been secured, drilling rigs are brought in for boring the wells. When a well is completed and oil or gas encountered, it is necessary to arrange for the storage or the disposition of the materials obtained from the well, involving the arrangement for pipeline transportation or tank storage. Large oil companies operating in any of the fields such as those of Kansas and Oklahoma have separate departments devoted to geologic exploration and mapping, leasing, drilling, pipeline and tank storage, buying, engineering, refining, and marketing. In the case of an oil strike by any individual or company, the first step of the competing oil operator is to secure leases as near as possible to the producing well. If he has knowledge of the geological structure of the area he will follow the trend of the anticline or other favorable structure, and if he feels that the properties are within the limits of possible producing territory he may make locations and start drilling. In many cases, however, land is leased merely because it is in proximity to a producing well, and in the rush to newly proved areas many inexperienced operators, by lack of knowledge both of the nature of the business and of the underground conditions, are led to failure. It is often the case, however, that the inexperienced operator, or group of operators, is responsible for the location of new areas by wells of the "wildcat" type. It should be noted that none of the large oil companies at present engaged in operations in any of the large oil fields drill wells in entirely unproved territory without any knowledge of the geologic structure. A "wildcat" well drilled without any knowledge of the underground conditions, and at a distance from producing areas, is a speculative hazard of the most extreme sort. Consequently, in any area that it is desired to test, reference to all geologic advice should be had at the very outset. There are no set rules nor any strictly uniform practice in the matter of leasing. As this is necessarily more or less dependent upon local conditions, the oil men deal entirely with the individual landowners, and the oil leases are private bargains. The unit areas of the lease are the simple and uniform land divisions of the civil townships of 36 sections into which Kansas is divided. The sections are subdivided into tracts of multiples of 10 or 20 acres. The usual form of oil and gas leases in Kansas grants to the oil producer, or lessee, the irrevocable and exclusive right to seek for oil and gas on the area covered by the lease, the length of the lease ranging from one to five years and "as long thereafter as oil and gas is produced in commercial quantities." In many instances the lease is taken for a period of five years, with option of extending the lease as production continues. For the right thus given the landowner or lessor is paid one dollar to make the contract legally binding, and in addition such other considerations as may be desirable, varying with the particular case. The additional compensation to the landowner may be arranged for in a number of different ways. A stated consideration may be paid to the landowner for each acre as a bonus, depending on the probability of the production of the lease. In many cases the lessee arranges to pay so much rent per year for the lease, thereby holding it until it expires. The most important feature, however, in the compensation of the landowner is the royalty, which consists in the payment of a stated fraction of the gross production or profits of wells on the lease. This may, according to stated agreement, be paid either in cash or in oil. In actual practice these various forms of remuneration for the right to drill supplement each other in various ways according to the agreement of the particular lease. For example, in a lease where a large bonus is paid, the royalty will probably be rather low, or if a small price is paid for the lease a large share of royalty may be exacted. In general, the price and the details of the lease contract depend on the nearness to producing territory and the probability of production in the area leased. In purely "wildcat" regions a bonus is seldom considered, but in a district that is located near good production a large bonus may be given. In addition to the customary royalty of one-eighth, bonuses as high as $100 to $200 per acre have been paid. In the Cushing field, Oklahoma, in one instance a royalty of 50 percent was given without bonus. In the case of producing gas wells the amount and method of payment of the remuneration to the landowner are somewhat variable. On an average, about $100 to $150 per year is paid for each gas well, stipulations being made with regard to the use of the gas by the landowner and his payment for gas used. In general, a landowner desires to have a test well drilled at as early a date as possible. Rental leases are therefore somewhat in disfavor, because the oil operator under these circumstances has the right to drill or not to drill at his pleasure. The common rental for commercial leases is $1 per acre per year. In some cases the leases have been so drawn that by payment of 10 to 25 cents per acre annually, after the expiration of the first period of time, the lessee may continue to lease for five or ten years, or indefinitely. In many leases a time is set for the beginning and completion of a well, a clause being inserted to the effect that drilling shall begin within 90 days or other given time limit, and be completed to a specified depth within a given period, providing that oil and gas is not found in paying quantities above this depth. A clause may also be inserted requiring some sort of systematic continuation of drilling and development of the lease. In some cases a bond is required of the lessee as guaranty to the landowner of the fulfillment of the terms of the lease in payment of royalties, rentals, and damages. In leasing of land for oil and gas, the lessor retains all surface right to the land except on the portion which is necessarily used by the operator for his equipment, including the full number of wells, power house, boiler house, tankage, waste pit, and pull rods. Upon an 80-acre tract not more than 5 or 6 acres are necessary for this. In a considerable part of the oil fields, the land is not considered sufficiently valuable from an agricultural standpoint to make it necessary to place any restrictions upon oil and gas operations. In certain portions of the field, however, farmers till the land and at the same time derive an income from the oil. Where the land adjoining producing oil wells contains a growing crop, it is agreed that the lessee is responsible for all damages to the crop, provided they reach sufficient amount to warrant complaint. Pipelines should be buried below plow depth, but the pull rods from the power house to the various wells are sometimes a source of more or less bother because they run just above the ground. After production has been established the lease becomes one of the most valuable parts of the oil property. It may be sold or transferred at the option of the lessee, the price depending upon the number of producing wells and their average daily yield. Transfer of leases also takes place even before wells have been drilled, the price being dependent upon the distance from proven property. Lease speculation has become a rather lucrative business at the present time, especially in newly opened districts. The speculator closely watches the prospecting and development, and on news of an oil strike rushes to the locality and leases all available property with as little expense as possible. When the operators who really wish to drill come to the field later, they are forced to pay the speculator's price. Examples of this speculation may be seen in every newly opened oil district and have been common in the Kansas and Oklahoma fields. From the standpoint of bona fide development, the operations of the lease speculator are very undesirable both from the standpoint of the landowner and the real oil and gas operator. The recent development in the production of natural-gas gasoline makes necessary provision for royalty to the lessor in this regard. The average lease is written without such provision. After a favorable geologic structure has been located and leases have been secured, the operator must choose the location of the wells to be drilled. In the case of the first wells the selection of sites should be governed as nearly as possible by the geologic information that is available, the wells being located over the central portion of the anticline or dome. Such wells will form the most satisfactory test of the structure. In cases where detailed geologic information is lacking, or where the entire area of a lease is likely to be productive, the wells are placed according to generally recognized rules and courtesies among the operators, or with reference to local conditions, such as the nature of the topography. Wells are commonly placed about 200 feet within the boundary line of the lease, but this distance varies, with the depth of the sand and other considerations, from 1 foot to 330 feet. Since it is common practice to lease oil and gas land in multiples of 10 acres, which equal 660 feet square, there is a tendency, especially in the midcontinent field, to put down wells at a distance of 660 feet from each other. In shallow sands they are located at greater distances apart, about 1,320 feet being an average interval. In large parts of certain fields, like those at El Dorado and Augusta, in Butler County, the wells are located with mathematical precision in rows and cross-rows. It is customary to place the wells on one lease directly opposite those on an adjoining one, in order to protect property lines and to prevent drainage of oil from the lease. This practice is termed "offsetting." In practically all of the producing fields many wells have been drilled at distances much too close together. In one district in Oklahoma probably one-half million dollars has been spent on unnecessary wells within an area of 2 square miles, and in the Burkburnett district of Texas the timbers of adjacent derricks almost overlap in a number of cases. In the latter case the division of the land into town lots under different ownership has been the primary cause of much of this very wasteful drilling. No general rule applicable to all districts can be given, the proper distance depending largely on certain local conditions, which must be determined largely by close watch of wells drilled later among older wells. If the reservoir stratum is not very porous, gas or oil may drain into the well rather slowly and from a limited area. Wells recently drilled in the Iola gas field show a surprisingly large production, almost equaling the yield of wells first put down. This indicates the limited area drained by wells in this district. On the other hand, oil and gas may move readily a considerable distance through a very porous reservoir rock. The most efficient spacing of wells is really a geological problem, the terms of which include the depth to the sand, porosity of the reservoir, character of the oil and other factors in production. When oil or gas has been discovered in one well there is still urgent need for accurate geologic information for use in the location of new wells, that there may be a minimum of dry holes and that additional leases secured may be the most profitable. As a rule, leases are obtained and wells located as close to the producing wells as possible, on the strong probability that the oil and gas reservoir will also be encountered by drilling on adjacent properties. However, a reservoir usually extends a considerable distance farther along one line than in other directions, and a knowledge of the geologic structure and the probable outline of the porous reservoir is all-important in the scientific location of wells and in the development of adjacent areas. As soon as an important oil strike has been made the price of leases in the vicinity advances at an exceedingly rapid rate. It is consequently a difficult matter in certain instances to know whether it is better to pay a high price for leases in close proximity to producing wells or to invest in lower-priced leases at greater distances with correspondingly greater risk. The various factors entering into this consideration have been studied by Roswell Johnson.45 A statistical investigation of a number of pools in the Appalachian field indicates a rather rapid decline of production in this region for distances from 3 to 6 miles from the first well, and a more gradual decline at greater distances. So many are the variables, however, that no general statement of this nature applicable to pools in the midcontinent field can be made. It is, of course, almost certain that within the general area of a pool a number of the wells will prove dry or will contain only water. Consequently, the mere location of a lease in the general area of an oil or gas pool is by no means a guaranty of oil or gas production. [45. Johnson, Roswell, Efficiency in the production of petroleum; in, Bacon and Hamor, The American Petroleum Industry, v. 1, p. 420, 1916; also, Petroleum and natural gas resources of Canada: Canada Dept. of Mines, Mines Branch, v. 1, p. 325, 326, 1914.] In general the conditions most similar to those observed in the discovery well will be observed at the same level in the rock strata in either direction along the strike of the rocks. The reservoir is likely to persist in this direction and a uniformity of conditions will probably obtain. Since gas, oil, and water in the rocks tend to arrange themselves in distinct layers in the order of their specific gravities, it is evident that gas, if present, may be expected in the uppermost parts of the reservoir, oil at points lower down on the dip, and water in the lower portions of the porous stratum. Consequently, if a well yields only gas, or gas with a little oil, an oil-producing well may be sought at a point down the dip of the reservoir, or if a well encounters water, or water and a little oil in the reservoir rock, an oil-producing well is most likely to be found higher up in the structure. Since the productive pools in a reservoir usually have a greater extent in one direction than at right angles to it, careful observation of the production and rate of production of the wells may indicate to the producer the direction of this axis, and therefore suggest the most favorable line of development. If pressure persists after a long flow, it is highly probable that an undrilled extension of the reservoir exists. After a favorable geologic structure has been found and leases have been secured comes the operation of drilling. The methods of drilling are various and have been developed to suit the particular needs and conditions in different fields. In a region of soft, unconsolidated strata, such as parts of California or the Gulf Coast, the rocks are easily penetrated by a special type of drill, but in regions of hard strata, such as the midcontinent or Appalachian fields, this drill cannot be used successfully and other methods must be employed. The system almost exclusively used in Kansas and Oklahoma is the so-called "standard" or cable drilling, which consists essentially of a heavy steel bit attached to a manila or wire cable, which is raised and dropped by means of a walking beam extending over the hole. It is especially adapted for drilling into hard formations or those sufficiently consolidated that the sides of the hole will not cave. Under these conditions drilling may be continued until it is advisable to case off a water- or gas-bearing stratum. In comparatively shallow territory in the Kansas or Oklahoma fields a portable machine of the "Star" or "Parkersburg" type is commonly used (plate VIII). These have the advantage of being moved about easily even where roads are bad, with less loss of time than a heavy regulation outfit, but are not adapted for handling heavy strings of tools or casing. The time-saving and the cheapness with which such a machine can drill a well from 1,000 to 1,200 feet especially adapts it for developing shallow territory. Plate VI--Standard drilling outfit, coupled for raising tools. (After Bowman, U.S. Geological Survey.) Plate VIII--Star drilling rig, south of Sedan. The site of the well having been selected, the first operation in drilling is the erection of the rig (plate VI). The main portion of this is the derrick, which consists of four strong uprights converging toward the top, held in position by ties and braces and resting on a strong foundation of concrete piers or wooden sills. For drilling the deeper wells the derrick is at least 70 feet high, on account of the length of the "string" of drilling tools, and from 20 feet wide at the base to about 4 feet at the top. The derrick is surmounted by the crown block, bearing the pulleys for the drilling cable and the sand-pump. The parts of the rig actually employed in the operation of drilling are, in addition to the drilling tools and cable, the temper screw (fig. 8) which grips the cable and adjusts its length to the depth of the hole; the walking beam, to one end of which the temper screw is attached; and the large wooden jack or band wheel, which gives power to the walking beam and other parts of the rig (plate VI). The temper screw is gradually turned as drilling goes on, increasing the depth of the tools from the surface. When the entire length of the screw, amounting to about 5 feet, has been let out, the tools are withdrawn and preparations are made for the next "run." The walking beam is a massive timber, measuring from 16 to 24 feet in length, which gives the vertical motion to the cable and string of tools. It is supported in the middle by the upright samson post and connected at the end opposite the temper screw by a pitman rod to a crank on the band wheel. The motion of the band wheel thus moves the walking beam alternately up and down. The drilling machinery is very simple, but the effectiveness of the drill is due to the peculiar form of the drilling tools and the skill used in handling them. Figure 8--A, String of tools used with standard drilling outfit. B, Temper screw. (After Bowman, U.S. Geological Survey.) After the tools have drilled the length of the temper screw into the rock it is necessary to draw the tools to the surface and bail out the sandy or muddy debris at the bottom of the well. For this operation an entirely different arrangement is necessary, the portions of the rig used being the bull wheel on which the drilling cable is wound, the crown pulley at the top of the derrick, and the band wheel which is connected to supply power to the bull wheel. The bull wheel consists of a reel on which the drilling cable is wound and an attached wheel on either side, one of which carries the driving belt from the band wheel, the other bearing a stout iron band brake by which the speed of the reel may be controlled. The cable, having been loosed from the clamps of the temper screw, runs directly to the crown pulley from the well, thence down to the bull wheel at the side of the derrick, and as the cable is wound on the reel the long string of tools is lifted out of the well up into the derrick. When the tools have been thus withdrawn the well is ready to be bailed. The operation of bailing the well consists simply in lowering a sand pump or bailer by a separate line from the sand-reel pulley at the top of the derrick, allowing the bailer to fill and drawing it again to the surface. The bailer is a plain cylinder of light galvanized iron, with a bail at the top and a stem valve at the bottom (plate VII). As this projects beyond the bottom it automatically fills the bailer when lowered to the bottom of the waste trough at the surface. The average length of the bailer is about 15 feet, but some are as long as 20 feet. When the well has been bailed it is ready for further drilling. Plate VII--Drilling tools. 1, Auger stem; 2, spudding bit; 3, drilling bit; 4, bailer; 5, temper screw; 6, drilling jars; 7-8, underreamer, closed and open; 9, joint; 10, elevator, for lifting casing into derrick. In some standard rigs, especially those used in California, an additional wheel, known as the calf wheel, is located opposite the bull wheel. It is used for handling casing, and saves much time because it obviates the necessity of disconnecting the tools from the drilling cable and the use of the bull wheel for this work. Beyond the derrick and the other parts of the rig is the engine, which furnishes power to the band wheel by a belt. Steam power is almost universally used in the drilling of oil wells, the steam being supplied by a boiler located at a distance from the well in order to decrease the danger of fire. The engine is controlled from the derrick. Water for the boiler is obtained from a nearby water well or stream, but in some cases the matter of water supply is a serious difficulty and greatly hinders or delays the drilling of the well. Some of the wells in the El Dorado field have recently been drilled using electric power, the experiment being apparently quite successful. The string of tools used in deep-well drilling consists of several parts, all of which have certain definite functions and are the outgrowth of years of experience. A full string comprises a rope socket, sinker bar, jars, auger stem, and bit (fig. 8 and plate VII). The socket is used to attach the end of the drilling cable firmly to the drilling tools, the methods of attachment varying rather widely in different cases. The sinker bar is a long, heavy bar used to give weight to the drill and to keep the hole straight. It was formerly thought to be essential to the string of tools, but is now used only in wet holes. The jars are in many respects the most interesting and important portion of the apparatus (plate VII). They consist essentially of a long double link with close-fitting but freely moving jaws, which may be compared to a couple of flattened and elongated links of chain. The links are about 30 inches long and are interposed between the heavy iron auger stem carrying the bit and the upper bar. The principal use of the jars is to give a sharp jar or jerk to the drill on the upstroke so that the bit is dislodged if it has become jammed in the rock. The drill responds to the powerful upward blow of the jars as they are jerked violently together by the stroke of the walking beam when it will not yield to the slow and relatively steady pull of the rope. The jars are not used to drive the drill into the rocks, such practice at the hands of an inexperienced driller invariably resulting in serious damage to the links within a short time. The auger stem (plate VII) gives additional weight to the blows that are struck, and also, by increasing the length of the drill, helps to maintain a straight hole. The drilling bits are of various patterns, according to the character of the rock that is being penetrated. A short, light bit is used in the preliminary drilling, known as "spudding" (plate VII). All the joints of the string of tools are fitted with taper-screw joints, so that they may be fastened together firmly with a few turns. The operation of drilling an oil well as practiced in the midcontinent field may be described briefly. After the rig has been built the preliminary drilling, known as "spudding," is begun. For this a short, light bit is attached to a cable, which is run through the crown pulley at the top of the derrick and fastened to the bull-wheel shaft. The up-and-down motion to the spudding drill is given by a rope called the jerk line, which is fastened to the wrist pin of the band wheel and attached by a curved metal slide, called a spudding show, to the part of the cable that extends from the crown pulley to the bull-wheel shaft. Spudding is much harder on the derrick than ordinary drilling, because the entire strain comes at the top of the derrick, while in drilling with the walking beam the weight and jar of the tools is borne by the samson post. After the hole has been deepened by spudding sufficiently to permit the use of the regular string of drilling tools, this distance amounting on the average to about 75 or 100 feet, the drilling cable is rigged to the walking beam by the temper screw and the regular work of drilling is begun. The pitman of the walking beam is fastened to the crank of the band wheel, and the beam begins to raise and drop the tools at the rate of about 25 strokes a minute. In the earlier drilling, when the length and therefore the spring of the cable is less, a shorter stroke is used than when the well has been drilled to greater depths. The operation of drilling is frequently interrupted by the occurrence of an accident, such as the breaking of the cable, which necessitates the use of fishing tools of various sorts. If the fishing is successful, drilling is resumed, but if unsuccessful the well must be abandoned, often after weeks or months of labor. A very important consideration in the drilling of a well is the casing, which protects the hole from caving and keeps out water. In many places where the surface material consists of a loose sandy clay or similar material, a conductor box or large iron "drivepipe," is sunk to bedrock. This facilitates the work of drilling the deeper portion of the well. The strata in the deeper portion of a well are, as a rule, made up of alternating layers of hard and soft beds, porous or slightly porous, and water-bearing or without water. Unless the water in the rocks is under considerable head it is welcomed by the driller, for it saves the trouble and expense of pouring water into the hole to keep the drillings from interfering with the work of the bit. If the water coming into the hole is too great, it is necessary to lower a string of casing from the surface to the first non-water-bearing rock below the water-bearing strata. The casing is set very hard into this lower layer and the water may be securely shut off by the use of a mud-laden fluid which is forced back under pressure into the porous rock and by the use of cement. Further drilling necessitates the use of a smaller bit that will pass within the diameter of the casing. If other heavy flows of water are encountered they must be cased off in a similar way. As many as eight or ten different strings of casing are necessary in some deep wells, which penetrate porous, water-bearing strata. In comparatively shallow territory a well is sometimes drilled "wet," the water sands not being cased off and the tools running in a hole in which the water stands high. If the sides do not cave, casing may not be put in until the well is finished. Drilling under these conditions is, however, considerably slower and only rarely justifies the saving in labor and expense of casing. Several varieties of casing are used. Sheet-iron riveted pipe is used in some foreign wells, but in American fields is almost unknown. Casing most commonly used in the midcontinent fields consists of sheet-iron pipe of various sizes and weights, depending on the depth of the well and the water pressure it is necessary to withstand. The ends of the sections are threaded, so that one section may be attached firmly to the preceding. The diameter of the casing pipe varies from 3 or 4 inches to more than 18 inches. For the drilling of a well a contract is made between the operator and a drilling contractor on the basis of a certain price per foot, the amount of which depends on the locality and the depth of oil sand. The rate is fairly uniform in an active field, but in "wildcat" areas the rate is usually higher. Stipulation is commonly made in the contract for drilling to a specified depth, the contractor being held responsible for reaching this depth. The agreement usually calls for the commencement of drilling within a given time. The contractor purchases and constructs the derrick, furnishes tools, fuel, water, boiler, and engine, and hires the drillers and tool dressers. He is held responsible for accidents. Oil or gas which is found during the process of drilling may be used as fuel by the contractor. In general, he is required to handle all the necessary casing, and in case of a dry hole must pull out all the casing possible. The operator furnishes drivepipe, casing, and whatever rodding or tubing is necessary, provides for the hauling of the pipe and other accessories, except the derrick and driller's tools, and is responsible for plugging a dry well and filing affidavit thereto. The cost of drilling varies notably in different fields, and under certain conditions may fluctuate widely even in the same field. The controlling factors are, in general, the depth of the well, hardness of the strata or other conditions increasing the difficulty of drilling, distance from supply center, and availability of working supplies such as fuel, water, etc. In the case of individual wells the cost may be from 50 to 100 percent higher on account of unusual underground conditions or accidents. In general, the drilling of an isolated well in the first development of a property costs more than later wells, because many items necessary for the first well may be used a second time in the drilling of adjacent wells. One of the greatest needs at present in the scientific development of oil and gas fields of the state is good well logs. Every log should give the top and bottom of every sand that carries gas, oil, or water, in addition to giving the distance from the top of the sand to the level where the flow into the well is found. The character of other strata passed through, especially those of prominent horizons, such as limestone formations and coal beds, should be noted and described as carefully as possible. When drilling is begun in a new field, the logs, with samples of drill cuttings, should be studied carefully by a competent geologist in order to determine as accurately as possible the underground conditions and to advise with regard to further development. The State Geological Survey may act as a clearing house for such information and may give assistance in the correlation of formations, in determining the depth to given formations in various localities, the direction of the dip of the strata, and other features. Without care in recording the information obtained by drilling, and without the assistance of a geologist, the best results cannot possibly be obtained. When the drilling of a well has been completed in a rather close-textured reservoir rock, or when the production of a well has begun to decline, it is common practice to "shoot" the well, a charge of nitroglycerine being generally used for the shooting. The amount of explosive used varies from a few quarts to 60, 80, 100, or even 250 quarts, and is placed in specially designed canisters. The canisters are lowered to the bottom of the well and discharged by dropping a nitroglycerine "jack squib" carrying a fulminate cap, which explodes on striking the torpedo at the bottom of the well. Formerly the percussion cap was placed with the charge at the bottom of the well and the torpedo was exploded by dropping a conical piece of iron--the so-called "go-devil"--upon the charge. It is a matter of considerable importance, as shown in practice, to locate the nitroglycerine charge in the pay sand rather than to allow it to extend above into the barren formations. If the latter are shattered and fall into the pay sand the debris may interfere very greatly with the operation and production of the well. The use of too large a charge in the hope of thoroughly shattering the pay sand in a considerable surrounding area may so disturb and break the barren formations as to make the well valueless. The problem of management of the oil well involves (1) the method of recovery of the oil, especially as practiced in the midcontinent field; (2) the more or less rapid but continuous decline from the initial production, the typical life history of all oil wells; and finally (3) the manner of handling the oil after it has been brought to the surface. In certain parts of the Kansas oil fields the oil reaches the surface under its own pressure. Wells from which the oil thus flows are known as "gushers," and, especially when the pressure is very great, are much the most spectacular part of an oil field. The oil does not long continue to flow under its own head, even when the initial pressure is very great, and it then becomes necessary to pump the wells. The great majority of wells in the Kansas oil fields are of the pumping type, the method of pumping, however, varying greatly in different cases. Some wells are pumped by motive power--steam, gas, or gasoline engine--which is located at each well. This demands a separate power unit for each individual well. In other cases a central power plant supplies steam or compressed air to a number of pumps operating wells located around the plant. The central plant may be connected with the individual pumps by shaft or pull rods, which are so fastened to the operating drum at the plant as to compensate one another and make a minimum load on the engine. At the wells are pumping "jacks" of various design which convert the horizontal pull of the rods to a vertical movement of the sucker rods in the well. It is impossible to determine in advance, with any degree of accuracy, the life of an individual oil well, but it is possible, by means of accurate records of the history of wells, and of the pool containing them, to obtain an approximate estimate as to the length of time during which the well or pool will be productive. A record of the production of an oil well always shows a maximum yield at its very beginning or immediately after a successful shooting of the well. This is known as "flush production." The production then drops off, suddenly at first, and then declines more gradually into "settled production." Minor irregularities in the plotted production curve may be due to the influence of neighboring wells or special conditions. In most cases a record of the production of an oil field as a whole shows a gradual rise to a maximum, followed by a gradual decline. The increase in production at first is, of course, due to an increased number of wells as the field is developed. When the declining production of wells already drilled is not compensated by production of new wells, the total production of the field begins to decline. The large initial production of many oil wells is evidently due to the strong pressure in the oil reservoir when the wells are drilled in. The duration of the period of greater production depends upon local conditions, such as the porosity and structure of the sand, the development of the pool, the position of the well, and the character of the oil. With the decline in pressure, production gradually decreases in many districts to a fairly constant amount. Decreased production is due to decline of gas pressure, decrease in quantity of oil draining into the area affected by the well, and perhaps by flooding either by saltwater or freshwater from adjacent strata. The drilling of nearby wells, defects in the setting of the casing, and failure to clean the well may be contributary causes to the decline. Effective management of an oil well is aided by a carefully plotted record of the production of the well. This curve gives a fairly definite idea as to the yield that may be expected and indicates the probable future history of the pool. After the oil has been brought to the surface, either by natural flow or by pumping, it is necessary to store it near the well or to arrange for transportation to a point where it can be used. Where the wells are some distance from a pipeline or from the railroad, it is usually necessary to have large storage tanks where the oil can be kept until its further transportation. The storage tanks are usually of steel and rest like huge covered tubs on the ground. The largest size used in the midcontinent field is the 55,000-barrel tank, which has a diameter of about 115 feet and a height of 30 feet. There are 30,000-barrel tanks, diameter 86 feet, height 30 feet; 20,000-barrel tanks, diameter 70 feet, height 30 feet; 10,000-barrel tanks, diameter 49 feet 7 inches, height 30 feet; 5,000-barrel tanks, diameter 40 feet, height 20 feet; and even smaller ones for temporary storage. These figures for the capacity and dimensions of oil storage tanks are, of course, subject to a variation depending on the local conditions. Recently, large storage tanks of concrete have been constructed underground. Greater storage capacity and smaller losses by fire and evaporation are advantages claimed for the reservoirs of this type. In the case of a well of the gusher type, it is frequently impossible to get sufficient tank space to store the oil, at least during the time of maximum flow. In this case earthen embankments are built and a large temporary reservoir constructed. Of course, in open-air storage of this sort there is a very large loss due to evaporation and to the dissipation of the lighter volatile constituents of the oil. It is therefore economical to have an air-tight sealed-roof tank; but under the conditions of the gusher some loss by evaporation is unavoidable. At the refineries are a large number of storage tanks of various sizes and types, both for crude oil and for various refined products. Before the oil is pumped to storage it is usually measured in small gauging tanks 25 to 100 barrels in capacity. Where the oil is kept moving, daily large storage tanks are unnecessary. Crude oil is transported either by pipeline or by tank car. At the present time pipelines are being constructed almost as rapidly as refineries, and it is almost impossible, therefore, to give up-to-date information. Pipelines that have been well established are shown on the general index map (part III). Wells in Texas and Louisiana belonging to the Gulf district are connected by pipelines through Oklahoma with the region about the Great Lakes and eastward to the Atlantic coast. The pipe used in these lines is about 8 inches in diameter, that in diverging branch, large main lines, 6, 4, and 3 inches in diameter. The crude oil is forced through the pipe from one pumping station to another and is conducted underground from the oil wells directly to the refinery. The most extensive system of pipe lines in the midcontinent field--probably the largest in any part of the country--is that of the Prairie Oil and Gas Company. This was the first company to begin operations in Kansas, when in 1893 a short line was built connecting the oil wells at Thayer, Kan., with a small refinery at Neodesha. At the present time there are a great number of independent refineries, which in most cases operate their own wells. Accordingly, there is an unusual development of short pipelines that connect the refineries with adjacent producing pools. Oil may be shipped to the refinery in tank cars, but at present little is transported in this way, because in most cases the production of a pool is sufficient to warrant the laying of a pipeline. The chief use for tank cars is in the transportation of the refined products from the refineries. The cars vary in capacity from 3,600 to 12,500 gallons. Many of the refineries own their tank cars, but in some cases they are leased. Where large quantities of oil are stored, either in the field or near refineries, there is always danger from fire. This may be due either to artificial causes or to lightning. Proper insulation of the tanks is usually sufficient to safeguard them from danger of ignition by lightning, and proper rules for employees will usually control the danger from artificial causes. It is, however, possible to extinguish fires that have started in tanks or oil reservoirs by means of chemicals and apparatus that can be installed easily. The general principle of such fire extinguishers is either to form a blanket of gas or foam over the burning liquid, which excludes the oxygen of the air, or to dilute the burning liquid with a non-inflammable agent, such as carbon tetrachloride, which extinguishes the flames. Some of the foam-producing mixtures have been particularly effective. More or less successful refining of petroleum was in practice before the eighteenth century, but so great has been the advance in petroleum refining methods within the last few years that refineries seem to be only a recent development. The large number of refineries which have been completed within very recent years indicate the great importance of the refining industry. The large number now in construction shows its continued rapid development. Most of the refineries in the midcontinent field are equipped with apparatus for the production of naphtha, illuminating oils and fuel oils. Some of them are prepared to distill the residuals and produce lubricating oils, paraffin, and other products. The general procedure at the refineries is about as follows: Crude oil is admitted into the storage tanks along the pipelines or received by rail from the tank cars. The oil is then run into the still and distilled by fire heat or by a combination of fire heat and superheated steam. The vapors from the still are carried into a condensing arrangement, about which is a cold-water jacket, and the liquid product run into a tank. Many of the large refineries distill petroleum by the "continuous system," in which the stills are connected and operated in a continuous manner. By firing successive stills to higher temperatures, fractions with successively higher boiling points are obtained simultaneously. The chief methods of distillation are46 (a) the "dry" destructive or distillation "cracking" process, used when a large yield of gasoline and illuminating oil is desired; (b) fractional distillation; (c) vacuum process; (d) pressure distillation. [46. For a complete account of petroleum refining methods, see Bacon and Hamor, American Petroleum Industry, v. 2, 1916.] (a) "Dry" or "cracking" distillation process. In this process the heavy vapors from the crude oil condense in the top of the still and fall back on the superheated oil, and are thus "cracked" or partially decomposed. The first of the products to form is naphtha or benzine. In the destructive distillation of a paraffin-base petroleum the flow begins at about 80° Baumé gravity, the product being termed "light naphtha." The next distillation is from 69° to 58° Baumé, and is known as "heavy naphtha." The third fraction, which is generally called the "high-test burning oil," is collected from 58° to 43° Baumé. The fourth fraction is known as "low-test burning oil" and is collected until the residue in the still reaches 21° or 22° Baumé. Fractions 3 and 4 are usually redistilled in steam stills and yield "burning-oil distillate" and "burning-oil stock." The residue is called tar and contains the paraffin oil and paraffin wax. It is distilled to dryness, yielding "paraffin distillate" and "wax tailings," coke remaining behind. The proportion of the various products from this dry distillation is on the average as follows: |Light and heavy naphtha (gasoline)||12 to 15 percent| |Burning-oil stock||65 to 75 percent| |Tar||10 to 12 percent| |Loss||5 to 6 percent| The temperatures at which the chief refinery products are derived in the "cracking" distillation of Kansas petroleum are as follows: When the temperature of the oil in the still is gradually raised from 200°F to 325°F, about 6 to 8 percent of crude naphtha (boiling point 200°F) is distilled. With a gradual increase from 325° to 475°F, 13 to 15 percent of the crude heavy is distilled; and to about 625°F a "natural lamp distillate," representing 16 to 18 percent, of the crude petroleum, is obtained. The destructive distillation known as "cracking" begins at a temperature of about 625°F. The cracking is carried on very slowly, until at 700°F, a distillate called the "gas and fuel-oil stock" is produced. This contains some gasoline, lamp oil, and heavier oils, and has an average boiling point of about 550°F. It comprises about 20 percent of the original crude petroleum. The residue left in the still at this temperature is a heavy black tar, about 42 percent of the crude oil. (b) Fractional distillation. In the manufacture of lubricating oil from paraffin-base petroleum, "dry" steam is introduced into the oil. The hydrocarbons are then distilled at temperatures below normal boiling points, because the partial pressure on the hydrocarbons is less than that of the atmosphere. (e) Vacuum process. In some refineries a vacuum process is used in combination with (b). It consists in the creation of a partial vacuum in the still, so that the hydrocarbons are distilled at temperatures considerably below their boiling points at atmospheric pressure. (d) Pressure distillation. Several patented processes that involve pressure and high temperatures are now in use in the production of gasoline from gas and fuel oils. These "cracking" processes are too complex to be discussed here.47 [47. Bacon and Hamor, op. cit., p. 554-579.] Benzine. The raw condensate distilled from crude petroleum from the lightest fraction to about 52° Baumé gravity. Gasoline. This includes many steam-refined products from the benzine. Three grades of gasoline are produced in Kansas and Oklahoma-68° to 70° Baumé, 64° to 66° Baumé, and 61° to 63° Baumé. The last two grades are those ordinarily used in automobiles. Naphtha. The portion of steam-refined benzine of gravity heavier than gasoline, showing a gravity of 50° to 58° Baumé. Kerosene. Including the heavier fractions, showing a gravity of 52° to 36° Baumé. These condensates are chemically treated with sulfuric acid and caustic soda. Several grades of kerosene and naphtha are manufactured by various refineries. Fuel oil. This is an indefinite term, and there are no specifications for midcontinent fuel oils. It must not contain gasoline and many customers require that it be of such consistency that it can be pumped through pipes and burners. Road oil. An indefinite name, covering grades of oil used chiefly as a dust preventive, ranging from 34° Baumé to an asphaltic material which is solid at 60° F. Several grades of road oil are produced from Kansas petroleum. Lubricating oil. A great many grades of lubricating oil are produced at some of the refineries. Various companies have their own trade names for the different grades of these lubricating oils. In 1916 there were six refining companies in Kansas listed as producing lubricating oils. The refining of crude oil has undergone great changes during the past two years. Undoubtedly one of the chief factors has been the very rapidly increasing demand for gasoline. In 1915 average motor gasoline ranged from 60° to 64° Baumé. That generally used at this time has a distinctly lower gravity. Very little 60° to 61° gasoline is sold, the average being from 54° to 56°. This heavier fraction, formerly called naphtha, is now included in gasoline. It is realized, however, that degrees Baumé gravity do not necessarily indicate the quality of the gasoline or oil produced. It has been demonstrated that a 57° product may be just as good or better than a 60° product from another oil which has been treated in another manner.48 [48. An illustration of this is given by Mr. H. G. James, president of the Western Petroleum Refiners Association (James, H. G., Refining Industry of the United States, Derrick Publishing Company, Oil City, Pa., 1916) : "Taking a 40° gravity Cushing crude, a first-class 58° gravity gasoline is made by starting the initial at 125°F. and cutting the end point at 410°F. Now let us suppose the initial of this same end point is 140°F., and the end point 460°F., you will secure a larger quantity but a far inferior product. In other words, a 58° gravity gasoline, as first described above, is a much superior article to a 60° or 61° with an initial of 130°F. and an end point of 435°F."] Figure 9--Average midcontinent crude petroleum contains 5 to 10 percent naphtha, 34 to 40 percent kerosene, and 50 to 60 percent residues. [49. Johnson, R. H., and Huntley, L. G., Oil and gas production, chapter XVII, 1916.] Mention of natural-gas gasoline is not out of place here. Under a compression of 350 pounds, casing-head gas yields from 1 to 4 gallons of "wild" gasoline per 1,000 cubic feet of gas. In practice, commercial plants produce from 1 1/2 to 3 gallons. The gasoline produced is in many cases higher than 88° Baumé, but it is allowed to "weather" to this gravity before being shipped to a refinery for blending with low-grade naphtha. A new process, in which gasoline is absorbed in oil, makes it possible to treat great quantities of gas rapidly. The oil, with its absorbed gasoline, circulates through a continuous still, in which gasoline is driven off and condenses separately, the oil going back to the absorbing apparatus. The gas gasoline is sold to refineries to be blended with low-grade naphthas in the production of commercial-grade gasoline, or is used in various chemical industries. Because of its very light, volatile character, gas gasoline is very valuable in the production of highest-grade motor spirits for airplanes and other powerful gasoline engines. Kansas led the United States in 1919 in percentage of increase in the production of natural gas gasoline. Start--Chapters 1, 2, and 3 Kansas Geological Survey, Oil and Gas Resources of Kansas Placed on web Aug. 18, 2011; originally published in 1920. Comments to firstname.lastname@example.org The URL for this page is http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Publications/Bulletins/6_1/02_origin.html

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| HBS Working Paper Series 'Power from Sunshine': A Business History of Solar Energy This working paper provides a longitudinal perspective on the business history of solar energy between the nineteenth century and the present day. It covers early attempts to develop solar energy, the use of passive solar in architecture before World War 2, and the subsequent growth of the modern photovoltaic industry. It explores the role of entrepreneurial actors, sometimes motivated by broad social and environmental agendas, whose strategies to build viable business models proved crucially dependent on two exogenous factors: the prices of alternative conventional fuels and public policy. Supportive public policies in various geographies facilitated the commercialization of photovoltaic technologies, but they also encouraged rent-seeking and inefficiencies, while policy shifts resulted in a regular boom and bust cycle. The perceived long-term potential of solar energy, combined with the capital-intensity and cyclical nature of the industry, led to large electronics, oil and engineering companies buying entrepreneurial firms in successive generations. These firms became important drivers of innovation and scale, but they also found solar to be an industry in which achieving a viable business model proved a chimera, whilst waves of creative destruction became the norm. Keywords: Renewable Energy; Innovation and Invention;

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2011 Food Insecurity Report Highlights Climate Change as a Driver of Price Volatility 10 October 2011: The newly released report titled "The State of Food Insecurity in the World: How does international price volatility affect domestic economies and food security?" stresses that price volatility is likely to continue due to climate change and weather shocks, growing demand for biofuel, and the "financialization" of food and agricultural commodities. The report highlights that natural resource constraints, especially climate change and the limited availability of productive land and water in some regions, pose substantial challenges to producing food at affordable prices. It further notes that in the future, climate change will likely increase the risks of adverse weather and pests and diseases that reduce farm income and result in more variable production. The report reflects on the impacts of price volatility on food security, presenting options to reduce and manage volatility. The report underscores that: small import-dependent countries, particularly in Africa, were most effected by the food crisis; high and volatile food prices are likely to continue; price volatility makes smallholders and the poor increasingly vulnerable; short term price changes can have long-term impacts; safety nets are necessary to alleviate food insecurity in the short-term; and the most effective strategies will rely on a combination of increased productivity, greater policy predictability, and openness to trade. It also suggest that high food prices have presented incentives for long-term investments in agriculture, which may contribute to long-term improved food security. The report was produced by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the World Food Programme (WFP), and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO). The report is produced annually. [IFAD Press Release] [Publication: The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2011] [FAO Press Release]

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Economics in a Unit 5, Individual Project 2 "The Federal Reserve and the Money Supply" By: Daniel Loran Professor Albert Alexander Abstract: In this project, I will describe three ways the Federal Reserve can change the money supply, then discuss what changes would be made if there was an economic inflation, and economic recession. Finally, I will discuss the current condition of the economy in the United States, and what tools I would suggest using at the next meeting of the Federal Reserve based upon the data and trends. I. Three Ways in which the Federal Reserve can change the Money Supply: The three methods used by the federal reserve [Fed] to change the money supply in the country are Open Market Operations; and, Changing Reserve Limits on Banks; and, Changing the discount rate to banks. (pp. 646) In Open Market Operations, the FED gives and takes back available money to the economy through its purchase of government bonds. When the FED buys bonds, such as a 100 million dollar bond, that money goes into the bond seller's bank. The banking system can then loan that amount, minus the reserve requirement, to other consumers. To entice consumers to borrow that money, banks lower interest rates on loans. Consumers borrow the money, and then purchase and produce with the money. Conversely, when the FED sells bonds back into the economy, the reverse holds true. When the economy must cough up the money to buy the bonds from the FED, then that is money that cannot be used any longer by the firms or consumers to produce nor to loan and invest. It is money returned out of the system'. Interest rates rise, to compensate for the lost revenue of making loans on money, and spending decreases due to less money. When the FED changes the reserve requirement, the percent of reserve the Banks simply cannot spend or loan to consumers is raised or lowered. If a bank has 10 billion on... [continues] Cite This Essay (2006, 06). Federal Reserve and Money Supply. StudyMode.com. Retrieved 06, 2006, from http://www.studymode.com/essays/Federal-Reserve-Money-Supply-90462.html "Federal Reserve and Money Supply" StudyMode.com. 06 2006. 06 2006 <http://www.studymode.com/essays/Federal-Reserve-Money-Supply-90462.html>. "Federal Reserve and Money Supply." StudyMode.com. 06, 2006. Accessed 06, 2006. http://www.studymode.com/essays/Federal-Reserve-Money-Supply-90462.html.

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When learning how to fold origami flowers, you'll definitely want to add the kusudama flower to your list of projects. This pretty flower is relatively simple to fold, but sure to impress all of your friends. Many novice paper folders make the mistake of assuming kusudama refers to a specific species of flower. The Japanese word "kusudama" can be translated as "medicine ball." Kusudama origami is origami made of several identically folded units that are glued together or sewn together to make a spherical shape. Kusudama is often considered a precursor to the modern genre of modular origami. The kusudama flower is made with six separate sheets of square paper. You can use origami paper, scrapbook paper, or calendar papers cut to the size you wish. Bigger paper results in bigger petals, which gives you a more dramatic looking flower. Mix and match patterns for an artistic effect or make all of the petals the same solid color if you want your flower to look as realistic as possible. In a kusudama flower, each sheet of paper is folded to form one petal. Then all of the petals are glued together. A single kusudama flower can be used on its own for decoration or added to a bouquet of origami flowers. You can also fold 12 of the flowers and glue them together to make one large origami kusudama ball. Children ages six and up should be able to fold the kusudama petal with a bit of practice, but will likely require adult assistance to make the completed flower. Use large 6 inch by 6 inch squares to make the project easiest for tiny hands to work with. 1. Form a Paper Triangle Place the paper in front of you with the back side facing up. Fold it diagonally to make a triangle. In origami, this is sometimes called a shawl fold, diaper fold, or triangle fold. It is a simple base that is used to develop many different types of projects. 2. Make a Square Fold the left and right corners up to the middle to make a square. Remember to make crisp folds to ensure the nicest looking origami kusudama flower. When you're finished, your project should look like the photo to the left. In origami, this shape is called a helmet base. 3. Fold the Corners Down Fold the left and right corners down to meet the edge of the paper so your paper looks like the project shown to the left. 4. Flatten the Flaps Flatten the flaps you created in the previous step. In origami, this is called a squash fold. Flattening without wrinkling the paper takes a bit of practice, but the squash fold is one of the most important origami folds to know. It is used in everything from origami flowers to origami cards. Fold the top triangles down so your project looks like the photo to the left. 5. Create Your Kusudama Flower Petals Fold the left corner in so it meets the first side crease. Repeat with the right corner. Carefully glue your flower petal together. Repeat until you have a total of six flower petals. Compare the flower petals when you are finished to make sure they are all exactly the same size and shape. 6. Complete Your Origami Kusudama Flower Glue the petals together to form your kusudama origami flower. For best results, use a glue stick and let each connection dry before continuing. If you're having trouble, use paper clips on the middle of the petals to hold the flower together until all the glue is dry. If you'd like to add a little extra embellishment to your kusudama flower, consider attaching a button, scrapbook brad, or rhinestone to the center. If you make a wire loop and thread your button through, you can use the excess wire to attach your flower to the bow on a beautifully wrapped package.

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For courses in Agricultural Finance. Financial Management in Agriculture, Seventh Edition, introduces students to modern concepts and tools of finance, developed and applied to the agricultural sector. Using case studies, practical problems, and a lucid presentation, the text focuses on planning, analyzing, and controlling business performance in agriculture and related financial markets. This new edition addresses recent structural changes in the food system, covering important topics such as the growth in vertical coordination within the food and fiber system, and the significant implications for financial analysis and risk management by those managing or financing the agricultural sector. Table of Contents Chapter 1: Nature and Scope of Financial Management Chapter 2: Financial Statements and Information Flows Chapter 3: Financial Analysis and Control Chapter 4: An Overview Of Financial Planning Chapter 5: Credit Risk Assessment and Lender-Borrower Relationships Chapter 6: Capital Structure, Leverage, and Financial Risk Chapter 7: Risk Management Chapter 8: The Time Value of Money Chapter 9: Investment Analysis Chapter 10: Costs of Financial Capital Chapter 11: Investment Analysis: Inflation, Risk, and Financial Planning Chapter 12: Ownership and Leasing of Farm Land Chapter 13: Leasing Non-Real Estate Assets Chapter 14: Market Structure of Agriculture: Contracts, Integration, and Financing Chapter 15: Financial Markets in a Global Setting Chapter 16: The Management Environment for Financial Institutions Chapter 17: Loan Pricing and Profitability Analysis Chapter 18: Financial Intermediaries In Agriculture Chapter 19: Legal Aspects of Agricultural Finance Chapter 20: Business Organization in Agriculture Chapter 21: Outside Equity Capital in Agriculture With CourseSmart eTextbooks and eResources, you save up to 60% off the price of new print textbooks, and can switch between studying online or offline to suit your needs. Once you have purchased your eTextbooks and added them to your CourseSmart bookshelf, you can access them anytime, anywhere. Financial Management in Agriculture, CourseSmart eTextbook, 7th Edition Format: Electronic Book $46.99 | ISBN-13: 978-0-13-706759-6

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How To: Improve Your Public Speaking Abbie Rowe/PhotoQuest/Getty Images Combining contrasts with listsThree-part lists and contrasts can be combined to great effect. In this technique, we use the third element of the list to contrast with the first two. JFK, once again, made effective use of this device, four minutes and 40 seconds into his inauguration, stating, “Not because the communists are doing it, not because we seek their votes, but because it is right.” This takes the benefits of both of those techniques and makes great use of them. It doesn’t simply emphasize one point, nor does it merely create a contrast; it does both, thereby reinforcing both techniques. Sonic rhetorical devicesThis is an umbrella term for a range of rhetorical techniques that are also frequently used in poetry. Perhaps the best known of these is alliteration. Using alliteration helps to emphasize something in a simple way, using repeated similar sounds to attract the ears of an audience. Examples are common in tongue twisters like, “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.” Linked to alliteration are assonance and consonance. While alliteration focuses on sounds at the beginning of each word, assonance focuses on internal vowels and consonance on internal consonants. These are slightly harder to spot, but nevertheless can be effective in conveying a message. A simple example is, “I baked a cake beside a lake,” where the strong sounds of the “a” and the “k” draw the attention of the listener.

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Isabella IArticle Free Pass Isabella I, byname Isabella the Catholic, Spanish Isabel la Católica (born April 22, 1451, Madrigal de las Altas Torres, Castile—died November 26, 1504, Medina del Campo, Spain), queen of Castile (1474–1504) and of Aragon (1479–1504), ruling the two kingdoms jointly from 1479 with her husband, Ferdinand II of Aragon (Ferdinand V of Castile). Their rule effected the permanent union of Spain and the beginning of an overseas empire in the New World, led by Christopher Columbus under Isabella’s sponsorship. Isabella was the daughter of John II of Castile and his second wife, Isabella of Portugal. Three years after her birth her half brother became king as Henry IV. Despite the fact that she had a younger brother, Alfonso, and that her early years were spent quietly with her mother at Arévalo, Isabella was soon drawn into Castilian politics. She was brought to court when she was 13 in order to be under the king’s eye. At first the opposition to Henry IV gathered around Alfonso, but when the latter died in July 1468, the rebellious magnates naturally turned to Isabella. She did not, however, play the role thus designed for her, and the fruit of her wisdom was recognition as his heiress by Henry IV at the agreement known as the Accord of Toros de Guisando (September 19, 1468). As heiress of Castile, the question of Isabella’s future marriage became a matter of increasing diplomatic activity at home and abroad. Portugal, Aragon, and France each put forward a marriage candidate. Henry seems to have wanted his half sister to marry Afonso V, king of Portugal. As between the Portuguese and Aragonese candidates, she herself, no doubt assisted in her decision by her small group of councillors, came down in favour of Ferdinand of Aragon. A third suitor, the French duc de Guiènne, was sidestepped, and without Henry’s approval she married Ferdinand in October 1469 in the palace of Juan de Vivero, at Valladolid. The prospect of an Aragonese consort led to the development of an anti-Aragonese party that put forward the claims of a rival heiress, Henry’s daughter Joan, known as la Beltraneja by those who believed that her true father was Beltrán de la Cueva, duque de Albuquerque. The king encouraged this group by going back on the accord of 1468 on the grounds that Isabella had shown disobedience to the crown in marrying Ferdinand without the royal consent. He now rejected Isabella’s claim to the throne and preferred that of Joan, for whom he sought the hand of the duc de Guiènne. Although Isabella and Henry were to some extent reconciled, the long-threatened war of succession broke out at once when the king died in 1474. What made you want to look up "Isabella I"? Please share what surprised you most...

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Comments on article: InfopediaTalk Raffles Lighthouse, located on Pulau Satumu, 23 km south-west of Singapore, at the western entrance of Singapore Straits, designed by John Bennet, was named after and dedicated to the memory of the founder of Singapore, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles. The foundation stone was laid in 1854, by Colonel William J. Butterworth, C.B., Governor of the Straits Settlements. The lighthouse began daily operations from December 1855. In July 1838, it was proposed that a lighthouse be built on one of the islands at the western entrance of the Singapore Straits, with suggestions that Barn Island, Alligator Island and Coney Island were the most advantageous. The eventual choice was Coney Island (today's Pulau Satumu), which was considered the best location with its position, on the south channel sea passage into Singapore, and ideal for hosting a lighthouse. On 24 May 1854, the Raffles Lighthouse Foundation Stone and the Raffles Lighthouse Memorial Tablet were laid by William J. Butterworth, the Governor of the Straits Settlements. A Masonic ceremony with the laying of the foundation stone was officiated by William H. Read, Worshipful Master of the first Masonic Lodge "Zetland in the East". Amidst much military pomp and followed by a party celebration, the Raffles Lighthouse project was thereafter executed with the help of Indian convicts and other labourers. Indian convicts served as stone-cutters, blasters, and labourers of the project, supervised by an Officer of the Convict Department. Raffles Lighthouse was completed and began operations on 1 December 1855 The lighthouse stands on an island with a superficial area of 70 ft by 22 ft and is only 30 ft above sea-level. It was designed by John Bennet, a civil and mechanical engineer, who also assisted in the construction of St. Andrew's Cathedral. The original light-beam came from a fixed bright dioptric light of the third order. The centre of the light-beam is 106 ft above the high water mark, and is visible about 12 nautical miles away. On 1 October 1968, the lighthouse was converted from kerosene to electrical light source, and with a new fourth order optic, the light-beam strength was increased from 99,000 to 350,000 candle power. Raffles Lighthouse is still in operation today. It is out-of-bounds except for the lighthouse staff and visitors with special permission. Buckley, C. B. (1984). An anecdotal history of old times in Singapore: 1819-1867 (pp. 520-526). Singapore: Oxford University Press. (Call no.: RSING 959.57 BUC) Makepeace, W., Brooke, G. E., & Braddell, R. St. J. (Eds.). (1991). One hundred years of Singapore (Vols. 1 & 2, p. 590). Singapore: Oxford University Press. (Call no.: RSING 959.57 ONE) McNair, J. F. A. (1899). Prisoners their own warders (p. 62). Westminster: A. Constable. (Call no.: RSEA 365.95957 MAC) Singapore Year Book (p. 298). (1968). Singapore: Government Printing Office. (Call no.: RCLOS 959.57 SIN) Urban Redevelopment Authority (Singapore). (1996). Punggol 21: A waterfront town of the 21st century (pp. 35-37). Singapore: Urban Redevelopment Authority. (Call no.: RSING 711.4095957 SIN) Islands in the sun [Microfilm: NL 8965]. (1976, December 3). The New Nation, p. 10. 'New' island for Raffles Lighthouse [Microfilm: NL 9057]. (1977, April 27). The New Nation, p. 2. The information in this article is valid as at 2001 and correct as far as we are able to ascertain from our sources. It is not intended to be an exhaustive or complete history of the subject. Please contact the Library for further reading materials on the topic.

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Ques:-What is Java Virtual Machine? Ans:- Java Virtual Machine JVM is the main component of Java architecture and it is the part of the JRE (Java Runtime Enviroment) . It provides the cross platform functionality to java. This is a software process that converts the compiled Java byte code to machine code. Byte code is an intermediary language between Java source and the host system. Most programming language like C and Pascal converts the source code into machine code for one specific type of machine as the machine language vary from system to system . Mostly compiler produce code for a particular system but Java compiler produce code for a virtual machine . JVM provides security to java. The programs written in Java or the source code translated by Java compiler into byte code and after that the JVM converts the byte code into machine code for the computer one wants to run. JVM is a part of Java Run Time Environment that is required by every operating system requires a different JRE . The architecture of the JVM is given below . This architecture tell us how the JVM works . Firstly we write the simple java program(source code) the java compiler converts the source code into the bytecode , after that JVM reads this bytecode and converts this into the machine code. Ques 2:- JVM provides portability explain..? Ans:- Implementations of java specification for a variety of CPUs and architectures provides the feature of portability. Foremost, without the availability of a JRE for a given environment, it is impossible to run Java software. JVM forms the part of large system i.e. the Java Runtime Environment (JRE). Each operating system and CPU architecture requires a JRE. JRE consists of a set of base classes i.e. an implementation of the base Java API as well as a JVM. The byte code format is same on all platforms as it runs in the same JVM and it is totally independent from the Operating System and the CPU architecture. JVM is java interpreter as it converts the byte code into machine code for the computer one wants to run. JRE consists of a number of classes based on JavaAPI and JVM, and without JRE, it is impossible to run Java. So its portability really made it possible in developing write once and run anywhere software . How to write First Java program Create a simplest java program : public class MyFirstProgram public static void main(String arr ) System.out.println(" I am creating my first java program"); Save the file with same name as the public class just adding the extension ?.java? e.g. MyFirstProgram.java. Now compile as: c:\ javac MyFirstProgram.java This creates a class file in with the same name, This is the bytecode form of Java program. Now to execute this code: c:\ java MyFirstProgram I am creating my first java program Ques 3: - Memory Management with JVM ? Ans:- Memory Management with JVM :- the Java language in combination with runtime eliminates the problems of memory management and corrupted pointers. There is no explicit allocation of memory in Java, memory is allocated only to objects. JVM's heap stores all objects created. JVM ask the operating system for enough memory to run the JVM itself and some free memory for the application to create new objects. If the free memory area is getting too small, the JVM will ask the operating system for more and if there is no more additional memory available from the operating system, then JVM stops the application and issues the "Out of memory error". The Java runtime employs a garbage collector to reclaim the memory occupied by an object. Ques 4: Difference amongst JVM Specification, JVM Implementation, JVM Runtime. I. Java Virtual Machine Specification JVM Specification = Java programming language + Java Virtual Machine architecture + Java class-file format. 1. Java Programming Language Java Programming Language is a developed by Sun MicroSystems. Programming languages, like natural language follow the syntactic and semantic rules. Java programming language has some form of written specification of syntax and semantics; which are defined only through the sun's official implementation. Java language derives much of its syntax from C and C++ but has a simpler object model and fewer low-level facilities. Java applications are typically compiled to bytecode which run on any Java Virtual Machine regardless of any computer architecture. 2. Java Virtual Machine architecture Java Virtual Machine is responsible for interpreting Java bytecode, and translating it into actions or operating system calls. JVM is the main component of Java architecture and it is the part of the JRE (Java Runtime Enviroment). The Java Virtual Machine provides a platform-independent way of executing code, by abstracting the differences between operating systems and CPU architectures. 3. Java class-file format: Programs written in Java (source code) are translated by Java compiler into byte code and after that the JVM converts the byte code into machine code for the computer one wants to run. This class file format makes java a portable language. II JVM Implementation: Though implementations of Java Virtual Machines are designed to be compatible, no two JVMs are exactly alike. For example, garbage collection algorithms vary from one JVM to another, so it becomes impossible to know exactly when memory will be reclaimed. The thread scheduling algorithms are different between one JVM and another , so that it is impossible to accurately predict when one thread will be executed over another. We have multiple implementations of JVM Specifications defined by Sun Microsystems like: (i) Java HotSpot VM: developed by Sun Microsystems. There are two implementations of the Java HotSpot VM: The main differences of the two implementations are: (ii) JRockit JVM : developed by BEA Systems III. JVM Runtime: The Java Virtual Machine is responsible for interpreting Java bytecode, and translating further the obtained code into actions or operating system calls. For example, a request to establish a socket connection to a remote machine will involve an operating system call. Different operating systems handle sockets in different ways - but the programmer doesn't need to worry about such details. It is the responsibility of the JVM to handle these translations, so that the operating system and CPU architecture on which Java software is running is completely irrelevant to the developer. JVM Runtime Environment contains the two parts such as: Java API classes: Java API classes are the predefined classes required for the program compilation and interpretation. Java Virtual Machine: JVM is also a part of the JRE. The Java Virtual Machine is responsible for interpreting Java bytecode, and translating this into actions or operating system calls . Implementations of java specification for a variety of CPUs and architectures provides the feature of portability. Foremost, without the availability of a JRE for a given environment, it is impossible to run Java software. JVM forms the part of large system i.e. the Java Runtime Environment (JRE). Each operating system and CPU architecture requires a JRE. JRE consists of a set of base classes i.e. an implementation of the base Java API as well as a JVM. If you are facing any programming issue, such as compilation errors or not able to find the code you are looking for. Ask your questions, our development team will try to give answers to your questions.

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Mar 6, 2012 This seemingly 2-headed, 6-legged tortoise is on display at the natural science museum in the Ukraine. “Strictly speaking it isn’t a tortoise with two heads, but rather two conjoined tortoises,” Yuri Yuravliov, a zoologist, told AFP. “The female has two heads, two hearts, four front legs, but only two hind ones, and one intestine,” he explained…. The two heads are quite different, even in their feeding habits. The left one is more dominant and active, “prefers green food, while the other prefers more brightly-coloured food — carrots and dandelion flowers,” said Yuravliov. The tortoise, a species that can live 50 to 60 years, was kept from birth by a Ukrainian in his home, he said. “Animals with this type of pathology are only rarely born and don’t survive in natural condition.” * * * * *

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Everything you need to understand or teach Barbara McClintock by Evelyn Fox Keller. A Feeling for the Organism is the story of the rise, marginalization and rediscovery of Barbara McClintock and her crucially important work in cytology and genetics, which ultimately led to a revolution in the understanding of the human genome. The author of the book, Evelyn Keller, is a geneticist herself who learned of McClintock's pivotal work as she passed through graduate school. She decided to explore the life of this unusual woman and scientist, telling McClintock's story in her own words and the words of those who knew her. The book begins with a historical overview of the culture of the genetics community and related sciences from the 1920s through the 1980s, the vast stretch of time over which McClintock's work took place. We discover that early in the 1920s, genetics was a kind of standalone science. It was only rediscovered after Mendel in 1900, two years before McClintock was... View more of the A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock Summary A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock Lesson Plans contain 150 pages of teaching material, including:

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Further Adventures in the Origin of AIDS by Lauren Tuck Mystery of where AIDS came from solved? Not so fast. Last fall, we read Jacques Pépin’s theory in The Origin of AIDS. He says that HIV in humans can be traced back to about 80 chimpanzees in Africa that infected bush-meat hunters, and that the virus was then further spread through the use of nonsterile medical equipment. Now comes a new book that implicates colonization of the continent in the early 1900s as the catalyst of the global pandemic. Tinderbox, coauthored by journalist Craig Timberg and AIDS researcher Daniel Halperin, PhD, hypothesizes that without the mobility, urbanization, medical campaigns and prostitution introduced to central Africa by Europeans, the HIV-1 group M strain would’ve been a short-lived, localized outbreak in the forests of Cameroon. The theory has caused much controversy. One thing’s for sure: The multiple, complex and interrelated drivers of HIV mean the beginnings of AIDS will continue to spark interest. To read an interview with Daniel Halperin, click here. Search: Africa, Cameroon, Jacques Pépin, The Origin of AIDS, chimpanzees, nonsterile medical equipment, Craig Timberg, Daniel Halperin, Tinderbox, bush-meat hunters, HIV-1 group M strain Scroll down to comment on this story. Show comments (0 total)

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- adj. The ordinal form of number twenty-four. - n. The person or thing in the twenty-fourth position. - n. One of twenty-four equal parts of a whole. - adj. coming next after the twenty-third in position “But he did remember his respected uncle, Ah Kow, for him had he served as a slave from his sixth year to his twenty-fourth.” “Of the forty-six countries for which data were available, Russia had only the thirty-seventh highest rate of victimization by burglary, the twenty-third highest for theft of personal property, and the twenty-fourth highest for assault with force.” “On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month, the month of Shebat, in the second year of Darius, the word of the LORD came to the prophet Zechariah son of Berechiah son of Iddo; and Zechariah said, In the night I saw a man riding on a red horse!” “Mostly, of course, it was just about everyday life in the late twenty-fourth century.” “But that said, what we call Harmonic Convergence took place . . . and seven days later on August twenty-fourth a mini-alignment took place.” “Three days later, on my twenty-fourth birthday, he woke himself up long enough to write me an e-mail about how much he loved me and how I was a strong woman who could do anything.” “Then, shortly after Violet celebrated her twenty-fourth birthday, her father died and bequeathed to her his television set.” ““Not a hell of a lot, against twenty-fourth century weapons,” Rasmussen commented.” “It was something they did every year, he said, on the twenty-fourth of June, they went to a restaurant that two of them owned and ate there in the hours between lunch and supper when it was closed to customers.” “Alexander now celebrated his twenty-fourth birthday with a new determination to take the stronghold at any cost.” ‘twenty-fourth’ hasn't been added to any lists yet. Looking for tweets for twenty-fourth.

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The Truth About Water Water, the fluid of life and the shaper of the earth, is made from the simplest and most abundant element in the universe, hydrogen, joined to the vital gas oxygen. Two atoms pair with a single oxygen atom to establish the triple structure water H2O. Water the universal solvent, given sufficient time, will dissolve or suspend almost any material on earth. Pure water, therefore, is a rare substance. In nature, water in its purest form is found in the water vapor that rises from the earth's surface. Nature's cleansing cycle consists of evaporation, condensation and precipitation. As water evaporates from the earth, it leaves behind any contaminants it may have collected. Distillation, the process whereby water is turned into steam, then directed, into condensing coils where it condenses back into water, can therefore be aptly described as nature's way of purifying water. No other process produces purity as nature intended.

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GRABLE, 15 Kilotons, Nevada 1953 - Drawn from the book and exhibition 100 SUNS by Michael Light, Alfred A. Knopf, ©2003 (used with the artist's permission). The image depicts atomic test "Grable,"--a 15 kiloton Mark-9 nuclear artillery shell, fired five miles from the target by an 85 ton cannon. The test occurred at the Nevada test site, 25 May 1953. Smoke trails to the left are from rockets carrying photographic devices used to measure the shock waves created by the blast. About 2,000 troops were in trenches 2.84 miles from ground zero; after the explosion, they engaged in maneuvers under the cloud of radioactive debris.

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Dec. 2, 2005: Previewing a Week at AGU |Enlarge ImageHugh Powell writes the daily blog from AGU. (Photo by Tom Kleindinst) A Firehose Doesn't Even Begin to Describe It Welcome to our blog from AGU. Over the next week, I will be posting daily reports about what's happening at the American Geophysical Union fall meeting. This is the premier meeting in the field of Earth sciences, and it has the attendance statistics to show it: More than 10,000 Earth, space and ocean scientists will converge on San Francisco to present as many as 2,000 talks and posters every day, for a week. Check back during the day and each morning by 10 a.m. EST for the latest posts. Two thousand 15-minute talks and 4' x 8' posters each day. A lesser blogger might ask you to imagine drinking from a firehose (about 20,800 lesser bloggers, to be specific). But in terms of information stream, AGU is more of an ocean current. it this way: imagine the stream of water coming out of a firehose. Now add to that all the rest of the water in all the world's rivers. In oceanographic units, that flow rate is around 1 Sverdrup , or a million cubic meters per second. That's the scale at which oceanographers start measuring ocean currents (the small ones). That's why WHOI sent a reporter like me to post about what's interesting, including some of the 186 presentations involving WHOI investigators, as well as hot topics from the rest of the Earth sciences world. Next week, we're expecting to hear about new results from research on hydrothermal vents, ocean ridges, earthquakes, a giant flood in the Black Sea and the workings of ocean circulation (Sverdrups and all). We'd love it if you'd join us here.

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An introduction to the basics of Unicode, distilled from several earlier posts. In the interests of presenting the big picture, I have painted with a broad brush — large areas are summarized; nits are not picked; hairs are not split; wind resistance is ignored. Unicode = one character set, plus several encodings Unicode is actually not one thing, but two separate and distinct things. The first is a character set and the second is a set of encodings. - The first — the idea of a character set — has absolutely nothing to do with computers. - The second — the idea of encodings for the Unicode character set — has everything to do with computers. The idea of a character set has nothing to do with computers. So let’s suppose that you’re a British linguist living in, say, 1750. The British Empire is expanding and Europeans are discovering many new languages, both living and dead. You’ve known about Chinese characters for a long time, and you’ve just discovered Sumerian cuneiform characters from the Middle East and Sanskrit characters from India. Trying to deal with this huge mass of different characters, you get a brilliant idea — you will make a numbered list of every character in every language that ever existed. You start your list with your own familiar set of English characters — the upper- and lower-case letters, the numeric digits, and the various punctuation marks like period (full stop), comma, exclamation mark, and so on. And the space character, of course. 01 a 02 b 03 c ... 26 z 27 A 28 B ... 52 Z 53 0 54 1 55 2 ... 62 9 63 (space) 64 ? (question mark) 65 , (comma) ... and so on ... Then you add the Spanish, French and German characters with tildes, accents, and umlauts. You add characters from other living languages — Greek, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, Sanscrit, Arabic, Hebrew, and so on. You add characters from dead alphabets — Assyrian cuneiform — and so on, until finally you have a very long list of characters. - What you have created — a numbered list of characters — is known as a character set. - The numbers in the list — the numeric identifiers of the characters in the character set — are called code points. - And because your list is meant to include every character that ever existed, you call your character set the Universal Character Set. Congratulations! You’ve just invented (something similar to) the the first half of Unicode — the Universal Character Set or UCS. Now suppose you jump into your time machine and zip forward to the present. Everybody is using computers. You have a brilliant idea. You will devise a way for computers to handle UCS. You know that computers think in ones and zeros — bits — and collections of 8 bits — bytes. So you look at the biggest number in your UCS and ask yourself: How many bytes will I need to store a number that big? The answer you come up with is 4 bytes, 32 bits. So you decide on a simple and straight-forward digital implementation of UCS — each number will be stored in 4 bytes. That is, you choose a fixed-length encoding in which every UCS character (code point) can be represented, or encoded, in exactly 4 bytes, or 32 bits. UTF-8 and variable-length encodings UCS-4 is simple and straight-forward… but inefficient. Computers send a lot of strings back and forth, and many of those strings use only ASCII characters — characters from the old ASCII character set. One byte — eight bits — is more than enough to store such characters. It is grossly inefficient to use 4 bytes to store an ASCII character. The key to the solution is to remember that a code point is nothing but a number (an integer). It may be a short number or a long number, but it is only a number. We need just one byte to store the shorter numbers of the Universal Character Set, and we need more bytes only when the numbers get longer. So the solution to our problem is a variable-length encoding. Specifically, Unicode’s UTF-8 (Unicode Transformation Format, 8 bit) is a variable-length encoding in which each UCS code point is encoded using 1, 2, 3, or 4 bytes, as necessary. In UTF-8, if the first bit of a byte is a “0″, then the remaining 7 bits of the byte contain one of the 128 original 7-bit ASCII characters. If the first bit of the byte is a “1″ then the byte is the first of multiple bytes used to represent the code point, and other bits of the byte carry other information, such as the total number of bytes — 2, or 3, or 4 bytes — that are being used to represent the code point. (For a quick overview of how this works at the bit level, see How does UTF-8 “variable-width encoding” work?) Just use UTF-8 UTF-8 is a great technology, which is why it has become the de facto standard for encoding Unicode text, and is the most widely-used text encoding in the world. Text strings that use only ASCII characters can be encoded in UTF-8 using only one byte per character, which is very efficient. And if characters — Chinese or Japanese characters, for instance — require multiple bytes, well, UTF-8 can do that, too. Byte Order Mark Unicode fixed-length multi-byte encodings such as UTF-16 and UTF-32 store UCS code points (integers) in multi-byte chunks — 2-byte chunks in the case of UTF-16 and 4-byte chunks in the case of UTF-32. Unfortunately, different computer architectures — basically, different processor chips — use different techniques for storing such multi-byte integers. In “little-endian” computers, the “little” (least significant) byte of a multi-byte integer is stored leftmost. “Big-endian” computers do the reverse; the “big” (most significant) byte is stored leftmost. - Intel computers are little-endian. - Motorola computers are big-endian. - Microsoft Windows was designed around a little-endian architecture — it runs only on little-endian computers or computers running in little-endian mode — which is why Intel hardware and Microsoft software fit together like hand and glove. Differences in endian-ness can create data-exchange issues between computers. Specifically, the possibility of differences in endian-ness means that if two computers need to exchange a string of text data, and that string is encoded in a Unicode fixed-length multi-byte encoding such as UTF-16 or UTF-32, the string should begin with a Byte Order Mark (or BOM) — a special character at the beginning of the string that indicates the endian-ness of the string. Strings encoded in UTF-8 don’t require a BOM, so the BOM is basically a non-issue for programmers who use only UTF-8. - Ned Batchelder’s Pragmatic Unicode. Highly recommended. - The Absolute Minimum Every Software Developer Absolutely, Positively Must Know About Unicode and Character Sets (No Excuses!) (2003) by Joel Spolsky is good, and widely read, but now a bit dated. I think it is rather misleading in the prominence it gives to the BOM.

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Different grave-styles speak about their spiritual evolution and about their belief in a supernatural life and in divinities. They had a very complex burial ritual, in which they sacrificed llamas or alpacas. These animals were buried with the deceased, evidencing the importance of livestock. Basically, their burial sites consist on a rectangular enclosure, excavated below ground level, with two inclined stone blocks in order to protect the corpse. Also, some of them suggest that wives were buried next to their husbands. Such a tradition may have been a way of achieving balance between sexes. Men and women were short in size, with clear olive colored skin. Their cranial deformation, a common practice among the Diaguita, did not produce unattractive or negative effects.

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To understand the soul of the Ateneo de Manila University -- what shaped it and where it came from, where it is going and where it can take you -- it is essential to understand its motto, Lux in Domino, or "Light in the Lord." The Ateneo de Manila University Seal From the letter of St. Paul to the Ephesians (5:8), these words capture the spirit of a way of life which the Ateneo holds up to her sons and daughters as their best contribution to the work by which God transforms the world. To be "light in the Lord" in all fullness demands moving insistently and deliberately towards God as the center of a person's life, identifying the issues that such a centering poses, and then moving out to the world to find ever new ways of constructing the edifice, cultivating the garden, painting the masterpiece, that God is unfolding in one's life. It is a call to BE that light of the Lord in the world. The Ateneo de Manila University began in 1859 when Spanish Jesuits established the Escuela Municipal de Manila, a public primary school established in Intramuros for the city of Manila. However, the educational tradition of the Ateneo embraces the much older history of the Jesuits as a teaching order in the Philippines. The first Spanish Jesuits arrived in the country in 1581. While primarily missionaries, they were also custodians of the ratio studiorum, the system of Jesuit education formulated about 1559. In 1590, they founded one of the first colleges in the Philippines, the Colegio de Manila (also known as the Colegio Seminario de San Ignacio) under the leadership of Antonio Sedeño, S.J. The school formally opened in 1595. In 1621, Pope Gregory XV, through the archbishop of Manila, authorized the San Ignacio to confer degrees in theology and the arts. Two years later, King Philip IV of Spain confirmed this authorization, making the school a royal and a pontifical university, the very first university in the Philippines and in Asia. However, by the mid-18th century, Catholic colonial powers, notably France, Portugal, and Spain, had grown hostile to the Society of Jesus. The colonial powers eventually expelled the Society, often quite brutally, from The Jesuits had to relinquish the San Ignacio to Spanish civil authorities in 1768, upon their violent expulsion from all Spanish territories. Finally, under pressure from Catholic royalty, Pope Clement XIV formally declared the dissolution of the Society of Jesus in 1773. Pope Pius VII reinstated the Society in 1814, after almost seven decades of persecution and over four decades of formal suppression. However, the Jesuits would not return to the Philippines until 1859, almost a century after their expulsion. Authorized by a royal decree of 1852, ten Spanish Jesuits arrived in Manila on April 14, 1859. This Jesuit mission was sent mainly for missionary work in Mindanao and Jolo. However, despite almost a century away from the Philippines, the Jesuits’ reputation as educators remained entrenched in the minds of Manila’s leaders. On August 5, the ayuntamiento or city council requested the Governor-General for a Jesuit school financed by public money. On October 1, 1859, the Governor-General authorized the Jesuits to take over the Escuela Municipal, then a small private school maintained for 30 children of Spanish residents. Partly subsidized by the ayuntamiento, it was the only primary school in Manila at the time. Under the Jesuits, the Escuela eventually became the Ateneo Municipal de Manila in 1865 when it was elevated to an institution of secondary education. The Ateneo Municipal offered the bachillerato as well as technical courses leading to certificates in agriculture, surveying, and business. When American colonial rule came in 1902, the Ateneo Municipal lost its government subsidy. In 1908, the colonial government recognized it as a college licensed to offer the bachelor’s degree and certificates in various disciplines, including electrical engineering. In 1909, years after the Ateneo became a private institution, the Jesuits finally removed the word “Municipal” from the Ateneo’s official name, and it has since been known as the Ateneo de Manila. American Jesuits took over administration in 1921. In 1932, under Fr. Richard O’Brien, third American rector, the Ateneo transferred to Padre Faura after a fire destroyed the Intramuros campus. Devastation hit the Ateneo campus once again during World War II. Only one structure remained standing – the statue of St. Joseph and the Child Jesus which now stands in front of the Jesuit Residence in the Loyola Heights campus. Ironwork and statuary salvaged from the Ateneo ruins have since been incorporated into various existing Ateneo buildings. Some examples are the Ateneo monograms on the gates of the Loyola Heights campus, the iron grillwork on the ground floor of Xavier Hall, and the statue of the Immaculate Conception displayed at the University archives. But even if the Ateneo campus had been destroyed, the university survived. Following the American liberation, the Ateneo de Manila reopened temporarily in Plaza Guipit in Sampaloc. The Padre Faura campus reopened in 1946 with Quonset huts serving as buildings among the campus ruins. In 1952, the university, led by Fr. William Masterson, S.J. moved most of its units to its present Loyola Heights campus. Controversy surrounded the decision. An Ateneo Jesuit supposedly said that only the ‘children of Tarzan’ would study in the new campus. But over the years, the Ateneo in Loyola Heights has become the center of a dynamic community. The Padre Faura campus continued to house the professional schools until 1976. The first Filipino rector, Fr. Francisco Araneta, S.J. was appointed in 1958. And in 1959, its centennial year, the Ateneo became a The Padre Faura campus was closed in 1976. A year after, the University opened a new campus for its professional schools in Salcedo Village, in the bustling business district of Makati. In October 1998, the University completed construction of a bigger site of the Ateneo Professional Schools at Rockwell, also in Makati. 1. Ateneo de Manila University Official Website read more: Ateneo de Manila University (ADMU)

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ActionScript 3 tutorials This article or section is incomplete and its contents need further attention. Some sections may be missing, some information may be wrong, spelling and grammar may have to be improved etc. Use your judgment! - Page created by Daniel K. Schneider, 5 November 2008 This pages is for actionscript concepts that apply to any ActionScript 3.0 authoring environment and any runtime that supports ActionScript 3.0. For the moment, two authoring environment are covered in this wiki, Adobe Flash CS3 and Adobe Flex. The focus of this page is on programming concepts that are completely tool un-specific (that would work in Flash as well as Flex). We write these pages as (recent) learners of the language. We are not experts. ActionScript 3.0 is an object-oriented language for creating applications and media-content that can then be played back in Flash client runtimes (typically the Adobe Flash Player, more recently the AIR framework). For those already familiar with a Flash authoring environment, it needs to be mentioned that quite important changes have been introduced in the ActionScript language between version 2 and version 3. Version 2 was somehow a scripting language targeted at unexperienced programmers. Version 3 has all characteristics of any serious programming language. This may make it slightly more difficult for complete beginners to jump in. These changes, however, don't prevent a person who would have never programmed before to learn the language. This is in part because the authoring environment let you define content and basic actions without having to care about code. Progressive learning can take place. The reason these changes were introduced is simply because the benefits of the changes introduced in version 3 far outweight any possible inconvenience to the complete newbie. Two main aspects of the language: - AS3 is a strongly typed language. This means that whenever you use a variable, you must provide information about the type of data that this variable is expected to hold. If you want to use a counter and keep track of the counter progress in a variable, the type of data to be held in this variable will be of integer type (non negative numbers). To define that counter variable in AS3, you will type something like var counter:int = 0; - AS3 is an object oriented language. This means that you have the possibility to split your code into specialized classes rather than write a single program of 3,000 lines of code. This contributes to make the code easier to maintain and easier to re-use. You can then design specialized components that will be re-used across different applications. A typical example of such a component would be a calendar object that pops up to let you specify a date. Enough technicalities, let's program! Whatever your level, make sure that you read the instructions on How to compile an AS3 program and that you are successful at compiling the first example given on that page. Stage 1, Absolute Novice What you need to get started. This assumes absolutely no prior experience with programming whatsoever. Because of this, it can be perceived as a bit dumb and slow-paced for persons who have already done some coding. In this case, simply rapidly browse through, have a look at the demo examples. Because each one explores a simple technique in isolation, they can be used as reference to Beginner and Intermediate coders. Go to Novice Stage 2, Beginner This assumes that you have a very basic understanding of the general format and syntax of an AS3 program and know how to compile it. You know how to draw a rectangle on the screen by slightly adapting the code provided, but that's about it. You are a bit lost when it comes to writing your own program from scratch, even the simplest one. Well, you will be given the basic knowledge required to transform simple ideas into simple programs mixing graphics and interactive components. You learn about basic data types and control statements as well as how to use instance functions to organize your code more efficiently. Go to Beginner Stage 3, Intermediate Drawing rectangles and interactive buttons on the screen is all good, but that doesn't get you very far, is it? Here you learn to write more complex programs, like mini-games. These programs are too complex to hold on a single page of code. You are introduced to the gist of some OO concepts. At this level, we have code spread over multiple files, class-based code organisation, inheritance, composition, dispatching events across objects, reading xml data or embedding assets stored locally. Go to Intermediate Stage 4, Advanced All you need to know to write the next killer web 2.0 application that will make you rich or to become a professional freelance developer. You get to learn about design patterns and data services. The advanced tutorial will be shared between AS3 and Flex and would assume basic knowledge of Flex. Well, this may remain underdeveloped till I reach that stage myself. Give me a few months. I challenge you to make more rapid progress than I will and actively contribute to the writing of that section! Go to Advanced. - AS3 simple examples - AS3 Useful links - Ideas and Information for programming projects - Flash ActionScript 3 overview - ActionScript 3 event handling tutorial - ActionScript 3 interactive objects tutorial This tutorial was for a good part written at a time where Marielle Lange (widged) was visiting fellow at the School of Mathematical and Computer Sciences, Heriot-Watt University (Edinburgh, UK). I am most thankful for the office space and collegial environment offered during my 3 months there.

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On the outskirts of Cambridge sits the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, one of the world’s largest organisations dedicated to genetics research. The institute is named after Fred Sanger, the Nobel laureate who developed DNA sequencing technology in the 1970s. Sanger’s techniques are still in use today, albeit now powered by super processors. DNA. We’ve all got it, and we’re constantly told by scientists and newspaper articles – indeed, science podcasts – that it’s the blueprint for building a living organism. There’s a version of this twisty molecule in virtually every cell in the human body and in many ways it controls our destiny – DNA contains the instructions for how many fingers your hand should grow, what colour eyes you dazzle the world with and it can even be used to predict your likelihood of cancer. Ever since biologists finished, ten years ago, reading the entire human genome – the full sequence of genes that is unique to humans – they have realised how complicated genetic material actually is The thing about genetic material is that although it’s really small, we CAN read it and even transcribe it using the letters, A, T, C and G. It’s a bit like how digital code is always a series of 0s and 1s. And one chap who worked out HOW to read the code is Fred Sanger, whose name is now encoded into genetic-speak on a stained glass window at the institute that bears his name. The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, just outside Cambridge, employs hundreds of scientists all working on various elements of genetics research. They recently produced the first full sequence of the gorilla genome – that is, all the genes that make gorillas gorillas. The reason why scientists at Sanger and elsewhere sequence genomes is that the results tell them all about how that species became a distinct species, including when it diverged from its evolutionary cousins, and why it is the way it is today. For example, as you’ll hear later on, studying the genes of the malaria parasite carried by mosquitoes reveal just how it is able to penetrate a person’s red blood cells to infect them. If an organism were a car, its genome would be the Haynes owners’ manual, detailing everything about how it works. But genomes are much more complex than cars, and they take the form of the very small and very long molecule DNA. Only with machines can we sequence all the genes in an organism’s genome. That is why, on a recent tour of Sanger by the institute’s media and public relations manager Don Powell took me not to a lab with scientists at workbenches but a room full of giant computers… Molecular biology databases Pfam 10 years on: 10,000 Families and still Growing, (PMID:18344544), Sammut SJ, Finn RD, Bateman A, Briefings in Bioinformatics [2008, 9(3):210-9]. Insightsintohominidevolutionfromthegorillagenomesequence. Scally A et al., Nature [2012, 483:169–175].

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The possible key to their susceptibility? A deficit in vitamin D. The tubercle bacillus infects about one in three people worldwide, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). While in most people the microbe either lies dormant for years or is killed quickly by first-line immune defenses, it also causes nearly 9 million cases of active infection and more than 2 million deaths, according to WHO estimates. People of African descent have been known to develop active TB far more readily than whites do, and their disease, if untreated, is also generally more severe. In the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, TB case rates for African Americans are about eight times higher than they are for whites. The new study found that the body's "innate" immune response to infection--a swift, first-line defense against a variety of pathogens by immune scavenger cells called macrophages--is critically dependent on vitamin D. The body makes vitamin D when the sun's ultraviolet rays hit the skin. But in dark-complexioned populations, the skin pigment, melanin, absorbs those rays, lowering vitamin D levels in the blood. "In populations vulnerable to TB, it's exciting to consider the possibility that innate immunity might be enhanced by a vitamin costing just pennies a day," says HSPH Dean Barry Bloom, a study co-author and the Joan L. and Julius H. Jacobson II Professor of Public Health. "This study shows how variations in vitamin D synthesis may make some individuals susceptible to TB," says Bloom. "It also reveals a new mechanism by which the innate immune response--conserved through evolution, from fruit flies to mice to humans--battles certain pathogens." Then a breakthrough came, in 2005, in the laboratory of Robert Modlin, a professor of dermatology and microbiology, immunology, and molecular genetics at UCLA and a longtime collaborator of Bloom's. In Modlin's lab, a postdoctoral scholar named Philip Liu and his co-workers began genetically screening two related types of human white cells to see which genes were switched "on" and "off" when the cells encountered M. tuberculosis. Only in the macrophages capable of killing the tubercle bacillus did they find that the major switched-on gene encoded the receptor molecule for vitamin D. Suddenly, the researchers were on the way to uncovering a new mechanism for killing the tubercle bacillus--a mechanism that bore no resemblance to the one they and others had demonstrated in mice, and that had been implicated previously in destroying other microbes. The UCLA-HSPH collaborators offer a tantalizing explanation for why scientists' hunt for similar TB-killing mechanisms in mice and men has not panned out. Humans, who are active by day, may have evolved the ultraviolet-light-and-vitamin-D pathway to kill microbes inhaled in small numbers. Mice, being nocturnal and not exposed in nature to the tubercle bacillus, depend primarily on a different pathway to resist pathogens. Next, the researchers compared the response to M. tuberculosis of immune cells from blood serum donated by African Americans and whites. After confirming that the sera from African Americans had lower levels of vitamin D, they cultured macrophages from it and discovered, first, that the cells made 63 percent less cathelicidin than cells cultured from the sera of white donors; and second, that these cells were ineffective in killing the TB pathogen. Moreover, bringing the vitamin D precursor in African American serum up to the levels seen in Caucasian serum sparked production of microbicidal cathelicidin by the macrophages. Bloom says the newfound mechanism may explain the historic link between TB resistance in humans and sunlight. Starting in the late 1800s, sunlight and fresh air were thought to help cure active TB, which led to the great sanatorium movement. Wheeling patients' beds out onto these institutions' sunlit porches gave way to effective antibiotics in the mid-20th century, Bloom says, "but our research shows that the idea may not have been totally crazy. It's unfortunate that sanatoria later installed windows, since glass filters out ultraviolet rays." If the studies in the laboratory help explain the increased susceptibility of people in Africa and Asia to tuberculosis, Bloom says, they also raise difficult questions about the role of race as a factor in disease susceptibility. "Race is a very vague concept, hard to define in any scientific way," he says. "From human genetic studies, clear that there are greater genetic differences between any two individuals than between any classification of races. In the case of skin pigmentation, it is important to point out that essentially all of us have melanin pigment in skin organelles called The study's results are currently limited to the lab, Bloom cautions. But he believes they may be promising enough to warrant a clinical trial of vitamin D supplementation in Africa or Asia. For high-risk populations in the developing world, he says, the possibility that a simple, inexpensive vitamin pill might boost innate resistance to developing TB--one of humankind's oldest, most resilient foes--is an intriguing idea worth testing. Of the world's 22 highest-burden TB countries, nine are in Africa, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). They are: Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. These countries face huge challenges related to the HIV/AIDS epidemic, which greatly weakens the immune system and heightens the risk of infection and death caused by TB. The largest number of new TB cases in 2004 occurred in WHO's 11-country South-East Asia Region, which accounted for 33 percent of incident cases globally. However, the estimated incidence per capita in sub-Saharan Africa is now nearly twice that of the South-East Asia Region, approaching 400 cases per 100,000 people. In the United States, non-Hispanic blacks accounted for 28 percent of new TB cases in 2003. They also accounted for the highest percentage of TB cases in the U.S.-born population--44 percent--and 13 percent of cases among the foreign-born. Karin Kiewra is editor of the Review and associate director of Development Communications. This page is maintained by Development Communications in the Office of Resource Development. To contact us with suggestions, comments, and questions, please e-mail: email@example.com Copyright, 2006, President and Fellows of Harvard College

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One of the aspects of home schooling that concerns many parents is ‘burnout’. What ideas does this term convey to you? Probably someone who has been intensely busy and has exhausted their resources. They are used up, spent, depleted of energy. This can happen to anyone in any situation, but the responsibility to educate one’s child can be particularly stressful and intimidating to both new and veteran homeschooling parents. home education requires dedication and discipline, whether you use a boxed curriculum, cyber school, or are delight-directed. Even relaxed and unschooling families can get find themselves feeling weary and defeated. - How does burnout happen? - How do we recover from it? - How do we prevent it? To understand how to recover and prevent burnout, we need to discover the source. We tend to blame our circumstances for fatigue and discouragement, but burnout often begins in our minds. We allow our anxieties to push and shove to the front of the line in our thought processes, distracting us from focusing on the tasks at hand. We begin to make clumsy mistakes, which feeds our sense of inadequacy. Our expectations become unrealistic, and our perspective skewed. We start thinking in terms of ‘always’ and ‘never’, such as - “My kids never clean their rooms.” - “I always have to do everything around here.” - “My husband never understands what I need, what I’m going through.” - “This house is always a mess.” The more we stress about our situation, the more we feel helpless to change it. Our doubts and distresses, manufactured in the furnace of our minds, are often the fuel of our burnout fire. Preventing and recovering from burnout involve the same taming of our thoughts and actions. 1) Establish realistic priorities based on your family’s needs and abilities. As obvious as it is, we often need to be reminded to eat, sleep, and drink water. Adequate rest, hydration, and nutritious meals keep your body, and thus your mind, in the best condition possible. It is important to divide tasks by necessity-dishes and laundry need to be done regularly, flower arranging and scrapbooking can wait. I can never truly relax with a hobby or a book when I am allowing basic chores to pile up unattended. Keep the kids’ chores age appropriate, but expect them to be a contributing member of the family, and at least take care of the belongings that have been given to them. When someone pressures you to pattern your homeschool after a traditional classroom, complete with flags, school desks, blackboards, and report cards, beat them over the head with a skillet. JUST KIDDING! Deschooling is an important part of the homeschool planning process. Budgeting properly is a part of establishing priorities as well. It’s difficult to pass up a good buy- but if your finances are strained, a bargain is not always a bargain. If you have six pairs of jeans and eight purses, then finding jeans for $3 and a genuine leather Liz Claiborne handbag at Goodwill for $5 is NOT a good buy. Know what you genuinely need to guide your home, feed your family, and school your kids, then stay within those guidelines, no matter how tempting the sale price. 2) Create a schedule, but use it as a framework, not as a cage. I admit it- I never met a planning calendar I didn’t like. I could spend so much time planning and organizing that I never actually accomplish anything! But calendars and planners are helpful for drawing up and maintaining a routine that offers both structure and flexibility. Think of the human body- our skeletons are made of strong, unbendy bones, but they are connected by flexible joints that give us the ability to move in a variety of ways. A good schedule will accomplish the same thing for your household and your homeschool. Re-evaluate how your time is spent, and be honest with yourself about where you need to invest more time, and where you need to stop wasting it. Use your schedule to answer any and all “Can you attend?”, “Would you help?”, “Could you just?” questions. If it is a worthy activity, and it doesn’t push a priority task off the grid, then you may accept the invitation or volunteer to help without that sick, guilty you get from not being able to say “No” when it is appropriate to do so. Give your schedule a pace. Don’t hit the ground running at 6am and plan to go 50 mph for the entire day. Set aside time to read, meditate, or snuggle. Take five minutes to drink some hot tea and look at the birds in the bird feeder. Sit on the back porch and watch the kids play, because they need to blow off excess energy and sometimes even work out their own set of frustrations with physical activity. Be practical and creative- set a timer and give yourself a five minute break. Get the kids together, put on some fun and upbeat music, and for fifteen minutes pick up and put away things that are out of place, sweep and spiff up floors and surfaces, and put away one load of laundry. 3) Keep the lines of communication open. Talk to your husband about how you can work together as a family to make sure everyone’s needs are met. Ask friends and family for advice or help when you are faced with an unfamiliar situation or overwhelming burden. Make connections and nurture friendships that are encouraging and energizing, and leave behind relationships that are unhealthy and dysfunctional. Join a support group that will offer you helpful information about homeschooling, as well as access to mentors. 4) A little realism goes a long way. Life happens- the dog chewed the corner of the couch, the kids have the flu, a friend is suffering from a serious illness, there are conflicts amongst your relatives, and you found out that someone at church said your red dress makes you look like a giant strawberry. Not only do some of these issues take time to deal with, but emotional and mental energy is tapped in order to cope. These things will not go away, no matter how tempting it is to get in the car and drive to the mall for shopping therapy, or eat an entire half gallon of mint chocolate chip, or go around yelling and slamming doors, or just slouch in bed and not get up until noon the next day. And how would you feel about yourself if you did give in to some self-destructive or self-pitying behavior? The best way out is through – deal with each situation as it comes. Focus on what needs to be done right now, and do that one thing to the best of your ability. I don’t care if it is washing your hair or watering the plants. All you can do is what you are doing right now, so do it well and then go on to the next thing. 5) Don’t forget to enjoy your life. Psalm 16:11 Thou wilt shew me the path of life: in thy presence is fulness of joy; at thy right hand there are pleasures for evermore. There is nothing wrong with finding pleasure in living our lives. We can experience awe when looking at creation, we can savor the meals we have prepared, we can be entertained by our children’s imaginations and antics. “Many hands make light work”, and many conversations can happen when everyone is laboring together. Homeschooling has its up-and-downs as any other facet of family life, but there is much we can do to prevent it from scuttling our mission to provide a nurturing, creative, educational environment for our kids.

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During the provincial era, shipbuilding was New Hampshire's major industry. By 1870, cotton and woolen mills, concentrated in the southeast, employed about one-third of the labor force and accounted for roughly half the value of all manufactures. The value of shipments by manufacturers in 1997 was $20 billion, exhibiting a growth of 79% from 1992 (4th in the nation in terms of growth). As of 1997, there was one Fortune 500 company headquartered in New Hampshire, Tyco International. Earnings of persons employed in New Hampshire increased from $21.4 billion in 1997 to $23.2 billion in 1998, an increase of 8.2%. The largest industries in 1998 were services, 27.6% of earnings; durable goods manufacturing, 16.6%; and retail trade, 11.6%. Of the industries that accounted for at least 5% of earnings in 1998, the slowest growing from 1997 to 1998 was state and local government (9.2% of earnings in 1998), which increased 4.4%; the fastest was wholesale trade (7.0% of earnings in 1998), which increased 13.4%.

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Some information about virtual machines and how they work. What is a Virtual Machine? Have you ever tried using Virtual Machines? In case you’re not sure what they are, here it is. In a nutshell, a Virtual Machine is like an imaginary machine running concurrently with your local machine. By using this technology, you can run multiple and different kinds of Operating Systems in you host machine. There are actually a lot of open-source Virtual Machines out there, so you can try one of them if you have time. One of those popular VM’s are: - Oracle’s VirtualBox: It can run Windows OS, Linux Distributions, Mac OS and others. I tried this and it’s pretty good and easy to use. It’s a free software but I’m afraid that someday it won’t be free anymore because Oracle might turn it into a commercial product. - QEmu: It can run different kinds of Linux Distributions. I also tried this. The interface is easy to use and sometimes pretty fast too when installing some guest operating systems. - Microsoft Virtual PC: It’s originally developed by Connectix. It runs only in Windows 7 but it has XP backward compatibility. Well, obviously, this virtual machines kind of runs Windows OS’s only. Why use a Virtual Machine? - Each guest operating system you install are completely different and isolated from your host operating system. So you don’t really need to be worried if the guest OS might mess up with the host OS. - Machines can be moved to other directories or locations, copied to one place to another and other processes that you can do just like to an ordinary file. - It can be used to test new operating systems since Virtual Machines can be easily installed and at the same time configured. - Each operating systems run differently. Because of this “Shared hosting” emerged. Shared Hosting is like one server host several number of websites. Virtual Machines are sometimes used in this. You run different operating systems that handles those websites. All you need to have is a one big good server. Problems you might encounter: - Your host operating system’s performance might decrease. When you run a Virtual Machine, it also takes up some RAM. So beware of this, it’s not proper to give more portion of RAM to your guest OS than to your host OS. - If you used a not-so-powerful machine to run your guest and host OS. You might end up with hardware failure. So you also have to be careful when configuring your VM.

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Ultrasound imaging, or sonography, is the use of high frequency sound waves to produce images of various structures of the body. Ultrasound is painless and safe. A machine emits an ultra-high frequency sound wave from the transducer. This sound wave passes into the body and an echo pattern is returned after the sound wave has interacted with tissues in the body. Images of the body areas scanned are created. No radiation is used with this technique. No X-rays or radiation are used. No adverse effects have been found on human beings with the safe use of ultrasound for medical imaging. Ultrasound is used to evaluate the fetus in pregnant women as well as to study structures in the abdomen such as the liver, spleen, gall bladder, and kidneys. It is also used to study the uterus, ovaries, and breasts. Specialized computers within the equipment analyze the patterns of the echoes returned. Soft tissue regions of the extremities can also be evaluated. Ultrasound is particularly important in evaluating obstetrical patients. The study is performed by a trained technologist and/or physician. Gel is placed on the skin overlying the area to be scanned, and a scanning probe or transducer is slid over the skin to image the underlying structures. The probe emits ultrasound waves into the body, and the waves that reflect back to the probe are converted to an image by a computer. These images are recorded and interpreted by a physician who issues a report to your doctor. - Infant hips - Rectal cancer staging - Ultrasound-guided biopsy of the breast, prostate, and thyroid - Full range of general diagnostic sonography - Male pelvis/testicular - Ultrasound guided prostate and thyroid glands

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A motorcycle is a two wheeled single-track motor vehicle. Motorcycle is divided further into three categories Viz. Street, off-road and dual purpose. Scooters, mopeds, cruisers and sport bikes come under the category of street bikes. Motorcycles designed explicitly for racing are off-road motorcycles. There are some which can be used for racing as well as for transportation. These are called dual purpose motorcycles. Scooters too have been going through a period of innovations. Scooters are of different types. There are the gas scooters, electric scooters, mobility scooters, motorized scooters and kick scooters. Accidents and fatalities are more with motorcycles than other vehicles. Other vehicles and obstructions in the path of the motorcycles as well as riders’ errors are the cause of accidents. Brain damage and concussions caused from violent head injury are the major risk involved in motorcycle accidents. It is also common to find chin injuries. Wearing head protection gear which is as per approved standards can drastically reduce these injuries to the rider as well as the pillion rider. The other kinds of injuries that are commonly found are breakage of joints in elbows, shoulders, hips and wrists, knees, neck, spine and fingers. The most common amongst them are the pelvis and shoulder injuries. However, extra padding in pants and jackets can actually minimize the injuries at vulnerable joint regions. Dual density padding or foam padding could be used for the extra padding. Scooters are also motorcycles being one of its categories. Coming with a step-through frame, protective shield and a foot-board, electric scooters usually have smaller wheels. Electric scooters basically substitutes gasoline or petrol with electricity as its source of energy. Battery motors energize their engines. Electric scooters are environmentally cleaner with lower emissions. It has a lower energy cost as the cost of a recharge is lower as compared to gas. But it runs only for a shorter distance between two recharges. It runs slower too. These are some of its downsides. Electric scooters come in a variety of models. There are some models which are cheaper than gas scooter. A scooter is a motorcycle with step-through frame, a foot board and protective leg shield. Scooter has smaller wheels amongst the various categories of motorcycles. Scooters are sub categorized as gas scooters, electric scooters, mobility scooters, motorized scooters, and kick scooters. The mini bikes for kids that we used to know are a thing of the past. When we said “mini bike” it described a small frame with go cart type tires and a lawn mower engine, usually 3. 5 hp. These mini bikes were very basic, had no gears and would travel at a maximum speed of 25 or 30 mph. The transmission in these was usually a basic centrifugal clutch. Scooters range from an engine size of 50cc, 150cc and larger. Masses of people utilize scooters to commute back and forth to assorted places like work and running errands. Many scooters are akin to bikes with pedals and others have a foot board. Scooters outdoes cars in a good deal of various areas, and thus make a more suitable vehicle. Many people pick out scooters because they are a lot less than a car. Scooters also don’t cost as much to operate. Scooters are environmentally friendly, which is another reason they’re opted over automobiles. They’re modern and thrilling to drive around in too. It’s effortless to obtain low-cost or free parking and storage space for a scooter. Scooters have a small engine, from as small as 49cc to 250cc. They are used for transport to and from work or to go to the mall. They can have pedals like a bike or a platform to rest the feet. A scooter is a much greater selection than a car for a number of reasons. Scooters are mostly utilized because they are a more bargain-priced version of transportation. They cost less to run besides. Many people also employ them because they are better for the environment. Some people love them because they are fun to drive. They are also convenient to park and store at both work and home. Some people seek to lower their carbon footprint. Some are less willing to pay out big bucks at the gas pump since the economy is so bad these days. Both of these factors are leading people to discover the joy of owning a maxiscoot for basic transportation and commuting.

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Brazilian and British scientists have been examining the heavy smoke plumes from wildfires in the Amazon, gathering data, to understand how the burning of biomass in South America is affecting the local weather and air quality. This might help close crucial gaps in climate models about how the process changes the Earth’s radiation balance. The South American Biomass Burning Analysis (SAMBBA) mission uses a jet carrying a suite of sensor instruments to take measurements up to 12 km above the jungle’s canopy. Previous campaigns used smaller planes and flew lower, and were unable to observe some crucial processes. The Amazon is dominated by high-altitude convection clouds, and scientists aren’t sure how they process energy and how fire interferes with them, making weather predictions moot. The scientists are using a LiDAR, which is a laser that measures how much light is being blocked by aerosol particles of smoke at various altitudes. This local dimming of the atmosphere can hamper photosynthesis, possibly drastically. Local measurements have shown a decrease of plant productivity of around 30%. There is no estimate for the Amazon in its entirety. Aerosols might also produce a cooling effect at the surface, as well as warming mid-altitudes. Current climate models cannot account for such complex interactions, and therefore can’t predict how increasing carbon dioxide concentrations and burning biomass will affect the radiation balance of the Amazon. Information on these aerosols is also important for global weather forecasts. SAMBBA will also allow scientists to measure the air quality in Amazonian cities. Concentrations of nitrogen oxides and other compounds that react to form polluting ozone at low altitudes are higher during the burning season in the Amazon than in heavily polluted areas of São Paulo. However, ozone-forming compounds have never been measured across the whole Amazon.

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There's a cracking idea! Eggs are a superfood... and eating one a day could help you lose weight Good for you: Eggs are rich in vitamin D, vitamin B12, selenium and choline - and there are only 80 calories in every medium-sized egg Eggs should be considered a 'superfood' because they can boost health and tackle obesity, researchers will claim today. The nutritionists say eggs are one of the most nutrient-dense foods and are recommending one a day for the maximum benefit. The study, released today and to be published in June in the journal Nutrition and Food Science, analysed 71 research papers and reference documents that examined the nutritional composition of eggs and their role in diet. They discovered that, despite being low in calories, eggs are a rich source of protein and are packed with nutrients thought essential to good health, particularly vitamin D, vitamin B12, selenium and choline. The report confirms that among protein foods, eggs contain the richest mix of essential amino acids - crucial for children, adolescents and young adults since a balance of them is required for proper growth and repair. The high levels of antioxidants found in eggs mean they could even help prevent age-related macular degeneration - a leading cause of blindness. The research team highlighted data from research in the U.S. which found that people who ate eggs had higher intakes of nearly all nutrients compared with non-egg eaters. Dr Carrie Ruxton, an independent dietitian and lead author of the report, said: 'The health benefits of eggs would appear to be so great that it's perhaps no exaggeration to call them a superfood - they are one of the most nutrient-dense foods available. 'Eggs are not only low in calories but are packed with nutrients that are essential to healthy living. They are an ideal food at every stage of life, as well as being easy to cook and enjoyable to eat.' The study identified specific groups which could benefit from eating more eggs, including the young, heavy meat-eaters and those who shun milk. One of the key findings was that eggs are an important dietary source of vitamin D and could significantly help to boost daily intake of it. Just one egg provides more than 20 per cent of the recommended daily allowance. Low levels of vitamin D have been linked with a host of medical conditions including poor bone health, cancer, heart disease, multiple sclerosis, immune disorders and mental health problems. Eggs could also play a significant role in dieting and weight loss, according to the researchers. A medium-sized egg has fewer than 80 calories. Dr Ruxton added: 'There are clear nutritional benefits to eating eggs on a regular basis. Emerging evidence suggests that eggs may be beneficial for satiety, weight control and eye health. 'With previous limits on egg consumption lifted, most people would benefit from a return to the days of going to work on an egg.' The latest findings, funded by the British Egg Industry Council, suggest that one or two eggs a day have no effect on total cholesterol levels for most people. Files released recently showed that in 1979 Margaret Thatcher lost weight on a short-term diet of 28 eggs a week.

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THE PSALMS AND THE PROPHETS In our remarks on the patriarchs and Moses, we said that the union with an immortal God, in a covenant, and in carrying out a plan for eternal ages, tended directly to a belief in eternal life and endless retributions. The want of any recorded early belief of this kind we explained by the fact that the experience of the early ages lacked a poet like David to record it in sacred songs. But we proved, by the testimony of the Epistle to the Hebrews, sustained by coincident historic evidence, that such an experience did exist. The Book of Psalms. But, as soon as we come to the book of Psalms, all doubt on this question is removed. The tendency which we alleged is there seen in its full development. We do not commonly realize the magnitude of the change effected by David when he introduced into the worship of God the singing of psalms. For centuries the Mosaic ritual had been observed without this act of worship. Moses made no provision for it. Only one of the psalms is ascribed to him, and there is no evidence that even that one was sung until the time of David. But, as soon as we enter the book of Psalms, the wanting element of recorded religious experience appears in full power. Now, what we stated of the tendency of a covenant with an immortal god, and with reference to an eternal plan to produce the belief of eternal life with him, is fully verified. There is disclosed a doctrine of immortality, and of eternal rewards, that has its roots in the covenant of God with the fathers. It is our purpose to prove that this doctrine of eternal life and future retributions is, in fact, found in the book of Psalms, and that it has its roots in a system essentially unlike that of the Zend-Avesta, and cannot be traced to Persia. Grounds of Belief in Immortality. But before doing this it will be expedient to consider the real foundations of any reliable belief in immortality. Plato sought to find them in the inherent nature of the deathless soul, existing from eternity to eternity. Others have sought them in the aspirations of the soul, and the imperfect development of retribution in this life. But the fundamental positions of the system of the Bible are not of this kind. It does not recognize, nay, it expressly denies, the natural and inherent immortality of the soul. It assures us that God only hath immortality (1 Tim. Vi. 16). By this we understand that he only has immortality in the highest sense – that is, inherent immortality. All existences besides himself he created, and he upholds. Men are not, as Plato taught, self-existent, eternal beings, immortal by their very nature. There is no such being except one, and that is God. There is no inherent immortality of the soul in this sense. What God created he sustains in being, and can annihilate if he will. It is by his will that we live, and move, and have our being. The true and only sure basis of eternal existence is found in the fact that God is immortal, and chooses to have an eternal system, in which his rational creatures can know and love him and cooperate with him in his eternal plan. So long as God wills this, he will render immortal those intelligent moral beings who are involved in his plan. His will, his power, and not their inherent nature, is the pledge of their immortality. How, then, under such a God can the highest assurance of immortality be given? Not by philosophical reasoning on the nature of the mind. God himself must give it. He must reveal himself as immortal; he must disclose an eternal plan; he must take his intelligent creatures into covenant relation with himself; he must reveal himself to them as their portion and their God; he must disclose to them the eternal plan in which they are to cooperate with him, and give them the assurance that their action with him is to be eternal. Let this be done, and there will be the highest possible assurance of immortality. It rests upon the assurance of the immortality of God and the eternity of his kingdom, and that he is the God and the eternal portion of the soul. So in the Psalms: Not in the Zend-Avesta. Now, it is in this way that the assurance of immortality is in fact given in the book of Psalms, and it is given on grounds which the Zend-Avesta does not furnish, but rather contradicts. We shall not attempt a full contrast of the two systems. We shall only consider the God of the Bible and of the Zend-Avesta as centres of systems. The Oromasdes of the Zend-Avesta differs essentially from the Jehovah of the Bible. He is not self-existent, but is derived – as is also Ahriman, his antagonist – from Zervan Akerane. Hence, in the Zend-Avesta they are called twins. Of these twins, the progeny of Zervan Akerane, one turns to good, the other to evil, and hence the conflict between them. Hence, if gods, they are derived and created gods. And, although the work of creation is ascribed to Oromasdes, it is limited to this earth and men and good spirits. The firmament and heavenly bodies he did not create. They are praised in the Zend-Avesta as self-existent and eternal. To Ahriman, also, creative power is ascribed. He created evil spirits, the devas, to oppose the good spirits of Oromasdes. Moreover, the praise, not to say worship, given to the heavenly bodies and the elements and the good spirits, though the supremacy is verbally given to Oromasdes, is opposed to the all-pervading spirit of the Bible, which presents Jehovah as the creator and upholder of all beings and worlds, and as the supreme and only proper object of worship. The comparison could easily be carried further, evincing that, though there are some points of similarity, yet the systems are essentially antagonistic in their fundamental elements. In particular, the great idea of a Messiah, who is God incarnate, which is the essence of Christianity, is wanting. Moreover, Zervan Akerane, from whom Oromasdes, the chief acting god, is derived, is worshiped [sic] but rarely, if at all. So inconsistent is the Zoroastrian system with itself. Probable Origin of. It is not improbable, however, that the system began as a system of pure dualism, teaching the existence of two self-existent and eternal gods, one good and the other evil, each having creative power, the one creating good spirits and the other evil. This system may have been, and probably was, modified by contact with other systems, and reduced to a unity in Zervan Akerane, who was represented as the father of Oromasdes and Ahriman. At the same time their creative power was not taken away from them, and, as before, Oromasdes is worshiped [sic] as the main and active God, while the worship of Zervan Akerane, who was merely a philosophic centre of origin and unity, remained undeveloped. System of the Bible. The system of the Bible is not distracted by any such contradictory elements, but is essentially monotheistic, and gives rise to its own consistent doctrine of eternal life and retributions. In the first place, all the elements of the assurance of eternal life are presented in the most perfect devotional and experimental forms that are found in the language of man. In contradistinction to the Zend-Avesta, which ascribes to Oromasdes, the good divinity, only a limited creation, i.e., of the earth, good spirits, and men, while the higher lights are without a beginning and self-existent, the Psalms thus praise God as creator of all: “Praise ye the Lord from the heavens; praise him in the heights; praise ye him all his angels; praise ye him all his hosts; praise ye him sun and moon; praise him all ye stars of light; praise him ye heavens of heavens and ye waters that be above the heavens. Let them praise the name of the Lord, for he commanded and they were created.” In like manner, the creation of man and of this lower world, and the divine supremacy in them, are not only narrated historically, but celebrated poetically in strains of unequaled sublimity and beauty. God’s Kingdom Universal and Eternal. The absolute universality of God’s kingdom and the eternity of his plans are also declared in the highest strains of devotion: “All thy works shall praise thee, O Lord, and thy saints shall bless thee. They shall speak of the glory of thy kingdom, and talk of thy power, to make known to the sons of men his mighty acts, and the glorious majesty of his kingdom. Thy kingdom is an everlasting kingdom, and thy dominion endureth through all generations” (Ps. cxlv. 10-13). “The Lord shall reign forever, even thy God, O Zion, unto all generations. Praise ye the Lord” (Ps. cxlvi. 10). God, too, by a beautiful metaphor, is described as the dwelling-place of his children in all generations, and we are told that those who love him shall dwell in the secret place of the most High, and abide beneath the shadow of the Almighty. Communion with God. The personality of God and his self-revealing power are presented in full action, disclosing a character not only of holiness, power and wisdom, but of condescension, love, sympathy, tenderness, compassion, and forgiveness, that removes fear, perfects faith, and gives a full and experimental knowledge of God and communion with him in all his glorious perfections which fills the soul with unutterable joy. Neither in the Zend-Avesta nor in Plato do we find any such full, experimental, joyful knowledge of and intimate communion with a present, loving, self-revealing God. It is such an experience that gives rise to such utterances as these: “With thee is the fountain of life: in thy light shall we see light” (Ps. xxxvi. 9). “Because thy loving-kindness is better than life, my lips shall praise thee. Thus will I bless thee while I live: I will lift up my hands in thy name. My soul shall be satisfied as with marrow and fatness; and my mouth shall praise thee with joyful lips: when I remember thee upon my bed, and meditate on thee in the night watches. Because thou hast been my help, therefore in the shadow of thy wings will I rejoice. My soul followeth hard after thee: thy right hand upholdeth me” (Ps. lxiii. 3-8). All the Elements Combined. Now, here are all the elements of a profound and perfect certainty of eternal life. Here is an immortal and eternal God, the creator, upholder, ruler of all things. Here is an eternal plan, an eternal kingdom, here are men who know and love this God, and are in covenant with him, and are cooperating with him in intimate fellowship as his instruments in carrying out his eternal plans. Is it not an intuition of the soul that they too must be immortal? Does not the very idea of a divine eternal plan demand it? But, it will be said, why leave it to intuition or inference? Why not fully reveal and declare it? Why not combine all these elements in an explicit declaration of the full assurance of eternal life in God? To this we reply, all these elements are combined not in one, but in many explicit declarations of the full assurance of eternal life in God. Why, then, it may be said, have they been overlooked? Why has it been represented as doubtful whether the Old Testament saints had a full assurance of eternal life in God? We reply, because such declarations occur not in abstract metaphysical and philosophical forms, but in the form of religious experience, and of lofty and intense devotion. True, there is neither reason nor philosophy in ignoring them for this reason. For it is undeniably true that the highest forms of devotion in communion with god involve not only the highest and noblest emotions of the soul, but the highest and most philosophical intuitions of truth. There cannot be a higher form of intellectual philosophy than full communion with God. For if God is a personal, a loving God, if he has a self-revealing power, if he can make his presence and love a reality, if he can give the assurance of eternal life in that love, then the most highly devotional passages are the very place where we should expect to find a glowing declaration of the assurance of eternal life in the love of God. Out of many such declarations, take one, and examine it critically, and see what it can be except an unequivocal declaration of the firm belief of eternal life in the love of God. In the seventy-third Psalm (v. 23-26), after describing the assaults of unbelief and the victory of faith, the Psalmist thus proceeds: “Nevertheless, I am continually with thee: thou hast holden me by my right hand. Thou shalt guide me with thy counsel, and afterward receive me to glory. Whom have I in heaven but thee? And there is none upon earth whom I desire beside thee. My flesh and my heart fail: but God is the strength of my heart, and my portion forever.” Weigh well the import of those few words, “God is my portion forever,” and can the full belief of eternal life, in the love of God, be more clearly or more joyfully declared? Consider too the antithesis: “My flesh and heart fail: they die: but God is the strength of my heart, and my portion forever.” Consider another antithesis: “thou shalt guide me by thy counsel (in life), and afterward receive me to glory (with thee).” Nor is this a solitary instance. There are numerous declarations of a similar import in the book of Psalms. Listen to some of them: “Thou wilt show me the path of life: in thy presence is fullness of joy; at thy right hand there are pleasures for evermore” (Ps. xvi. 11). “He asked life of thee, and thou gavest it him, even length of days forever and ever” (Ps. xxi. 4). “They shall praise the Lord that seek him: your heart shall love forever” (Ps. xxii. 26). “Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life: and I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever” (Ps. xxiii. 6). “O Lord my God, I will give thanks unto thee forever” (Ps. xxx. 12). “This God is our God, forever and ever” (Ps. xlviii. 14). “God will redeem my soul from the power of the grave: for he shall receive me” (Ps. xlix. 15). “I trust in the mercy of god, forever and ever. I will praise thee forever (Ps. xlix. 15). “I will abide in thy tabernacle forever: I shall abide before God forever. I will sing praise unto thy name forever” (Ps. lxi. 4, 7, 8). “I will declare forever; I will sing praises to the God of Jacob” (Ps. lxxv. 9). “We will bless the Lord from this time forth and for evermore” (Ps. cxv. 18). “Let Israel hope in the Lord, from henceforth and forever” (Ps. cxxxi. 3). “The Lord will perfect that which concerneth me: thy mercy, O Lord, endureth forever: forsake not the works of thine own hands” (Ps. cxxxviii. 8). “Lead me in the way everlasting” (Ps. cxxxix. 24). In these passages we have but a specimen of the hope of eternal life caused by a self-revealing power of god, and communion with him as a covenant God and portion in an eternal plan. In one of them is also expressed the hope of a resurrection from the grave (Ps. xlix. 15). The same hope is expressed in Is. xxvi. 19, and in Hos. xviii. 14; Dan. xii. 2, 3. There is also implied in all these passages a retribution of evil to those who are not in communion with God, but at enmity with him. Indeed, this is expressly stated in Ps. lxxiii. 17-20, and in other places. It is true that the retribution of evil is indefinite as to duration and locality. Nor is the idea of locality prominent in the case of the good. The leading idea is eternal life in God, and with God, wherever he may be. In the words of Moses, God is the dwelling-place of the holy soul forever. If it is said the word leolam does not by itself denote absolute eternity, I concede it. But the relation to God is which it stands imparts to it that force. The idea of retribution in a future life for the good and the bad is also found in the proverbs of popular life, as well as in the records of devotion. We are told that “the wicked is driven away in his wickedness, but the righteous hath hope in his death;” and, again, “When a wicked man dieth, his expectation shall perish, but the righteous hath hope in his death” (Prov. xi. 7, 14, 32). We have thus traced the river of belief that we saw from the mountain-tops of the age of the Maccabees. We have found its sources, not in Persia, but in the revelations of god to his covenant people, beginning in the earliest ages, and coming down the tracts of time. We propose next to trace the stream to the days of Christ, and then through the Christian ages. FORWARD>> (Next Chapter: FROM THE MACCABEES TO THE CHRISTIAN AGES)

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By Laura Smith-Spark, CNN (CNN) - Sunday was a big day for Catholics in North America. Thousands of miles away in Rome, Pope Benedict XVI named 17th century Mohawk Kateri Tekakwitha the first Native American saint. Another newly named saint is Marianne Cope, a German-born woman who emigrated to the United States as a child, became a nun and went on to devote 30 years of her life helping lepers in Hawaii. Their canonization, along with that of five other saints, was celebrated at a special Mass in St. Peter's Square Sunday morning. "This is a great weekend for America in the Vatican, and it's really a great weekend for Native Americans. Sainthood is the guarantee that this person is close to God," said Vatican senior communications adviser Greg Burke. "There's a vast history of people the Catholic Church has made saints over the centuries. Holiness is absolutely a matter of equal opportunity, but this certainly is special because it marks the first time a Native American becomes a saint."

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