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2t5hks | Does the spin of the earth have any significant effect on the time it takes to complete a trans-pacific flight vs a trans-atlantic flight? | The Earth spins west towards the east. This [GIF](_URL_0_) helps visualize it.
Assume that its the same model of plane, travelling at the same altitude and speed, with the same mass, same weather conditions, same distance
Its ~7500 km from Toronto to Moscow, and Vancouver to Tokyo (google).
Would the rotation of the Earth make the flight from Vancouver to Tokyo any faster?
On a side note, are flight routes generally flown perpendicular to the axis of the Earth? | askscience | {
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"Nope, the plane is in the rotating reference frame.\nBut, it actually does because the coriolis force contributes to atmospheric winds, among them the jet stream which runs in one direction only and aircraft can take advantage of!",
"Imagine the earth is a moving bus (at a constant velocity). Though on the outside of the bus you can see the bus is moving, to any one the inside the bus it might as well be stationary. From the busses centre, getting to the front will take the same amount of time as getting to the back. Even if you threw a ball (in the air like a plane is in the air) it would take the same amount of time either way. Taking a plane on earth is like throwing a ball on a bus - that is to say nothing dramatic happens. In the reference of being inside the earths atmosphere, rotation has no effect on a plane that started from the ground. Hope that was helpful/makes sense.",
"> On a side note, are flight routes generally flown perpendicular to the axis of the Earth?\n\nFlight routes are determined with virtually no regard to the Earth's axis. You can easily find commercial flights that nearly go over the poles. (Usually the North Pole because there are more airports in the northern hemisphere.)\n\nThat being said, prevailing winds _do_ tend to run perpendicular to Earth's axis. The winds do affect flight paths somewhat, and that is a reason you might find flights tending to go more east-west than you'd think. But it's not directly because of the Earth's rotation. If the prevailing winds were controlled by a magic machine or something, instead of by the Earth's rotation, then the rotation would have effectively zero ~~very little~~ effect on flight paths (or times). _Maybe_ a tiny bit due to the Coriolis effect, which would simply \"twist\" the north-south component of a flight path, but if you look at the comments below that seems not to matter. You certainly wouldn't go faster east to west than west to east, or anything like that, because of the Earth's rotation.",
"Not directly, when the earth spins, the air surrounding the surface stays (relative to the ground) in the same place, spinning with the earth. \n\nHowever, the spinning of the earth DOES cause things like the jet stream (a strip of fast moving air along the longitudinal plane) due to something called the Coriolis effect. The jet stream is very fast and very wide so it is used by commercial pilots to get to their destinations faster. In other cases, pilots have to fly altered paths to avoid the jet stream when flying east to west.",
"Being that the earth is not actually a perfect sphere, flying perpendicular to the axis is actually the 'long way round'.\n\nFlight paths tend toward the poles to take advantage of great circle navigation and shorten distances between points. \n\nIt looks curved on our flat maps of the earth, but in fact the 'y-axis' or lines of latitude on a flat map of the earth have a varying scale of how many miles per degree.",
"There's a slight (nanoseconds, but significant in the statistical sense) difference in traveling to the east vs to the west due to relativistic effects. You can measure this if you travel with atomic clocks. This effect was first measured in the [Hafele–Keating experiment](_URL_0_)."
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} | Does the spin of the earth have any significant effect on the time it takes to complete a trans-pacific flight vs a trans-atlantic flight?
The Earth spins west towards the east. This [GIF](_URL_0_) helps visualize it. Assume that its the same model of plane, travelling at the same altitude and speed, with the same mass, same weather conditions, same distance Its ~7500 km from Toronto to Moscow, and Vancouver to Tokyo (google). Would the rotation of the Earth make the flight from Vancouver to Tokyo any faster? On a side note, are flight routes generally flown perpendicular to the axis of the Earth? | [
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|
5u4tlp | What would the evolutionary benefits be for male mammals' testicles being located in such a vulnerable location instead of being inside the body? | Being such an important organ (perhaps most important, considering an animal's ultimate goal in life is reproduction) what would/could be the reasons why mammals have not evolved in parallel to have testicles located in a much safer location inside the body rather than exposed in the way they are? I just noticed the obvious vulnerability of the organs as I am watching the AKC dog show right now, and every male dog has incredibly vulnerable jewels. Thanks! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ddrdnhx",
"ddrirc2",
"ddrtmaw",
"ddrmf46"
],
"text": [
"Spermatazoa are sensitive to heat, and body temperature causes the testicles to produce defective sperm. Therefore the testicles have a very tightly controlled temperature. When warm, the testicles hang away from the body allowing for efficient heat dissipation. When cold, the cremaster muscle pulls the testicles closer to the body to obtain the right degree of warmth. The cremaster reflex can be tested by gently stroking the inner thigh. This will cause the muscle to contract and the testicles to rise. \n\nThe testicles have to be outside (and cooler than) the body to function.",
"First thing you have to realize about evolution is that there are no intelligent designers. Evolution is random, going one stupid step at a time and so we are full of really stupid design.\n\nTesticles have to be cooler than the rest of the body because spermatozoa don't like heat. Actually if you keep your testicles warm (that is you're sitting for most of the day) you have lower fertility rate.",
"Keep in mind that in most mammals, the testicles are not that exposed at all. [When you look at how most mammals fight,](_URL_0_) they're in a pretty decent spot: protected by the hind legs from the sides, under the body, away from the action. This location only becomes a problem when you become bipedal.",
"We aren't sure if the chicken or the egg came first in this. Was it testicles dropping first and then sperm temperature sensitivity? Or did the specific sperm temperature come first and the balls drop to deal with it?"
],
"score": [
54,
9,
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3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.kalahari-trails.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/bulls-fighting.jpg"
]
} | What would the evolutionary benefits be for male mammals' testicles being located in such a vulnerable location instead of being inside the body?
Being such an important organ (perhaps most important, considering an animal's ultimate goal in life is reproduction) what would/could be the reasons why mammals have not evolved in parallel to have testicles located in a much safer location inside the body rather than exposed in the way they are? I just noticed the obvious vulnerability of the organs as I am watching the AKC dog show right now, and every male dog has incredibly vulnerable jewels. Thanks! | [
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1jkcy3 | Why do resistor values need to be color-coded, unlike capacitors wherein the capacitance is already printed on it? | Wouldn't it be much more easier if the values are already printed on the resistor itself? | askscience | {
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"Well, they are for surface mount resistors: _URL_0_\n\nFrom [wikipedia](_URL_1_): \"Colorbands were commonly used (especially on resistors) because they were easily printed on tiny components, decreasing construction costs.\"",
"Capacitors can actually be color-coded too (though with dots rather than lines). However, color-coding is becoming more rare on both capacitors and resistors due to the prevalence of surface-mount components. \n\nSurface-mount resistors have a set of letters and numbers printed on them to indicate their resistance value rather than being color-coded. See _URL_2_\n\nI'm not sure of the reason for the original choice of bands vs. printing the numbers but I would **speculate** that it was due to the difficulty of printing on small, cylindrical objects when resistors were originally created.",
"Back in the days of hand-wired circuits and when I had good eyesight, it was obvious: you could read a resistor value with the component in any position. Once you learn the code, it's as easy as numbers. Of course, resistors were bigger then, too.",
"It was easier to hand paint a few thin lines than to try to hand paint the values.\n\nResister markers have been around the 1920s when almost nothing was machine marked. It also allows for the components to be read from any angle as the bands go all around the device.",
"and more importantly, why did they decide to use hard to distinguish colors?",
"Today, in practical mass-production use, you rarely, if ever, see that anymore. The classic [through-hole resistors](_URL_5_) were used heavily from the '50s to the mid '80s. Especially in the early days, most electronics were hand-soldered, which means there needed to be a quick and easy way to identify the resistor. Printing the values on tiny 1/4-watt resistors wasn't easy with 1950s printing technology, and even if they could, the small values would be hard to read anyhow. Furthermore, printing color bands was cheap and easy. Hence the color coding, and it stuck around for a long time.\n\nAs for capacitors, old through-hole capacitors [actually were color-coded](_URL_4_). However, since capacitors were often physically quite large compared to resistors and easier to print on, it became practical to print the values on them much earlier than with resistors, especially as printing technology evolved.\n\nNowadays virtually all circuit boards with surface-mount components are assembled using pick-and-place robots [like this one](_URL_3_), and the robots are fed with reels of surface-mount components that don't need to be marked since the robot knows exactly what it's laying down at any time. Occasionally you see physical markings (like birdbrainlabs showed), but they're mostly irrelevant for mass production because hand-soldering of surface-mount components is quite rare.",
"I HATE THE COLOR CODING SYSTEM BECAUSE I AM COLOR BLIND!!!! AHHH! AND IM AN ELECTRICAL ENGINEER! \n\nSo glad I design with SMDs now",
"Most of the old through-hole resistors in USSR had printed values and sometimes you simply couldn't read it's value without desoldering it first.",
"Resistors of lower wattages are much smaller than those of higher, plus the last band (usually gold or silver) accounts for its tolerance as a percentage of 5-10%. \n\nIf the number of resistance plus it's tolerance was displayed as \"133 Ω 5%\", for example, it may be easier to read and more straight forward on larger components, but would be pretty hard to fit onto the smallest sizes and even harder to read. The color code itself gets a little strenuous at times. \nSurface mount resistors do not use the color code, but a numerical system that uses pretty much the same concept, but replacing the color code with numerical code. \n\nAll-in-all I believe the color code is still used because it was the first system, coming before surface mounts with the numerical code, and is also a very efficient system if you take the time to learn it or reference it. \n\n[this](_URL_7_) is a link displaying the range of sizes of resistors. \nand [here](_URL_6_) is a picture reference of both types of resistors and their values.",
"Back in ye olden days resistors were almost always axial lead components. Regardless of how they were mounted you could always read there value because the stripes were visible from any angle.\n\nRadial lead components like capacitors simply had values printed on one face.\n\nThis of course was before SMT took over the world and virtually annihilated component level trouble shooting in favour of board swapping. With SMT the end user or service person would almost never component level troubleshoot and values printed on individual components became more and more rare.\n\n[Axial vs Radial](_URL_8_)",
"EE here. Resistors are wrapped in a plastic coating - its easy for then to print huge sheets of the material and then wrap each resistor to form continuous bands.",
"Most resistors are a ~~toroidal~~ weird non-cylindrical shape, and mount sideways on the board. Capacitors are usually cylinders, and mount vertically. \n\nIts a lot easier(cheaper) to print letters on a plain cylinder than it is to print them on a ~~toroid~~ weird non-cylinder. Capacitors are often vertically mounted with both pins on one end. Resistors are a straight through component where the pins are bent down into the board; the resistor can be rotated arbitrarily before mounting. While it isn't often the case that you need to read off the resistance or capacitance value on a component after mounting, if you did need to read it, it would be a hell of a pain to read lettering on a component mounted sideways at an arbitrary rotation. Beyond that, if the resistance values were printed on as digits, you would have a harder time finding the ones you need in a drawer. The sizes are very similar in resistors whereas with caps, they are easy to sort by size.\n\nTL;DR: bands are a hell of a lot cheaper to print, and easier to read in a drawer or mounted on a board.\n\nEDIT: What the hell do you call the shape of a resistor anyway?",
"Master electronics technician here. At my work, the value is [printed on our resistors](_URL_9_). The number on the end represents how many zeroes there are after the initial numbers. For example 4253 is 425,000 Ohms.\n\nAs for in the past, it was most likely due to the lack of technology to print accurately at such a small scale without paying out the wazoo. Our surface mount resistors do not have any markings on them usually because they're far too small to be able to fit anything on them, so you usually have to hit it with a DMM to be sure.",
"Because the ability to easily and cost effectively print values on axial resistor packages was not there many years ago, and the manufacturing methods have not really changed significantly since then. So rather than retool, it is ~~easier~~ cheaper to continue with color bands."
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"url": [
"http://www.mouser.com/images/vishay/images/CRCW-1.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor_color_code",
"http://www.resistorguide.com/resistor-smd-code/",
"http://www.expo21xx.com/automation21xx/345_st3_scara-robot/2.jpg",
"http://www.tpub.com/neets/book2/32VS0004.GIF",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Resistors_%281%29.jpg",
"http://www.mikroe.com/old/books/keu/01/1-2bcde.jpg",
"http://justradios.com/ssoxide.JPG",
"https://shop.vems.hu/catalog/images/NTC_axial_radial_s.jpg",
"http://i.ebayimg.com/t/125-NEW-UNUSED-NOS-RNC55-RNC55H1581FS-MIL-MILITARY-RESISTOR-1-58K-OHM-MF-1-8W-1-/00/s/OTYwWDEyODA=/$%28KGrHqNHJE4E-lQBrvh%28BP0rgSSv7!~~60_35.JPG"
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} | Why do resistor values need to be color-coded, unlike capacitors wherein the capacitance is already printed on it?
Wouldn't it be much more easier if the values are already printed on the resistor itself? | [
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|
23e3el | Spacetime can be streched and bend. But can it vibrate? If so, does it has resonance frequency? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cgw8yvo",
"cgwcll6",
"cgwbd5m"
],
"text": [
"> Can it vibrate?\n\nVibrations of spacetime are called gravitational waves. They have been detected indirectly by observing the orbits of binary neutron stars: The orbits lose energy as the stars emit the waves. \n\nThere is no resonant frequency, because they are not confined to a cavity (a \"resonator\").",
"As mentioned by /u/xxx_yyy , vibrations of space-time are known as gravitational waves (no-one in the field calls them 'gravity waves' any more because gravity is the restoring force for a host of phenomena, e.g. ocean and atmospheric waves). \n\n\nYou can linearize the equations of General Relativity to get a wave equation, which looks a lot like any other wave equation (e.g. Maxwell's). So you can model waves with a well-defined frequency and propagation speed and polarization etc.\n\n\nThis analogy is alluring and works well enough on a flat background. However, this linear theory, and hence the analogy, breaks down when you consider the source or interaction. This is important when trying to analyze or create a resonant system. For light waves, you set up a resonant cavity by bouncing light between mirrors; for a plucked string you make sure the two ends are clamped down somehow. For gravitational waves, you require interactions that involve dramatic distortions of space-time. If this is static matter, then you're talking about interactions near the [Gravitational (Schwarzschild) radius](_URL_0_) of the objects, i.e. black hole/neutron star systems. If you're really interested, there are a [few studies](_URL_1_) around looking at this topic (science warning!).\n\n\n**TL;DR** Yes, space-time can vibrate in a way predicted by General Relativity (\"gravitational waves\"). In principle you can create a resonant system with them, but you'll need to be able to carefully arrange black holes in a wholly unnatural fashion.\n\nedit: paragraphs",
"While not resonance per se, gravity waves do exhibit interference just as any other wave phenomenon. As for resonance, one would have to posit a plausible container, as mentioned before. Since such resonance is a local effect, and the universe is considered to still be expanding, natural resonance is unlikely to occur. Perhaps a close cluster of neutron stars??????"
],
"score": [
195,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_radius",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1208.3906v1"
]
} | Spacetime can be streched and bend. But can it vibrate? If so, does it has resonance frequency?
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wfv4a | Is their a psychological or physical benefit to tennis players who "moan", "groan" or scream every time they hit the ball? | I was visiting my grandma the other day. While watching tennis I noted how some players "moan","groan", or scream with every hit they give. It annoyed me terribly so I asked my grandma (who watches a lot of tennis) why they do it and she couldn't give me answer. She did, however, note that it only started a couple of years ago with Venus Williams - though she may be wrong since she is over 80 years old.
So if tennis players didn't always do it, why do they do it now? Did someone realise they can hit the ball harder or more accurately? Is it a scare tactic to use against other players?
Thanks in advance!
Edit: Seems like the word I was looking for is "grunting". Thanks for the great answers.
Edit 2: Just realised I used the wrong "there". I wish I could change the title now...
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5d0nez",
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"text": [
"Comming from a martial arts background where we scream at the end of some of our techniques, here's why we do it:\n\n1) Psychological - anything that distracts or disrupts the other person's concentration is a benefit to you. It doesn't take much when two people are evenly matched. If you're outclassed, this isn't going to be the thing that puts you over the top.\n\n2) Physical - Breathing out when tensing muscles for impact is the best situation. It means all your muscles are contracting at the same time, and your body is in unison on doing so. You don't have your chest expanding from intake, wile you're arm is trying to tense for control and strength. Again, this is going to add a 'smidge' to your technique. But when you're playing at the top of the sport with other people a 'smidge' is sometimes all it takes.\n\nBoth of these things are applicable to tennis, or any physical competition. We have other reasons we do it, but worrying about getting hit when you attack and other stuff doesn't apply to tennis.\n\nAs for why didn't they do it before? It was considered a more gentile sport. Think about when Andre Agassi wore denim shorts and how much that upset the tennis elite. There were unofficial rules of decorum that don't become official until someone decides to test the bounds.\n\nI personally have no problem with it, but then I don't think sports should be played in silence.\n\nGolf... I'm looking at you.",
"Not sure if this the reason they started grunting, but seems like a good reason to do it.\n\n > In the current study, 33 undergraduate students watched tennis players hitting balls across the tennis court. Each shot was either quiet or contained a brief \"unnh\" noise that occurred as the player struck the ball.\n\n > The participants were asked to enter the direction of the shot in each clip on a keyboard, answering as quickly and accurately as possible. As it turned out, the extraneous sound significantly slowed the students' response times. They also made more mistakes in entering the direction of the shots with grunts. \n\n_URL_0_",
"A lot of players do this tactically, to prevent their opponents from hearing the sounds of the ball coming off the racquet and judging its speed and spin.",
"Originally I thought there was a study showing that grunting can actually increase athlete performance, but upon further research, it seems it's the opposite:\n_URL_1_",
"If I understand, especially if done out of sync with hitting the ball, it can confuse the opponent and mess with their timing since they use audio cues to assess the trajectory and location of the ball."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.livescience.com/10772-unnh-grunting-tennis-players-edge.html",
"http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.1999.89.1.233"
]
} | Is their a psychological or physical benefit to tennis players who "moan", "groan" or scream every time they hit the ball?
I was visiting my grandma the other day. While watching tennis I noted how some players "moan","groan", or scream with every hit they give. It annoyed me terribly so I asked my grandma (who watches a lot of tennis) why they do it and she couldn't give me answer. She did, however, note that it only started a couple of years ago with Venus Williams - though she may be wrong since she is over 80 years old. So if tennis players didn't always do it, why do they do it now? Did someone realise they can hit the ball harder or more accurately? Is it a scare tactic to use against other players? Thanks in advance! Edit: Seems like the word I was looking for is "grunting". Thanks for the great answers. Edit 2: Just realised I used the wrong "there". I wish I could change the title now... | [
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|
6rvfui | Because of the curvature of the Earth, are nearby skyscrapers closer together at the base than they are at the top? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dl87b26",
"dl8aka3",
"dl8vius"
],
"text": [
"Yes.\n\nIf the two 100-floor buildings are one NYC block apart, which is 0.05 mile or 1/500000 of Earth's circumference, their 100th floors, which are .2 mile higher than their first floors, are going to be 2 * .2 mi * pi / 500000 further apart than their first floors, which comes out to .16 inches or 4 mm.",
"The Humber Bridge (UK), Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge and others all took curvature of the earth into account during the design stage.\n\nFun fact: the 1995 Great Hanshin Earthquake occurred after the towers had been constructed but before the road deck had been started, moving the towers 1 meter further apart, causing a minor redesign.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_",
"The towers of the [Verrazano Bridge](_URL_2_) are different heights due to the curvature. I highly doubt adjacent office buildings will have any noticeable variation however. The distances are too short, and deep foundation work would offset some of it."
],
"score": [
760,
92,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akashi_Kaiky%C5%8D_Bridge#Structure",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humber_Bridge#Bridge_statistics",
"http://mathscinotes.com/2017/01/effect-of-earths-curvature-on-suspension-bridge-dimensions/"
]
} | Because of the curvature of the Earth, are nearby skyscrapers closer together at the base than they are at the top?
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582vaf | Has it been scientifically proven that Nuclear Fusion is actually a possibility and not a 'golden egg goose chase'? | Whelp... I went popped out after posting this... looks like I got some reading to do thank you all for all your replies! | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Yes, we can do nuclear fusion just fine. There are numerous research experiments already doing it. Heck, there's even a small, but dedicated amateur community setting up experiments. A while ago there was some highschool kid who made the news by creating a small fusion device in his living room.\n\nThe problem, however, is that maintaining a fusion reaction requires a lot of energy, because the fusion plasma has to be kept at very high temperature in order for the reaction to take place. In current experiments, the amount of energy required to maintain the reaction is considerably higher than the amount of energy produced by the reaction.\n\nBut, as it turns out, the amount of energy produced by the reaction scales up more rapidly with size than the amount of energy required. So by simply making the reactor bigger, we can increase the efficiency (the so-called Q factor). But simply making the reactor bigger also makes the reaction harder to control, so scaling up the process is not a quick and easy job.\n\nScientists and engineers are currently working on the first reactor to have a Q factor larger than 1. That is, a reactor that produces more energy than it uses. This is the ITER project currently being constructed in France.",
"Well yes, because if it wasn't possible the Sun would not shine. \nWhat we haven't conclusively proven but we think (by all best evidence so far) is possible, is to create an economically viable fusion power station. It's quite possible we could prove the technology and then still not build a power station because either it is too risky a financial venture, or because other power sources have come online.",
"Yes, nuclear fusion is quite possible. The challenge is getting more energy out than is put into it. [Taylor Wilson](_URL_1_) was the kid who successfully but a fusion reactor at the age of 14. He is a colleague of mine and a good friend. His small reactor fused very small quantities of deuterium ions together to form He-4. A small fraction of the free deuterium in the chamber captures a neutron and becomes tritium. Tritium and deuterium quite easily fuse together to form He-4 plus a fast neutron. Here is a [short video](_URL_0_) of his reactor starting up. We placed my (no longer operating) iPhone in front of the reactor window to try and capture video of the fusion process. At the beginning, you can clearly see the x-rays saturating individual pixels (the snow effect) but it quickly diminishes as the energy rises above that which can be capture by the CCD.",
"Yes, you can build a device to fuse hydrogen atoms for about 400 dollars of materials or less.\n\nIt's called a Farnsworth Fusor, and it works just fine. It does not, however, produce more energy in heat than it consumes in electricity, because it doesn't fuse enough atoms to do that. \n\nAll of the current fusion reactors, from takomaks to Lockheed's weird device, are to one extent or another Farnsworth Fusors of differing configurations and feature sets. \n\nSpeed and temperature can be treated interchangeably. Pressure and voltage can be treated interchangeably. \n\nAnd if you can't build a vessel that will hold a particular pressure, you can simply add more voltage pressure. \n\nIf you can't get atoms to move fast enough, you can add temperature.\n\nThe challenge isn't doing fusion reactors. Those can (and have) been built by high school kids.\n\nThe challenge is making one that keeps running when cold fuel is added, and produces much more energy than it consumes. That is all possible, it's just tricky. (the overunity energy comes from the fusion process which discards energy)",
"There is a wealth of scientific and engineering information available on this topic, but this response is meant to answer the question in the spirit in which it was asked. \n\n\nNuclear fusion is literally the main reason that you exist, and is by a very very wide margin the main energy source (either directly or indirectly) for all life on this planet. \n\n\nIf you ever need proof of the efficacy fusion as a phenomenon, feel free to walk outside on a sunny day and look for the bright spot. You will find upon close examination (best performed using a heavy filter lens or camera obscura, to prevent serious and permanent eye damage) a self sustaining and relatively stable fusion reactor that has been operating faithfully without failure or maintenance for billions of years. Uptime 100.0%. \n\n\nNuclear fusion itself is actually not all that hard to achieve, even at the desktop / hobbyist level of technology. It is almost at the science - fair level of easy to make a \"star in a jar\" these days. These experiments, however, so far consume more power than can be recovered from the resulting reaction. \n\n\nThe difficulty lies in miniaturizing the reaction without destroying its overall efficiency, a goal which has been more difficult to attain than was expected but is gradually being achieved. \n\n\nThe promise of small (smaller than the sun or a fusion augmented atomic bomb) scale fusion technology is that of plentiful cheap energy anywhere you need it with an even lower environmental footprint than solar. Someday It could potentially even be safely miniaturized for use in portable applications such as ships or spacecraft, and perhaps with sufficient advancement even aircraft or land vehicles. \n\n\nMeanwhile, harnessing fusion power from the sun has been effectively accomplished by the majority of earth's surface ecosystems, and is an increasingly important source of electrical power for humanity through recent improvements in the cost effectiveness and efficiency of solar based electricity generation. \n\n\nIf you would like to delve deeper into the current technological state of artificial fusion, Wikipedia could prove to be a good starting point to explore this fascinating and very promising technology. \n\n\nThere are a wealth of actual experts in physics and engineering here on reddit that might be able to elucidate any specific questions that you might encounter in your exploration of this very important human endeavor.",
"I've worked on nuclear fusion as an engineer in maths and physics modelling. Fusion works, the real question is can we harvest energy in a sustainable ways: is it possible to scale it up so much that we actually get energy out of it, and yet be able to hold it working for many months/years to a point it start being possible to sell the energy.\n\nThere is many school of though:\n\nContinuous fusion, as in \"let's build a sun\". The idea is to have a permanent plasma and have continuous fusion in it. Hard part being: plasma is hot (250M degrees hot, hotter than the sun since inside the sun the pressure is tremendous, therefore to achieve fusion on earth without the pressure the temperature need to go up). So containing a plasma is hard. Very powerful magnetite fields plus very specific materials should be able to do so, but many other parameters influence the resistance of the whole thingy. Latest tries in this direction (I may forget some) are in France (ITER) and Germany (can't remember the name).\n\nPunctual fusion, as in \"let's spam H bombs\". This idea is currently used to simulate H bombs (France is building one, called \"Laser Mega Joule\", USA already got one but I may be wrong). The idea is to fire a shitstorm of laser into a very small pellet made of hydrogen and other stuff, to get a powerful shock-wave that compress the hydrogen up to a fusion point. The fusion is there a combination of heat and pressure, much like in a H bomb. Hard part is: laser going that high in energy are hard to focus, because the mirrors and lenses used heat up and deform, resulting in a loss of power (or even damage to installation). So hard to really get a fire rate high enough to harvest continuously energy. Also mostly military uses but I may be wrong.\n\nLast one, which is really the same as the previous one, but using a magnetic wave to compress (instead of light). A perfectly symmetrical magnetic wave is sent toward a finite point in space where some hydrogen encapsulated in a metallic shell stand. Hard part: powerful yet perfect magnetic waves are hard to obtain, also no metal inside the facility when firing (you should get why).\n\nI've worked a bit for ITER, which will try to reach the minute of working, and demonstrate the possibility to generate more energy than it uses. So far best ever done is less than few sec.\n\nWe may prove that it's simply not possible one day, but if it ever works, man we would be blessed with infinite electricity (as water is all it takes to get it to work (more or less)). So it's more or less the golden egg goose chase. It is considered as the most ambitious research project ever done by the humanity, and commercial results are not expected before ~2050-2100. The researches started ~40-50 years ago.\n\nSome people probably already said what I just wrote, but couldnt get to read all 200 coms, and I wanted to contribute ;)",
"The sun and every star in our universe is example of nuclear fusion and it is a proven scientific concept.\n\nAlso nuclear bombs work by nuclear fusion.\n\nThe issues is figuring out how to effectively do it on a small, controlled scale. \n\nWE have reactors currently that can sustain nuclear fusion for a short time, it is just too unstable to keep going.",
"I literally just watched two videos regarding fusion power on YouTube - both were good sources of information regarding the issues and strides being made to correct them:\n\nThe first one I watched was the best in my opinion, giving a more thorough insight into what is being done, although it focuses mainly on what the team at MIT is doing. It is quite long at an hour and a half, but worth it if you like to see a little bit of math (high school level) and hear some well reasoned points. You can check it out here: _URL_2_\n\nThe second video is a gathering of four different head figures of different fusion power developers talking about why things are taking so long, and what the strategies they employ are, although on a much less technical level. That video is an hour long, and can be found here: _URL_3_\n\nEdit: Grammar",
"As a nuclear engineer: yes, of course. Fusion, the process, has been around for a very long time. It's tested and proven, not just in reactors, but our arsenal of nuclear weapons as well. The \"Hydrogen\" bomb or a \"thermonuclear\" weapon are basically fusion devices to one extent or another.\n\nIn your lifetime, fusion as an economical energy source is nigh-impossible though, assuming our understanding of the physics doesn't have huge gaps. For a magnetically confined fusion reactor, for example, we can calculate roughly the mass of material we would need to produce a given amount of energy, and from that we can get a rough idea of the capital costs entailed in building a scientifically-mature fusion reactor. On the back of a napkin, it looks like the capital costs per kWh would be roughly 3x that of a modern fission reactor.\n\nOf course, fusion has other benefits. No long-lived nuclear waste, fuel even more plentiful than uranium, and few of the safety or security concerns associated with fission power. There's also potentially the unexplored possibility of co-producing something else alongside electricity with a fusion reactor and maybe that might make up some of the difference. But I think it would be fair to describe commercial fusion power as a \"golden egg goose chase\". It simply wont be a relevant technology in the foreseeable future.\n\nIf you're interested in how to come to a capital cost estimation for mature fusion power, Freidberg has a [good introductory book](_URL_4_) that goes over materials requirements after laying out the physics. There are free chapters of it online that he circulated as he was writing it-- most of us took them down after the book went to print but I'd guess there are still copies up if you google.",
"Yes on three accounts:\n\nTheoretically it is true because there is a large amount of energy released from Fusion, which is more than equal to the activation energy.\n\nTwo, Fusion definitely exists because that's what the Sun operates on. It's not just theoretical, but known to be the case.\n\nThree, Humans have generating significantly energy-positive instances of fusion. Fusion is what gives the massive Hydrogen bombs yields 1000x bigger than the Hiroshima bomb.\n\nBut doing it in a sustained, constant, controlled amount rather than in a destructive liberation driven by the pressures and temperatures of a fission bomb, is going to be very difficult.\n\nTechnically, we could just repeatedly detonate hydrogen bombs at the bottom of a lake and use the steam from the lake to spin turbines. Technically that'd be fusion power. It would also be an utterly horrible way of going about it - but the potential is there. Consider it a Fusion-Pulse Power Plant.",
"It's possible, it just requires [a massive capital investment](_URL_5_) that nobody has wanted to deal with for the past 60 years, so it's sort of hovered around the same threshold of quasi-existence.",
"Very quick response on mobile: This is currently my job. \n\n\n* we can make fusion reactions happen relatively easily with a range of experiments. \n\n* the Tokamak is (arguably) the most mature technology for doing it on a useful scale. \n\n* we're building ITER to show the physics works on a power station scale. Think \"proof of principle\" \n\n* after ITER, we need to show it's probably possible to make a cost effective and reliable power station. Think \"engineering demonstrator\". Most fusion scientists call this DEMO for short (there are a couple of other acronym alternatives) (I work on DEMO component design) \n\n* Hopefully, at this point the focus moves to reliability increase and cost reduction, but it's still possible that we can't build a good enough DEMO, or something better comes along first.",
"Totally possible and we actually have had a working fusion reactor for many years now safely operating in space a short distance from Earth. Now that we're confident in the energy it could provide us, we need to find better ways to harness it. Perhaps some sort of \"panel\" to collect its energy?",
"Regular old Hot Fusion that occurs in stars? Yes, we know it exists and create and sustain a reaction in a controlled manner. It is horribly inefficient when you have a small reactor so you wind up with horribly net negative energy reactions.\n\nYou may have been referring to \"Cold Fusion\". This is one that people search for like alchemists trying to turn lead into gold. Nothing in any current physics models indicates that it is possible, but people want it to be so they try and do it.",
"Well there is the sun and it does look like a golden egg. If only there were some kind of [conditions that need to be satisfied](_URL_6_) in order to get more power out than power in. We could call them something specific like the Lawson Criterion. People might even use the Lawson criterion as a username.",
"It's a scientific possibility (the physics of fusion itself is proven), but it's not proven to be an engineering possibility. Engineering is science and economics combined. Economics depends on effective and efficient allocation of resources. Many, many \"ideas\" of how to use science have no economic viability (actually the majority, based on history).\n\nSo strictly we don't really know yet if it can be economically viable or technically viable in an engineering sense. These are things 100% orthogonal and disconnected from scientific viability or proof.",
"Lawrenceville Plasma Physics has been doing good work attempting to develop the Dense Plasma Focus device. It's going slowly but they don't seem fazed by that, and seem to have a realistic attitude about the research process. Google the Focus Fusion Society for more information.",
"It's not just a possibility, it's already the (indirect) source of almost all the energy on Earth. Technically, solar panels derive their energy directly from fusion, if somewhat inefficiently.\n\nAs far as artificial fusion goes, we have achieved it several different ways and it's not actually that difficult, but we have yet to achieve controlled fusion with a net energy gain. Basically, unless we're building a weapon, we need to stop the reaction from destroying everything nearby, either by making it very small or by containing it somehow, but to do that we end up putting more power in than we get out. \n\nFor fusion to be a viable energy source we need to get at least some energy out of it (preferably enough to justify the cost of the reactor). There's no reason why it shouldn't be possible to do this, we just haven't managed it yet. A net energy gain might not be that far off, but we still have a long way to go before nuclear fusion is an economically viable power source.",
"We know it's physically possible both because it occurs in nature (the Sun and other stars) and because we have ignited artificial fusion before in inefficient reactors - i.e., they need more energy than they release - and because we have detonated thermonuclear weapons, which are in fact fusion bombs (as opposed to fission bombs, such as those dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki).\n\nThe questions that remain to be answered are:\n\n1) Whether a fusion reaction that releases more energy than it took to ignite can occur under controlled conditions in a reactor. I.e., if the raw technological capability can be produced. \n\n2) Whether the technology, once demonstrated, can be evolved to *sustain* such a reaction for significant periods of time. And...\n\n3) Whether the costs of building, maintaining, and safely operating a sustained fusion reactor can be brought low enough that the energy it produces is economically competitive with other sources of energy.",
"So since we know that it's possible to create a fusion device, how exactly would we extract the energy from it once it is produced? As far as I can tell, fusion creates energy by releasing heat as the hydrogen atoms are fused together. How exactly are we supposed to extract this heat energy without melting the devices that are attempting to do so?\n\n---\n\nEdit: Thanks for the responses reddit! I now know that energy extraction from a fusion reactor can happen thanks to Neutron Activation which heats up the outer reactor shielding, which can then heat up coolant that can begin the energy extraction process!\n\n(Prior to this, everyone described the mechanics of normal electrical generators and current nuclear reactors without explaining *how* this process would work with fusion energy)",
"If you go outside during the day sometime, look around in the sky for a bit. Eventually, you should see this big, glowing thing that hurts your eyes to look at. Don't look at it directly! It could damage your vision.\n\nHave you found it yet? That thing up in the sky is an enormous fusion reactor with a great deal of net energy output. All of the energy we use for anything at all comes from it directly or indirectly, or in the case of nuclear power from others like it that blew up long ago. There's your proof that fusion isn't a pipe dream.",
"Tangentially related, but this was just released by The Guardian less than 24 hours ago- [MIT nuclear fusion record marks latest step towards unlimited clean energy](_URL_7_)",
"Is the sun a possibility? Fusion is just what atoms to under very, very high pressure and heat conditions. The only hurdle is getting technology to the point where it can recreate those conditions and maintain them for more than brief periods of time. trying to bottle the sun isn't easy. It's amazing we have gotten this far with it already.",
"We (The Physics Community) actually just made a big leap forward in this. The C-Mod Tokamak just broke the world record (again) for fusion plasma pressure. They managed just over 2 atm in about 1 cubic meter of volume. We aren't there yet but it definitely isn't a wild goose chase. Link: _URL_8_",
"If you're interested in learning more about Nuclear Fusion and the current-ish state of the science community around it, check out the [In Our Time podcast episode](_URL_9_) on the subject. I say current-ish cause it's a couple years old at this point, but still fascinating!",
"Just FYI the phrases are \"wild goose chase\" or \"golden goose [egg]\" referring to a fruitless endeavor and a great opportunity, respectively. One might say we are all chasing the golden goose, but you'd sound like Karl Marx-Grimm",
"Self-sustaining, continuous nuclear fusion is probably possible in a couple of decades of you throw enough money at it. Will it be economically viable as a power source? Probably not.\n\nThe density of plasma is orders of magnitude smaller than the solid core of a fission reactor. As a result, the core of a fusion reactor will need to be MUCH bigger for the same power and therefore much more expensive. The energy output is almost purely in the form of high energy neutron radiation - extremely damaging to any material and turns the structure radioactive. In fission, the energy is mostly in the form of kinetic energy of the fission products that turns into heat quickly. There is very little radioactive activation of anything but the fuel rods. In a boiling water reactor you can safely stand right above the core pool during fuel replacement. The fuel of a fusion reactor is tritium - highly radioactive and hard to contain (it's an isotope of hydrogen - it permeates through steel). Tiny traces of tritium leaking from reactors led to major public scares. Here we are talking about regularly handling at least six orders of magnitude more tritium and ensuring none of it leaks.\n\nSorry if this offends anyone, but the fusion we have been promised is a dream.\n\nEdit: typo",
"It is a possibility. Because we can't make anything with the mass or gravity of the sun on earth we have to use a lot higher temperatures to start fusion. We can do it now just not for a long time. Scientists have fused atoms like the core of our sun in labs. We only keep it going for a couple seconds now unless a new group made it go longer. As we learn more and figure more things out we will be able to extend that time more and more until we can actually keep it going and produce energy at a lower cost. It costs more to run the earth suns now that it produces",
"they are building a 500MW reactor which is scheduled to be complete in 2020.\n\n_URL_10_\n\nproblem is with capital costs like this, the electricity produced will be 30 times as expensive as our most expensive sources today.",
"Not widely recognized - Inertial Confinement Fusion has been PROVEN to work.\n\nThere is an existing practical fusion technology today (not just hot plasma, unicorns, and B.S.)\nInertial Confinement Fusion has been PROVEN to work in actual field experiments.\nWhile not frequently mentioned, there is a form of Inertial Confinement Fusion, besides weapons fission-fusion, that has actually been demonstrated to work and in practical field experiments and produced significant useful amounts of energy (more energy out of fusion than it takes to produce fusion conditions and maintain the fusion reaction).\nPure fusion of small DT filled hollow spheres has been experimentally demonstrated to work in cold war LANL and LLNL field testing (X-rays produced through a line of sight to an experimental device initiated full fusion ignition of small hollow deuterium-tritium filled spheres).\nPulsed inertial confinement fusion is practical fusion technology and a repeatedly demonstrated fact; the only form of fusion demonstrated to produce net energy to date on earth.\n\nInertial Confinement Fusion today is driver limited. It is still not experimentally possible to build a laser (or ion particle accelerator) large enough to produce DT fusion ignition. Still, people, including Congress, wanted to know if inertial confinement fusion will work if laser driver energies can be raised and a few remaining physics issues (implosion symmetry and control of plasma instabilities) could be solved. \n\nTo answer this question, in the early 1980s an experimental program called Halite-Centurion was added to the US nuclear test program that had the capability of using experimental nuclear tests instead of lasers or particle accelerators to source an intense beam of X-rays to implode a spherical fusion capsule. Halite-Centurion ( H/C) experiments were designed to be added to scheduled underground\nnuclear tests to better understand ICF conditions. Eric Storm, Hank Shay, and\nDeLynn Clark led the Livermore team, with vital contributions from many others were put in charge of organizing this series of tests focused on exploring the feasibility of fusion ignition. \nAt driver energies achievable using X-rays from an experimental nuclear device, full fusion ignition of DT filled spheres worked (and worked repeatedly).\nThese experiments were successful and they lay to rest questions regarding the feasibility of ICF ignition, and gave the community confidence that ICF would succeed at the 10s of megajoule fusion driver energy scale.\n\nIn 1995 Dr. John Lindl was allowed to declassify and release to the public and press about half of the details of Halite-Centurion fusion field tests.\n\"Development of the Indirect‐drive Approach to Inertial Confinement Fusion and the Target Physics Basis for Ignition and Gain.\" John Lindl. Page: 3937. AIP Physics of Plasma. American Institute of Physics, 14 June 1995.\n_URL_11_\nNY Times - \"Secret Advance in Nuclear Fusion Spurs a Dispute Among Scientists\" by WILLIAM J. BROAD \n_URL_12_",
"Did a bit of reading about this awhile ago when the German stellerator was in the news. \n\nI was quite surprised that there's still a huge engineering job to find materials that can withstand the constant neutron radiation without turning to powder. Both the structural materials and the liquid blanket used to extract heat from the reactor will have to be stable enough to keep working safety for a long enough time that you sell more energy than it costs to replace all the pieces.\n\nThe reason progress has been so slow is that it's kind of a chicken and egg problem. You need a way to generate the test conditions, and for that you need a reactor that will generate high neutron flux for a long time.\n\nI was really surprised when I got into the details of why commercial fusion has been \"10 years away\" for the past half century.",
"I know I'm a bit late to the party, but I'm an undergrad physics student currently working in a plasma physics lab so I thought I'd throw in my two cents.\n\nOne of the hardest things to do with plasma is the containment. We currently use magnetic fields to attempt to slow the radial drift, but it doesn't work very well. This causes insane stresses on the system. We believe that this is because of a combination of a few different types of turbulence which cause the magnetic fields to be less, or not, effective. Once we understand how to contain the plasma well it will be easier and drastically more efficient for commercial use. \n\nPs. Anyone who sees anything wrong with this please let me know. I'm half putting in my two cents and half hoping to get a cent or two out.",
"You don't 'prove' anything in science. That said, the giant ball of light in the sky that keeps us all alive is pretty strong evidence that nuclear fusion actually works.\n\nThe real question is not whether it works, but whether we can make it work here on Earth without gravity on our side. Stars, like the Sun, contain the forces of nuclear fusion by virtue of the pressure of hundreds of thousands of kilometers of gas piled up on top squeezing everything together. Down here on Earth we don't have that, so we have to use other methods, such as compressing everything with magnetic fields. There's no good reason in physics why these other methods won't work in principle, but it's a very tough engineering problem.",
"Is a \"golden egg goose chase\" some combination of a wild goose chase and the goose that laid the golden egg?\n\nThese are two idiomatic expressions that have very different meanings.\n\nA wild goose chase is:\n\n > a foolish and hopeless pursuit of something unattainable.\n\nI believe this is what you were talking about.\n\nThe goose that laid the golden egg is from one of Aesop's fables, and the idiomatic expression is typically about killing the goose that laid the golden egg(s), and it:\n\n > is an idiom used of an unprofitable action motivated by greed.",
"Yes, it gets proven daily, whenever the sun rises.\n\nOh, you meant *practical nuclear fusion* as an energy source here on earth.\n\nThat's a lot trickier. Sure, we can maintain a reaction for a second or two, but extracting the energy from it and extracting enough to power the enormous magnets needed to contain the plasma.... that's the real trick.\n\nAt this point, it is more Engineering than Science. The science is there, we just have to figure out the hardware. The staggering cost of the hardware might make a fission plant look cheap.",
"I've only got an MSc Fusion Energy, but here's my answer:\nIt certainly works just fine, but at the moment due to our limited knowledge of the instabilities that build up in a fusion energy reaction, reactions that actually PRODUCE energy lasts fractions of a second. There is an inside joke that fusion energy is 'only 50 years away', but that they said that 50 years ago.\nStill an incredibly bright future for energy production.",
"Look in the sky during the day - fusion is working.\n\nWhether humans can contain and proliferate fusion at anywhere near workable temperatures is another matter.\n\nEvery few years, since the mid fifties, somewhere, some publication will tout that \"cold fusion\" is upon us... and it's not. But then in a couple more years - the same claim...\n\nCan it be done? Probably. Is it in the works now? No.",
"Former sensors engineer (Comp. Eng./Electronics) for one of the subprograms of subprograms of the fusion research. \n\nIt is a worthy goal, but sensor-and-control-loop-wise it depends on whether we can develop microprocessors capable of picosecond-level processing cycles and power electronics reactive on a nanosecond-level. \n\nFusion still far away, but it is technically feasible, as the reaction had been sustained for a couple of seconds in research lab conditions.",
"well we already have a working fusion reactor design, how Isaac Arthur puts it:\" make a huge and sturdy bunker underground, fill it with water and detonate a thermonuclear device in there, then use the steam from the hot water to drive turbines to power your country.\" the problem is that nobody wants to build that, and it would create allot of contaminated water...",
"I don't understand why we develop this when it would be much simpiler to activate and develop Molten Salt Reators (MSRs) for research in order to create Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactors (LFTRs). This would be world's better for the enviorment than our current model, and would create rare earth metals necessary to cure cancer and improve battery life.",
"Only tangentially related, but I've been fascinated by the approach [General Fusion](_URL_13_) is taking ever since I first read about it in Popular Science. The idea of using synchronized pistons in order to ignite a fusion reaction through intense pressure is incredibly simple and low-tech."
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"http://imgur.com/g1LjFal",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_Wilson",
"https://youtu.be/KkpqA8yG9T4",
"https://youtu.be/nWjAJKPLMEo",
"https://www.amazon.com/Plasma-Physics-Fusion-Jeffrey-Freidberg/dp/0521733170",
"http://klotza.blogspot.com/2016/08/whats-deal-with-fusion-power.html",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wDldUOubh0w&t=14m47s",
"https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/oct/17/mit-nuclear-fusion-record-marks-latest-step-towards-unlimited-clean-energy",
"http://www.ibtimes.com/nuclear-fusion-world-record-mits-alcator-c-mod-tokamak-breaks-its-own-plasma-pressure-2432110",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b04mgtdq",
"http://www.sciencealert.com/this-14-billion-machine-is-set-to-usher-in-a-new-era-of-nuclear-fusion-power",
"http://hifweb.lbl.gov/public/Sharp/HIF_documents/Lindl-indirect%20drive.nov95.pdf",
"http://www.nytimes.com/1988/03/21/us/secret-advance-in-nuclear-fusion-spurs-a-dispute-among-scientists.html?pagewanted=all",
"http://www.generalfusion.com/"
]
} | Has it been scientifically proven that Nuclear Fusion is actually a possibility and not a 'golden egg goose chase'?
Whelp... I went popped out after posting this... looks like I got some reading to do thank you all for all your replies! | [
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192wsu | Can blue whales have heart attacks or are their arteries just too big to clog up? | askscience | {
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"It's possible but unlikely for a whale to die from a heart attack. There are at least two cases of sperm whales having such a cause of death; one is presented in [this paper](_URL_3_) as cited [here](_URL_1_).\n\nThe cause of death was \"myocardial infarction [the medical term for a heart attack] associated with coronary atherosclerosis\" (Whitehead, p. 73).\n\nAn earlier paper also finds a single incident of a large sperm whale dying from a heart attack: \"In only one specimen did we observe evidence of myocardial infarction and necrosis. The heart of one sperm whale possessed a circumscribed lesion that had destroyed the proximal and dorsal portion of the muscular interventricular septum and adjacent wall of the left ventricle. The entire thickness of the septum had been replaced in an area of 10 X 15 cm by a foul smelling mass of cheesy material interlaced by fibrous strands. The margins of the necrotic area were not sharply demarcated from the cardiac muscle fibers of the surrounding myocardium. The gross pathologic appearance of the area was that of a recent dorsal myocardial infarction undergoing necrosis. In this specimen the coronary arteries had demonstrated multiple medium-sized atheromatous plaques, and also nematode worms had been found in the cardiac veins (figs. 5 and 18). We were unable to isolate and identify the specific artery, or arteries and veins, responsible for the infarcted area in this heart\" (Truex et al., p. 329).\n\n**Sources:**\n\n1. Lambertsen, R. H. (1997). Natural disease problems of the sperm whale. Bulletin van het Koninlijk Belgisch Instituut voor Natuurwetenschappen-Biologie, 67.\n\n2. Truex, R. C., Nolan, F. G., Truex Jr, R. C., Schneider, H. P., & Perlmutter, H. I. (1961). Anatomy and pathology of the whale heart with special reference to the coronary circulation. The Anatomical Record, 141(4), 325-353.\n\n2. Whitehead, H. (2003). Sperm whales: social evolution in the ocean. University of Chicago Press.\n\n**Relevant Images and Links:**\n\n**[Figures 5 and 18](_URL_0_)**.\n\n**[Lambertsen article](_URL_2_)**.\n\n**Final Remark:**\n\nNote that a blue whale's heart is *significantly* larger than a sperm whale's (though as an aside: the latter has a larger brain). While I suspect it is possible for a blue whale to have an MI, I can find no recorded instances.",
"Does that mean smaller animals can be more likely to experience heart problems?",
"I'm going to take a slightly more physiological perspective in conjunction with most of the other answers:\n\nTop comment obviously responded with that yes, indeed blue whales **can** have a heart attack. Their vessels (arteries, arterioles, metarterioles) are bigger, but it would take longer.\n\nThat being said, their capillaries are the **SAME** thickness as ours. Why this is relevant is that if there were to be some sort of embolized thrombus coming from a vein or venule (eg the whale equivalent of a deep vein thrombosis), it is going to get caught in roughly the same place that it would in humans, which are the first place it hits a capillary bed- the lungs. \n\nAlso, the coronary arteries fill up first thing after the LV in diastole. Somehow, over time, the pro-atherosclerotic material would need to somehow still have it's affect on coronary arteries (infrequent, but it still happens enough) over enough time to clog up the artery (a long period). The whale is probably going to die of something else before that.",
"Does our increased occurrence, compared to other species, of MIs have to do with our diet of processed and exorbitantly fat-rich foods?",
"Big arteries can get atherosclerosis and become clogged, it would just take longer. \n\nThe question is how long it would take. Eventually, a natural 'hardening of the arteries' will happen (arteriosclerosis) and this is very pro-atherosclerosis / pro-thrombosis. This is a disease of aging, like cancer. \n\nDiseases of aging kill most people in developed countries -- that is, countries with a medical system good enough to make sure that you don't die young of an abscessed tooth infection or an intestinal parasite. \n\nWild animals, as a rule, will not live long enough to die of heart disease or cancer. They will generally die of predation or parasitism. \n\nAssuming that blue whales can live long enough to get coronary artery disease, I guess what you're asking is whether or not the large diameter of the coronaries will prevent an atherosclerotic plaque or clot from clogging one up. The answer is 'no, it won't, but it won't be as bad.' \n\nThat is, if you get a clot plug up a coronary artery high up, close to the source of blood, you're going to lose a large chunk of heart muscle. If the clot is smaller and it clogs up a smaller diameter coronary, then the amount of heart muscle you'll lose will be smaller. \n\nIn human ACS patients (acute coronary syndrome), you will see 'micro-embolisms', little clots that float off of the main clot and wind up clogging smaller arteries downstream. We think that some patients, especially diabetic patients with angina, have this happening all the time (diabetic patients have very hard arteries and capillaries.) \n\nSo a clot/spasm/plaque in a whale that's 1 cm across would kill off a smaller piece of the whale heart than it would the human heart. But, if the whale has enough of these, it will mess up the heart, bad."
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} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/UNNkyI8.jpg",
"http://books.google.com/books?id=TKXdCli7nI0C&pg=PA73&dq=%22myocardial+infarction%22+whales&hl=en&sa=X&ei=oN4oUazLF-e90QH364GIAw&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false",
"http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/235247.pdf",
"http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search/display.do?f=1998/BE/BE98009.xml;BE1998001152"
]
} | Can blue whales have heart attacks or are their arteries just too big to clog up?
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21pt1j | How far along in the digestive process can something still be regurgitated? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"It's not normal by any means, but it's entirely possible to vomit things from as far along as the large intestine ([fecal vomiting](_URL_1_)), at least in humans.\n\nAlso, you shouldn't assume that two animals' digestive systems are similar just because they belong to the same kingdom. Horses are also mammals and [cannot vomit at all](_URL_0_). Dogs *can* vomit, but I don't know anything beyond that.",
"You can (usually) only regurgitate things in your stomach. Now, depending on if you have slow gastric mobility (takes longer than normal for things to move through the digestive system) it can take a while. \n\nIf your body cannot digest the offending item, but it's not immediately harmful to your system, it can take several hours for vomiting to occur. So, in the instance of a dog who swallowed a sock...After several hours of non digestion, the body will purge the stomach and vomiting will occur. \n\nThe usually in parenthesis comes from an unusual problem where the large intestine is blocked in some way and you can throw up digested food/fecal matter. It usually comes up as diarrhea like matter, but depending on the length of blockage, it can come up as a turd. I've seen it three times; twice as \"diarrhea\" and once as a soft turd. It's not super rare, but very uncommon.",
"Allright, how about the perspective of a gastroenterologist (me) - I am currently a gastroenterology fellow at a major medical center in north America. Technically, the digestive process starts from the moment a human starts to chew their food. From a molecular/biochemical level, enzymes that digest basic macromolecules (proteins and carbohydrates) are secreted in the saliva, to start the digestive process. However, food doesn't remain in the mouth long enough for any substantial digestive changes to occur. \n\nFurther break down of chyme (chewed food) occurs in the stomach as the stomach serves a grinder for whatever we eat. The acid in our stomach is responsible for activating enzymes responsible for breaking down proteins. Furthermore, it also absorbs some water.\n\nOnce the food passes the stomach and is more or less completely liquified, the majority of the digestive process is started in the small bowel (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum). The fats, carbohydrates and proteins are broken down and absorbed, leaving fiber, some water, bile, and a lot of bacteria. As this combination of fiber, water, bile, and bacteria travels down the small intestine, more and more of the bile and water is reabsorbed -- > leaving more and more bacteria, fiber and breakdown products of bile (which stains the mixture brown). \n\nStool doesn't actually turn into an actual solid log of shit until it passes through the colon (large bowel) where 99% of the water is sucked up, leaving nothing but a mass of fiber, bacteria, and a tiny amount of water. \n\nNow that you know all of that. Let's talk about definitions: Regurtitation is the process of effortlessly bringing something up from the digestive tract. Generally speaking, only food from the stomach is available for a regurgitation. That food is generally not very far along from in the digestive process and would still only look like chewed up food with a bit of bile. However, with a an obstruction of the small intestine, food is often \"fecalized\" i.e turned into stool as it sits in the small bowel and the surrounding water is continuously absorbed until it looks (and smells) like stool. With an blockage, that \"stuff\", which doctors call fecalent material, can be vomitted (forceful expulsion of stuff) - which can often look like stool. \n\nHope that answers your question!",
"Imagine that the digestive system has plenty of muscles that are auto triggered by the nervous system when you involuntarily start the regurgitation process. These muscles are located in the digestive system because when they contract and flex they force food up the system and back out into the world from your mouth. Now, the stomach must have a \"point of no return\" so that you don't regurgitate fecal matter. This point is located at the threefold shared by the large and small intestines. That said, anything in the first few inches of the small intestine and everything privy to that have muscles that allow the passing of food. So yes, to answer your question, there is a place where food can no longer be regurgitated. \n\nBit late to the party but that is the jist of it.\nTl:Dr = inbetween short/long intestine because no muscles to move the food."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse#Digestion",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fecal_vomiting#Other_types"
]
} | How far along in the digestive process can something still be regurgitated?
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4n5usy | Can the completion of a circuit be used to communicate instantaneously? (Faster than light) | I'm currently taking physics 20 so I'm really inexperienced with this stuff, so I need someone who knows their stuff to help me with this: If you have an ideal battery on Earth (enough power to complete the task I'm about to propose), and you run an ideal wire from the negative terminal to a person standing on the moon, and you do the same for the positive end of the ideal battery, when the man on the moon connects the two ends of wire, completing the circuit, do the electrons from the negative terminal INSTANTANEOUSLY begin to flow along the wire towards the positive end? Could the completion of this hypothetical circuit be used to communicate faster than light?
My physics teacher says yes, but of course the electrons themselves aren't moving faster than light. Thanks if you can give me some help with this question :) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"No. Changes in the electric field propagate down the wire at the speed of light in that material. This will generally be less than the speed of light in a vacuum, c.",
"> My physics teacher says yes,\n\nHere's your problem.\n\nYou need a new physics teacher.",
"If your physics teacher thinks this can be used to communicate FTL, they probably shouldn't be teaching.",
"Its interesting to note that the speed limit of information in a wire is what motivates microprocessors and CPUs to be so small. The smaller the transistors and the more tightly they can be arranged in a chip, the less distance there is for the signals to travel between components. This actually makes the chip faster and boosts performance. If you make two chips of identical layout, only the scale (size) is different, the smaller one will be faster (assuming ideal cooling conditions).",
"No information can go FTL in our universe. Doesn't matter what method you try and apply to make it work, it just can't happen, ever. End of story.\n\nOne of the very first basic principles of physics you should be taught, FTL is just physically impossible."
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} | {
"url": []
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"url": []
} | Can the completion of a circuit be used to communicate instantaneously? (Faster than light)
I'm currently taking physics 20 so I'm really inexperienced with this stuff, so I need someone who knows their stuff to help me with this: If you have an ideal battery on Earth (enough power to complete the task I'm about to propose), and you run an ideal wire from the negative terminal to a person standing on the moon, and you do the same for the positive end of the ideal battery, when the man on the moon connects the two ends of wire, completing the circuit, do the electrons from the negative terminal INSTANTANEOUSLY begin to flow along the wire towards the positive end? Could the completion of this hypothetical circuit be used to communicate faster than light? My physics teacher says yes, but of course the electrons themselves aren't moving faster than light. Thanks if you can give me some help with this question :) | [
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|
wvoxz | I accidentally threw a non-rechargeable battery in a charger with some rechargeable batteries a day or so ago. I only noticed this morning. Did I narrowly avoid something catastrophic? | From what I understand, brands of rechargeable battery and charger are interchangeable (seen on a Ray-o-Vac and Energizer websites, can't link now - my apologies), but the charger was Ray-o-Vac and the non-rechargeable battery was Energizer.
Thanks in advance. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"You could have potentially caused the battery to overheat, rupture, and leak out some electrolyte. I've never seen or heard of a (non-lithium) battery explode unless fire was involved. Standard alkaline batteries use potassium hydroxide (common name caustic potash) as the electrolyte, which has similar health & safety concerns, and similar chemistry to sodium hydroxide (commonly called caustic soda or lye). Here is a [34k PDF Material Safety Datasheet for dry potassium hydroxide.](_URL_0_) \n\nedit:while it was mildy funny the first time, that horse is dead now. everyone here has seen idiocracy. cut it out.",
"You not so narrowly avoided a mess that at worse would have ruined your charger and given you a small chemical burn. It is less dangerous than running your blender.",
"If the non-rechargeable battery's open-circuit voltage was higher than the charger's charging voltage, no current would flow through that battery. Also, that battery would appear \"fully charged\" to the charger, if it's sophisticated enough to have such a circuit.\n\nSince alkaline and carbon-zinc batteries have an open-circuit voltage around 1.5V, and NiCd and NiMH are around 1.2V, I would expect that to be the critical link. Obviously, I'd want to spend some quality time with meters, the charger, and a thermocouple to be sure.\n\nI would expect a different story if you put that battery in a charger designed to charge 1.5V batteries instead of 1.2V.",
"As long as it is a standard battery (e.g. AA), the type (e.g. [Ni-Cad](_URL_3_), [Ni-MH](_URL_3_) ) and the battery is rated for the charger's speed (e.g. recharges in 1, 2 hours) or faster then the brand shouldn't matter\n\nIt isn't a good idea to put non-rechargeable in a charger not designed for them - see [Recharging alkaline batteries](_URL_3_).\n\nWhether it would have been catastrophic - depends upon the charger and its protection circuits",
"Electrical engineer here, you probably more-than-narrowly avoided something catastrophic. Note: I'm not recommending you do it - but it's a relatively tolerable mistake. \n\nI'm going to assume you threw an alkaline battery into a NiMH charger; alkaline cells are fairly stable chemically and can tolerate a little abuse (such as trying to recharge them) without drama (like fire or eruption).\n\nIt depends a lot on your charger as well - as mentioned by some others, some chargers have logic built in to detect and not charge incompatible chemistries. A lot of other chargers are so-called \"trickle\" chargers, and only allow a small amount of current into the batteries, so even if they didn't detect an incompatible chemistry, likely the small charging current was tolerated by the non-rechargeable. \n\nSome safety recommendations: In general, keep an eye on your charger while in-use, don't walk away from it, leave it in the other room, basement, etc; so if there is a problem, fire, etc, you'll be able to catch it immediately. I have a charging station I use for charging batteries (I charge high-power, high-capacity hobby batteries in it, but regular AA and AAA batteries as well). It's a metal toolbox lined with ceramic tiles. It has the power supply and charger in a separate, sealed compartment from the charging area; the charging area is vented so flames/explosion won't blow the lid off, they'll just go out the vent. I charge outside away from anything valuable. Obviously I'm being super-cautious, but the types of batteries I have mandate it.",
"I've charged alkaline batteries on purpose before, using hobby-grade programable chargers. If you keep the current under 150ma they won't overheat, and will actually charge up to around 20% of their previous capacity. HOWEVER, from my limited understanding, luck of the draw determines whether or not it will function properly or not. I've had all sorts of batteries go boom before, the main difference between an alkaline and rechargable NiCd/NiMh/LiPo/LiFe is the casing has a valve to release excess pressure, while an alkaline battery is sealed, and waste gasses have no where to go, leading to catastrophic casing failure.",
"While we are on the topic of batteries, what is the difference between rechargeable and non rechargeable batteries. Like what makes one capable of being recharged and the other not?"
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.murphysmachines.com/resources/MSDS%20Sheets/KOH-Potassium_Hydroxide_MSDS.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel-metal_hydride_battery",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recharging_alkaline_batteries",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery"
]
} | I accidentally threw a non-rechargeable battery in a charger with some rechargeable batteries a day or so ago. I only noticed this morning. Did I narrowly avoid something catastrophic?
From what I understand, brands of rechargeable battery and charger are interchangeable (seen on a Ray-o-Vac and Energizer websites, can't link now - my apologies), but the charger was Ray-o-Vac and the non-rechargeable battery was Energizer. Thanks in advance. | [
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|
ik6de | I wish to get into DIY Biology as a hobby. More inside.
| Finishing up my BS in Biology. Grad school in the near future. So, I will be succinct. I want to get into DIY Biology. I have the space and adequate funds for this project. Can any other DIY biologists provide me with some further insights into resources, potential problems, and essential equiptment. Also suggestions on research that is worth while for beginners such as my self to attempt. I thank you in advance. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c24ed9o",
"c24euyl",
"c24fgij"
],
"text": [
"What area do you want to work in? You could contribute to ecology with minimal funds but you will always run the risk of not being taken seriously without a university affiliation. You will also find that material and service prices are higher for non-academic research. Outside of ecology it would be really difficult for you to do anything without a lot of cash and significant time investment. \n\nBasic molecular work might be within your realm, but without a proper lab you're not going to be able to do a whole lot. Thermal Cyclers run $2000-9000, Microscope > $4000, Centrifuge $3000, Incubators $5000+, Balance $2500, Gel-Box and Power supply $3000, -80 Freezers $7500+, Water Baths ~1000, Shakers ~1500, Pipettes ~$800ea*4, Disposables (tips, plates, reagents) ~$500 weekly, Hazardous Waste Disposal $100/Weekly, Hazardous Chemicals (Even basic things for DNA isolation) ~100/Weekly. Many academics will get ~$250,000 just to start a new lab. \n\nI do some DIY biology for personal interest--but nothing ever worth publishing. I have my fridge at home full of petri dishes and media to grow my brewing yeast strains. Even simple things like that would be expensive If I couldnt snatch goodies from the lab :-)",
"I know there are labs (or maybe just one, I think the one I heard of was in NYC or around that part of the country) that exist that are open to the public and provide equipment for members sort of like a gym does. This type of program might let you save money of some of the big ticket items (or perhaps if you had the money to donate a piece of equipment you really needed but they didn't have like something for qRT-PCR they could contribute by maintaining it) and devote more of it to reagents, etc. I heard about this at a talk at ASM2011 given by Natalie Kuldell from MIT, but I can't find the name of the specific location, and it looks like her website just has info on outreach for younger students, but hopefully this will at least get you searching in the right direction.",
"You should study Saccharomyces cerevisiae in nutrient rich environments. That's some fun DIY microbiology to do right there, and you can even do it on the cheap!\n\n(Also, you get beer out of it. Big plus IMO.)"
],
"score": [
7,
5,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | I wish to get into DIY Biology as a hobby. More inside.
Finishing up my BS in Biology. Grad school in the near future. So, I will be succinct. I want to get into DIY Biology. I have the space and adequate funds for this project. Can any other DIY biologists provide me with some further insights into resources, potential problems, and essential equiptment. Also suggestions on research that is worth while for beginners such as my self to attempt. I thank you in advance. | [
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pgqq3 | A controversial question about the Egyptian Pyramids and the history of human civilization (including a challenge to the current evolutionary timeline). I'm hoping to see discussion/input from multiple disciplines. Peace. | askscience | {
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"> The length that we call a Metre (Meter in American English), is a very precisely defined unit of measure with correlations to both the circumference of the earth and the speed of light.\n\nThere's nothing special about meters; the circumference of Earth changes by around 100,000 meters depending on where you measure it, and the relationship between the speed of light and the meter is one of definition. It's not even a very pretty definition, given that the speed of light is 299 792 458 m/s.\n\n > So, are we to assume that the use of the cubit as a unit of measure in these ancient civilizations is purely coincidence?\n\nYep.",
"> So, are we to assume that the use of the cubit as a unit of measure in these ancient civilizations is purely coincidence?\n\nWhat coincidence? You took one number, divided by an arbitrary number of your choice and multiplied by a second arbitrary number of your choice, and arrived at something close to the length of a cubit. That's not coincidence. That's trivial and silly - numerology. I can do it by only using **one** number. \n\n > for example, Pythagoras got his inspiration from somewhere.\n\nPythagoras lived centuries before Alexander the Great conquered Egypt and Alexandria was founded. Also, Pythagoras wasn't first to invent the Pythagorean Theorem.\n\n > If what we've been taught is inaccurate\n\nYou haven't pointed out anything that's inaccurate. You just did some numerology.\n\n > what does pursuit of a more accurate explanation do to the evolutionary timeline\n\nNo amount of invalidating what we know about the ancient Egyptians would do anything to change our knowledge of Evolution or the evolutionary timeline, or the geological one, or the astrophysical one.\n\n > What is the current state of research and education in these matters?\n\nThere's no scientific research in pseudosciences such as numerology. Here's why: You set out to find some relationship between a cubit and something else that'd somehow prove that the ancient Egyptians knew more than they did. After some trial and error you found that the approximate length of the earth's meridian from the pole to the equator, divided by 10 million, multiplied by Pi and then divided by 6 gave a number that was approximately the same as the Egyptian cubit, which is a number only known to two decimal's accuracy, at best. And then you announce this as too unbelievable to be a 'coincidence' - despite that no known Egyptian text defined the thing that way, and there's no actual reason to believe they would.\n\nIf not Pi and 1/6, you'd just try e or the Golden Ratio or whatever. This is how you practice self-delusion _not_ science. (the history of philosophy and science is chock-full of people who've deluded themselves in those ways) Picking one number arbitrarily (much less 3) to 'explain' another number doesn't explain anything. You added more information than you purport to 'explain'. There's no coincidence in that you'd find a combination of numbers that'd work to two decimals of accuracy. \n\n > one of the mods here has expressed concern that I might be attempting to insert theories\n\nI don't think you're trying to insert theories. I think you want science to come up with some more cherry-picked facts to support your predetermined conclusion.",
"The cubit was not a single length, but rather the length of the forearm of the Pharaoh (or for other regions king/emperor) in power... the numbers you state are purely coincidence unless you are asserting intelligent design of humanity such that those in power have a forearm of a length similar to a mathematical construct utilizing a circle of circumference pi. The cubit is known to vary in length (as Pharaoh's died and were replaced quite often). \n\nThe fact that great academics studied in a city means nothing to me. Think about the Mesoamerican cultures who were able to build pyramids and track the stars at least as well as the Egyptians. Surely you are not asserting that their academics and architects traveled from Mexico to Alexandria? How about the Inca? They built roads that rivaled the Romans. \n\nIf there was a fully advanced civilization on par with our modern technology where are their weapons in the geological record? Their planes? Their steel ships? Their advanced electronics? Their internal combustion engines? Their nuclear weapons? Their communications infrastructure? Their satellites? Their money? \n\nDo you see what I'm getting at?\n\nIt is absurd to suggest that ANY previous civilization was technologically equivalent to our own. There is simply nothing in the archaeological record that could support this assertion. \n\nI will concede that there are indeed civilizations in the record who were far ahead of their contemporary competition. Some even rival small portions of our current technology. But none are even close to having ALL of the elements associated with life in the 21st century.",
"[One cubit equals .4572 meters](_URL_0_). Six (why 6? I presume it's a secret, but let's go with it anyway) times .4572 is 2.7432, which is roughly 87% of pi.\n\nSo, question for the moderator of r/conspiracy:\n\nDo you think your advanced civilization people did their advanced calculations using sandal toe and sand?",
"It's easier to portray Egyptians as uneducated savages who only came out of the stone ages due to superior Greek (read classical) influence, than to say that the Egyptians were a highly mathematical people whose influence was felt and seen far and wide. I'll let you figure out why..."
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"http://www.google.ca/webhp?rlz=1C1GPEA_enCA361CA384&sourceid=chrome-instant&ix=heb&ie=UTF-8&ion=1#hl=en&safe=off&rlz=1C1GPEA_enCA361CA384&output=search&sclient=psy-ab&q=convert%20cubits%20to%20meters&pbx=1&oq=&aq=&aqi=&aql=&gs_sm=&gs_upl=&fp=1782c5a8cf56f2fa&ix=heb&ion=1&ix=heb&ion=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&fp=1782c5a8cf56f2fa&biw=1247&bih=833&ix=heb&ion=1"
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} | A controversial question about the Egyptian Pyramids and the history of human civilization (including a challenge to the current evolutionary timeline). I'm hoping to see discussion/input from multiple disciplines. Peace.
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2put62 | If I add 0,5 L of 100 °C water to 0,5 L of 0 °C water, will I get 1 L of 50 °C water? | And if no, why not?
Green tea manufacturers and sellers always say to use 75 °C water to make aforementioned green tea, but I'm not sure how to do that, so I figured I'll add two volumes of boiling (100 °C) to one volume of room temperature (20 °C) water because (100+100+20)/3 gives a number close enough to 75 (73,33333...).
Does it work like that, or not? | askscience | {
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"This works to the extent that we can treat the specific heat of water (the amount of energy needed to raise a mass of water one degree) as independent of temperature.\n\nBetween 0 and 100, the specific heat of water is constant to within 0.5% (see [this](_URL_0_)), so this method is good to better than one degree.",
"Keep in mind: if you're boiling water, it probably won't be exactly 100C. Depending on atmospheric pressure and altitude, it's more likely to be a couple degrees lower. Another couple degrees are lost *very* quickly after boiling stops due to evaporation. Including pouring from vessel to vessel, your boiling water could be under 90C before mixing.\n\nIf you want to brew at 75C, it's much better to boil water, pour into your brewing pot (so the pot will be the same temperature as the contents), put a thermometer in it and wait until it cools back to 75C (adding a little cold water to accelerate the process if you want but it won't take very long in any case). No other simple approach in a domestic kitchen is going to be reliable.",
"Also, your 0C water cannot be ice for this math to work, since there is additional energy required to melt ice at 0C to water at 0C. Because of the impurities of tap water, the freezing point is likely below 0C.",
"Energy = mass * specific heat capacity * absolute temperature.\n\nSpecific heat capacity of water is 4200J kg^-1 K^-1\n\nSo if we take your \"1 volume of water\" to be 1kg.\n\n2 x 4200 x 373 + 1 x 4200 x 293 = 3 x 4200 x (new temperature)\n\nSo new temperature = (2 x 4200 x 373 + 1 x 4200 x 293) / (3 x 4200) = 346.3K = 73.3°C\n\nAssuming no energy loss to the environment. This is a totally unrealistic assumption, so expect a few degrees lower.",
"Yes. \n\nNow keep in mind that there may be some slight density changes, but if you start with both pots of water at the same temperature when you measure their volume, they should contain the same mass. It's also very difficult to get .5L of water to exactly 100C without some evaporation/boiling, so your final temperature will likely be less than 50C. But the final result will likely still be very close.",
"Yes, that will work OK for the tea, minus heat losses to the container, since you're adding the hot water to the room temp water container, with the way you stated it. Add the room temp water to the boiling water, and you'll be more accurate.\n\nIn your original question, you mentioned 0 °C water, which is of course frozen, or is in the process of freezing. The heat of fusion of water is considerable, so much of the heat within the 100 °C water would be consumed by melting the ice. You would not end up at 50 °C."
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} | If I add 0,5 L of 100 °C water to 0,5 L of 0 °C water, will I get 1 L of 50 °C water?
And if no, why not? Green tea manufacturers and sellers always say to use 75 °C water to make aforementioned green tea, but I'm not sure how to do that, so I figured I'll add two volumes of boiling (100 °C) to one volume of room temperature (20 °C) water because (100+100+20)/3 gives a number close enough to 75 (73,33333...). Does it work like that, or not? | [
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3c9e47 | Can commercial airlines fly upside down (loops, rolls, etc)? | While flying into Denver today I remembered a strip from Calvin and Hobbes: Calvin--imagining himself a pilot--competes against a rival pilot to land his aircraft first. In one of the final scenes, Calvin "switches on the 'Fasten Seatbelt' light and does a barrel-roll" (or something to the effect).
Could this happen IRL on, say, Southwest Airlines flight #4279 with service from Tampa to Denver? Could a pilot roll a plane if necessary? Can a commercial airline perform 'roller coaster-esque' maneuvers such as rolls, loops, etc?
(Sorry for a long post! Sorry if repost! Searched and couldn't find anything.) | askscience | {
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"I can't speak for specifically all commercial planes, but here is a video of as well as interview of test pilot Tex Johnson executing a roll in a Boeing 707, \n_URL_0_",
"What maneuvers an aircraft can do is highly dependent on its design and aerodynamics. While fighter aircraft such as jets can almost always do aerobatic stunts, some aircraft may end up stalling due to insufficient thrust/lift when doing rolls, vertical climbs or dives, or suffer engine problems simply because fuel or air isn't getting pumped sufficiently into the correct intakes, such as lack of pumped fuel into your engine during inverted flight.\n\nIn general, commercial aircraft MAY be able to pull off aerobatics; just know that they're hardly ever certified to do so. More certification means more paperwork, which in turn costs time and money. Commercial aircraft designers and purchasers won't want to waste potential air time to certify something that they will never need under normal circumstances.",
"The measure of forces that a plane undergoes is usually (to us laymen) measured in \"G\" (with 1G being equivalent to the downward force felt due to the gravitational pull of the earth). Pushing the aircraft into a dive straight forward (like when you go over the top of a rise on a rollercoaster) results in \"negative\" G, for which few planes are capable of handling. \n\nUnderstandably, \"fighter\" aircraft are designed to \"pull\" more \"G\" than passenger aircraft and in different directions as they need to be able to evade a chasing aircraft. Various parts of an aircraft can take various strain in different ways. Particularly fit humans (the pilot) are expected to be able to manage approx 9-10G for very short bursts (assume they're expecting it) or somewhat longer durations around 5-6G so even the top aircraft are not really designed to take much more than that. The more G an aircraft pulls, the greater the stress on the airframe and thus the more (expensive) maintenance needs to be performed, both deeper maintenance and more often.\nCommercial aircraft such as the ones you mention are usually capable of doing less G as they don't need to in their usual parameters. There's a great video of the Boeing 707 doing a barrel roll that someone else has linked to. \n\nOne of the best examples however of flight \"outside\" the envelope is the 1972 Paris Air Display crash of the Soviet TU-144 or 'Konkordski', their Concorde competitor. They were pulling up towards 10,000ft when the pilot realised there were some French Air Force 'Mirage' jets flying above them at 10,000ft (apparently trying to get a closer look at the little winglets that the Soviet plane had, but Concorde didn't) and they were about to collide. To avoid, the Soviet pilot quickly pushed forward on the controls and forced the plane to stop climbing very very quickly. This caused strong negative G which did not damage the airframe (or body) but immediately stalled the engines as they couldn't cope with it. The plane lost speed (it wasn't going very fast to begin with) and the pilot started to dive to try and regain speed. The co-pilot restarted the engines but the plane hadn't been very high and it took a long time to recover the engines so it was close to the ground. The pilot then tried to pull out of the dive but in doing so and attempting to miss the ground, pulled an estimated 6-8G for which the plane wasn't designed. The airframe couldn't take the stress and the plane disintegrated. _URL_1_\n\nTLDR: Yes, many commercial aircraft can perform aerobatic maneuvers but don't as there's no need, it's \"draining\" for the aircraft and expensive to maintain.",
"Is the plane capable when empty? 99% of the time yes. \n\nIs the plane capable of performing such maneuvers while full of passengers, cargo and fuel? 99% of the time no.\n\nIf the plane is providing airline services and is light enough to perform the maneuvers, can they do so legally? Only if the safety of the flight depends on it, which = no. \n\nAirshows on the other hand...\n\n_URL_4_\n\n_URL_5_\n\n_URL_5_\n\n_URL_4_",
"Commercial aircraft have small control surfaces compared to how big they are, therefore behave rather sluggishly. Upside down the aircraft will certainly lose altitude even if you push the stick all the way forward. Your flip would be rather large, require a lot of speed and again lose a lot of altitude. Barrel roll? Why not?"
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"https://youtu.be/gWIWAI6GmQQ?t=57",
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} | Can commercial airlines fly upside down (loops, rolls, etc)?
While flying into Denver today I remembered a strip from Calvin and Hobbes: Calvin--imagining himself a pilot--competes against a rival pilot to land his aircraft first. In one of the final scenes, Calvin "switches on the 'Fasten Seatbelt' light and does a barrel-roll" (or something to the effect). Could this happen IRL on, say, Southwest Airlines flight #4279 with service from Tampa to Denver? Could a pilot roll a plane if necessary? Can a commercial airline perform 'roller coaster-esque' maneuvers such as rolls, loops, etc? (Sorry for a long post! Sorry if repost! Searched and couldn't find anything.) | [
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|
1e1ozi | why aren't semis shaped like a bullet train? | a big factor in the poor fuel economy of semi trucks is their drag. I assume that bullet trains are one of the best designs in terms of reducing drag. why are semis not shaped similarly? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c9vz4vk",
"c9vy35e",
"c9w1h86"
],
"text": [
"Most semis are designed they way they are because they require a large amount of air flow to help the radiator to cool the engine more efficiently.\nA flat front end, decreases aerodynamics but increases the air flow to the radiator.\n[How radiators work](_URL_0_)",
"There have been attempts to improve aerodynamics of semis: if you see a semi that has plastic vanes hanging underneath the trailer, those are placed to improve airflow.\n\nMany of the newer semis also have better aerodynamics in their body shape, however semis last *much* longer than your average car does - so the older blocky models are still seen on the road quite a bit.",
"A vehicles drag coefficient is affected by the frontal area, therefore a semi truck is always at a disadvantage. Bullet trains' aerodynamic nose shape is actually very long, adapting it to a semi truck front would increase its length so much I assume road maneuverability would be terrible.\n\nHowever, the semi trucks' long cubic trailer creates a strong negative pressure zone immediately behind it. Several truck companies have shown \"slip on\" teardrop or cone shapes for the back end of semi trailers, to minimize the negative pressure zone. They have never been accepted, I don't know why other than to guess cost and awkwardness to fit and remove to load / unload.\n\nIn their own very small way incremental aerodynamic design of semi cabs have improved with flowing wheel wells, mildly conic steep angled front hoods, integrated cab top air dams, and the under trailer air skirts Amadameus first mentions."
],
"score": [
14,
9,
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiator"
]
} | why aren't semis shaped like a bullet train?
a big factor in the poor fuel economy of semi trucks is their drag. I assume that bullet trains are one of the best designs in terms of reducing drag. why are semis not shaped similarly? | [
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|
1rtwd1 | Why do I struggle not to sink in water while everyone else I know floats with ease? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"I'm guessing you're pretty skinny, then. Fat is less dense than water, muscle is denser than water. Thus, people with a low body fat percentage will have a harder time floating than those with a higher percentage.\n\nEDIT: Holding in a big lungful of air will help, too, by the same principle.",
"hi! just a few quick answers:\nFirst of all, everyone can swim/float, no matter which ethnic group! but the earlier (age) you learn swimming, the faster and easier you learn.\n\nFloating depends on nothing but density, so if your density is a little lower than that of water, you will float. Obviously your bones and muscles are heavier than water (also body parts above the water are pulling you down a lot!), fat and the air in your lungs (!) are lighter.\n\nSo what I recommend you to do is to pick some swimming goggles, go into a shallow pool and play around with keeping as much air as possible in your lungs. Hold your breath and let yourself dive a little. You are going to see you float back to the surface again, bounce down and up again until you reach a point where you don't move up and down any more. Voila! You float! \nMaybe the most important word in here was 'play', so don't stress yourself, and have someone who can swim well to keep an eye on you.\nTry to feel comfortable when your head (ears, nose, eyes) go underwater. (All of this is learning!) If you put your head too high, it will push you down, so keep low.\nFloating flat on the surface (\"dead man\") is a little harder to do and mostly depends on body tension once you found out how to float.\nI hope that helped! :D",
"All the answers talking about density are, while technically relevant, not applicable to your situation. \nALL HUMAN BEINGS FLOAT IN WATER. \n\nTake for example a competitive swimmer. They have extremely low body fat and by nature of their training, develop very high muscle density. They float. And do not need to tread water to do so. They can just lay there all day without having to do any work. This is purely a product of experience and understanding how their body work in water as oppressed to air. \n\nI'll give you an example that you can try the next time you are in the pool. Have someone you trust support you from underneath with both hands while you lay on your back, staring at the roof. Keep your body straight from head to toes, with your hands by your sides. Now, lower your chin down so that it points to your chest. Your legs will sink towards the bottom of the pool. So, if you want to stay floating on your back just keep your chin pointed up. \n\nHave a look for \"streamlining\"on YouTube and practice it for a while. I have yet to meet a non-swimmer, that after 5-30 minutes of instruction in this, couldn't travel 12-15 metres, without moving their arms or legs at all. \n\nSource: I'm an ex internationally competitive swimmer and water polo player, with over 10 years experience in teaching swimming to adults, children and persons with physical and intellectual disabilities.",
"Whilst levels of body fat can play a party in how buoyant you are, there is another factor that very occasionally crops up. Some people have a slightly higher bone density than everyone else, and whilst this is usually a plus (fewer broken bones), it can be a pain when comes to floating. In fact, to counter the \"everyone can float\" comments, when I was a skinny kid and had almost no body fat, I managed to sink in a swimming pool with inflatable armbands and a polystyrene float. My body just sank from the pelvis and dragged the rest of me down. \n\nHowever, as an adult with a normal ish amount of body fat and a better balance between bones, muscles etc, I can float fairly easily in salt water, and with a lot of effort, can float in swimming pools (though I will sink if I try to just relax and float on my back the way I can in the sea).\n\nDon't be told that everyone can float and you're obviously not doing it right; it's not always the case. I'd recommend trying float in a pool filled with salt water, or in a very calm sea (though waves can be a bit panic inducing if you are only just learning) because everyone is more buoyant in salt water. I learned how swim in a salt water pool and from there on realised I could swim and just about stay afloat in a non saline pool."
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} | Why do I struggle not to sink in water while everyone else I know floats with ease?
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nqjqn | How does a cell "know" where to position it's self in the body. | This is very hard for to to try to explain, but for example when a lizard's tail is cut off, how do the stem cells "move" in the position of the tail.
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3b545z",
"c3b7dvy",
"c3b7prd"
],
"text": [
"Generally, development follows the direction of [morphogens](_URL_1_), biological signals that form a gradient that cells use to determine where to migrate.\n\nInterestingly, a famous one is named [Sonic Hedgehog](_URL_0_), from those heady days when gene naming was less...*rigid*.",
"Signaling is the general answer here, as mentioned by other posts already. \n\nEach cell contains all the genetic information needed to become any cell of the body, but it requires certain triggers/signals to express certain genes, i.e., to \"become\" different kinds of advanced cells. A cell usually receives a signal by some protein that has both a section sticking outside the cell membrane to detect the signal and a way for that protein to tell more complicated differentiating mechanisms of the cell when it's found something.\n \nIn early development, you may start off with a few cells that can only produce and respond to a certain kind or level of signal 1. So maybe those cells that receive less of the signal 1 turn into A cells and the cells that receive more of signal 1 turn into B cells. A diffusion gradient is one way that there may be more of signal 1 in one area and less in another. \n\nSo now you have A cells and B cells. Maybe the A cells produce signal 2, and the B cells can respond not just to high or low, but to three or four different levels of signal 2, so then the B cells will differentiate into C, D, E, and F cells, and maybe some may not change at all. So now after just these few steps you already have six different kinds of cells. Continue this process for several more steps and you already have a multitude of new kinds of cells. \n\nRegarding how cells actually move to the right location, rather than just become the right cells, there are a few different mechanisms, but it is important to note that the cells are not consciously choosing where they want to go. In one of the simpler cases, the cells are playing a game of warmer/colder with regard to a gradient, so cells will be \"attracted\" towards the \"warmer\" end of the gradient (they could just as easily be pushed towards the \"colder\" end as well). Another example is cells following a certain trail of \"stickiness\" that has been laid down by previous cells that have migrated to the same area, kind of like when a rain drop running down your windshield may unite with the past path of another rain drop further down below and follow it. This is a common mechanism that guides retinal neuronal axons to the right locations in the brain.\n\nFurther, generally in an area such as a lizard's tail that has been cut off, you're not starting from scratch with a completely undifferentiated cell. The stub of the tail will already have a lot of \"tail\" cells, but they will just not be differentiated yet into the cells needed to become specific tail parts (i.e., skin, muscle, etc.). Therefore, they don't really need to move all the way across the body, they just need to move from one part of the tail to another.",
"On the one hand, history: each cell came from another cell, so that determines its place, initially. \n\nEach cell then gets a different place of its own because of:\n\n(i) chemical gradients of signals\n\n(ii) selective adhesion to its microenvironment\n\n(iii) apoptosis of cells that get out of place (due to the absence of continuous, correct signals which are present in the right amounts only in the 'right place')"
],
"score": [
21,
11,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_Hedgehog",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphogen"
]
} | How does a cell "know" where to position it's self in the body.
This is very hard for to to try to explain, but for example when a lizard's tail is cut off, how do the stem cells "move" in the position of the tail. | [
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pt6bv | Have you ever looked over at a passing car on the highway, to be met a few seconds later by the occupant's gaze? Why do we seem able to detect when others are looking at us? | askscience | {
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"Have you ever looked over at a passing car on the highway, to be met a few seconds later by the occupant's gaze? Yes. \n \nHave you ever looked over at a passing car on the highway, to NOT be met a few seconds later by the occupant's gaze? Yes, but that doesn't count. \n \n[Confirmation bias](_URL_0_)",
"There are two questions here: One is whether we are more sensitive to gaze direction (particularly directed at us) than other sorts of stimuli. The answer, from a number of studies seems to be yes ([example](_URL_1_).\n\nThe other question is whether people can detect that somone is staring at them even when they cannot *see* the other person's face/eyes. This is a queston that has been looked at primarily in the domain of parapsychology and for what that's worth, the evidence is very sketchy (as might be expected).\n\nAs to why we might be particularly sensitive, there are obvious suggestions one could make in terms of the inherent social/survival significance that might heavily bias our visual system to be on the lookout for such stimuli. It is similar to the \"own name effect\" in which pople will often detect their name being spoken even if they are not paying attention to something else.",
"There was an episode of Morgan Freeman's Through the Wormhole that had some experiments involving this phenomena. _URL_2_",
"Could it be we recognize human faces more clearly than other objects in our peripheral vision?",
"The real experiment to test this:\n\nHave hidden cameras pointing out of the sides of your car. Drive around for a few hours without looking at people through the side windows. \n\nNext, drive around and look at people through your side windows. Keep track of the number of people that look back at you and the number of people that don't.\n\nWatch the video collected from the first drive. Count the number of people that look at you and the number that don't.\n\nCompare your numbers. \n\nI suspect that people do look back at you when you look at them. I suspect that their peripheral vision notices that you are looking and they instinctively make eye contact.",
"Here's how I'd test it:\n\nInstall a inconspicuous camera watching out. Record how often people look over at you, your car, or your general area. \n\nThen, replace camera with an actual person watching out. Collect data on how often people look over at you or him or the car or your general area.\n\nCompare.\n\nAny thoughts?",
"The thing is, when you look over and no-one's glancing back you don't thing twice about it. But when they do back you think \"Holy shit, must be telepathy!\" \n\nIt's nothing more than Confirmation bias. You can lose 100 flips of the coin then all of a sudden you got one right and it \"must\" be because you wished it, or some other source. It makes no sense.",
"I don't think it's a matter of \"feeling\" that someone is looking at you. In the art world faces are the most recognizable thing and can often throw off the balance and flow of a painting because our eyes are immediately drawn to it. I think the the thing happens when someone is looking at us that we can see in our peripheral vision. Even though it's off to the side our brain can easily translate a face. That's why when strangers look at the back of your head (if you're walking through a mall, sitting in class, etc.) we don't \"feel\" people looking at us because we don't see them. This works especially well in cars because when passenger and driver side windows line up the people are immediately in each others peripheral vision. \n\ntl;dr our brains are quick to recognize faces in our peripheral vision",
"Have you read Rupert Sheldrake's work? He's done extensive research on the sense of being stared at:\n_URL_3_",
"About 4 years ago I was taking a sign language class in college. There was an incredibly cute girl in the class, and one day she started talking about water conservation. She had a pamphlet someone had given her, and she was really getting into the discussion, it was completely adorable. I started feeling a rising tension in my chest, getting more and more nervous, like my awkward self tends to do. Suddenly I breathed deep, and all the sensation in my chest flooded the whole front of my body, I let myself really enjoy what I was feeling around her. As soon as I did, both her, and the female teacher behind her, swung their heads in my direction, shocked looks on their faces. Since then, I've had numerous experiences of people feeling me, to a loud degree, when I really feel what's going on in my body. This is a very real phenomenon.",
"hi guys, sorry first post in ask-science i apologies in advance if i do not properly follow etiquette.\n\nAnyways, this doesn't really happen to me in a car, but more in a very crowded place such as a shopping center? \n\nWhy is it i can be sitting in a completely crowded food court, hundreds and hundreds of people sitting in a very close space, yet i will have the sudden urge to look up from my food directly at a person who is looking at me? out of all these hundreds of people, the exact person looking at me? This is also a very common occurrence.\n\nI find this a bit more weird then the OP i reckon.",
"why should it have any significance at all. I would suggest that the times you catch someone's gaze stick in your mind and have more of an impact (as looking people in the eye tends to do as it contains more significance) compared to when they are not looking. \n\nBasically you remember catching people's eye more than not - I'm sure if you tallied it all up the times you look at someone and just see the side of their head will be about the same as catching their eye - of course the times they or you weren't looking aren't counted.",
"Seems to me we look at other people all the time and many times they do not return our gaze. Aside from the already mentioned confirmation bias, it seems to me that you're simply not going to notice someone looking at you *unless* you're looking at them. What we're left with is:\n\n- We look at others when they are not looking at us.\n- Others look at us when we are not looking at them.\n- Sometimes both things happen at the same time.",
"Its looking for patterns where there are not any. A better question is, how many times you looked at people and they have NOT looked back. However, you have not remembered this.\n\nStatistically, I would postulate that your magical psycho-superpower 'detection' is simply you remembering when they look at you and forgetting when they dont.",
"I had always assumed this was a combination of coincidence (since people look around a lot) and peripheral vision noticing someone looking at you. Also the tendancy to remember things like that and not remembering all the times that people simply don't look back at you (is this called confirmation bias?)",
"This won't happen if the other person can't see you, i.e you are inside a building or watching them through a camera. \n \nSimply, **the other person sees you.**",
"so, wait. you're casually looking over at the other driver -- what makes you think they don't have the exact same impulse?",
"Or possibly, everyone looks at the person passing them on the highway. I instinctively look at every car passing."
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} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias",
"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13506280444000157",
"http://science.discovery.com/videos/through-the-wormhole-sixth-sense/",
"http://www.sheldrake.org/Articles&Papers/papers/staring/"
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} | Have you ever looked over at a passing car on the highway, to be met a few seconds later by the occupant's gaze? Why do we seem able to detect when others are looking at us?
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21841b | Ethics in Science: Part 4 of our feature series on how science is conducted | Welcome to the final week of our feature series on the process of being a scientist! In previous weeks we've covered [aspects of day-to-day life](_URL_0_) while working in research, [the peer review/publication process](_URL_1_), and [current and landmark papers of note](_URL_2_).
_____
This week we'll be discussing some of the ethical issues that arise in science. Some examples may include:
- How is author order determined in publications? How does this differ between fields? What does it take to be an 'author'?
- Obviously not all scientific funding can come from the NIH or NSF; how do you vet funding sources to minimize bias, and what steps do you take after accepting funding from a private organization?
- What do you do when you suspect error (intentional or otherwise) in somebody else's research?
- How is biomed research transitioned 'from bench to bedside'? What steps are taken along they way to reduce potential for harm for subjects?
- How do IRBs work? What does the application process entail, and what kinds of things are they looking for?
**Feel free to either ask a question about how scientists deal with potential ethical conflicts or to answer any of the questions above. For this discussion, please limit comments to the topic of what ethical conflicts exist and how scientists work with those issues, rather than debating whether something is 'right' or 'wrong' based on various paradigms.**
| askscience | {
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"How do you explain the huge gap in worker compensation between academia and industry? I hear lots of stories about university faculty and pharmaceutical technicians with identical credentials and vastly different pay.",
"> How is author order determined in publications? How does this differ between fields? What does it take to be an 'author'?\n\nMost publications have 5+ authors. Typically, the first two or so are the primary authors. People understand today that middle authorship can mean your contribution ranged from making buffers to basically being a primary contributor. There is obviously some shadiness with people cutting credit out from people, but my experience is by in large people are more than willing to offer credit where credit is due. Last authors are the PIs of the labs where the research was conducted. Their contribution may have ranged from 'provided the materials only' to 'basically did all the work'.\n\n > Obviously not all scientific funding can come from the NIH or NSF; how do you vet funding sources to minimize bias, and what steps do you take after accepting funding from a private organization?\n\nWe get approximately a tenth of our funding from a private non-profit organization. So long as you aren't fabricating your data, and are admitting any research biases you may have, there's nothing to be concerned with.\n\n > What do you do when you suspect error (intentional or otherwise) in somebody else's research?\n\nDepends on who you are. Are you a huge name in the field? You rudely and directly call them an idiot and poke holes in their work. New faculty? You diplomatically suggest alternative interpretations because of reasons x, y, and z. Graduate student? You tell your adviser. Below that? You keep quiet, because you probably don't understand the material anyway.\n\nSource; graduate student.",
"All my answers pertain to my experiences in my field. I've run research labs in academia, systems neuroscience, for about 15 years, my own lab the last 8. \n \nAuthor order. There are two special niches. First author means that as an underling you get primary credit for the paper. Sometimes first authorship is shared and noted as such. Senior author means you are most responsible for the infrastructure that made the work possible. You are the senior leader for that work, and your name goes last. Senior authorship is sometimes shared and noted as such. Any other authorship is in order of contribution (most contribution earlier), but will not even buy you a free cup of coffee. Authorship is about being first, or senior. \n \nPrivate funding sources are incredibly straightforward and legally binding in their arrangements. It is common to sign a legal contract before any money is accepted, and those contracts are binding. If you don't like something in the contract, talk to the other party about it. Sometimes university lawyers and corporate lawyers can stall projects for many many months trying to get the contracts done. I never accept any wording in the contract that prevents me from publishing whatever I want, and I don't think anyone else in academia does, either. Many times the company will need to see the manuscript for a maximum of 30 days before publishing, and they will make suggestions. \n \nI have a great colleague at my university. He runs a student journal club. We find errors in manuscripts ALL THE TIME. The more egregious ones he reports to the editors, and the journal club will write the letter to the editor. These are RARELY an issue for the authors. For example, one senior author published a paper while a postdoc in PNAS with his boss, the NAS member. Then he established his own lab, and republished the paper in the Journal of Neuroscience as a sole author. Some of the figures were cut and paste, and no place in the J Neurosc. paper did he indicate the work was already published. When the editors found out, they contacted him. He wrote a letter of reply stating that the authors' had given permission. It was not dropped or retracted, and set him on a fairly torrential career rise (he is now tenured at a top 10 hospital). In other cases from journal club there have been abuses of photoshopping Western blots (which is actually pretty common). The authors usually reply that they made an inadverdent error and either substitute a new Western, or state that the actual Western would not have changed the results. The editors let almost anything slide. It is HORRIBLE. People cheat intentionally hundreds of times for every time someone experiences negative consequences from cheating.\n \nBench to bedside is a joke. It almost never happens, and when it does it happens because a scientist who cares accompanies the project the entire distance. Humans that are being experimented upon are governed by IRBs, and in the USA we take the ethics of that process far more seriously than is done elsewhere. Seriously, you never want to go to the hospital in Belgium. They can get away with almost anything there (and do!).",
"I'm just going to jump in and address the point of author order. We've just written a paper about how large interdisciplinary research projects work in ecology (open access [here](_URL_0_)). One of the points we make is that for these projects to work you need to minimize conflict between participants, and that authorship is often a key source of conflict. Partly this is because authorship is sometimes straightforward in one discipline, but gets more and more complicated as you add disciplines, because each has its own authorship conventions.\n\nAnother issue we struggle with on a day to day basis is that people can often contribute critical components of the paper, but in a large paper they wind up fifth or sixth in the author order. Sure, they're on the paper, but as far as a hiring (or promotion) committee is concerned, it's just standard co-authorship, and not particularly valuable. For that reason we also recommended explicit authorship statements. \n\nAuthorship is really tricky. Some people don't care at all about it (or don't seem to), some people care too much about it, some people are pretty even handed. Our last recommendation around authorship was that people need to be clear and up front about how it's being done, and revisit the discussion multiple times during the writing of the paper.\n\nIf you look at the authorship order of our paper you'll see it's actually three sets of alphabetized names. Co-leads, High contributing and then Medium contributing. All very formalized, so for us it's fine, but will a tenure committee recognize that? I doubt it.",
"**IRB**s are Institutional Review Boards - they go over the work that we do that involves human subjects to ensure that it's [safe for the participants](_URL_4_), doesn't involve [undue psychological anguish](_URL_4_), [deception](_URL_4_), or [breaches of participant privacy](_URL_4_). It's their job to make sure that the research proposed is minimally impactful on the participants while maximizing the knowledge gained. While there are some lines that shouldn't be crossed (e.g., the Tuskegee syphilis experiment linked above), there are some strictures that can be bent if need be (e.g., if you need to deceive participants about a condition and you've got a really good reason to do so AND it's highly unlikely that such deception will result in psychological distress).\n\nThe application process differs by institution, but at my university there are several categories of application based on specific criteria - for instance, if you have a simple method, don't need to record audio or video, and work exclusively with adults you qualify for the least stringent process, whereas if you work with children or some disadvantaged group, need to deceive your participants (even temporarily!), or need to record audio or video you may require greater scrutiny.\n\nWe have to go through some human research training (including pages and pages and pages of HIPAA stuff even though I don't work with patient records) and then we send in an application packet consisting of an application form, a description of our studies, copies of experimental apparati (surveys we're using, test items in an experiment, etc), all recruitment literature (posters, pamphlets, mass email templates, etc), and all consent forms, etc given to participants.\n\nThen we wait a while. If we're lucky, we have to make a few minor edits. If we're unlucky (or there are issues with our materials / design), we have to make major changes or scrap the idea entirely.",
"Can't address all of the points raised because I'm not involved in any involving bio.\n \n\nOrder of authors is pretty straightforward. If all authors contributed equally, then it is alphabetical. If there is someone who contributed the most to the ideas behind the research (NOT doing labwork/fieldwork etc.), then they go higher up on the author list. Clearly if someone does most of the work in putting a manuscript together, they get first author. Sometimes you get an advisor/collegue who is a dickhead and always wants to be first author. It can be a pissing contest sometimes because first author is by far the most important to have because that is the name that gets actually seen when cited e.g., (Smith et al., 2014)\n\n\nPeople who come to university to use a lab, may do so for free if they offer a co-authorship to the host. This typically results in the last author occasionally being someone you won't recognize in a research group.\n\n\nFunding.... We take money. We need it. I don't commonly hear about people in my field 'vetting' money. Before we take the money, the donor is usually clear that we will publish our results, regardless of what they may be.\n\n\nError. If there is an error in someone's research, then you write a scathing 'reply' or 'discussion' article if you are in the same field showing how you know all the right answers. In many cases, the 'errant' article has done a poor job of presenting their argument. Or, you can just rewrite the whole article with a few new data points and reinterpret the 'errant' article's data. The next thing that you do is tell your colleagues what an idiot the guy/gal is and publicly shame them at conferences....",
"* Are null results often reported? isnt it important and ethical to report this as it is still useful knowledge and prevents others from wasting time and money? Is it a faux pas to report null results?\n\n* If a researcher finds that one sample satisfies the hypothesis and another does not (same procedure but seperate experiments), can he reason that the one that did not satisfy the hypothesis was due to experimental error? Is it true that In hard science, people never talk about number of samples, they just work to get one thing working and show how it behaved.",
"I'm a third year undergrad in the UK interested in doing a PhD in either theoretical computer science or computational biology. I have a few questions:\n\n1. I know that a lot of funding in computer science comes from military sources, and a lot of funding in biological sciences comes from big, unpleasant pharmaceutical companies. I don't think I would feel comfortable doing work funded by those sources. What can I do when applying for PhDs to ensure I end up in an environment I'm ethically comfortable with? How can I bring these topics up with potential supervisors in a helpful way, and make sure I work with like-minded people? Is these even a reasonable criterion when finding somewhere to do a PhD?\n\n2. There is an academic in my department whose work is very close to my research interests, and is a big name in those topics. She seems like an ideal person for me to talk to about those things, and possibly a great match for a final year project supervisor. However, she lists the funding sources for every project she's worked on (unlike most academics whose websites I look at), and there is one fairly recent one funded by DARPA. For the past year or so I have avoided talking to her about these things because I feel really uncomfortable with the idea of military funding for research, and... it just puts me off. \n\nI have more-or-less decided that I should talk to her, not about working with her, but about her research a bit. Is it worth bringing up the military funding thing at all? I don't know what my goal for that would really be... I guess I could hear her perspective on it, and if I never talk to her then she won't ever realise that I had a problem with it, and maybe making my discomfort known would give her some food for thought (although of course I don't expect her to change her behaviour on the basis of one undergrad's opinion... I think encouraging thought and discussion on ethics is extremely important).\n\nFinally, is it hopeless to be this picky about ethics in science, especially computer science and computational biology? Is it even worth pursuing a further academic path, or would I have to make a choice between compromising on my (admittedly, unusually strict) ethics or being unable to get any research work?",
"Why do scientists contribute to weaponary/military technology? Isnt there anyone or a group of scientist who refuse to be part of this? And also, for example i find a piece technology that can also be used to make better weapons, how could I prevent this from happening?",
"How do you deal with the knowledge that your work may - and probably is - used unethically? \nHow do you feel about your scientific research preceding any ethical repercussions that may arise and/or regulations that need to be put in place before continuing?"
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"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1zfkg4/behind_the_veil_of_peerreview_part_2_of_our/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/201l1k/journal_club_part_3_of_our_feature_series_on_how/"
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"url": [
"http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/120370",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tearoom_Trade",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_syphilis_experiment"
]
} | Ethics in Science: Part 4 of our feature series on how science is conducted
Welcome to the final week of our feature series on the process of being a scientist! In previous weeks we've covered [aspects of day-to-day life](_URL_0_) while working in research, [the peer review/publication process](_URL_1_), and [current and landmark papers of note](_URL_2_). _____ This week we'll be discussing some of the ethical issues that arise in science. Some examples may include: - How is author order determined in publications? How does this differ between fields? What does it take to be an 'author'? - Obviously not all scientific funding can come from the NIH or NSF; how do you vet funding sources to minimize bias, and what steps do you take after accepting funding from a private organization? - What do you do when you suspect error (intentional or otherwise) in somebody else's research? - How is biomed research transitioned 'from bench to bedside'? What steps are taken along they way to reduce potential for harm for subjects? - How do IRBs work? What does the application process entail, and what kinds of things are they looking for? **Feel free to either ask a question about how scientists deal with potential ethical conflicts or to answer any of the questions above. For this discussion, please limit comments to the topic of what ethical conflicts exist and how scientists work with those issues, rather than debating whether something is 'right' or 'wrong' based on various paradigms.** | [
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4htzhn | PLOS Science Wednesday: Hi reddit, we’re Neelesh Patankar and Malcolm MacIver, and we published a paper in PLOS Biology showing a mechanically optimal method of swimming evolved independently in vertebrate and invertebrate swimmers – Ask Us Anything! | Hi Reddit!
My name is Neelesh Patankar, and I am the Charles Deering McCormick Professor of Teaching Excellence and Associate Chair of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Northwestern University. Following my Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering at University of Pennsylvania, I was a post-doctoral associate with Prof. Daniel D. Joseph at the University of Minnesota until 2000. I then joined the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Northwestern University as an Assistant Professor in 2000, and have been a Professor since 2011. My research area is developing computational methods for immersed bodies in fluids, applying computations to problems in biology (fish swimming, esophageal transport, rat whiskers), and designing textured surfaces for non-wetting, super-wetting, or anti-icing properties.
And my name is Malcolm MacIver, and I am a Professor with a joint appointment in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and Department of Biomedical Engineering at Northwestern University. I completed my Ph.D. in neuroscience at the Beckman Institute of Advanced Sciences and Technology at the University of Illinois, and my post-doc in mechanical engineering at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, joining Northwestern in 2003. My research includes the mechanical and neural basis of animal behavior, particularly the intersection of information harvesting and biomechanics, utilizing a variety of approaches spanning behavioral analysis, computer simulations, robotics, neurobiology, and mechanics.
We recently published a [paper](_URL_0_) in [PLOS Biology](_URL_1_) examining how diverse groups of aquatic animals, including vertebrates and invertebrates, evolved independently to exhibit a mechanically optimal method of swimming. Using computational modeling, measurements, and a robotic fish, we demonstrate that this “best way” to swim maximizes propulsive force and speed. There is some small amount of variability around the optimum in the many species we measured, but that variability is always within a relatively small zone where the decrease in performance is less significant. Our result touches on a long standing debate within biology about whether evolution is largely about chance, or about necessity. If we were to “rewind the clock” and restart evolution, would we get the same animals, or different ones? For example, birds evolved wings, and so did insects, but their last common ancestor did not have wings. This suggests that an aerial animal—on any planet with earth-like atmosphere—might have wings. The idea that evolution is therefore more about necessity than chance due to these kinds of repeated patterns is referred to as “convergent evolution.” One of the unique contributions of our work is that we can quantitatively show where the optimum exists, while it has proven difficult to do so for other examples of convergent evolution.
**We will be answering your questions at 1pm ET – Ask Us Anything!**
[@NeeleshPatankar](_URL_3_), [@malcolmmaciver](_URL_2_) | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Is the mechanical swimming that humans evolved to develop just freestyle, or have Olympians been getting it wrong the whole time?",
"Is there a way to \"tie evolution into a knot\"?\n\nThat is, some non-optimal shape or behavior that, due to evolution's dynamics, is very stable rather than inevitably slipping towards optimality. The analogy is that knots are stable against forces tugging on each end of the rope, even though a straight rope would be in some sense the apriori expected result.",
"ELI5 what impact this will have in your field ?",
"So, does your research suggest that the methods of swimming exhibited by say, sharks vs. jellyfish, are both mechanically optimal? Does this imply that the optimum is actually for each body type, as opposed each species evolving towards the optimum way to move through the medium in which they exist? I suppose I'm just interested as to why a species evolving towards an optimal way of using the equipment they have developed is classified as a special case of convergent evolution when what I know about standard evolution suggests that over time the fittest would seem to be the most optimal.",
"Is there any relationship between the first beings that developed the best way of swimming and the first beings that made the transition from water to land?",
"Hi Dr. Patankar and Dr. Maclver, \n\nThank you for your contributions in the field of convergent evolution. \n\nThrough your research have you found that evolution can be quantified based on necessity of the situation? \n\nFor example in the coming future could we say that fish will be able to absorb carbon dixoide(making this up) based upon how fish evolved in earlier stages of evolution. If fish grew legs in hotter climates, is there a likely chance that they will do something similar coming up. I am thinking that if there was a study that did quantify evolution, based on previous evolutionary traits and combining different data sources, I think evolution could be somewhat predictable. \n\nHope this message reaches you both!",
"I was under the impression that the optimal strategy for swimming would be drastically different depending on the body type. Do you have methods to figure out what the optimal strategy is for other body types as well or just the ones in the paper? Or am I just wrong altogether?",
"Your [ciitation 17](_URL_0_):\n\nMcMillen T, Holmes P (2006) The dynamics of choice among multiple alternatives. J Math Psycol 50: 30–57. doi: 10.1016/j.jmp.2005.10.003\n\nseems to be the wrong McMillen/Holmes paper, [as it doesn't relate to swimmers](_URL_2_). Perhaps you meant to cite [this one](_URL_3_) or [this one](_URL_1_) instead?",
"Did you study any extinct animals such as icthyosaurs or ammonites?",
"Thanks for your interesting work in this area! I had a question and a suggestion...\n\nWhile swimming fast may indeed be one important performance trait for many fish, there are undoubtedly other important performance traits that experience selective pressure on body morphology (i.e.: maneuverability, acceleration, energetic cost). In particular, I imagine minimizing the energetic cost of transport would be equally (if not more) important for many fish over the course of their lifespan. In your paper, you make the point that \"Maximizing thrust ensures that speed can be maximized for a given set of parameters, irrespective of whether the animal swims energetically efficiently during cruising, or possibly less efficiently during escape or attack maneuvers\". Are you basically saying it makes sense for fish to generate fin motions (as you've parameterized them) that maximize their thrust, regardless of whether they are trying to maximize swimming velocity, or achieve stability, or minimize energy expenditure? As a corollary, I wonder if you've considered investigating how energetic cost varies with locomotor output by directly measuring the motor power output in your robotic model? \n\nSecondly, as you seem to care about science communication (evidenced by you doing this AMA!), can I make a suggestion: I think it would be really informative if you could create some animations of fin undulations that both fall within your discovered optimal OSW range, and also fall outside the range, so that your audience can gain some intuition for how OSW relates to fin motion. The challenge we face when reading these types of studies is that we have no experiential context for the significance of an optimal specific wavelength that hovers around 20. An OSW of 10 is outside your optimal range, but what does an OSW of 10 actually look like related to an OSW of 20? The same could be said for the Strouhal study which found that most animals locomote within a \"narrow\" strouhal range of 0.2-0.4. Thanks!",
"Growing up, I read everything I could find written by Dr. Stephen Jay Gould, and his writings on evolutionary biology inspired me to get my BA in Biology. Which writers inspire you? Which contemporary writers should I be reading more of?",
"Given the fact mammals that returned to the sea ended up taking on nearly identical shapes to creatures that never left the sea, do you think that is indicative that ocean dwelling aliens would look remarkably similar to our ocean dwelling animals here on Earth?",
"Can you comment on limbless animals moving on land? How similar is the locomotion of land invertebrates (worms) and vertebrates (snakes) to each other? To vertibrate and invertibrate swimmers?",
"Please tell me an animation of this \"best way\" exists?\n\nIf not, could you describe how dissimilar is it from the [best way to dance](_URL_4_)?",
"Dr. Patankar and Dr. Maclver,\n\nWith your research, can we now place certain conditions(eg: temperature, moisture, structure of predators, etc) in place and convincingly predict what a certain microorganism might evolve to in those conditions, and the rate of this evolution? If not, what are the components which need to be researched to make this true?\n\nThank you for your consideration.",
"What size scales did you study with invertebrates? Does it apply within motile plankton like rotifers that use cilia to move as opposed to larger muscle contractions? Do properties of water like viscosity change the math somewhat?",
"Your thoughts on the most efficient way for homo sapiens to paddle a surfboard?"
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"url": [
"http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002123",
"http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology",
"https://twitter.com/malcolmmaciver",
"https://twitter.com/NeeleshPatankar"
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"url": [
"http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002123#pbio.1002123.ref017",
"http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000157",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022249605000891",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16972099",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xMQ9HYDnplU"
]
} | PLOS Science Wednesday: Hi reddit, we’re Neelesh Patankar and Malcolm MacIver, and we published a paper in PLOS Biology showing a mechanically optimal method of swimming evolved independently in vertebrate and invertebrate swimmers – Ask Us Anything!
Hi Reddit! My name is Neelesh Patankar, and I am the Charles Deering McCormick Professor of Teaching Excellence and Associate Chair of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Northwestern University. Following my Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering at University of Pennsylvania, I was a post-doctoral associate with Prof. Daniel D. Joseph at the University of Minnesota until 2000. I then joined the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Northwestern University as an Assistant Professor in 2000, and have been a Professor since 2011. My research area is developing computational methods for immersed bodies in fluids, applying computations to problems in biology (fish swimming, esophageal transport, rat whiskers), and designing textured surfaces for non-wetting, super-wetting, or anti-icing properties. And my name is Malcolm MacIver, and I am a Professor with a joint appointment in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and Department of Biomedical Engineering at Northwestern University. I completed my Ph.D. in neuroscience at the Beckman Institute of Advanced Sciences and Technology at the University of Illinois, and my post-doc in mechanical engineering at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, joining Northwestern in 2003. My research includes the mechanical and neural basis of animal behavior, particularly the intersection of information harvesting and biomechanics, utilizing a variety of approaches spanning behavioral analysis, computer simulations, robotics, neurobiology, and mechanics. We recently published a [paper](_URL_0_) in [PLOS Biology](_URL_1_) examining how diverse groups of aquatic animals, including vertebrates and invertebrates, evolved independently to exhibit a mechanically optimal method of swimming. Using computational modeling, measurements, and a robotic fish, we demonstrate that this “best way” to swim maximizes propulsive force and speed. There is some small amount of variability around the optimum in the many species we measured, but that variability is always within a relatively small zone where the decrease in performance is less significant. Our result touches on a long standing debate within biology about whether evolution is largely about chance, or about necessity. If we were to “rewind the clock” and restart evolution, would we get the same animals, or different ones? For example, birds evolved wings, and so did insects, but their last common ancestor did not have wings. This suggests that an aerial animal—on any planet with earth-like atmosphere—might have wings. The idea that evolution is therefore more about necessity than chance due to these kinds of repeated patterns is referred to as “convergent evolution.” One of the unique contributions of our work is that we can quantitatively show where the optimum exists, while it has proven difficult to do so for other examples of convergent evolution. **We will be answering your questions at 1pm ET – Ask Us Anything!** [@NeeleshPatankar](_URL_3_), [@malcolmmaciver](_URL_2_) | [
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1mtuin | Why water? | The majority of all power plants uses some sort of energy source to heat up water. It is then the water vapor which turns the turbines that produces electricity.
Water is also a compound has an extremely high heat capacity (requires an incredible amount of energy to heat up).
**My question is this:** Why not use a compound which has a much lower heat capacity, and therefore requires a lower amount of burnt fuel to vaporize it?
Thank you! | askscience | {
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"There are many advantages to using water versus another substance in power plants: water is cheap, unreactive,non-combustible, easy to dispose, readily available, non-toxic, etc. There is no other substance that offers all of these beneficial properties.\n\nSecondly, although water has a high heat capacity, this property isn't as detrimental as it may appear. When the steam condenses back to water after turning the turbines, it is pumped back into the system to be re-used. Thus, only a small amount of energy must be supplied to re-boil the water, and water's high heat capacity is irrelevant. Since the water also releases it's heat of vaporization when it condenses, this heat can also be partially recovered, as well. Therefore, using a substance with a lower heat capacity would not offer a significant advantage. The high heat capacity of water also helps keep the operating temperature of the system's fluids stable.",
"Water is used because it's the best to use. It's difficult to set on fire, it's somewhat common, it doesn't react to many things, etc. \n\nThe other thing to keep in mind is moving energy around. \n\nLets say that you push a 1 lb bowling ball ten feet into a wall. It impacts with a certain amount of force. Now you push a 8 lb bowling ball so that it impacts the wall at the same speed the other did. It impacts with more force. It would be the same with a material that vaporized at a lower temp. It would impart less energy, because it took less energy to get it moving. \n\nThat's my understanding anyways. Water is the most practical medium to actuate the turbines.",
"Check out [this thread](_URL_0_) in /r/sciencefaqs - it's a frequently asked question.\n\nThe short answer is that you _want_ a medium with a high specific heat capacity, as it is a medium to carry thermal energy.",
"A material with a *higher boiling point* would be better. [Sterling engines](_URL_5_), which I believe all power plants approximate, have an efficiency determined by the ratio between the maximum and minimum temperatures in the system. The specific heat, density, latent heat of vaporization, and many other properties do not factor into the [Carnot](_URL_5_) efficiency. They affect the *actual* efficiency of a real-world power plant, but that's much more complicated.\n\n[Mercury was experimented with as a working fluid at one point](_URL_5_). A zero-pressure boiling water, using steam at 100C and a cold reservoir of 20C, gives an efficiency of 21%. Mercury boils at 357C, giving an efficiency of 53%.\n\nMercury is terrible for humans, the environment, and anything else you can think of^([Citation Needed]), so you can imagine why that would be an awful idea. But just in terms of efficiency, it was great!\n\nThis is the maximum theoretical efficiency of the plant, in practice it's very difficult to get higher than maybe 90% (?) of this value. So a pretty good zero-pressure boiling water plant would have an efficiency lower than 20%. But we know that [*real* power plants have efficiencies in the 45-50% range](_URL_5_). \n\nThis is done primarily by increasing the temperature of the steam, by running the system at high pressure. [Nuclear plants run around 315C, which requires 153 atmospheres of pressure](_URL_5_). This gives a theoretical efficiency of just about 50%, almost as high as mercury, without using mercury! The downside is that you need to run the system under extremely high pressure and at high temperature, with big thick pipes, and if something full of pressurized steam fails it's basically a bomb, but... no mercury.\n\nYes, you could pressurize mercury vapor to do even better, but that would be a *really bad idea*. You could always just use even higher pressure water.\n\nSo as others have said, water is used not because it's necessarily a great material (it's decent), but because it's relatively safe, easy to use, and practically free.",
"Type of the medium is irrelevant. Thermodynamic equations governing engines or turbines and their power and efficiency are independent of material properties of the medium. You can use helium, mercury or photon gas, physics is the same. Water is just more convenient medium.\n\nOnly difference I could think of would be in start up time. Medium with lower heat capacity would heat up faster to working temperature, but also cool down faster, which isn't desireable since we usualy don't want our turbines to stop suddenly."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/sciencefaqs/comments/jkjo0/why_do_we_use_water_for_a_working_fluid_in/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_cycle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_generator_\\(nuclear_power\\)#Typical_operating_conditions",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling_engine",
"http://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=107&t=3",
"http://books.google.com/books?id=9ycDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA40&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false"
]
} | Why water?
The majority of all power plants uses some sort of energy source to heat up water. It is then the water vapor which turns the turbines that produces electricity. Water is also a compound has an extremely high heat capacity (requires an incredible amount of energy to heat up). **My question is this:** Why not use a compound which has a much lower heat capacity, and therefore requires a lower amount of burnt fuel to vaporize it? Thank you! | [
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a9bkz3 | Are there any animals that don’t fit easily into a group (mammals, birds, etc)? | Like a mammal that lays eggs or a bird that’s cold blooded? Obviously that’s pretty extreme. But are there any animals whose group is debated?
I find it kinda of amazing that in the process of evolution and natural selection, these groups would be so distinct and animals fit so well in them. | askscience | {
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"Monotremes (platypuses and echidnas) are mammals that lay eggs. But, they do fit neatly into the group mammals. They give milk.\n\nSince evolutionary history is best shown as a cladogram, with each branching point defining a taxa, everyone to one side of the new branch of the cladogram fits neatly into their family.\n\nIf you read a bit of basic info about cladistics it will make the point quite well.\n\n_URL_0_",
"There are major debates on how to classify many different groups in the tree of life.\n\nStatistically, you would expect that most debates are at the species or genus level--since there are many more of those. I don't have numbers on that but I'd say that's probably true. But the BIG debates and disagreements are usually about larger groups which diverged many millions of years ago. One key debate in the past focused on whales and other cetaceans--sea-dwelling mammals like whales, dolphins, and porpoises. We knew that these mammals evolved from terrestrial mammals--that is, their ancestors left the sea, and then cetaceans returned many millions of years later. But we weren't sure which existing mammal lines are most closely related to these cetaceans.\n\nThere are several ways to do phylogenetic analysis. The simplest is to look at individual traits and use them to develop a timeline. You want to look for very special traits called *[synapomorphies](_URL_4_)*. You can also call them derived characteristics. This is a special, new trait which defines a single species and ALL of its (immediate) descendants. A great example would be true fur. All mammals have true fur or hair, as opposed to scales or feathers or other skin coverings. That defines the whole category of mammals. Now, it is possible for a mammal to get rid of their hair, if that is how evolution runs its course. But that doesn't change that they have the DNA remnants of the hair system. Another example would be the phylum Chordata being defined by the existence of the notochord (among other things). It is something that their ancestors do not have and ALL of their descendants have.\n\nIt is also possible to do phylogenetic analysis with DNA data. This is pretty complicated stuff but I'm happy to send you a copy of an evolution textbook if you would like more details.\n\nFor now, I'll say that DNA data is often used to compare a set of possible trees. Think back to the cetacean issue. If you can come up with a list of closely related groups to cetaceans (like ungulates and others), you can make a set of possible trees, putting various species next to each other. Through special techniques like [bootstrapping](_URL_4_) and likelihood testing, you can discover what the most likely tree is.\n\nThe big problem with DNA is that you can't usually get it from fossils. So you can't test groups directly--you have to test related groups and use other methods together with genetic analysis to find the most accurate tree.\n\nAnd even the most accurate trees don't always include groups that we do not know about or understand very well.\n__________________________________________________\n\nWe used to think that there were two groups at the root of the tree--bacteria (or prokaryotes), and eukaryotes, which is everything from amoebas and yeast to plants and animals.\n\nToday we know that there is a third group, the Archaea, which together with bacteria make up Prokaryota. The crazy thing is that we think that eukaryotes are actually a fusion of both types of prokaryotes--we have bacterial and archaean characteristics. Our mitochondria resemble bacteria, but our main cells seem to be more like archaea. In fact, mitochondria and chloroplasts are almost certainly originated from other organisms which joined into other cells--this is called the [endosymbiont](_URL_4_) hypothesis and it's so well-evidenced that we pretty much take it as fact these days.\n______________________________________________\nAsexual replicators like bacteria are actually quite hard to classify with cladistics, because they don't reproduce sexually. One of the main symbols that two species really are separate is that they cannot interbreed--but that concept doesn't work on lifeforms that don't breed anyway.\n\nFurthermore, [horizontal gene transfer](_URL_4_) is a major problem in analysis of prokaryotes. There are 3 forms of HGT:\n\n1. Conjugation, which is roughly similar to sex but has none of the bells and whistles of meiosis or genetic recombination.\n\n2. Transformation, which is a prokaryote literally just taking up DNA in its environment as its own\n\n3. Transduction, which is transfer of DNA by virus.\n\nThis basically means that DNA found in any given bacterium could come from an ancestor, or it might come from a distant relative. It is very, very tough to say how closely related two populations of bacteria really are because you can't easily say where their genes come from.",
"If you think about the Tree of Life diagrams (like [this one](_URL_7_) that Darwin scribbled, or [this](_URL_6_) more elaborate one), you can see that each new branch divides off another one; it doesn't start from nowhere.\n\nAt the point that two branches diverge, the groups are all pretty similar to each other, and it's often very arbitrary exactly where you draw the divergence. So if you go to any divergence, you'll find groups that don't fit easily into a group. You could assign them to the trunk from which the branches are splitting, or into either of the two branches. \n\nThat's true for the small twigs, where there are lots of cases of animals that might be different species or might be the same thing (and sometimes those are called subspecies or something like that). It's also true for the very large branches, and if you go deep into history you'll find animals that don't fit easily into, say, the notion of modern mammals or reptiles ([early synapsids](_URL_5_), for example). \n\nSo the answer is that there are millions of things that don't fit neatly into some classification, because the way we classify living things guarantees that. It's easiest to see these looking into history, in the light of subsequent classification, but there's no reason to believe the same thing isn't happening today, and a future biologist might look back and say that what we call \"birds\" are really things that don't fit neatly into the groups of \"fnords\" and \"smeerps\"."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistics",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrapping#Phylogenetics",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapomorphy_and_apomorphy",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiont",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimetrodon",
"http://tolweb.org/Eukaryotes/3",
"http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Evolution/darwin/darwintree.htm"
]
} | Are there any animals that don’t fit easily into a group (mammals, birds, etc)?
Like a mammal that lays eggs or a bird that’s cold blooded? Obviously that’s pretty extreme. But are there any animals whose group is debated? I find it kinda of amazing that in the process of evolution and natural selection, these groups would be so distinct and animals fit so well in them. | [
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|
8gg8dh | How was the first parachute tested? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"It was tested when there was no such thing as workplace safety regulations.\n\nThe first parachute jump of note is made by André-Jacques Garnerin from a hydrogen balloon 3,200 feet above Paris.\n\nLeonardo da Vinci conceived the idea of the parachute in his writings, and the Frenchman Louis-Sebastien Lenormand fashioned a kind of parachute out of two umbrellas and jumped from a tree in 1783, but André-Jacques Garnerin was the first to design and test parachutes capable of slowing a man’s fall from a high altitude.\n\nGarnerin first conceived of the possibility of using air resistance to slow an individual’s fall from a high altitude while a prisoner during the French Revolution. Although he never employed a parachute to escape from the high ramparts of the Hungarian prison where he spent three years, Garnerin never lost interest in the concept of the parachute. In 1797, he completed his first parachute, a canopy 23 feet in diameter and attached to a basket with suspension lines.\n\nOn October 22, 1797, Garnerin attached the parachute to a hydrogen balloon and ascended to an altitude of 3,200 feet. He then clambered into the basket and severed the parachute from the balloon. As he failed to include an air vent at the top of the prototype, Garnerin oscillated wildly in his descent, but he landed shaken but unhurt half a mile from the balloon’s takeoff site. In 1799, Garnerin’s wife, Jeanne-Genevieve, became the first female parachutist. In 1802, Garnerin made a spectacular jump from 8,000 feet during an exhibition in England. He died in a balloon accident in 1823 while preparing to test a new parachute.\n\n[source](_URL_0_)",
"Early pioneers of the modern parachute tested it on themselves in demonstrations, with theoretical principles being their assurance.\n\nLouis-Sébastien Lenormand made the first recorded public jump in 1783. This one was successful and he survived, and the concept moved forward towards improvement. That is not to say that other pioneers didn't fail in demonstrating their designs - though I can't find any information on that.\n\nJean-Pierre Blanchard conducted tests with a dog in 1785, descending from a hot air balloon. He tested his design on himself in 1793.\n\nAndré Garnerin made the first \"frameless\" parachute jump in 1797, again testing the design on himself. This one was made of folded silk rather than its predecessors that were made from linen stretched over a wooden frame.",
"Semi-related: according to this [admittedly tongue-in-cheek article](_URL_1_), there have never been any double-blind placebo trials to test the efficacy of parachutes in preventing death. Of course, they mean it as a critique in over-applying the standard of evidence-based practice, not as a serious call for actually conducting the research.",
"I see no one is mentioning the 1617. parachute jump by Fausto Veranzio (Faust Vrančić in Croatian) documented by John Wilkins in his book \"Mathematical Magick, or, The wonders that may by performed by mechanichal geometry\".\n\n_URL_2_\n\nIt says he jumped from St Mark's Campanile in Venice.",
"The early parachutes did not work like modern parachutes - they had rigid frames and therefore did not need to be deployed by pulling ripcord. The most logical thing to do would be to use a weight such as a sand bag or a sack of rocks/potatoes/whatever to test and then move on to human tests from a small height with a human."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-first-parachutist",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC300808/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fausto_Veranzio#Veranzio's_parachute"
]
} | How was the first parachute tested?
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1lx3wz | How can such a TINY amount of venom from some poisonous species so adversely affect the human body relative to weight. | Not just the human body, but large animals in general.
For example the for the poison dart frog, only 2 micrograms of its toxin (the amount that fits on the head of a pin) being and 0.006mg of the Brazilian Wandering Spider's venom are enough to kill a human.
It's just hard to wrap my head around just how deadly some venoms are especially when you quantify them relative to human weight and size. Like wouldn't that teeny amount of venom be too diluted to act in our bodies or something. For example, a neurotoxin works by blocking receptors but there are only so many molecules of venom in that tiny amount and so many neurorecptors in our body for them to block, yet the Wandering Spider can still kill with that miniscule amount of venom.
Edit: Sorry for the typos, I fixed them but thank you for your answers. I REALLY appreciate it /r/askscience. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Think about it this way. In 6 micrograms of venom, perhaps 10% at most is the toxic protein. That means there is 6e-7 gram of toxin. Assume the toxin has a molecular mass of 10,000. That means there is 6e-11 moles of venom in that 6 micrograms. Multiplying by Avagadro's number tells you that there are about 4e+13 molecules in the 6 micrograms. That is roughly 10 toxin molecules for every cell in the body. Since these highly potent toxins are targeted to specialized type of cells (neurons, neuromuscular junctions, cardiac cells etc) there may be thousands or millions of toxin molecules for each specialized cell in the body.",
"A lot of poisons/toxins (those two species included) target ion channels or vesicle release mechanisms. These are really important proteins for communication within and between cells including neurons and muscles like those in the heart and diaphragm. So, even a tiny amount can kill.",
"You can dimensionalize it by thinking about medicines. The idea is similar, you get maybe a few micrograms or milligrams but the effective concentration in your blood (or whichever compartment it is acting in) raises above the active concentration needed to get an effect. For something like a toxin, its actually a bit easier, because they bind very, very tightly (often with KDs below nanomoler, which is pretty dilute). \n\nTaking a rough estimate of volume from the volume of blood in a [human](_URL_0_) body (5L) and a molecular weight of Batrachototoxin from frogs, [about 500 g/mol](_URL_1_), gives give a concentration of 0.000002 g/ (500 g/mol x 5L) gives a concentration of 0.8 nanomole/L. That's actually a lot for something that might have a binding affinity several hundred or thousands of times below that.\n\nThis is with the caveat that its extremely unlikely that the actual volume that the drug distributes into (actual calculated as a virtual volume called volume of distribution) is the blood volume and it likely becomes degraded/cleared pretty quickly. But these toxins inhibit extremely important ion channels on nerve or muscle cells, often between neuromuscular junctions. Inhibiting them for even 5 minutes in an important place like the diaphragm means that breathing stops enough to kill you.",
"The necessary amount of toxin varies by action. Neurotoxins are very specialized, and so only a small amount is required. Toxins that affect the blood (e.g. most rattlesnake venom) require larger doses. It is the mechanism that determines the necessary dosage.\n\nIf the poison affects the diaphragm (e.g. curare), it is far more lethal than toxin affecting the jaw muscles (e.g. tetanus).\n\nTangential to the question you asked... certain toxins can become even more toxic based on the immune response to said toxin. Bee venom is relatively innocuous to most of us, but to those who have developed an allergy it can be lethal. The reason for that is the \"cascade effect\", wherein one stimulated immune cell stimulates others, etc., until the whole organism is affected by a relatively small amount of poison."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_volume",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batrachotoxin"
]
} | How can such a TINY amount of venom from some poisonous species so adversely affect the human body relative to weight.
Not just the human body, but large animals in general. For example the for the poison dart frog, only 2 micrograms of its toxin (the amount that fits on the head of a pin) being and 0.006mg of the Brazilian Wandering Spider's venom are enough to kill a human. It's just hard to wrap my head around just how deadly some venoms are especially when you quantify them relative to human weight and size. Like wouldn't that teeny amount of venom be too diluted to act in our bodies or something. For example, a neurotoxin works by blocking receptors but there are only so many molecules of venom in that tiny amount and so many neurorecptors in our body for them to block, yet the Wandering Spider can still kill with that miniscule amount of venom. Edit: Sorry for the typos, I fixed them but thank you for your answers. I REALLY appreciate it /r/askscience. | [
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1fmwet | Why is it possible to freeze semen and then have it function properly when thawed? | And can this be done with other organism and what are the limits? | askscience | {
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"Before I offer my insight I would point out: sperm are not organisms. They are differentiated cells of an organism.\n\nBacteria in laboratory settings are frozen at -80°C on a regular basis. I haven't been in the lab for long, but I'm yet to encounter any stored for under two years that have not grown when thawed. My understanding is that most biological cell samples (including sperm) are frozen in a glycerol stock (a low percentage usually 10-20%), which massively reduces the formation of ice crystals that damage the cell membrane. \n\nAs for limitations, there are many. Only certain small multicellular organisms such as some select insects can survive freezing, as they have adapted to protect against and repair cellular damage. The temperature is also an important factor, and -80°C is the generally accepted temperature (-196°C aka liquid nitrogen is also an option). At these temperatures the molecular mobility is low enough to halt cellular function. The duration for which the biological sample is frozen is also a factor, largely due to accumulative DNA damage that prevents the cell(s) from functioning properly.\n\nEdit: Another important factor that is being highlighted in this discussion is that not all the sperm need survive. Even if 99% of the sperm died (which is a grossly exaggerated proportion) there is a chance of fertilization. Healthy sperm are more likely to achieve fertilization, and a large portion of the frozen sample will be undamaged.",
"Part of the reason is redundancy. A mL of sperm contains 20-40 million sperm. If you lose 99% of them, you still have hundreds of thousands of viable cells left.\n\nIn contrast, a full organism is probably not going to be viable unless a large majority of cells survive with minimal damage. That's a taller order.",
"A side question, how long (theoretically) can sperm or female eggs remain frozen and still be functional when thawed?",
"We freeze early embryos in ivf using liquid nitrogen all the time, thaw them and get really good cell survival and regularly get pregnancies. Some of these might even have been created with frozen sperm!",
"A tangential question: it's my (lay) understanding that sperm from an older man suffers from greater epigenetic damage, leading to an increase in autism and schizophrenia (IIRC) among older fathers.\n\nAre there any (known or hypothetical) selective pressures on which sperm survive the freezing and thawing? Would sperm frozen in one's 20s be healthier than a fresh batch from one's 30s? 40s?",
"It also depends on the species of sperm. If I remember correctly, in veterinary medicine, cow semen is frequently frozen and used however, pig semen doesn't yield appreciable pregnancy results.",
"As I didn't see any real explanation yet, I'll give it a shot:\n\nCooling itself does not do any harm. It only causes things to get slower and smaller.\n\nIt's the side effects which cause harm: crystallisation of water and other things, uneven contraction and then expansion of atoms and molecules, substances becoming solid or liquid at different temperatures, and so on.\n\nDue to such effects, molecules get damaged in the process of freezing or thawing, life sustaining (repair and other) activities get disturbed, and so on.\n\nIt's possible to counteract that, for instance by adding substances which keep water from crystallising, but those will also interfere with normal functioning of cells.\n\nThe same in Eli5: If you imagine a cell like a factory, and a cooling like a snow storm going through it, the damage might consist of belts freezing to the machines and breaking, of fabric becoming brittle and cracking, of produce piling up in some still functioning parts and blocking everything, and so on.\n\nWith enough care in how to do the freezing and thawing, it can work. And science gets able to do that with more and more complex organisms.",
"I worked for an Andrology lab where I would freeze and thaw semen daily. The cells are mixed with a freezing media that includes DMSO, a dual polar/non-polar molecule that stops ice crystals that would lyse the cells from forming. The freezing process is slow and consistent at 1C/min, giving the cells time to freeze evenly without damage. The tubes of semen are then put in liquid nitrogen tanks, which need to be filled daily from a huge liquid nitrogen hose. The oldest semen sample we've had in long term storage is over 20 years old!"
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} | Why is it possible to freeze semen and then have it function properly when thawed?
And can this be done with other organism and what are the limits? | [
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|
pc1b4 | Why is the content in the universe localized.
| What I mean by that is why are there galaxies, solar system and in between them nothing. Why isn't the material in the universe equally spread throughout. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3o5mvr",
"c3o663o",
"c3o5lpe"
],
"text": [
"Because gravity, given a system with slight variations in density, will tend to exaggerate those variations and cause matter to 'clump' together.",
"Gravity causes local clumps to form. But on a large enough scale, matter *is* evenly spread out through the universe.",
"It more or less is. There's a lot of interstellar hydrogen, and dark matter."
],
"score": [
6,
6,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why is the content in the universe localized.
What I mean by that is why are there galaxies, solar system and in between them nothing. Why isn't the material in the universe equally spread throughout. | [
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nhsey | Since the optometrist just asks me "Which is better: A or B?" over and over, why can't I just go to the glasses store and do that with all the lenses they have? | I understand there are specific conditions that need more attention than that and contacts have to be certain sizes (or something?), but for just basic glasses, why do we need prescriptions?
Edit: I apologize if I made the process sound incredibly simplistic. I knew there had to be more to it than I was understanding. Thank you all for the feedback. | askscience | {
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"One of my friends works at a lab that fills prescription orders, and I asked him how many possible variations there were excluding optional features such as bifocals and various coatings. Here's what he said:\n\n\"[Right or left eyes are] prescribed with an axis power to degree 0 to 180. Sphere and [cylindrical] power are [usually] +/- 20 in .25 steps.\"\n\nWhich means the total number of combinations using these parameters are: 2\\*180\\*(40 \\ 0.25)\\*(40 \\ 0.25) ~= 9.2 million.\n\nSo you could conceivably find a pair of glasses that work for you via trial-and-error if you found a place that had all 9.2 million permutation of lenses in the same place for you to try, but that would take a stupidly long time and basically be a huge amount of waste. It would take a warehouse to store them all and nearly [two months](_URL_0_) to try on half of them if that's all you did 24 hours a day at 1 pair a second.\n\nThat said, there are places you can order standard glasses that are a generic prescription to cover a wide range of people's needs with only one set of lenses. But they aren't as good as a pair of lenses customized to fit your particular eyes and don't work for people whose true prescription falls sufficiently far from the norm.",
"There's more to it than the A-B part, there are many more knobs and switches on that weird instrument that are adjusted without your input, which is probably why you haven't noticed them.",
"There are a couple reasons. \n\n1. The index rating for nearsightedness goes from 0 (no correction needed) to -20 (skip the glasses, lets get you a seeing-eye-dog) in increments of .25. I imagine the range for farsightedness is similarly large. I imagine the range for astigmatism is pretty large as well. You have to go through them all for each eye. That's a hell of a lot of tests to find the right prescription. There's a reason that [vision tester thing](_URL_1_) has so many knobs and doodads on it.\n\n2. In addition to the prescription, both glasses and contacts have to be sized to fit your head/eyeballs. The lenses in glasses are cut so the the focal point is directly in front of your pupils. Since different people have different amounts of space between their eyes, this changes from person to person. Contacts also come in different sizes so they'll stay \"stuck\" to your eyeballs and not fall off.\n\n3. Optometrists don't just fit you for glasses/contacts. They also do other general eye/vision tests to check for degenerative eye diseases. By making you go in to get your lens prescription, they're also making you get regular tests for other stuff that you really *should* be getting.",
"An optometrist does not solely base your prescription on your answers to A or B. Each time you make a choice, there is a series of other choices we will then present to you. I'm not going to go through the process, subject refraction (which is what the presentation of lenses where you make a choice is) is quite a few pages in my clinical techniques book. \n\nBefore you even get to this step, you would either have been auto-refracted (by a machine) or objectively refracted by retinoscopy, where the light reflex seen in your eye is neutralized to get an estimate of the prescription you require. \n\nNone of this even takes into account any binocular vision problems you might have, which could require a near add (bifocals) or prism or even vision training. \n\nA full eye exam should include an ocular health assessment as well, which could be your only early indication of some systemic diseases. Optometrists are often the first ones to catch things like myasthenia gravis, multiple sclerosis or a pituitary adenoma, for a few examples.\n\nedit: Uncited statement rescinded.",
"People do that with the cheap drugstore reading glasses, but they aren't really tailored to your eyes. There's more than one variable involved in a glasses prescription. TheBruntForce mentioned some; another is that [astigmatism](_URL_2_) occurs at different angles for different people.\n\nGlasses stores have just plain glass/plastic in the frames so you can see how they look on your face. Then they take your eye doctor's prescription and get lenses made that correct your vision and are the right size/shape to fit the frames you like best.",
"In Korea, my eye tests have consisted at looking into machine and staring at a picture for 5 seconds with each eye until it comes into focus, and they can somehow tell my prescription from that. It's like magic. I hate the A/B thing because a lot of times I'm not sure. \n\nAnybody can feel free to explain these machines to me.",
"As thegreatunclean said, there are way too many possible combinations. A refraction (the technical term for that test when they ask you \"A or B?\") using a phoropter (the bug-eyed thing they use to do this test) makes the process way more efficient, even if you are starting with some idea of what your old prescription was. \n\nAnother reason is that patients will, without realizing it, over-correct themselves, particularly if near-sighted (within a certain range, it can be hard to tell subjectively if things look clearer, or smaller and darker. If smaller and darker, it can mean you have too much correction). Many people operate under the assumption that \"more\" is better, and therefore if they aren't seeing as well, they must need stronger glasses, when in fact they may simply need different glasses (particularly if the previous pair they got weren't made well or the person measuring their prescription didn't do it well). \n\nIn short, while it seems like trial-and-error, and it partly is, there is definitely an art and a science to evaluating a glasses prescription (I used to work as an ophthalmic technician and have given hundreds, if not thousands of refractions). \n\nEdit: Also, as many people have said, the entire eye exam is also to evaluate your eyes for any other problems that might or might not cause a vision change, particularly at first. The refraction is only a single, albeit important, part of an eye evaluation.",
"I'd just like to say something. Sure that's possible, but don't forget...you know when they flash the light in your eyes and such? Well they're looking at the health of the eye (which is on a completely different page than your vision). Even people with perfect vision should go.",
"My optometrist has a machine that automatically checks how myopic I am.\n\nI place my head in front of some special goggles, in which I see a countryside scene.\nThe machine clicks, the scene changes out and in of focus and at the end it is perfectly sharp. The optometrist walks over, looks at the machine readout and says \"good, I see your prescription hasn't changed\".\n\nImpressed the hell out of me the first time a couple of years ago, I guess it works on a basis similar to autofocus in cameras. Can someone enlighten me?\n\nMy optometrist still does manual \"A or B\" checks to check for astigmatism, and the other tests for various eye afflictions, but that process is now greatly speeded up.",
"The A/B better/worse thing is for fine tuning your prescription. One lens distorts one way, while the other lens distorts the other way. Pick which one you think is best, then that lens is slotted in front of you. The process is repeated with finer and finer lenses until you say they're about the same. This process is done for each eye individually, and is much more efficient than brute forcing it with trial and error of a wide range of lenses.\n\nThere are also many other tests that are done to check the overall health of the eyes.\n\nSource: I'm not an optometrist, but asked mine the same thing while I was there.",
"You have a lot of good answers, but here's something else to know.\n\nI know it's second-hand information, but I've been told some developing countries use an autorefractor and customers can have glasses made with those readings. It's just a machine that spits out a refraction within a minute. When the doctor is asking \"A or B\" or \"1 or 2\" etc, they are doing a refraction in 1 of at least 3 common ways, which a doctor may tweak based on several factors (patient comfort, purpose of glasses, cosmetics, etc). An autorefractor doesn't take any of those into account, and results can vary from the response of a person's eye.",
"I think you're after a pair of [adjustable liquid filled eye glasses.](_URL_3_)"
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"url": [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=9.2million+*+.5+*+1+second",
"http://edwincrozier.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/ethan-eye-exam.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astigmatism_(eye\\)",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/josh_silver_demos_adjustable_liquid_filled_eyeglasses.html"
]
} | Since the optometrist just asks me "Which is better: A or B?" over and over, why can't I just go to the glasses store and do that with all the lenses they have?
I understand there are specific conditions that need more attention than that and contacts have to be certain sizes (or something?), but for just basic glasses, why do we need prescriptions? Edit: I apologize if I made the process sound incredibly simplistic. I knew there had to be more to it than I was understanding. Thank you all for the feedback. | [
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|
87jf7s | Are mascara and make-up a problem in satellite clean rooms? | I just happened to see photos of people in a satellite clean room and one had mascara and make-up. I was thinking about potential contamination of the device if some mascara or make-up dust would fall on the device. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Make up is absolutely a problem. \n\nThe first rule of operating a cleanroom is to never bring anything into the room that doesn't need to be there. Anything inside the room is a possible vector for contamination, so limiting anything and everything that goes in just makes sense.\n\nThis just doesn't include makeup, but anything that could be considered extraneous. Perfume, cologne, hand lotion, jewelry, etc.\n\nFrom a practical point of view, cosmetics and pigments are made of an unusually wide array of elemental contaminants. Trace amounts of aluminum, magnesium, titanium, etc. can seriously contaminate certain kinds of clean room products.\n\nEarly studies in cleanroom procedures found that cosmetics were easily transferred into the environment either through inadvertent touching or through air currents. Even touches so light that test subjects could not feel would result in millions to billions of particles being transferred into the cleanroom.",
"I worked at Micron (a semiconductor manufacturer) for a while and makeup was absolutely not allowed in clean rooms. \n\nThey had signs all over the place showing the inside of a clean room hood with little bits of makeup smeared all over it and telling you not to wear makeup if you worked in a clean room.",
"If you're in the UK the photos you saw might well have been where I work. If so those photos were a PR thing, the devices you would have seen them interacting with were dead and are used specifically for training/interviews/photo ops (not that we get many). \n\nTypically there is a strict no make up policy, although, we aren't the highest class of clean room so there are a lot of things that seem to slide over time. The devices also get inspected at very high magnifications for contaminants and damage at multiple stages throughout the process. If any don't meet the standards for space flight they are either rejected entirely or used as engineering samples.",
"Many photos released to the public are staged for dramatic or aesthetic effects in ways that are counter to institutional or professional principles and guidelines. In many fields, PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) is compulsory to safe guard personnel against health hazards as well as to protect sensitive materials from contamination. Sometimes, it isn't quite so stringent - it depends on the context. Would you be able to show us the photo that prompted this question?\n\nP.S. I'm a biotech professional, but I've studied electrical engineering too, so I can attest to the manufacturing requirements in semiconductor fabs as well.",
"In our lab, if you are operating in the sterile field you can't have makeup on. One of our processors dolled up for our afternoon holiday party but had to work that morning: they made her wash it all off. I routinely supervise processes, but never enter the sterile field when I'm in the hoods or clean room. I do sometimes wear makeup, but even when I look \"my best\" it's not much.",
"Depends on the [class of clean room](_URL_0_). Usually spacecraft that have precision optics, like Hubble or James Webb, have the cleanest requirements, with full body suits. But when I worked on the Intesat satellites, our clean rooms were lesser level. I had to wear a nylon smock & gloves, and a hair net for both my head and beard. But they were the paper disposable types.",
"EDIT: From people who have worked in clean rooms, it evidently is forbidden, so disregard my nonsense!\n\nAt the highest level clean rooms, they completely cover their face and eyes, so I wouldn't imagine it would be an issue beyond having it smeared. Even without make up, you would have to worry about dry skin flakes or eyelashes falling out, so you'd cover their face anyway."
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} | {
"url": [
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} | Are mascara and make-up a problem in satellite clean rooms?
I just happened to see photos of people in a satellite clean room and one had mascara and make-up. I was thinking about potential contamination of the device if some mascara or make-up dust would fall on the device. | [
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o32bp | AskScience AMA Series - IAMA Population Genetics/Genomics PhD Student | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Tell me why you hate all of the AskScience questions that start with \"Whats the evolutionary purpose of...\" and how they are based on a false premise.",
"A topic close to my heart.^^^\n\nTo get the ball rolling. \n\nWhat do you find is the most interesting aspect about studying selection? What are your favorite genomes to work on? Are you more of a math jockey or genome hacker?",
"Do you have an opinion on the ethics and/or the validity of the use of population genetics by insurance companys to essentially profile their clients? Don't know if this would be in the scope of your studies but thought I'd ask... Thanks for the AMA!",
"When there is a genetic mutation, what, on a molecular or other relevant small scale happens to cause the mutation? \n\n When a trait, like tallness for an arbitrary example, is selectively bred for, there are many many different genes that play a role in determining the tallness. My question is, once these genes become dominant, how does even more tallness happen? Is there a gene that changes to say to redo the tallness genes a number of times? I suppose what I'm trying to ask is what are the mechanics behind genes that allow for large scale evolution/differences like a big difference in tallness? \n\nI ask both of these questions in order to try and wrap my head around long term evolution. I understand the idea of mount-improbable. A series of small changes over time. I suppose I just don't know how the metaphor translates into actual genetics. My mind keeps trying to say that new genes don't come from 'nowhere' so what process makes new genes slowly, inevitably come into effect?\n\nThanks for your time.",
"May be relevant: My post isn't specifically related to your specialization. But, videos for genomics on [aging](_URL_0_). Genomics [at large](_URL_1_).\n\nI love where the field is going. How do I connect myself with a genetics database? Is it in public domain? How do I sequence my own genetic code?\n\nCan genes be expressed over time, as in turning on and off? What are two resources that I may look at in order to learn about the subject?",
"How years as a postdoc do you think you'll need to do to land a decent position? Does it scare you that there is absolutely no job security with all the investment you are making in your education?\n\nSincerely,\nSomeone who recently finished his Master's in biology studying gene duplication events and the molecular basis of adaptation, somehow still hoping to do a PhD more-or-less in the same area.",
"What kind of mathematical/computational work is required for someone intending to do research in your field? Specific skillsets that are preferred for applicants? Genomics is obviously very computational. I'm an undergraduate biology major at a pretty major private university wondering what I should do to prepare myself for work in a field like yours.",
"What is your favorite part about genetic science?\n\nIs there a general fact or tidbit about something in genetics that is really fascinating to you or would be fascinating to a layman?\n\nWhat are you planning to study in particular in genetics or what will you be using your studies to do?",
"How do you feel about the implications of [this pending supreme court decision](_URL_2_) on the future of your industry? For that matter, how do you feel about human gene patents in general like BRCA1 and BRCA2 looking years down the road?",
"What is the current \"gold standard\" for identifying these genomic regions? What are your praises/ criticisms, and how are you looking to improve these methods?\n\nThanks for the AMA!"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ted.com/talks/cynthia_kenyon_experiments_that_hint_of_longer_lives.html",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/juan_enriquez_on_genomics_and_our_future.html",
"http://www.ama-assn.org/amednews/2011/12/19/gvsc1219.htm"
]
} | AskScience AMA Series - IAMA Population Genetics/Genomics PhD Student
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tq49p | Is the 'tension' of which masseurs speak a real thing? | When you are stressed, do your muscles tighten? And how is this detected (and further: alleviated) by poking around?
| askscience | {
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"This is a [nice Discovery article](_URL_0_), with link to a study, which discusses that massage can change muscle gene expression and reduce inflammation.",
"Since everyone seems to be asking knot-related questions in this thread, does it actually do anything when you rub your own shoulders? Can you get rid of your own knots?",
"I am a massage therapist and have been waiting for a question like this to be asked on Reddit... and by the time I see it, it's been answered beautifully. A few things, \"Knots\" are actually called adhesions, and not all of them are actually trigger points. Trigger points are known to be equally created be emotional stress and physical stress. The patterns for trigger points are not random, but they originate from different sources of pain or misuse of other muscles in the body. When they are worked on, there will be referral patterns where a tingling, painful, or numbing sensation travels from the point outward, or even jumps and creates these sensations elsewhere. If you have adhesions, which pretty much every human being does, those are the common muscle pain and spasms that everyone refers to as \"knots\" and can be easily worked out. Massage therapy is wonderful for this type of pain, but keep in mind that you may need several sessions to re-train your muscles to straighten out instead of \"braiding\" the fibers amongst the fascia, causing those painful little suckers.",
"Reposting because the guy's OG comment mine was under was deleted\n\nWent to massage school but I do not practice: \n\n**[Myofascial trigger point therapy](_URL_3_)** and **[PNF Stretching](_URL_3_)** Just ask for these next time you get a massage and they will know exactly what to do. \n\nBasically my manipulating the muscles around the area of pain you can treat the area of pain. Most commonly used in physical therapy when someone needs to build muscle in an injured area.\n\nFor example if I twist my ankle and cannot tilt my foot towards the ground but I NEED to stretch it, I might instead tilt it UP with resistance so that way through **[reciprocal inhibition](_URL_3_)** (meaning if one muscle is contracted the opposing muscle will relax and even stretch) I can stretch my injured ankle.\n\n**Example of trigger point therapy:**\n\nSay you have a small taut net, and you pick four intersections and twist them into small balls and then twist a small ball in the middle of the four. Whenever you untwist one of the four corners, the ball in the middle will unwind a little bit too! It's basically the same thing with mega injured muscles. Release the tension around the main knot, and eventually you'll wear it down enough to the point where you can have work done directly on it. :)",
"Followup: What about \"knots\" in your muscles? \n\nI dont see how your muscle fibers could become knotted up in any fashion but I dont know anything about muscles and my back constantly feels like shit.",
"Next time your buddy says \"my _______ hurts\" if its neck or back feel the side that hurts and the other side, you will be able to feel the \"tightness\" of the sore muscle, and then possibly some trigger points (knots).\n\nSo in short yes, I felt this on 3 separate patients today.",
"Stress is caused by the flight-or-fight response; since most people cannot remove themselves from the stressful situation, they are \"fighting\" it. This causes the shoulders to rise subconsciously, thus causing the typical tight shoulders/neck/back problems I see so frequently in sessions. \n\nI have a fairly good sense of touch and can tell without much difficulty if a muscle feels hypotonic or knotted, although, tbh, unless I've had this person several times, I can't know for sure if their muscle tone has changed.\n\nI am trained in St. John's Trigger Point therapy, which trains therapists to locate knots in muscles. There are typical and specific areas where there are a high probability of knot locations and corresponding areas that have a pain referral when pressure is applied to the knotted areas. I was taught that knots are like spaghetti strands that are stuck together. I'm not sure if this was a visual to help us understand it or if muscle strands are literally stuck together. \n\nUm, if I could ask a small favor, please don't use the word \"masseur\" or \"masseuse\". As we are trying to differentiate ourselves from prostitution houses masquerading as medical practitioners, we prefer \"massage therapist\".",
"Physiology texts explain how myosin and eosin cause muscles to contract. I can't find a source describing the contractile properties of fascia. \n\n\"Stress\" includes contraction of the neck, shoulder, and back muscles that increases with circulating adrenaline, in response to anxiety, feeling threatened, angry, etc. Muscles also increase their resting \"tone\" in abdominal injury, exercise and variations of posture.\n\nThe reflexes that help you balance, stand, run, climb and fight mostly happen in the spinal cord. These feedback loops take input from [stretch receptors] (_URL_4_) located in the tendons and nearby. \n\nIf you find these tendons at the ends of each muscle and massage them firmly enough to deform the tendon, the stretch receptors signal the spinal reflexes to relax, and you can immediately feel the effect.\n\nTendons and stretch receptors aren't always easy to reach, like the long spinalis muscles on either side of the backbone. But stretch receptors in the long muscles of the lower leg are easy to find and the effects can be felt all the way up the spine.\n\nTL; DR: In most muscles, massaging close to the origin and insertion will reduce tonic muscle contraction using spinal reflexes.\n\nSources include Manter & Gatz, decades ago.",
"I am a massage therapist, not a scientist. My experience of this is more anecdote than evidence. There may be studies to back this up, but I'm on my phone and not going to find them. \n\n“Any musculoskeletal condition can be viewed as having two basic components – neurological and mechanical:\n\nThe Neurological component refers to changes in nervous system functioning that leads to, or is caused by injury. These alterations effectively lead to changes in neural drive (a measure of the number and amplitude of nervous system impulses to a muscle). This can included a decreased neural drive (causing muscular inhibition), or an increased neural drive (leading to contraction). I refer to the latter as “Neurological tightness.”\n\nThe Mechanical component refers to physical changes in structure including fascial contraction and adhesion formation. These changes lead to alteration in tissue mechanics and motion by physically restricting normal lengthening and/or relative motion between tissues (the ability of tissues to slide past one another). I refer to this as “Mechanical tension.”",
"What is it with all these comments removed? Sorry for breaking etiquette. Downvote if you want, but I must know. Is it just me, or are they all over askscience?"
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"url": [
"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2012/02/03/massage-doesnt-just-feel-good-it-changes-gene-expression-and-reduces-inflammation/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PNF_stretching",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myofascial_release",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocal_inhibition",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golgi_tendon_organ"
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} | Is the 'tension' of which masseurs speak a real thing?
When you are stressed, do your muscles tighten? And how is this detected (and further: alleviated) by poking around? | [
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|
1mat3m | How is .999999999 ad infinitum exactly equal to 1? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"There are a number of ways you can demonstrate this. Using fractions:\n\n 1/3 = .333...\n 1 = 1/3+1/3+1/3 = .333... + .333... + .333... = .999...\n\nThe method of extracting a fraction from a repeating decimal:\n\n x = .999...\n 10x = 9.999...\n 10x - x = 9.999... - .999...\n 9x = 9\n x = 1\n\nUsing the sum of a geometric series:\n\n`0.999...` means `9/10 + 9/100 + 9/1000...`. For a geometric series of the form a, ar, ar^2,..., the sum of the series is a/(1 - r). In our case, a is 9/10 and r is 1/10, so we have (9/10) / (1 - 1/10) = (9/10) / (9/10) = 1.\n\nEdit: One more interesting way, although this one gets a bit more technical. In the real numbers, any 2 distinct numbers have numbers between them. This isn't exactly a rigorous proof, but think about how you would define a number that falls between 1 and 0.999... (hint: you can't).",
"On top of the other provided proofs, one of my favorite ways to apprehend this is: \n\nReal numbers are continuous. There's no \"next number\" after a number. Between any two different numbers, you can always zoom in to find an infinity of other numbers.\n\nSince you can't even find a single number between .99 repeating and 1, it must mean that they are the same.",
"One of the most common and easiest ways to show that .(9) = 1 would be this little algebraic proof:\n\nx = .(9)\n\n10x = 9.(9)\n\n9x = 9.(9) - .(9) = 9\n\nx = 1\n\nGenerally, whenever this question comes up I just refer to this video:\n_URL_0_",
"While there are a number of clever proofs given here, I feel they don't really capture the actual meaning of a repeating decimal. The decimal representation is not the number itself, but rather it represents a sum 0.999... = 0 + 0.9 + 0.09 + 0.009 + ...\n\nThe value of this sum is defined as the limit of the sequence of partial sums. One can show that in the limit as we take infinitely many terms this sum converges to 1, so the decimal representation 0.9999... = 1. Formally this would be shown via an epsilon-delta proof demonstrating that as n gets large enough 0.999... gets arbitrarily close to 1.",
"It's important to recognize the difference between a number and its decimal representation. And it's possible for there to be different decimal representations of the same number.\n\nFor example, 00000001 is just 1. And 1.0000000 is also just 1. But these we know, they're obvious. There are a few different ways to help understand why .9999 is equal to 1.\n\nThere's the fractional explanation. 1/3 is 0.333333... If you add 1/3 to 1/3 to 1/3 then you get 0.999999... but we also know what 1/3 * 3 is just 1. Similarly, 1/9 is 0.11111..., and 9 * 1/9 is 0.9999... but we also know it to be equal to 1.\n\nFrom another direction, for any two different real numbers there are numbers between them, no matter how close they are. However, there is no number that could possibly exist between 0.9999... and 1, showing that they must be the same number.",
"The problem about talking about and teaching the concept of infinity is that we tend to project or world onto it. So we think about \"counting forever\" or that 0.999999... almost but never actually gets there, or rather, that you could never write out an infinite # of 9's to reach infinity. This is a human limitation that projects time and pencil lead constraints onto the abstract world of numbers. I was told by a math prof teaching about infinity that we simply could get to infinity by an act of will. Ask yourself, is there anything preventing me from \"reaching\" infinity if I am imagining it all anyway?",
"When we write out a decimal expansion, we are referring to the real number that is the limit of the successive approximations. So for example, \npi is the limit of the sequence: 3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141, .....\n\nsimilarly 1 is the limit of the sequence 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, ...\n\nIt seems strange that there seem to be two decimal expansions for the same number, but there are. In fact, every decimal expansion that ends in an infinite string of 9s can also be written as a decimal that ends in an infinite string of 0s (and vice versa)",
"You have to realize something important that the other proofs/demonstrations probably don't touch on (haven't read them all):\n\nThe map is not the territory. In reality, we have all kinds of values. The height of the table, for example. While it's such a simple thing, *representing this value* in written form is where it gets tricky. Look at Pi for example, the simple relationship of a circle's circumference to its diameter. Written as a number, it's endless. An endless space of information, never repeating, always new.\n\nIf you look at \"0.9999... = 1\" in this light, you realize that it seems to make a lot more sense.",
"Another way to prove it:\n\nLet's start by noticing that the real numbers with addition is a [group](_URL_2_), and that the absolute difference between two real numbers is a [metric](_URL_2_).\n\nBoth 1 and 0.999999... are real numbers, so their difference is also a real number (by rule 4 and 1 for groups). Let's call it X. As 0.9999... is not larger than 1, X must be larger than or equal to 0.\n\nFor every real number A larger than 0, X must be smaller than A. This can be seen by finding the first non-zero decimal of A, and noticing that 0.999... continues farther than that, so 1-.9999... must have a zero at this position, and so must be smaller than A.\n\nX is a real number that is larger than or equal to 0, but is smaller than any positive real number, so it must be zero.\n\nBy rule 2 for metrics, if the absolute difference between two real numbers is 0, they must be identical, so 1 and 0.999... must be identical.\n\n**edit:** Dammit, those closing parentheses should be in the links, not after them."
],
"score": [
95,
46,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TINfzxSnnIE",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(mathematics)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_(mathematics)"
]
} | How is .999999999 ad infinitum exactly equal to 1?
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5h0cf9 | Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology | Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**
Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".
**Asking Questions:**
Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.
The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.
**Answering Questions:**
Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.
If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_).
Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_).
Ask away!
| askscience | {
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"What aspect/topic/principle in economics is often seen as confusing but is actually easy to understand?",
"When discussing economics of different countries is there anyway we can effectively even out the trading amount between the currencies? By this I mean how do economists account for the fact that while a country make make more money per person groceries may also cost more. \n\nIf the average wage in Country B is 1.2x more than Country A but groceries in Country B are 1.3x more expensive the wage how is this handled when comparing costs to live? I've done my own research over the years and haven't been able to find anything except for direct currency conversions which leave a lot to be desired. \n\nI ask this question because it seems nearly impossible to compare EU countries to the US once you dig into the weeds. EU countries have lower salaries but some also have a notably lower cost for groceries and living locations. For example I can eat for half what I paid in the US while in Germany with salaries being only 25% higher in the US. While all of this makes sense to a degree, the purchasing parity between the two currencies is within 10% which gives US citizens an advantage when traveling compared to Germans. \n\nI understand that this is both a complex and niche area of economics, but I was hoping someone could shine some light on what driving forces can correlate the two. Otherwise it seems nearly impossible to tell which country has a higher QOL for their workers.",
"company i work at produces cheese and we want to measure how \"hard\" the cheese is, how would we best go about doing this? it's been done by just squeezing and rating for a while now but i'd like to switch us over to actual measurements. what would be a good way of doing this?",
"(Speaking in terms of game theory) do political scientists always assume all outside state actors will choose \"defect\" and that only \"our side\" would ever entertain the idea of \"cooperate?\"\n\nIn talking to people who work in the field professionally and/or have a lot of training, it seems like the assumption is always that e.g. China would cheat or push the limits on any international agreement or norm that we have, but only the US could possibly act honorably.\n\nOne of my friends is adamant that the behavior of the President-Elect is putting the hegemony of the United States at risk and that the only possible outcome for a weakening of the hegemony would be \"Anarchy\" (and I think he's using that term in a specific International Relations sense to refer to particular inter-state behavior).\n\nTo my mind I can really only see an upside to having other countries have to wonder if perhaps *we* might choose \"defect\" over \"cooperate.\"\n\nI don't agree with the President-Elect on most things but I do have a sense that we've gotten \"played\" a lot and that our desire to maintain global stability is something people have learned to exploit to get what they want.\n\nI hope that gives enough background on what I'm asking.",
"When we say that value is \"created,\" what does that mean? Is it called into being from nothingness? Is it crafted out of some existing ... something? I have the same question about \"adding\" or \"losing\" value. Does scale alter these definitions/understandings? Like if I \"add value\" to one thing versus one hundred things or one million things, is the \"adding\" of a different character?",
"What is the most underrated and astounding thing one can learn in studying Linguistics?",
"Euribor right now is negative. What does it really mean to have a negative interest rate in the interbank market?\n\nGoogling a bit I found pages explaining negative interests on deposits, and it makes a lot of sense. Searching in AskScience I found a thread that explains negative rates in state bonds, and it makes a lot of sense as well.\n\nBut Euribor is the average rate at which banks lend money to each other (European Inter-Bank Offered Rate). Why on Earth would a private bank give away money at a negative rate?",
"Linguistics question. Since the world is more connected than ever because of the internet, what are the implications in regards to the evolution of modern language? Are world languages converging? Are are languages going \"extinct\" at a higher rate post internet?",
"Do pygmies really only live to be 16-24 years old? That comes up a bunch when I google for their life expectancy. But I find it hard to believe because that's so radically different from all other humans."
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} | Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology** Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...". **Asking Questions:** Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists. **Answering Questions:** Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience. If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_). Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_). Ask away! | [
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1jcmxa | Are $X.99 pricing schemes still effective psychological tricks to make a person feel as if something costs less than it actually does? | Is there any data on the effectiveness of these kinds of pricing schemes as time goes on? I mean, nowadays you see $99.95 dollars and you think "a hundred bucks." I can't imagine the psychological trickery that would make a person just glance at the price and think "99 dollars" instead is as effective anymore.
That being said, prices like this are still common at retail, so maybe I'm wrong and they're still psychologically effective. I just want to know if there's been any studies on this effect. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"There are atleast a few sources on this and also the quesiton has made it to /r/askscience a few times (so you might be able to dig up a more in depth answer that way).\n\nHere is one source on the concept: [99 Cent Price Point](_URL_0_)\n\nThe gist here is that there are price points (this is what you should search for if looking for more papers) but that the price points are constantly in flux (we are talking psychology which isn't as static as the rest of scientific theory). So 99, 95, 75, 50 are some common ones. However, over time each points importance in it's effect on the perception of being \"significantly cheaper\" changes. So most people aren't as easily lured into a sense that $1.99 is much cheaper but they are for a $1.95.\n\nOf course, these points are also very relative to the total cost. We see numbers like $499.00 too which is probably better than $499.99 (because then we just think they are being a penny pushing punk).",
"Here is one straightforward study that shows it works.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nAbstract\n\n > Through the cooperation of a direct-mail women's clothing retailer, we were able to conduct a well-controlled experiment testing the sales effect of using retail prices that end in the digits 99 rather than 00 (e.g., $29.99 rather than $30.00). The results indicated that the use of 99 endings led to increased consumer purchasing. This finding demonstrates the importance of the manager's decision concerning a price 's rightmost digits.",
"I'd love to know if it is still as viable as when first conceived... Or if its effect has dulled over time. As far as if it still works, yes. I've run into countless people in work and personal life that still see $4.99 as \"4 bucks\". \n\nI believe Readers Digest was first to bank on this and saw something like a 30% increase in subscriptions from it. (Although i believe theirs was for $XX.95 if memory serves me)",
"I think the original reason for this price point was to force the cashier to open the register in order to make change and reduce risk of stealing.\n\nI looked through a number of sites for a source but just saw google/yahoo user submitted answers and a wiki page. Looks like this idea may just have been speculation.",
"Related question: Is the $X.99 or $X.95 pricing more popular now that we're in the computer age? Computers searching for a given product at a price *below* $30 would not find one costing exactly $30, but would find one costing $29.95..."
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} | {
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} | {
"url": [
"http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1601280",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022435996900135"
]
} | Are $X.99 pricing schemes still effective psychological tricks to make a person feel as if something costs less than it actually does?
Is there any data on the effectiveness of these kinds of pricing schemes as time goes on? I mean, nowadays you see $99.95 dollars and you think "a hundred bucks." I can't imagine the psychological trickery that would make a person just glance at the price and think "99 dollars" instead is as effective anymore. That being said, prices like this are still common at retail, so maybe I'm wrong and they're still psychologically effective. I just want to know if there's been any studies on this effect. | [
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|
zak7x | Evolution: What similar features in nature have evolved completely independent from one another. | Hello askscience,
I got the following question:
Are there features that have evolved on two different lifeforms that can not be traced back to a common ancestor?
So lets say there are insects and mammals, and both have eyes. Do these eyes come from a creature that is a common ancestor to both, or did this evolution tree split somewhere where no eyes were present in any form were present at all, or did both evolve independently with similar properties.
This is just an example, I am curious about all possible examples for this.
Thank you! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c62wvfs",
"c62xa53",
"c62y0pt",
"c62xdwh"
],
"text": [
"It seems silly to type it all out when wikipedia has a great article on this one. It is called [convergent evolution](_URL_0_). They even have a huge list [of examples](_URL_1_). It is an interesting phenomena that highlights the effect that environment has on evolution. Two unrelated fish need to adapt to freezing water, both developed [antifreeze proteins](_URL_2_) but in very different ways. Neat.",
"To add to JdRnDnp you may want to look at the wiki article on [analogous traits](_URL_3_ which are basically traits of different origins (different last common ancestors) but which solve the same problem.\n\ne.g. the wings of a bat, bird and insect all solve the problem of flight but they arose independently in evolutionary history. The wings of bats, birds and insects are not related.\n\nConversely you could look at [homologous traits](_URL_4_ which are traits that have been conserved from a last common ancestor but in its descendants may be modified to solve different problems. \n\ne.g. all limbs of amphibians, mammals, reptiles and birds originate from a single last common ancestor - a tetrapod. Which had four limbs like us with bones in similar location, shape and function. However, certain limbs have been adapted to suit the locomotion pattern of that animal - whales and snakes have lost limbs, others grew more flexible, and still others more rigid.",
"The prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella evolved independently, have very different structure, but accomplish the same purpose.",
"[This](_URL_5_) is my favourite example. On the left is the skull of a marsupial known as Thylacine. On the right is a wolf. The two evolved on separate continents but look almost indistinguishable!"
],
"score": [
14,
4,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergent_evolution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_examples_of_convergent_evolution",
"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/4/l_014_01.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogy_(biology)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homology_(biology)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beutelwolf_fg01.jpg"
]
} | Evolution: What similar features in nature have evolved completely independent from one another.
Hello askscience, I got the following question: Are there features that have evolved on two different lifeforms that can not be traced back to a common ancestor? So lets say there are insects and mammals, and both have eyes. Do these eyes come from a creature that is a common ancestor to both, or did this evolution tree split somewhere where no eyes were present in any form were present at all, or did both evolve independently with similar properties. This is just an example, I am curious about all possible examples for this. Thank you! | [
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|
1kau1g | About Hiroshima and Nagasaki... is my friend full of shit? | So I have a friend who was in the military and claims to have once had top clearance... the thing is I think at least half the things she says is total bullshit. One of her favorite rants is about how the bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki are still causing shockwaves and another one is due shortly. Some of the effects she listed was volcanic activity and brilliant sunsets. She also claims that it will affect the climate making the south have more of a tropical climate. It is also one of her claims that the experimental a bomb set off in the 50s was to cancel out the shockwaves but due to a miscalculation it didn't work. If this IS true I doubt it would be classified because I know she isn't stupid enough to give out such information...she's still a loyal soldier,although I have to take everything she says with a grain of salt.
All I really want to know is how much of this is true,and if it is I,d like to know more. I can't seem to find any info on it myself.
P.S. I'm not the grammar monkey i used to be, plz forgive mistakes. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cbn2qjv",
"cbn6y2x",
"cbn647n",
"cbns1c6"
],
"text": [
"Pretty much everything you described is impossible by our current understanding of physics. While I could try to describe those reasons, the easiest proof is this: The bombs used in WWII were miniscule (thousands of times less powerful) compared to the hydrogen bombs developed and tested later, and those in turn are many times less powerful than [volcanic eruptions which have occurred in recent history](_URL_1_). Surely if \"shockwaves\" from the WWII bombs were causing problems, they would be insignificant compared to those caused by other, bigger explosions.\n\nAs for the physics of it, I don't even know where to start. Your friend's story falls comfortably under the moniker \"[Not even wrong](_URL_0_)\".",
"show her [this video](_URL_2_)\n\nif Hiroshima or Nagasaki are causing periodic shockwaves to this day, then the 2,051 other atomic bomb explosions depicted must also be causing these shockwaves, effectively turning the Earth into...well, I don't know, this bizarre idea make no sense. The vast majority of bombs that have been tested are greatly stronger than those used at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, as well. And, this video omits the last 16 years, in which even more have been tested, anyway",
"You won't be able to use science to disabuse her of her fantasy, however perhaps logic will work.\n\nAsk her what this did:\n\n_URL_3_\n\n\"The Tsar Bomba was a three-stage Teller–Ulam design hydrogen bomb with a yield of 50 to 58 megatons of TNT (210 to 240 PJ). This is equivalent to about 1,350–1,570 times the combined power of the bombs that destroyed Hiroshima and Nagasaki,\"",
"Brilliant..what a marvelous intellect.\n\nAnd these are the people we give guns to kill people."
],
"score": [
16,
5,
5,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Not_even_wrong",
"http://factsanddetails.com/world.php?itemid=2209&subcatid=323",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WAnqRQg-W0k",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsar_Bomba"
]
} | About Hiroshima and Nagasaki... is my friend full of shit?
So I have a friend who was in the military and claims to have once had top clearance... the thing is I think at least half the things she says is total bullshit. One of her favorite rants is about how the bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki are still causing shockwaves and another one is due shortly. Some of the effects she listed was volcanic activity and brilliant sunsets. She also claims that it will affect the climate making the south have more of a tropical climate. It is also one of her claims that the experimental a bomb set off in the 50s was to cancel out the shockwaves but due to a miscalculation it didn't work. If this IS true I doubt it would be classified because I know she isn't stupid enough to give out such information...she's still a loyal soldier,although I have to take everything she says with a grain of salt. All I really want to know is how much of this is true,and if it is I,d like to know more. I can't seem to find any info on it myself. P.S. I'm not the grammar monkey i used to be, plz forgive mistakes. | [
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3j81fq | Came across this "fact" while browsing the net. I call bullshit. Can science confirm? | If you have 23 people in a room, there is a 50% chance that 2 of them have the same birthday. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Well, if there are 23 people, there is actually a 50.7% chance that 2 of them have the same birthday, assuming that the 365 possible birthdays (not counting February 29) are all equally likely. But 23 people are the minimum number of people required to have at least a 50% chance.\n\nThis is the famous [birthday problem](_URL_0_), and the Wikipedia article does a good job in explaining the details. [This is a graph](_URL_1_) of the probability of finding at least one pair of matching birthdays, as a function of the number of people in the party. Notice how quickly the function ramps up. Once you have 57 people, there is more than a 99% chance of their being a matching pair.\n\nYour confusion most likely lies in interpreting the problem incorrectly. A common misinterpretation is the following: \"what is the probability that someone in this room shares my birthday?\" Well, that is easily answered. If there are 22 other people in the room, the probability that no one shares your birthday is\n\n > q = (364/365)^(22)\n\nSo the probability that at least one person shares your birthday is\n\n > p = 1 - q = 5.9%\n\nThat seems to be reasonable. \n\nBut the birthday problem is not asking that question. The birthday problem is asking: \"what is the chance that among these 23 people there is some pair that has the same birthday?\" So just because no one has your birthday, that doesn't mean no other 2 people can't have the same birthday. Maybe everyone in the room was born on March 5, except you. The answer to the birthday problem then means that if there are 23 people in a room, there is a about a 50-50 shot that some pair has the same birthday. (If there are 57 people, there is more than a 99% chance.)\n\n---\n**edit:** Someone below asked how the problem changes if birthdays are not assumed to be uniformly distributed by date. First of all, birthdays do *not* have a uniform distribution. More birthdays tend to occur at the end of summer, for instance (August/September for northern hemisphere or February/March for southern hemisphere). So how would the answer to the birthday problem change if we did not assume a uniform probability? Let's rephrase the problem slightly.\n\n > Fix the number *N* (say, of people) and consider the probability p(N) such that there exists at least one pair of persons that have the same birthday, if all birthdays are drawn from some fixed distribution, not necessarily the uniform distribution.\n\nWe can then ask questions about how p(N) changes with the distribution. It turns out that p(N) is *minimized* precisely when the distribution is uniform. This means that non-uniform distributions tend to decrease the required number of people at a party to get a matching birthday. So the figure of 23 people is sufficient for a matching pair, no matter what the distribution is. In fact, if we had lumped February 29 into the normal year and assumed even that date to be equally likely (in other words, there are 366 equally like birthdays), the probability of a match at 23 people would be about 50.63%, still above 50%. Since the uniform distribution on the 366 probabilities maximizes the required number for a 50% match, we know 23 people suffices for all distributions, even those that include February 29 as a possible birthday.\n\n(IMO, the simplest proof that the uniform distribution minimizes p(N) can be found in the paper [\"A note on the uniformity assumption in the birthday problem\"](_URL_2_). The actual paper (which occupies less than one page) is behind a pay wall, but you can access it if you are affiliated with an academic institution. The DOI is 10.1080/00031305.1977.10479214. However, if you have some math background, you can prove the statement for yourself using the method of Lagrange multipliers.)",
"This is absolutely correct. It's called the [Birthday Problem](_URL_3_) and it's a well-known counter intuitive result. The reason it's counter intuitive is that since there's 365 days in the year, there's only a 1/365 chance that a random person has a birthday on a particular day; so, if you look pick a random person in the room there's only a 1/365 chance the other person has the same birthday as you.\n\nBut, the problem only says that *some* pair of people in the room share a birthday, and there are lots of pairs of people. In fact, it you take a room of only 23 people, there's a total of 253 possible pairs, and any of them have a chance of having the same birthday. When you work through the probability you find the the sheer number of possible pairing balances the improbability of any particular pair sharing a birthday, resulting in a 50% chance of one match in a room of 23.",
"I realize the question has been answered, but it hasn't been explained well imo. It's easier to think about it if you start adding people from zero. Start with just you, in a room. One person walks in, there's now a 1/365 chance that you share the same birthday. Now another person walks in. There's now a 2/365 chance that someone shares your birthday. Now there are 23 people, a 23/365 chance that someone shares you birthday. But wait! That's just for your birthday. In that scenario there are just 22 pairs. In reality there are (23*22)/2 pairs, which is 253 pairs of people! So logically there's 10 times as many match possibilities than you originally imagined. That's where the problem really lies. Once you figure that out, the rest is just math.",
"**This will take some participation** - but if anyone wants to put it to the test I have set up a survey monkey asking for your birthday. I will simply collect the data into \"rooms\" of 23 submissions and test the results. \n\n_URL_4_\n\nClarification \n*Year is not taken into equation* \n\n**UPDATE - I made an error in my tables which caused the data to be flawed - please see new results*\n\n* Room 1 - No Matches \n* Room 2 - 2 Matches (1/21 & 11/21)\n* Room 3 - 2 Matches (8/20 & 1/01)\n* Room 4 - No Matches \n* Room 5 - 2 Matches (11/11 & 10/31) \n* Room 6 - 1 Match (11/23)\n* Room 7 - 2 Matches (2/25 & 8/25)\n* Room 8 - No Matches \n* Room 9 - 1 Match (5/15)\n* Room 10 - 2 Matches (6/30 & 3/31)\n* Room 11 - No Matches \n* Room 12 - No Matches \n* Room 13 - No matches \n* Room 14 - 1 Match (8/27)\n\n*These results are inline with the statement and actually demonstrate a higher than 50% chance*",
"The other explanations already posted do a good job of the maths involved, but if you're still struggling with the intuition I remember it seems like a less \"weird\" result if you imagine each person entering the room in turn, and picking a birthday at random - for there to be no shared birthdays, each person needs to have a birthday that's distinct from all the others that have already been picked.\n\nOdds of success are 1/1 for the first guy (empty calendar, free pick of the dates), then 364/365 for the second, 363/365 for the third, and so on down. Then for the odds of *all of them* being distinct you need to multiply those fractions along as you go, for each and every person to have to come up with a distinct birthday one after the other.\n\nEven though the odds are reasonably good for each one individually, you get an effect similar to compound interest where the small chance of a match multiplies up with each successive person.",
"I literally copy-pasted your question into google and the first result was this wikipedia page with the mathematical proof: _URL_5_",
"This little fact can indeed have unintended consequences. This is a story I related on another [thread](_URL_6_) about the 23 people puzzle.\n\n\"I tried this one out drinking a few times. One night, at an Irish pub it turns out, I met a bloke who was a 'Dolly/Yen' trader spending his days in the financial district trading the US dollar against the Yen. I asked him if his math was pretty good and he said above average. There were about 40 odd people in the bar that night and I claimed the odds were that at least two of them would have a birthday on the same day of the year. He was having none of it so we bet a jug of beer. Turned out he had the same birthday as one of the barmaids who happened to be the 11th person we had asked. It didn't take long to show him the reasoning behind the odds and he loved it.\nTwo weeks later I was back at the same pub when the Dolly/Yen trader walked in looking a little worse for wear sporting a black eye and a heavily bandaged hand. He took one look at me and shouted 'You Bastard!'. Turn out he had tried the very same bet with some large 'Brick Shithouse' the weekend before.. When two people in the bar claimed to have birthdays on the same date the guy flattened him, calling him a 'stinking cheat'. The trader managed to get one in before the other bloke was thrown out but cracked a knuckle in the process.\nBuying him a beer was the least I could do.\"",
"It works because person A could have a match with 22 people. Person B (if they don't match with person A) could have a match with 21 people. Person C (if they don't match with A or B) could have a match with 20 people. And so on, through the whole room of 23 people. There are 253 pairs of people who could share a birthday.",
"I made a little simulator you can play around with for different numbers of people:\n\n_URL_7_\n\nit gives the result for groups of 23 people as 50.6532%\n\nYou can also use it to generate a list of results for different group sizes, like this:\n\n* 1 person: 0%\n* 2 people: 0.29%\n* 3 people: 0.81%\n* 4 people: 1.69%\n* 5 people: 2.78%\n* 6 people: 4.03%\n* 7 people: 5.58%\n* 8 people: 7.56%\n* 9 people: 9.31%\n* 10 people: 11.87%\n* 11 people: 14.02%\n* 12 people: 16.82%\n* 13 people: 19.39%\n* 14 people: 22.26%\n* 15 people: 25.19%\n* 16 people: 28.17%\n* 17 people: 31.3%\n* 18 people: 34.33%\n* 19 people: 37.98%\n* 20 people: 40.99%\n* 21 people: 44.32%\n* 22 people: 47.37%\n* 23 people: 50.93%\n* 24 people: 54.04%\n* 25 people: 56.65%\n* 26 people: 59.83%\n* 27 people: 62.63%\n* 28 people: 65.28%\n* 29 people: 68.11%\n* 30 people: 70.51%\n* 31 people: 73.05%\n* 32 people: 75.28%\n* 33 people: 77.35%\n* 34 people: 79.42%\n* 35 people: 81.44%\n* 36 people: 83.06%\n* 37 people: 84.78%\n* 38 people: 86.23%\n* 39 people: 87.69%\n* 40 people: 89.21%\n* 41 people: 90.35%\n* 42 people: 91.45%\n* 43 people: 92.29%\n* 44 people: 93.22%\n* 45 people: 94.15%\n* 46 people: 94.79%\n* 47 people: 95.43%\n* 48 people: 95.97%\n* 49 people: 96.53%\n* 50 people: 96.93%",
"I don't see this broken down to a smaller problem.\n\nFirst person picks a number from 0-9. Second person does too. There is a 9/10 chance the second person picked a different number from the first. Third person picks a number from 0-9, there is an 8/10 chance his is different from both. Add a fourth person and you have a 7/10 chance of picking different from everyone else. 10/10 * 9/10 * 8/10 * 7/10 * 6/10 = .3024, so you are well past 50/50 with five people, a 2/3 chance two are the same.\n\nWith a number from 1-20, you get 20/20 * 19/20 * 18/20 * 17/20 * 16/20 * 15/20 with six people, is just .43 chance they are all different.\n\nWith a number from 1-30, you get 30/30 * 29/30 * 28/30 * 27/30 * 26/30 * 25/30 * 24/30 = .46 with just one extra person, 7. \n\nNotice that the picked number is jumping by 10, whereas the number of people is only going up by 1. As we've seen, when you get to 365, you only need 23 to get past 50/50.",
"Anecdotally my statistics professor bet someone in a class of 18 in the first day that no two people in the class had the same birthday, because the odds were with him. Turns out there was a set of twins in class.",
"Think of it this way, if you have 1 person in the room nobody shares a birthday, there's only one person. \n\nIf 2 people are in the room, the first person has a 1/365 chance to have any birthday, and the second person has a 1/365 to have any birthday, and there's a 1/365 chance that he has the same birthday as the first. So in total theres a (1/365^2 )/(1/365) chance, or 1/365 chance that the two people have the same birthday. So far so good.\n\nWhen there's 3 people in the room each can be born on different days, but what we're looking at now is the chance that nobody shares the same birthday. Because now that there's more than 2 people, if they all share the same birthday, this passes the test too.\n\nSo from before, for a pair of people we have a 1/365 chance that they share the same birthday. So there's a 364/365 chance that they don't. But we have some combinations. We can see if person 1 has a birthday with person 2, we can see if person 2 has a birthday with person 3, and we can see if person 1 has a birthday with person 3. So we're looking at (364/365)*(364/365)*(364/365) = 99.2% chance nobody shares a birthday.\n\nNow with 4 people we have more combinations, 1 and 2, 1 and 3, 1 and 4, 2 and 3, 2 and 4, 3 and 4. So now you have (364/365)^6 = 98.3% chance\n\nWith 5 people you have 1 and 2, 1 and 3, 1 and 4, 1 and 5, 2 and 3, 2 and 4, 2 and 5, 3 and 4, 3 and 5, 4 and 5. So you have 10 ways people can share birthdays, and that's (364/365)^10 = 97.2%\n\nBut if you see the number of ways people can share birthdays can be determined by the formula n*(n-1)/2. This makes sense because everyone (n) can have a birthday with everyone else (n-1), but we're only counting half of the combinations because 1 and 4 is the same as 4 and 1 (dividing by 2) \n\nSo with 23 people you have 23 people who can each share birthdays with 22 people. So you have 23*22/2 or 254 different chances for people to share the same birthday. So now you have (364/365)^254 = 49.8%. So there's only a 49.8% chance that nobody shares the same birthday. In that case there's over 50% chance that two people DO share the same birthday.\n\nIt seems odd, but when you realize it's that each of those 23 people have to NOT share a birthday with 22 other people. It means there's 254 different combinations that need to be unique, and there's only a 1/365 chance that any combination is unique.",
"To clarify there's a 50% chance that AT LEAST two of them share a birthday. This may seem trivial but this greatly simplifies the mathematics as you need only calculate 1-P(no birthdays are repeated). Much simpler.",
"Take a roulette wheel with 365 spots.\n\nHave one person spin it, and flag the spot they land on.\n\nAfter about 15 people if there aren't any repeats yet, you have about a 4% of all spots flagged. Now, over the next 8 people, they each have a decent shot of landing on a flagged spot. Between 1 in 25 scaling up to 1 in 16. Not impossible by any stretch.\n\nAdd up all these small chances and the odds that any one person will land on a pre-flagged spot in the whole experiment is about 50%.",
"If you have a computer with python (mac does by default), you should play around with the question numerically:\n\n > > > import random\n > > > same_bday = lambda n: len(set(random.randint(1,365) for _ in range(n))) < n\n > > > run_trial = lambda people, runs : sum(same_bday(people) for _ in range(runs)) / float(runs)\n > > > run_trial(30, 1000)\n 0.694\n > > > run_trial(30, 1000)\n 0.705\n > > > run_trial(23, 10000)\n 0.5046\n\nthe `run_trial` function will give the probability that given n people, at least 2 will share a birthday. It does it by just simulating that scenario multiple times. If you have a mac, open \"terminal\", type \"python\", and then copy paste the above few lines (omitting the ` > > > ` part).",
"I'll give OP a simple way of doing this by hand. Instead of trying to figure out the probability that any 2 of n people share a birthday, find the probability that 0 of n people share a birthday.\n\nFor n=1, the problem is trivial. For n=2, its obviously 364/365 since there's only a 1 in 365 chance. For n=3, we have (364/365) * (363/365) since now there's 2 dates the third person can't have their birthday on. Ultimately then, you're just trying to find the minimum n such that (364/365) * ...* (365-n+1/365) is less than 0.5",
"This is a classic case of when statistical probability and human intuition do not align. It may be helpful to consider that the problem describes the chance between any 2 people in the group. This is a different scenario than the probability of any person in a group sharing a birthday with you.",
"I like to solve this by calculating the probability that **no one in the room has the same birthday**.\n\nSo we start by picking someone, a random person, and we ask for their birthday. Then we go around with each person and see if anyone shares a birthday with them. The chance of one person not having the same birthday is *365/366* (we consider Feb 29, so it's 366 days on the year). Now because there's 22 other people, we have to not have this happen 22 times, or *(365/366)^22*.\n\nNow we know that no one has the same birthday as the person we picked. That means also that we can take away \"one day\" of the year because we know no one has their birthday that day. So now we need to do the whole process as above again, but this time with one less person and day. We get *(364/365)^21*.\n\nNow we can begin to see a pattern:\n\n*(365/366)^22*\n**(364/365)^21*\n**(363/364)^20*\n**...*\n**(344/345)^2*\n**(343/344)^1*\n\nIn order for no one to share a birthday all the above cases need to happen, so we have to multiply them all together. We just put that in my [trusty](_URL_8_) [calculator](_URL_9_) (each word contains part of the multiplication) and I get about 0.47. In other words there's 47% chance of having 23 people and none of them sharing a birthday. In other words there's a 53% chance of that not being true: of at least two people sharing 1 birthday.\n\nNotice if we had 367 people the whole thing would start as *(365/366)^366* and the last one would be *(0/1)^1* which is *0* and because anything times *0* is *0* the probability of no one sharing a birthday is 0. Which makes sense, there's more people than days in the year so it's impossible for two people to not share one day.",
"As an undergrad math major, my favorite math professor, would pose this 'Birthday Problem' as a bet on the first day of class with a new class--he would bet that there were at least two people (in the class of just over 23 students--it was a private college) with the same birthday OR that there would be at least one month for which no one in the class had a birthday...",
"Surprisingly, it's true. The combinatorics goes like this:\n\nodds of 2 people having different birthdays: 364/365\n\nodds of 3 people having different birthdays: 364*363/365^2\n\nand so forth. A general formula for n people would be n!/(365-n)!365^n\n\nFor 23 people this comes out to 49%. \n\nOdds of at least 2 people sharing a birthday = 1 - odds of everyone having different birthdays = 51%",
"I was in engineering statistics (3307) literally 25 minutes ago and my teacher went over this as the last 10 minutes of class. He used 23 people as the example, and 50.7% was the answer we got. And this post, on the top of reddit, was the first thing I saw when hopping on... I'm honestly scared.",
"Not only is it accurate, it also is the namesake of the [Birthday Attack](_URL_10_), a \"hack\" that uses the same principle to increase collisions in a hash. Super interesting stuff that I can't quite wrap my head around. Found while learning about bitcoin.",
"Back in high school my math 12 teacher checked this to each of his classes every year. It worked out that half his classes indeed did have 2 people with the same birthdate. \n\n\nIn my class in particular he went around the outside of the room starting at the ends and working his way to the middle, asking each student what their birthdate was. Not only was there a pair of students in our class with the same birthdate, but they were also sitting next to each other in the middle of the class and were the last to be asked. He was thrilled with that one.",
"Already mentioned but worth emphasizing. The key is that you are not a priori specifying a date, and that there are (23*22)/2 = 253 pairwise combinations. Now all of a sudden something that appears to have a slim chance (1/365) is not so slim.",
"It's true. \n\nThe easiest way to think about this isn't the way the problem is stated. Don't think about the chances that at least 1 pair shares a birthday, because there are many ways that can happen. Instead, think about the chances that no one in the room has the same birthday. \n\nI'm going to explain this with small numbers first to give you an idea before actually calculating it. First, consider there are only 2 people in a room. What are the chances they DO NOT share a birthday. \n\nWell, person 1 has 365/365 days their bday could be. For person 2, they have 364/365 days their bday could be. So, the chances you don't share a birthday are\n\n(365*364)/(365^2 ) = 99.7% chance you DO NOT share a birthday. So the chances you do? 100%-99.7% = .3%\n\nCarrying this logic thru to 23 people, the chances none of them share a birthday is: \n\n(365!)/(342!*365^23 ) = 49.3% chance none of them share a birthday. 100%-49.3% = 50.7% chance at least 1 pair shares a birthday.",
"Others have explained why this is true. I would add that during the 2014 World Cup, there were 32 squads of 23 players each, and true enough, half of those squads contained players who shared birthdays! If I remember correctly, one of them even had three players with the same birthday. \n\nIt doesn't prove it - the maths proves it - but it was quite cool to see in practice. \n\nEdit: Here's a BBC News story about it - The birthday paradox at the World Cup - _URL_11_\n\n(I was wrong about the triple birthday. That was 2010)",
"There's a lot about probability and statistics that's pretty counterintuitive. The reason this doesn't sound right is probably because you're thinking of the chances of _any one person_ having the same birthday as one of the other 22 people. The odds of that, of course are much smaller. But _for the whole group,_ the chances that two of them have the same birthday does work out to about 50%.\n\nIt's the same sort of thing with the \"Monty Hall Problem,\" which seems so intuitively wrong that a lot of mathematicians couldn't accept it at first.",
"To clarify, if you're one of the people, there is not a 50% chance that someone will have the same birthday as YOU. That's where a lot of people get confused. It's any two people. By the way, if you doubt the numbers even after having it explained, go look online for random lists of 20-25 people (such as, rosters of sports teams). You'll find two of them share a birthday lots of times. About half of the time, in fact ...",
"One of my statistics professor in college would make a nice chunk of change at the beginning of every semester with this problem.\n\nHe would bet every student, in a class of 35-40, 2$ that there would be at least 2 students with the same birthday in the class.\n\nOnce he had taken the students' money, he would start explaining the equation that showed what was the probability of him winning.\nIt was the first lesson and one that stuck.",
"It's because one thinks that there's only one birthday to match. \nIt is very different from a 50% chance that someone has the same birthday as *you*, that's 23/365*100, about 6.3%. It's that *any* two people in the room have the same birthday. Person 1 with 2 or person 8 with 18, any combination of two.",
"I used to teach high school and liked to walk through the probability calculation, then do a practical example because the classes were just about the right size. Sometimes it worked, sometimes it didn't. \n\nThen one year genius me forgot I had twins in that class. Kind of skewed my results.",
"Statistics professor went around the room asking birthdates. Finally duplicated went the very last person had already had her birthdate mentioned earlier. She was dying to say so earlier, but let the prof. wait until the last second.",
"Yes, this is true. (with a few assumptions for simplification, pretend leap days don't exist, and that each person is equally likely to be born on any given day of the year).\n\nConsider a room with 366 people in it. You can be absolutely certain that at least two of them will share a birthday. If one has a birthday of 1/1, another 1/2, 1/3, 1/4 etc. you will run out of days in the year before you run out of people.\n\nNow imagine a room with 365 people in it. What are the chances that every non-leap day is represented as a birthday? It is pretty unlikely, in fact, if you have a room of 364 people, each with a different birthday, and you choose a 365th person at random from the outside world, there is a 1/365 chance that they have the missing birthday. If you have 363 people with different birthdays, and choose one more from outside, they have 2/365 chance of being the only one with their birthday. And that is already assuming that the 363 people had different birthdays in the first place, with is unlikely if they are chosen at random.\n\nIf you build up from zero, the first person is guaranteed to have their own birthday. The second person has a 1/365 chance of sharing. The third person has a 1/364 chance of sharing. But you also have to account for the possibility of the third person joining a room that already has a double birthday. To calculate the chance of either one happening, you have to subtract the probability of neither one happening from one. So 364/365 (.9970) times, the first 2 don't share a birthday, and if those two don't, 363/365 (.994) times, the third does not share a birthday with either of them. Multiply them together, and you get about .991. As you increase the number of people, this number drops faster than your intuition tells you it should.\n\nIn order to not have a single birthday be shared, the second person has to be different from the first, the third must be different from 1, 2; 4 must be different from 1, 2, AND 3, 5 must be different from 1, 2, 3, AND 4, 6 must be different from 1, 2, 3, 4, AND 5.\n\nIf you calculate it out, 22 people have a chance of having 2 with shared birthdays of just under 50%, and 23 have a chance just over 50%.\n\nAn easier illustration might be to look at shared birth months, with 13 people, you are guaranteed at least 1 shared month, with 1, you are guaranteed none. What are the chances with 2-12 people?",
"It's a commonly used problem in discrete/finite mathematics courses to show how bad we are at guesstimating a lot of probabilities.\n\nAnother example that really blew my mind when I took that class was the Monty Hall problem. Essentially imagine 3 doors on a game show, 2 have goats and one has a new car. The host tells you pick one so you pick any. He opens one of the two doors that you didn't pick to reveal a goat. Now he asks you \"do you want to switch to the other unopened door?\" What do you say?\n\nThe answer is yes, switch every time in this scenario because it gives you a better shot at winning.",
"This is true. In a room of 23 people, there are (22+21+20...+2+1=253) possible combinations. We are trying to find the probability that two of them have the same birthday. Well, each person has 1 birthday out of 365 possible days, so we say the probability of two people having the same birthday is 1/365 (this can be interpreted as the first person chooses a day randomly, and the second has a 1/365 chance of choosing the right one.) Since there are 253 possible combinations, (1-1/365)^253 is the probability that no two of them have the same birthday, and that works out to 0.499. 1-0.499=0.501, which rounds ~~up~~ down* to 0.5, or 50%.",
"In my stats course this was given as a puzzle to solve for fun. The question was, how many people do you need in a group to get at least 50% probability that two people would have the same birthday. Nobody figured it out, and it was in the days before google. When we were given the solution, everyone was amazed that the answer was so few. HaveIGoneInsaneYet gave the solution we were given.",
"My favorite explanation of this problem is to think of a roulette wheel with 365 slots, each representing a date in the year. Each person tosses a ball and mark the slot where the ball landed. As more and more people toss the ball into the wheel, the chance of the ball landing on a previously marked slot becomes greater and greater.",
"This is actually a great way to make money at the bar. The odds seem so outrageous that most people will take that bet no problem. Unfortunately the odds get better and better with each added birthday and odds are really good that you will win the bet before rhe twentieth person.",
"Mathematically, yes it works. But in the real world, nope. Birthdays are not uniformly distributed in our population. This is assuming a uniform distribution. Lots of parents like to have sexy time around the holidays, thus, more August, September, and October birthdays.",
"This is actually one of my favorite bar bets. If you're out with a group of folks challenge someone to ask ~25 people for their birthdays. You'll be pleasantly surprised and the shock on someone's face when you win is awesome."
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} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birthday_problem",
"http://www.chebfun.org/examples/fun/img/BirthdayOdds_02.png",
"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00031305.1977.10479214?queryID=%24%7BresultBean.queryID%7D",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birthday_problem",
"https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/N6XSBBD",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birthday_problem",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/todayilearned/comments/3h64z3/til_of_the_birthday_problem_put_23_people_in_the/",
"http://jsfiddle.net/dynosrza/1/",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%28%28365%2F366%29%5E22%29*%28364%2F365%29%5E21*%28363%2F364%29%5E20*%28362%2F363%29%5E19*%28361%2F362%29%5E18*%28360%2F361%29%5E17*%28359%2F360%29%5E16*%28358%2F359%29%5E17*%28357%2F358%29%5E15*%28356%2F357%29%5E14*%28355%2F356%29%5E13*%28354%2F355%29%5E12*%28353%2F354%29%5E11*%28352%2F353%29%5E10*%28351%2F352%29%5E9",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=0.5216006436082154015359621550608076710097023321761413*%28350%2F351%29%5E8*%28349%2F350%29%5E7*%28348%2F349%29%5E6*%28347%2F348%29%5E5*%28346%2F347%29%5E4*%28345%2F346%29%5E3*%28344%2F345%29%5E2*%28343%2F344%29%5E1",
"https://crypto.stackexchange.com/questions/tagged/birthday-attack",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-27835311"
]
} | Came across this "fact" while browsing the net. I call bullshit. Can science confirm?
If you have 23 people in a room, there is a 50% chance that 2 of them have the same birthday. | [
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4f1f5s | What makes electomagnetic waves able to propagate without a medium and other not other waves?? | askscience | {
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"You could say that electromagnetic (EM) waves *do* propagate in a medium, if you take that medium to be the electromagnetic field. In this picture you can think of an EM wave (or a group of photons if you prefer) as an *excitation* in the electromagnetic field that moves from one region of space to another.\n\nIn reality the way EM waves propagate is not all that different from how say a water wave behaves. Imagine you are sitting on the edge of a lake on a windless day and the water appears completely calm. If you throw a pebble into this lake, you will [create ripples that will spread outwards](_URL_0_). In other words, you are creating an excitation where water is both the medium through which the ripples travel and it is also the stuff that is jiggling up and down at every point as each ripple passes.\n\nDeep down EM waves work pretty much exactly in the same way. For this analogy to click, the trick is to realize that no matter where you are in the universe, you are always surrounded by the electromagnetic field. This field is as big as the universe, it exists wherever space itself exists. Even in the depths of outer space, where at first it may seem like there is nothing around, if look more closely you will see that the EM field is still there and produces measurable effects (e.g. see the [Casimir Effect](_URL_1_)).\n\nNow just like the surface of that lake, the EM field normally looks still (in the sense that you won't detect any photons), but that doesn't mean it's not there. In fact you can still measure it and you can still interact with it. Just like you can throw a pebble to create a water wave, you can add energy into the EM field (e.g. by firing up a flashlight) and you will see this excitation spread outwards in the EM fields like the ripples in the lake.",
"This question is based on a sort of false assumption, that a wave needs to have a medium. Macroscopic waves, like water ripples and sound waves (and [hamon](_URL_2_)), do propogate through media, but that is because they are meta-waves, energy moving through the interactions between various types of materials. Sound does not travel in space because sound is a property of relatively high density gasses, a consequence of how the material works that allows for the propagation of energy in that manner.\n\nElectromagnetic waves are disturbances in a field that exists everywhere, and because they are unconstrained and massless they propagate at the speed of light.",
"This question has been asked here before:\n\n_URL_3_\n\nIt requires an understanding of quantum electrodynamics to truly understand our (current) interpretation. /u/crnaruka did a good job explaining it in layman's terms however.",
"While I enjoyed reading the comment comparing this to a wave on a pond, what you must realize is that light is a particle as well. It does not need a medium because it is it's own medium. This is explained by the fact that a photon produces an electric field, which in turn produces a magnetic field and continues to self propagate through any medium or lack thereof.",
"You've had some good answers focused on EM waves, but I wanted to stimulate some thought about other waves.\n\nTake sound waves for example. Sound waves aren't some independent wave just waiting for a medium to propagate through. Sound waves are a description of changes happening *to that medium*. \n\nThere's nothing inherently voicey about you thinking words and making them happen. All you're doing is pushing air. If you try to speak in a vacuum, it's not that your voice can't find a medium to propagate through, it's that your vocal chords don't have a medium to manipulate anymore. \n\nIn a sense, the wave doesn't *need* a medium, the wave *is* the medium.",
"They're also particles. \n\nEM waves are a way to represent quanta, little packets of energy. They can also be represented as particles, and in reality they do behave as both. You can describe them as photons, or as EM waves, but they're actually both. \n\nExactly how they can be both requires some understanding of quantum physics, but essentially the wave is more of a probability wave that describes the range of positions in space (and other states) the quantum can be in at any point in time. \n\nThe quantum itself doesn't exist in one spot (for the most part anyway. There may be a 99.99% chance of it being in one specific place, but there's still a non-zero chance it exists anywhere else in the universe). It exists as this 'probability wave'. Which is why, depending on how you measure it, it can appear to be either. If you try to pinpoint it's location as you would a particle, it will be one. Try and measure it's frequency or something like that, it'll be a wave. \n\nBasically, they're waves that describe the existence of particles, but the particles only exist as said waves. The particles actually *are* the waves that describe them, and vise versa.",
"In short, Faraday's and Ampere's laws. Changing magnetic fields induce an electric field and changing electric fields induce magnetic fields. EM waves are combinations of electric and magnetic fields and hence propagate themselves. They require no medium. If they did, it would give a preferred reference frame which goes against Special Relativity. \n\nSource: Neutrino Physicist"
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"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/0GVQpYy.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_effect",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PNwqZsCBQkQ",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3pkw1m/how_is_it_that_electromagnetic_waves_can_travel/"
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} | What makes electomagnetic waves able to propagate without a medium and other not other waves??
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9pyd2c | Is there way to determine how fast program will execute task? | I know some programming languages are faster and some slower, can we predict how much time computer need in particular language? | askscience | {
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"It's not so much that individual \"languages\" are faster or slower, but the relative complexity of their runtime environments and/or how well optimized their compiled output is.\n\nFor a given runtime environment, there are really two basic factors that determine a programs speed:\n\n1. How fast the processor can process instructions, and\n2. How much the developer/compiler/runtime environment can minimize the number of instructions required to solve the problem.\n\n\\#1 above is fixed by hardware -- faster hardware can run programs faster.\n\n\\#2 is a major area of study within Computer Science. Here there are two important areas of research:\n\n1. Algorithmic complexity. For many tasks there are many ways to achieve the same ends. Take for example data sorting -- there are over a dozen different sort algorithms out there with different performance characteristics. We can characterize the complexity via [Big O Notation](_URL_0_), and having a developer choose an algorithm with a lower runtime bound for a given expected problem size will have the biggest impact on overall program speed; and\n2. Code optimization. Compilers and runtime environments can use various tricks to make code more efficient. For example, a small loop that is only ever going to run a fixed number of times may benefit from being unrolled (that is, a simple loop in the form `for(int i=0;i < 3;i++) { print \"Hello World!\"; }` may run faster by having the loop substituted for just running the block contents three times, i.e.: `print \"Hello World!\"; print \"Hello World!\"; print \"Hello World!\";`).\n\nProgram runtime is also impacted by various external factors. Assume for a moment a program that requires user input at the beginning to ask how many times it should run. How does one predict runtime? We can try to assume an average runtime based on some numeric distribution we expect the user input to exhibit -- but that doesn't give us the actual runtime for a specific input, just an average case.\n\nI suspect if you were to want to _automate_ runtime prediction that you'd fall into the same issues as the Halting Problem. A computer would have to load the program into memory, and step through all of its instructions, keeping track of values for loop iterations and conditionals to understand which branches are run and which ones aren't -- which is functionality identical to just running the program in the first place. In which case, you can say that it's impossible to _predict_ the runtime speed of a program; the only way to know is to run it and measure how long it takes to execute given the appropriate inputs.\n\nEvery language makes certain trade-offs to optimize for different factors. Whether or not these impact you depends entirely on what you are trying to achieve. A \"slow\" language that spends a lot of time waiting on events (say for example user input) may have an identical runtime profile to that of a \"fast\" language doing the same task. In the end, the only way to really understand is to profile your program by running it, and measuring how long it takes to execute. Improvements may be best found in using better algorithms in critical sections of code, rather than switching languages and continue to use a poor algorithm^0.\n\nTL;DR: Short answer: no. Long answer: nooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo. Longer answer: read above :).\n\n-----\n^0 -- as it happens, I'm the inventor of a patent in this area, which I'd link to if it didn't mean doxxing myself :P.\n\nEDIT: Escaped \\# above so they didn't screw with font sizing.",
"Surprised no one mentioned the [Halting Problem](_URL_1_) yet. It's similar but more simple than your question, can we know whether a given algorithm will finish running or not. Alan Turing came up with a proof that shows that we can't know this in general. Given that part of knowing how long an algorithm will take to run is knowing whether it will finish or not, in general we won't be able to predict how long a program will take to run.\n\nThough we certainly can do that for specific cases. For example the Big-O complexity measure for algorithms mentioned below. As for running the same algorithm made in several different programming languages, in general the lower level the language the better it will perform. Assembly fastest then C/C++ then C#. The reason that C and C++ do better than C# is that they have less features such as garbage collection (which automatically deletes things that aren't being used) that are convenient for programmers, but are less efficient than doing without them (for garbage collection, the alternative to using it is to manually delete all of the variables you are no longer using yourself).\n\nBut this is less the case now as compilers for programs become better. In some cases you will get the high level language compiler producing more efficient assembly code than assembly that was written by hand.",
"You've gotten some good answers so far, that focus on the generally-correct answer that it's either not really possible or very difficult.\n\nThere is at least one context where that isn't the case.\n\nCertain safety-critical computer systems, like the computer that operates the antilock brakes in your car or the computer that operates the control surfaces on a fly-by-wire airplane, are different.\n\nThese are so-called \"hard real-time systems\" - computing systems where it is an absolute requirement that certain sections of code are executed within a certain amount of time.\n\nCoding this kind of software requires a special execution environment as well as using a very restricted programming language in order to ensure that maximum runtimes of sections of code can be defined and analyzed.\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_3_",
"The answer isn't necessarily the programming language - it's the task(s). \n\nSome basics; program speeds are largely determined by the capabilities of the machine that runs them. Also, external dependencies will slow a program down - for example; storing values in a database instead of coding them inline will slow down a program. This may be macros of seconds, but it does still matter.\n\nIt's also important to understand that new languages are typically intended to support a specific area of computing. When people talk about programming languages they are usually referring to web languages but programming exists at every level of computing. This alone makes your question impossible to answer since an operating system program will always execute far more complex tasks than any web based program.\n\nHowever, assuming that your question is limited to web languages there are some best practices to achieve speed. Java based languages are very good at conditional logic (if this then that). Complex calculations are can be executed via any web language that executes the calculation from a local processor. Portable objects (like non secure data or UI constructs) are best left to HTML or XML.\n\nSo, yes, there are lots of ways to predict how fast a program will execute. Baselining is common practice in product design and there are tools specifically designed for this. If you are architecting a new solution plan for latency and impacts when running parallel or simultaneous tasks - his usually happens when your compute outpaces your database. Final thought, if speed is critical, pay the premium for the best hardware.",
"It completely depends how complex the program is. If you are interested in in [theory](_URL_4_), you might want to check out [Big \"O\" notation](_URL_5_).\n\nIf you are asking for more practical reasons, what kind of program do you have in mind? Generally, a program written in Assembly language will be the fastest, a language like C or Go will be a little slower, but still pretty fast, and a program written in an interpreted language, like Python, will be slowest, but still usually \"fast enough\".\n\nThe more important question is usually not how much \"computer time\" a program takes, but how much \"programmer time\". You could probably write a program in Python and run it thousands of times before you could finish writing the same program in Assembly."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halting_problem",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_computing",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_operating_system",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_O_notation"
]
} | Is there way to determine how fast program will execute task?
I know some programming languages are faster and some slower, can we predict how much time computer need in particular language? | [
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|
3p2ktg | How were scientists able to study molecular structure in the 1800's? | I was just watching a SciShow video about how scientists discovered what the compound vanillin "looked like" (what gives vanilla it's taste), aka it's molecular structure... and tried to recreate it from a component in tree bark. Then I learned this was in 1874. I thought I misheard it at first.
How in the world were they able to figure this out? What technology did they use?
(This either belongs here or /r/nostupidquestions, sorry if I am in the wrong place!) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cw2zyl5",
"cw3e9p5",
"cw33exh"
],
"text": [
"This is a totally legitimate question. \n\nNowadays, we use techniques like [crystallography](_URL_2_), [NMR](_URL_0_), [mass spectrometry](_URL_4_), and others to characterize a molecule's structure. These techniques were all invented in the last century, so earlier work was considerably harder. \n\nMy expertise is in the modern methods especially ones we apply to llarge biomolecules, so I'm not too certain exactly what tests were available in 1874. Everything I look up that might have been useful was invented around or after that time. Hopefully some other chemists can add to this. \n\nA lot of early characterizations involved breaking down compounds and studying the products*. From that, you can piece together what the original molecule would have been. The atomic composition (but not structure) could generally be found by completely burning the compound and measuring the byproducts. Certain properties could be determined by things like chemical reactivity tests, primitive chromatography, odour and other properties. It would have been very crude. That said, [vanillin](_URL_3_) is not an extremely complicated molecule, it is a phenyl ring with three substituents. So if you could remove those substituents by known reactions and characterise them, you could retroactively infer what the compound would have been.\n\nI've found the manuscript for Tiemann and Haarmann from 1874 [here](_URL_1_) but it's in German and while I can sort of puzzle through it, I don't have enough time. Perhaps a chemist who speaks German can follow up?\n\n*side note: mass spectrometry sort of does this nowadays, just in an efficient, high-throughput way",
"Structures were _not_ very well known in the 1800s. It was only due to Kekulé, circa 1850s-1860s that the very _idea_ of chemical structure came into being (i.e. atoms occupying fixed locations in molecules and those locations being important for chemical properties), and it was in 1874 (as it happens) that van 't Hoff came up with the idea that [enantiomers](_URL_5_) had three-dimensional structures that were mirror images of each other. (It'd be some years before that theory became generally accepted as well)\n\nTo go back a bit, by 1850 or so, they'd figured out the difference between the formula for a molecule and the _empirical formula_ which is just the simplest proportions of the atoms (e.g. hydrogen perxoide has the formula H2O2 but the empirical formula HO). The empirical formula could be figured out by decomposing and converting compounds into other compounds with known formulas. \n\nFrom clues from how compounds react and what products they form, they'd been able to start to figure out formulae (quite difficult because at the same time they were figuring out the atomic weights). The situation in the 1870s is that they've come up with the idea of \"valency\", which essentially boils down to knowing how many bonds the elements commonly form (e.g. carbon has four bonds, nitrogen three, etc) and the concepts of single and double bonds. Together with clues from reactions and the formulae they'd been able to start to figure the structures (famously, Kekulé figured out benzene correctly in 1864). But these were 'flat' structures as one might draw them on paper without today's convention of drawing bonds projecting 'out' or 'in' from the plane of the paper. \n\nThey did _not_ really _know_ the three-dimensional structures yet though, they were tinkering around with different models but that was very much the cutting-edge of chemical research at that time.",
"In the absence of fancy lab instruments, lots of logical deductions had to be made from seeing how it reacted with a variety of known chemicals. \n\nA common starting point for organic molecules like vanillin is to burn them and figure out the ratio of carbon to oxygen to hydrogen molecules by observing how much oxygen is consumed as it burns, and how much water and CO2 are produced. This gives the empirical formula: C8H8O3. We might assume that the empirical formula is probably the same as the molecular formula, but we could be wrong; we might have one mole of C8H8O3 in our beaker or 0.5 moles of C16H16O6.\n\nYou can test for presence of certain functional groups by reacting it with a known quantity of another compound. For example: \n\n- I could prove that the compound has an ether by cleaving that ether with strong acid to produce an aklyl halide, then identify the alkyl halide I had made by its boiling point. \n\n- I could show that one third of the oxygens are in aldehyde or ketone groups, while two thirds are in a maximally reduced form already (alcohol or ether) by getting it to react with one equivalent of a reducing agent. \n\n- I can react it with a strong oxidizing agent and see how many different carboxylic acid groups I can make. if I oxidized vanillin and titrated against a strong base, I would find that it reacted with one equivalent of reducing agent and produced a compound with only had one weakly acidic pKa, suggesting that one of the oxygens is in an aldehyde group, and that the other two are either attached to tertiary carbons, or already maximally oxidized (impossible, since we already know they are maximally reduced). \n\nAfter amassing a large enough quantity of such clues, you can make a good logical hypothesis as to what the structure would be. Thus far we can deduce the presence of aldehydes, tertiatry methyl ethers, and (by process of elimination) tertiary alcohols all in a 1:1:1 ratio. We also know that for every eight carbons, there there are four degrees of unsaturation (multiple bonds or rings). With this info, a benzene ring with -OCH3 -OH and -CHO functional groups attached is a logical guess for what the structure might be.\n\nA way to prove your deductions were correct might be a de novo synthesis of the hypothesized molecular structure, then testing whether it had the same physical properties as the natural compound (the same melting point, etc). \n\nSynthesizing it is also how you would prove the most subtle part - where on the benzene ring the groups are attached. By observing that acetylation of phenol followed by acylation gave a better yield than adding the functional groups in any other order, you can infer where the deactivating acetyl group is compared to the activating hydroxyl and ether groups."
],
"score": [
6,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance",
"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tiemann,_Haarmann-Ueber_das_Coniferin.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallography",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanillin",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantiomer"
]
} | How were scientists able to study molecular structure in the 1800's?
I was just watching a SciShow video about how scientists discovered what the compound vanillin "looked like" (what gives vanilla it's taste), aka it's molecular structure... and tried to recreate it from a component in tree bark. Then I learned this was in 1874. I thought I misheard it at first. How in the world were they able to figure this out? What technology did they use? (This either belongs here or /r/nostupidquestions, sorry if I am in the wrong place!) | [
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|
58b033 | How can I draw erasably on a pumpkin? | I do very intricate pumpkin carvings and this year I'm trying to sketch it by hand first instead of making a stencil and transfering the pattern by puncturing it. This is due to my poor results last year. The waxy skin is making this very difficult.
So I'm looking for something that will:
-mark the pumpkin very visibly without damaging the skin (low hardness)
-not run due to the moisture released during carving
-come off without damaging the skin or flesh of the pumpkin
-not be obscenely expensive
So far I've tried magic marker, which runs and irreversibly stains the flesh; permanent marker and grease pencil, which I couldn't get to come off but would reconsider if an alternate removal method is put forward; and conté, which would not mark at all. I'm planning on trying an ordinary wax crayon today. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d8z8tu8",
"d8za0jr",
"d8zjed9",
"d90607u"
],
"text": [
"I would go for a permanent marker and then use either acetone (nail polish remover) or isopropyl alcohol (isopropanol, can find in most pharmacies) to remove. Could even try high proof ethanol like vodka or everclear.\n\nI'm not 100% sure you won't remove some of the waxiness of the pumpkin skin this way so I would try a bit first before committing. You can always water these solvents down first. I'm also guessing that this will work better if you work quicker, the longer the marks are on the pumpkin skin the more likely they will be a little harder to remove.",
"You could try covering the permanent marker with dry erase marker and then wiping it clean. I know that works on most laminated surfaces. I've never actually drawn on a pumpkin before, so they might be too absorbent. Worth a go, though.",
"Have you tried a dry erase marker? Those make good removable marks on a wide range of plastics, which are chemically similar to plant waxes.\n\nActually I just googled, [this guy](_URL_0_) says dry erase markers work great, so long as you wipe off the marks in an hour or so.",
"An alternative which might work is to 'paint' your stencil with food colouring, which can be washed off with water, however it might be worth trying this first as the colourant may stain the skin.\n\nA dilute red food colour may be OK even if it leaves slight staining."
],
"score": [
5,
5,
4,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.extremepumpkins.com/usdryermarfo.html"
]
} | How can I draw erasably on a pumpkin?
I do very intricate pumpkin carvings and this year I'm trying to sketch it by hand first instead of making a stencil and transfering the pattern by puncturing it. This is due to my poor results last year. The waxy skin is making this very difficult. So I'm looking for something that will: -mark the pumpkin very visibly without damaging the skin (low hardness) -not run due to the moisture released during carving -come off without damaging the skin or flesh of the pumpkin -not be obscenely expensive So far I've tried magic marker, which runs and irreversibly stains the flesh; permanent marker and grease pencil, which I couldn't get to come off but would reconsider if an alternate removal method is put forward; and conté, which would not mark at all. I'm planning on trying an ordinary wax crayon today. | [
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10uhfj | Science teacher - struggling with some concepts around rolling balls. Help? | I'm a bit embarrassed to be asking this, since I am a science teacher, but I need some help.
I'm an elementary science teacher developing a new unit for first graders about some simple physics concepts and experimental design. The students will be doing experiments with balls and inclined planes. I have a whole bunch of balls - tennis balls, ping pong balls, marbles, etc.
I'm having trouble with designing lessons about rolling, though, partly because I think I don't have a full grasp on the concept myself. The book I was using as a resource states, "The size and weight of a ball does not affect how quickly it reaches the bottom of the ramp or how far it rolls," but my exploratory experimentation shows that some of the balls I have do indeed roll much faster than others.
I've worked out that some of the issue is [rotational inertia](_URL_0_), but are there other factors at play here? I don't have a ton of solid balls - most of the ones I found at Toys R Us are hollow, such as tennis balls - would getting more solid balls of different sizes and materials give me the supplies I need? Or will things like differing friction for different materials still make things unpredictable?
Any other advice about how to explain these concepts to first graders would be much appreciated!
EDIT: Wow, thanks so much for all your comments! It was great to come home and find all this.
EDIT 2: I've read through all the comments now and have a lot of food for thought - both a better understanding of what was going on with my observations, and some good ideas for how to go about teaching these concepts. A side note: a bunch of you mentioned that this seems too advanced for first grade, and I definitely agree that the whole picture is too complex for them to grasp. I'm not going to try to teach them about the deformations of different materials or static vs. sliding vs. rolling friction! My idea isn't to teach them everything, but to a) challenge some of their assumptions/misconceptions about the world, b) teach them some new things that are true even if not the whole truth out there, and c) help them practice the skill of finding out things by testing systematically instead of just assuming or asking someone. A comparison to another topic might be that I teach third graders about how the parts of a flower each play a role in making a new seed, without getting into how the DNA in the gametes combine, how proteins coating the pollen ensure that cross-species pollination doesn't usually occur, or what evolutionary factors influence whether a certain species is hermaphroditic or dioecious. All of those things are fascinating, and I think my knowing about them can help me be a better teacher, but I won't try to explain those concepts to such young children. | askscience | {
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"This experiment depends entirely on having objects with the same *distribution* of mass; if some of the balls are actually hollow spheres (like ping pong balls) and some are solid (like marbles), you will see different results. \n\nUse comparable balls to get comparable results; roll two hollow spheres (basketball/soccerball/volleyball/etc), or two cylinders, or two hoops. The radii and mass won't matter, only the overall distribution of mass. \n\nEdit: Just wanted to add that all the stuff about \"rolling friction\" is *most likely* irrelevant for this kind of demonstration, or at least a secondary consideration; energy losses to surface deformation aren't likely to be as big of factor for a tennis ball or ping pong ball as the differences in their moments of inertia.\n\nEdit 2: OP is teaching grade schoolers, folks. Just trying to boil this down to the dominant effects so their demonstration will work well enough to get the point across.",
"Your experiment is likely complicated by the fact that rolling friction and sliding friction are two separate phenomena (rolling friction quite a bit more complicated at that), and a ball can both roll and slide quite a bit in the sort of experiments you've designed. Could you switch to blocks of identical material in order to teach the concepts? That way, you're just converting gravitational potential into translational motion, not rotational.",
"I would expect friction would make your experiment... less than ideal. \n\nOne thing you might work on with 1st graders are levers. You don't have to get into any math, but just show them how you can use leverage to multiply force. Maybe even set something up to show how they can lift hundreds of pounds. Talk about see-saws and wheelbarrows and shovels.",
"The balls roll differently probably due to the types of friction force that is created by their interaction with the surface. A rubber ball, for instance, would roll quicker than, say, an iron ball (both of the same size and similar mass, so air resistance would also not be an issue) - because a rubber ball interacting with a surface would create more static friction than an iron ball.\n\nA good wheel would have good friction and would remain in the same relative position to the ground it is on, meaning that the stronger the static friction (motionless friction) between a wheel and the ground, the closer do these two values get: The distance between point A and point B on the road, and the distance the wheel has rotated (measured by the circumference of the wheel and the number of rotations that it made). A wheel that applies less static friction and more kinetic friction, friction that allows for motion - like two hands rubbing against one another, would not pass the same distance as the distance from point A to point B, because it would not maintain the same relative position to the ground, meaning it would slide ever so slightly with every turn, for the best explanation - imagine two friction-less objects: one a wheel with a stick through the middle and one a surface. Put the wheel on the surface and then spin it while it's fixed in location by the stick. The lack of friction would allow the wheel to spin even while touching the surface. That is static friction. Though this was an impossible situation, it's a thought experiment and it serves its purpose - that being to help you understand types of friction and their effect on the motion of your balls a little better.\n\nIf you need further clarification, I would be happy to oblige.",
"Any way you roll them, rotational inertia is going to be a problem. It's proportional to mass (which is proportional to the cube of the radius) and also to the square of the radius, so unlike falling objects, size will also matter, even if they're balls of the same material. There are too many variables to control for. The balls will roll at different speeds.\n\nHowever, if you can get them to roll without slipping down one ramp and up another (smooth curves being ideal), you can show that they all reach the same height on the other side, due to beginning with the same potential energy. I believe that's what the textbook was getting at when it said that all balls will roll the same distance. This would be a demonstration of energy, chiefly. You can discuss that even though a ball with high moment of inertia (probably a heavy one) appears to roll slower, it has more energy because it's more massive (kinetic energy being dependent on both speed and mass). You can gauge what first graders can handle, but maybe it's a good example of disproving a hypothesis when an experiment doesn't go as expected.",
"The best demonstration I've seen illustrating this concept is through the use of disks and hoops. you basically take an assortment of hoop/disks, for example a 1 inch long section of 3 inch diameter metal pipe, the same dimension of pvc pipe and maybe a few other disks, like a solid wooden disk. If you choose objects with the same diameter, you can very graphically show the differences on how they roll. You can show that objects with the same mass can rotate at different speeds",
"More than anything else, it's rotational inertia. It's an under appreciated, but extremely powerful force. \n\nThere are a lot of ways you can connect this to real-life experiencing, but explaining the why is going to be way beyond the elementary school level. That said, you can make a bunch of really awesome demonstrations:\n\n1. Roll a hula hoop and a bicycle wheel (of similar diameters) down the same ramp, and see which is faster.\n\n2. Roll a racquetball and a billiard ball down the ramp.\n\n3. Roll the billiard ball and a large ball bearing of the same weight (but smaller diameter).\n\n4. Get a very spinny stool to sit on. Show how you spin faster when you pull your arms in. Figure skaters do this, too.\n\n5. Mount the bicycle wheel with a handle on the axle. Spin the wheel, then sit on said stool. Just by tilting the wheel, make yourself turn on the stool.\n\nThis also explains to kids why bicycles are more stable the faster you go (the gyroscopic forces spinning wheels stabilize the bike), why spinning fans are so strange to move...so many things in their lives. It's really interesting, and shows them a lot more than simple friction.",
"Are you in Canada by any chance? I am a volunteer with a group called [Lets Talk Science](_URL_0_). We go around to local public schools and present science learning programs to try and stimulate Kid's interest in science. We have a activity kit called \"bounce and roll\" that is designed for kids in the 1st grade (I think it teaches the same concepts that you are trying to teach). I have never presented the kit so I can't personally give you any advice, but you could contact one of the coordinators at LTS and ask for advice (even if you aren't in Canada).",
"Maybe try going to Home Depot and have them cut some wood hoops and disc's out of particle board, something dense and uniform. Should be cheap and maintain material uniformity. Physics class I had used a wooden ramp and disc's and hoops similar to the ones I described. Demonstrated the principles quite well. \n\nAs it has been mentioned, this stuff is probably a bit advanced for first graders. But one awesome experiment is to demonstrate rotational inertia by spinning a bike tire upright, then tilting it while on a rotatable platform... Always gets good results from classes. Also advanced though...",
"Rolling, especially when you're dealing with real-world friction and objects of differing mass distribution (hollow vs solid, various wall thicknesses, etc) isn't really first-grade material... more like Mechanical Engineering 304: Dynamics material. It seems simple, but it's really a difficult concept to come to grips with. Using solid balls would not resolve your issue.\n\nIf you just want to blow their minds with rolling friction without worrying too much about the quantitative physics involved, then the old yo-yo rolling up an incline trick could suit your purposes better... provided that you can explain what's happening in terms they can understand.",
"_URL_1_\n\n11:00 is roughly when he demonstrates moment of inertia using hollow and solid pipes on an incline."
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"url": [
"http://www.letstalkscience.ca/",
"http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/8-01-physics-i-classical-mechanics-fall-1999/video-lectures/lecture-24/"
]
} | Science teacher - struggling with some concepts around rolling balls. Help?
I'm a bit embarrassed to be asking this, since I am a science teacher, but I need some help. I'm an elementary science teacher developing a new unit for first graders about some simple physics concepts and experimental design. The students will be doing experiments with balls and inclined planes. I have a whole bunch of balls - tennis balls, ping pong balls, marbles, etc. I'm having trouble with designing lessons about rolling, though, partly because I think I don't have a full grasp on the concept myself. The book I was using as a resource states, "The size and weight of a ball does not affect how quickly it reaches the bottom of the ramp or how far it rolls," but my exploratory experimentation shows that some of the balls I have do indeed roll much faster than others. I've worked out that some of the issue is [rotational inertia](_URL_0_), but are there other factors at play here? I don't have a ton of solid balls - most of the ones I found at Toys R Us are hollow, such as tennis balls - would getting more solid balls of different sizes and materials give me the supplies I need? Or will things like differing friction for different materials still make things unpredictable? Any other advice about how to explain these concepts to first graders would be much appreciated! EDIT: Wow, thanks so much for all your comments! It was great to come home and find all this. EDIT 2: I've read through all the comments now and have a lot of food for thought - both a better understanding of what was going on with my observations, and some good ideas for how to go about teaching these concepts. A side note: a bunch of you mentioned that this seems too advanced for first grade, and I definitely agree that the whole picture is too complex for them to grasp. I'm not going to try to teach them about the deformations of different materials or static vs. sliding vs. rolling friction! My idea isn't to teach them everything, but to a) challenge some of their assumptions/misconceptions about the world, b) teach them some new things that are true even if not the whole truth out there, and c) help them practice the skill of finding out things by testing systematically instead of just assuming or asking someone. A comparison to another topic might be that I teach third graders about how the parts of a flower each play a role in making a new seed, without getting into how the DNA in the gametes combine, how proteins coating the pollen ensure that cross-species pollination doesn't usually occur, or what evolutionary factors influence whether a certain species is hermaphroditic or dioecious. All of those things are fascinating, and I think my knowing about them can help me be a better teacher, but I won't try to explain those concepts to such young children. | [
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z2uot | Why can't we bend things like glass or concrete? | Intuitively, it would seem as though given enough time and enough pressure, we should be able to bend anything.
Am I wrong in assuming some things aren't bendable? And if I'm right, and we can't bend certain things, why not? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"No one has seemed to give a good answer so I'll give it a shot...a Material Science Engineer would be able to provide a much better answer.\n\nIn short, you have to look at the fracture mechanics of the material at the microscopic level. That is to say, how the elements are put together (bonds) affect how the material breaks. A piece of ceramic is put together much differently than a piece of steel (and thus, behaves differently).\n\nBut going back to your original overarching question, everything is \"bendable\" (as birdbrainlab pointed out, \"deflect\" would be a better term). But they can only bend up to a certain point before it breaks. For something like concrete, it bends very little before it breaks (meaning to us, it doesn't really look like it bends). Glass can bend if you heat it up. That's one way of getting curved pieces of glass.",
"There's two important terms to define:\n\n- Deflection means deforming something non-permanently. If I take a spring and squeeze it closed, that's deflection. \n\n- Bending, from a structural engineering perspective, means that something is permanently deformed, so when the load is removed, it will not spring back to it's original shape.",
"Rocks, given enough time, pressure and temperature, will most certainly bend. Just check out [chevron folds](_URL_0_)",
"In general, any solid material can be \"bent\" to some extent. Some materials are much more difficult to bend. \n\nSome materials are also more brittle than others, meaning they will snap or break rather than deflect or bend. Concrete and panes of glass are both brittle materials and are difficult to deform.\n\nThis has to do with many factors, but I would read up on material science if you're interested in learning in more detail."
],
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://ougseurope.org/rockon/ontherocks/img/chevronfolds.jpg"
]
} | Why can't we bend things like glass or concrete?
Intuitively, it would seem as though given enough time and enough pressure, we should be able to bend anything. Am I wrong in assuming some things aren't bendable? And if I'm right, and we can't bend certain things, why not? | [
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|
25d7so | We are planetary scientists! AUA! | We are from [The University of Arizona](_URL_2_)'s [Department of Planetary Science, Lunar and Planetary Lab (LPL)](_URL_3_). Our department contains research scientists in nearly all areas of planetary science.
In brief (feel free to ask for the details!) this is what we study:
* **K04PB2B**: orbital dynamics, exoplanets, the Kuiper Belt, [Kepler](_URL_1_)
* **HD209458b**: exoplanets, atmospheres, observations (transits), [Kepler](_URL_1_)
* **AstroMike23**: giant planet atmospheres, modeling
* **conamara_chaos**: geophysics, planetary satellites, asteroids
* **chetcheterson**: asteroids, surface, observation (polarimetry)
* **thechristinechapel**: asteroids, [OSIRIS-REx](_URL_0_)
Ask Us Anything about LPL, what we study, or planetary science in general!
*EDIT*: Hi everyone! Thanks for asking great questions! We will continue to answer questions, but we've gone home for the evening so we'll be answering at a slower rate. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Given the increasing rate of discovery and techniques for identifying smaller and smaller objects how close would you estimate the nearest planet with active tectonics may be? And are particular star types related to different planet discovery rates?",
"How is it that you are able to observe the tectonic activity on a planet without sending something to the physical surface? I know the general idea for measuring atmosphere but I'm not sure how you get an idea for something like tectonics.\n\nPlease go easy on me, I'm an art history major who has recently decided to get a second degree in astronomy, and I hope to major in planetary astronomy. So please be as scientific as possible without making me feel silly, if you can. Thank you!",
"I want to be a planetary scientist! Can any of you tell me your paths to becoming a planetary scientist? What did you study in undergrad. What did you study for graduate work? Did you do a post doc? How did you land your first job. I'm coming to a point in my undergrad where I have to start figuring out what I want to do specifically but I'm having a hard time with it. Any advice you have for an amateur astronomer / physics undergrad would be very welcome! Thank you!",
"Howdy! \n\nI was hoping you could shed some light on this question for me - NASA prioritizes the search for water, yet has only tentative plans for a Europa mission. From my perspective, while I love Mars, I think it gets a far greater allocation of resources than it deserves.\n\nIt seems that the most obvious mission for NASA is a Europa lander, and I know everyone thinks a cryobot is crazy, but I've read some good reports that state it's actually possible. It would blow the doors off Curiosity in terms of public interest too(which was very impressive). \n\nI suppose my question is - we know the most likely place for life in our solar system - why is Europa not our biggest priority?",
"If you could spend 24 hours on one object in our galaxy (stars don't count) with as much lab equipment as you could fit in a 2m-cubed box, which would it be and why?\n\nNote 1: ignore atmospheric conditions, this hypothetical example provides super suits that give you the ability to move about and exist anywhere as you would on earth.\n\nNote 2: you get a shoebox to being back anything that fits. This is of course, a super shoebox.",
"So large efforts are being made to go up and eventually mine asteroids. \n\nIs there any progress towards Saturn? \n\nI read that it's composed of 96% hydrogen. Surely that's a pretty spectacular resource to have for space travel and development.",
"My friends want to kill me because I think astronomers and planetary scientists were right to declassify Pluto.\n\nHowever I'm not convinced by the 'dwarf planet' term. Can you convince me? What was wrong with the old definition of 'planetoid'?\n\nIs it possible that someday you find a 'dwarf exoplanet' that is so large that the term 'dwarf' no longer fits, but it hasn't cleaned/can't clean its orbit? Or do gravity and accretion models simply make it impossible?",
"Is there any work towards a dedicated search for longer-period exoplanets?\n\nWhat kind of surface reconstructions, in the vein of what's been done with HD 189733b, will be possible with better planetary spectroscopy?",
"/u/thechristinechapel, tell me a bit about OSIRIS-REx.\n\n1) What part of the project do you work on?\n\n2) What are the most valuable things we're likely to learn from the project?\n\n3) What are the most technically challenging aspects of the project? Where is it most likely that something could go wrong and ruin the mission, and what are you all doing in order to try to avoid that?",
"You all have my dream job! I just finished a big paper on Enceladus for my undergrad. How likely do you think it is that we might find life there? \n\nAny chance you need a geologist on your team? If not, I can make great chocolate chip cookies! ;)",
"Hey there! \nI was wondering how you get a false positive when in search of exoplanets? How can you tell if it is real or not?",
"Not sure how late to this party I am, but I have a rather specific question:\n\nI am in the process of writing my final year undergraduate report (Study Physics & Astrophysics), and I am analysing the light curves from some Kepler target stars. \n\nI happened across a light curve from Kepler 00757450, and the data points on the 2nd September 2009 (JD = 2455806) show a strange \"thing\". \n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe data points are highlighted. \n\nAt first, I thought this could be a transit recorded incorrectly, however the timing doesn't agree with other transits. \n\nIn your opinion, is this an issue with the data recording methods, an issue with how I am displaying the data, or is it an astronomical event?",
"Why do planets that orbit a sun always seem to be on the same plane? Are there any solar systems where the plants all have different paths - like some going around the sun, some going up and over, and some going diagonal? As long as they were all different distances from the sun they wouldn't collide, right?",
"With the JWST being prepared and all, there is no doubt that it will be a worthy successor to the Hubble Telescope! What are we to expect in the relatively near future when it comes to pioneering telescopes? Do we expect to build large enough telescopes to take actual color based low-res images of exoplanets?",
"What is the best currently accepted theory that describes geometric form of planets in general? Are they still considered generally as ellipsoids (bi- or triaxial) or there are better general approximations like in Zharkov and Trubitsin's theory?",
"I make computer games for fun and I've always wanted to make a space exploration game. When I generate a random galaxy I would prefer it not be completely wacky. Could you point me to some data that will make things more realistic? Data I could use that I have had trouble finding:\n\n* How likely it is to have however many planets in a solar system.\n* Distributions of elements in planets and stars.\n* How star size and type affects any of the above.\n* Distances between planets and stars, generally.\n\nOr anything else you think would be neat.",
"I don't exactly have a question for you all, but -- I grew up in Tucson and have been fascinated with exoplanets for years. I think the kind of stuff you're doing is awesome, and I'm so glad to see it pop up here! Keep up the great work.",
"I live in Tucson, and I've always wondered: Has the city's effort to minimize light pollution paid off? Is it still getting worse, or is it holding so far?",
"Under what conditions do gas planets/giants become solid and do planets like Jupiter have solid cores? \n\nWould you take a one way trip to Europa?",
"Greetings!\n\nI was wondering if there currently is any technical capacity to remotely identify water-ice polymorphs on ice-worlds?",
"Why do we keep rediscovering water on Mars?",
"@Kuiper Belt researcher: To your knowledge, how viable would it be for a business to establish mining operations on the Kuiper Belt, if we assume that we have the technology to make the trip from Earth in a year. Could we successfully harvest ice to use as a water source for workers there, and are there sufficient amounts of minerals (to our knowledge) to justify such a venture? I am asking because I recently found a collection of articles that make predictions on how the future of mankind would be based on current scientific research, and they seemed to suggest that establishing star bases on the Kuiper Belt would immensely speed up the process of cartographing and exploring our galactic neighborhood.\n\nThank you.",
"What do you think are some of the most important things to teach middle schoolers about planets?\n\nI teach 8th grade to a group of pretty bright kids, and JPL is right down the street so some of them even have astrophysicist parents. I think skills and scientific thought processes are the most important things I can teach, but when it comes to content there is just so much and I have so little time. What is, in your opinion, some of the top stuff to cover?",
"Hi!\n\n1. Should we expect rouge planet within 1 parsec form us? How common are they in this part of the galaxy?\n\n2. What is the status of Tyche? Could it be still theoretically found in the WISE dataset or is it all mined out?\n\n3. If you were to search for Dyson trees in our solar system - how would you do it?\n\n4. Would space radar be better at finding asteroids that space telescope? \n\nThanks!",
"Hey guys thanks for doing this, I hope one day you find exactly what you are all looking for.\n\nMy question: How can I get into the astronomy community as a job? I have a degree in Maths and I've found the only things I'm interested in are Astronomy and Programming and would love to know where to go now to land my dream job.",
"I have read \"Origins: How the Planets, Stars, Galaxies, and the Universe Began\" (2006) by Stephen Eales with great interest and have two questions for you:\n\n- How has your research field progressed since then?\n\n- As a layperson with knowledge of the field but no mathematical background, I wish to further expand my knowledge of astronomy. What should I read?",
"How important is math in your careers? I want to be a planetary scientist but my math skills are severely lacking. When I get to factoring it's like hitting a brick wall at .5 c. \nAlso, I want to be an astronaut, will my future experience in planetary science help me achieve that dream?\nThank you for your time!",
"Do you have any advice on how those of us who are amateur astronomers / astrophotographers, who are not planning careers in physics, can contribute to the search for exoplanets? If you're familiar with the book [Exoplanet Observing for Amateurs](_URL_1_), do you have any comments on it or updates to offer to the techniques it presents?",
"What's the latest on the study of the scattered disc, and the so-called 'Inner Oort Cloud'? (the \"Sednoids\"? What do you call that?) Do you buy into the \"close star encounter\" explanation of the Sednoids/whatever they're called?\n\nThere's also been a burst of recent discoveries - what's been the cause there?\n\nThanks for having this!",
"This may have been asked already but here we go. I know that there is a project underway to search Europa for aquatic life most likely around hydrothermal vents but what is the basis for interest in Titan? Have we ever found microorganisms that can live in methane like the oceans on Titan?",
"Good Morning Everyone! \nI \"sort of\" understand how federal cut-backs have been effecting the planetary science community, but a lot of what I hear about are projected impacts to the nations science expertise. \n\nHave there been signs of this cut-back on your level? What programs ( or areas of research) have been affected?",
"What technology would you like to see added to the next generation of rovers that would be beneficial to planetary scientists?\n\nPersonally, I'd like to see a rover that can take core samples of an appreciable depth, and remove and analyze the cores on their own...\n\nAny other suggestions?",
"How does a planet orbiting a red dwarf affect its chances of life? Is the chance higher or lower? What properties of the star affect that chance?\n\nI have fiddled around on _URL_2_ and find all of this fascinating. Keep up the good work!",
"Hi, I'm a computer science major looking to possibly move into the planetary sciences, and I was wondering what area of computer science research I focus on. (Machine vision and machine learning?)",
"How hard was university and classes and such? I love planetary science/stars/geology, so I'm curious. Also, is it rewarding or just paperwork, paperwork, paperwork, get to see a planet, paperwork?",
"If all the moons of Jupiter were combined how large would the resulting object be? Would it have any significant influence over Jupiter?",
"What are your thoughts about astroide mining?? and if positive when would we (as the human race) be able to do so?",
"As a freshman on my bachelors degree in astronomy, are there any exciting jobs at a bachelors or masters degree level?",
"Have you guys seen this yet\n\n_URL_3_\n\nChances are you have because space but if you haven't, this is awesome",
"How accurate is Kerbal Space Program in terms of landing on planets, the function of rockets and other things?",
"Can planets orbit in a shape other than an elipse or a circle?",
"Hi guys and lady(s), this is a bit of a general question but I was wondering if you might have a few words to say about it. \n\nI'm wondering what kind of prerequisites I might need in order to move on to graduate study in astrobiology/planetary science. I'm currently a student at an Ivy league university with a major in neurobiology and minor in chemistry. I'll be graduating soon and so far have a 4.0, a few astronomy electives and a few geology electives which might be relevant. I've done some biomedical and biophysics research but nothing related to this kind of field. Besides taking the GRE, what other qualifications might I need to be a serious candidate for a PhD program in planetary science, astrobiology, or astronomy?",
"It strikes me that one serious problem for finding habitable exoplanets is the difficulty of maintaining an atmosphere of a hospitable density on a planet for billions of years, rather than having it end up dense and hot like Venus or thin and cold like Mars. How common do you think solid planets (i.e. those with a distinct surface at which the atmospheric density can be standardized) with near terrestrial-density atmospheres (let's say, between 25% and 400% of the density of the Earth's atmosphere at sea level) are, as compared to ones with excessively dense or thin atmospheres?",
"It's awesome to see the UofA make the front page! I'm going to be a freshman next year and I'm looking to study computer science along with something to correlate with planetary sciences. I just got my copy of \"Mining The Sky\" today in the mail, and I was wondering if any of you have ever worked with Dr. Lewis and/or had any thoughts on the plausibility of his ideas of near earth asteroid mining! It's a great read so far and I haven't put it down yet!",
"Not sure if you can answer this but...\n\nHow many light years would someone have to be away from Earth to look back at it in a telescope to see hundreds of years in the past?\n\nOr, how many light years would someone have to be away from Earth to look back at it in a telescope to see specific events in history such as:\nThe American Revolution, Europeans discovering the North American continent, 0 A.D., The first humans discovering fire, etc. etc.",
"Thank you for taking the time for this. Considering the many ways microbial life may have been transferred from Earth to Mars in the past (meteorites, previous landers, etc), do you think the extent and cost of NASA's efforts to sterilize landers is justified? I have heard it was a significant cost to the last few missions. Where on the scale of sterilizing efforts do you stand (I know this isn't a black white question).",
"Other than Earth or the Sun itself, what object's spontaneous removal from the solar system would be most detrimental to life on our planet?\n\nJust a curiosity. I read once that Jupiter contributed to the successful development of life on Earth, since it gravitationally \"shields\" the inner solar system from collision-bound objects by drawing them toward its own field. I'm curious whether any other planets or major objects indirectly factor into Earth's natural history.",
"I've looked this up before but haven't really found any satisfying answers to it yet so I'll ask here because it seems like a good time to ask..\n\nIs it possible to have a binary moon system orbiting a planet? Basically where two moons are in each other's orbit which are in turn orbiting a planet?\n\nAlso, thanks for taking the time to do this AMA.",
"Got here late. Thanks for doing this. I was actually surprised at the lack of questions but I think your job intimidates people.\nCould you tell us what you actually do in an average day?\nAlso maybe you could tell us where you would like NASA's attention focused for the next 10-20 years.",
"If I want to go back to school to take astrophysics what's the best things I can do for my self in the year before I start taking classes?",
"Hi guys! Thanks for doing the AMA. I'm thinking of going back to school soon and I really want to pursue atrophysics. Any recomendations? (Coursework, schools, etc...)",
"[Not serious] Do any of you guys have the name Liet Kynes attached to anything? A procedure, lecture name, a pet?",
"Could Dawn spacecraft discover small natural satellites of Ceres? If they will be discovered, could it study them too?",
"When will we have the capability of detecting life on other planets or moons?",
"How much does the theoretical [Theia](_URL_4_) impact with Earth (the proto-planet collision that is theorized to have formed the moon) play into the creation of a habitable planet? The two things that strike me as being quite important to sustaining life on another planet is 1) a strong magnetic core and 2) plate tectonics. Does something like this on another planet dramatically improve the likelihood of sustaining life? \n\nThe Giant Impact Hypothesis seems to help explain these two unique features of Earth, in that it could have left Earth with a larger-than-normal iron core (which allows for a stronger magnetic field), and it could have removed a large percentage of continental crust from the surface of the earth (freeing up the surface to allow for plate movement)? Is there any scientific opinion on the impact of this event (forgive the pun)?",
"Firstly, what are your thoughts on [Claudio Maccone’s FOCAL mission concept](_URL_6_)? The idea has always fascinated me.\n\nSecondly, when do you think we will get news of the first definitive exomoon detection? What method do you think has the best chance of detecting the first exomoon? What do you think of [Mary Anne Peters' and Edwin L. Turner's ideas about directly imaging \"THEMs\"](_URL_5_) (Tidally Heated Exomoons)?\n\nFinally, are you as excited about Dawn arriving at Ceres as I am? I have always thought that Ceres would make a great target for human exploration in the solar system.\n\nThanks you for taking the time to answer my questions. This field of study has always fascinated me and I try to read [Centauri-Dreams](_URL_7_) as often as I can to stay up to date on what is going on.\n\nThanks again.",
"Announcements of newly found planets are becoming less and less sporadic, and are more and more following the format of a birth announcement. ex.(scientists have announced finding a planet called blank, it's x light years away it's yay big and can maybe support life)\n\nHow can you know these things if it's literally billions and billions of miles away? I would understand if the size of planets were uniform, then you could just measure the % it takes up in the viewfinder of the kick-ass telescope you were using, but with varying sizes how can you account for a differential in diameter? Then how can you tell atmospheric composition?\nsorry if this falls more under the purview of astronomy or astrophysics.",
"Hello, do you think cold-powered generators could be a workable solution in bodies like the moon?\n\nAnd by cold-powered I mean piezoelectric generators that take advantage of the vast differences in temperature from day to night, where materials are exposed to the environment, contract because of the cold in the darkness, and that contraction is used in generating electricity?\n\nBecause if that worked you could just throw a generator box inside a dark crater and presto, free power.\n\nNote: layman here, take with a pinch of salt since I'm thinking with cartoon diagrams right now. To my defense I'm a cartoonist :P",
"To K04PB2B and HD209458b, and i just wanted to ask something simple on the atmospheres on exoplanets and their involvement in the development of the life forms that could exist on those exoplanets. I read that a higher gravity would force vegetals to create balloons of air to raise higher and be able to catch more light in a french magazine, and i just wanted to know if there was other hypothesis on the faunas under those different atmospheres... (i don't know if you actually work on that, but i think that this is a very interesting topic, about exoplanets). Thanks!",
"To any of you, I'm an astronomy/phys major/current freshman and I'm gonna be working on campus this summer. I've asked around Steward and nobody really has a research position to offer. Do any of you know of anything or have any need for an undergrad researcher? I've been wanting to dip my toes in planetary sciences and maybe minor, but haven't had time to go to SEDS this term. I would also heavily consider volunteering, my priority is to get experience while I can. DM me if you are interested.",
"Two questions: is it possible to have a geosynchronous equatorial orbit with eccentricity greater than 0? If yes, please describe the motion of an object in such an orbit from the point of view of an observer on the ground (ie in which direction will it wobble?), and will it ever wobble north to south? Sorry for the question, I'm in an argument with an enemy...\n\nSecond, what's the interior of Jupiter like? Can we say that it has a \"surface\"? What about the other gas giants? Thanks in advance.",
"Tucsonan here with a hopefully not too uninteresting question... Aside from a few field trips to Kitt Peak and the UA planetarium back in elementary school, I haven't really looked into the various observatories/telescopes around here (Mt Lemmon, Hopkins, Graham, etc.) and whether they have any tours or special events for curious laypeople like me to find out what goes on there. Do you work at any of these places? Can you recommend things worth checking out in southern AZ that would be interesting?",
"Is it hard to get a job in planetary sciences? I just finished my first year of earth sciences now and I really want to get into it since I love space, planets etc... the school I go to isn't known for planetary sciences ( I think they only offer a few 4th year courses) and I was told it is extremely difficult to get a job which is why I'm going to be doing geophysics instead.",
"What kind of software do you use as part of your science; by this I mean, do you use something specific for modelling a planet? Does it draw planets in artwork like detail or is it down to the facts in a table? Do you use some kind of \"revolving around a star\" simulation software? Something you plug values in to get a bit more information about a system?",
"What is the best current estimate of the percentage of star systems in the galaxy that have planets?\n\nWhat about for planets of different sizes and categories? (e.g. less massive than Earth, super-earths, hot Jupiters...)\n\nIs there a paper or page I can check that spills out all this estimation data?",
"As somone who ia very interested in this stuff, watched many documentaries regarding planets, space and so on, but has no real mathematical/physics knowledge of it all, what are the best books you can recommend regarding your sphere of study for someone like myself? ( without going really mathematical)",
"/u/chetcheterson\n\nWhat is the biggest challenge for a company to start mining the asteroid belt?\nCan we just send a probe-type craft to one of the larger ones with a bunch of fuel and bring it into earths orbit using thrust and math and whittle it down from there?",
"I really hope you guys are still answering questions, because this has been bugging me for a while. My question concerns dark matter. Is there any evidence or strong suspicion to suggest that dark matter is not simply just an excess of unobserved exo-planets, nomad exo-planets, and/or brown dwarfs?",
"Assuming, let's just say, that at least one planet in the latest crop of newly discovered exoplanets has free O2 in its atmosphere, how far are we (either in technology terms or estimated-years terms) from being able to detect that O2 in the absorbtion spectrum of that atmosphere?",
"I recently made a scifi short film that has an AI displace Venus from it's orbit. Humanity destroys it fearing it may pass by or collide with Earth. That disrupted the Suns gravitational equilibrium on all other planets, compromising the entire system.\n\nIs this actually possible?!\n\n[Link](_URL_8_)",
"Perhaps I am way too late for the show. Anyways I've really been wondering if any of the exoplanets we have found, if they have an atmosphere like earth\n\nAlso if yes then how do you actually measure? (I don't know what it's called) the atmosphere?",
"Why waste so much time and energy debating on whether or not Pluto is a planet? Serious question, a rose by any other name and all that, so why go through all the effort when your time would be better spent debating something else?",
"I'd like your thoughts on the so-called Planet X that was recently suggested to be far beyond Pluto's orbit by a Brazilian astronomer. Do you think there's something to this; is it possible that we may have another planet in our solar system?",
"I have always wondered if the solar systems within our galaxy are all oriented on the same plane, so that they are more or less parallel the plane of the galaxy. Or if they are oriented at random through out the galaxy.",
"If you would have to choose one thing to tell us that amazes you about your field and the things it has discovered, what would it be? What amazes you and fuels your passion every time you think about it? :D",
"Why is Nasa focused so focused on Mars? And why is it so urgent to send humans there? EDIT: also what do you think about the drake equation? How many earth-like planets are in the milky way?",
"What's your opinion on science funding (\"taxpayer dollars\") going to \"important\" research areas such as medicine, energy, etc, rather than things like planetary sciences, space-related things, animal behavior, etc? Should research be aimed at usefulness, or exploration?",
"What are the odds of finding a planet with life that is so close by that we could go there and come back within 60 years? ( assuming we could travel very near the speed of light)",
"Late to the party, but do any of you play videogames? Mainly KerbalSpaceProgram or maybe even Space Engineers? If you do, wondering what your take on them is(from a fun and/or a 'scientific' perspective).",
"The explosive rate of exoplanet discovery, Kepler, etc: Are the systems we can study limited to those where planets cross the primary, i.e., as if looking at a phonograph record \"edge on\".",
"Hello Guys! So it happens I'm gonna do a small presentation at my uni concerning exoplanets. What importatnt fact or discovery do you think I should mention, that not many people know?",
"(Serious)\nDo you all ever just jam out to the Beastie Boy's \"Intergalactic\" while working?\n\nI could see you all dancing mildly to it when someone makes a discovery of importance.",
"Do you believe that our water really came from asteroids? if so, do you think its possible that it came from a planet within our solar system?",
"What kind of actual careers are there for you guys, especially the planetary geology (my dream to study but to also make a living off of)",
"is it at all possible for planets to have a circular orbit around a star/another body or is elliptical the only possibility ? and why?",
"Tell me all about a heavenly body that the general public should know lots about/would find totally fascinating but that we're totally ignorant of.",
"If we are looking at Earth-like planets that are several hundred light years away, why do we bother talking about colonization of said planet?",
"What would you change about Earth that would make it MORE conducive to life? Could it be hotter? More atmosphere? More surface area?",
"If a planet were to be destroyed, what effect, if any, would it have on the orbit of other planets in a system?",
"I have a question for all of you:\n\nWhat in your opinion, is the most underrated recent discovery in your field?",
"What is your percentage estimation of exoplanets/confirmed transits detected in crowdsourcing (\"citizen science\" like Planet Hunters) vs total exoplanets/confirmed transits?",
"What drove you to choose these careers and what part of your professions do you love the most?",
"What are some ideas that 'you know are true/want to be true' that need evidence to prove it?",
"What is the most exciting development in your field that the general public may not have heard about?",
"How can I get a job with you guys? I have my BS in Aero. Eng.",
"What do you feel is the most interesting fact on the formation of our solar system?",
"Would you care to provide an opinion on space mining and ISRU in the future?",
"What makes Jupiter's red spot red? What is your best guess if you don't know?",
"Why don't we take a bunch of tardigrades And put them on mars?",
"What the hell happened to Pluto? I might be late for this...",
"What's the best planetary science software available to the public? Any simulations?",
"You guys need any biologists? Would love to be an astrobiologist",
"Is ASU's School of Earth and Space Exploration your rival?",
"In the [video of Sagittarius A*](_URL_9_), could S0-2 have planets?",
"On average how many stars have planets orbiting them?",
"The most revolutionary discovery to Planetary Scientists would be...",
"When will you give 2007OR10 and 2002MS4 real names?",
"I'm currently studying mining geology, and I've always been interested in the prospect of mining in space, be it on asteroids, mars, or the moon. I've speculated that perhaps a good place to look for economic minerals on the moon would be:\n 1.) Inside impact craters for Fe or Ni metals from the asteroid it's self\n(would it be destroyed on impact? Do we see intact asteroids still inside craters?) or mineralization resulting from impact (melting the surrounding rock, or triggering lava flows? Do we see any active or recent basalt flows on the moon?)\n2.) In lunar basalt (which could house some valuable Zeolite minerals?) \n3.) In lunar Anorthosite (perhaps for Titanium oxide contained in Ilmenite if Lunar Anorthosite is similar to Archean Anorthosites, which have occasionally been mined on Earth for TiO2)\n4.) In Lunar rocks/soil(dust)? for amounts of Uranium or Thorium to perhaps run future nuclear reactors (Is there Uranium or Thorium in the bulk crustal composition of the Moon?)\n5.) Lunar polar ice could prove to have more economic valuable than gold or platinum is on Earth for drinking, farming, drilling, mining, and rocket fuel, (what are the concentrations of water ice like near the poles? on the dark side of the moon?)\n\nAsteroids too could be mined for much the same things,\na.) How detailed of work has been done on the composition of asteroids?\nb.) Have there been radar or x-ray scans that have been able to detect different areas of mineralization? \nc.) What is the breakdown of an avg. asteroids composition? or perhaps one/s that have been more extensively studied?\nd.) Is the amount of force required to divert a ~7m asteroid's trajectory to enter a high orbit around the moon under NASA's plan really feasible?\ne.) Do asteroids ever come near Earth and loop around multiple times? If an asteroid came near, could we realistically set up a mining operation that may take 10 years to complete or would most asteroids fly away with our operation?\nf.) What are future missions planned to study asteroids in more detail? How are they equipped to look closer at the minerals in an asteroid than we currently have?\ng.) Are their any groups, think tanks, or organizations you know of that are seriously considering the proposition of asteroid mining?\n\nIf any of you guys have any insight or answers to any of the questions feel free to answer or speculate, I love the discussion. I'm trying to conceptualize the amounts, concentrations, and types of different valuable materials in our nearby galactic neighborhood. Your work is pushing the beginning of a new frontier, much like the wild west was during the gold rush of the 1900's, and I'm excited to see what advances the next century will see!",
"How far away can we see planets, VS how far can we see stars? \n\nAre there any potential advancements underway that could help us see further?\n\nHow many planets have we found? Is there some sort of mathematical model that takes a stab at how many planets there might be out there based on what we know about the universe?\n\nOther than a habitable planet, what other kind of planet discovery would get people like you excited?\n\nIs there a possibility that some catastrophic event has happened on a planet or star that's close enough to earth to affect us but is too far away for us to detect yet? ie: could something that would destroy earth have already happened in space somewhere, but hasn't hit here yet because of travel time? Not thinking like a comet or something, but more like a planet or star explosion/implosion, supernova (whatever that means) etc. ....It always amazes me how immense things can happen in space or are still happening, and yet it's far enough away that it has no effect on us.",
"I have worked as a CAD designer in the construction field for 5 years. I am in my mid 20s and haven't gone to college yet. I am finally planning on furthering my education. The realistic and non risk-taking side of me is telling me to get an engineering degree, but I would love to work in the field of Astronomy, Planetary Science, etc. \n \nAnyways, my question is, will it be harder for someone in their late 20s/early 30s (estimated age after finishing an undergraduate and graduate program) to enter your field as a scientist or astronomer than someone who went to college directly after high school? I excelled tremedously during high school in math and science, so I know I can do the coursework. The only reason I got into construction was to help build my fathers CAD business.",
"Maybe some of you have seen [Pitch Black](_URL_12_), [Chronicles of Riddick](_URL_11_), or [Riddick](_URL_10_). I mention the movies because unique planetary environments tend to play a big part in the plot. Regardless of how plausible these planets are, can any of you think of any other wacky planetary systems which allow humans to struggle for survival on the surface in... neat ways?\n\nIn the movies we have:\n\n* a desert planet which is perpetually in day, except for a rare eclipse that puts it in darkness for months.\n* a planet with wild variances in temperature, where humans can only survive on the surface at dawn or dusk.\n\nEtcetera.",
"Greetings guys! I am currently a fourth year getting my BS in Planetary Science within the University of California system. I really would like to pursue a Ph.D after graduating because of the lack of Master's programs and my liking towards the University I am at. But I do not know what I REALLY want to study yet. \n\nWhat would you all suggest studying? What still needs a lot of research? What translates into a nice career? What skills should I be honing? \n\n\nMany thanks for this AUA!",
"Why do they depict earth in it's early stages as some sort of molten volcanic hell? Wouldn't it have been more like Mars, cold, without any atmosphere. A huge dirty snowball, where all the heavy materials slowly fall to the center of the gravity well and slowly heat up due to pressure. Mars even though it's cold, has a huge volcano. Don't you think you should take Mars as an example of a developing earth sized planet, the rule and not an exception.",
"This may be stupid but it was an idea that fascinated me as a kid\n\nScientifically speaking, could it be possible for a planet to support life on it's interior?\n\nI stumbled across a theory of gravity originating from the crust and on the opposite side a walkable terrain (upside down)\n\nOr, what about intelligent life forms that live deep within a planet showing no signs of life from the surface? Like in deep hollowed out cave systems.",
"Do you think that our simple mind thinking that life needs to only come from water and carbon is misguided? Shouldn't we be looking for any planet that has interesting chemistry possibilities?\n\nFor instance, water is only liquid at atmospheric pressure, and that only works under a certain planet size. Other chemical properties can arise based on the size of the planet. Chemical building blocks, gravity, and pressure create 3 variables.",
"K04PB2B, As a Physical Science student enthralled about Space Exploration and Colonization, I've always deemed the Kuiper Belt as a potential \"second home\" for humanity due to the size of it and the amount of bodies that lie in the kuiper belt that seem to be clustered, and or far apart to avoid any disasters of impacts.\n\nIs my logic off? Are Kuiper belt bodies farther apart than I think?",
"Kepler-186f is apparently the most '[Earth-like](_URL_14_)' planet ever found.\n\nObviously it isn't Earth-like. Its temperature is [apparently](_URL_13_) '3788±54 K'.\n\nHow is that Earth-like?\nAnd what does that mean for current exoplanet discovery technology?\n\nIf the most similar looking exoplanet to Earth has a temperature that is double the melting point of iron, how long do we have until we can actually find something useful?",
"Would it be possible for more than 1 sun to exist in a solar system? For the example I have in mind is; say that Jupiter or Saturn were replaced by a same size sun. That sun would still be in our suns orbit and such, but would there be any type of changes on earth or other planets?",
"Would Phobos be a good \"practice\" rock to blow up by NASA in a future anti - asteroid protection program? (for lack of a better title) \n1. From what I understand, it's going to get pulled into Mars eventually and... \n\n2. IF we do end up colonizing Mars, wouldn't Phobos wipe out all life there? \n(edit: formatting)",
"I've heard that with a satellite like our moon Mars's core could be successfully reignited and sustained. \n\nWhat I was wondering is - would it be possible to create an artificial satellite as large as the moon, or would it make more sense to try and introduce a large asteroid into Mars' orbit?",
"I recognize there's an issue of sampling bias with regards to exoplanets, but based on your understanding (even if our techniques don't yet back it up), what is the probability any given star has a habitable planet in orbit around it? Is it a possible solution to the Fermi paradox?",
"how would rotation and orbital period affect humans colonizing on another planet? Such as if the rotation speed is great, would we need to live underground as we would not have large buildings? Or the seasons could be much more extreme with a long orbit.",
"So, with a thin atmosphere, and considering the proximity to the asteroid belt, what happens to micro-meteorites on Mars? Is it possible the hematite nodules (\"blueberries\") that Opportunity has seen are remnants of the smallest mass micrometeorites that survive?",
"From what I've read, Earth is relatively close to the center of the universe. Does this have any significance to the development of life here/could other habitable planets exist in distant parts of the universe?",
"In binary systems where one star clearly orbits the other, what do we call worlds that orbit the secondary star, planets, or moons? \n\nEDIT: And what if the secondary star is a brown dwarf?",
"conamara_chaos as an Irish astronomy student I think this question is of particular importance to you. Why do you spell it Conamara instead of Connemara or is it a totally irrelevant reference?",
"Could there have *ever* been complicated life [plants, birds, mammals, fish, etc..] on Mars? If so, what timeframe (length and # of years in the past) would have supported this life?",
"Given that fully earth-like planets are likely to be few and far between, what do you think the potential is long term to terraform an otherwise uninhabitable planet?",
"Hi! I'm aware that there is a hexagonal cloud formation near the pole of Saturn. What forms this anomaly and what's so special about hexagons?",
"Already posted, just thought of this one:\n\nWhat is the most important mission or research we are currently pursuing? Why? Do you all agree?",
"Have you ever seen something that you cannot explain rationally?\n\nor\n\nWhat is the one thing you have seen that you will never forget?",
"What do you think of the evidence that the Earth is expanding?\nAs presented by James Maxlow?\n_URL_15_",
"What would the the ocean and atmosphere be like if the earth didn't spin on its own axis?",
"How exactly are gas giants formed? and why dont they clump up to a completely solid planet?",
"How long will it take the earth's core to cool and how will that affect our climate?",
"is it true that when out of our atmosphere you can't see our sun and other stars?",
"What did you study, and how did you get to the job you have now?",
"Best estimate, how many light years away is the closest habitable planet?",
"How do we determine what is a planet made up of?",
"How many rouge planets could there be between solar systems?",
"What are the best books to read in your field?",
"What's your opinion on Dr. Michio Kaku civilisation types?",
"conamara_chaos: How long before Earth is tectonically dead?"
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://osiris-rex.lpl.arizona.edu/",
"http://kepler.nasa.gov/",
"http://www.arizona.edu/",
"http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/o4GI9Tg",
"http://brucegary.net/book_EOA/x.htm",
"planethunters.org",
"http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/HDEV/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_impact_hypothesis",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1209.4418",
"http://www.centauri-dreams.org/?p=15290",
"http://www.centauri-dreams.org/",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZkDiYoq-Bc4&feature=youtu.be",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EvuV3GdVaY4&app=desktop",
"http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1411250/",
"http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0296572/",
"http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0134847/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler-186f",
"http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-kepler-186f-earth-sized-like-habitable-zone-planet-20140417-story.html",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_f6hcGJbjL0&list=PLC219947238A787BE"
]
} | We are planetary scientists! AUA!
We are from [The University of Arizona](_URL_2_)'s [Department of Planetary Science, Lunar and Planetary Lab (LPL)](_URL_3_). Our department contains research scientists in nearly all areas of planetary science. In brief (feel free to ask for the details!) this is what we study: * **K04PB2B**: orbital dynamics, exoplanets, the Kuiper Belt, [Kepler](_URL_1_) * **HD209458b**: exoplanets, atmospheres, observations (transits), [Kepler](_URL_1_) * **AstroMike23**: giant planet atmospheres, modeling * **conamara_chaos**: geophysics, planetary satellites, asteroids * **chetcheterson**: asteroids, surface, observation (polarimetry) * **thechristinechapel**: asteroids, [OSIRIS-REx](_URL_0_) Ask Us Anything about LPL, what we study, or planetary science in general! *EDIT*: Hi everyone! Thanks for asking great questions! We will continue to answer questions, but we've gone home for the evening so we'll be answering at a slower rate. | [
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|
1zn6od | Youngest person to achieve atomic fusion: what has he actually done? | If you haven't seen it in the news here is a link: _URL_0_
I understand the basic principles of fusion, but how is this different to what governments are spending billions on? If it's so easy why aren't more people doing it? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cfvepep",
"cfvdaxj",
"cfvdefk"
],
"text": [
"Fusion is easy, trivial even. But that's because it's easy to \"cheat\". Particles are small, by putting enough energy into small particles you can initiate fusion. One simple way to do this is to accelerate deuterium nuclei into deuterium or tritium nuclei. You can do this in a handheld device that runs off of wall power.\n\nBut these devices use far more energy than they produce. What we've been seeking with fusion research is a system that returns a surplus of energy. That's only possible by containing fusion fuel plasmas under high temperatures and pressures, which is a very complicated and difficult thing to do that requires state-of-the-art equipment. Currently we have only gotten to a barely break-even level of being able to operate fusion reactions which return as much energy as is used to create the conditions necessary for the fusion to take place.\n\nThink of it like ... say, hydropower. It's easy to fill a sink with water at home, or to collect rain water in a barrel outside. But generating significant amounts of electrical power from water requires large reservoirs, dams, generators, and other special equipment.",
"I would first point out that the article says atomic fusion. Bad word choice, it should be nuclear fusion.\n\nPeople have been doing nuclear fusion since the 1930s. It is actually is pretty easy to do. In the most basic definition, I can take a source of Am-241 and aluminum and create nuclear fusion since the alpha particle will combine with the aluminum isotope. That is typically not what is meant by nuclear fusion. Specifically they are talking about some form of hydrogen fusion. \n\nThe kid made a device that fuses hydrogen to make neutrons. That isn't hard to do in terms of the science. We have been doing that for well over 60 years. It is impressive someone so young built a device. The main thing governments are working on is similar. They want to create nuclear fusion with hydrogen. The big difference for them is they want to create more energy from fusion than it takes to make the fusion occur. The experiment the kid did took more energy to produce the fusion than was released. That is nice if you want a good neutron source. However, if you want to make a power plant you need to have a reaction that is pseudo self sustaining. That is very difficult.",
"Actually, making a fusion reactor is [surprisingly easy](_URL_1_), as [Taylor Wilsen](_URL_0_) will attest. The thing is, these reactors require loads more power than they put out, meaning you can't use them to generate energy. The ultimate goal of programmes like ITER is to change this, as once you have a viable self-sustaining reaction, you can start to harvest the energy given off to generate electricity. \n \nAll those billions are going toward making a self-sustaining reaction viable (as in, doesn't need outside power sources to continue fusion once it's running)."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-26450494"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_Wilson",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusor"
]
} | Youngest person to achieve atomic fusion: what has he actually done?
If you haven't seen it in the news here is a link: _URL_0_ I understand the basic principles of fusion, but how is this different to what governments are spending billions on? If it's so easy why aren't more people doing it? | [
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|
10qenp | My Crabapple tree is blooming in the fall and we live in Alberta, Canada. This has never happened before and we've lived here for 10 years. What is happening? [pic] | Here is a [picture](_URL_0_) we took a few days ago of the first bloom we noticed. The tree gets lightly trimmed every year and is well taken care. It never undergoes any stress, as far as we know.
Super curious! Any thoughts? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6frrtg",
"c6frv3h",
"c6frjgg"
],
"text": [
"That is odd. Apple trees flower in the spring. Has there been some odd weather there? Apple trees may flower after 50-90 days of growing days without a frost in the spring, but that would be weird in the fall. It appears that your tree has apples too.\n\nHas your tree been grafted with some other cultivar? That's all I could think of.",
"[This article](_URL_0_) says that some varieties blossom late. So maybe yours does. It could be that warmer weather this year just made it happen because it just hasn't been that cold until recently.",
"my lilac tree bloomed last week (lake erie shore)."
],
"score": [
9,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/V3gJC.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/garden/07424.html"
]
} | My Crabapple tree is blooming in the fall and we live in Alberta, Canada. This has never happened before and we've lived here for 10 years. What is happening? [pic]
Here is a [picture](_URL_0_) we took a few days ago of the first bloom we noticed. The tree gets lightly trimmed every year and is well taken care. It never undergoes any stress, as far as we know. Super curious! Any thoughts? | [
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20wp8p | When building like the Empire State Building (or taller) get too old and need to be brought down, how will they do it safely? | askscience | {
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"A Japanese construction company demolishes buildings a floor at a time. [Link with video and explanation](_URL_0_). Seems like it would be useful to tear down a building like the ESB when it has reached end of life.",
"How long can we expect a building like ESB to last?",
"Architect here.\n\nBuilduings are disigned with the full life cycle in mind, which means demolition and recycling of the materials are acounted for.\n\nThey are demolished the way they are built. Floor by floor. \n\nFirst come the facade panels, then the steel trusses suporting the floor are unbolted, and finaly the concrete core is sawed in bits with a bigass saw.",
"The Deutsche Bank Building was a 39 story tower that was damaged during the 9/11 attacks and was eventually dismantled floor by floor. It's dismantling also had some tragedies associated with it as well. Interesting read. \n\n_URL_2_\n\nAnimation of the process: _URL_2_",
"There is a book on this exact subject, by the great illustrator David Macaulay...\n\n\"Unbuilding\" *This fictional account of the dismantling and removal of the Empire State Building describes the structure of a skyscraper and explains how such an edifice would be demolished.*\n\n[_URL_3_](_URL_3_)",
"Like other people are saying, floor by floor, just the way it went up. Material reclamation is a lot easier that way too. You would never let all of the steel, copper, and glass in a skyscraper just fall to the ground in a giant pile to be sorted through later. You pick them out bit by bit. It takes longer, but it's way more cost effective in the end.\n\nThat being said, buildings can last a long long time if properly cared for. The Empire State Building in particular is a national historic landmark and will continue to stand for as long as we can keep it up. To this end it actually just finished being renovated about a year ago IIRC. I imagine it will last hundreds of years and continue to be renovated periodically as building technology continues to change.",
"I have seen videos of skyscrapers being \"demolished\" floor by floor. It is a much longer process, but it reduces the amount of potential collateral damage a controlled implosion could cause. \n\nI am at work now, but I will try to find the video of the floor by floor deconstruction.",
"I live in Chch, NZ.\nIts been quite fascinating seeing the various methods of demolition occurring throughout the city removing all the earthquake damaged buildings.\n\nBut the most common is in several steps.\nFirst optional step is to strengthen a weakened structure.\nThen the go floor by floor removing windows and and building components that can be salvaged.\n\nSometimes if toxic materials are involved (asbestos) they will wrap an entire structure and contain dust & debris.\n\n\nOnce they are down to a shell then the cranes get built around the structure and will lift in a small digger to nibble the concrete structure down floor by floor.\nThe crane will also lift out material.\n\nWhile our buildings are no where near the height of the Empire states building, the process I imaging will be the same.\nTake it floor by floor and build cranes to access the higher levels.",
"Read [*Unbuilding*](_URL_4_) by David Macaulay. It is a young adult \"fiction\" about a Saudi prince who has it dismantled and shipped to Saudi Arabia. This is now how it would be demolished but it gives a very good look on how the building is put together and gives you an idea of the scope of the job.",
"They wanted to take down the World Trade Center with controlled demo, they put in an application to the Port Authority but had it rejected, they were told it was too dangerous as the Asbestos would get into the air and poison people's lungs.",
"Follow up question: What is the average life of a building like the ESB? And does the lifespan vary depending on whether the building a landmark or not?"
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"url": [
"http://www.theatlanticcities.com/technology/2013/01/knocking-down-huge-buildings-quietly-floor-floor/4362/",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iAy-jgt_ng0",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Bank_Building",
"http://www.amazon.com/Unbuilding-Sandpiper-David-Macaulay/dp/0395454255",
"http://www.amazon.com/Unbuilding-Sandpiper-David-Macaulay/dp/0395454255"
]
} | When building like the Empire State Building (or taller) get too old and need to be brought down, how will they do it safely?
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6c3t0s | If each day is only 23h56m4s, over the course of 4 years, we accumulate 95.7 hours of unaccounted time when approximating each day to 24 hours. We give ourselves one extra day in February, which accounts for only 24 hours of that extra time, but where does that extra 71.7 hours go? | This also means that our calendar should shift over 3 days every 4 years, changing the "location" of the seasons in our man made calendar
Edit: Thanks for the responses everyone, I understand it totally now. My students ask me this question every year when I teach the unit on Earth and space and every year a student asks me this, so this year I'm getting the jump on them and doing my research before they inevitably ask me. Its difficult to quench the curiosity of kids, now only to anticipate what they're follow up question Will be... | askscience | {
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"It sounds like you're confusing [sidereal time](_URL_1_) with [solar time](_URL_2_). A sidereal day is the amount of time it takes for the Earth to rotate by 360°, and is indeed 23h56m4s. A solar day is the interval between two successive instances of the Sun crossing the [local meridian](_URL_3_). Since the Earth moves by roughly 1° around the Sun each day, the Earth has to rotate by roughly 361° for the Sun to cross the local meridian. In [this image](_URL_0_), sidereal time is the difference between the blue circles labelled \"1\" and \"2\", where solar time is the difference between the blue circles labelled \"1\" and \"3\".",
"That's how long it takes for a 360° rotation of the earth. Since it's also revolving around the sun it requires more than a 360° turn for the same point to be facing the sun again. Therefore, a \"day\" as we know it is more than 360° and a lot closer to 24 hours than your estimate.",
"Your math is off, we add add the lap day because the solar year is actually about 365 1/4 days, we add the extra day every 4 years to account for that. We actually had to change it a while back to account for the fact that its slightly less the 365 1/4 \n\nHeres a better explanation...\n\nThe exact length of a solar year is actually 11 minutes and 14 seconds less than 365 ¼ days. That means that even if you add a leap day every four years, the calendar would still overshoot the solar year by a little bit—11 minutes and 14 seconds per year. These minutes and seconds really start to add up: after 128 years, the calendar would gain an entire extra day. So, the leap year rule, \"add a leap year every four years\" was a good rule, but not good enough!\n\nCalendar Correction, Part II\n\nTo rectify the situation, the creators of our calendar (the Gregorian calendar, introduced in 1582) decided to omit leap years three times every four hundred years. This would shorten the calendar every so often and rid it of the annual excess of 11 minutes and 14 seconds. So in addition to the rule that a leap year occurs every four years, a new rule was added: a century year is not a leap year unless it is evenly divisible by 400. This rule manages to eliminate three leap years every few hundred years.\n\n_URL_4_",
"No, 23h25m4s is the length of a *sideral day*, which is the time it takes to face the same direction relevant to an object outside the solar system (such as the galactic center). A solar day (the time it takes for the sun to reach the same angle in the sky) is about 24 hours (give or take a few seconds on certain days, considering the earth moves at different speeds at different parts of its ellipse).\n\nLeap years are a different kettle of fish. You see, the speed at which the earth rotates, and the speed at which it revolves around the sun are not connected, and the solar year is 365d5h48m46s (which is 11m14s less than 365.25 days) so we accumulate nearly a quarter of a day (to be specific, 24.219907407407407407407407407407%) per year, which would mean over time, our calendar would slip and we'd end up with summer in the northern hemisphere for christmas! over the course of 100 years, autumn would begin to creep into august, and spring into January, as the seasons shifted over by 24 days. So, we could add an extra day ever 4 years to fix it right? However, since the solar year is 11m14s shorter than that .25, we're now shifting 11m14s a year in the other direction. in 128 years, we'd be one day off. So we do better by NOT including an extra day on years divisible by 100. But we also knew we could do better, so we made an exception to that rule: If the year was divisible by 400 it WOULD be a Leap Year. Now it will take 3300 years to diverge for the calendar year and solar year to converge by a single day!",
"You are thinking of the rotation period of the earth. The earth takes slightly shorter than 24 hours for one revolution. \n\nHowever, after one rotation, it also has progressed on its orbit around the sun. So after one full rotation, the sun is not in the same position. If you wait a bit longer (for a total of almost exactly24h), the sun is in the same position again.\n\nThe leap day has nothing to do with earth's rotation, it has to do with the time it takes to orbit the sun. The earth needs 365 and 1/4 (rounded) days to orbit the sun. The leap day keeps the year aligned with the orbit around the sun. Without the leap day, the seasons would slowly shift (at a rate of roughly 1 month every 120 years).",
"I'd like to congratulate you.\nYou took the base data, calculated the difference and came up with a reasonable question.\nYou were missing one variable, sidereal time, and you sought an explanation as to the variance of theory with observed data.\nYou learned, others learned. Science and logic FTW!",
"The 4 minute discrepency is our position relative to the stars, not the sun. We measure days by the sun, not the stars.\n\nSo, one day is 1440 minutes. One orbit is 365.25 days. So every time we've completed one *solar* day - that is, the sun has returned to the same relative position it started in, we've moved further 1/365.25° in our orbit. Leaving the stars 1440/365.25 minutes out of place - 3.94 minutes.\n\nThis \"discrepency\" doesn't need to be accounted for, because once it's happened 365.25 times, the stars are back where they started.\n\nThe leap year accounts for that 0.25 in our 365.25 day orbit. So you can see where 4*0.25 becomes simple.",
"The sidereal day is 23h56m4s, which is the time for one 360° rotation of the Earth.\nThe solar day (from noon to noon) is almost exactly 24h, and is the only one that matters for our lifes.\nIf one day you see the night sky at 9pm, you will see the same sky the next day at 8:56, then 8:52 and so on. After one year, this difference will sum to one day, so you will returning seeing those stars at 9 (aproximately, because one year is slightly longer than 365 days)",
"Once you account for solar days vs. stellar days the *once-every-4-years* leap day turns out to be **too much**, actually. Which is why we actually *subtract* leap days!\n\nYou know the leap days as once every 4 years, and yes, that's mostly true. But did you know that every hundred years, we *don't* have a leap year? Any year that is divisible by 100, and thus ends in 00 (1900, 1800, 1700, etc...) is **not** a leap year. BUT, there's a second exception to that exception: Any year that ends in 00 AND is divisible by 400 (*i.e.* 1600, 2000, 2400) is **still** a leap year.",
"A lot of people are pointing out the difference between sidereal days and solar days, but there's an important piece to a proper answer that's (mostly) being neglected: leap days are to fix the disparity between how long it takes for the Earth to *revolve* around the sun once (8766.15 hours (+/-, depending on which definition you're using)) and how many hours are in 365 solar days (8760). That 6.15 hour disparity is what's corrected with leap days. Without Feb. 29, seasons would slowly (but noticeably) shift. Across a single lifetime, the winter solstice (in the north) could work its way to November. Leap days do *not* address anything related to how the Earth *rotates* on its axis (aside from the fact that that's how we count days).\n\nIf there really was a ~4 minute disparity between a 24 hour \"day\" and a 23h56m4s *solar* day, then you'd notice that the sun would rise/set earlier and earlier. In three months, you'd get sunrise at midnight and sunset at noon. Three more months, sunrise at 6pm and sunset at 6am. \nThis clearly doesn't happen, and it's because a solar day really is (on average) almost exactly 24 hours. (See all the other answers about sidereal days vs solar days to explain where 23h56m4s comes from).\n\nOn a parting note, I want to actually answer \"where does that extra [time] go?\" Each year, it goes into the changing night sky. The constellations shift with the seasons *exactly* the way the sun would in my hypothetical scenario above. If you could see Orion even during the day, and you kept careful track, you'd notice that it rises and sets 36**6** times while the sun only rises and sets 365 times.",
"In 23:56:04 the planet completes one revolution on its axis. This is a sidereal day, and if you want to figure out where in the sky to find a star then knowing the local sidereal time is important.\n\nDuring that time the planet also goes a little bit of the way around the sun. In 24:00:00 the rotation of the planet on it's axis plus the orbiting around the sun combine to get the sun to the same place in the sky (not accounting for seasonal variations). This is a solar day and is the most useful day for day to day life. \n\nIn 365.24 solar days (or 366.24 sidereal days) earth completes one orbit of the sun. Our calendar approximates this as being 365 solar days most years or 366 solar days in leap years. \n\nLeap days are correcting for differences between the length of a year and the length of 365 solar days. The difference between a solar and sidereal day is correcting for the fact that over the course of a year the orbit of the planet \"unwinds\" one day. They're different things entirely. A different orbit could see a year of 365.01 solar days, needing a leap day only once in a century while still having a similar sidereal and solar day length.",
"A day is 24 hours. If the day weren't 24 hours then after a period of months the Sun would be in the sky at midnight, or it would be dark at noon.\n\nThe year is not a full integer multiple number of days in length, however. And that would cause the seasons to shift their timing in the year over time. Which was what happened when the Julian calendar was in use. The Gregorian calendar adds or skips leap days in such a way that it takes about 3000 years for the timing of the seasons to be off by a day (which can be fixed with ad hoc leap days or skipping leap days, should civilization continue that long).\n\nThe difference you're talking about is the difference between the solar day and the sidereal day, or when the sun appears at the same place in the sky versus when the stars appear at the same place in the sky. What you'll find is that it is roughly 1/365th of a day shorter than a solar day. Over the course of a year the position of the stars relative to the solar time of day shifts over a complete rotation of the sky, because the Earth is in orbit of the Sun.",
"You're confusing a few different measurements here.\n\nThe 23:56:04 figure is for a *sidereal* day. That is, the time taken for the Earth to rotate once with respect to the background stars. But the calendar works by *solar* days, which are actually 24 hours (at least on average).\n\nNotice how the difference (3 minutes and 56 seconds every day) is almost exactly enough to add up to one extra day each year. That's because the Earth goes around the Sun once per year, so the rate at which its solar days 'fall behind' has to come to one full day each year. (To illustrate, imagine if the Earth didn't rotate at all relative to the background stars. We would still get exactly 1 solar day each year.)\n\nLeap day has nothing to do with the 3-minute-56-second discrepancy. It's due entirely to the fact that we insist on having the new calendar year start at midnight, and the discrepancy between the (non-integer) number of solar days in a year and the (integer) number of days on our calendar.",
"In fact if you want to take into account not only a full rotation if the earth, (360 degrees) and one day closer to one full orbit (365 days), you end up only having to rotate 359 or so to face the same position relative to the sun, which means 24 hours really is close. Close to a minute within 24 hours actually. Which is why if we loosely round to one extra minute each day, we end up with approximately six hours every year, thus the need to account for an extra day every four.",
"Aside from your math being off and confusing solar and sidereal days, an extra day every four Februarys is not the only corrective measure we use. \n\nThere are also leap seconds which are applied when needed, and also century years are not leap years unless they are divisible by 400. (2000 was a leap year, but 1900 wasn't and 2100 won't be)",
"the length of a day is defined by measuring planets rotation relative to some other \"fixed\" astronomical object. For that we have one of two options, we can use the object it's orbiting, or we can use far away stars. \n\nIn the first case you get synodic time, and since the earth is orbiting the sun, synodic time for our little rock is usually referred to as solar time. \n\nIn the second case you get sidereal time. \n\nFor the purposes of calendars and tracking seasons and blah blah all that every day use, we use solar time, not sidereal time. The mean solar day is defined exactly as 24 hours (or rather 86 400 SI seconds but whatever). However since a year is given by earth's rotation around the sun, we end up with a small time shortage on the calendar day since it takes about 365.24 solar days for the earth to complete one orbit. Since the calendar date is supposed to represent earth's position in it's orbit and thus the change of seasons caused by distance to the sun and blah blah etc that .24 would cause the calendar to drift. Thus leap years. \n\nnow sidereal time is mostly of use to astronomers and other folks who like looking at stars. It also gives us a \"better\" true day because the earths motion around the sun slightly extends the solar day by a little under 4 minutes in comparison to the sidereal period of motion. However this does not affect the calendar because our calendar isn't based off sidereal time.",
"You mean a sidereal day (time for the earth to rotate 360 degree arounds it's own axis).\nThr \"normal\" day is a solar day (time it takes for the sund to be at the same spot in the sky).\nHere is a good picture:\n[Thanks German Wikipedia](_URL_6_).\nYou see that the solar day (1-3) is takes a little bit longer than a sidereal day (1-2).\nBut the solar day is still not 24h, because of this there are leap seconds (unly if needed but approximately about every 18 months).\n[Wikipedia](_URL_7_)\n\nBut the year is also unperfect.\nThe \"standard\" year ([Tropical year](_URL_10_) is about 365,24219052 days long but there was a leap year every 4 years in the [Julian calendar](_URL_8_) so this also doesn't work.\nBecause of this we now use the [Gregorian calendar](_URL_9_).\nIt's mostly the same but:\nThere is one leap year if the year is dividable by 4\nexcept it's also dividable by 100\nbut there is one if it's dividable by 400.\nFor example every year until now - 2099 is a leap year but 2100 isn't nor 2200 and 2300 but 2400 is one again.\nFor further information:\n[And again Wikipedia!](_URL_10_)\n\nSry for my bad English skills.\nI'm Austrian and never pay enough attention in school. Shit, And have to make a English presentation by monday ...\n\nEdit: Link repair\nEdit: Wrote this edit ^",
"You are confusing the various times. A solar day is 24 hours which is the time from when a particular part of the earth is facing the sun, to when that same piece of earth is again facing the sun. The time you quoted is for a sidereal day, which is a similar definition but to a distant stellar body. The reason for a leap day is to account for the fact that these solar days don't align exactly with the earths orbit, which is a completely seperately defined length of time, at 265.2422 solar days. As you can see this number lines up far better with our leap system.",
"23h56m4s is the length of a sidereal day, which is how long it takes the earth to rotate once relative to far away stars. For our calendars, however, it is much more convenient to go by our rotation relative to the sun. This type of measurement is called a solar day. Going by the solar day, the calendar is off by about 1 day every 4 years, which is why we have leap years.",
"One year is one rotation around the sun and not calculated by 360° rotation time. Earth completes one trip around the sun in 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 47 seconds. 23 hours and 56 minutes day called sidereal day (aka 360° turn) 24h day is considered 361° turn. 1° is gotten from earth movement in space ( as far as i know, feel free to correct me ).",
"Pretend you're standing in a 4-sided room standing at the center of the south wall, facing the center of the room (i.e. north).\n\nSpin 360°. Notice you're still facing the center.\n\nNow, spin 360° while simultaneously moving to the midpoint of the west wall. Now you're still facing north, but north no longer points you toward the center of the room. To face the center, you need to spin some additional amount.\n\nThe same thing happens to earth. From noon one day to noon the next (I.e. The sun at its highest point in the sky), it needs to spin a bit over 360°. That additional bit of rotation takes up the missing 4 minutes.\n\nIIRC, the \"second\" was originally defined as a fraction of a solar day (the \"second\" division of an hour by 60, with an hour being 1/24th of a solar day). These days, we define the second as something a bit more immutable, which is ever so slightly different, so we sometimes add leap seconds to make things line up and keep 12:00 at noon.\n\nLeap *years* happen because it actually takes about 365.25 days for the earth to orbit the sun, so we add an extra day to keep the solstices/equinoxes consistent.",
"There are some pretty good explanations here, there's just one further that I thought would be interesting to add:\n\nIf you notice, the difference between the 23h56m4s and 24h over the course of a year is ~1 day. (Almost exactly if you use the exact length of a year and sidereal day, but still off by a little, hence leap seconds.) That is a clue that the difference is a result of orbiting the sun. In fact, if the earth did not rotate about it's axis, a solar day would be equal to a year, and the difference between a solar day and a sidereal day would again be 1 full day. That is exactly what happens if you are on one of the poles, where the sun rises and sets once a year.",
"Fun fact - the difference between sidereal and solar days means that the earliest sunset of the year is not necessarily on the shortest day of the year. As you near the winter solstice (shortest day) the difference becomes significant.\n\nIn the Pacific NW (for example) the earliest sunset is usually Dec 12 (ish). The days continue to get shorter until Dec 21st (or 22nd) because the sunrise gets later faster than the sunset gets earlier.",
"This is a conflict between systems. Consider this, from wikipedia\n\n\"In astronomy, the Julian year is a unit of time; it is defined as 365.25 days of exactly 86400 seconds (SI base unit), totalling exactly 31557600 seconds in the Julian astronomical year.\"\n\nThat is an artificial simplification in which the daily discrepancies just get tossed away, they don't accumulate. That is the difference between our simplified system and the real world is fairly constant.\n\nLeap days are used to adjust the Julian calendar in order to be able to keep Stonehenge alignments in synch with equinoxes and solstices and keep track of Easter.\n \nThe algorithm for deciding if a year is a leap year starts like this:\n\nIf the year is evenly divisible by 4 it is a leap year,\n\nUnless it is also evenly divisible by 100 which means it is not a leap year,\n\nUnless it is also evenly divisible by 400 in which case it is in fact a leap year.\n\nThe algorithm usually stops here because we change the calendar more often than the next step size.\n\nThis calendar was designed to keep the seasons from drifting.",
"I'm pretty late to the party it seems, but 23h56m4s is the *sidereal* rotation rate (as others have said), meaning that each non-Sun star rises and sets every 23h56m4s.\n\nBut that's not why I'm here.\n\nI'm here to point out an awesome Lewis Carroll piece about this. Carroll wrote a bunch of humorous dialogues centered around conundrums of various sorts. In one of them the big question is what is more useful -- a clock that's right twice a day or one that's right only twice a year? Alice, of course, picks twice a year (but for the wrong reason) and her interlocutor points out that's silly, since the stopped clock is right exactly twice per day, and to know what time it is you just have to wait until the clock is correct, and then you know exactly what time it is...\n\nOf course, a common sort of clock that's right exactly twice a year is a *sidereal* clock, and it's extremely useful for astronomy and stellar navigation.",
"Earth actually rotates around its axis 3,56 minutes less than 24 hours. If we would not be adding 3,56 min to get a 24 hours day, for everyday demand to get sun on its exact spot on every high noon, we would have on 21. december high noon sun on exact midnight hours (and/or viseversa).",
"ok so now we all have devices which update their clocks all the time, does that updated time change according to the seasons? i've noticed my microwave clock has differed from my iphone clock by a few minutes in the last two months (last time we had a powercut and i reset it) but it didn't change much in the six months before that (when we moved house and i last set it) or does it just happen the same amount every day, and my microwave is knackered?",
"People have already answered your actual question, but as a side note, the leap day by itself is an OVERcorrection for our orbit around the sun. That is why any year that is divisible by 100 will not be a leap year despite being divisible by 4 (i.e. The year 2100 will not be a leap year). However, this TOO is an overcorrection, so years that are divisible by 400 are leap years (i.e. The year 2000 was a leap year)",
"If the earth orbits the sun in an elliptical orbit and the south pole is farther away from the sun in the winter( trying to remember 6th grade science), will the orbit change ever so slightly that over time so that the north pole will become farther away from the sun in the winter?"
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} | If each day is only 23h56m4s, over the course of 4 years, we accumulate 95.7 hours of unaccounted time when approximating each day to 24 hours. We give ourselves one extra day in February, which accounts for only 24 hours of that extra time, but where does that extra 71.7 hours go?
This also means that our calendar should shift over 3 days every 4 years, changing the "location" of the seasons in our man made calendar Edit: Thanks for the responses everyone, I understand it totally now. My students ask me this question every year when I teach the unit on Earth and space and every year a student asks me this, so this year I'm getting the jump on them and doing my research before they inevitably ask me. Its difficult to quench the curiosity of kids, now only to anticipate what they're follow up question Will be... | [
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|
zq25j | Today I found what appears to a be a plant that repaired a broken limb with as smaller support limb. What is going on with this? (Pics inside) | So I am calling it a buttress, but I don't really know what this phenomenon is called. I have been unsuccessful in googleing any information on the matter.
Please excuse my fuzzy phone pics.
[PICS](_URL_0_)
PS: I posted the same gallery in r/plants to see if they could identify the plant itself, in case that helps.
EDIT: Thanks for all of the responses. The AskScience community is awesome! I was hoping I would get some lovely *tropism kind of word to help me get a better handle on the subject.
It seems many people are suggesting inoscculation and/or gravitropism combined with stem damage. Upon further inspection I realized that the smaller, connecting, stem grew from a node closer to the end of the parent stem and re-attached to a point on the same stem, but closer to the stalk. It was able to do this because of the bend in the stalk.
I am wondering now if the leaf stem's grafting behavior wasn't triggered by the bending/damage to the parent stem. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c66twnn",
"c66tk7w",
"c66t185",
"c66ti2c",
"c66uh2t",
"c66z09t",
"c66welm",
"c66wsot"
],
"text": [
"I realize this may not be of any help for this particular post, however, when trying to identify a plant species you need a picture or it's full form, an upper leaf, under leaf, the bud, branching pattern, and any fruit or inflorescence , also knowing the location and whether it is a high and dry site or low and wet (near a ditch) is also very helpful.",
"I have a very large beech tree growing beside my house. It has a similar thing, but with massive branches, as big around as some smaller, younger trees. I always thought it was an interesting formation. If anyone's interested I could take a few pictures of it.\n\nEdit: [Took some pictures](_URL_0_), please excuse the horrid exposures and often blurry focus. I had the ISO cranked high as it'd go and the shutter speed down in order to get a decent shot, and was either on my back or bent over halfways to get it in view.",
"I'm pretty sure the plant is a lamb's quarter (Chenopodium album), a pretty common weed. That's all I really know about this.",
"I can't see clearly what is going on with that plant. It sounds like it might be an example of [inosculation]( _URL_1_) though.",
"Hmm, if you can't get an answer, try r/botany.",
"_URL_2_\n\nmy girlfriends dad used to be able to grow an apple tree that had 5 different species of apple on it. the process would involve cutting off a branch of one apple tree than making a wound in another and placing the cut off branch of the first tree on the wound of the second tree, somehow the two would fuse. Im guessing the plant in this picture had some chance of event where the same thing happened. too drunk to find sources or even the name of it.\n\nEdit: by \"chance\" i mean the tip of a branch was cut somehow on that plant and connected with a part of the stem that also had a cut in it\n\nEdit 2: Found it! ----- > Grafting _URL_2_",
"This is extremely common in the giant Redwood trees in California. I would not be surprised that it occurs in other plants as well.",
"This may not be easy to tell by the video, but I was at a tree maybe 2-3 feet diameter get intersected right at its base at a 90 degree angle with another tree that was also 2-3 feet diameter, just laying on the ground, and they were perfectly merged with each other. And the sideways one's end was dead on one end and alive and going up after riding on the ground for a few feet first. And there is also like a half-rotten branch that comes out from it (end of video) and it goes along the ground for a few feet, and then shoots up and is incredibly strong and thin.\n\n_URL_3_\n\nedit: grammar"
],
"score": [
366,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/a/wQDtH#0"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/a/Z0cIV",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inosculation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grafting",
"https://docs.google.com/open?id=0BxfeS3JDKWnqcTJnTFVqREcwRm8"
]
} | Today I found what appears to a be a plant that repaired a broken limb with as smaller support limb. What is going on with this? (Pics inside)
So I am calling it a buttress, but I don't really know what this phenomenon is called. I have been unsuccessful in googleing any information on the matter. Please excuse my fuzzy phone pics. [PICS](_URL_0_) PS: I posted the same gallery in r/plants to see if they could identify the plant itself, in case that helps. EDIT: Thanks for all of the responses. The AskScience community is awesome! I was hoping I would get some lovely *tropism kind of word to help me get a better handle on the subject. It seems many people are suggesting inoscculation and/or gravitropism combined with stem damage. Upon further inspection I realized that the smaller, connecting, stem grew from a node closer to the end of the parent stem and re-attached to a point on the same stem, but closer to the stalk. It was able to do this because of the bend in the stalk. I am wondering now if the leaf stem's grafting behavior wasn't triggered by the bending/damage to the parent stem. | [
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|
73nf2b | Why can't we recycle everything? | Aside from food and wood-related products (like paper), nearly everything we use is made out of plastic and metal, so why can't we just recycle *all* of it? Are we really just limited to plastic bottles and aluminum, or is it simply not cost-effective to recycle everything we make?
Also, why are there no recycling bins for clothing? Even cotton can be torn down and made into paper. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dns1qm6",
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],
"text": [
"Energy costs. With few exceptions it takes significantly more energy to process and recycle than it does to find new resources to exploit. This leads to it being significantly more expensive so there is little push to do it. \nAnother consideration that goes into recyclability is how to process complex components (think circuit cards). It's impossible to get back everything back that is being recycled so we have to make new stuff anyway, let's just make new stuff.",
"Things like paper and plastic degrade when they are recycled, so you can’t the results to perfectly remake the original product. \n\nAluminum, for instance, requires strong corrosive materials and lots of electricity to purify its ore. Recycling aluminum uses much less energy and is just as useful the second time around, so it’s very advantageous to recycle.",
"Vargo is correct here. As a note on energy cost, waste plastic, paper and fabric are still hydrocarbons. Burning them to generate power is a fairly efficient down-cycling step.\n\nClothing is a fairly tricky one to properly recycle. Most modern fabric is a cotton/plastic fibre blend, and can't be used for paper. Clothing which is still intact can be tossed in a donation bin, for re-use rather than recycling. Un-donateable stuff I personally repurpose as polish-/oil-rags, before tossing it."
],
"score": [
7,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why can't we recycle everything?
Aside from food and wood-related products (like paper), nearly everything we use is made out of plastic and metal, so why can't we just recycle *all* of it? Are we really just limited to plastic bottles and aluminum, or is it simply not cost-effective to recycle everything we make? Also, why are there no recycling bins for clothing? Even cotton can be torn down and made into paper. | [
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|
4p4cji | Hi Reddit, I’m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world’s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! | I’m the president (_URL_0_) of the American Geophysical Union, the world’s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I’m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (_URL_1_) at UC San Diego (_URL_4_), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.
The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.
One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (_URL_2_)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (_URL_3_)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Niños and ocean warming.
I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!
| askscience | {
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"text": [
"How can you, as AGU President, and the Board, in good conscience, continue the partnership with ExxonMobil despite a massive part of the membership being vehemently opposed to such a relationship given Exxon's role in suppressing and discrediting the climate science conducted by your own members?",
"How much of the Great Barrier Reef do you think can be saved? \nAnd what should we be doing about it?",
"What is the best way to deal with plastic waste and microplastics? What do you think about the ocean cleanup project?",
"What is one thing about the oceans that you think everybody should know, but that most people don't know?",
"Over fishing. How big of a problem is it really?",
"Dr. Leinen, thank you for taking the time to answer questions here. Since you mention climate change, one of the topics I am particularly interested in is ocean acidification. Could you please talk a bit about how you monitor the effect of the increasing acidity of ocean waters on marine life? Have any detrimental effects been observed already? \n\nAnd just to broach slightly more speculative terrain, has your organizations carried out any studies or projects to study the feasibility of reversing the acidification through geo-engineering? \n\nThank you!",
"what can regular people like me do to help protect our oceans?",
"Monitoring the ocean probably generates extremely large datasets. I'm a data nerd, and I like to scour through open data sets to see if I can find trends / correlate with other disparate data sets. Are there any data sets you can make public so that the redditverse can help find trends or patterns within the data? Others have done so within Amazon's Elastic Cloud Computing platform.",
"Beyond the obvious climate change research, as a political science student, I'm deeply interested in your insights on how science operates within the framework of politics. \n\nOften overlooked but crucial development in the spratly island is the China land reclamation that they claim is an ecoproject. \n(See: _URL_0_) \n\nHowever, land reclaimation on such a massive scale must have devastating effects on the oceanic life. Such a massive effort also redefines territorial boundaries of oceanic waters and sovereignty.\n\nThere are multiple motivations to such a move by China and one can speculate that security is a paramount concern. \n\nI am using this as just one specific examples and I hope more can be drawn. \n\nWhat are your thoughts on the Spratly reclamation project?\n\nTo what extent then does scientific research have an impact on actually helping to mitigate environmental degradation?\n\nWhat are some of the greatest challenges or obstacles faced by researchers in using scientific facts to influence and inform the populace or world leaders of the inconvenient truth so that right decisions can be made for the benefit of the people. \n\nIn your assessment, in a nutshell, is science limited by our political will?\n\nI would like to thank you in advance for such an opportunity. Given your influential position and experience, your insights can really help shed light on the inner workings of science and scientific institutions.\n\nEdit: Wording was off on the thanks part.",
"Do you think that a vegan diet can help oceans or reduce the impact on global warming?\n\nEdit 1: words",
"How much of the oceans have we *(aka humanity)* explored yet?",
"What is inevitable about the current future of the oceans, and what can be avoided with better environmental management?",
"What are your thoughts about the consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi Disaster over the Pacific Ocean?",
"What role do AUV's (Autonomous Underwater Vehicles) play currently in research, and what role do you see them playing in the future?",
"What role do you envision drones playing in the future of ocean monitoring/observation?",
"What is changing most about the oceans as a result of climate change?",
"I'm on project working on an autonomous sailing boat equipped with sensors, which has plans to navigate itself around sea and take samples. Do you think this would help a lot for future researches?",
"What's your favorite ocean critter and why? What's a good example of one of these critters suffering from global warming?",
"To everyone who participated in this Reddit AMA - thank you so much for your participation, for your excellent questions, and for the implied advocacy for the ocean in many of your comments! I appreciated having the chance to answer your questions and wish that I could have made it to more of them. If your question wasn't answered you might try sending it to your nearest oceanographic institution. Most of us do try to provide answers to questions that come in from the public.\n\nBest wishes, Margaret",
"We're a small start up making consumer level underwater drones (ROV's) and I'm wondering how big of a role you think public perception and interest in ocean health play in the jobs of organizations like the AGU or NOAA. \n[Also shameless plug to our site.](_URL_1_)",
"What would you say are the biggest or most important open problems regarding our understanding of the how the oceans and Earth system works, that would really progress our science if we could solve?",
"Why is more money going into space exploration than ocean exploration? Isn't it relatively easier or cheaper to explore Earth first?",
"What are your views on sea-level rise and its impacts on coastal communities?",
"Thanks for a doing this AMA! \n\nI have 3 questions:\n\n1. What and who do you consider as the main reasons for the plastic buildup in the oceans?\n1. What statistics are available to you to gauge the current state of plastic pollution? Care to share?\n1. How do you propose we combat this result of human negligence?\n\nI loathe how the mentality of \"today's solutions becomes tomorrow's problem\" is so prevalent, and the plastic buildup is a very solid case of this, which I want to be able to change if even for a tiny amount. \n\nThanks once again!",
"How well do we understand heat flows in the oceans?\n\nAnd by oceans I mean \"The Pacific.\" We know it can be a colossal heat store. Are we still being surprised by the heat transfers, or do we have a reliable, predictive model of the oceans?",
"Thank you for doing this AMA! \n\nWhat do you think of [Automated Marine Systems](_URL_2_)? They are a startup trying to create autonomous sailboats to collect ocean data around the world. What insight do you think a technology could give us into the oceans?",
"In your opinion do you believe activist groups like green peace have made a difference in actual marine population numbers or just in public awareness ? \n\nAlso at what point do you think Ocean fishing should be reduced to promote growth.?",
"I've heard that we're overfishing our oceans to the point of extinction for some species, when is this expected to happen and what will be the ramifications of such a change to the oceans?",
"What's the single thing people (who aren't tossing stuff out the car door or dumping millions of gallons of crude into the ocean) can do to stop screwing things up for the ocean?",
"What can be done (by the world at large, by individual governments, and even by individuals) to reduce and recover from ocean acidification? How bad is it?",
"As a college student, what are some ways I can branch out to gain exposure in the field of oceanography / other marine research disciplines?",
"Are there any major issues affecting the oceans, where the solution is clear, effective and easy, but politics prevents taking action?",
"I live in Kansas. What can I do to help save the world's oceans?",
"Is there anything that is widely believed by the public but is false?",
"How much have the oceans changed since the industrial revolution?",
"Hello Dr. Leinen! \n\nI'd like to know more about sea turtles in oceanography. Is the study of sea turtles a significant part of your research? Also, what is your favorite animal and why is it turtles? :-)\n\n As you know, sea turtles can be extremely difficult to monitor, which leads us to the fact that we have no firm way to understand population sizes. This is problematic to conservation strategies. What methods besides satellite telemetry are used to monitor the movements of sea turtle populations?\n\nIn particular, I am curious about what scientists do to monitor leatherbacks, who are known for their incredible ability to [dive up to 1,200 meters deep](_URL_4_) in during hunting. \n\nLeatherbacks are really neat animals that deserve quite a bit of further study. They are the only turtle that [can product its own body heat](_URL_3_), which is theorized to happen because they are active for 99% of their day. This fact itself leads to numerous questions that beg for further study.\n\nCombined with the fact male sea turtles never leave the ocean, they are a tricky animal to monitor. Would you mind to share with us any insight into what is being done to understand, track, and observe the leatherback sea turtle and its movement through the oceans?",
"Hi! I'm from Nova Scotia, home of the Bay of Fundy, highest tides in the world. There's a company here attempting to place turbines on the sea floor of the Minas Passage/Basin to generate electricity. However there is concern that not enough study has been done to determine the effects this will have on sealife. The company has said there is no way to observe what sealife is going through the Passage due to the high speed of the tides (up to 6m/sec). They use this to justify their \"put em in and observe what dead stuff washes up\" approach. Are there truly no methods to observe sea life in these conditions? I find it hard to believe they can engineer something to withstand and operate in those currents, but yet claim the technology does not exist to enable them to observe what wildlife lives there and how a turbine would affect it. Thanks in advance!",
"Hello Margaret, thank you for taking our questions!\n\nI live in Florida along the Treasure Coast (Stuart specifically) our marine life is suffering greatly because of discharges coming from Lake Okeechobee. Beaches are closing due to high levels of bacteria within the water, along with fish and oysters dying thanks to enormous algal blooms. I see you served as Marine and Environmental Initiatives and Executive Director of Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, so I'm hoping you might have insight into the problem and ideas for a solution. \n\nThe Indian River Lagoon is a fantastic place, and so are our local beaches, the only thing we want is for them to thrive.\n\nAdditionally, if you have any suggestions as to what we can do to make the needed changes happen I would be happy to hear them!\n\nThank you very much for your time!",
"Hi Margaret, I have some questions concerning ocean currents and climate change.\n\nI have heard on numerous occasions that the polar ice caps melting may disrupt or even completely change the global ocean currents due to the massive amount of non-salty water mixing with the ocean. From my understanding, the ocean currents are greatly responsible for climates all over the world, and changes in ocean currents may have drastic effects on global climate conditions. Aside from the effect on land environments, I can imagine changes in the currents would have a big effect on oceanic life as well.\n\nMy questions are: how possible is it for the ocean currents to be disrupted by the melting of ice caps? Is this a generally accepted hypothesis among the scientific community? Have large changes in the ocean current patterns ever been observed?",
"As someone who has just received a degree in geography and environmental science (with some marine science classes), I'd be very interested in working in an area looking at human interactions with the ocean (for example, the social impacts of sea level rise in the Pacific has always interested me. How much work is there in this field? And how would one begin to become involved with it? While I understand your work is more focussed on the physical side of the ocean, how much do you look at human interactions with the ocean?\n\n(Really I'd be interested in anything about human/ocean interactions so let me know if you've got any interesting facts/little considered areas!)",
"Thanks for hosting this talk Dr. Leinen! I have three questions:\n1) Has there been any noticeable relationship between ocean warming and an acceleration of polymer breakdown of plastics in oceans?\n2) There has been articles suggesting that there are more pieces of plastic on the ocean floor than on the surface. Has there been any explanation as to why the plastics would be on the ocean floor even though most plastics are more dense than the world's oceans?\n3) Who are the biggest players in the field of oceanography? Any on the East Coast?",
"Hello Dr. Leinen,\n\nDo you have an predictions regarding the gulf stream? Specifically with regards to the North Atlantic drift, and consequent implications for the weather patterns of Northern Europe. \n\nAlso - do you foresee any attempts (by sovereign governments or otherwise) to deal with ocean acidification? As far as I, a lay person, can tell we are not heading in a good direction. Is there a point of no return (for ocean life)? If so, do you believe we are close to it?\n\nThank you",
"I read recently about a study that stated the warming of the oceans has impacted phytoplankton, which has changed oxygen production. The article only discussed oxygen at sea level, but it must also affect dissolved oxygen in the ocean, correct? \n\nPhytoplankton also being a crucial source of nutrients, what do we know will happen if we fail to prevent further warming? Could we see other oxygen producing species like cyanobacteria filling the nich. What would we need to know, in order to make better predictions?",
"Is the future of agriculture in the ocean? Can we do that without significant damage to the ecosystem?\n\n\nAny possible advantages of living in cities under water?\n\n\n1 cubic kilometer of ocean water contains numerous minerls and elements of high value. Is it possible for us to start \"mining\" them? Shall we have no other option than that?\n\n\nWhat kind of secrets are there still buried in the ocean?",
"Hello! I have a question regarding the deep sea carbon pool, and how it influences the carbon cycle. Do you think that it is possible to decrease the carbondioxide concentration in the atmosphere by pumping more carbon from the surface water to the deep sea? Do you think this could be a possible future way of reducing the greenhouse effect, or would it contribute to other ecological problems?",
"What do you think is the easiest-to-understand evidence for anthropogenic global warming for non-scientists? If I encounter a AGW skeptic, is there a nice visualization of a nice public data set that shows the relationship between CO2 levels and ocean acidity, or CO2 levels and fresh water concentrations, preferably on YouTube, that I could show them? Do you have a favorite visualization?",
"> to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information \n\nIn such places, how do they access information then - is it collected manually on a periodic basis, or are there a 'different' kind of network? Are there special considerations that need to be taken into account, such as degradation of storage medium, encryption, theft even?",
"Hi Dr. Leinen. I remember taking a climate course that discussed how there may be long lasting effects on ocean life as a result of acidification (such as reproductive issues etc), has this since been more solidified by data or is it still an area of active research? Thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule.",
"Hello Dr. Leinen. Thank you for the AMA. Vice News did a story on the giant North Pacific Gyre -- the mass of plastic garbage in the ocean. \n\nThis was so depressing. Plastic garbage is a part of the ocean in that area. \n\nIs it as bad as they say? Is there any way out?",
"I recently moved to Orange County, California. I've always wanted to help in protecting and conserving the environment, especially within ocean life. (There's been a calling). What should I do to start and move forward in the future for employment or positions so I can do my part and continue to help ocean life?",
"What is the probability of a tsunami hitting the USA in regards to the climate pollution and changing earth temperatures. Does the changes in temperature in the sea in other parts of the world wholly affect the chances of natural disasters? ........... Mainly what I'm asking is if a seascape apocalypse is plausible. Regards",
"I'd be interested in knowing the sort of global life form density of the sea, i.e an estimate of organisms per cubic metre etc. It would be interesting to get a scale of which areas are the most densely populated, and which are the least so, and factors affecting these values",
"I'm a very clean person, I use to much chemicals in my house, I always wonder how my habit can affect the ocean? I recycle, I make my food at home, I have find out, that I produce less trash, and I'm trying to teach my kids about it.",
"I heard somewhere along the line that the ocean currents end up bringing most of the garbage we dump in it to a condensed area. Is there any way we can use that knowledge to help clean it?",
"To date, we have explored less than 5% of the world's oceans. What is the greatest technological obstacle standing in our way to explore more, and what are some realistic ideas on how to tackle it?",
"How many years until over fishing completely kills off the Eco-sphere in the ocean? Also is there anything that is being done to combat the growing number of ocean dead zone's cause by animal agriculture?",
"Thank you for the time to share your knowledge. Hum.. I really want to know, the situation 6years after deep water horizon ...please. (or joker question : can you talking about Sea Orbiter project ?)",
"What can I do to help save our reefs and help stop ocean acidification. Just an FYI I'll be able to donate my time however not my money so keep that in mind.",
"Seems like microbes that absorb greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane which regulate the temperature of Earth are dying way too fast. Any truth in this or ways to help prevent this?",
"What advice would you give to someone who is thinking about going into the Oceanography field? How important is a master's/PhD? What is a typical day like? How much traveling is involved?",
"I have a 2 year old and a 1 year old and we live in Kansas--tell me some cool ocean-related stuff we can do way over here, far away from the ocean!",
"Hi doc, quick question.. What's the deal with the rubber ducks that fell in the ocean like 2 decades ago? Was that real and did you use the info the ducks provided?",
"I am student planning to go into BioStats program, can you tell me how do Statistics pertain around your work? Can you illustrate with concrete examples? \n\nThank you for this AMA!",
"Whats something in the Ocean that the world has discovered but just have no answer for? I know there are a lot of weird things in the Ocean.",
"At current rates of increasing oceanic acidification, how long do we have before the diatoms die off and leave a hole in the food chain?",
"I heard that livestock operations created nitrogen deadzones in our oceans. Is land-based animal agricultural the no.1 water polluter? Where is it on the agenda?",
"What are your thoughts on Trash Island and what impact is it having in our oceans today, as well as in the long-term?",
"Are there any serious studies done on the octopus?\n\nThey seem like aliens. Cloaking technology alone, would be world changing.",
"What percent of the ocean do you think is still undiscovered and how soon will it be discovered?",
"What are some cool new technologies emerging that we may not know about for ocean exploration, observation, etc?",
"Is there any studies done on how much is the ocean polluted by the large-scale poultry/animal farming?",
"What technological advances would help us better examine what goes on in the deep ocean?",
"What top three issues, that few know about, affect you daily in your work?",
"Ask you anything? Alright. Why is only 1% of the ocean discovered?",
"How long before I can actually stand on a trash island?",
"What can we do as individuals to preserve our oceans?",
"What are we doing about plastic in the oceans.",
"Do you study ocean acidity? Anything of interest?"
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"url": [
"http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/05/26/china-calls-south-china-sea-island-reclamation-a-green-project-spratly-islands/",
"http://fathomdrone.com",
"http://www.automarinesys.com/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/TurtleFacts/comments/4e2jbc/leatherback_sea_turtles_rarely_rest_or_slow_down/d1wfjsd",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/TurtleFacts/comments/49mo1b/leatherbacks_have_been_documented_diving_to_over/d0t2g44"
]
} | Hi Reddit, I’m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world’s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything!
I’m the president (_URL_0_) of the American Geophysical Union, the world’s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I’m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (_URL_1_) at UC San Diego (_URL_4_), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations. The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species. One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (_URL_2_)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (_URL_3_)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Niños and ocean warming. I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything! | [
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|
ilt24 | If an explosive goes off inside a 20 feet wide lead cube with no openings and a hollow center shaped as the explosive, do you hear it? | This once popped into my mind ages ago. I guess I wanted to know what happens when a powerful explosion goes off in a 100% solid container. As in: if the container doesn't blow up, what happens to all the energy of the explosion as sensed by someone right outside the cube? Would I hear an explosion? Would I just feel heat from the cube? Would there be some sort of shock wave? Thanks!
edit:
ince space on the inside is limited to the shape of the explosive, the sound waves have less space to form so i was wondering if you would still hear a regular explosion sound (even if muffled) or if the lack of space and the material through which it travels would change the sound to something that doesn't sound explosive. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Are you aware that sound travels through solids?",
"What you just described is called a bomb calorimeter, and yes, you can hear it. \"Bombs\" are used to very precisely measure the amount of energy released during a combustion, since it is mostly transformed into heat rather than work (expansion of the container) which is more difficult to accurately measure.\n\nBack in undergrad we were told to come up with our own experiments involving energy, so me and my lab group did the following:\n\n* Blend a pizza\n* Dehydrate blended pizza\n* Grind pizza into a powder\n* Press pizza powder into a pellet\n* Fill a bomb with oxygen at high pressure after inserting said pellet\n* Light the pellet on fire with a fuse and electrical firing mechanism\n* Use a temperature probe to measure the temperature change of 2.00L of DI water (very well known heat capacity) surrounding the bomb\n\nWe were then able to come up with a calorie amount of the pizza that was pretty darn close to the value given on the nutritional information. The measurements are so precise that you need to know how much energy is released by 5cm of very thin fuse wire. You might think that the water would release its heat into the environment too quickly before an equilibrium with the bomb and water can be achieved, so we surrounded the water tank with styrofoam, then put it in a Coleman cooler filled with insulation.",
"Consider what would happen if you hit the cube with a hammer. Would you hold your ear next to it? It would make no difference whether you hammer the cube from inside or outside: it will still vibrate and it will still make a sound.",
"Assuming everything is perfectly symmetrical, you'll hear something, but it won't sound like the original explosion. A lead-air interface will reflect about 88% of the energy back, and there are two such interfaces. Most of the energy of the explosion will set up a spherical wave in the lead, which you'll hear after the initial thud. The frequency will be dependent on the lead thickness (the thicker it is, the lower the frequency).\n\nThat being said, there's also nonlinear affects. I'm not an expert in nonlinear acoustics."
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} | If an explosive goes off inside a 20 feet wide lead cube with no openings and a hollow center shaped as the explosive, do you hear it?
This once popped into my mind ages ago. I guess I wanted to know what happens when a powerful explosion goes off in a 100% solid container. As in: if the container doesn't blow up, what happens to all the energy of the explosion as sensed by someone right outside the cube? Would I hear an explosion? Would I just feel heat from the cube? Would there be some sort of shock wave? Thanks! edit: ince space on the inside is limited to the shape of the explosive, the sound waves have less space to form so i was wondering if you would still hear a regular explosion sound (even if muffled) or if the lack of space and the material through which it travels would change the sound to something that doesn't sound explosive. | [
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mjaer | Can "nothing" exist? | Like an area in the universe where there are no physical particles present? What is empty space then?
Edit: I'll try and clarify, I'm asking if it is possible for an area with absolutely *no* particles to exist. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Even in empty space very small particles constantly appear and disappear from nothing.",
"There was a fantastic programme on BBC 4 earlier this year call 'Everything and Nothing' which discussed this. The final, but not definite, conclusion of professor Jim Al-Khalili is that there is no such thing as 'nothing' in our universe, if i remember correctly. I wont convolute this any further, as I can't remember off the top of my head why, but it really is a fascinating watch.\n_URL_0_",
"Check out this presentation by Lawrence Krauss \n_URL_1_",
"This is more a question of linguistics and philosophy. \n\n_URL_2_\n > One of the earliest western philosophers to consider *nothing* as a concept was Parmenides (5th century BC) who was a Greek philosopher of the monist school. He argued that \"nothing\" cannot exist by the following line of reasoning. To speak of a thing, one has to speak of a thing that exists ...\n > \n > Aristotle (384–322 BC) provided the classic escape from the logical problem posed by Parmenides by distinguishing things that are matter and things that are space. In this scenario, *space is not \"nothing\", but a receptacle in which objects of matter can be placed*. \n\n\nAs others said, in the context of physics, space is most definitely something -- not too different to what those greek guys said thousands of years ago, but the physicists say it with a lot more math.",
"Not in our universe, light will travel through any area of nothings.\n\nSo it has a physical property and can only be described as \"nothing which light can travel through\".\n\nAlso any area of nothing inside our universe would have energy, and the energy can change into particles inside nothing from this energy which has been observed numerous times.\n\nSo my answer is if you wish to find an area of pure nothing, you will have to leave our universe, and I can't guarantee you will find it there either.",
"Are there not supposed to be an extreme amount of neutrinos flying through ever square cm in the Universe?",
"Nova is currently airing a series on the things that make up our universe, and one of them was on the concept of space itself. The amount of intricacy to seemingly empty space is amazing. Look it up or watch it [here](_URL_3_)."
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"url": []
} | {
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00yb59m",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ImvlS8PLIo",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nothing#Philosophy",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rlGEE740PkU"
]
} | Can "nothing" exist?
Like an area in the universe where there are no physical particles present? What is empty space then? Edit: I'll try and clarify, I'm asking if it is possible for an area with absolutely *no* particles to exist. | [
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|
4ssvvc | AskScience AMA Series: I am /u/CosmoSounder and I study the processes inside supernovae. Ask Me Anything! | Hi everyone. I do theoretical and computational work on supernova neutrino oscillations and nucleosynthesis. I have worked with trying to predict the neutrino output of a star undergoing the early stages of supernova, and am currently working on a project that will examine the feedback process between neutrino oscillation and nucleosynthesis in supernovae.
I should be available between 12-2 EDT (17-19 UTC). AMA!
| askscience | {
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"Hi /u/CosmoSounder, thank you for doing this AMA. I am about to start my undergraduate degree in astrophysics and am completely obsessed with the field and especially the physics of stars.\n\nI recently asked a question on AskScience that didn't gather much interest and was wondering if you could maybe give a little insight? My question is on Thorne-Zytkow objects - a supermassive red/blue giant that has swallowed up a neutron star into it's core. Does the neutron core have any effect on the normal lifespan of said star, could it produce an outward pressure that would keep the parent star 'alive' past what should have been it's end?\n\nI was also under the impression that the window of mass in which a neutron star can exist is quite small (within 1 solar mass?), so wouldn't the neutron star accrete matter from the parent star and by doing so push it over the TOV limit, therefore rendering these objects an effective impossibility?",
"Hello and thank you so much for doing this AMA.\n\nCan you explain to us non-astrophysicists what neutrino oscillations are and why they are important in your field? \n\nHow did come to this field? Have you always had a love of stars?\n\nThank you much for your time.",
"Is the density of nuclear matter in a supernova great enough to cause neutrinos to deflect or diffuse, or do they just zipzap straight out? Is there any \"neutrino lensing\" going on?",
"Out of pure curiosity: Do you have any estimates for what fraction of neutrinos produced during a SN interact with the baryonic matter of the SN? Obviously a large fraction escape, and can be detected, but I'm wondering what the 'optical depth' of a supernova shell is for neutrinos. I vaguely recall talks that mentioned the neutrino heating and losses are significant components of the energy balance during a SN, but I don't recall if the fractions were mentioned...",
"If you could pick any star to have gone supernova X years ago(so we see it this year), for science, which star would be interesting to you? \nAnd for art, or just to see it happen, do you have a different star you'd like to see go supernova.",
"Hi /u/CosmoSounder! Thanks for answering our questions! I'm curious about 1. what got you into this field to begin with and 2. if your predictions are accurate, what do we learn and how will it effect what we already know?",
"In which decade do you predict that we'll actually solve the core collapse supernova problem?",
"Hey! I'm a Character TD working on animated movies, and I love the concept of Hollywood working with scientists to produce things like Interstellar's black hole. Such simulations are way outside of the average science funding, and way outside of Hollywood's ability to calculate, so the pairing makes a great deal of sense to both render amazing things and increase the world's interest and understanding of space!\n\nDo you believe that our current understanding of supernovae is sufficient to accurately simulate one, with the proper resources? Visually speaking, how distinct is one supernova from another, based on the type of star?",
"I read somewhere that a star that is about to go supernova would look very uneven and unlike our sun. What is driving this? Is the fusion zone no longer homogeneous?",
"SN1987A was nearly 30 years ago, neutrino detectors got much better in the meantime. How much input to your studies do you expect from a nearby (~our galaxy) supernova?",
"Do you know if there are any supernova we can see from earth? I know there was one in 1054 that was so bright you could see it during the day, is there one that Im mistaking for a star? Is there one thats expected to show up soon? \n\nThanks for doing this, supernova are REALLY cool.",
"Hello, thanks for doing this AMA!\n\nWhat would you say is the supernova(e) with the most interesting phenomenology that you have studied or perhaps wish you had the opportunity to study?",
"Are you able to confirm your theoretical research by actual data (as in observed)?",
"What do you think is the coolest part of your work?",
"Which star will likely be the first to go supernova near us? Should I buy stocks in sun screen companies or are we all buggered?"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: I am /u/CosmoSounder and I study the processes inside supernovae. Ask Me Anything!
Hi everyone. I do theoretical and computational work on supernova neutrino oscillations and nucleosynthesis. I have worked with trying to predict the neutrino output of a star undergoing the early stages of supernova, and am currently working on a project that will examine the feedback process between neutrino oscillation and nucleosynthesis in supernovae. I should be available between 12-2 EDT (17-19 UTC). AMA! | [
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|
1t896v | Is a stream of accelerated protons visible and if so, what does it look like? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ce5hkos",
"ce5l983",
"ce5huvk",
"ce5fu00"
],
"text": [
"Generally, charged particle beams are not visible, particularly under normal operation inside an accelerator (i.e. under vacuum). If you were to put a window on a beam pipe, you'd see nothing.\n\nThere is a relatively simple method of visually inspecting the position of a beam that involves inserting a fluorescent screen^[1](_URL_2_) in its path.\n\nOther methods of measuring the position of a beam include using gas^[2](_URL_1_) or solid^[3](_URL_5_) scintillators (Lanex screens are used quite often for medical beams), optical transition radiation (emitted when a charged partilce crosses the boundary between two dielectric media; used at KEK^[4](_URL_4_) ) and resonant cavity beam position monitors^[5](_URL_0_) (which measure the standing waves set up by the beam passing through a cavity). OTRs and RCBPMs are not visual techniques, though.\n\nNow, if the beam were to pass through some medium at the right energy, you could expect to see Čerenkov radiation, which is essentially the optical equivalent of a sonic boom.^[6](_URL_3_) ^(This one includes a nice image of a Čerenkov ring)",
"To clarify everyone-- there has been some confusion about OP's wording it seems:\n\nIn vacuum-- if the protons are *accelerated* i.e. having undergone acceleration and are now traversing vacuum at constant velocity, the beam will give off no radiation.\n\nor:\n\nIn vacuum-- if the protons are accelerated, i.e. *undergoing* a velocity change (beam deflection by an external field, for instance) they give off bremsstrahlung radiation.\n\nIn a medium, they can give off Cerenkov radiation as described.\n\nAccelerators often happen to give off a menu of energetic particles and xrays when energetic protons interact with structures present within the apparatus, not because an equivalent beam in vacuum would.",
"Yes, it will give off Brehmstralung. The exact color and intensity will depend on the kind of acceleration it undergoes however, so we can't really say anything more.",
"I assume you mean like in a particle accelerator? There was a Russian who stuck his head in the beam of one by accident and said the flash was \"[brighter than a thousand suns](_URL_6_)\". Doesn't say whether it was visible or not, just that once his head was in it was impossibly bright. Probably from particles striking the fluid in his eyes, like cosmic rays to astronaut's eyes."
],
"score": [
16,
6,
6,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://accelconf.web.cern.ch/accelconf/d09/papers/tuoc02.pdf",
"http://www.lanl.gov/conferences/biw10/preprints/TUPSM005_preprint.pdf",
"http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3938%2Fjkps.63.1437.pdf",
"http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/27915",
"http://ibic2013.org/prepress/papers/mopf04.pdf",
"http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/confproc/biw98/graves.pdf",
"http://www.neatorama.com/2008/10/05/the-man-who-stuck-his-head-inside-a-particle-accelerator/#!qfc91"
]
} | Is a stream of accelerated protons visible and if so, what does it look like?
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474tu1 | How does a computer store a number like e? Where would I find e in a computer's memory? | Or pi. Or i. If a number cannot be represented by a ratio of integers, how can we use it in a computer comprising discrete bits? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"The computer will store an approximation to the number. Note that when calculating with non-integers, computers use datatypes that have finite precision and since rounding already occurs, it's not a problem to use a rounded version of certain constants. If all your other numbers only have 15-16 digits of precision, there's no benefit in having a constant like pi stored to significantly higher precision.\n\nThe 15-16 digits mentioned before is the precision offered by the datatype \"double\" or \"double precision floating point\", which is a very common datatype for non-integer calculations. For applications where less precision is needed and/or where performance may be a concern, the smaller \"float\" datatype is used, which has 7-8 digits of precision.\n\nIn almost every application, you'll have more than enough precision with one of these two datatypes.\n\nAs to where the values of important constants are stored: Typically in general purpose libraries. When creating a program, you include references to functions and constants that you haven't defined yourself. The code for these functions and the value of these constants are located in external libraries that your program is linked to. For example, the \"glibc\" (GNU Library C) library contains all the default functions and constants used in the C and C++ programming languages. It also includes the definition of constants like pi and e.\n\nIf a programmer wants to use different constants, he can specify this in his source code. For example, if a program makes heavy use of the product of pi and e, the programmer may hardcode this value directly into his code rather than compute the product every time:\n\n const double pi_times_e = 8.53973422267;\n\nFinally, you mention i. i is a special case, since it's a complex number, whereas everything before applies primarily to real numbers. Complex numbers aren't a standard component of most programming languages, but when they are implemented, they're typically implemented as a pair of 2 numbers: the real part and the imaginary part. In the case of i, this representation would simply be the pair (0, 1).\n\nedit: For reference, here's a list of constants stored in the 'glibc' library: _URL_0_",
"Also, since those numbers have an infinite *expansion* but a finite *description*, it is possible to store in computer memory a function that computes as many digits (bits) of π or *e* as needed. For a simple example, *e* is basically *defined* as the sum of 1/*n*! for all integers *n*; this series converges really fast, and a program that evaluates a partial sum will provide a (good) fractional approximation to *e*.",
"A computer can calculate any arbitrary digit of an irrational number. Any turing machine (given infinite RAM) can calculate anything, as far as we know.\n\nMathematical software (like Sagemath or Mathematica) will usually just store the description of a number before you actually need to approximate the number. So *e* would just be stored as *e* (in the form of some sort of special object in memory for representing numbers). Multiply it by 2 and it's 2*e*. Asking the software for a decimal approximation would calculate *e* to whatever precision is needed then multiply that by 2. This system works for complex numbers, too.\n\nMost of the time, this level of exactness isn't needed. A 64-bit floating point approximation of a constant like pi is good enough for most uses, but you lose the information that the number is formed from an unrepresentable number.",
"The computer most likely stores an approximation in the form of a double precision floating point. The closest such approximation of *e* will be less than 2^-52 (about 2*10^-16 ) away from the correct value. Hopefully, that's good enough for you.\n\nBy the way, that's how non-integers are usually stored, even rationals. Rationals are sometimes stored as a couple of arbitrarily large integers but since you lose orders of magnitude in performance, you want to have a really good reason to do that.\n\nIn case you really want to know, the closest double floating point to *e* will have the bit pattern 0x4005bf0a8b145769 in memory. *pi* is 0x400921fb54442d18.\n\nThe [wikipedia article](_URL_1_) goes into details about how bits patterns relate to values."
],
"score": [
19,
11,
7,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.gnu.org/software/libc/manual/html_node/Mathematical-Constants.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-precision_floating-point_format"
]
} | How does a computer store a number like e? Where would I find e in a computer's memory?
Or pi. Or i. If a number cannot be represented by a ratio of integers, how can we use it in a computer comprising discrete bits? | [
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|
8vramb | AskScience AMA Series: We are developing a multi-sensor robotic vehicle (named Ugo 1st) for humanitarian de-mining. Ask Us Anything! | Hi reddit! We are developing a multi-sensor robotic vehicle (named Ugo 1st) for humanitarian de-mining in the Eastern Ukraine conflict zone. You can read a bit about it [here](_URL_1_) and see it in action!
Our system includes an impulse ground penetrating radar array (1Tx+4Rx) for rapid detection and precise localization of buried objects. Upon detection, the robot automatically halts, and a high-resolution holographic radar is deployed to record images that provide object ID and confident discrimination of mines from clutter (with high probability of detection, and low false alarm rate). Our system also include DGPS, and two real time, 3-D time-of-flight cameras to aid in navigation, and to provide additional visual detection/discrimination of exposed objects or disturbed earth. We are following the principles of Industry 4.0, with systems cooperating and communicating wirelessly under remote (often machine) control. Since we are building using primarily low-cost, commercial off-the-shelf, and 3-D printable parts, we envision not just one Ugo 1st, but a swarm of cyber-physical systems working together to clear vehicle-accessible areas when hostilities cease. Ugo 1st has performed scanning experiments in Firenze, Italy while under control of an operator in Rapperswil, Switzerland, with data processing and image analysis being performed in real time and simultaneously in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and Kharkiv, Ukraine.
We'll be joining you at 3 PM Eastern Time (20 UT), ask us anything!
EDIT: We'd also like to thank our end users and sponsors for helping to support the project
* [RETTEW](_URL_0_)
* [State Emergency Services of Ukraine](_URL_5_)
* [Fenix-Insight](_URL_2_)
* [Walnut Laboratory](_URL_4_)
* [NATO Science for Peace and Security](_URL_3_)
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e1pnnfd",
"e1prjmu",
"e1pzlu3",
"e1pqt9o",
"e1q6cjm",
"e1q12fm",
"e1pzgfp",
"e1q7fbc",
"e1qctkh"
],
"text": [
"How does the system compare with traditional techniques?\n\nIs it capable of operating in active conflict zones like South Sudan?\n\nDoes it have a SIM card that can be stolen to make phone calls? [Polish charity gets huge phone bill thanks to stork](_URL_0_)",
"Nice work! \n\nDo you think it will be possible to build a system that could handle mines in very old and overgrown locations, such as in Southeast Asia?",
"Thanks for the AMA, this sounds like an awesome project! Does your system employ any type of AI or Machine Learning to interpret the data you collect during de-mining operations? If not, is that something that may be useful in the future?",
"Hi, thanks for doing this AMA, and thanks for your work. How much do you need to know about each area as you scan? Does interpreting the images change with different soil types?",
"What would you most like to tell us that no one has asked about?",
"Hey!\n\nI actually have multiple questions, this is such a fascinating project. I'll stop at two. :)\n\nHow autonomous are the vehicles? Are there any notable problems which you're not attempting to solve and instead have opted for human intervention?\n\nSecondly, regarding the system software, can you divulge an estimate on the total amount of effort that is going to be spent until completion, or a ballpark for the effort spent so far?",
"Hi, thanks for doing this! Two questions: How flat does the terrain have to be for the robot to work? I can imagine that it might be difficult for mines in rougher terrain though maybe that's not a huge deal. But two, when do you expect this to go from the R & D phase into somewhat more of a production phase?",
"Thanks for this AMA!\n\nDo you think this project can be replicated in other places in the world now? What would you need to use the robot in a diferent place?",
"How do the robots stack up against those giant rats that can detect mines?"
],
"score": [
6,
6,
5,
3,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.rettew.com/",
"https://www.fandm.edu/news/latest-news/2018/05/02/ready-to-launch-f-m-helps-develop-land-mine-detection-robot",
"http://fenix-insight.com/",
"https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/78209.htm",
"http://www.walnut.co.jp/company/",
"http://www.dsns.gov.ua/en/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-news-from-elsewhere-44645217"
]
} | AskScience AMA Series: We are developing a multi-sensor robotic vehicle (named Ugo 1st) for humanitarian de-mining. Ask Us Anything!
Hi reddit! We are developing a multi-sensor robotic vehicle (named Ugo 1st) for humanitarian de-mining in the Eastern Ukraine conflict zone. You can read a bit about it [here](_URL_1_) and see it in action! Our system includes an impulse ground penetrating radar array (1Tx+4Rx) for rapid detection and precise localization of buried objects. Upon detection, the robot automatically halts, and a high-resolution holographic radar is deployed to record images that provide object ID and confident discrimination of mines from clutter (with high probability of detection, and low false alarm rate). Our system also include DGPS, and two real time, 3-D time-of-flight cameras to aid in navigation, and to provide additional visual detection/discrimination of exposed objects or disturbed earth. We are following the principles of Industry 4.0, with systems cooperating and communicating wirelessly under remote (often machine) control. Since we are building using primarily low-cost, commercial off-the-shelf, and 3-D printable parts, we envision not just one Ugo 1st, but a swarm of cyber-physical systems working together to clear vehicle-accessible areas when hostilities cease. Ugo 1st has performed scanning experiments in Firenze, Italy while under control of an operator in Rapperswil, Switzerland, with data processing and image analysis being performed in real time and simultaneously in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and Kharkiv, Ukraine. We'll be joining you at 3 PM Eastern Time (20 UT), ask us anything! EDIT: We'd also like to thank our end users and sponsors for helping to support the project * [RETTEW](_URL_0_) * [State Emergency Services of Ukraine](_URL_5_) * [Fenix-Insight](_URL_2_) * [Walnut Laboratory](_URL_4_) * [NATO Science for Peace and Security](_URL_3_) | [
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|
ohei4 | Why is it that romaine lettuce healthier than iceberg lettuce? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3hauog",
"c3harf6",
"c3harnk"
],
"text": [
"Looking at the raw data, it seems that romaine by weight is much higher in vitamin content. Now, whether vitamin content is sufficient to conclude that it is healthier or not I'll leave to the reader.\n\nSources: [Romaine](_URL_1_) v [Iceberg](_URL_0_)",
"Iceberg lettuce has been bred for crispness and size, while romaine has been bred for flavor.\n\nIn retrospect, breeding for crispness leads to a head of lettuce that is mostly cellulose and water. Romaine lettuce by contrast retains the vitamins and antioxidants common to green vegetables.",
"This may help if you want to take a look: [_URL_2_](_URL_2_)"
],
"score": [
8,
6,
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/vegetables-and-vegetable-products/2476/2",
"http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/vegetables-and-vegetable-products/2475/2",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=+compare+romaine+to+iceberg+lettuce"
]
} | Why is it that romaine lettuce healthier than iceberg lettuce?
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25flqf | Why is the brain folded to such a high degree? | I've heard many answers to this question, mostly along the lines of "it increases the surface area of the brain and this increases the amount of neurons" .
I'm confused as to why the trade off of brain volume for increased surface area allows for greater neurons than the converse. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"chgpmi2",
"chgrldp",
"chgpmof",
"chgw9lc"
],
"text": [
"An excellent question! It is actually quite simple once you understand the anatomy: the cell bodies of the neurons are almost all found in the cortex, or the outermost layer, of the brain. It is also called the grey matter, [because of its appearance](_URL_0_). You see that layer of dark grey that's at the boundaries? That's where your ~100 billion neuron bodies are.\n\nWhat about the rest? All that white stuff in the middle (appropriately called white matter) are actually all the *connections* in the brain - it's packed full of [myelinated axons](_URL_3_) (and glial cells) that are the 100 *trillion* connections between the gray matter.\n\nSo the [cortical gyrii](_URL_1_) is like a simcity that decided to put every single building on the outskirts of the city and filled the rest of the map in the middle with roads and highways. As more neurons are added through development, [the outer layer tries to expand while the axons pull them together, eventually folding the outer layer like an accordion](_URL_2_).",
"First, let's understand the encephalization quotient. It is the relation between the brain/body mass ratio and that predict as by a linear relation on a log:log plot. \n\n_URL_5_ \n \nSo, bigger animals have bigger brains. In general, animals with higher cognitive powers also have larger brains. If you stick to close species, like comparing only primates, the encephalization quotient is a good predictor of higher cognition. So, what happens when the brain enlarges? Do some parts enlarge more than others?\n\nWhen we compare regions of the brain, the answer is no. The cerebellum and brainstem and thalamus and neocortex all expand proportionally. The thalamus and cortex form a center and surround in the forebrain. The neocortex is a sheet structure, while the thalamus is a volume. So, as the brain mass increases, its volume increases. The neocortex also grows, but it grows in surface area. In effect, its size increases only occur in 2 of the 3 dimensions. \n \nA 20% increase in brain mass then means a brain radius increase of 6%, but a neocortex increase of 14% in equivalent length and width. You need to stuff more and more of the sheet into the same volume. The solution is folding. \n \nInterestingly, the brain folding may be controlled by very few genes. But it is effectively viewed as a solution to increasing the brain mass of the neocortex proportionally to other brain structures, while constrained by the neocortex only increasing in size in 2 of its 3 dimensions. \n \n_URL_4_\n\nEdit: There are other people who view the brain folding as an increase in efficiency (shorter distances between key regions of neocortex means the total axon length may be shorter).",
"Basically, the bodies of the neurons are located in the outer layer (surface) of the brain. There are reasons for this, which are related to how the brain receives nutrients and chemicals and whatnot - it probably helps with efficiency in many ways. \n\nThe point is, the bodies - the control centers, for neurons are mainly in this surface layer - so creating more of this surface layer means that there's room for more *neuron bodies*. The loss in inner volume of the brain will be very small in proportion to the number of extra neurons available and will mostly mean axons (which are very thin indeed) need to be shorter or closer together.",
"Folding allows for more brain matter (IE neurons) to fit in to a smaller area. If the cerebral cortex was not wrinkled, only the very outside of the (smooth) brain would contain grey matter. Since it's wrinkled, the gray matter can extend inside and around all of the folds, increasing the amount of usable material. \n\nThat's why our intestines are folded, and sponges have holes in them. It allows for more surface area to be used for a certain job. In the brain, the outer layer (grey matter) is used for processing. Thus, the more room we have for processing, the more processing we can do. The more folds we have, the more grey matter we can fit in there.\n\nFolding makes it so we don't need huge heads to contain all of our processing equipment. A bigger head would mean weight, it would require more blood, more muscle, more bone, a stronger spine, etc. It would complicate our anatomy and necessitate further evolutionary adaptions. By utilizing the folding technique, the overall size of our head did not have to change to the same degree as if we did not use folding."
],
"score": [
49,
4,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Human_brain_right_dissected_lateral_view_description.JPG",
"http://white.stanford.edu/teach/index.php/Brain_Gyrification_and_its_Significance",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v385/n6614/abs/385313a0.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axons",
"http://news.sciencemag.org/brain-behavior/2013/04/master-gene-makes-mouse-brain-look-more-human",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encephalization_quotient"
]
} | Why is the brain folded to such a high degree?
I've heard many answers to this question, mostly along the lines of "it increases the surface area of the brain and this increases the amount of neurons" . I'm confused as to why the trade off of brain volume for increased surface area allows for greater neurons than the converse. | [
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25fmqd | Are there any machines that are completely able to replicate themselves? | I had an /r/Showerthoughts about 3d printers being able to print themselves, but apprently that's not 100% possible what with the non plastic parts required. But are there any machines that have been designed to be able to 100% replicate themselves? If not, would this be possible with todays technology? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"[Relevant](_URL_0_): The mathematician Von Neumann thought long and hard about this problem, and many others have as well. It relates to Doug Hofstadter's tangled loops, and also, if this isn't already obvious though not exactly what you were asking about: DNA!",
"It boils down to how preprocessed the materials they use are. Any industrial arm robot can attach two halves of another industrial arm robot together, and the result can do the same. Is this 'replication'?\n\nOK, so how many parts do the components have to be in? Would the machines have to autonomously gather materials from the natural environment (presumably by mining/drilling, then forging/sintering etc) in order to be considered self-replicators? Or would they be allowed to select pre-cut shapes of metal and plastic from a rack?",
"For it to be possible you'd still have to make available to them the materials required (mostly plastic and metal). So, unless we also make machines that provide those material to those self replicating machines, it is needed a human aid to provide the stuff they're made of.\n\nWith today's technology it would be likely possible, but probably not really efficient.",
"OK, not a machine, but basically all cellular based plants and animals on earth do this. By watching how complex biological life is, and how much time and effort life puts into 'building copies of itself' you can get an idea of the engineering challenges - finding raw materials, finding energy, processing, correcting for errors, building resistance to parasite variants etc.",
"You might have to stretch your definition of 'machine' to get a working example. There are many autocatalytic chemical reactions, life being one of them. These reactions, though not necessarily human in origin, have been appropriated by engineers to accomplish a wide range of tasks. Bacteria and other microbes have been widely rebuilt to produce proteins on and industrial scale. Perhaps the most vivid example of a machine designed to use rapid self replication is a nuclear bomb, which propogates an initial fusion or fission event.",
"If you placed the machine so that it mined material in an efficient way while producing replicas of itself, which would require a lot of energy and time for electronics, it seems possible. It doesn't seem practical though because the machines materials would all have to be found in the same relative geographical area.",
"3D printers are pretty darn close.\n\nThere are certain parts that we can't print, like rods, stepper motors, and electronics, but all sorts of things, like bearings, and body panels have been printed. This is because most 3d printers can only print in plastic. Take the tantillus for instance, one of the most 3d printable 3d printers.\n\nIts tagline is \"The portable self replicating compact printer.\" \n\n_URL_3_\n\nThis is not the only printer that does this, most printers in fact use some printed parts.\n\nSome people have probably ventured to using metal 3d printers (which now exist) to print rods, etc. and some have 3d printers that also engrave circuit boards, but there are some things that simply cannot be replicated. \n\nHere is an example of a metal printer: _URL_3_\nHere is an example of a circuit board 3d printer:_URL_3_",
"I saw a lot of people talking about DNA and cells, and I thought I'd say, the DNA takes cells from the mother's body to start off the baby (in animals), and in that cell there is more DNA. The DNA is basically a set of instructions on how to make those cells, and so, the cells split apart, then, using the food particles, uses those atoms to make the other half of the cell, and then grows to die later."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-replicating_machine",
"http://reprap.org/wiki/MetalicaRap",
"http://reprap.org/wiki/Tantillus",
"http://hackaday.com/2009/04/19/printing-circuits-on-the-reprap/"
]
} | Are there any machines that are completely able to replicate themselves?
I had an /r/Showerthoughts about 3d printers being able to print themselves, but apprently that's not 100% possible what with the non plastic parts required. But are there any machines that have been designed to be able to 100% replicate themselves? If not, would this be possible with todays technology? | [
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4jqky9 | Where is the line drawn for what counts as one molecule? Is a full strand of DNA one molecule? Is the membrane for the nucleus? | askscience | {
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"As with many other catch-all terms in chemistry, what counts as a molecule will often depend on the context. Let's start with the most general definition. For that we can turn to the [IUPAC Gold Book](_URL_0_) which has the following to say:\n > **Molecule:** An electrically neutral entity consisting of more than one atom (n > 1). \n\nWell, that's not very useful. Unfortunately though, such a broad definition is needed to include all the ways in which the term is sometimes used in chemistry. Most chemists would usually insist on two additional conditions: \n\n1. A molecule must consist of atoms that are bound together chemically (especially covalently).\n\n22. A molecule must act as an easily identifiable unit. \n\nHowever, even this more restrictive definition leaves things quite murky. While it's easy to say that things like molecular oxgen (O2) or ethanol (CH3CH2OH) are molecules, what about the big stuff? For example, DNA is usually called a macromolecule, but should the term refer to just one strand or the whole thing? You could argue that only each strand individually is bonded convalently and that is what should define the molecule. And yet at room temperature the binding of the two chains is so strong, that in most cases (e.g. when studying diffusion), the double helix will usually act as one unit.\n\nWhen you move to supramolecular chemistry and nanoscience, all hope of a clean definition is lost. For example, can you call a [graphene nanoribbon](_URL_2_) a molecule? Perhaps, but what about the whole 2D sheet then? Or how about J-aggregates, where [molecular building blocks come together to create large, but well defined chains?](_URL_1_)\n\nMy solution to this mess is a pragmatic application of the [duck test](_URL_3_). If for a given experiment a chunk of atoms moves like a molecule and talks like a molecule, then think of it as a molecule. If not, switch to a mental picture that is more convenient for the situation at hand.",
"Just to clarify cell membranes, like the nuclear membrane, are considered to be assemblages of many interacting but independent molecules. Membranes are made up mostly of independent phosopholipid molecules (with some proteins embedded). The phospholipids interact with one another but are not bonded and are free to diffuse through the membrane.\n\nDiffusion co-efficients are EXCEEDINGLY rapid\n\n_URL_4_\n\nFrom a biochemistry and molecular biology POV covalently bonded things are typically regarded as molecules so amino acids, DNA, RNA, proteins, ethanol, ADP, NADH, etc, etc would all be talked of as molecules. For convenience sake very large molecules which have emergent properties of their own are additionally labelled as macro-molecules, this includes DNA and proteins and so forth.\n\nAt the next scale up in the cell (the level molecular biology functions at) you have large assemblages of molecules such as membranes, the ribosome, the spliceosome and so on. These are not regarded as molecules as their components are largely free of one another and can often assemble and disassemble readily.",
"I can't really argue with u/HugodeGroot but the way I was taught was that a molecule was any discrete element covalently bonded. Molecular oxgen (O2) and ethanol (CH3CH2OH) are molecules but so are polymers like Nylon [NH−(CH2)5−CO]n, graphene sheets, DNA strands etc. However once a molecule gets big enough molecule, true or not, is **no longer useful** as a definition",
"For molecular biology purposes, a strand of DNA is considered a molecule. When setting up cloning reactions, for example, we calculate ratios of insert to vector based on molarity, not mass. Grams/mole is calculated using the number of base pairs per DNA molecule.",
"Many branches of science have \"undefined\" words or \"definition varies based on the situation\" words.\n\n\"Molecule\" is one of those.\n\nProbably the simplest answer is \"the smallest unit of a group of atoms that maintains its chemical properties.\"\n\nFor example: H2O is \"water\" at one group of two hydrogen/one oxygen. Break it down any further, and you have hydrogen and oxygen instead of water.\n\nYet a 3 gram sheet of graphene could be considered a \"single molecule\" of carbon. But if you break it in to smaller pieces, it retains the obvious structure of graphene. Until you get down to just a few atoms. I don't know off the top of my head how few atoms it takes to retain the properties of graphene, maybe a couple dozen to retain the hexagonal structure? (Also, crystalline structures are generally *NOT* considered to be \"molecules\" - a grain of salt is a crystal, not a giant molecule of salt.)\n\nDNA - well, I would argue that \"DNA\" isn't a molecule in and of itself, it is a structure made up of multiple molecules. Specifically cytosine, guanine, adenine, and thymine. (Plus sugar and phosphate \"binders.\") Yes, I know, it is usually called \"The DNA molecule,\" but to me that just seems wrong. Again, no scientific definitions here, just \"gut feelings.\"\n\nHeck, based on the most encompassing definition, a plastic milk jug could be considered to be a single molecule!",
"A molecule is two or more atoms linked by chemical bonds (i.e. sharing of electrons), they are the smallest part of a compound that can perform a chemical reaction. Ok that's the definition.\n\nFor your specifics, a DNA (the double helix) is 2 molecules as the two strands only interact via hydrogen bonding. Any cellular membrane (plasma, mitochondrial, nucleus, etc) is composed of many different molecules, the membranes maintain their shape and structure through hydrophobic interactions, not chemical bonds.",
"At university, our lecturer in polymer chemistry (who was head of the chemistry department and leader of the catalysis research group) opened a lecture by asking us for our thoughts on this question. He said that a rubber tyre is held together by covalent bonds and should be considered a single molecule.",
"In general, my advice is to not get caught up on terminology too much. Terms are only useful if they let us communicate ideas with other people. There's no point pushing a term to its limits, because then it loses its usefulness entirely.\n\nQuestions like \"is X really a molecule?\" can be fun, but they're not usually worth worrying about. The real interesting science is in the models and predictions, not in the classification and terminology.",
"I've often wondered what the biggest (i.e. largest molecular weight) molecule on the planet is. My best guess was some huge crosslinked polymer like a rubber tire in one of those immense earth movers. Can anyone think of a bigger one?",
"The answer to this is actually pretty simple - something is considered a molecule so long as its individual components cannot be separated [without breaking a covalent bond](_URL_5_).\n\nWith respect to your question about DNA, the double helix of DNA is two polynucleotide strands that are joined by a massive array of hydrogen bonds, which are non-covalent in nature. Therefore, the most accurate way to think of DNA is as *two* molecules that self-assemble to form a larger supramolecule.\n\nChemists do generally make a conceptual division between smaller molecules (e.g., molecular weights of ~2000 Da or less, YMMV) and larger ones (so-called \"macromolecules\") but this is more of a conceptual handle than something with inherent physical meaning.",
"An unbroken network of covalently-bonded atoms is a molecule. Technically, a car tire is a single molecule. Beginning as a collection of polymer (long-chain) molecules, the tire is vulcanized (heated) causing the sulfur atoms from nearby chains to become covalently bonded together.",
"Engineer here. One material that comes to mind in particular is UHMWPE, or Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene.\n\nThis stuff has really cool mechanical properties because the Polyethylene chains are really, really long (leading to the \"ultra high molecular weight\" term). Compared to normal Polyethylene, UHMWPE is significantly harder, stiffer, stronger, tougher and more abrasion resistant. This is due to the long chains sticking to each other very well.\n\nCommon uses for UHMWPE include the slippery but tough pads under your computer mouse, body armor and mechanical bearings.",
"I would say no to the nucleus and conditionally for DNA. \n\nThe nucleus (membrane in this context) is made up of many individual bio molecules such as lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, etc. to make up the overall membrane of the organelle. \n\nDNA if single stranded is, in fact, a single molecule. However, DNA is many cases exists as a double strand which is the result of hydrogen bonding between two single strands, therefore, two molecules."
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} | {
"url": [
"http://goldbook.iupac.org/M04002.html",
"http://i.imgur.com/F4nTwfk.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/HYe2yQG.gif",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duck_test",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22534/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3438546/"
]
} | Where is the line drawn for what counts as one molecule? Is a full strand of DNA one molecule? Is the membrane for the nucleus?
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||
487vbb | Would the trans-atlantic cable still be in existence? | It was laid so long ago, Has anyone looked for it? Is it too deep or the currents moved it? Or has the saltwater corroded it into dust?
Sorry if this may not be a suitable question for r/askscience
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d0hsanh",
"d0hyec4",
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"d0i2whk",
"d0itzpo",
"d0iqsgi"
],
"text": [
"The transatlantic telegraph cable was insulated by [gutta-percha](_URL_1_). Wikipedia is lacking in detail, but from my Bell labs book (The Idea Factory) and [here](_URL_0_), the [Teredo Worm](_URL_3_) and several other species attacked gutta-percha. The steel wires and copper conductors will also have corroded by now, and will be covered in a thick layer of biological gunk. The copper may have had a detrimental effect on life around it. I don't know about ocean currents moving it, but I doubt it as the cable was quite heavy.\n\nThe cable that Bell laid, the [TAT-1](_URL_2_), is retired but could still plausibly be intact. It's polyethylene with good wire armor, making it quite unpalatable, and its shielded electrically so sharks never took an interest in it (which could create a weakness).",
"Parts of the Atlantic that the cable crossed are so deep that decay happens very slowly. Witness the Titanic. I'm sure that it is still down there, although the condition is undoubtedly poor.\n\n Fun and somewhat related fact, the wreck of the feared German WW2 battleship Bismarck has actually had a newer trans oceanic cable laid across it.",
"As others have said, it's greatly degraded and probably broken into pieces now but I know sections of some of the cables exist because I've seen one many times. In Bay Roberts, Newfoundland, Canada you can find The Cable Building, built by Western Union in 1913 as a relay station. The cable runs from Bay Roberts to Sennen Cove, Cornwall, England and in Bay Roberts they've built a little boardwalk where you can see the cable just sitting there in the shallow water. _URL_4_\n\n_URL_5_",
"It is highly likely the cable isn't continuous any more. In operation they broke multiple times due to turbidity currents. Maybe even ocean spreading would play a part now, 2.5cm per year over 150 is about 3.5 m. Wouldn't have much difference on the grand scale I guess.\n\nIts very likely the cables are present on the abyssal plane. Wooden ship wrecks last thousands of years! It is likely to be sedimented over. Even in deep ocean the sedimentation rate are mm scale per year. Probably partially exposed as in some areas it snags and motion is concentrated at small sections where it will exhume again.\n\nIt wouldnt have washed away on the abyssal plane though. The currents are too weak.",
"As someone who has actually been to Heart's Content, Newfoundland, I can confirm that the cable does, in fact, still exist physically.\n\nOf course, these days it's pretty much just a rusty wire sitting on the ground, and the rest of the cable is who knows where. /u/NLHNTR posted some good pics of it.\n\nFun fact: there's actually a large pipe near the cable, and people take pictures of it assuming that the more impressive big thing must be the cable that spans the ocean. Nope. That's sewage. You're looking for the ugly frayed metal cable that looks like trash washed up on the shore.",
"This is probably obvious, but there are many trans-Atlantic cables. They are preferred to satellite communications for most purposes because they have higher bandwidth, lower latency, higher security, and less vulnerability to external conditions."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://atlantic-cable.com/Article/Clifford/teredo.htm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gutta-percha",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TAT-1",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teredo_navalis",
"https://m.flickr.com/#/photos/baccalieu/5550902196/in/set-72157626327302894/",
"http://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/society/cable-station-bay-roberts.php"
]
} | Would the trans-atlantic cable still be in existence?
It was laid so long ago, Has anyone looked for it? Is it too deep or the currents moved it? Or has the saltwater corroded it into dust? Sorry if this may not be a suitable question for r/askscience | [
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1445df | Does our body store every antibody to every infection/disease we've ever had? | If so, where are they stored and how is it "coded"? | askscience | {
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"The answer is a yes/no.\n\nFirst, not all disease is infectious, nor produces an adaptive immune response; while some disease results from an adaptive immune response. Furthermore not all adaptive response results in antibody body production as the predominant response.\n\nAssuming we have an immune response we can have one that is predominated by cell mediated immunity, cd-8 t-cells, macrophages, NK cells and the like; or a response dominated by plasma cell proliferation and antibody production. \n\nIn the process of either of these responses memory cells, either T or B are produced. There are other processes as well in which genes coding for antibody undergo mutation and refinement so as they are more specific, or show a higher affinity to an antigenic molecule on the infectious agent. \n\nThe \"code\" as you call it, is the rearranged DNA that codes for antibody that that cell and it's progeny will produce. It survives past infection in the form of memory cells, which have a variable persistence, and in some cases persist for a few months to years, to a decade or longer. Factors affecting which cells will persist for differing time periods are not well understood. This is demonstrated in current vaccination practices, some vaccines will impart an immunity that lasts a few years, whereas others produce an immunity lasting decades. Similarly some immunizations will produce a b-cell response only and others a t-cell, those with a t-cell response produce a stronger immunity\n\nso long answer short, there is a memory; but it often \"forgotten.\"",
"Short answer: yes, mostly.\n\nYour body doesn't store every *antibody*, but a small number of \"B cells\" that *produce* antibodies against almost every infection/disease it has battled throughout life. This includes vaccines and that's why once you get vaccinated against a disease you generally never get it again. \n\nTo explain further, here's how a typical infection process will go in your body: \n\n1. The pathogen enters some place in your body that it should not have entered.\n2. Your body's \"watchmen\" cells notice that there's a foreign object in unauthorized territory using some generic patterns that are only found in foreign organisms.\n3. These cells try to eat some of these pathogens and also produce signals to recruit other immune-system henchmen-cells to the site to aid in the clearance of these pathogens.\n4. In the meantime, the watchmen cells also try to \"present\" various identification-marks of these pathogens to so-called B cells through a lengthy process. Each B cell is capable of producing antibodies that can identify some purely random structure. The goal here is for the immune system to find a B cell that produces antibodies detecting identification marks that uniquely identify this pathogen. This takes a few days. But generally your body finds a couple of B cells like that. \n5. These \"pathogen-specific\" B cells now get activated and divide like crazy, producing a ton of antibodies that all bind to and neutralize/target these pathogens for destruction. \n6. Once the pathogen is cleared over a few days, most of these B cells die. Just a few \"memory\" B cells resist dying and become immortal (quite literally).\n7. These memory B cells then find some place in the bone marrow and sit in this niche for decades, producing small amounts of this antibody all the while, trying to make sure that just in case this pathogen enters again, it will get neutralized immediately by these antibodies. \n8. Just in case this challenge happens again, the memory b cells can kick back into action and produce a ton more of these b cells and produce antibody to clear the assault even faster. This also tends to \"enforce\" the memory since now when the number of memory cells for this pathogen will increase. This is why very often we need to give multiple doses of vaccines to \"Boost\" the memory of that pathogen.\n\nInterestingly, though this process indicates that we will be having memory against **all** the pathogens we have ever encountered, recent research indicates that we have limits: when memory b cells try to find a place in the bone marrow, it appears that the number of \"niches\" where they can reside is very limited - so you can only have memory of so many pathogens! That's why sometimes you lose memory of some infections when they accidentally get knocked off their niche and can't find a new one.\n\nStudying this process is very important on several levels: the obvious is that we get a better idea on how vaccination strategies can preserve memory against various infections. Ironically, we also would want to know how to \"remove\" memories like these, especially bad memories of b cells that produce antibodies against our own body (causing autoimmune diseases). Sadly, we still don't have a way of obliterating these memory b cells effectively so that side of the coin is still open for spinning! \n\nJust to note that producing antibodies is but **one** of the ways your immune system fights assaults. But almost all vaccinations work via antibodies and a big number of pathogens also get cleared via antibody responses. For simplicity's sake I did not go into the other part of the immune system that involves purely cell-based responses (though even there we have \"memory T cells\" that are just similar).",
"No, antibodies are not stored within the body (they have a half-life of less than a few weeks).\n\nHowever, the B cells that produced antibodies to fight infection previously may have been induced to form \"memory cells,\" latent cells with the same antibody specificity, that may be activated again if the same pathogen is encountered. The information is stored as rearranged immunoglobulin gene sequences, and each unique antibody is based off a unique gene rearrangement.",
"Short answer no, but we do store a \"code\" with the ability to make about 3×10^11 different antibodies with just 77 genes. Just think about that number for a second....\n\nThe way it works is unique B cells are constantly being made in the bone marrow by recombination of 3 sets of genes V,D, and J. These cells then get released into the circulation and only survive if they prove themselves useful, ie recognize a pathogen, otherwise they die to make room for ones that might. \n\nIf one does recognize something it proliferates like crazy and the cells make tons of IgM (5 antibodies stuck together) that can weakly bind to the pathogen. During proliferation however the B cells continue to mutate their antibodies making some that bind the pathogen stronger (they survive to secrete more antibody) and some that bind weaker (they die off).\n\nDuring this process the B cells also get signals from T cells to change what type of antibody they are making from IgM to antibodies to ones that fight different types of infections like IgG (viruses and bacteria), IgE (parasites), or IgA (for pathogens at mucosal surfaces).\n\nOnce the B cell has an antibody that binds strongly to the pathogen it divides and some become Plasma cells that go to the bone marrow to continue to produce lots of the good antibodies for months to years, and the others become very long lived memory cells that continue to circulate in the Lymph nodes in case the pathogen shows up again. (They are not hanging out in the bone marrow as some have suggested, those are plasma cells).\n\nBy this process we can continually adapt to whatever nature throws our way and continually tweak what antibodies work and which ones don't to protect us against disease. All with just 77 genes.",
"Firstly, antigens an be foreign or self. When self-responding T-cells don't get \"filtered out\" properly in the production of T-cells (positive and negative selection), you get a lot of a specific circulating anti-self antibody which is the basis of many autoimmune diseases. \n\nCertain T-cells are \"randomly\" produced genetically (DNA level) to correspond to virtually any antigen combination--there's a LOT of them. \n\nSo when your T-cells come across an antigen in your body, B-cells can be activated and specialized for that specific antigen. They proliferate and become plasma cells that produce and secrete antibodies specifically for the antigens.\n\nSo your average immunocompetent person has T cells for virtually any antigen that hasn't even been presented yet. That is why we are capable of producing antibodies in response in a short amount of time. During B cell activation, memory B cells are produced which are already capable of antigen response and the production of a specific antibodies.\n\nHowever, there are other processes of the immune system vital in your body's defense against pathogens. Antibodies are not the only way the body responds to infection. Furthermore, not all diseases are infectious, nor do they all stimulate an adaptive (antibody) response. \n\n Hope this was clear enough, I am rather drunk and watching League of Legends streams.",
"In response to where they are stored, memory B cells typically reside in the bone marrow. However, long-lived antibodies secreted by plasma cells can be found in the blood. Smallpox antibodies and B cells can be found in humans up to 80 years after vaccination."
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|
1i1jq7 | Why is thermal vision like FLIR so expensive? Is it the materials? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"From my experience sourcing a FLIR camera (and trying to bring the costs down without affecting our end product), there are a number of reasons that they cost as much as they do.\n\nTo begin with, there's the issue of volume: specialized sensor, lens calibrated for IR (and usually with an autofocus mechanism); both those aren't made in the same kind of volume as webcams or security cameras, so the cost per part goes up.\n\nSecondly, there's the issue of a heat shielding. Visible light is easy, it travels in relatively (hah, pun!) straight lines and it's very easy to make an object that is opaque to light. Additionally, light isn't retained in a material the way heat is. To build an enclosure that insulates against ambient air temp, sunlight hitting the case, etc. takes specialized materials and processes and bumps up the cost significantly.\n\nThirdly, there's the issue of calibration: a lot of these cameras are used in settings where it is important to have precise, accurate, and repeatable readings. This means that there needs to be a way to calibrate it, which is usually done by including a small radiator in the camera as a stable reference point. In China, where they use FLIR cameras to check for fevers in transportation hubs, they chose to instead use an external calibrated radiator that was in the FOV of multiple cameras, as a means of cutting costs.\n\nLastly, these products are rather rugged. When you're putting that much tech into something, especially something that won't be rapidly outdated, it needs to be able to last. A lot of these are being used in military, industrial, marine, and field testing/repair environments, all of which are rather harsh. This means that everything must be built to a high standard internally, and the case must be designed and built to adequately protect the camera.\n\nThat said, FLIR is currently adding a lot of new products to their line, many of which fall into the budget end. Removing features, relying on external heat shielding (in OEM applications), using fixed, focus lenses, and taking advantage of the ever-dropping cost of producing tech, they're making cameras that should be in the $2,000 range (as opposed to the $5,000+ range)",
"It is all about market. Not many FLIR cameras are sold/made. The few that are sold has to share the development costs between them. They are not mass produced, they are made by hand.\n\nMass production/high volume = Low price pr unit\n\nHand production/low volume = High price pr unit",
"Created a throwaway for this. I work at FLIR, and perhaps I can answer some questions. Now I´m not in the marketing department, but all employees get to know our products.\n\nThe most expensive part to manufacture in the camera is the detector.\nThe cheapest detector we manufacture is in the [i3](_URL_0_) and costs around $1200 on Amazon.\nThe reason for why Flir cameras are expensive to make is the manufacturing process, and you can easily compare the development of the FLIR technology with the development of the digital cameras in 1990 and forward.\n\nThe i3 is a mass-produced camera, and has a detector of 30x30. A couple of years ago the same resolution detector was twice as expensive to make and so forth. And I can ensure you that we are working on making the technology as cheap as possible. Flir´s mission statement is \"IR everywhere\", this means lowering the cost of the detector so we can put them in more and more hands, and use them for other more purposes then it´s used for today.\n\nFLIR produces the cheapest cameras on the market, but also the most expensive cameras. The Higher end model´s get more trickier to manufacture, and are produced in lesser quantity.\n\nSome cameras are also specific targeted for specific markets. For example the new [K-series](_URL_1_), these are the cheapest cameras on the market targeted for firefighters. But these cameras are also designed to handle water, fire and you mistreat this camera quite badly. Throw it on the ground etc. \n\nSo to answer your question.\nFirst of, the manufacturing process. We make our own detectors, and because FLIR have more then 50% of the market we can´t look at others and get and tips on how to improve the production. We have to invent new methods all the time to make it better and make it cheaper. \nSome of the part´s can´t be bought. So for example, we make or own lenses. \nOther reasons are that, in the past it was so expensive to make a camera, and those cameras where tricky to operate. Requiring nitrohydrogen to operate. Not so many where interested in them, well not as many as today. Advancement in the technology have made the product, cheaper to manufacture easier to operate. This opened up new markets.\nProduct´s designed for a few, is hard to make cheap. But as we advance in the technology, we can make cheaper cameras. As the price goes down, more and new market´s opens up, we can spend more on RnD to device new methods to make it even cheaper.",
"Axis Communications has a significantly lower priced thermal cam",
"Materials scientist/FLIR camera user checking in. The underlying materials for FLIR cameras are indeed expensive. At room temperature the only reasonable sensor option is indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), which is a bit of a pain to make. A few years back when I last looked into this, an InGaAs photosensor array with no wiring or packaging ran well over $1000.\n\nAt low temperature mercury cadmium telluride and indium antimonide are typical detector materials. Both of those are also not especially cheap and the cooling systems are no joke either.",
"Just because digital cameras are inexpensive today doesn't mean that thermal sensors are any less expensive. The development and cost of thermal infrared sensors is completely separate from visible light sensors in consumer digital cameras:\n\n- Consumer digital cameras use silicon-based charge-coupled devices (CCDs) in their sensors. As CCD-based digital cameras have become more prevalent, the cost of these chips has dramatically decreased. \n\n- Infrared sensors require more exotic semiconductor materials (e.g. [HgCdTe](_URL_3_)) in significantly different sensor designs that are sensitive to thermal infrared electromagnetic radiation, which has much lower energy than visible light. Since these sensors have never been mass produced, prices remain high.\n\nThese costs are even greater for hyperspectral imaging, which captures data at hundreds or thousands of wavelengths simultaneously. Handheld spectrometers run at least $20k, [AVIRIS](_URL_4_) flights cost upwards of $100k, while the [ChemCam](_URL_4_) on the Curiosity Rover cost around $10m by itself.",
"I've used a FLIR camera and honestly it's construction isn't the best in the world but its price ($80k for ours) I found is due to as others have said--the sensor alone and the inboard software are enough to keep it proprietary",
"There is not a high volume of units being made, so ones that are sold are at high margins. And manufacturers control prices to maintain brand image and to ensure their production can keep up with demand."
],
"score": [
99,
49,
14,
5,
4,
3,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.flir.com/thermography/americas/us/view/?id=54156",
"http://www.flir.com/cvs/americas/en/lawenforcement/view/?id=60239",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AVIRIS",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_cadmium_telluride",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curiosity_(rover\\)#Chemistry_and_Camera_complex_.28ChemCam.29"
]
} | Why is thermal vision like FLIR so expensive? Is it the materials?
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7mub6z | Can temperature affect the speed of electricity? And if so can extreme temperature, hot or cold, completely stop the electric current through something? Power lines, electronics, etc. | Just curious if extreme cold but also extreme heat can affect the speed of electricity through something..? I’ve seen when it is extremely cold my phone appears “laggy” is this do to the cold on its processor? And also can extreme temperatures affect power lines and things of that sort?
Edit: Thank you guys for all of the answers! Had no idea how much played into all of this.. woah. | askscience | {
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"I am not quite sure about the actual \"speed\" of the electrons, if that is what is meant by \"speed of electricity\", but from a materials perspective, the resistivity (the quantity \"slowing down\" the electricity) of a conductor is temperature dependent. Generally, for metals, resistivity increases with increasing temperature. Thus, increasing temperature will make it harder for electricity to flow and vice versa, so you would get a lower current for the same applied voltage. However, this also means that when your phone is \"laggy\" in the cold, the electrical resistance should be decreased and thus have the possibility of a higher electrical flow, so it is unlikely that the cold slowing down the electricity is the cause of the laggy speeds. It is worth noting that general ambient temperature range where you would be using an electronic device is relatively small and probably only going to have a very small effect on the resistivity of the conductors.",
"Most everyone here has taken the notion of \"speed\" to be the resistivity of a medium, which is a fair interpretation. To change things up a bit, I'll take the notion of speed to mean the physical velocity that electrical signals move down a wire.\n\n The speed of propagation of a electromagnetic wave (which electrical signals are) in a medium is given by the formula 1 / sqrt (mu * epsilon), where mu is the magnetic permeability and epsilon is the electric permittivity. Each of those constants have nonzero values in a vacuum, and if you plug in the values of those constants in a vacuum you'll get the speed of light (it's actually super easy and incredibly insightful to do so)!\n\nSince we have nonzero vacuum values of those constants, we will usually define the permeability and permittivity of a medium relatively, e.g. as a fraction of the vacuum value of its respective constant. For copper, the relative permeability is 1. The relative permittivity of the copper itself is actually mostly irrelevant for the calculation, and instead we must consider the permittivity of the surrounding medium, which is the plastic sheathing. That's about 2.5 on average, which means our average relative speed of propagation is 2/3c (in other words, when you flip on a light switch, the lightbulb will begin to turn on after the amount of time it would take for that wave, traveling two thirds the speed of light, to travel along the wire from the switch to the bulb).\n\nWith that out of the way, we can answer your question. Relative permeability of copper is probably not going to vary significantly with temperature. There are materials that exhibit extreme changes to their permeability at super low temperatures (look into superconductors), but those are an edge case. Relative permittivity can actually vary quite a bit with temperature, but only in materials with permanent dipoles, of which rubber is not. \n\nSo, we can say that changing temperature will probably not significantly affect the speed of propagation of an electrical signal. If your signal is propagating in an unusual material, it might, but for electricity moving through a wire, 2/3c is generally a safe bet.\n\nFor more reading:\n_URL_0_\n_URL_1_",
"If your phone literally ‘appears’ laggy- that is, the display is slow to update or change colors- that would be due to the nature of liquid crystal displays, where crystals suspended in fluid have to physically change orientation to create a change in the color you see. These displays can appear slow to work in extreme cold.",
"The reason you're phone is slow is a lack of power. The cold slows the reaction speed of the battery and you lose power for processing. That's why some people take the battery out of their car overnight when gets too cold.",
"What is happening to your phone is the LCD display slows down in the ability to turn the pixels on and off making your refresh rate take a hit. Most of the rest of the electronics, other than the battery, which is less efficient at low temperatures, don't care. In the case of the processor, they might even run faster, compensating somewhat for the battery.",
"Electrons don't really feel temperatures the way a molecule does. An electron is less than 1/1000 times the mass of even a proton, so even if the molecule lost most of its kinetic energy (aka temperature), an extra but tiny change by 1/1000 to bump that electron around would be essentially unfelt by the whole molecule.\n\nOn the contrary, things become better conductors at low temperatures (simplistically crystals become more ordered at low temps so the electrons find their way faster). What are you noticing might have to do with semiconductor behavior (allow electrons to move, but only above a certain barrier, and that barrier changes a bit with temp). \n\nWhat you are seeing in your phone has to do with battery capacity. Simplistically, a battery has molecules that store electrons; as said before, these leave fast, but after that, the molecule has to rearrange a bit, and this is slowed down significantly. Without this rearrangement, you get accumulation of charges in certain places, which prevents more charge from accumulating before slow molecules rearrange. The battery becomes less like a soup of electrons, and more like a goo you get when you don't change the oil in your engine, which makes it look like your battery has less capacity to release those electrons.\n\nAlso, displays also become less responsive at low temperatures, but again because of molecules, not electrons/electricity.\n\nTLDR: the battery is what slows down your phone at low tempearture",
"I have an older Sony Bravia TV that has a 100% reproducible problem caused by slightly lower temps. I've never understood how that was possible as like other commenters mentioned I thought it would take an extreme temp to have any effect. \n\nIn summer (74-77ish in the house) it turns on the first time without fail. In fall/winter (64ish in the house) it tries to boot, but clicks then turns off (feels like a failsafe), then tries again, repeating about 3 times then staying off and blinking red. The way around it is to push the power button but before it really starts that first attempt, you repeatedly press the power button to force it to be \"off\" while still trying to boot up. If you use that to sort of \"warm it up\" (I know that's not what's happening... but still) then let it try to boot, it stays on.\n\nOne of the weirdest things I've encountered in an electronic device. Especially how consistent it is.",
"Temperature effects resistance of the conductor which conducts electricity.... Due to this, the conductor gets heating and some energy loss occur. This effects electric potential ( voltage ). As far I know, temperature doesn't effect speed of electrons....",
"Temperature and temperature coefficients of the material really do have an effect on current and energy transfer.\n\nThis principle really set in on one of my first labs in an electrical engineering tech.\n\nWe were doing basic things with a tungsten filament lightbulb. We were basically just learning how to take measurements of voltage, current, and resistance.\n\nI knew I was putting 12v through the lightbulb, and I measured the resistance of the bulb to be 1.2 ohms. So doing V/R, that would mean 10 amps of current would go through the bulb! 10 amps is a lot; enough to blow up the lightbulb. When I checked my ammeter current, I was getting closer to .200 amps. How could this be?\n\nThe instant I turned on the power supply, 10 amps did indeed flow through the bulb. It heated up the bulb so quickly, that the resistance of the lightbulb increased dramatically as well. This feature is called a \"positive temperature coefficient\", that is a conductor will increase its resistance based on warmer temperatures.\n\nHow much so? Well, in order for that lightbulb to drop to ,2 amps from 10, it had to increase its temperature by about 2000 degrees Celsius (rough numbers). That tungsten emitted light largely because it was over 2000 degrees.\n\nNon conductors do the opposite. They have a negative temperature coefficient. Our body is a non conductor. That means our natural resistance is pretty high, but as you pass current through it, the resistance actually starts to decrease. With decreased resistance comes an increase in current. The more current you have, the more heat and damage you receive. That means a few things: Time largely decides if high voltage will kill you. \n\nIn NA you have 120v sockets, if our resistance is 200k ohms from the finger on my left hand to the finger on my right hand, that would be .6 mA. For an instant, I would barely feel that. But if I held onto it for half a second and my resistance decreased to 1k ohms, that would increase the current to 120mA. 120mA through the heart would be deadly.",
"Yes. The drift velocity of an electronic in the presence of a 60 Hz AC field is very slow - on the order of tens-of-microns per second (Wiki 'drift velocity').\nResistance in conductors increases with temperature. This doesn't explicitly mean the velocity decreases, but the mean free path (the average distance the electrons travels before a scattering event) decreases. Metals become less conductive, and insulators become more conducive, with increasing temperature. The aforementioned Wiki explains why.\n\nRegarding your phone, it most likely becomes laggy at low temps because as the battery temperature drops the output voltage drops.",
"Yes. Electricity will move faster when the metal conductors are cool than when they're hot. Imagine trying to walk through a dancefloor with everyone dancing (hot metal) Vs everyone doing the mannequin challenge. That's basically it in a nutshell.\n\nThat's why it's important for performance-dependent hardware to be well cooled such as CPUs, GPUs, RAM (not so much, but to an extent, since it doesn't get *that* hot)",
"Temperature can change the resistivity of the electrical current. A way for people to measure “temperatures” is by measuring the resistivity of that current, and it is a good estimate of temperature (assuming the calibration is good).",
"Sure, temperature absolutely affects these things, but not everything is affected the same. For example semiconductor devices like the transistors in your phone processor can act quite differently than a simple wire as temperature varies. The key to remember is that you are dealing with precision devices that have tolerances they must stay within to function properly. The typical cold temperatures you’ll see are well within the normal operating temperatures of a processor, it’s usually heat that is the problem. Some devices in a electronics are much more susceptible to temperature variations than others, in these cases engineers can create circuits that compensate for these effects. Many parts will actually have temperature range specified by the manufacturer. This is sometimes very important, such as in applications like automotive, aircraft, or satellites. So within certain ranges your phone will compensate and should run the same, but as shown by the recent iPhone slow-down controversy, slowing the processor is one thing that can be done to deal with degraded battery performance, which as others have noted is absolutely affected by cold. \nAs for things like power lines, temperature does affect resistance in a wire. Specifically as temperature goes up, resistance goes up. This is why a light bulb doesn’t melt itself, it can self-regulate its current draw by getting hot. In a normal wire as temperature goes down the resistance goes down and the voltage drop across a given section of current carrying wire will decrease, which is usually seen as good thing. In extremes, like at cryogenic temperatures, some materials will even see their resistance drop to zero, these are called [superconductors](_URL_6_), though this is a quantum effect and isn’t simply a case of the resistance just finally hitting zero as it decreases. \nAs for the [speed of electricity](_URL_5_) the answer is a bit more tricky, so I’ll try to explain what the Wikipedia article is saying skipping electron drift velocity as others have covered that. The trickyness is due to the fact that electricity, or more specifically electromagnetism, can be [described using waves and fields](_URL_5_) which don’t need a material to travel through. And with no material, it doesn’t make much sense to talk about temperature. This is why no one can hear you scream in space, but they can see you scream just fine; sound needs something to travel in, light does not. So I just brought up light, and you may have heard folks say that light is just like radio waves, only at a different frequency, and this is true. You may have also heard that light is electromagnetism and this is also true because it’s all described by the same waves and fields. So talking about the speed of light and the speed of electricity is equivalent for our purposes. You’ve probably also heard the speed of light is a constant, but this is true only if we are describing the speed of light in a vacuum. This should tip us off that maybe the speed of light can vary when it’s not in a vacuum, and it in fact does, so the speed of electricity is not constant depending on what its traveling through. \nLet’s relate these abstract facts to something familiar like a Wi-Fi router. The typical router can get your Reddit answers to you in two ways, over the wireless Wi-Fi or wired Ethernet interfaces. If you’re at home without an Ethernet cable to connect your computer to the router, you are going to have to use the Wi-Fi. This may seem obvious, but why does the Ethernet need a cable when the Wi-Fi doesn’t? It’s because the Wi-Fi has an antenna that can take the signal that’s traveling down a wire, and convert the mode of travel from conducted in a wire to broadcast in radio waves, the Ethernet doesn’t have this so the signal stays in the wire. So what about the speed? \nIf your router was in space the radio waves would travel at the speed of light in a vacuum, the famous constant c. But we are on earth and surrounded by air which does slightly lower the speed of light traveling through it. And the temperature of the air does affect speed decrease a tiny amount, the effect is so small, and light is so fast, it can effectively be ignored. What causes the change is that as air temperature changes its density changes. The density changes the speed of light traveling through it, this is actually how those wavy lines from heat work. How about the temperature of the Ethernet cable? We can look at the [velocity factor](_URL_6_) and see that in a Cat-5e it is 64%, so the speed of a signal in the cable is approximately 64% the speed of the signal in the Wi-Fi situation. Does temperature factor in? There are a number of of ways to calculate the velocity factor, one of them involves something called the [characteristic impedance.](_URL_6_) Looking at the formula for this we see that, one of variables is the resistance of a section of wire which will vary with temperature. So if the temperature changes, then the characteristic impedance will too, and so will the speed of light (electricity) in the wire, though not by much.",
"Your question is multi fold and I will try to answer the different parts separately:\n\nTemperature affecting the \"speed\" of electricity:\n\nIf you mean the speed of the electric field: No. All electric fields move at the speed of causality or better known as the speed of light. if you induce a +V voltage relative to ground to a copper wire (conductor) the voltage will be observable a distance out after the same amount of time as it would take light to travel the distance. \n\nIf you meant the speed of the actual electrons: Yes. Electrons move relatively slowly under \"normal\" circumstances like in your phone or building circuit. This speed is mainly dependent on the current and the material but would also slow down as the temp of the material increased.\n\nWhy does my phone lag when it is cold:\n\nMy guess is that this has more to do with the battery in your phone. Li batteries in your phone are adversely affected by the cold and the voltage output might drop if the temperature gets too cold. Bad power supplies to CPUs can lead to lag or system failure. \n\nDo power lines get affected by the cold:\n\nYes, for most materials the colder they are the less resistance they have. Power lines work better in the cold.",
"Equating “speed of electricity” to current, generally super cooled metals will conduct extremely well, so called “superconductors”. These are wires that have been cooled to several hundred degrees Celsius below zero, using liquid helium or liquid nitrogen. In fact, an MRI machine has liquid helium inside to cool the wiring down. \n\nOn the other side, when a conductor like metal gets too hot, it will deform and ‘melt’ apart. While it’s not reaching the meeting point per say, it is able to break the wire. But this heat usually doesn’t come from the environment, it usually comes from having too thin a wire (too high a guage) for the current running through it. Electric flow through a conductor generates heat. So you get a sort of feedback loop if you get the wire too hot ambiently, because then the resistance increases, and the higher the resistance, the greater amount of heat energy that’s created. Frankly I’m not sure what the tipping point is for that, I imagine it’s vastly different for each material, but basically heat is the worst thing for conductors, and generally cold is actually good."
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Just curious if extreme cold but also extreme heat can affect the speed of electricity through something..? I’ve seen when it is extremely cold my phone appears “laggy” is this do to the cold on its processor? And also can extreme temperatures affect power lines and things of that sort? Edit: Thank you guys for all of the answers! Had no idea how much played into all of this.. woah. | [
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68y8fk | Alright, I am not a Flat Earther, but I want to know how and why it's a sphere and how I can prove that without using Bill Nye? | askscience | {
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"This is the kind of really great question some of my highschool physics teachers would ask us when then wanted to keep us on our toes, on those instances where they were a bit ahead of the curriculum and needed some filler or diversion. They'd throw questions of this type and ask each student to suggest a different method to prove a certain point. I remember one about proving light moves in straight lines which was *really* a lot of fun.\n\nThere are *so many ways* to do what you ask, **I suggest we use this thread as a collection of such ways**, in the spirit of my old teachers.\n\nI'll start...\n\nOkay. I'll suggest a purely geometrical approach. Start with a compilation of all [pictures-series ever taken of lunar eclipses](_URL_1_) (there has got to be quite a few of those by now, many are accessible online through the magic of Google). A lunar eclipse is when the Earth passes between the Sun & the Moon, and the Earths shadow passes across the lunar surface.\n\nFor each such series, note the orientation of the Earth in Space at the time of the eclipse using time zones. Sometimes Casablanca will be at noon, sometimes Singapore, sometimes New York ... you get the idea. Then note the curvature of the Earths shadow for each series. It should be pretty constant, and circular, from one set to the next. \n\nThere is only one three-dimensional shape which will always project a circular shadow when lit at about 90° from it's axis of rotation, and that is the sphere, or a close approximation thereof (in respect to the [Geoid](_URL_0_)).\n\nQED\n\nAnybody else? Please join the fun and add your own!\n\n**EDIT: Just a reminder that this post is about answering OPs request for methods of demonstrating Earths spherical shape. It has nothing to do with adressing the peculiar thought processes of denialists and Flat Earthers. Such comments do not belong here and will be removed.** \n\nThey might, however, be discussed in a another, separate thread discussing the psychology of denialists, should one pop up.",
"[Erastothenes](_URL_2_) is your go-to Greek philosopher if you want to examine the characteristics of the earth without requiring fleets of satellites and moon missions which could all be subject to conspiracies...\n\nHe knew earth was round, measured its circumference incredibly accurately, found its angle of inclination, and worked out the need for leap years, among other accomplishments.\n\nHis circumference measurement required measuring the angle of shadows at noon in two seperate cities a known distance apart. On a flat earth, there would be no difference in angles (unless the sun were a lot smaller and closer, in which case we wouldnt have the concept of the sun being overhead at noon in the first place).",
"The Earth's surface curves out of sight at a distance of 3.1 miles, or 5 kilometers. But our visual acuity extends far beyond the horizon. If Earth were flat, or if you were standing atop a mountain surveying a larger-than-usual patch of the planet, you could perceive bright lights hundreds of miles distant. On a dark night, you could even see a candle flame flickering up to 30 mi. (48 km) away.",
"Get a bunch of friends at significantly different latitudes and stand yardsticks strait up on the ground. Next measure the shortest shadow it cast at high noon. Now explain why some are longer or shorter than you measurement.",
"Stay awake at night. Look at the stars. Look how they appear to rotate (okay, it's actually us rotating). If you can, take a long exposure picture, it will look [like this](_URL_3_).\n\nThe flawed physics arguments of flat earthers have also touched this point. However, you can travel to the southern hemisphere, do the same and observe that there's a second celestial pole (it doesn't have a polar star, but it is a celestial pole in the sense that all other stars appear to rotate around it). You cannot explain this without a round Earth.",
"If Earth were flat, the sun would rise and set everywhere at once. It could not be daytime in one place while it's nighttime somewhere else. So call a friend on the other side of the world at noon and ask whether the Sun is up where they are. Make it a video call so they can show you that it's dark out if you want to make sure they're not part of the government conspiracy.",
"Okay - here's another one which is from a more classic geology source, just for kicks and giggles:\n\nInstead of look over the surface, what happens when we look into the Earth?\n\nThat's where the techniques of deep seismic imaging and seismic tomography come into play. Using transmission time of a given signal, we can monitor the moment a seismic signal (say a bunch of P-waves from a nuclear test held at a known time, for instance) emerges at various points around the Earth. the timing of the arrival of that signal gives information on the refractive properties of the materials and discontinuities which it has crossed. We can litterally see right through the Earth, to the other side, sort of like a sonogram. We can also see the internal structure of the planet ... the core, the mantle, the moho... There is no way to account for the resuting data without a quasi-spherical Earth. [example](_URL_4_).",
"Antarctica is moving toward the Atlantic Ocean at about 1 cm per year, it would be interesting to see flat earthers try to explain that.\n\nAnyway plate motions aren't consistent with rigid bodies on a flat surface, you'd have to have deformation in places where we don't see any.\n\nIt would also be hard to explain the Coriolis effect.\n\nedit: the earth also [oscillates like a sphere](_URL_5_).\n\nPeople everywhere on earth see the moon from (essentially) the same angle.\n\nGravity is measurably lower at the equator, and also decreases with elevation.",
"Also. If you take a plane flight from say LA to London. You'll be able to see icebergs below you. The planes are flying the shortest distance (approximately) which is roughly a straight line. But on a curved surface a straight line is an arc. \n\n_URL_6_",
"Watch the sunset and look for signs of refraction. The green flash is the most dramatic and rarest, but even just look at the flattening of the sun's shape and rippling. You wouldn't get such dramatic atmospheric refraction in the flat earth with the sun circling above it model."
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"url": []
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"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoid",
"http://media.al.com/news_impact/photo/lunar-eclipsejpg-b54a8b07291a6715.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthenes",
"http://burro.case.edu/Academics/Astr306/Coords/NMSkies_StarTrails2.jpg",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2000JB900380/pdf",
"http://lucien.saviot.free.fr/terre/index.en.html",
"http://i.imgur.com/WsVvidL.jpg"
]
} | Alright, I am not a Flat Earther, but I want to know how and why it's a sphere and how I can prove that without using Bill Nye?
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8thjes | Can we apply the principle behind quantum tunnel (of greatly reduced, but greater than 0 chance of occuring) to chemical systems? | Hello!
I am wondering whether the idea behind quantum tunneling, that while there is a well defined, high probably set of probabilities that will occur, less probable outcomes are still possible, although exponentionally less so.
What I am thinking as an example is a simple stochiometric mixture of H2 and Cl2 at atmospheric pressure and 20 degrees celsius. In these conditions, for them to react you need a catalyst to reduce the energy barrier for a single reaction to occur, which then initiates a chain reaction that no longer needs a catalyst, due to much lower energy barrier.
By my understanding, for this energy barrier reduction to occur, we use UV light to break up an elemental molecule into free radicals, then pray it collides with an elemental particle rather than another free radical.
However, shouldn't the De Broigle wavelength, already large as it is due to our choice particles, permit for there to be such a high velocity collision of particles that 1, or more free radicals are produced in such a way that they initiate a chain reaction?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e17j5zl",
"e17qage",
"e17qhg3"
],
"text": [
"Quantum tunneling is an important part of many chemical reactions. However, hydrogen is really the only atom that undergoes tunneling to a significant extent, since other atoms are too heavy. However, there are a few exceptions:\n\n_URL_1_\n > Hydrogen tunneling plays an important role in many chemical and enzymatic reactions. Less common is the tunneling of heavier atoms such as oxygen and carbon. In this Perspective, McMahon highlights the report by Zuev et al., who have identified a reaction in which carbon tunneling increases the reaction rate by over a hundred orders of magnitude.\n\nIn your example of H2 and Cl2 gases, the tunneling probability isn't large enough to contribute a substantial amount to the reaction. Even though hydrogen is light, and can undergo tunneling in many reactions, in this case the gas molecules are too far apart.\n\nOften, tunneling reactions are investigated using the kinetic isotope effect. Deuterium (D), being heavier than protium (H), will tunnel much more slowly. This is stronger than the usual kinetic isotope effect, which is caused by changes in vibrational energy states.\n\nIn the case of H2 vs D2 in reaction with Cl, [the observed differences in rate](_URL_0_) (and also see [here](_URL_2_)) aren't large enough to support a tunneling mechanism.",
"If we use transition state theory (TST) to predict the energy needed for a reaction to occur, then we will generally assume the transition state is at the lowest energy saddle point of the energy surface (the original TST used potential energy surfaces. This is wrong).\n\nHowever, in quantum mechanics, we know that there is a chance for tunneling across any barrier of a finite energy; this is true of particles as well as chemical reactions. Think of this as molecules colliding without the necessary energy to cross the transition state barrier, but still proceeding to product. For some reactions, this is completely negligible. For others, tunneling can actually be a major pathway for reactants to go on to products. I'm no expert in this; for a more thorough explanation, check out Anslyn and Dougherty's physical organic textbook.\n\nTo expand on a point related to my answer, but not necessarily your original question, tunneling isn't the only phenomenon that can cause is to miscalculate reaction rates with TST. Recrossing is the phenomenon where, as reactants move along a reaction coordinate diagram, they may cross over the traditional TST transition state point, but then still go back in the other direction towards reactants. In fact, one reaction can cross the transition state several times before finally going on to products. When I discuss recrossing here, keep in mind I am talking about an irreversible reaction, not one we'd expect to go back and forth across a transition state as in an equilibrium. Variational TST is a newer theory which seeks to place the transition state not at the saddle point, but where it can minimize recrossing and give a more accurate reaction rate.\n\nThere are other theories to address when traditional TST fails to accurately model the rate of product formation or the distribution of competing reaction pathways. Issues such as translational momentum and non-statistical distributions of thermal energies have been discovered to play an important role in describing chemical reactions, but that's a post for another time.",
"a huge number of chemical reactions that take place in enzymes use these properties to accelerate rates"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://aip.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1063/1.468486",
"http://science.sciencemag.org/content/299/5608/833",
"https://books.google.com/books?id=vyHwCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67&lpg=PA67&dq=D2+Cl2+kinetics&source=bl&ots=6ZBYWcPiGF&sig=dMBQHaQ_kb7sAx_BQyXnRCBPbj0&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjmvL_0r-zbAhWFExQKHWJbAuIQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=D2%20Cl2%20kinetics&f=false"
]
} | Can we apply the principle behind quantum tunnel (of greatly reduced, but greater than 0 chance of occuring) to chemical systems?
Hello! I am wondering whether the idea behind quantum tunneling, that while there is a well defined, high probably set of probabilities that will occur, less probable outcomes are still possible, although exponentionally less so. What I am thinking as an example is a simple stochiometric mixture of H2 and Cl2 at atmospheric pressure and 20 degrees celsius. In these conditions, for them to react you need a catalyst to reduce the energy barrier for a single reaction to occur, which then initiates a chain reaction that no longer needs a catalyst, due to much lower energy barrier. By my understanding, for this energy barrier reduction to occur, we use UV light to break up an elemental molecule into free radicals, then pray it collides with an elemental particle rather than another free radical. However, shouldn't the De Broigle wavelength, already large as it is due to our choice particles, permit for there to be such a high velocity collision of particles that 1, or more free radicals are produced in such a way that they initiate a chain reaction? | [
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|
1d8tuw | Difficulty of simulating fluids | What are the specific difficulties involved in simulating fluids? How are fluids simulated in most programs and how can it be simulated perfectly? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c9o0t71",
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"text": [
"I'm not an expert or anything, but for interactive fluids, most programs approximate numerical solutions to the [Navier-Stokes equations.](_URL_0_) An analytic solution to specific cases could represent perfect simulation, but it's very difficult to know where they may or may not be found, let alone what they are.",
"Turbulence is a huge problem when it comes to modeling. You will usually have to use a turbulence model to simplify turbulent fluctuations. A turbulence model will predict how a flow behaves, instead of resolving the navier-stokes fully at each point in space and time. \n\nYou can do direct numerical simulation (DNS), where the turbulence is resolved without any turbulence model. The problem with DNS is that it takes an enormous amount of computing power. Large problems in either space or time cannot be solved in a reasonable amount of time.",
"There is an old saying: All models are wrong, some are useful. All simulations of a fluid will have some error in it, there is too much variation to do it perfectly. A good simulation will give you a close answer to what you are trying to simulate. The best simulations are tweaked to match experimental results.",
"To add to a lot of other poster's responses, the Navier Stokes equations are non-linear. That is, there is an \"advection\" term that takes the divergence of velocity squares (or similar depending on how it and the rest of the problem is posed). \n\nAs /u/Jeffy_Weffy said, the scales are very large but there is even more to it than that. There is no scale separation in the problem. Sometimes in modeling, something happens rapidly and something happens slowly, but not in between. For fluids, there is an \"energy cascade\" where the energy of the eddies at the large scales work to the smallest scale hitting every scale in between.\n\nTo solve the equations, you can try to simplify the equation by filtering the equations. Think of filtering as averaging over space and/or time. However, filtering is linear and there again is that pesky non-linear term. So you filter again to remove the term. But wait, it's still non-linear. Basically, you can filter it again and again but the there is a [closure problem](_URL_3_). \n\nThere are various methods to resolve this. They all basically rely on some way to model the \"subgrid scale\" physics. The most prevalent is [Large Eddy Simulation](_URL_3_) but others exist too. \n\nOf course, applying such a technique can introduce errors and uncertainty. Understanding the nature of this uncertainty is non-trivial but can be very important. There are whole fields of study that focus on this (source: I'm a PhD candidate studying the uncertainty in ocean parameterization).\n\ni want to finally add that even the Navier Stokes equations are an approximation, albeit a pretty good one. They rely on the continuum assumption amongst others. If you wanted to dig deeper, you would do a [molecular dynamics](_URL_3_) of *every atom* (probably on the order of 10^23 to 10^40 atoms) but even then, MD is an approximation. You would have to look at quantum effects, etc, etc, etc. \n\nEdit: Fixed formatting with extra ()"
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navier-Stokes_equations",
"http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met455/notes/section7/1.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_dynamics",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_eddy_simulation"
]
} | Difficulty of simulating fluids
What are the specific difficulties involved in simulating fluids? How are fluids simulated in most programs and how can it be simulated perfectly? | [
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|
n29mi | "Mexican Standoffs": Why doesn't one guy just shoot the other in the head? Is there a real danger in shooting someone in the head who has a gun pointed at you? | I hope that the title makes sense. I'll clarify if it isn't 'science-y' enough.
EDIT: Specifics about this case:
*
Only two shooters, Shooter A and B.
*
Shooter 'A' never misses, guaranteeing a perfect headshot.
My question is this: Could Shooter B's body, specifically his trigger finger, "twitch" with enough force to pull the trigger while maintaining accuracy on Shooter A after being shot in the head. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c35pbiu",
"c35qjk3",
"c35qplt",
"c35pwg9"
],
"text": [
"I would split this question into the following parts:\n\nQuestion One: Can the nervous system react to hearing a shot being fired before the fired bullet hits the head?\n\nI can figure out the answer for this one. Assume the fired shot and the explosion happen simultaneously, while using the usual standoff weapon (citation needed) - the [.44 Magnum](_URL_2_).\n\nThe speed of sound is about 300 m/s, and from the page we observe that a magnum bullet travels at a minimum of 391 meters per second. This means that the bullet will penetrate your skull before you hear the shot. Regardless of how fast your reaction time is, this brings us to\n\nQuestion Two: Can the nervous system react to seeing a muzzle flash from a shot before the bullet hits the head?\n\nThis one is tougher. Suppose we are using .44 Magnums with 400m/s bullets, at the standard Mexican standoff distance of 10m. At that distance, it's safe to say that you see the muzzle flash instantaneously, so the question really is can you pull the trigger fast enough. At that distance, the bullet will reach your skull in .025s, or 25 milliseconds. You can test your reaction time [here](_URL_0_) to see if you survive. Unless you play WAY too many first person shooters, this brings us to\n\nQuestion Three: Would getting hit in the head by a bullet while holding a gun instantly incapacitate all processing power or would the person still have enough brains left to pull the trigger?\n\nNot sure about this, but it's unlikely that any processing will happen once the bullet [turns your brains into mush](_URL_1_). This leads us to\n\nQuestion Four: Would getting hit in the head result in any spasms or other reactions in the body that would cause a person holding a gun to shoot in the direction that the handgun was being pointed at.\n\nThis I also don't know for sure, but my guess is that the impact of the bullet with your skull will throw off your aim, and any spasms past that point will point the gun in a random direction and will not even guarantee a shot. From this, I would say that being the shooter, it is unlikely that you will get hit by a random accident. So this brings us to the\n\nFinal Question: Why don't people just shoot each other in the head in standoffs?\n\nAt this point, science can't really say, but my movie/psychology reasons would be as follows:\n\n* It's more dramatic that way.\n* Hitting someone's head at any decent range is very difficult, and if you miss they certainly will get a chance to shoot back.\n\n*edit fixed unit typo.",
"This is going to be quite a crass response, but when you decapitate a rats head for use in in vitro studies the body, and all limbs, flail for a good 30 seconds + after you do it. So it's quite possible the fingers will spasm, but it's probably not going to be any kind of aimed shot.",
"I believe [this](_URL_3_) article can shed some light on what happens when you get hit in the brain. (NSFL if you find and watch the video).\n\nOf course this is one example, but in the video you see the guy dropping to the floor without any other reactions.",
"Real life is messy, and a \"perfect headshot\" does not guarantee a kill or even immediate incapacitation."
],
"score": [
72,
7,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.humanbenchmark.com/tests/reactiontime/",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YYDidT0C0Ic",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.44_Magnum",
"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1259841/Russian-roulette-shock-wedding-guest-shoots-party-trick-gone-wrong.html"
]
} | "Mexican Standoffs": Why doesn't one guy just shoot the other in the head? Is there a real danger in shooting someone in the head who has a gun pointed at you?
I hope that the title makes sense. I'll clarify if it isn't 'science-y' enough. EDIT: Specifics about this case: * Only two shooters, Shooter A and B. * Shooter 'A' never misses, guaranteeing a perfect headshot. My question is this: Could Shooter B's body, specifically his trigger finger, "twitch" with enough force to pull the trigger while maintaining accuracy on Shooter A after being shot in the head. | [
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8nqm8y | Why is the brain divided? | * [A search](_URL_0_) doesn't reveal anything that answers this question specifically.
* Yes, I know that [many of the left brain/right brain claims are false](_URL_1_).
* Essentially I'm asking about the cerebrum's [longitudinal fissure](_URL_2_)--why would such a feature be selected for? Doesn't it waste space that could be used for more brain? Is there a benefit from inhibited interhemispheric communication?
* And what about non-human animals--are their brains divided too? How long ago did this feature arise? | askscience | {
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"Trying to explain this from a human-centered perspective won't work, as paired ganglia forming a cord is a common feature of bilateria. And no, it isn't just your brain, your ENTIRE nervous system has a left and right side that are mirror images. \n\nAnd don't believe the forebrain was a single mass that was selected to split. Remember, the chordate nervous system originates as a hollow tube which closes at the tips (if it doesn't close, you get Spina Bifida or anacephaly), then the walls keep growing in thickness. [And this is the embryonic brain](_URL_0_)\n\nHowever, remember, the tip of the neural tube is not the frontal lobe of the brain, but the lamina terminalis, which is pretty much in the center of the head, just above the optic chiasm. The hemispheres are LATERAL outgrowths, they are the left and right side of the tube, which grow on their own to the point they cover the remaining parts (in birds and mammals pretty much tho). But lateralization IS the ancestral condition. The longitudinal fissure wasn't selected for, it was a remainder of when worms had left and right ganglia. The thing that was selected for was the Corpum Callossum.",
"A lot of people have answered the bilateral aspect of body development, so I'll answer the last question. Yes, all animals with brains have bilateral structures. Even animals like worms and insects that we don't necessarily refer to as having \"brains\" but rather collections of neurons known as ganglia have bilaterality of their neurons. \n\nLook up images of comparisons of brains across the different animal groups. There are clear differences, but overall a lot of similarities in the overall structures present.",
"Well, we have bilateral symmetry throughout our whole body, which is hypothesised to be due to the way early organisms evolved.\n\nSee this wikipedia article : _URL_1_. \n\nI read about this partially in the book Other Minds which touches on the evolution of your brain/nervous system, but I'm sure there are more specific sources out there.",
"It appears that \"lateralization\" is studied at both the neurological level, and population level, which is rather interesting:\n\n > Theoretical models on the evolution of lateralization suggest that the alignment of lateralization at the population level may have evolved as an evolutionary stable strategy in which individually asymmetrical organisms must coordinate their behavior with that of other asymmetrical organisms. \n\nTo answer \"why\", we'd have to identify either that it's an inevitable or emergent consequence of fundamental EVODEVO structures, or that it's selected for due to individual or population level advantages.\n\n_URL_2_",
"Well, the brain does have different tasks segregated to different sides of the brain. Broca's and Wernicke's Areas on the left side are between 10-20 times larger than the homologous areas on the right side. That is NOT to say that language is EXCLUSIVELY a left brain phenomena; the processing of speech done on the right side of the brain is still remarkably important but is concerned with things such as timbre and intonation as opposed to vocabulary and word meaning. \n\nThe reason for this type of lateralization of function is theorized to actually be quite simple: you can cram more functions into a smaller area if you have the two adjacent hemispheres do related but non-identical types of processing. \n\nBreaking bi-symmetry in this way is a beautiful evolutionary mechanism and is extraordinarily complex in terms of the genetic mechanisms that result in asymmetry. Look up homeobox genes to get an idea of how this all plays out during embryological development. Its simply miraculous that this happens every time a human being is born.\n\nIf you look up pictures of a mouse or rat brain you'll see that there is some 'dividedness' but it is not nearly as prevalent as in primates.\n\nNorman Geschwind did some amazing studies on patients with their corpus callosum severed (the bundle of fiber tracts connecting both hemispheres) and it really gives one an idea of how competent both hemispheres are individually. Octopuses actually have a set up similar to this; each of their 8 arms contains a ganglion that is essentially a mini-brain that is part independent and part controlled by the central 'big brain'. Its fascinating that this segregation of neural processing took such an extreme evolutionary route in these creatures but considering the extreme intelligence that they are said to possess it is not surprising that having distinct neural processing nodes is more advantageous that one large amorphous blob of gray matter.",
"I am by no means an expert, but I am currently reading a book by Iain McGilchrist called [the Master and his Emissary](_URL_3_) that posits an answer to your question. \n In a nutshell, his argument is that the brain is divided because that division allows each half of the brain to operate somewhat independently from the other half, allowing each half to specialize in different complimentary ways of analyzing the world, more specifically the left half deconstructs while the right half seeks broader context. A fascinating read so far.",
"Neuroscientist here \\- Unfortunately I don't think there is a satisfying answer to *why* the brain is divided. We know obviously that it is, we know that specialized functions such as language have a laterality to which side of the brain they're more represented in \\(or more accurately, certain facets of language are represented in certain sides\\). However, there isn't a clear advantage to the brain being designed this way. It doesn't slow the spread of neurodegenerative diseases, or stop the spread of viruses in any meaningful way once they're infiltrated the blood brain barrier. It may help to control seizures to some degree, as while they can cross hemispheres at the corpus callosum, they may spread even faster if there were no divide whatsoever. So, we can speculate about possible benefits, but in the end all we can say is that it's designed the way it is, because that's how it is.",
"Redundancy is important in evolution, but it comes at a huge resource cost so it has to be worth it. How many humans survived a tooth through the brain because of their backup half? Probably not many, but if you look at primates and mammals as a whole, it is probably a lot. So I think there was significant evolutionary pressure to support two halves that could almost operate independently (at least if the serious damage was in the cortex). More than any other group of animals before, mammals relied on their powers of learning and memory to survive in their environment. Their behaviors could be dramatically more flexible rather than preset, but it took space in the nervous system to store and develop and lots of calories to power. Look at a dolphin brain compared to a shark, the dolphin has what looks like 3 brains, two large left and right cerebrum laying on top of a giant cerebellum where the shark looks two brains, one nearly spherical cerebrum sitting on top of the cerebellum. My guess is that later stage mammals didn't the the two sides as much for redundancy nearly as much as just evolving larger and larger, but since the blueprint for mammal brains was already there, it just kept going in that direction.",
"Everyone has done a wonderful job responding. My only comment is to the \"wasting space\" for the fissures... remember ruggae, fissures, etc actually increase the surface area of the brain to form connections, not necessarily wasting space at all. There's a condition called lissencephaly where the brain is smooth and usually there are cognitive deficiencies associated (though there are other reasons for the cognitive issues as well)",
"The space between the hemispheres is not wasted. \n\nFirstly, it partially forms the sagital sinus, where blood drains from brain capillaries before flowing back to the heart. \n\nSecond, it adds more surface area of cerebral cortex than if our brain was one solid mass. Surface area correlates very highly with observed intelligence in animals, and differentiates our brains from other animals'. \n\nThe cerebral cortex is a thin layer of brain cells covering the brain surface. It is divided up into columns which presumably have some computational function, and more surface area means you can fit in more columns. The more and deeper the folds you fit into the surface, the greater the surface area and the more cortex you can fit. \n\nHowever, there are tradeoffs. Communication fibers from the columns have to go around any deep grooves, which makes them longer, slowing information transmission and requiring that the body expend resources to speed it up via increasing the fiber size or adding myelin. For this reason, areas of the cortex which need to work closely together tend to be located close to each other: the areas that control movements of your right leg are close together so that their numerous connections can be relatively short. \n\nThe fact that the body is symmetrical means that much of the processing can be done independently for each side, and then coordinated using a smaller number of longer distance connections with the other hemisphere. Those connections would be long even if they didn't have to go around the mid sagital groove, so making them a bit longer isn't a huge cost. \n\nIn addition to the communication distance tradeoffs, there are brain structures within the brain that restrict how deep the grooves can go. The basal ganglia and hippocampus limit how deep grooves within the left and right hemispheres can go. That appears to be the reason that other grooves are less deep than the mid-sagital groove. There are few deep brain structures along the midline above the brain stem: mostly the thalamus which is relatively deep.\n\nEvolution has worked out that it is more efficient to compress the connections between the hemispheres into a bundle of fast-transmission fibers in order to free up space area for cortex on either side of the groove. In the tradeoff between more direct long- distance connections and more surface area, this is an example of more surface area winning.",
"The most pragmatic answer might be the survival aspect. If one part is damaged, the opposite side would resume certain functions. Unfortunately my ability to answer past that is limited since there could be direct cellular reasons that happen during mitosis when in utero. The cells themselves could simply form a certain way, but like others have said, bilateralization is not a human phenomenon. This leads me to think that a survival adaptation might be a good place to start.",
"A lot of these responses are looking for answers in biology but I think this may be misguided. A better place to look is physics. Our bodies developed to be bilateral because the physics on the left side of our bodies is the same as the physics on the right size of our bodies. It is therefore efficient to make each side of our bodies similar to each other.\n\nWhen you remove physical effects like gravity, physics gets even more symmetric, giving you radial or completely round phenotypes. For example, at the bottom of the ocean where gravity doesn't play as much of a role, we see animals like starfish with radial symmetry. \n\nBasically, constraining or freeing degrees of symmetry in the physics leads to different evolved symmetries because the phenotypes are trying to exploit these symmetries.",
"This article suggests that it may be due to us gathering data from two eyes (perhaps ears as well?). _URL_4_\n\nPerhaps the case of people being born with only one hemisphere, and/or having one removed, is helpful as it suggests that the biggest thing affected is their ability to see properly from both eyes. \n\nOf interest is the Cyclops shark which had one eye due to a brain development abnormality where only one hemisphere formed. It's speculative of course as there were other development abnormalities. \n_URL_5_",
"Very much just an educated guess, but I would assume oxygenation and nutrient delivery both of which are governed by blood flow played a role in the evolution of this along with symmetry as mentioned in some of the other comments. The blood flow to the cortex is all more or less centrally located within the skull and as you have an enlarging cortex which is folding in on itself to ever increase surface area you run into the issue of getting oxygen and nutrients down into the deep structures without having an ever tortuous amount of deep penetrating arteries. The longitudinal fissure is home to a lot of the blood flow to these structures that would have been incredibly deep within an undivided cortex.",
"We need to look at the embryological development of the nervous system. Our brain actually starts out as a tube. The 2 hemispheres and their lobes grow out of that tube, symmetrically \\- these events are under molecular regulation by many different signal molecules, expressed by many genes \\(we know many of these, but they that are still being researched because there's still a LOT we don't know!\\). The space in our skull is small so the parts of the lobes have to \"curl\" to fit, resulting in those ridges. There are also several connections between the hemispheres, not just the corpus callosum.",
"Our nervous system can be approximated as being 2 mirror images of each other, so we have 2 of everything \\(broadly speaking \\- but there is of course some specialisation on each side\\).\n\nThat means if something goes wrong, like a bleed in the brain, the other side has the right circuitry in place and can functionally compensate for the loss. Its not going to be as good as before, but its better than nothing.\n\nImagine that there was only one of everything \\- a stroke that effects that area will \\*completely\\* remove your ability to carry out that function. Not unlike having 2 eyes \\- compare the consequences of losing an eye and having a spare, to losing your only eye. \\(incidentally, having two eyes also allows depth perception\\)\n\nWhether this is the case now is debatable. Because of the degree of functional specialisation of hemispheres. But the symmetry is, at the very least, a vestige of an ancestor that developed it for the above reason.",
"To survive animals need to perform two sorts of tasks: focus, narrowly, on specific things that it needs to survive that it already knows are there (e.g., pecking at a seed or morsel amidst a background of grit and pebbles) and to *simultaneously* keep broad, vigilant attention towards whatever is so that they don't get eaten in the process of trying to eat.\n\nSo these two modes of attention grew through selective pressure into the two cerebral hemispheres. Forget what you've heard in pop culture, it's not logic versus creativity. It's more like focused and certain versus broad, whole-picture, and uncertain. These two types of attention are needed for just about everything we do, but are polar opposites which explains why they were both evolved simultaneously and kept separate.\n\n---\n\nSource: \n\nThe Master and His Emissary: The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World by Dr. Iain McGilchrist",
"Fun fact: dolphins must remain awake at all times in order not to drown, as surfacing up to take a breath is not a trivial activity. So they sleep one hemisphere at a time.\n\nPerhaps this division is vestigial. All other animals have these hemispheres, and we evolved from them.\n\nFun fact #2: cephalopods like octopuses have evolved eyes completely independently from vertebrates, parallel evolution is amazing. Yet, they too, have two parts to their brains, even though their brains work differently \\(they have more neurons in their arms and these arm neurons are responsible for arm movement, their taste and touch senses\\). Our closest relatives are worms, who also have bilateral symmetry in their bodies, including ganglia, that brains have evolved from.\n\nTL;DR: blame the worms. They started it.",
"I believe that has to do with locomotion. A bilateral setup allows control for 2 sides like paddles on a boat. If you only paddle one side, you end up rowing in a circle. But with 2 sides working independently toward a similar goal, you can control movement, especially in a liquid. This would be selected FOR long ago and have been reinforced during primordial development.",
"I don't have an answer for you, but I would be curious to know more about split brain patients. \n\nHow can they keep functioning? \nHow the can you process information in two independent hemisphere?\nCan we differentiate each side?\nIs one side better at math and the other at art?\n\nThere's an interesting animated video about this, but it doesn't really cover everything : _URL_6_",
"Some animals, such as dolphins are conscious breathers. This means they have to think about every breath that they take. As a result, they can’t sleep or they will suffocate. To solve this, the brain is divided into 2 parts which take turns “sleeping”. This might not be the reason for human brains, but it’s an interesting fact nevertheless.",
"_URL_7_\n\nThat’s a very old discussion on a benefit of a divided brain structure in early organisms. I think my non-eloquent answer is that our early evolutionary ancestors had a divided brain structure in order to perform simple tasks more efficiently and there was no evolutionary advantage in selecting a different system.",
"The whole body is an approximately mirrored object. A better question would be, “Why wouldn’t the brain be in two parts” and the simple answer would be, “no other form came about that was functional and suitably advantageous.”"
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=brain+divided&restrict_sr=on",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions#Brain",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_fissure"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.quizover.com/ocw/mirror/col11496/m46535/1302_Brain_Vesicle_DevN.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilateria",
"https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00939/full",
"https://www.amazon.com/Master-His-Emissary-Divided-Western/dp/0300188374/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1527858131&sr=8-1&keywords=the+master+and+his+emissary",
"https://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/fulltext/S1364-6613(17)30190-0",
"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/marine-biodiversity-records/article/first-report-of-an-embryonic-dusky-shark-carcharhinus-obscurus-with-cyclopia-and-other-abnormalities/688FC215C59B5B9C18134026129981CC",
"https://youtu.be/wfYbgdo8e-8",
"https://reddit.app.link/sUlM51TxoN"
]
} | Why is the brain divided?
* [A search](_URL_0_) doesn't reveal anything that answers this question specifically. * Yes, I know that [many of the left brain/right brain claims are false](_URL_1_). * Essentially I'm asking about the cerebrum's [longitudinal fissure](_URL_2_)--why would such a feature be selected for? Doesn't it waste space that could be used for more brain? Is there a benefit from inhibited interhemispheric communication? * And what about non-human animals--are their brains divided too? How long ago did this feature arise? | [
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mbpi5 | What different explanations are there of the Easter Island? | I've heard of Jared Diamond's explanation of environmental damage caused by humans. But are there other explanations of these events?
And do the events of actually mean anything compared to us as a race? Is this to serve as a warning? | askscience | {
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"Dutch scientist [Jan Boersema](_URL_1_) argues in his book ([English review here](_URL_0_)) that Diamond is cutting corners. \"A collapse in the way most authors have described it, involving a deforestation followed by hunger, starvation, tribal warfare and even cannibalism is neither supported by the earliest historical writings – the 18th century journals of European explorers - nor by the scientific evidence. \" \n\nUnfortunately, his book is as yet only available in Dutch.",
"Archaeologist here. As a part of my graduate degree work, I did a critical examination of some of Diamond's claims, as well as a literature review of archaeological work done on Easter Island. I might be able to address your questions to a certain degree.\n\n\nDiamond begins his analysis of Easter Island by citing the journal of Jacob Roggeveen, a Dutch explorer from the 18th century. The excerpts from Roggeveen’s journal emphasize the barren nature of the island during the period of European contact. This is a good starting point for Diamond because it creates an effective end point for the Easter Island story. \n\n\nWith this end point in mind, all of the evidence that Diamond goes on to use in this chapter is used in a way that attempts to explain why Roggeveen found the island in such a barren state. Using archaeological and climatological data, Diamond goes on to highlight a stark contrast between the Easter Island that Roggeveen encountered, and the one that existed prior to Polynesian occupation. This contrast is rather simplified however, and Diamond acknowledges this in his section on geography and climate. Since Easter Island is located further\nfrom the equator than most other Polynesian islands, Diamond points out that many of the tropical crops that are common in other parts of Polynesia would not have grown well there. Easter Island’s milder climate also means that coral reefs, and the abundant number of fish species that are associated with these reefs would have been absent. \n\n\nBy utilizing this sort of data, Diamond simultaneously supports and provides a counterpoint to his own narrative of ecocide. In one sense, the data can be seen as painting a picture of an environment that is susceptible to the sort of ecological collapse that Diamond describes. Examined in a different light, however, it reveals that Easter Island was a marginal and barren environment long before Roggeveen described it as such in his journal. While this sort of climatological data can reveal certain general trends in climate and ecology, it is difficult to predict how these sorts of factors would have actually affected historical populations on a daily basis. \n\n\nIt is also important to note that Diamond only included the portions of Roggeveen’s journal that emphasized the bleak nature of the island’s ecology. Other sections of the journal describe Easter Island as having rich soil and abundant resources.\n\n\nMy area of expertise is zooarchaeology, and the evidence he cites in terms of the disappearance of faunal diversity on the island is compelling. As I stated above though, my main issue is in his fairly black and white explanation for the decreased diversity of animal species over time. \n\n\n**Rats Rats Rats?**\n\nA chapter on Easter Island in the book *Questioning Collapse: human resilience, ecological vulnerability, and the aftermath of empire* provides an interesting counterargument that focuses on a factor that Diamond briefly mentions but doesn’t explore in any detail, the introduction of rats to the island (Hunt & Lipo, 2009). The authors point to evidence from the island of O’ahu, where rapid deforestation occurred as the result of an introduction of rats. Many of the trees and shrubs that existed on the island prior to human occupation represented high quality dietary sources for an increasing number of rats. Since Easter Island, like O’ahu, would have held no natural predators for the rats, it is possible that the number of rats would have increased exponentially in a relatively short period of time. A laboratory study of rats determined that a single mating pair would result in a population of millions within a period of three years in this sort of high quality, low risk environment (Hunt & Lipo, 2009). \n\n\nThere are a number of factors that Diamond kind of glosses over because they don't necessarily fit with his own overarching narrative of 'ecocide'. It makes for an interesting read, but it's important to remember that many facts are overstated and many are understated in order to create a more compelling story. I'm not necessarily bashing Diamond, but it is important to examine his claims critically.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n**Some articles that I came across in my research**\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nHunt, T. 2006. Rethinking the fall of Easter Island. American Scientist 94 (5): 412-9.\n\n\nHunt, T., Lipo, G. 2009. Ecological Catastrophe, Collapse, and the Myth of “Ecocide” on Rapa Nui. In Yoffee, N., McAnany, P (Ed.), Questioning Collapse: Human Resilience, Ecological Vulnerability, and the Aftermath of Empire. Cambridge University Press.\n\n\nLangohr, R., Louwagie, G., and CM Stevenson. 2006. The impact of moderate to marginal land suitability on prehistoric agricultural production and models of adaptive strategies for Easter Island. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 25 (3): 290-317.\n\n\n.Mieth, A., and Bork HR. 2010. Humans, climate or introduced rats - which is to blame for the woodland destruction on prehistoric Rapa Nui (Easter Island)? Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2): 417-26.\n\n\nSteadman, D. W. 1995. Prehistoric extinctions of pacific island birds: Biodiversity meets zooarchaeology. Science 267 (5201): 1123-31.\n\n\nTilburg, J. A. V., & Ralston, T. 2005. Megaliths and Mariners: Experimental archaeology on Easter Island. In K. L. Johnson (Ed.), Onward and upward: Essays in Honor of Clement W. Meighan. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.",
"Check out the movie 180° South (I'm pretty sure it's still on Netflix).\nA good chunk of it is spent on Easter Island and the narrator explains the islands history.",
"Since no one else commented yet, I'll put this out there. \n\nDiamond puts a number of other arguments in his book, Collapse, as references. If I recall, he mentions these near the beginning of that chapter, but unfortunately does not put in specific references in the chapter. He does, however, have a number of references in the \"Further Readings\" section in the back of the book and includes authors that are not necessarily supportive of his position. \n\nDisclaimer: I'm not an archaeologist."
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} | What different explanations are there of the Easter Island?
I've heard of Jared Diamond's explanation of environmental damage caused by humans. But are there other explanations of these events? And do the events of actually mean anything compared to us as a race? Is this to serve as a warning? | [
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|
1pbpbz | Why don't I crush cells when I sit down? | When I put all 160 pounds of me on my rear cells or even foot cells why don't they burst? It just seems like they are so fragile, how do they withstand so much pressure? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cd0r0la",
"cd0rvv6",
"cd0u3e6"
],
"text": [
"If you were to put all 160lbs on one cell, it would make sense that the cell would burst. However, that's not what's happening when you sit down. There are thousands, if not millions of cells supporting your weight. The force experienced by each cell is negligible because your weight is distributed between all those cells.",
"The best way I can explain this however dumb an analogy this might be.. if you lay down on a bed of nails, why aren't you impaled? Because the weight is distributed through all of the nails, you are fine. Those nails are far fewer and much larger, than your butt cells or your feet cells.",
"As others mentioned, it's a matter of surface area. \n\nHowever, as resilient as your individuals cells are against pressure -- your blood vessels themselves are quite susceptible to it! In people who are immobilized, vessels collapse under the constant pressure and lead to tissue ischemia. This can lead to skin and tissue breakdown and cause serious problems. \n\nThe worst part about it is an ulcer can develop after just a few *hours* of immobilization."
],
"score": [
186,
81,
32
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why don't I crush cells when I sit down?
When I put all 160 pounds of me on my rear cells or even foot cells why don't they burst? It just seems like they are so fragile, how do they withstand so much pressure? | [
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|
nb845 | What's wrong with this baby? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c37pzyb",
"c37rzhn",
"c37r2v6",
"c37rjns"
],
"text": [
"That baby is beautiful.\n\nIt looks like Ambras Syndrome to me. I have read that in females it can be more patchy.",
"This thread appears is a bit too close to violating the no medical advice. Ask your old friend what their doctor called the condition. I know you may legitimately be curious about a distant friend's baby's medical condition and asking them may be a sensitive subject. However, we don't want askscience potentially substituting for practicing MDs who can run relevant tests have the full relevant history and make medical decisions, rather than giving their first guess based off of a single internet photo.",
"Looks like Nevoid hypertrichosis. \n\nStill as cute as a button though :-)",
"Hi, French Guy here. I got almost the same thing this baby has but on my upper left cheek and my left part of hair. But my doctor told me there was case like this baby.\nI had to do some research to find the english medical term, it's called Becker Nevus [_URL_0_]\nI strongly advise to consult a specialist to have a medical file. Only him can told the exact nature of these hairs. \nBecause as others said it could be Ambras syndrome as well."
],
"score": [
5,
4,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becker's_nevus"
]
} | What's wrong with this baby?
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3h7r2q | Is it just complete coincidence that quartz vibrates at an exact fraction of a second and on a binary power? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cu553fo",
"cu5pjlj",
"cu5az2x"
],
"text": [
"Quartz crystals are grown in a certain way, with dimensions that are pretty much calibrated to make them resonate on a certain frequency. Nowadays, we have that process pretty much pat down and the crystals you get are pretty much spot-on with respect to the frequency they should oscillate on, but before the '50s, they were hand-made from natural quartz (see eg _URL_0_ for details) and a lot less precise.",
"There isn't one natural resonance frequency for quartz crystals. The frequency depends on how they're cut and driven. Which means that [they make crystal oscillators for lots of different frequencies](_URL_3_) (and not just the ones in that page). \n\nA 32,768 Hz crystal is just one that's been specifically built to resonate at that frequency. It's a convenient frequency because a simple digital counter circuit can subdivide that to 1 Hz.\n\nA fun fact to know is that today most quartz clocks and watches are designed to use crystals that are actually slightly faster than 32,768 Hz, and to use a programmable circuit to compensate for this. This is called [inhibition compensation](_URL_3_):\n\n > Many inexpensive quartz clocks and watches use a technique known as inhibition compensation. The crystal is deliberately made to run somewhat fast, and after manufacture each module is adjusted to keep accurate time by programming the digital logic to skip a small number of crystal cycles at regular intervals such as 10 seconds or 1 minute. [...] The advantage of this method is that after measuring the frequency of each chip with a precision timer at the factory, storing the number of pulses to suppress in a non-volatile memory register on the chip is less expensive than the older technique of trimming the quartz tuning fork frequency.\n\nThe best article I've seen on the accuracy of typical quartz wristwatches is [this one by Michael Lombardi from the USA National Institute of Standards and Technology](_URL_3_). In one of the four watches that he tested, the crystal was actually 8.76 seconds fast per day—but thanks to inhibition compensation the ticking of the seconds hand was only 0.58 seconds fast/day.",
"While 32768Hz is the extremely popular size of crystal used in wristwatches, any size can be made. 32kHz wouldn't be very useful past the early computer days, for example. Note that past a few hundred MHz, they stopped being used directly in computers too."
],
"score": [
34,
7,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=b--FKHCFjOM",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz_clock#Inhibition_compensation",
"http://tf.nist.gov/general/pdf/2276.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator_frequencies"
]
} | Is it just complete coincidence that quartz vibrates at an exact fraction of a second and on a binary power?
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ajestt | If inflamation is a response of our immune system, why do we suppress it? Isn't it like telling our immune system to take it down a notch? | askscience | {
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"There are two reasons, one was covered here in the comments, that the inflamation is often an over reaction and your symptoms are a result of the response more so then the pathogen. The other reason is that inflammation can also cause serious problems. The recruitment of the immune cells and the activation of T cells that results in even more cytokines and a stronger response could have lasting damages. it could results in unwanted response to our own cells (Most autoimmune diseases are associated with chronic inflammation) and it could lead to increase mutation rate in healthy cells (yes, cancer is also associated with chronic inflammation).",
"Your body is dumb. It's a mix of millions or billions of years of solutions cobbled together by chance into something that works better than not. The idea of a smart brain that can actually figure out a better way isn't very old. \n\nSo a lot of things your body does are the same as a squirrel, or iguana, or in some cases, a lungfish would do, and work out poorly for a modern human. \n\nTake for example a mammal's reaction to being cold - a squirrel out in cold weather needs to keep its core warm until things warm up. Find the best shelter and hope you don't freeze kinda thing. That response came about because more squirrels survived when they did that than when they kept running around. A human, on the other hand, can usually find much better solutions - we can start a fire, or get into a car and drive to Florida. But our body doesn't know that, so it drains the blood to the core of our bodies, leaving our fingers too feeble to start a fire or manipulate a key into the lock. \n\nThe same is true of our immune system - our body reacts basically the same way a fish does - when we get a cut, our blood clots, because that's always worked best. Except these days, we sometimes get cut and sewed back up deliberately, and we really don't want our blood to clot. So we take drugs to prevent that. \n\nThe same with inflammation. It's just numbers. Over time, more creatures survived if their inflammation response was more sensitive, which works for chipmunks and badgers, but smart humans know that sometimes it's not for the best. We can tell when an inflammation helps and when it's actually doing harm. So we step in to correct the things that our dumb body can't figure out.",
"Immunology PhD student here:\n\n & #x200B;\n\nInflammation is a normal and healthy response of the immune system, the classic signs of inflammation are redness, swelling, heat, and pain. This is due to molecules released by the immune system in response to foreign pathogens or particles. When a barrier (such as the skin) is breached, cells in the tissue rapidly respond by releasing proteins called cytokines or chemokines which recruit other immune cells to the area and also increase blood flow into the tissue which will cause the heat, swelling, and pain.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIn an actual infection or after lets say a cut this is great, this is your body's natural response to fighting the pathogen and clearing out anything that shouldn't be there. However, this process is not always triggered at the correct time. The immune system is very taxing on the body in terms of energy and can also be very damaging. The job of immune cells is to kill infections and infected cells which means they are able to cause a lot of damage to tissues when they are activated. Again, this is helpful when you have a fast spreading viral infection, but not as necessary when you just have a little bit of dirt in a cut. This is especially bad in the context of autoimmune diseases such as arthritis where the immune system is causing the inflammatory reaction to things naturally occurring in your joints that are neither harmful or foreign.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIn addition, even if the inflammation is occurring in the correct situation (lets say swelling of your sinuses or airways when you have a virus) this causes a lot of pain to us since we need to function outside of what the immune system is doing. Therefore we take medicines to limit these reactions even though they are natural and likely beneficial for us clearing these pathogens. Our bodies want us to cough up phlegm and have runny noses and stuff like that but it gets in the way of our life so we don't like it (though for a mild virus like a cold that's not a big problem because we can fight it off anyway.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe immune system is always a balance between protecting us and damaging us and it has many safeguards in place in order to prevent too much damage from occurring, but really what we psychologically feel is too much damage versus what biologically is too much damage are very different. From an evolutionary perspective it's best for the immune system to do whatever it needs to do to make us healthy as long as we don't die whether or not that feels good to us. So really we suppress inflammation because it is uncomfortable and in some cases unnecessary for whatever the immune system is trying to fight",
"Same reason we take medication to lower a fever. Our immune system is a little on the overzealous side and in some cases thinks scorched Earth is a viable tactic.\n\nI am not educated on this subject and only have a basic knowledge of the systems involved.",
"There are a few reasons we suppress the immune system.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nProbably the most obvious is in instances of autoimmune disease. Autoimmune literally means \"immune to self\", so it's where your immune system misrecognizes your own cells as \"foreign\" (like bacteria or viruses, etc) and attacks itself. There are many autoimmune conditions, ranging from mild to severe, but many can be deadly or debilitating. In these instances we turn down the immune system to stop it from attacking itself. This does significantly increase the risk of infection though, so it's always a balance between risk of infection and self-destruction. For similar reasons we use immune modulators to reduce the likelihood of rejecting a transplant, which happens when your immune system recognizes the organ as foreign and attempts to kill it. \n\n\nAnother time we downregulate an immune response is in conditions of chronic inflammation. Inflammation refers to an influx of white blood cells and other immune cells/chemicals that enter a space. This can be painful due to damage to the tissue and swelling of the vasculature. When your body is injured, these immune cells enter to attempt to remove dead/damaged tissue, clot blood vessels, and repair the damaged issue. However, in instance of chronic inflammation (for example, degenerative arthritis) the tissue is constantly damaging itself, and the inflammation makes it worse by attempting to break down the damaged tissue. We give drugs like NSAID's (ibuprofen) to relieve pain and to reduce the inflammatory response. \nWe also give immune modulators when the immune system is WAY too ramped up. For example, in toxic shock syndrome, a massive systemic bacterial systemic infection causes a huge immune reaction which tanks your blood pressure and causes a dangerously high fever, which can lead to heart failure and death. In this instance we need to give treatment (like steroids, pressors, etc) immediately to stop the body's over-reaction. We also must give antibiotics to kill the infection which is causing the shock. \n\n\nLowering an inflammatory reaction in the setting of an acute infection *can* worsen or prolong an infection. This is why we don't recommend giving Tylenol or other fever-reducing drugs for at least 1-2 days into a febrile illness. This allows time for the fever to perform the appropriate pathogen-killing response. However, we may need to give these drugs anyway if the fever gets too high, as very very high fevers can cause seizure and brain damage. However, this is quite unusual in adults, though febrile seizures are not uncommon in children. \n\n\nSource: MS in genetics (my thesis was on autoimmune diseaes) and 1/2 an MD\n\n & #x200B;\n\n \n\n\n & #x200B;",
"Many many people, especially the old die from an immune system going overboard. Lungs full of mucus, phenomena, thank you immune system. \n\nSome forms of diabetes, thank you immune system.\n\nThere is a long list of immune system killers.",
"There are a number of factors that influence our immune system strength. For example, calcitriol is a natural anti-inflammatory. It's created when vitamin D is converted into one of its metabolites. Normally we'd have plenty of calcitriol in our system because for the vast majority of human evolution we've spent most of our time outside. But recently we've started staying inside a lot more and vitamin D deficiency has become much more common. But our immune system was built to factor in these types of normal inflammatory suppressors by being stronger than it needs to ultimately be to account for them. Another common immune system suppressor that people in developed countries don't have nearly so often are intestinal worms. They produce chemicals that suppress our immune system so they can survive in our bodies. And we've had these parasites in our environment and in our bodies pretty consistently for all of human history, until germ theory, microscopes, and anti-parasitic medications came along. Research has shown that many autoimmune conditions are associated with vitamin D deficiency, and studies of genetics have discovered key immune regulatory switches specifically activated by worms. Those are just two examples of how our more recent changes in how we live has left us with immune systems that are too strong because key regulators that normally keep it in check are no longer there.",
"It could also be the case of autoimmune disorders (I have 2 of then). Your immune system all of a sudden attacks a certain area, usually an organ indiscriminately for no reason. Steroids are used to suppress the immune system until it can become stabilized again. In cases of chronic autoimmune disorders the same process take place however you may have \"flare ups\" Which need to be controlled again with steroids.",
"Science doesn't understand inflammation in the slightest. \n\nSee inflammation, try to find a cause, don't immediately find one, blame it on an \"overactive immune system\", and give you medicine to combat the symptoms instead of the cause. \n\nArthritis, lupus, IBS/UC, psoriasis/eczema, etc....\n\nThey simply don't understand the cause and use the \"it's the best we have\" defense to prescribe you medicines that shut down your immune response.",
"In casual conversation people talk about the the immune system like water heater or maybe even a furry house pet, eg, \"Take X to bump up the immune system\", etc. The immune system is actually a **system** with a lot of components and bunch of different responses. There isn't a single switch or volume control. There's a good basis for describing it as two interacting systems, the innate system that just responds quickly to stressors, and the adaptive immune system that builds highly specific attacks, antigens, that bind to to particular pathogens. This second system takes like a week to get going since it \"designs\" attacks basically by random trial and error - (think: building a toaster by randomly bolting components together), checks what works, and builds more. This is why vaccination is so effective, the adaptive system already has the antibody formula ready; it doesn't have to spend a week developing it, by which time you may very sick or dead. \n\nThe primary system is the part that causes a lot of collateral damage. It generally ramps things up into a high energy state when some kind of attack is detected which depletes body resources, but it is also actively toxic to your body processes, killing cells and upsetting the smooth running of cell chemistry. The plan is to kill more invading cells tan your own cells and disrupt viruses more than your own useful body processes. It's an ongoing war. At times staying alive requires a scorched earth policy to your own cellular health. Toning this system down at times can be a great idea but it is certainly not something that you would want to switch off - it's keeping you alive. The problem is how to do it in the right places and to the right degree. And without introducing other negative side effects. It's a tough ask. Body biochemistry is a soup of interacting processes where effects fan out so it is hard or impossible to control individual components. \n\n & #x200B;",
"We normally do not suppress our immune system. The only common instance we do it are for auto-immune conditions where our immune system is actively attacking a part of our body. This can occur in autoimmune diseases, like lupus or rheumatoid arthritis, or for organ transplants where we're attacking the foreign object in our body.\n\nSteroids are somewhat unique in this, though, because they're commonly prescribed and work to suppress our immune system. Sometimes we give steroids specifically for the anti-immune effects, and if you go back 30+ years that was almost our only medication that could do that. Other times steroids are prescribed for their other effects and as a side effect will affect our immune system. Also, if you go to a dermatologist, you will often walk out with topical steroids because a lot of the skin conditions that bother you are inflammatory (they are red and itchy) and are from your immune system reacting to something and steroids work well. Topical steroids only suppress your immune system locally, though, there's virtually no systemic absorption of them.\n\nAllergies are another form of overactive immune system. In this case, we suppress them because they don't provide a functional benefit, and typically suppressing allergic reactions doesn't have a major downside. There are theories that the frequency of allergies that we have now is vastly increased compared to a few decades ago because we are not exposed to allergens, and possibly because the system evolved to fight parasites, like worms, that we pretty much got rid of in richer countries. There were some studies last I knew exploring the parasite angle, and the recent change in recommendation to expose young children to peanuts reinforces the lack of exposure theory. (In short, peanut allergies went up, the pediatric society recommended no peanut exposure at all to small kids, then peanut allergies skyrocketed, so they changed the recommendation to encourage exposing children to it safely so as to not trigger the allergic reaction later in life.)",
"This is one of the most commonly misunderstood things when it comes to medications/medicine.\n\nIf your body is experiencing an inflammation reaction anywhere, LEAVE it alone!\n\nYour body is actually rushing both NUTRIENTS and HELP to the area, through the fluid being brought in. Fluids are how our bodies carry *anything* to/from any site in our body. They also carry WASTE products away, allowing purification of the area.\n\nThe question I often get in response to this is: \"Well then why do Doctors prescribe anti-inflammatories so much?\"\n\nBecause Doctors consider **patient comfort** much more than an actual Scientist would. The Science is purely concerned with a patient getting *better*, and faster. A little temporary discomfort is worth the better (and *healthier*) results.\n\nIt also just doesn't make sense to think we know better than ALL of the evolutionary biology that got us here - the inflammation response is one of the most important responses in the body. It happens for a reason. I can't tell you how many Professors I had at University that would just roll their eyes when the subject of anti-inflammatories came up. Practically any discussion ever had on the inflammation processes, always included a going-out-of-their-way to make this damn clear (because it is something that is a common misconception that actually results in *harm*).\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe only time anti-inflammatories are generally sensible is in the case of serious medical conditions such as *actual* Autoimmune conditions, or in actual life-threatening conditions (in which case you'd be in the hospital already). For allergies, specific antihistamines are better.",
"The fundamentals of inflammation are: \nCalor- heat\nDolor-pain \nRubor-redness \nTumour-swelling \n\nSwelling, redness and heat are caused by a massive increased blood flow to the injury site. \n\nThis increased blood flow allows for the transport of white blood cells to fight whatever infection it might be, and with this increased white blood cell flow, comes leaky vessels, this allows more serroud fluid to the injury site to act as a cushion around said site, so you don’t get further damage, nor can the damage cells/infection leave that localised area and get into your mainstream system. Pain is there to tell you something is wrong and also due to the damage caused by the white blood cells attacking the injury site. \n\nSuppressing the immune system is useful in conditions where your immune system is attacking your good cells or you have had a transplant etc \n\nHowever generally suppressing it for eg you have cut your leg, can actually prolong wound healing. \n\nGenerally we take pain killers and such when you have things like tonsillitis because the infection is not only in your tonsils, but it’s also systemic causing a high temperature etc so the positives of the inflammation fighting the tonsil infection are less than the negatives of having a high temperature (brain frying) so that’s when you would wanna reduce inflammation (and the high temp) by taking meds.",
"Have you ever heard of cytokine storm? \n\nIt’s basically an immune response to something that triggers an immune response *to itself.* it’s basically a runaway chain reaction of the immune system, which results in compounding inflammation and eventually death.\n\nThe reality is that most inflammation is an overreaction, things like joint inflammation and allergies are often the cause of more problems than they solve, but it’s useful enough that it sticks around. Joint inflammation may be caused by strenuous activity, and the inflammation acts to deter you from continuing before you injure yourself. Allergies are the immune system mistaking benign things for a threat. In both cases we take antihistamines because once you discontinue the activity you’re no longer at risk of injury and most allergens were never a threat before the response.",
"Inflamation is actually war. Fever, swelling, pain - none of it is fun and beneficial on their own, but just like at war, the body tries to kill a lot of \"other\" cells with hopefully minimal damage to \"own\" cells (but NEVER WITHOUT damage to own cells). \nSometimes, however, immune system is at war with own cells (autoimune diseases), non harmful stuff (alergies), or just gets way over the top (SIRS)",
"An excellent question! I've actually got a bit to say about this.\n\nThere has been slow movement in medicine on precisely this question. Fever and inflammation have been understood for a long time. Modern medicine has been very successful but also has quite an arrogance problem and it's resulted in some unfortunate things, including over-treatment of many issues. An example is how people are supported at the end of their lives - throwing harsh procedures at people to give them a few extra months while destroying their remaining quality of life has been almost the norm. It's now better understood that this can be less humane and less desirable for all concerned. \n\nFever is a form of inflammation and for decades it's been aggressively treated as a bad thing we need to stop. Yeah, no. If it runs away it will kill you but it's a key part of the bodily response to infection etc. In recent years some long-term studies have shown this. Patients whose fevers are monitored and managed rather than aggressively reduced have significantly better health over time.\n\nI mentioned arrogance at the top. Medicine is an ancient profession, with it's own culture developed over thousands of years. A lot of that culture is based on multiple hierarchies based on things like merit and hereditary. China and the east were the repository of knowledge for a long time but the west came over the top in a few short hundreds of years. The main reason appears to be the secrecy associated with the trade secrets of family businesses in the east and the recent development of scientific openness and competition in the west. Publishing discoveries and having them quickly validated by others resulted in a massive acceleration of progress. Arrogance was already there of course - people with the power to save lives are very important and we all react differently to such power. The dominance and almost weekly exciting discoveries then created a quiet monster. \n Through it all, humility mixed with quiet confidence is known to be the optimum attitude. Perhaps surprisingly, a general move towards a more sensible outlook is now coming to medicine from Aviation. Good human factors, crew resource management etc have all arisen from a positive outlook on preventing accidents. Doctors make mistakes in little rooms with only a few people ever knowing the full story. Aircraft crash in technicolor with televised smoking holes in the ground and hundreds of people demanding answers. Now, the best training in reducing accidents and improving culture is coming from aviation. People like Richard De Crespigny typify this.\n\nTL,DR: Medicine is slowly pulling back from over-treating. \n\nThe over-prescription of anti-biotics and pain killers, particularly in the US, are perhaps the best examples of the underlying issue.",
"Lots of good info here, but I can add something about pain and inflammation specifically.\n\nIt is important to remember there are multiple purposes for inflammation, but the general theme is dilating the blood vessels in the area to allow specific cells and/or nutrients to exit the blood and attend to the source. Pain typically means tissue destruction has occurred, so platelets (first line bleeding defense), macrophages (first line toxin consumer), and neutrophils (another first line immune cell) are dispatched to start their work. These cells also release their own compounds that do various things such as add to the inflammation and alter gene expression in the affected area to again increase the response. In the setting of injury, this becomes swelling and more pain. \n\nMedications such as steroids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs) work to stop this process. Steroids work earlier in the chain on an enzyme called phospholipase A2 that is an initial reactant to tissue damage. NSAIDs work a couple steps later, blocking enzymes called COX1 and 2 from acting. These enzymes are responsible for facilitating several functions, including gastric, renal, coagulation, pain, and pyretic activities. That's why taking an NSAID such as ibuprofen can relieve pain and fever but also give you a stomach ulcer and aspirin acts like a blood thinner. Interestingly, suppressing inflammation can alter gene expression at sites of injury enough to prevent development of chronic pain in addition to short term acute pain relief.",
"In some cases, like bone fractures, [anti-inflammatory drugs seem to delay healing.](_URL_0_) In those cases, NSAIDs are used to control pain, not really to reduce inflammation. That's one reason we also tend to be conservative in use of NSAIDs in the elderly, where fracture healing is much more likely to fail than in the young. Note that inflammation isn't just present to defend against invasion, it's also important in tissue repair. In wound healing, some very mild inflammation is a good sign. Poor healers like diabetics tend not to show any inflammation around wounds.\n\nWe tend to use the most powerful anti-inflammatory drugs in obvious cases of unwarranted inflammatory responses. The most pronounced cases are autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis (that's literally your immune system attacking parts of your body; this is bad). Asthma is also a good example. Even though that's not exactly a case of self-targeting, it is a case of an overactive inflammatory response.",
"The most common type of immuno-suppression is anti-histamines (allergy medication). Histamine is a molecule released by mast cells which promotes vasodilation. This vasodilation is often a normal part of acute inflammation process which creates swelling, redness and heat. Allergies is when this mast cell becomes over active and releases this histamine granules for things that it shouldn't ie cat dander, pollen, dust, etc. Claritin and other anti-histamines work to diminish or lessen the effect of histamine. Ask anybody with allergies in the spring about quality of life. Connstant mucus production, itchy eyes, and swelling of nasal passages can be very annoying and relieved with a simple, cheap and effective over-the-counter medication. There are many other reasons to suppress the immune system, this just so happens to be the most common.\n\nSources: Masters in Contemporary Anatomy student",
"Lemme tell you, at this point in my life I’d rather not have an immune system. I suffer from chronic allergies, allergic conjunctivitis (I think, though I never had it before until after a car wreck and contact with an air bag), and eczema. My life sucks if I inhale a dust particle. My eyes are constantly inflamed in some sort of manner and sleeping becomes a chore because I often wake up in the middle of the night with irritated eyes.",
"If you cut your finger, the red tenderness is inflammation. It’s your white blood cells helping repair the damage. \n\nBUT if your body perceives you as ill (poor gut health, diet, lack of exercise), inflammation can start attacking areas that aren’t specifically damaged and can actually cause damage.\n\nThink if the first inflammation as a cozy fire in your home and the second as your home engulfed in flames. \n\nIt can create cancerous tumors, cause heart attacks, and cause curious symptoms.",
"We supress our immmune system when its damaging us. Like some auto-immune diseases. Sometimes our immune system attacks our body cells. So we need to supress it. Another example is organ transplanted patients. Lets say you got a new liver. Your immune system can tell \"hey thats not our cells, this is something we dont know\". And your immune system can attack your new liver. So we need to supress it.",
"Bone Dr. here. It's still somewhat controversial, but generally we recommend people don't take anti-inflammatory meds for the first week or two after a fracture (during the inflammatory phase of bone healing). Animal studies have shown this can delay healing and increase the likelihood of.nonunion. There remains controversy around this because of lack of human data. \n\nTldr. Anti inflammatory meds probably blunt the healing response to bone fractures.",
"Because in many cases, the inflammation is a bigger problem than whatever caused it. Some people have overactive immune system that will treat something small, like a bee-sting or small cut, as a DEFCON situation and inflamme the hell out of the afflicted area, causing more damage and discomfort than the initial injury.",
"Once switched on it’s very hard to turn off Systemic inflation within the cells. \nI’m not talking a sprained ankle. The cells have to be told to be switched off. In a lot of inflammatory diseases he cause of the disease can be cured yet the inflammation will remain. ",
"It is like in the comics when superheroes are fighting in a city. Sure, they beat the baddies, but the superheroes (immune cells) cause damage and destruction to the city infrastructure (local tissue). Sometimes, these superheroes go rogue and attack innocent civilians.",
"(I suppose I didn't really answer the specific question posed, but as I think it is related and interesting I'll leave it)\n\nOur immune systems are responsible for a lot more \"bad\" stuff in our bodies than you'd generally think. Even the disease that results in most heart attacks (atherosclerosis - calcified/fatty plaques that build up in the arteries) is caused by the immune system.\n\nGenerally, our immune system is responsible for the daunting task of identifying foreign things that are in the body. The other side of the coin with identifying foreign things in the body is to identify things that aren't foreign (i.e. self). Many, many diseases that are very common are simply the manifestation of when your immune system has trouble distinguishing \"self\" from \"non-self/foreign\". Crohns disease... Ulcerative colitis... Celiacs disease... Eczema (among all sorts of rashes). As a side note - the bodies process for creating a \"catalog\" of \"self\" proteins happens early in life - like newborns to about the age of 3-5 years old (maybe longer but I forget). This is why current literature is suggesting that as a race, we may be getting \"too clean\". The body needs to interact with germs/foreign things at a young age so that the immune system can create a robust catalog of self/non-self proteins. This is why I cringe at the helicopter mom sanitizing her childs hands everytime they enter/leave a building.\n\nHowever, identifying self/non-self can be pretty difficult. The reason why this can be difficult, actually (IMO) provides some evidence for evolution - the fact that all organisms are related. The main \"objects\" that the immune system tries to identify are proteins - these are called \"epitopes\". Immune cells will eat cells/bacteria/free proteins in the body, break those proteins apart, and then will identify specific portions of the proteins (epitopes) to help distinguish \"self\" from \"non-self\". When the immune cell picks up something peculiar, it will then share that finding with the surrounding cells... The problem with this comes from the fact that all organisms are related. The proteins we express in the human body, often times, are not that much different from proteins expressed in say a bacteria - like Group A Strep (*Streptococcus pyogenes).* So that when the immune system picks up something like *Strep. pyogenes* there are a few proteins that the bacteria express that *can* be very similar in sequence to proteins we express in our body. The immune cells pick up those proteins from the bacteria, identify it as foreign, and then start attacking anything that is expressing that protein (even if it is our own) - it attacks anything that is similar enough to that protein. So, because we have some similar proteins in our bodies, our immune system will attack our own bodies in this situation. This is actually the disease called \"Rheumatic Fever\" and is the cause of \"Rheumatic heart disease\" (which isn't as common as it used to be). We happen to express some proteins on our heart valves that are very similar to proteins in the bacteria *Strep. pyogenes* so that when we encounter that bacteria, there is a chance that our immune system will turn on our own bodies.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThis concept is also the basis of the diseases I mentioned above - Ulcerative colitis, crohns, celiacs disease, eczema.... So what do we do when the immune system is attacking our own bodies when it shouldn't? We suppress the immune system.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSince celiacs is so popular now a days I'll briefly explain that one too... Wheat/Breads contain a protein called \"gliadin\" which cause the same sort of thing as mentioned above. It's similar enough to certain proteins we have in our body, so that when some peoples immune system encounters this \"gliadin\" it will then turn on their own body - wrecking their small intestine, causing a rash, etc.",
"Chronic inflammation leads to degenerative conditions (think arthritis) as well as pain in the area. It serves a very good function when conditions are acute to aid in healing of the area, but long term fluid presence causes damage, in addition to damage caused by immune cell activation. \n\nWhen an area is inflamed, immune cells are activated, meaning they are more likely to react with an antigen. In turn, this means that they could overreact to something that was not intended to be in an area, but is also not pathogenic by itself.\n\nEdit: I think I should explain more why immune cells cause damage to normal tissue. Granulocytes generate reactive granules that effectively function as small doses of bleach. This in turn is fired into cells with a matching pathogen associated molecular pattern. While this is quite effective, it also damages the surrounding tissue. Thus, if these cells start firing too frequently, you end up with conditions that damage many other cells in the area instead of just the target cells. The PAMPs which may be free floating or on the pathogen / target cell can activate multiple different immune cells and cause them to fire even when the pathogen has been destroyed.",
"As an immunologist... this is a very very very simplified explanation.\n\nInflammation is localized to anything recognized as either not-self or mutated/broken (i.e. cancerous cells). The immune system works by signaling using chemicals called cytokines or chemokines. When an immune cell encounters a cytokine it is \"programmed\" to function in a specific way. For instance a T cell or NK (natural killer) cell will destroy a target that is recognized as non-self or mutated, the cell doesn't have a stop button in the traditional sense. Rather there are compensatory mechanisms that upregulate after some time that cause the cells to shut down/rest. In auto-immune diseases where a persons immune system attacks itself, these stop mechanisms are often surpassed or not present... hence a disease. In cancer the cancerous cells have mutated to express those stop signals and mutated cells grow out of control.\n\nOur immune system has a very complex homeostatic system in place and both enhancing it and suppressing it on a daily basis is very important. Treating auto-immune diseases or cancer with the immune system is us trying to override those signals with drugs (i.e. antibodies against something like PD-L1 or BCMA).",
"Think of the immune system as your police department.\n\nWhen you get sick, your body calls 911, which dispatches officers to deal with the virus or bacteria or whatever. They respond and call for backup as needed until the situation is resolved.\n\nInflammation would be like if two police officers posted up on every single corner in your city, all day every day. They're think they're helping catch bad guys, but all they're really doing is irritating all the normal people. It becomes harder for those normal people to go about their day, because everywhere they go, they get stopped for papers or pulled over to be inspected or whatever.\n\nAn immune system disease would be like SWATing someone over and over.",
"Inflammation is not side effects free. When chronic, the defects, remains can accumulate to the point of being harmful.\n\nOne example is the fact that part of the inflammation involves both increasing cell motility (so defense can come or tissue remodel) and cell replication increase (helping replacing missing tissue I suppose). This is all fine and dandy until cell replication goes off rails and cross the tumor threshold and with motility signals[1] those crazy cells can now move into other parts of your body.\n\n[1] cytokines IIRC loosening the links between cells and the extra cellular matrix scaffold binding them together in a coherent structure.",
"Like others have said, the body assumes the worst. Sometimes it has no need to. \n\nWhen female mosquitoes suck your blood, they leave behind a decoagulant chemical they evolved to produce in their saliva that makes blood easier to drink. Your body responds to this invasive chemical with histamines that destroy it, and cause an inflamed, itchy response.\nThe decoagulant is really pretty harmless but we're unfortunately caught in the point of evolution where mosquitoes bested us, and we have not evolved a better response. Therefore you take antihistamines to reduce the response.",
"Because inflammation usually kills you faster than whatever the initial issue was. Inflammation means leakiness, lots of protein pulling liquid into places it shouldn't be. When you have pneumonia, for instance, all the gunk is actually your inflammatory response to the pathogen, not the pathogen yourself.\n\nYou need inflammation to stay alive long term. But you also need to make sure it doesn't kill you.\n\nSource: medical student.",
"Inflammation is what causes a lot of diseases, Crohn's for example. Your immune system is a bit of a dick and would kill you quick sticks if given the chance, probably through inflammation! Sometimes it just needs a bit of slap down. Anti-histamines are the same kinda thing. Histamines signal for and help facilitate an inflammatory response. Anti-histamines tell them to shut up",
"Yes, it's a useful tool our body uses to tell us to chill out and to help speed up recovery in certain situations, but other times we do things that stimulate the inflammatory response willingly (working out) or unwillingly (autoimmune disease) in which we try to remedy it with meds.",
"If I ever have a reaction to something and my throat swells up, you best believe I'm gonna want something to tell my immune system to take it down a notch. Immune system responses are great when they don't threaten your life.",
"Animals aren't perfect, humans are no exception. Allergic reactions are inflammatory responses that can kill a person by blocking the airways, but allergies are all just false alarms.\n\nSometimes actions need to be taken to correct our biology."
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} | If inflamation is a response of our immune system, why do we suppress it? Isn't it like telling our immune system to take it down a notch?
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3gup5w | What makes a 'supercomputer' special as compared to a networked server farm? | Supercomputers are built by combining thousands of processing cores together, right? When programming for supercomputers, you already have to be doing massively parallel calculations. Most are using standard, off the shelf commercial grade CPU's and GPU's these days. Its not like the 90's where there was special CPU architecture. What is stopping Google/Amazon/Microsoft/Whoever from opening up their cloud computing platforms as for-pay supercomputing? | askscience | {
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"It's largely additional investment in high speed connections between machines. \n\nSupercomputers use something like [Infiniband](_URL_1_) for extremely fast low latency communication between the machines. For example, say you want two 8-core machines to work together on a problem. If it takes a long time (milliseconds) to transfer data between them it will actually be slower than only using one because there is so much waiting for information. \n\nIf you were solving thousands of versions of [relatively small models](_URL_2_) (maybe varying thicknesses, diameters, etc.), something like Google's data center would be great. You could solve each version independently on its own machine (~8 cores) and get all of the results at the end. \n\nThe other type of problem is something [very complex that you only solve a few times](_URL_3_), and each solve uses dozens of computing cores. Google's data center would probably be terrible because the machines couldn't talk fast enough to be effective. \n\nSome data centers are starting to migrate to [100 Gigabit Ethernet](_URL_0_) (a competitor to Infiniband) so the lines are blurring even more. At that point it's mostly software differences. (Edit: see /u/tejoka's comment below, there's more to it than just software).",
"Actually Google did lend one of their supercomputers for calculating the maximum amount of moves needed to solve any rubiks cube scramble (kinda off topic, but I'll put a source when I'm not on mobile). The answer turned out to be 20. Anyway, supercomputers and servers aren't really the same thing. Modern supercomputers are built to optimize problem solving/difficult calculations. Servers on the other hand (for websites), typically aren't built the same way. Servers are built to handle large load from users, for this the server needs to be able to output data quickly. \n\nSo lets say I log in to my Google account, and try to edit one of my google docs. The server needs to:\n\n1)Authenticate your credentials\n\n2)Access your google doc's data (the text and information inside of the document)\n\n3)Output it to the user, for editing and previewing.\n\nThis is **not** the same as calculating large numbers for mathematics problems. I hope this answered your question. If I'm wrong about something please correct me.",
"The key difference is how the system treats memory.\n\nIn a supercomputer special high speed interconnects are used which allow for memory to be shared between multiple processors very rapidly. The fabric contains special processors for distributing memory among processors and reporting on the performance and health of the distributed system\n\nIn a normal datacenter, network attached and directly attached storage are available for use by individual servers.\n\nImportantly, most modern supercomputers are distributed, meaning that there are different tiers of memory available. A group of processors might have local memory they share, and then a group of groups has a different section of memory available at a lower speed, and then there may be globally available memory. A huge number of processors take advantage of this architecture to jointly process the problem. \n\nVector supercomputers tackle problems that aren't appropriate for paralellization. They have a single memory domain and effectively act as one very fast processor with a lot of RAM. Cray is famous for their vector supercomputers.\n\nThis is my moderate understanding from my time at NASA and AWS. NUMA is a common technology you can Google that will give you an idea of the problem space. There are many different approaches to distributed computing, and researchers use reserved IOP systems from AWS for instance to perform research all the time. This approach is not optimized like a supercomputer is because the high speed distributed memory that exists in a supercomputer is not available. AWS also offers high performance local cluster options that guarantee a set of virtual machines or instances will be local to one another and therefor have lower latency. This combined with provisioned IOPs (dedicated storage bandwidth) allows for pretty high performance computing, but at a price.\n\nTLDR; distributed supercomputing needs fast storage and low latency shared memory. Cloud computing can get you decent specs on both, but dedicated supercomputers are way faster on both metrics as they are purpose built.",
"[Amazon](_URL_5_), [Google](_URL_6_), and [Microsoft](_URL_4_) do open up their cloud computing platforms as for-pay supercomputing.\n\nWhat makes a \"true\" supercomputer special? The major difference is that the cloud is physically spread out, so inter-process communication is slower. For something like a database query, where records might be shipped back and forth often for processing on different nodes, the delay can be a significant issue."
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} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100_Gigabit_Ethernet",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfiniBand",
"http://www.sigmak.ltd.uk/sitepix/images/cast-Iron-valve.jpg.ashx?w=410",
"http://www.sandia.gov/~sjplimp/images/pronto_foam.gif",
"https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/services/batch/",
"https://aws.amazon.com/ec2/",
"https://cloud.google.com/compute/"
]
} | What makes a 'supercomputer' special as compared to a networked server farm?
Supercomputers are built by combining thousands of processing cores together, right? When programming for supercomputers, you already have to be doing massively parallel calculations. Most are using standard, off the shelf commercial grade CPU's and GPU's these days. Its not like the 90's where there was special CPU architecture. What is stopping Google/Amazon/Microsoft/Whoever from opening up their cloud computing platforms as for-pay supercomputing? | [
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5rtjgk | AskScience AMA Series: I'm Lawrence Krauss, Chair of the Board of Sponsors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, ask me anything! | Lawrence Krauss, a renowned theoretical physicist, is director of the Origins Project at Arizona State University as well as the Chair of the Board of Sponsors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, who recently moved the [Doomsday Clock](_URL_0_) 30 seconds closer to midnight. He is the author of more than 300 scientific publications and nine books, including the international bestsellers, *A Universe from Nothing*, *The Physics of Star Trek*, and the upcoming book *The Greatest Story Ever Told--So Far*. The recipient of numerous awards, Krauss is a regular columnist for newspapers and magazines, including *The New Yorker*, and he appears frequently on radio, television, and in feature films. Krauss lives in Portland, Oregon, and Tempe, Arizona.
Lawrence will be joining starting around 2 PM ET (19 UT).
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"Hello Professor Krauss, I understand that you, along with others from the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, recently moved the Doomsday Clock to two and a half minutes to midnight. \n\nCould you tell us a bit more on the criteria of the clock's movement, how the move was calculated (probabilistically or otherwise) or details on how scientists decide and vote, like a checklist ? Anything on the who, why and what, really.",
"As a high school teacher, it is alarming to see the number of students that reject major theories in science and treat science as its own form of \"Religion.\" What SHOULD or CAN we do in schools, science classes, etc. to change this way of thinking?",
"Dr. Krauss, I took your class at ASU for honors students last year and towards the end of the course we discussed space exploration. You mentioned your involvement in the development of solar sails for micro payloads to be sent to nearby stars at nearly the speed of light. I was wondering about how the development of this technology is progressing and your thoughts on the timescale this could be achieved by and the impact it could have. \n\nAs a follow up question, with the growing problems on Earth, how important is space exploration for the future of mankind?\n\nThanks for doing this AMA; I really enjoyed the class you taught and thanks for all the free pizza!",
"What was it like being friends with Christopher Hitchens? Any good stories with him?",
"Hi Everyone. Thanks for all the great questions. I am sorry I couldn't get to all of them in the 90 minutes I just spent online. We will be doing another AMA in March when the new book comes out. Hope to answer more questions then!",
"My question is less science and more politics I suppose. With out getting into depth about personal opinions on the current administration. What are your fears (if any), and hopes for the future of sciences in the US?",
"Dr. Krauss,\n\nI noticed the resistance your book \"A Universe from Nothing\" faced, mostly from other physicists who disputed your definition of 'nothing'.\n\nDo you think humans will ever be able to discover and/or understand the true origin of the universe - and if so, will that satisfy us?\n\nThanks!",
"I have a couple of questions related to inflation: What are the currently favored models of inflation? How do people deal with the criticism of inflation just 'post-dicting' and what future experiments/data will be available (in the near future, i.e. our lifetime) to test these theories?\n\nThanks a lot! Not only for this AMA, also for all the good work you are doing going out in the public and explaining cosmology!\n\nEdit: changed some wording.",
"What is your opinion on the recent announcement by the University of Sussex (UK) that they have come up with the first-ever blueprint for a large-scale quantum computer? Do you think it stands a good chance of succeeding? [Blueprint for a microwave trapped ion quantum computer](_URL_0_)",
"I'm not a physicist so this question may be stupid, but is it accurate to say that the total energy density in the universe is zero? ie, what one would expect in a universe that starts from nothing?",
"What are your thoughts on philosophy, both generally and as a subject of study? (as in, its merits, shortcomings, etc?) [Also, thank you for doing this AMA!]",
"Do you think it was irresponsible to leak unverified rumors of LIGO detection before the collaboration was ready to announce them? At worst you build up disappointment and mistrust in the public, at best you steal some of the thunder from the collaboration.",
"I've watched some of your debates on religion. Who gave you the roughest time of it, and do you think there were any that you \"lost\"?",
"In your professional opinion, how far are we from sustainable nuclear fusion? Or will we ever?",
"Do you think we live in a computer simulation?",
"Which new piece of equipment, a new LHC or ISS or LIGO or whatever would best move Physics forwards?",
"Why aren't you running the Department of Energy?",
"In *A Universe from Nothing* I read about the rapid expansion happening in the space between universes. Do you think there may also be areas of collapse that could possibly cause spontaneous destruction of an entire universe in an instant?",
"In your opinion, is it too late to do anything about global warming? Why?",
"Holy Shitttt!!!!!!!!!! How does this not have more upvotes and comments?!?!?!\n\nThis is Lawrence fucking Krauss everybody!!!!!\n\nWhere do I even start?\n\nI am in college and I have had professors say that scientists like you and Neil Degrasse Tyson are not real scientists but just celebrity figures in the field of science. Please give a response to that and shut my professors up. \n\nWhen did you realize that you wanted to spend a lot of your time teaching the people of the world about the pain and problems that dogma/religion can bring? I just want to say thank you for that.\n\nWhat are you most recently working on as I am writing this comment? Please explain in detail and send a link to any helpful information that would allow me to understand what your doing. I love science but I'm not very good at it, more of a science history guy.\n\nOne of my favorite things to watch of yours besides the plethora of very informative interviews/speeches/lectures that you constantly give is watching what you have to say on the show \"How the Universe Works.\" Is there any plans in motion for you to be working on another show?\n\nI am overwhelmed to be able to ask you questions and I thank you so much for taking the time to read this. \n\nI know I am forgetting so much that I would want to ask but I just want to say thank you for everything you do and have done for this world. \n\nYou are an inspiration to anyone who seeks the truth in this universe, not only in the ways of science but also in how we interact as human beings. \n\nThank you so much...",
"If you had to take a punt, what do you think dark matter and dark energy really are? Since our 'baryonic universe' mostly seems to be understandable without them (other than a GUT and the acceleration of the expansion of the universe) do you expect them to result in a fundamental restatement of our understanding of the universe or do you think they will almost be a separate majesteria? Finally, if there was something (an outcome) that you hope they would tell us, what would it be?",
"Do you think nuclear energy in the united States needs to be expanded, and how would you pressure this administration into expansion?",
"Good morning Prof. Krauss,\n\nI love your work, not just in spreading awareness and acceptance of atheism but I've watched many of your scientific lectures and they never failed to leave my curious and inspired.\n\nDo you have any spooky ideas as to what you think caused \"The Great Attractor/Shapley Attractor\"?",
"Do you think the \"March for Science\" is a good idea (eg to draw attention to the value of science and science-based policy) or a bad idea (eg because it might further convince some conservatives that science is driven by the politics of scientists, or make science seem less apolitical)?",
"Probably a bit of a different tack here... but how can I interest my older kid in the sciences in the age of video games and low attention-span activities, and engage him with skills like critical thinking? What would your take on this be?",
"What are some events that are likely to happen and would be significant enough to move the doomsday clock away from midnight?",
"Ricky Gervais was recently interviewed and asked about his stance on religion. He gave an interesting point that has resonated with me since I heard it.\n\n\"If we take something like any fiction, any holy book, and destroyed it, in a thousand years' time that wouldn't come back just as it was. Whereas if we took every science book and every fact and destroyed them all, in a thousand years they'd all be back, because all the same tests would be the same result.\"\n\nRicky's point I understand... But I am curious; as someone such as yourself who has been highly exposed to both science and the religious mindset, do you agree with that statement? Would scientific facts be more prevalent than religious fiction a second time around?\n\nThanks for doing this AMA. Yourself and Richard Dawkins are a big inspiration to me.",
"Do you feel a personal responsibility to criticize religion?",
"Do you think we'll ever encase our sun with either a Dyson Sphere or Matrioshka Brain, and do you think there is a possiblity that we're living inside a Matrioshka Brain simulation?",
"Dear Dr. Krauss,\n\nWhat has been the most challenging/good question you have faced from a believer?\n\nAlso thanks for all the good work you have been doing.",
"Are we any closer to a Grand Unified Theory? If so, which discipline (String, LQG, etc) do you think is closest to finding it?",
"Dr Krauss, what do you believe we should be doing to prepare for a future that contains increasingly powerful artificial intelligence?",
"Dr. Krauss, \nIn a talk back in November 2016, Professor Tom Scott revealed that by compressing irradiated graphite into diamonds the resulting diamonds will produce an electrical charge (links below). If we do the same to graphene is it possible or likely that the resulting diamonds would produce a greater electrical charge?\n\nNon peer-reviewed article discribing findings: _URL_2_\n\nProfile of Professor Scott: _URL_2_",
"No institution exists in a vacuum. In your opinion, how does today's profound unequal distribution of power and wealth affect the scientific community in terms of financing, emphasis, and spread of knowledge and technology?\n\nWhat do you think would ensure that technology and scientific advancements can be shared with a greater majority of our planet?",
"Why aren't we using Thorium on a massive scale? Is it all it's supposedly cracked up to be? If so, why aren't we using it?!?",
"Is the mass of our universe constantly decreasing due to nuclear fission from the stars?",
"What would push us closer to midnight than we already are?",
"Would you accept that physics is based on a few metaphysical assumptions and that epistemology and theory of knowledge are useful endevours to understand how we get information from the world and determine whats true and valid?\nIm asking you if you see, as i do, that physics and philosophy can and should work together to do great things.",
"What are the next upcoming experiments we can expect to possibly break down our standard model and add some exciting new possibilities? Confirmation is fun, but refuting a theory is even more fun since it opens up room for new understanding.",
"Do you have any tips on where to look if i want to see more talks like 'A Universe from Nothing' (not only your talks but also some that you recommend). Thank you!",
"What is your opinion on global warming and what measures should we take?",
"Dr. Krauss, thank you for doing an AMA! I've been following you on YouTube for some time, and I really admire all the work you do in advocating for science - in public forums, and with religious apologists particularly.\n\nMy question is, what is your perception of how your talks & lectures are being received by religious audience members? Do you get a sense that you're reaching them, and hopefully inspiring them to learn more about science and the non-religious perspective?\n\nCongratulations on your new book! I look forward to reading it!",
"Dr. Krauss, I am a long time follower and reader. I love your work, and your ability to communicate science.\n\nCould you talk a little bit about your views regarding national policies if isolation and the effect that has on science communication? For instance, in what ways does the fracturing of the EU and the withdrawal of the US from global climate agreements affect science?",
"The Doomsday Clock seems anti scientific to me. \n\nWhat does a thirty second move closer to midnight actually mean? What criteria did you use to make the move? And finally, does this criteria also determine the length of the move, or just its direction?\n\nEdit: its not it's. I'm blaming the virtual keyboard. Is anyone buying that?",
"It's notoriously difficult to convince people, even when what you are saying is based on demonstrable facts. Have you had some success in this? What have been successful strategies you have used to this end?",
"What are your feelings on the nomination of Betsy DeVos, and how do you think we can keep public school... public?",
"Do you remember the time that [I drove you to a McDonald's after you participated in a debate in Raleigh, NC? ](_URL_3_)\n\nYou ate a Southwest Chicken Salad while surrounded by a bunch of budding Physics students. After that, I drove you back to your hotel and we had a brief chat.\n\nI just wanted to say that it meant a lot to me to spend that brief personal time with you.\n\nI'm also really excited to see [Salt and Fire](_URL_4_) when it comes out. Herzog is one of my favorite filmmakers of all time, and I know you and he are good friends! Being that you've been in many documentaries on science topics, what was it like making a narrative film with him? I would love to drive him to a McDonald's some time. If you speak to him, please let him know my favorite film of his is when he eats his own boiled shoe.",
"Hello, Professor Krauss. Your book \"A Universe From Nothing\" was one of the greatest influences in how I see Life, The Universe and Everything.\n\nHowever, the definition of \"nothing/nothingness\" is still a little foggy in my mind.\n\nWouldn't \"nothing\" be the absence of dimensions? If we consider anything that exists within the Universe, we still have \"something\". But what if we don't even have dimensions? Wouldn't that be \"true nothingness\", so to speak? \n\nThank you so much!",
"can you guys change the passwords on the nukes so when trump gets mad we don't have a problem?",
"Laurence! ASU grad here! I absolutely loved your Origins program. I was able to attend so many great debates and meet some giants of art, philosophy, and science. You even invited me to a personal Q & A in your office after our brief first meeting. I just wanted to say thank you for all you do. It was amazing as an undergraduate to attend the debates and learn from you personally. Thank you so much.\n\nMy only regret was not taking you up on you offer to have lunch!",
"'Sup, Larry? Long time redditor, first time ama, quick Q for you to A. With all of the new streaming/cable services now available, are you hopeful that there will be more widely reached, science-based programming in the near future? Cosmos was spectacular, Nat Geo always kills it. There are rumors of a new Bill Nye program on Netflix. Is there anyone you'd like to see with a show? (My top picks are Brians Greene and Cox, yourself of course, or Cara Santa Maria\n\nLove and respect, Rastafari!\n-Scot",
"Dear professor Krauss, how comes no one seems to look closer into fractals, when it comes to explaining our cosmos? Ever since I watched this short _URL_5_ I just can't grasp why there is no major, focused research into this? It seems such an overarching paradigm, examples are everywhere, yet no big names in science take the topic seriously..\nKind regards, thank you for doing this AMA!",
"Hey Lawrence! My question to you is: What are your thoughts on the resurgence of public interest in the Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor (LFTR) design of nuclear reactor? Do you think that the idea has merit for replacing fossil fuels, as well as our currently operating BWR and PWR reactors?",
"I am asking you this because you are more experienced about life and more educated in science than I am. What in ur view is the purpose of human life (from a perspective of a scientist )?\nThank you",
"Dr. Krauss thank you for engaging the world in science. My questions are who are your favorite physicists and what book is a must read for an aspiring theoretical physicist?",
"So energy is stored in the elements and chemical interactions between specific elements releases stored energy, so why does an atom have to split to expel the same reaction?",
"What are your thoughts on AI super intelligence concerns raised by people like Nick Bostrom? Sam Harris recently jumped on that bandwagon along with Musk and Hawkings.",
"How do you feel about Rick Perry heading the DOE?"
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"http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/2/e1601540",
"http://secondnexus.com/technology-and-innovation/diamond-batteries/?utm_content=inf_4_1164_2&tse_id=INF_ce770310e8cb11e6a03c354c456e1db2",
"http://www.bristol.ac.uk/physics/people/tom-b-scott/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/Physics/comments/gfa6b/i_just_drove_famous_theoretical_physicists/",
"http://www.imdb.com/title/tt4441150/",
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} | AskScience AMA Series: I'm Lawrence Krauss, Chair of the Board of Sponsors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, ask me anything!
Lawrence Krauss, a renowned theoretical physicist, is director of the Origins Project at Arizona State University as well as the Chair of the Board of Sponsors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, who recently moved the [Doomsday Clock](_URL_0_) 30 seconds closer to midnight. He is the author of more than 300 scientific publications and nine books, including the international bestsellers, *A Universe from Nothing*, *The Physics of Star Trek*, and the upcoming book *The Greatest Story Ever Told--So Far*. The recipient of numerous awards, Krauss is a regular columnist for newspapers and magazines, including *The New Yorker*, and he appears frequently on radio, television, and in feature films. Krauss lives in Portland, Oregon, and Tempe, Arizona. Lawrence will be joining starting around 2 PM ET (19 UT). | [
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|
1dazzt | How far back in time would I have to go for my current laptop to be the most powerful computer on earth? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"c9oojud",
"c9op6wo",
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"text": [
"It's hard to give you an exact answer, but the i7 processor according to Wikipedia gets about 180 billion operations per second and [this graph](_URL_0_) shows that in the mid 1990s that's about how powerful the top computers were.",
"Can I amend this question?\nHow far back would one have to go for said laptop to be more powerful than the combined computing power of the world?",
"Because of SSE4 your laptop can do 2 double precision and 4 single precision Flop/cycle/logical core. Times 4 logical cores times 2.5 billion cycles/sec comes out as 40GFlops single precision and 20 double precision. The world's fastest supercomputer in June 1993 had peak performance 131 GFlops/sec. In June 1995 the number was 236 GFlops/sec. So the answer is, circa 1990.\n\nEdit: 1. I should have looked at physical cores, not logical cores, because floating point units are not duplicated across logical cores; 2. I should have looked at AVX, not SSE. Curiously, these two corrections cancel each other out.",
"The iPhone 5 is about equivalent to a Cray Y-MP.",
"This is crazy. I'm running some vanilla statistical codes in R on my core i7 and it takes half an hour. How would this be even possible just a few years ago ...",
"Everyone seems to be focusing on flops. What about raw bandwidth? Are inter-processor communication speeds growing as quickly as flops? Does the i7 have the same bandwidth as a super computer from '97?",
"Is there a graph that shows all mankind processing power at any given time?. A have few computers at home and I often think that I probably have more computing power at my home that all mankind on early '60s.",
"Considering they're dismantling what [was](_URL_1_) the strongest supercomputer in the world in 2009 because its obsolete with today's technology it wouldn't take all that long"
],
"score": [
610,
180,
69,
39,
38,
16,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Supercomputers.png",
"http://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2013/03/worlds-fastest-supercomputer-from-09-is-now-obsolete-will-be-dismantled/"
]
} | How far back in time would I have to go for my current laptop to be the most powerful computer on earth?
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yjjfe | Response to Irreducible Complexity | Hi everyone,
I've been following the back-and-forths between Michael Behe and his wide variety of opposition and the point I've landed at is this:
**Lee Strobel's Interview with Michael Behe:**
*(On John McDonald)*
**L:** ". . . For instance, John McDonald of the University of Delaware said mousetraps can work well with fewer parts than yours--and he even drew a picture of a trap that's simpler than the one you drew. Doesn't this undermine your point that your mousetrap is irreducibly complex?"
**M:** "No, not a bit. . . . I *agree* there are mousetraps with fewer parts than mine. As a matter of fact, I said so in my book! [In Darwin's Black Box] I said you can just prop open a box with a stick, or you can use a glue trap, or you can dig a hole . . . The point of irreducible complexity is not that one can't make some other system that could work in a different way with fewer parts. The point is that the trap we're considering right now needs all of its parts to function. The challenge to Darwinian evolution is that it can put together complex systems with no intelligence at all."
*(On Kenneth Miller)*
**L:** "[He] has another objection to your trap. [He said]: 'Take away two parts (the catch and the metal bar), and you may not have a mousetrap but you do have a three-part machine that makes a fully functional tie clip or paper clip. Take away the spring, and you have a two-part key chain. The catch of some mousetraps could be used as a fishhook, and the wooden base as a paperweight; useful applications of other parts include everything from toothpicks to nutcrackers and clipboard holders. The point, which science has long understood, is that bits and pieces of supposedly irreducibly complex machines may have different--but still useful--functions.'"
**M:** "The problem is that it's not an argument against anything I've ever said. In my book, I explicitly point out that some of the components of biochemical machines can have other functions. But the issue remains--can you use numerous, slight, successive modifications to get from those other functions to where we are? . . . He's starting from the finished product--the mousetrap--and disassembling it and moving a few things around to use them for other purposes. . . .
When people put together a mousetrap, they have the disassembled components in different drawers or something, and they grab one from each drawer and put it together. But in the cell, there's nobody there to do that. In molecular machines, components have portions of their shape that are complementary to each other, so they connect with each other in the right way. A positive charge can attract a negative charge, and an oily region can attract another oily region. So if we use the mousetrap as an analogy, one end of the spring would have to have a certain shape or magnetism that just happened to attract and fit with another component of the trap. They'd all have to fit together that way until you had the whole trap assembled by itself.
In other words, if you just had the components themselves without the ability to bring the other pieces into position, you'd be far from having a functioning mousetrap."
*(On Barry Hall)*
**L:** "The 'true acid test [would be to use] the tools of molecular genetics to wipe out an existing multi-part system and then see if evolution can come to the rescue with a system to replace it.' If the system can be replaced purely by naturalistic evolutionary processes, then Behe's theory has been disproved. . . . Do you agree this would be a fair test?"
**M:** "Yes, I agree. That's a terrific test."
**L:** [Kenneth Miller said this was apparently done in the laboratory.] Miller concluded: 'No doubt about it--the evolution of biochemical systems, even complex multi-part ones, is explicable in terms of evolution. Behe is wrong.' . . . Tell me, has Hall proved through his experiment that your theory is incorrect?"
**M:** "No, not really. Actually, Hall is very modest about what his experiment shows. He didn't knock out a complex system and then show how evolution can replace it. Instead, he knocked out one component of a system that has five or six components. And replacing one component in a complex system is a lot easier than building one from scratch.
For instance, suppose someone told you that natural processes could produce a working television et. You'd say, That's interesting. Why don't you show me?' He would then unplug a thousand television sets. Eventually, a strong wind would come along and blow one plug back into the outlet, and the TV would come on. He would say, 'See? I told you that natural processes could produce a working TV.' But that's not exactly what happened. He wasn't producing a new complex system; there was a glitch introduced and he showed that on occasion this can be fixed by random processes.
That's a little like what went on with Hall's experiment with the bacterium E. *coli*. There was a complex system with a number of different parts, he knocked out one of them, and after a while he showed that random processes came up with a fix for that one part. That's a far cry from producing a brand new system from scratch.
But there's something equally important: Hall made it clear that he had intervened to keep the system going while evolution was trying to come up with a replacement for the missing part. In other words, with the mutation that fixed the glitch. The result never would have actually happened in nature without his intelligent intervention in the experiment.
Here's another analogy. Suppose you say you can make a three-legged stool by random processes. You take a three-legged stool and break off one leg. Then you hold up the stool so it won't fall over. Finally, a wind comes along, knocks down a tree branch, and it accidentally falls right where the missing leg had been. You're intervening to help the stool through the stage where it would otherwise have fallen over and you've made it possible for the branch to fit in the right place. . . .
[Back to the experiment] You would have had to have simultaneously gotten a second mutation--and the odds of that would have been prohibitive. Hall made it clear that he intervened so that he would get results that would never have actually happened in the natural world. And that is injecting intelligence into the system. . . . Unintentionally, he has shown the limits of Darwinism and the need for design.
For his technical response, click [here](_URL_1_)
*(Others)*
**L:** "What about Darwinists who say, 'Maybe it's merely too early for us to come up with a road map of how these gradual changes developed. Someday we'll better understand the flagellum, so have patience . . ."
**M:** "You know, Darwinists always accuse folks in the Intelligent Design movement of making an argument from ignorance. Well, that's a pure argument from ignorance! They're saying, 'We have no idea how this could have happened, but let's assume evolution somehow did it.' You've heard of 'God-of-the-gaps'--inserting God when you don't have another explanation? Well, this is 'evolution-of-the-gaps.' Some scientists merely insert evolution when they don't understand something. . . . We may not understand everything about these biological systems, but we do know some things. We do know that these systems [flagellum and cilia] have a number of very specifically matched components that do not lend themselves to a gradualistic explanation. We know that intelligence can assemble complex systems, like computers and mousetraps and things like that. The complexity we see is not going to be alleviated by the more we learn; it can only get more complicated. We will only discover more details about the systems."
**L:** "[What about gene duplication that happens during cell division?]"
**M:** "Sure, gene duplication happens, but what the fans of gene duplication rarely recognize is that when you get a duplicated gene, you don't get a new protein with new properties. You've got the same protein as before. And that's a problem. . . . Let's go back to the mousetrap analogy. . . . Suppose you have a one-component mousetrap, with two ends of a metal spring being bend and pressing against each other under tension so that if a mouse disturbs them, they'll slip and spring and hopefully catch a paw or tail. And say you wanted to develop a more efficient two component trap that has a wooden base as well as the spring.
According to the concept of gene duplication, you would make a copy of the first spring. Now you've got two springs--except the second spring somehow becomes a wooden base. Do you see the conceptual disconnect? You can't just say the spring somehow morphs into a wooden base without doing more than just saying, 'gene duplication did it.'"
For more technical responses to other critics of his book, click [here](_URL_0_)
. . .
Has anyone else rebutted these responses? And if so, could you please list the problems with his arguments?
I've also heard that there are "stacks of books" showing the evolutionary steps taken to create a flagellum, cilia and otherwise, which were provided at the Intelligent Design court case but haven't been able to find that information. Could someone please direct me to the resources?
Thank you. :}
P. S. - I'm very lay, so I'll probably need help with the concepts. Thanks again. | askscience | {
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"First, Lee Strobel interviewing Michael Behe is like Sean Hannity interviewing Mitt Romney. \n\nSecond, I just scanned this, so I may have missed some of the points you were asking about so let me know if I did:\n\nThe mousetrap is a red herring. Picking apart someone's illustration is really pointless; analogies only go so far. Behe gets to the crux here:\n\n > can you use numerous, slight, successive modifications to get from those other functions to where we are?\n\nBut he never tries to answer that. He does what he accuses \"Darwinists\" of doing; assuming that it's not possible and going from there. Strobel sets up the strawman for Behe quite nicely when he says:\n\n > \"The 'true acid test [would be to use] the tools of molecular genetics to wipe out an existing multi-part system and then see if evolution can come to the rescue with a system to replace it.' If the system can be replaced purely by naturalistic evolutionary processes, then Behe's theory has been disproved. . . . Do you agree this would be a fair test?\"\n\nOf course, Behe agrees, but this is just a circlejerk. No, that's not a good test. Alternative functions may have been lost, often have been lost. Often have been shown to have been lost. This is the case in the cilia, clotting cascades, and complement (a few of the often-used examples in Behe's books). Say you have a modern system A that requires components i, ii, iii, and iv. Any one of those is lost, and the system doesn't work...so did they all evolve simultaneously? Not necessarily; this assumes that system A evolved in a vacuum; it did not. It evolved with a host of other, related pathways surrounding it. \n\nThis addresses the actual issue with Hall's experiment as well.\n\nStrobel says:\n\n > What about Darwinists who say, 'Maybe it's merely too early for us to come up with a road map of how these gradual changes developed. Someday we'll better understand the flagellum, so have patience . . .\"\n\nNo one I know says that. Every one of Behe's proposed irreducibly complex systems have been demonstrated to not be irreducibly complex once you take it out of isolation. Yes, a flagellum can't evolve on its own without the rest of the bacterium, but no one has ever claimed that's what's going on.\n\n > They're [Darwinists] saying, 'We have no idea how this could have happened, but let's assume evolution somehow did it.'\n\nShow me the \"Darwinist\" who said that. Strawman.\n\n > Sure, gene duplication happens, but what the fans of gene duplication rarely recognize is that when you get a duplicated gene, you don't get a new protein with new properties. You've got the same protein as before.\n\nThis shows a profound lack of understanding of what role pseudogenes (duplicated genes) play in evolution. These are the working material. If you have 2 copies of an essential gene, one can be mutated to hell and back without necessarily affecting the function of the essential gene...because there is still a fully functional copy. \n\n > According to the concept of gene duplication, you would make a copy of the first spring. Now you've got two springs--except the second spring somehow becomes a wooden base.\n\nYes, that's what a mutation is. The point is that that \"spring\" isn't lost while it mutates into something else. He is actually even aware of this..\n\n > You can't just say the spring somehow morphs into a wooden base without doing more than just saying, 'gene duplication did it.'\"\n\nAnd that's why nobody says it's just gene duplication. \n\n\n > I'm very lay, so I'll probably need help with the concepts. Thanks again.\n\nand \n\n > [show me] the evolutionary steps taken to create a flagellum, cilia and otherwise\n\nAre a bit mutually exclusive. It took me a while to follow the molecular evolution there, and I play with genes and proteins for a living. I can try to walk you through it if you want, but bear in mind that we are talking about the evolution of a highly complex piece of molecular machinery. It's not a simple process. The reason that there are \"stacks of books\" on it is because it takes a stack of books to explain it.",
"The entire point is moot. The claim that evolution must show how a mechanism could still work without a part is fully unnecessary and if evolution is correct should be impossible. It is so trivial easy to see how irreducibly complex structures can arise through evolution that I don't see how *anyone* could buy irreducible complexity.\n\nThe analogy of the mousetrap is stupid because we **know** that a mousetrap was designed and didn't evolve. Pointing out that thing that didn't evolve could not have evolved says nothing about things that actually evolved.\n\nThe big thing that proponents of irreducible complexity miss is that the components of a mechanism were not added individually, but developed together from a few simple independent systems, which became increasingly more complex and intertwined until eventually they were all dependent on each other.\n\nBy the argument of irreducible complexity, stone arches are impossible because the removal of any stone will cause the arch to fall. Of course, this is absurd because we know that there was a scaffolding in place while it was built, which was removed later. A similar analogy can be made for cellular structures.\n\nThe problem with trying to argue that evolution is using the god-of-the-gaps, is that it is a two-edged sword, which is actually sharper for the wielder. Intelligent design has **no** evidence for it. It in fact is a classic example of god-of-the-gaps. It attempts to fill a hole in a current theory, not with the theory that works in all other cases and simply lacks a known explanation for this highly specific case, but with an unsubstantiateable theory.",
"> The challenge to Darwinian evolution is that it can put together complex systems with no intelligence at all.\"\n\nThat's actually quite an easy one and was first proposed by [Herman Joseph Muller](_URL_0_) early last century and in its simplest form consists of merely two steps:\n\n1. Add a component\n2. Make it necessary\n3. (optional) Remove unnecessary components\n\nThis is the heart of the evolutionary biology concept that gene duplication can lead to novel function. You add a new gene and then that new gene is free to mutate to assume a new function. From the perspective of time and hindsight, the system could look irreducibly complex.\n\n > You can't just say the spring somehow morphs into a wooden base without doing more than just saying, 'gene duplication did it\n\nBehe seeks to exploit his audience's lack of understanding of time, mutation rate and the inexorable power of natural selection acting on even a slight fitness advantage.\n\nSay you have an enzyme that takes the hydroxyl group off ethanol and thus makes it safer for the body to handle. Let's say you duplicate that enzyme and the body is exposed to propanol. The ethanol enzyme isn't very good at working on propanol but it can with much lower efficiency. \n\nWhen you only had one enzyme and ethanol was given in much higher doses, selection pressure kept the enzyme optimal for working with ethanol. However, with two enzymes, selection pressure can act to modify the redundant one to optimise it for acting on propanol. Eventually you end up with two related but different enzymes.\n\nOverall, Behe's argument contains the logical fallacy of *argument from personal ignorance*. His ultimate response is to claim that, because the system is inexplicable at the current level of understanding that it will always remain inexplicable. Case in point:\n\n > We know that intelligence can assemble complex systems, like computers and mousetraps and things like that. The complexity we see is not going to be alleviated by the more we learn; it can only get more complicated. We will only discover more details about the systems.\"\n\nand\n\n > There's no reasoned explanation anyone has been able to offer\n\nThey are both very very weak arguments because there is overwhelming evidence for a single (or very low number) common ancestor for all life. Similarity at the molecular genetic level is an extremely big clue that the systems in question have a common evolutionary origin.",
"Behe, in addition to many strawman arguments, is employeeing the common Creationist of moving the goalposts. He attacks what he believes to be a key point of evolution, and when an evolutionary scientist points out why he's wrong, he backpedals and says, \"Oh, sure, I wasn't really arguing against that anyway. How about this one? No, then that isn't my real argument anyway. How about this?\""
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} | Response to Irreducible Complexity
Hi everyone, I've been following the back-and-forths between Michael Behe and his wide variety of opposition and the point I've landed at is this: **Lee Strobel's Interview with Michael Behe:** *(On John McDonald)* **L:** ". . . For instance, John McDonald of the University of Delaware said mousetraps can work well with fewer parts than yours--and he even drew a picture of a trap that's simpler than the one you drew. Doesn't this undermine your point that your mousetrap is irreducibly complex?" **M:** "No, not a bit. . . . I *agree* there are mousetraps with fewer parts than mine. As a matter of fact, I said so in my book! [In Darwin's Black Box] I said you can just prop open a box with a stick, or you can use a glue trap, or you can dig a hole . . . The point of irreducible complexity is not that one can't make some other system that could work in a different way with fewer parts. The point is that the trap we're considering right now needs all of its parts to function. The challenge to Darwinian evolution is that it can put together complex systems with no intelligence at all." *(On Kenneth Miller)* **L:** "[He] has another objection to your trap. [He said]: 'Take away two parts (the catch and the metal bar), and you may not have a mousetrap but you do have a three-part machine that makes a fully functional tie clip or paper clip. Take away the spring, and you have a two-part key chain. The catch of some mousetraps could be used as a fishhook, and the wooden base as a paperweight; useful applications of other parts include everything from toothpicks to nutcrackers and clipboard holders. The point, which science has long understood, is that bits and pieces of supposedly irreducibly complex machines may have different--but still useful--functions.'" **M:** "The problem is that it's not an argument against anything I've ever said. In my book, I explicitly point out that some of the components of biochemical machines can have other functions. But the issue remains--can you use numerous, slight, successive modifications to get from those other functions to where we are? . . . He's starting from the finished product--the mousetrap--and disassembling it and moving a few things around to use them for other purposes. . . . When people put together a mousetrap, they have the disassembled components in different drawers or something, and they grab one from each drawer and put it together. But in the cell, there's nobody there to do that. In molecular machines, components have portions of their shape that are complementary to each other, so they connect with each other in the right way. A positive charge can attract a negative charge, and an oily region can attract another oily region. So if we use the mousetrap as an analogy, one end of the spring would have to have a certain shape or magnetism that just happened to attract and fit with another component of the trap. They'd all have to fit together that way until you had the whole trap assembled by itself. In other words, if you just had the components themselves without the ability to bring the other pieces into position, you'd be far from having a functioning mousetrap." *(On Barry Hall)* **L:** "The 'true acid test [would be to use] the tools of molecular genetics to wipe out an existing multi-part system and then see if evolution can come to the rescue with a system to replace it.' If the system can be replaced purely by naturalistic evolutionary processes, then Behe's theory has been disproved. . . . Do you agree this would be a fair test?" **M:** "Yes, I agree. That's a terrific test." **L:** [Kenneth Miller said this was apparently done in the laboratory.] Miller concluded: 'No doubt about it--the evolution of biochemical systems, even complex multi-part ones, is explicable in terms of evolution. Behe is wrong.' . . . Tell me, has Hall proved through his experiment that your theory is incorrect?" **M:** "No, not really. Actually, Hall is very modest about what his experiment shows. He didn't knock out a complex system and then show how evolution can replace it. Instead, he knocked out one component of a system that has five or six components. And replacing one component in a complex system is a lot easier than building one from scratch. For instance, suppose someone told you that natural processes could produce a working television et. You'd say, That's interesting. Why don't you show me?' He would then unplug a thousand television sets. Eventually, a strong wind would come along and blow one plug back into the outlet, and the TV would come on. He would say, 'See? I told you that natural processes could produce a working TV.' But that's not exactly what happened. He wasn't producing a new complex system; there was a glitch introduced and he showed that on occasion this can be fixed by random processes. That's a little like what went on with Hall's experiment with the bacterium E. *coli*. There was a complex system with a number of different parts, he knocked out one of them, and after a while he showed that random processes came up with a fix for that one part. That's a far cry from producing a brand new system from scratch. But there's something equally important: Hall made it clear that he had intervened to keep the system going while evolution was trying to come up with a replacement for the missing part. In other words, with the mutation that fixed the glitch. The result never would have actually happened in nature without his intelligent intervention in the experiment. Here's another analogy. Suppose you say you can make a three-legged stool by random processes. You take a three-legged stool and break off one leg. Then you hold up the stool so it won't fall over. Finally, a wind comes along, knocks down a tree branch, and it accidentally falls right where the missing leg had been. You're intervening to help the stool through the stage where it would otherwise have fallen over and you've made it possible for the branch to fit in the right place. . . . [Back to the experiment] You would have had to have simultaneously gotten a second mutation--and the odds of that would have been prohibitive. Hall made it clear that he intervened so that he would get results that would never have actually happened in the natural world. And that is injecting intelligence into the system. . . . Unintentionally, he has shown the limits of Darwinism and the need for design. For his technical response, click [here](_URL_1_) *(Others)* **L:** "What about Darwinists who say, 'Maybe it's merely too early for us to come up with a road map of how these gradual changes developed. Someday we'll better understand the flagellum, so have patience . . ." **M:** "You know, Darwinists always accuse folks in the Intelligent Design movement of making an argument from ignorance. Well, that's a pure argument from ignorance! They're saying, 'We have no idea how this could have happened, but let's assume evolution somehow did it.' You've heard of 'God-of-the-gaps'--inserting God when you don't have another explanation? Well, this is 'evolution-of-the-gaps.' Some scientists merely insert evolution when they don't understand something. . . . We may not understand everything about these biological systems, but we do know some things. We do know that these systems [flagellum and cilia] have a number of very specifically matched components that do not lend themselves to a gradualistic explanation. We know that intelligence can assemble complex systems, like computers and mousetraps and things like that. The complexity we see is not going to be alleviated by the more we learn; it can only get more complicated. We will only discover more details about the systems." **L:** "[What about gene duplication that happens during cell division?]" **M:** "Sure, gene duplication happens, but what the fans of gene duplication rarely recognize is that when you get a duplicated gene, you don't get a new protein with new properties. You've got the same protein as before. And that's a problem. . . . Let's go back to the mousetrap analogy. . . . Suppose you have a one-component mousetrap, with two ends of a metal spring being bend and pressing against each other under tension so that if a mouse disturbs them, they'll slip and spring and hopefully catch a paw or tail. And say you wanted to develop a more efficient two component trap that has a wooden base as well as the spring. According to the concept of gene duplication, you would make a copy of the first spring. Now you've got two springs--except the second spring somehow becomes a wooden base. Do you see the conceptual disconnect? You can't just say the spring somehow morphs into a wooden base without doing more than just saying, 'gene duplication did it.'" For more technical responses to other critics of his book, click [here](_URL_0_) . . . Has anyone else rebutted these responses? And if so, could you please list the problems with his arguments? I've also heard that there are "stacks of books" showing the evolutionary steps taken to create a flagellum, cilia and otherwise, which were provided at the Intelligent Design court case but haven't been able to find that information. Could someone please direct me to the resources? Thank you. :} P. S. - I'm very lay, so I'll probably need help with the concepts. Thanks again. | [
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|
mw63o | Does a vibration feature on standard disposable razer blades accomplish anything more then adding cost? | Recently I have been disappointed with the performance of my pretty much standard Gillette razer. Shaving along the neck tended to drag and pinch regardless of the age of the blade, shaving cream, or hair length.
In a moment of possible inspiration, possible gullibility I decided to purchase a slightly fancier vibrating Gillete razer. I broke out my new shiny toy and I did notice a significantly smoother shave and immediately thought to myself "my goodness this does work."
A few moments later I realized how silly of a claim that is to make without any real evidence. Not to mention the shameful lack of internal-validity my bathroom experiments most likely have. Now I am really curious as to whether or not simply vibrating the blades, as opposed to say moving them independently like in a trimmer, has any real effects on any variable important to the act of shaving.
I realize this is a pretty banal question compared to some of the usual discourse in this area of Reddit but I prefer to think that its important to have a reason to believe something rather just having a feeling that you believe something. This maxim applies to everything from the origins of the universe to whether vibrating a few bits of sharpened metal leads to a better shave.
I suppose I could have googled this but who knows, perhaps the rest of the shaving population of Reddit not subscribed to /r/wicked_edge could benefit from the knowledge gleaned here. Though looking over the sidebar I don't notice any flair for Expert in Hair Removal Technology and Techniques so maybe I am just being foolish in starting my search in such a lofty place. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c34cfu1",
"c34c8jj",
"c34br3a",
"c34gkqa"
],
"text": [
"[Gillette bought Duracell](_URL_1_) in 1996 and [Energizer bought Schick](_URL_0_) in 2003. \nNow there are batteries in razors. Funny coincidence. In fact the M3Power [doesn't work as advertised](_URL_2_), and if you bought one, you can get a new razor as [part of the settlement](_URL_3_).",
"> The biological explanation revolves around the physiology of our hair follicles. Mammals have the ability to raise hairs; this razor depends on that ability. While humans cannot control their hair raising, it can be triggered. Attached to each and every follicle is a bundle of muscle fiber called the arrector pili, which as its name suggests, is responsible for raising hairs. This muscle is smooth muscle and not a skeletal muscle, so its functionality is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. This means that we can only involuntarily flex this muscle—an example of this is goose bumps! In the case of the Gillette razor, the follicles on your face are reacting to the stimulus of vibration. The muscles contract, the hair stands perpendicular to your face, and the razor is able to shave better.\n\n_URL_4_",
"It might be worth noting that the exact same device in a different colour scheme with a completely different USP.\n\nFor men; Shaves closer!\nFor women; Exfoliating action!\n\nAnyhow,\n\nThese razors produce the vibration by way of an eccentric weight, when the battery has decent charge the lateral displacement is fairly significant. \n\nWith that in mind I can see two potential ways that it could lead to an improved shave (although I would not like to speculate on the magnitude of the improvement!).\n\nFirstly, a razors edge is very delicate and prone to damage, especially at a very small scale (in the order of < =hairs width). Its conceivable that assuming the period of oscillation was small enough for the blade to displace from a damaged spot to a sharp spot as the blade passes over the hair, you may end up with a cut where one wouldn't have occurred without vibration.\n\nThe second; perpendicular displacement could serve to force the blade down onto a hair momentarily and produce enough additional friction to start a cut. However, you cant help but wonder if the opposite action would lead to a net effect of nothing...\n\nPersonally I use cheapo disposable razors, you can get bag of 30 for £1 and use a fresh one every day :D\n\nNot the most environmentally sound option now I think about it > . >",
"Aren't the razor companies part of the same coropations that own the battery companies?"
],
"score": [
100,
55,
12,
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energizer_Holdings",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_razor#Recent_developments",
"http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8074882/#.Tte3IWNC8Qw",
"http://www.m3powersettlement.com/RazorRequest.aspx?lang=EN",
"http://www.madphysics.com/ask/vibrating_gillette_razors.htm"
]
} | Does a vibration feature on standard disposable razer blades accomplish anything more then adding cost?
Recently I have been disappointed with the performance of my pretty much standard Gillette razer. Shaving along the neck tended to drag and pinch regardless of the age of the blade, shaving cream, or hair length. In a moment of possible inspiration, possible gullibility I decided to purchase a slightly fancier vibrating Gillete razer. I broke out my new shiny toy and I did notice a significantly smoother shave and immediately thought to myself "my goodness this does work." A few moments later I realized how silly of a claim that is to make without any real evidence. Not to mention the shameful lack of internal-validity my bathroom experiments most likely have. Now I am really curious as to whether or not simply vibrating the blades, as opposed to say moving them independently like in a trimmer, has any real effects on any variable important to the act of shaving. I realize this is a pretty banal question compared to some of the usual discourse in this area of Reddit but I prefer to think that its important to have a reason to believe something rather just having a feeling that you believe something. This maxim applies to everything from the origins of the universe to whether vibrating a few bits of sharpened metal leads to a better shave. I suppose I could have googled this but who knows, perhaps the rest of the shaving population of Reddit not subscribed to /r/wicked_edge could benefit from the knowledge gleaned here. Though looking over the sidebar I don't notice any flair for Expert in Hair Removal Technology and Techniques so maybe I am just being foolish in starting my search in such a lofty place. | [
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|
n56z6 | When I tear a loaf of bread, am I breaking atomic bonds? | I understand that I'm not splitting atoms when I tear a loaf of bread apart, but I have taken a whole object and divided it into two distinct halves. On what level is this division happening? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c36cwbz",
"c36cndh",
"c36d6lr",
"c36cnyg"
],
"text": [
"The bread's structure is largely due to disulfide bonds and hydrogen bonds between gluten molecules. The former are covalent bonds between sulfur atoms. The latter are weaker interactions between partially charged hydrogen atoms and electronegative atoms such as oxygen.\n\nSo in tearing bread you are probably breaking some covalent bonds and some non-covalent. ~~Neither should be referred to as \"atomic bonds,\" although they are between atoms.~~ I strongly prefer to avoid the term \"atomic bonds\" because it's too easily confused with intra-nuclear bonds.\n\nRidiculously detailed discussion of gluten structure: _URL_0_",
"_URL_1_ \n\nRead this. when you split big things apart like that loaf of bread you are just pulling molecules apart that are sticky to each other... kinda like if you were pulling a sticker off of a wall. They stick to each other but they arnt considered actually \"bonded\" \n\nNow one exception is that you could in thoery have some crazy long polymer.... that is one single molecule..... that you could break a chemical bond when you pull it apart. But I cant think of any situation in which this would happen in your day to day life..",
"No. You are breaking (inter)molecular bonds. Speaking generally, one carbohydrate molecule of some kind got separated from another.\n\nOn the other hand, you might need to qualify your question more... Are you specifically talking about bread or some similar substance and \"gentle\" tearing?\n\nI ask that because it is possible that you could \"tear\" something so vigorously that enough energy was produced to break atomic bonds and alter the properties of some of the material you are operating upon through a chemical reaction. In other words, it is possible that the molecular bond stores enough potential energy to break another bond when it is broken as the energy released could serve as activation energy for a chemical reaction.\n\nBut that isn't really possible due to the nature of most of the materials we are used to dealing with, on a large scale, at least.",
"You are not breaking atomic bonds.\n\nAtomic bonds keep molecules together.\n\nIf you were to break atomic bonds you would have changed the properties of the matter you are dealing with.\n\nYou are breaking the attraction between molecules."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1692935/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermolecular_force"
]
} | When I tear a loaf of bread, am I breaking atomic bonds?
I understand that I'm not splitting atoms when I tear a loaf of bread apart, but I have taken a whole object and divided it into two distinct halves. On what level is this division happening? | [
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|
k6rl6 | What is the conserved quantity derived from the wave function's invariance to complex phase shift? | I know from classical mechanics that symmetries and invariances lead to quantities being conserved in the system. I also remember from quantum mechanics that the wave function is invariant to complex phase shift, but we never went over what that implied. What quantity is conserved because of this? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"I haven't gotten my tag at the time of this posting, but I work in Quantum Info, so I'll do my best to answer your question from that point of view.\n\nFrom what I know, the invariance of the wave-function under complex phase shift doesn't imply anything is conserved. In fact its quite common to use what's known as the projective Hilbert space instead of the full Hilbert space to describe your system of interest. In the projective Hilbert space, all vectors that differ by only a complex phase are considered the same vector, since they are operationally equivalent anyway, and this removes the ambiguity of the complex phase.\n\nIts very common to take what's known as the operational approach in quantum mechanics, and in this approach you only care about physically measurable quantities. A global complex phase is not a measurable quantity, so its not important (that's what I meant about two vectors differing by only a complex phase being operationally equivalent). Thus, the fact that the wave function is conserved under a global complex phase shift is not of interest.\n\nIn fact, a little wiki research has led me to see that the quantum analogy of Noether's theorm, the Ward-Takahashi identity, only applies to correlation functions (which are a measurable quantity), so the complex phase doesn't matter here. But I'll leave the further technicalities of this to the QFT guys and gals....",
"Conservation of charge. It comes from the gauge invariance of the EM field. [Here's a derivation](_URL_0_).\n\n(I should really let the QFT folks answer this one though.)",
"Upvote for a question worth being posted in AskScience as opposed to AskFartsAndOtherSillyCrap.",
"Energy for phase shifts by time, and momentum for phase shifts by position. This follows from the simple fact that phase shifts in the frequency domain are just translations in the time/space domain.",
"In a closed system it implies the conservation of probability.\n\nEdit: I've gotten rid of the first point I made because it was more confusing that it should have been."
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"url": [
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} | What is the conserved quantity derived from the wave function's invariance to complex phase shift?
I know from classical mechanics that symmetries and invariances lead to quantities being conserved in the system. I also remember from quantum mechanics that the wave function is invariant to complex phase shift, but we never went over what that implied. What quantity is conserved because of this? | [
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16jn3q | [META] Monday Lab Meeting! | For a new feature here in AS, we are going to hold a lab meeting here in AS for our panelists. Normally lab meetings are weekly affairs where any recent findings are discussed, problems are worked through, and plans are made for the week's experiments.
We're hoping this will give you a taste of what the week-to-week of a scientist is actually like.
To achieve this goal, we're reserving top-levels for panelists, but our normal guidelines are somewhat relaxed and follow-up questions and discussions are absolutely encouraged. If a scientist wants to join the panel, see [this thread](_URL_0_). | askscience | {
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"Last week and this week are atypical. Most of my time is devoted to a few activities that don't really fit the definition of \"using the experimental method\", and that I am not really accustomed to: first, I have to co-author a book chapter on synchrotron radiation techniques in chemistry; then, I have to lay out a detailed plan of this year's budget and activities for a small project; and lastly, a tentative list of invited speakers for an international congrass should be ready as soon as possible.\n\nGrad students and undergrads are left to themselves a bit - they seem happy after all.",
"I've begun writing that pesky little dissertation thing",
"This will be a fun week as I have finalized my protocol for a simple freeze-thaw method of DNA extraction from fungal samples (thanks /u/gfpumpkins for the help!) so I get to move on to my genotyping project through extraction, PCR, and restriction digestion. The final team member for my project just arrived here in Africa last week with my additional DNA extraction kits, so I will also be doing whole root extractions in order to start up my metagenomics project. Lots of molecular work this week!",
"This week I'm on my own as everyone else has flown off to the states to visit our other site. Someone has to man the fort I guess...\n\nAlllll byyy myyysellffff",
"Busy.\n\nGot my experimental equipment finally set up after 3 months of prep ( 3.5m long flume tank to run simulated pyroclastic flows into), so have been carrying out the first tests in it. Mostly a case of finding the leaks, fixing them up, and getting a feel for how it all behaves. Been getting through prodigious amounts of masking tape and paper towels, as well as gaining a reasonable amount of experience in plumbing high pressure gas systems. Stinking cold over the weekend, but still managed to feel guilty for not getting in yesterday to get some more done on it.\n\nAlso been making a lot of headway with a project I've spent a year trying to get set up collaborating between some guys at the National Oceanography Centre in the UK, and some other researchers scattered at universities around the world. It's a pilot project to see if some software I was working on the development of in my last postdoc (which was designed to model submarine turbidity currents) can be used to investigate what happens when a pyroclastic flow enters the ocean. I've generated the first sets of data and we're now hammering through the process of trying to work out what variables we can constrain, what we can't, and how to get the information we need from the data we have - the dataset I'm testing has a lot of cores extracted from the seafloor in the area. We're now seeing if the guys who did the original analyses on these have measured the things I need to get the model to accept the information, or if there is a clever way we can estimate those numbers from other measurements they've made. Lots of stuff to do with particle size distributions, grain sorting, that kind of thing. Because it's a pilot project there's no funding attached, so it's all very dependant on the goodwill of people helping out and getting stuck in to the development discussion while I tweak and progress the modelling in my spare time (done remotely on a dedicated workstation at my old place of work which sits unused in the evenings). Managed to get some very well respected and competent colleagues on board, and everyone seems to agree that progress looks promising. Extremely relieved.\n\nSo two pretty big sets of progress, just in time for me to try and get some abstracts together for a big conference in July, for which I need the proposed papers submitted by the end of this month. The age-old joy of submitting abstracts for work you haven't actually finished yet.\n\nFiance is coming out to visit on Thursday for 4 days, so I lose a couple of days work but maintain my sanity for a bit longer. Need to get a few runs done today to make up for the time, but sat twiddling my thumbs (or more accurately - writing this) while waiting for 15 kg of tiny little 0.05 mm diameter beads to dry out in the lab oven.",
"Summer is field season. Everyone running like mad to get out on boats. Fall is data season, and fisheries-quota setting season. Everyone running like mad to process, analyze, run statistics, get results out.\n\nJanuary is catch-up and plan season. Last couple of weeks I've been:\n\n 1. Catching up on literature, and reviewing other people's papers.\n\n 2. Planning next year's field season, in particular looking at gaps in species coverage from last year and figuring out how to design the collection plan to fill them.\n\n 3. My own research! I've been working on an oceanographic model that attempts to predict the movement of fish through an ecosystem based on local conditions; the model fish swim along gradients of good feeding, and avoid predators, and we see if the patterns then match observed spatial structure of fish populations. The long-term goal is to simulate how the fish might move under changing climate conditions (50 years out) and design fishing policies that are robust to forecast shifts. Monday is usually \"look at results\" day. The model is on the slow side (takes 12 hours on 200 cores to simulate one year) so I'm usually looking at what happened over the weekend; usually it's \"groan, the fish ended up in Siberia. Better check parameters and re-run.\" But occasionally it's \"eureka! The fish are swimming - well, isn't that interesting.\" Wish me luck this morning.",
"This is a week, like most of my weeks, where I'll be excited if I can get some otherwise mundane stuff to work.\n\nI need to measure the temperature of a piece of copper in vacuum, and for various reasons I've determined that the only reasonable way to do this is to learn how to weld a bare thermocouple to this copper. Frankly if I can work that out in the early part of the week I'll be pretty happy. \n\nI'm training my first years how to use my instrument and as part of the process writing some Mathematica code. It keeps telling me that the only valid solution to my problem involes the product of a couple of real numbers being imaginary. I know this is a filthy lie because I know what the solution to the equation should be (hence the testing of code) but I'm at my wit's end trying to find the mistake.\n\nEDIT: HAHA! Take that Mathematica, you piece of shit. (Okay, it was my fault for not understanding how Fresnel reflection works.) On to thermocouples!",
"My advisor, another grad student, a postdoc-who-finished-his-PhD-here-last-year, and I are working on a project. The project has to do with a new method to search for certain kinds of events at the LHC that you'd expect from certain models of supersymmetry. Our paper will review how well the experimentalists' current methods do, and then propose additional \"cuts\" that help separate interesting signal events from boring Standard Model background events. These sorts of papers - proposing new methods for LHC searches for new particles and new physics - are pretty common in theoretical particle physics, and our paper would be one of many looking at many different models of new physics and many different signatures at the LHC. Unfortunately, I cannot say more before the paper goes out. Sorry. :(\n\nThis week, I've put together the final pieces of this project, and all that remains now is to make a ton of plots that look acceptable and write the paper. In a week or two, we'll be putting it up on [arXiv](_URL_0_) and submitting it to a journal, probably [Phys. Rev. D](_URL_1_).\n\nOn another front, my advisor and I are talking about our next project, which involves something pretty computational. We hope we can get the jump on this idea before anyone else can. There's even a hard deadline for the end of the project, because we'll need the fresh data that the experimentalists will be presenting at the [Moriond conference](_URL_2_), and will try to publish on arXiv the day after...",
"I have been working on a manuscript for the past 1.5 years and did my final analysis before publication. The result was a straight line. It's not even a bad result but it does seem ironic that I've worked so hard for what is just a horizontal stripe (w/ 95% bootstrap confidence intervals).",
"I am still waiting to hear about a paper that was submitted. Also, I am excited to be done with this job in a couple weeks and start working with someone new.",
"I've been doing experiments trying to concentrate DNA by freezing it from one direction. When the water it's in starts freezing, the ice crystals prefer* to be pure, so they expel all the other salt and DNA as they grow, which leads to pockets of highly concentrated salt and DNA trapped between different ice crystals. It looks really cool. As a very long shot, this phenomenon (solute trapping) could be an explanation of how all the necessary chemistry got concentrated in the \"primordial goo\" leading to the first living cells.\n\n*chemically, not emotionally",
"Spent a huge chunk of my time diagnosing the problems in the CD spectrometer, getting it ready for an RMA, etc. Only to solve the problem right before I submit it.\n\nOn other notes, tutoring duties resume as the new term begins.",
"I have a three-year grant from the National Science Foundation to work on a research project in science education, and we're near the second half of the third year. We've collected all of our data from college students (primarily quantitative surveys of student views of science at different types of universities) and we're getting started for the semester with analysis and preparing publications. \n\nThis week, I'm helping a graduate student finalize his data set he will use to present a poster at an education meeting (conference) in late February. This side project is comparing the views of science of students who are following a traditional educational path to those who went back to school later in life (i.e. went directly from high school compared to those who are age 25 or older). We're sampling our full data set to find those who are non-traditional (about 10% of our original sample), then creating a matching data set with the other 90% that is the same size as the non-traditional set. Once we have that data set, we have short-answer questions to code via qualitative methods as well as statistical tests to run that will see if there are significant differences between groups. We're being more exploratory with this project (rather than hypothesis testing) so we can 'follow up' with other data collections later based upon the preliminary results.\n\nI'm also working on a publication of another data set and preparing some abstracts to be sent to our University's research symposium which will be held in a few months. I expect all of the students I mentor to present at that event, and also help other faculty in Education who may not present at conferences to also engage in research/scholarship (they typically teach pre-service teachers, so their expertise is as practitioners rather than researchers).",
"This week we're starting our exciting new genetically engineered mouse model of melanoma which we'll be using to test a novel chemotherapeutic that's worked well in other models so far. This will be the main experiment for the paper that's going to be my ticket out of grad school, so I'm really excited to be finally starting this after months of mouse breeding.\n\nNext week, my PI and I are going to a local middle school to teach a 4-day module on molecular cloning to 7th and 8th grade students. We're going to teach them the basics of codons, polymerases, endonucleases, and ligases as we go through a blue/white cloning protocol with them throughout the week. I'm really looking forward to this outreach opportunity. I think it's going to be fun, but I have to prepare all the materials this week and plan next weeks' experiments around not being in the lab all afternoon four days in a row.",
"I'm currently in the middle of writing the rough draft of my dissertation. A lot of this is just going over literature and the paper I wrote and parsing it all into chapters covering the paper and the background on the theory and experiment. But now I've starting going through old data on a different topic and analyzing it because I kind of let it drop a few years ago.\n\nAlso, I've been depositing new samples for collaborators and for myself (to round out some measurements I want to talk about in my thesis) and this is taking a lot more time than I expected. I think it's because the thermocouple (it measures temperature) in our deposition system was replaced and we assumed the new one worked just as well as our old one, but it may not so we need to recalibrate material growth temperatures.",
"I've spent the past 5-6 months really focused on getting my new clinic up and running and have just now be returning to my research. Last week I spent most of my time reviewing my notes from where my manuscript left off and doing some writing. This week my goals are to finish a proposal I've been working on and submit it to my administration to get me more dedicated research time. I'm also delving into the world of learning R so I can finally finish a haplotype analysis I'd been toying around with while on fellowship but never got around to doing anything with. \n\nAnd I have a full clinic load and have to interview for a new nurse, so we'll see how much of that actually gets done...",
"We got reviews over the new year on work being done for a grant foundation.\n\nReviews were generally very good, with participants impressed with our concept and the prototypes so far produced. However they're still pressing for some experiments that \"prove\" the improvements expected of the device in the operating room. The \"killer app,\" as it is.\n\nWe'll be brainstorming our experiments over the rest of the week, in addition to meeting with industrial designers to improve the ergonomics and structure of our prototypes. Also, a couple papers to write and get reviews on. Trying to find time with everyone in our lab to meet during the new semester.",
"It's the last week of my post-doc before I leave for my 'real' job, so I have 3 papers to finish and submit, teach the new students how to do my job, document how I have been running the network, back up all my data, pack up my apartment and office, deal with all the other crap related to moving.. Also maybe sleep somewhere in there, if I have time.",
"It is SIGGRAPH submission week, the most productive and least pleasant week of the year. (Sometimes I wish graphics had more than one top-tier conference. I know about SIGGRAPH Asia, but nobody I know pushes for that like they push for SIGGRAPH.) I'm trying to submit two papers.\n\nOn one of them, my collaborators and I decided to stop working on improving our results in December and just focus on presentation from there on out. The results are rougher than I'd like them to be, but we have a great rough cut of our submission video already, and the paper itself is coming along very nicely.\n\nThe other paper is much stronger technically, but also has a lot more unresolved issues. It's going to take some kind of miracle to squeeze it into 12 pages (we've got 16 pages already and still have at least one figure to add), but if we have to we'll relegate whole sections to supplementary material that we promise to publish as tech reports. We've also run into problems in generating one of our most impressive and important results: unexpected negative eigenvalues in what should be a positive definite matrix. I've figured out the source of the issue and that it's a conceptual, not a code bug. Unfortunately, there's very little time left to test the potential workarounds, and I still have to spend a lot of time on paper editing and video production.\n\nIn fact, what am I doing on reddit right now? The deadline is 98 hours away! Back to work.",
"In order to conduct awesome biophysical experiments, I need two things - I need lots of isotopically enriched protein and I need to make sure that putting my functional multiprotein complex into a glass-forming solution does not totally kill its biochemical activity. On the former front, I finally convinced myself that our currently available bacterial strain + plasmid combinations are not giving me the high yields that are needed. So I will get to do some molecular biology this week and put the plasmid for this protein into some different bacterial strains and see if they amp up protein expression. On the second front, I think I am finally approaching reasonable conditions (DMSO plus crowding agents at each step of the process), but need to make sure this is rock-solidly reproducible. \n\nAnd there's the assorted miscellany of every week - providing sage advice to grad students, vigorously skimming/reading papers, beating back the forces of chaos on my lab bench and at my desk, and writing/revising/editing manuscripts in preparation.",
"I've got two manuscripts in the works that really need a bit more attention this week than I've been giving them. And not that it will help any, but I should be setting up a pyrosequencing run, maybe starting tomorrow, if the rest of my clean up goes well tomorrow morning. Why won't this help? Because it means I'll have all my data for a third manuscript my Friday. I guess on the bright side, it means all I'll be doing for the next month or so is writing. I guess things could be worse. EDIT: Oh, and speaking of writing, I've also got the introduction to my thesis to work on. And possibly mashing two sections of it into a review for an appropriate journal.",
"Been doing a bunch of IP - type experiments so now it's on to gel running and Western Blotting. Looking for competition between post-translational modifications on my protein of interest. \n\nAlso spent a good chunk of time last week doing some genomic research. It was a total PIA, but now that it's done, I learned a bunch and might be a better person for it. Ha. I was seeing ACGT in my sleep, though.",
"Trying to submit a paper based on my thesis work, but as always the senior-most co-authors are dragging their feet in approving it. That's what you get for working with two department heads.\n\nI find that the order of getting comments from co-authors is opposite the order of their career status. Undergrads, then grad students, then postdocs, then junior staff, and the senior staff just don't read it.",
"This is my last week in this lab! The amount of junk that I need to clean up and dispose of is... intimidating. Plus, I have to write up my latest results and then move! ACK",
"This week is filled with technology conferences, understanding new platforms for geophysical models, and some 4-D modelling courses. Should be fun!"
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} | {
"url": [
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} | [META] Monday Lab Meeting!
For a new feature here in AS, we are going to hold a lab meeting here in AS for our panelists. Normally lab meetings are weekly affairs where any recent findings are discussed, problems are worked through, and plans are made for the week's experiments. We're hoping this will give you a taste of what the week-to-week of a scientist is actually like. To achieve this goal, we're reserving top-levels for panelists, but our normal guidelines are somewhat relaxed and follow-up questions and discussions are absolutely encouraged. If a scientist wants to join the panel, see [this thread](_URL_0_). | [
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|
1g6v7z | What are some examples of different evolutionary adaptions among different populations of humans? | Aside from Alcohol Dehydrogenase, Lactase never 'turning off', and melanin loss after the agricultural revolution I don't know of any changes in humanity that have been caused by environmental factors. Are there others? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cahbo06",
"cahb7ol",
"cahc7pu",
"cahmibr"
],
"text": [
"Body size and stature.\nCentral African people living in the harsh heat of the tropics tend to be tall with long legs, with most of their body fat distributed in just a few places so they can radiate as much heat as possible. The native people of arctic Canada tend to be short and have body fat more evenly distributed around their bodies to conserve as much heat as possible.",
"Melanin loss predated the agricultural revolution and is due to reduced solar intensity in temperate regions. Malaria resistance is a great example of an adaptation to a biotic factor; altitude adaptation (Tibet, Andes, etc) is a great example of adaptation to an abiotic factor.",
"HIV immunity in some European populations [as a consequence of negative selection by the black plaque](_URL_0_).\n\n[Tay-Sachs desease](_URL_3_) that either increases average intelligence in the population, or [increases resistance to tuberculosis](_URL_1_), or both. Implied selection in Ashkenazi Jews.\n\nThe [eye shape usually associated with people of Asian descent](_URL_2_) was traditionally linked to living in dusty steppe-like environments, but I am not sure there's any conclusive evidence here.",
"[Sickle cell anemia](_URL_4_) is thought to be an adaptation to deal with malaria, being most prevalent where malaria is common."
],
"score": [
9,
9,
6,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050307/full/news050307-15.html",
"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/educators/course/session7/explain_b_pop1.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicanthic_fold",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tay%E2%80%93Sachs_disease",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sickle-cell_disease"
]
} | What are some examples of different evolutionary adaptions among different populations of humans?
Aside from Alcohol Dehydrogenase, Lactase never 'turning off', and melanin loss after the agricultural revolution I don't know of any changes in humanity that have been caused by environmental factors. Are there others? | [
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|
ax6cnx | AskScience AMA Series: We are John Ibbitson, an award-winning journalist, and Darrell Bricker, a leading international social researcher, and we wrote a book about population decline happening sooner than projected. Ask us anything! | An award-winning journalist and leading international social researcher make the provocative argument that the global population will soon begin to decline, dramatically reshaping the social, political, and economic landscape.
For half a century, statisticians, pundits, and politicians have warned that a burgeoning population will soon overwhelm the earth's resources. But a growing number of experts are sounding a different alarm. Rather than continuing to increase exponentially, they argue, the global population is headed for a steep decline-and in many countries, that decline has already begun.
In Empty Planet, John Ibbitson and Darrell Bricker find that a smaller global population will bring with it many benefits: fewer workers will command higher wages; the environment will improve; the risk of famine will wane; and falling birthrates in the developing world will bring greater affluence and autonomy for women.
But enormous disruption lies ahead, too. We can already see the effects in Europe and parts of Asia, as aging populations and worker shortages weaken the economy and impose crippling demands on healthcare and social security. The United States and Canada are well-positioned to successfully navigate these coming demographic shifts--that is, unless growing isolationism leads us to close ourselves off just as openness becomes more critical to our survival than ever.
Rigorously researched and deeply compelling, Empty Planet offers a vision of a future that we can no longer prevent--but one that we can shape, if we choose.
To read an excerpt or buy a copy, please visit: _URL_0_
Our guests will be here at 2 PM ET (18 UT). Ask them anything!
| askscience | {
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"Is your claim that population will fall earlier than many forecasters predict based on (a) existing scientific consensus, (b) your own research, or (c) other research that is not the consensus opinion?\n\nIf (a), why do you reach a different conclusion from professional population forecasters at, for example, the UN? If (b), did you publish this work as peer-reviewed articles before the mass-market book? How was the reaction to them? If (c), on what issues does the scientific community disagree and why?",
"Is it the case that population is declining only in \"first world countries\" while remaining stable, or even growing, in poorer places?\n\nIf so, wouldn't the economic problems be solved through migration and adoption of foreign workers?\n\nOr do you honestly see a decline in population in places such as Brazil, Mexico, and India? (sorry, most Catholic/populous places I could think of)",
"Isn’t this a good thing? Aren’t there WAY too many of us? Over population seems directly linked to most of the environmental challenges we face right?\nEvery time I’m in traffic I think we are probably due for a plague.\nWhat are some negative aspects of an overall decline in population?",
"I'm a brutal dictator with a strong wish to prevent this scenario of population decline for my country. On the contrary, I want population numbers to explode. What are your recommandations?",
"Is this decline everywhere at the same time or will some parts decline while others increase? I believe this could cause more issues especially if the increase is in third world countries. \n\nIf this is the case which countries would have the highest decline and which the highest increase? And what is your opinion on its impact on the world?",
"Population decline should be unstable. Either humans evolve to have more babies, or cultures that have more replace those that have less. How long do you think declining populations will last?",
"How do you expect the ecological crisis (climate change, extinction, etc.) to influence population? Will it further the decline?",
"Hi there. John Ibbitson here. Below, Darrell and I answered many of your questions. The only ones we skipped were ones that we though repeated other questions, and a couple that were more comments than questions. There is lots more to talk about--the impact of declining populations on global peace, protecting cultural minorities in an age of declining fertility, the economic impact of aging populations, and regional variations. (We travelled to Vienna, Brussels, Seoul, Sao Paulo, Nairobi, New Delhi, Palm Springs and Canberra.) And much more. We hope you will explore, and enjoy, our book, in whatever format you choose. And thanks for tuning in.",
"At what point will we find then equilibrium, if at all?",
"Hi guys - can you tell us whether or not you tried to avoid the *ceteris paribus* error, and if so what the highlights of your treatment of technological advancement are?\n\nOne of the fundamental forecasting errors that we often see is when all other variables in a system are presumed to remain constant except the one of interest - in this case, population. The problem is that on a the timeframe relevant to the population variable you cannot realistically ignore all of the other things that are going to change - most especially, technology.\n\nThere are very large numbers of ways in which technological change over the next 75 years is going to radically transform every aspect of the human condition. Even if we set aside all variables associated with transhumanism and artificial general intelligence, which are complete game-changers, and just (unrealistically) pretend that we will all still be good old fashioned *Homo sapiens* in 2100, virtually none of the current constraints related to meeting human needs - food, energy, water, transportation, etc. - hold. Medical technology will also radically advance over the course of this century, such that by the second half of the century it is very likely human aging will be a thing of the past.\n\nAs \"shocking\" as a decline in human population would be, all else equal (*ceteris paribus*), the other factors listed above will be a far greater shock to the system on the timeframe under consideration. Without rigorously addressing them, how can we make any meaningful long-term predictions about population changes or its significance?",
"Psych 101 typically covers the over crowed rat hotel experiment. Without going into detail, the results were a series of nonprocreative and/or pathological behaviors due to the stress of overcrowding. I have always assumed that some of the results were epigenetic in origin. Humans have always lived (in certain locals) in fairly crowed cities. But if you add the perceived “overcrowding pressures” due to instantaneous always on communication, the expanding community of screen media, and the social pressures induced by the internet and social media - have we hit the rat hotel perceived density and are exhibiting pathological behaviors over a significant range of the population. And are they epigenetic or merely an expression of a meme or two? Dawkins memes, not reddit memes.",
"Does it feel weird to put superlatives in front of your own names when introducing yourself? I guess it’s become a normal thing to do in a world where self-promotion is now so crucial to a successful scientific career. It still feels weird reading it though.",
"I never thought the population forecasts to 2100 made practical sense, so I'm excited to read through your book.\n\nVs current consensus growth forecasts, what are the biggest risks and how would you rank them?\n\nHave you considered incorporating the downward trend in global sperm counts?",
"How do you address the argument (typically used against the idea of overpopulation) that the global population will eventually level off and stabilize? Is it actually still compatible with your view?"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: We are John Ibbitson, an award-winning journalist, and Darrell Bricker, a leading international social researcher, and we wrote a book about population decline happening sooner than projected. Ask us anything!
An award-winning journalist and leading international social researcher make the provocative argument that the global population will soon begin to decline, dramatically reshaping the social, political, and economic landscape. For half a century, statisticians, pundits, and politicians have warned that a burgeoning population will soon overwhelm the earth's resources. But a growing number of experts are sounding a different alarm. Rather than continuing to increase exponentially, they argue, the global population is headed for a steep decline-and in many countries, that decline has already begun. In Empty Planet, John Ibbitson and Darrell Bricker find that a smaller global population will bring with it many benefits: fewer workers will command higher wages; the environment will improve; the risk of famine will wane; and falling birthrates in the developing world will bring greater affluence and autonomy for women. But enormous disruption lies ahead, too. We can already see the effects in Europe and parts of Asia, as aging populations and worker shortages weaken the economy and impose crippling demands on healthcare and social security. The United States and Canada are well-positioned to successfully navigate these coming demographic shifts--that is, unless growing isolationism leads us to close ourselves off just as openness becomes more critical to our survival than ever. Rigorously researched and deeply compelling, Empty Planet offers a vision of a future that we can no longer prevent--but one that we can shape, if we choose. To read an excerpt or buy a copy, please visit: _URL_0_ Our guests will be here at 2 PM ET (18 UT). Ask them anything! | [
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1r37tg | Need to explain gravity and falling objects to my 9yo... | I had an AWESOME conversation about physics, the planets, the sun and gravity with my son last night. I got to spin a weight on a string to demonstrate the moon's orbit, and we did the old "what would fall faster, this rock or this book?" game.
Naturally he chose the heavier one, and since at this weight air resistance wasn't an issue, much learning occurred. I explained that gravity pulls on EVERYTHING the same amount. Everything would fall at the same speed.
But eventually came the rock-vs-feather and rock-vs-paper and of course, in the atmosphere, paper loses to rock (we did not test scissors). The paper lost, I explained that it was the shape of the paper, catching the air, which was effectively pushing back against it.
So THEN came book-vs-paper, and book won handily. He rightfully pointed out that the book and the sheet of paper are the same shape. I said the weight of the book was pulling it more effectively through the air, and he reminded me that my claim was that regardless of the weight of the object, it would fall at the same speed.
Which, of course, is true. So in his mind, it's not the shape because they're both rectangular things, and it's not the weight because I say it's not...
I know it's air resistance. I could go into mass and inertia and density, but I think that might be a little advanced for a 4th grader...
Did I miss something? And if so, what? And if not, how to simplify this? He's got some excellent questions that I'd love to be able to answer, but I haven't had a physics class in over a decade...
Thanks all! | askscience | {
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"A simple thing that no one's mentioned is to put the piece of paper on top of and underneath the book when you drop them, rather than side by side. If they actually fall at different speeds, they would separate in one case. They'll fall together in both though, because the paper is shielded from air resistance effects by the book. If air resistance wasn't what was causing the difference, then this wouldn't matter.",
"The key difference here is between force and acceleration. You won't really be able to get away with avoiding inertia to explain this.\n\nSee, the gravitational *force* is indeed stronger for an object with more mass. However, that object also has more mass and thus more inertia. This means that it takes a larger force to reach the same *acceleration* for that object. It just so happens that the dependence on mass cancels out for gravity; every object experiences the same *acceleration* due to gravity.\n\nHowever, the *force* of air resistance does not depend on mass; it depends on the shape of the object (and its speed). The result is that, while all objects of the same shape (moving at the same speed) experience the same *force* of air resistance, due to different amounts of inertia (mass) they experience different *accelerations* due to air resistance. In particular, since the heavy object has more inertia, the same force produces less acceleration than on a light object.\n\nTo summarize: gravity produces more force on a heavier object than a light one but the same acceleration, while air resistance produces the same force on each but less acceleration for the heavy one.",
"Please, please please show your son this:\n\nHold the paper and book up in the air shoulder width apart and drop them at the same time. The book hits the floor first.\n\nNow place the paper on top of the book. Make sure it's pretty flat and hugs the top of the book as best you can get it (edges of the paper must not extend past edges of book). Now drop the book. They fall together.\n\nIf nothing else this will astound him enough that he won't forget it and will continue to seek answers.",
"So, to answer this you have to understand the difference between \"force\" and \"acceleration\" (I know, you're thinking- of course I do! But, your explanation shows a misunderstanding between them). Gravity attempts to *accelerate* everything at the same rate- and it does this by pulling on heavier things with more *force.* \n\nA nine year old might not be able to fully understand Newton's second law (F = m\\*a if you need a refresher) but you can probably explain it to him pretty well. Tell him to imagine a rocket hooked up to a car, and how that rocket can make the car go fast. Now imagine that instead of a car, it is a big truck. The rocket, which puts out the same force regardless, will push the truck slower than the car. And now hook that rocket up to a train, and the train might not move at all. Or if it does, it will move slowly. This is the basics of Newton's second law- if you apply the same force to objects, the heavier ones will move slower than the light ones. You can do this experiment by trying to push a book across the table, or a stack of books- you'll have to push harder for the stack. \n\nOK, so gravity isn't a rocket. Gravity pulls harder on things which are heavier. In fact, if you double the mass of the object, gravity will pull twice as hard. So that is like if you made a car twice as heavy, but also attached two rockets- the acceleration would be the same regardless. So, gravity provides *twice the force* on an object twice as heavy, but due to Newton's second law, that is *the same acceleration.*\n\nSo now, add in air. Air resistance comes from the object having to move air molecules out of the way as it falls. So, it makes sense that the force of air resistance would be dependent on two things- the \"surface area\" or shape of the object in the direction it is falling and the speed at which it falls. The larger the surface area (again, only in the direction of falling, a book turned up on its spine would have less air resistance than a book lying flat), the more air molecules it has to move out of the way. Also, the faster it is falling, it will hit more air molecules it has to move. So, the larger those things are, the larger the force of air resistance. \n\nThus, as you might expect, a book and a single sheet of paper should have the same air resistance (at least, when it first starts to fall- eventually the book will have more because it is moving faster). So, they have the same force pushing up on them- but that *force* causes more *acceleration* on the lighter object (the sheet of paper) than the heavy one (the book). \n\nPlaying with some numbers (we'll choose easy ones). Imagine you have a 1 kg book and a 2 kg book, and we'll say the acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/s^(2). The, using Newton's 2nd law we can see that the force due to gravity on the first book is 10 Newtons (A Newton is the SI equivalent to a pound, it has units of force) and the second book at a force of 20 N. But now imagine each of them have 5 Newton's of air resistance acting on them. So, the total force acting on book 1 is 5 N, and the total force acting on book 2 in 15 N (Forces add- and since they are in opposite directions you are getting 10-5 and 20-5). So now, we can use Newton's second law to calculate their acceleration:\n\n > a = F/m (just re-arranged) \n\n > a1 = 5N/1kg = 5 m/s^2\n\n > a2 = 15N/2kg = 7.5 m/s^2\n\nSo, the book that weighs more (but has the same air resistance) accelerates faster.",
"Little OFF: If you explain something to your kid (or any kids) it is a common wish for them to understand it. Sometimes explain the matter more advanced way (without the simplification). This way the kid will learn that there are things he cannot understand, and in time, that many things you don't understand either. It will open his perspective about the nature of knowledge.",
"The thing is, that gravity **does** pull with different force on different things.\n\nThe actual constant value is *acceleration* not *force*. The sheet of paper and the book are being accelerated equally towards the ground. Since their shape is the same, the force of air resistance should be roughly the same too. However, since the book has more mass, the earth pulls harder on the book, thus making it fall faster.\n\n\nThe mathematical description is as follows: (This is meant to give **you** additional insight in order to give you well funded knowledge to share with your son)\n\n \nNewton's law of gravity states that F_Gravity=G * m * M/r^2 (G being the gravitational constant, M & m the masses and r the distance between them)\n\nNow, Newtons Axiom states that the movement of a mass under the influence of a force is given by F=m*a\n\nIf we substitute F with F_Gravity we get G * m * M/r^2 = m * a.\n\nAs you can see, m can be canceled out of the equation.\n\nThis leaves us with a = g = G*M/r^2 .\nThis equation shows, that the acceleration of all masses in a gravitational field is, indeed, equal.\n\nThen why are some things heavier than others?\n\nTo answer this question, we have to ask ourselves, what weight is. Weight is the force with which an object is pulled towards the earth.\nSince the force, is given by F=m * a, and the mass of different object differs, the force which objects are pulled towards the ground is does not necessarily have to be constant.",
"For an simple unscientific demonstration, you can [build a parachute out of a plastic bag, some tape, and some yarn](_URL_0_) and have him experiment with different weights, to show that wind resistance is a limited thing that only slows objects by a certain rate.\n\nLike hook a toy action figure up to it, and drop it from the balcony (if you have one) and then hook up something heavier, and he can see that the same parachute and the same air affect objects differently. You could even hook up the book to the parachute and race it against the sheet of paper.\n\nThat way you don't have to get into the maths of wind resistance, and you can show him the difference in practical terms.\n\nEDIT: There's also the Apollo 15 video (one example of it is here: _URL_1_) where they dropped a hammer and a feather on the Moon, you can let him see what happens when there's no air.",
"I think one of the first mind-blowing things one learns in life is when you are taught that *everything* attracts *everything else*. Please include this in your discussions. It is not obvious at all, and only nowadays do we have experiments sensitive enough to measure the influence of, say, a solid sphere upon another test object. You can however easily convey this by pointing out that the earth moves around the sun, and the moon around the earth. The simplest explanation is that both the sun and the earth 'exert gravity', and from there that everything 'exerts gravity'.\n\nRelated: does anyone know when this idea was conceived? Did the early inventors of heliocentric models immediately make this implication, or was it not until Hooke and Newton that is was fully realized?",
"Dropping things may not be the way to go. You should try rolling them down a hill. I think this was the way Galileo went about some of his experiments (though not a hill and more precise). I think the only time you'd get into a problem would be with weird shapes so you should be able to do a bit better experiment with different weighted balls. \n\nWith respect to the paper book issue. Isn't the paper loosing part of its downward speed from gravity by moving in a lateral direction? That may be easier for a kid to understand.",
"Smart kid. Tells it like it is.\n\nWind resistance is proportional to the area of the object. But heavier objects are heavier and push down harder on the air. So if two objects of the same size are falling through the air, the heavier object will fall faster."
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} | Need to explain gravity and falling objects to my 9yo...
I had an AWESOME conversation about physics, the planets, the sun and gravity with my son last night. I got to spin a weight on a string to demonstrate the moon's orbit, and we did the old "what would fall faster, this rock or this book?" game. Naturally he chose the heavier one, and since at this weight air resistance wasn't an issue, much learning occurred. I explained that gravity pulls on EVERYTHING the same amount. Everything would fall at the same speed. But eventually came the rock-vs-feather and rock-vs-paper and of course, in the atmosphere, paper loses to rock (we did not test scissors). The paper lost, I explained that it was the shape of the paper, catching the air, which was effectively pushing back against it. So THEN came book-vs-paper, and book won handily. He rightfully pointed out that the book and the sheet of paper are the same shape. I said the weight of the book was pulling it more effectively through the air, and he reminded me that my claim was that regardless of the weight of the object, it would fall at the same speed. Which, of course, is true. So in his mind, it's not the shape because they're both rectangular things, and it's not the weight because I say it's not... I know it's air resistance. I could go into mass and inertia and density, but I think that might be a little advanced for a 4th grader... Did I miss something? And if so, what? And if not, how to simplify this? He's got some excellent questions that I'd love to be able to answer, but I haven't had a physics class in over a decade... Thanks all! | [
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|
48yau3 | Question about the effects of FTL on human body ? | Let's assume that a manned space ship is traveling toward a star located 1500 light years away with a speed of 0.99C.
Will time dilation limit the ability of the crew to be able to perform regular activities on on the ship such as eating food and exercising ?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d0njmkh",
"d0nk3eu",
"d0nnhjt",
"d0nrd08"
],
"text": [
"You are currently travelling through space at 99% the speed of light. Is your ability to eat food hampered?",
"Because velocities are relative, you could instead consider the situation from the spaceship's perspective. From it's reference frame, the earth is moving away from the ship at a speed of .99c. Therefore, if time dilation would limit the crew's ability to perform regular activities, then you (on Earth) would have to experience the same limitations, or the situation would violate the principles of relativity.",
"Time dilation is something only an outside observer sees. For someone inside the ship, time passes for themselves like normal, so all those activities would happen normally for someone inside the ship. This is a prime principle of relativity: that in any inertial reference frame the laws of physics behave the same way, so if one was in a closed box with no way of seeing or measuring anything outside, you could not determine your relative speed to earth.\n\nThe only real way you can tell you are not at rest compared to an object like earth is when a force causes you to accelerate, which by definition is a change of momentum and velocity.\n\nOne of the reasons why you can perceive time to be traveling the same for you, but still reach a star 1500 light years away in less than 1500 experienced years is due to length contraction. As you get closer to the speed of light the dimension of the direction you are traveling 'squishes' and your apparent distance gets smaller. This means after acceleration to 0.99C the star will appear much closer than 1500 light years away to the crew in the rocket, and can therefore arrive, in their time, in less than 1500 years, and still the laws of physics are not violated. Everything they see is traveling at less than the speed of light relative to them due to the length contraction.",
"No. They'll be fine. When you're on a ship, a train, or an airplane, you can pretend the vehicle is standing still while the rest of the universe moves around it. (Ignoring turbulence, acceleration, etc.) People in the spaceship will do the same. Things outside their spaceship will seem pretty weird, but inside of it they won't be able to tell they're moving."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Question about the effects of FTL on human body ?
Let's assume that a manned space ship is traveling toward a star located 1500 light years away with a speed of 0.99C. Will time dilation limit the ability of the crew to be able to perform regular activities on on the ship such as eating food and exercising ? | [
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|
t9ppn | Do our bodies have much empty space inside? | The reason I'm asking is this image (NSFL, leg with a cut in it, from r/wtf):
_URL_0_
It looks like there's a lot of empty space inside...in my head that makes little sense, I thought everything is very closely aligned. What's the deal here? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Very little, outside the body cavity (and not a lot, there, really). That gap is actually a result of the opposite being true: there is enough pressure against the skin from all the stuff filling its insides, that when it is opened, it gapes.",
"Actually, in your friend's case, the flesh has been pulled apart for finding and removing any foreign objects (shards of glass inside the body are extremely dangerous), so it \"seems\" like there is empty space there. The doctors will press the flesh together, and will stitch it up afterwards.\n\nIf you open up a body (lets assume all the free fluids have magically evaporated, but the body is not \"dry\" per-se), you will find that just below the skin, the muscles start. Below the muscles, there are the organs. below them, the skeleton.\n\nEvery little thing in our bodies is tightly packed together. if it wasnt so, you'd hear or feel your innards sloshing about (gross!), kinda like when you drink something on an empty stomach(in the morning, or when really hungry), and if you move around fast, you can feel the liquid splashing about in your stomach.",
"The only \"empty\" spaces I can think of inside our bodies are the lungs, sinus cavities and perhaps the gastrointestinal tract of somebody who is fasting for an extended period.",
"From a biological perspective, I don't believe there is much empty space. As I can recall from memory the areas that would seem \"empty\" in drawing of the human body are either empty for the demonstration of that specific image (so other parts are removed) or filled with different types of liquids your body maintains. But I am not too knowledgeable in the area.\n\nHowever, from a physics perspective, you are mostly empty space. Quantum Theory tells us that the distance between the atom's nucleus (neutron + proton), and the atom's electron is so vastly big, that if you were to encapsulate it in a shell it's mostly empty space. There for, our bodies, just like everything else in the universe, is in face mostly empty of matter.",
"It depends. From a human-level (i.e. \"macro\") perspective, no, as is evidenced in the comments.\n\nBut, when viewed from a [sub-atomic level](_URL_0_), we are [almost entirely](_URL_1_) empty space. But then, so is everything.",
"Everything answered with radiology.\n\nLook at this [CT abdomen](_URL_6_). Black will be air (that's gas in the colon, the more granular stuff on the right of the picture is stool in the descending colon). There's no empty space there, if by empty space you mean air or vacuum. However, there's quite a lot of dark gray -- that's fat around the organs and some peritoneal fluid (ascites). FYI, in that picture, as it is a contrast study, the kidneys are bright and there's a big goomba of some kind in the right kidney (seen on the left of the picture).\n\nNow the [CT chest](_URL_7_). You see the bronchi filled with air and the normal gray lungs. The space between the lungs and the chest wall is mostly a potential space (it can fill with fluid in disease processes, but here it is empty). FYI looks like the arrow is pointing to tree-in-bud opacities and centrilobular nodules. Probably atypical pneumonia...\n\nLook at any imaging: [head](_URL_7_), [neck](_URL_7_), [pelvis](_URL_6_), [leg](_URL_6_): there's empty space in the airways and the sinuses but otherwise any other empty space is filled with a thin layer of fluid or fat. The body has plenty of potential spaces but no real empty spaces except the sinuses and airway and those are there for a reason.",
"I remember thinking this at one of the \"Bodies\" exhibits, with the plasticized bodies on display. There was obvious space between muscles and tendons and bones, but none of the people working there could explain to me what occupies that space.",
"That's not empty space, just dark [venous blood](_URL_8_) spilled over her muscles."
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/WTF/comments/t8qs4/so_my_friend_cut_her_leg_on_a_broker_mirror_nsfl/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/phy05/phy05265.htm",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kypne21A0R4",
"http://www.google.com/imgres?q=ct+abdomen&um=1&hl=en&client=safari&sa=N&rls=en&biw=1100&bih=711&tbm=isch&tbnid=-_Pi2-CSQEe4_M:&imgrefurl=http://www.radrounds.com/photo/1791588:Photo:16174&docid=IO3YLUSO1hJrXM&imgurl=http://api.ning.com/files/py5E2iOfdI9azAa7Tp2Y*l2nwvvQIDyo0aabT70i-RjvWwECuzdPKDPfO9lfobfMQ*pUskl6OWFmpiRllBqMhmtppZfZCDZC/CopyofRadswikiAngiomyolipoma_001.jpg&w=600&h=600&ei=BQ-nT67ZLNPKiALxvoivAg&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=530&vpy=337&dur=266&hovh=225&hovw=225&tx=91&ty=108&sig=100756995778728732856&page=1&tbnh=150&tbnw=175&start=0&ndsp=15&ved=1t:429,r:7,s:0,i:142",
"http://www.google.com/imgres?q=ct+chest&um=1&hl=en&client=safari&sa=N&rls=en&biw=1100&bih=711&tbm=isch&tbnid=pQssKgwj6NBs0M:&imgrefurl=http://www.radpod.org/2007/01/03/tuberculous-cervical-lymphadenopathy/&docid=8fdpnvY5zZSixM&imgurl=http://radpod.org/wp-content/uploads/2007/01/tb-lung-nodules_arrows.JPG&w=894&h=671&ei=5A-nT6DwLMisiALVt5WbAg&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=333&sig=100756995778728732856&page=1&tbnh=149&tbnw=199&start=0&ndsp=15&ved=1t:429,r:5,s:0,i:151&tx=140&ty=74",
"http://www.google.com/imgres?q=ct+pelvis&num=10&um=1&hl=en&client=safari&rls=en&biw=1100&bih=711&tbm=isch&tbnid=n7PIZdbrdGv0VM:&imgrefurl=http://www.med.wayne.edu/diagradiology/anatomy_modules/Pelvis/Pelvis.html&docid=_7hLcrPGJh8gEM&imgurl=http://www.med.wayne.edu/diagradiology/anatomy_modules/Pelvis/Pelvis01.jpg&w=360&h=252&ei=oBCnT6qWM-WyiQK70OW6Ag&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=134&vpy=164&dur=129&hovh=188&hovw=268&tx=150&ty=64&sig=100756995778728732856&sqi=2&page=1&tbnh=157&tbnw=216&start=0&ndsp=13&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0,i:72",
"http://www.google.com/imgres?q=ct+head&um=1&hl=en&client=safari&rls=en&biw=1100&bih=711&tbm=isch&tbnid=4pF7_8_Qa1884M:&imgrefurl=http://www.radiologyinfo.ca/default.aspx%3Fpage%3D109%26lang%3Den-us&docid=gmTn5182X71kCM&imgurl=http://www.radiologyinfo.ca/utilisateur/images/49_CT_head_b.jpg&w=271&h=218&ei=YxCnT7jbAqbZiQKE842cAg&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=489&sig=100756995778728732856&page=1&tbnh=148&tbnw=179&start=0&ndsp=18&ved=1t:429,r:5,s:0,i:122&tx=125&ty=74",
"http://www.google.com/imgres?q=ct+leg&um=1&hl=en&client=safari&rls=en&biw=1100&bih=711&tbm=isch&tbnid=BFnOwR_CsSBleM:&imgrefurl=http://www.tumorlibrary.com/case/detail.jsp%3Fimage_id%3D2453&docid=bPHKJgA5iPEvHM&imgurl=http://www.tumorlibrary.com/case/images/2453.jpg&w=955&h=631&ei=uxCnT7-IGsihiQK1n5SuAg&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=800&vpy=169&dur=440&hovh=182&hovw=276&tx=160&ty=89&sig=100756995778728732856&page=1&tbnh=126&tbnw=191&start=0&ndsp=17&ved=1t:429,r:5,s:0,i:82",
"http://www.google.com/imgres?q=ct+neck&um=1&hl=en&client=safari&rls=en&biw=1100&bih=711&tbm=isch&tbnid=IpX2lTzFN2verM:&imgrefurl=http://www.hawaii.edu/medicine/pediatrics/pemxray/v5c01.html&docid=M-zq075VQdInuM&imgurl=http://www.hawaii.edu/medicine/pediatrics/pemxray/v5c01e.jpg&w=319&h=409&ei=fxCnT8e_OuStiQKExujoAg&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=493&sig=100756995778728732856&page=1&tbnh=161&tbnw=126&start=0&ndsp=17&ved=1t:429,r:6,s:0,i:99&tx=60&ty=82",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venous_blood"
]
} | Do our bodies have much empty space inside?
The reason I'm asking is this image (NSFL, leg with a cut in it, from r/wtf): _URL_0_ It looks like there's a lot of empty space inside...in my head that makes little sense, I thought everything is very closely aligned. What's the deal here? | [
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1fu0tc | How do millipedes walk? | As I was leaving work today, I became fascinated watching a millipede climb on some rocks. It looked like its legs were moving in a wave-like pattern with a set frequency. Was this just my imagination, or do millipedes actually move their legs in such a manner? If they are able to coordinate such an elegant way of moving, are they able to move any other way--one without such symmetry? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"First question: it was not your imagination, that's about how it works indeed. They have a segmented body, and each segment has a pair of neural ganglia that contain a [Central Pattern Generator](_URL_5_), or CPG. This thing most probably is able to maintain the cycle of activity on its own, even if you isolate it from the body. Fish actually employ the same thing for swimming (they have a CPG for each segment of their body; that is - for each muscle that makes salmon in a store look stripy). Even humans have a [CPG for walking](_URL_1_), even though this one is not nearly as autonomous as in worms or fish.\n\nAnyway, so you have a bunch of CPG in a chain, and now you:\n\n1) Introduce connections between CPG on the left and on the right, controlling opposite legs. Usually it ensures a fixed phase delay between the legs, as it is important for maintaining a stable gait.\n\n2) connect CPGs to each other sequentially along the body, [making them interact](_URL_2_). Usually this kind of connection introduces a fixed lag between the phases of 2 CPGs nearby, which looks like a nice propagating wave in a centipede. \n\n3) You introduce long fibers that run along the whole length of the body, making connections on each CPG in each segment. Most animals have [at least 1 pair of fibers](_URL_0_) to [trigger escape responses](_URL_3_), and maybe a bunch of fibers to fine-tune the gait (to switch phase delays between the CPGs), and to [regulate speed](_URL_4_).\n\nNow, on your 2nd question. I don't know for sure (never studied centipedes), but I would expect them to have several speeds, and several gaits (at least forward / reverse motion). Most probably all these gaits will be pretty regular and \"symmetric\", because otherwise legs will move chaotically. These animals simply have too many legs to control each of them individually in a meaningful way, mathematically speaking. But maybe (probably) the levels of \"symmetry\" will be different: different phase lags between segments, and thus different \"wavelength\" along the body; different delay between left and right to make a turn, etc. (Edit: references)",
"A quick google search (\"Millipede locomotion\") gave me [this hefty mathematical paper](_URL_6_) but otherwise as far as I remember each pair of legs moves one after another in a wave. [This video](_URL_7_) shows the action clearly and simply. So essentially yes, they move in waves.\n\nAs for if they're ~~about~~ able to de-synchronize or otherwise move them independently I do not know. Each pair of legs has to move together on the segment they're attached to.",
"This is for a caterpillar, but I presume that the mechanism of motion is similar if not the same for a millipede.\n\nIn *Essentials of Materials Science and Engineering*, the author compares dislocation motion in a material to the motion of a caterpillar. It states: \"A caterpillar will lift some of its legs at any given time and use that motion to move from one place to another rather than lifting all the legs at one time. Another way to visualize this is to think about how a fold or crease in a carpet would move if we were trying to remove it by pushing it across rather than by lifting the carpet.\"\n\n[Here](_URL_8_) is a snapshot of the not-all-that-informative accompanying graphic.\n\nGiven this description, one can definitely describe the locomotion in the form of a wave, as the motion propagates down the critter.",
"In robotics, locomotion with many legs is a common topic. Your eyes likely didn't deceive you; moving legs in a wave like pattern is a regular gait."
],
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauthner_cell",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_Locomotion",
"http://biorob.epfl.ch/salamandra",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016622369801340X",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/site/feature/data/prizes/eppendorf/2009/mclean.xhtml",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_pattern_generator",
"http://files.thaiday.com/news/science/Walking_With_A_Millipede.pdf",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=46a_AA5-Ick&wadsworth=1",
"http://imgur.com/N4n5yOQ"
]
} | How do millipedes walk?
As I was leaving work today, I became fascinated watching a millipede climb on some rocks. It looked like its legs were moving in a wave-like pattern with a set frequency. Was this just my imagination, or do millipedes actually move their legs in such a manner? If they are able to coordinate such an elegant way of moving, are they able to move any other way--one without such symmetry? | [
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6fs5a4 | Why focus on green energy when fusion could solve all our problems? | [removed] | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dikjzx2",
"dikovd5",
"dikp9dw"
],
"text": [
"Think of it by the following reasoning: How much money and time are you willing to invest into an idea that doesn't have any timeline or concrete promise about its future?\n\nFusion is definately possible but the question is if we can get fusion reactors to produce more energy then they consume. There is fundamentally no reason why this isn't possible but there is only so much money we can invest in this technology while it is still in its infancy. We don't know how to make it profitable yet. The ITER is currently trying to achieve exactly what you want it to. Should we invest more money into these projects? Good question, that is what politics attempts to figure out. \n\nTL;DR\nWorking on it!",
"Fusion is just really, really difficult to get right. \n\nRight now, we can achieve fusion, but only using exotic materials, and once we start a fusion reaction it currently takes more energy to sustain a fusion reaction than it produces. As far as we know, fusion can only sustain itself on massive scales (stars are the only self sustaining fusion we know of.) Even then, fusion isn't actually that great at producing energy - [meter for meter, the sun produces less energy than a backyard compost pile.](_URL_0_) \n\nTherefore, we have to strike a balance between having something big enough to sustain itself and provide energy while still being possible to contain. I think we're still honestly a bare minimum of 65 years from commercial power from fusion, and I honestly think that's pretty generous. We need to start using non-fossil fuels NOW, and the technology for wind, solar, nuclear, etc is already here and mature enough to handle the world's power needs for years to come.",
"Its silly to say things like \"x amount of fuel is needed to power US with fusion.\" Often those calculations are done assuming 100% efficiency, and its impossible to ever reach 100% efficiency. Not to mention the transfer of electricity, with one powet plant in US it would be extreamly inconvenient to supply the entire country. All the fusion engines built and planned so far have negative efficiency, meaning they require more power than we can harvest from them.\n\nSure, there are all kinds of fairy tales of the potential of fusion, but after hundreds of billions of funding and decades of research we have come only so far. Compare that to conventional green energies that with already with todays technology are very much usable. You can power the entire world with solar many times over aswell.\n\n > There wouldnt be a point of charging people for power use\n\nPlease. No matter what happens, fusion power plants will be extreamly costly to build and maintain even if the fuel is cheap, and supplying the produced energy is not free either.\n\nMaybe someday fusion will be the most favorable way of harvesting electricity, but for now I dont see a reason to focus on it even one precent as much as we should for current green energies. We definetly should not pollute our planet to the maximum with fossil fuels just because we hope to someday master fusion."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2012/04/17/3478276.htm"
]
} | Why focus on green energy when fusion could solve all our problems?
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|
277l99 | When you drink water, how is it distributed around the body? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Once water is absorbed through the GI tract, it enters the bloodstream as plasma volume and is carried throughout the body. There is no specific distribution (eg the body does not route water specifically to an organ), but the flow is just determined by the circulatory dynamics. From there, water follows a general distribution guided by the **60-40-20 rule**. Typically your body's water weight is 60% of your mass. From there, 2/3 (or 40% total body mass) is intracellular water. Of the remaining 1/3 (or 20% total mass) that is extracellular, about 3/4 (15% of total) is contained in the interstitium around your cells while the last 1/4 (5%) is contained in the vascular system. \n\nWhen you take in fluid, **where it goes within those compartments depends very heavily on the osmotic characteristics of the fluid**. This comes into play a lot with intravenous fluid administration in terms of deciding the right choice of fluid to give. Giving isotonic water with dextrose results in a even distribution of 2/3 going to the intracellular space and 1/3 staying in the extracellular space, as the dextrose is metabolized and the water is evenly distributed by volume space. However, giving normal saline (0.9% NaCl) results in most of it staying in the extracellular space because the salt creates an osmotic pressure keeping the fluid from entering the cells. In patients who have pathologies resulting in increased loss of vascular fluid through extravasation (eg bad edema from heart failure) we'll sometimes give an albumin solution as that is thought to favor keeping fluid within the vascular compartment.",
"How do levels of thirst affect how it feels when you drink water? There are times when I'm relatively dehydrated (like after working in the lawn outside, or hiking, etc. on a hot day), and I can drink a pint of water and it feels like it absorbs before it even hits my stomach. There are other times where drinking more than a sip is uncomfortable. Does the body change when it needs water to make it easier to ingest, or is it simply a perception thing?",
"Side question, which I've always wondered but never been bothered to ask (I dont think it merits its own thread).\n\nThey recommend you drink X amount a day. Does drinking X in one sitting (say, within an hour) differ than if I evenly distributed X throughout the day?",
"Related question: Does drinking a couple large glasses of water have a significant impact in raising the pH of stomach acid, thereby denaturing the essential enzymes needed for digestion? How does the stomach react to such sudden increases in pH?",
"A little bit gets absorbed in your upper respiratory (mouth and throat), which reduces your feeling of dryness after being in the heat or exercising. The vast majority of water is absorbed not in your stomach, but in the small intestine. Some of it also gets absorbed in the large intestine. It gets absorbed into the bloodstream, then follows more or less what /u/arumbar said, osmosis from the bloodstream to those othe parts of the body.",
"Would drinking less water cause you to hold less water subcutaneously (under the skin)? I notice that if I haven't drank anything for a while, my cheeks get sunken whereas if I have drank a lot of water, my cheeks seem much chubbier/full. What's the reasoning behind this?"
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} | When you drink water, how is it distributed around the body?
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n2ylm | Are male cows attracted to female cows with big udders? | Along the lines of how human males are attracted to human female breasts because of several psychological factors - including that big boobs = more milk for offspring | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c35vtqg",
"c35xkte",
"c360qpk"
],
"text": [
"Well domestic cattle are within the genus Bos, most species in this genus, including the closest relatives of domestic cattle, have a mating system whereby one Bull mates with many cows and therefore only a lucky few Bulls get to mate at all. So it's not the Bulls doing the sexual selection, their instinctual aim is simply to mate with as many cows as possible. The sexual selection happens when a male gets access to females, through not losing fights with other males. \n\nTLDR The males fight and the winner gets to fuck the cows. Udders are udderly irrelevant",
"Faulty assumption: Humans males aren't attracted to breasts because they're large; they're attracted to breasts because they're breasts.\n\nFrom [Wikipedia](_URL_0_):\n\n > The writers of the study had initially speculated that the reason for this is due to endocrinology with larger breasts indicating higher levels of estrogen and a sign of greater fertility, but the researchers said that \"Men may be looking more often at the breasts because they are simply aesthetically pleasing, regardless of the size.\"\n\nThe abstract from the scientific article in question can be found [here](_URL_1_).\n\nIn the specific case of *Bos taurus*, they're herd animals. The dominant male reproduces with as many females as possible. Generally, the sexual selection on his part is minimal; he simply does not care.",
"Larger udders on dairy cows are something that came about through artificial selection by humans, and actually required development of a larger and heavier pelvis. Beef cows and wild cattle have much smaller udders. Bulls do not care about udder size, hungry humans do. A bull will mount anything."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breasts#Sexual_characteristic",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=breast%20fixation%20zealand"
]
} | Are male cows attracted to female cows with big udders?
Along the lines of how human males are attracted to human female breasts because of several psychological factors - including that big boobs = more milk for offspring | [
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35uljq | If I wanted to randomly find someone in an amusement park, would my odds of finding them be greater if I stood still or roamed around? | Assumptions:
The other person is constantly and randomly roaming
Foot traffic concentration is the same at all points of the park
Field of vision is always the same and unobstructed
Same walking speed for both parties
There is a time limit, because, as /u/kivishlorsithletmos pointed out, the odds are 100% assuming infinite time.
The other person is NOT looking for you. They are wandering around having the time of their life without you.
You could also assume that you and the other person are the only two people in the park to eliminate issues like others obstructing view etc.
Bottom line: the theme park is just used to personify a general statistics problem. So things like popular rides, central locations, and crowds can be overlooked. | askscience | {
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"I ran a simulation using java for 100,000 trials each. The average time for both people moving is half that of only one person moving. Here is a histogram of the data: _URL_0_\n\nDetails of the simulation:\n\nPeople are assumed to be on a 100x100 grid. If they are on the same spot, they can find each other. At t=0, they are placed on a random location in the grid. Each time step, anyone that's moving will randomly move north, south, east, or west. They can't move out of the 100x100 grid, so if they pick a direction not allowed, they'll pick again.",
"If you are moving then there are more collisions (e.g. brownian motion) with others. If the people (or objects) are truly moving randomly then if both people are moving there is a greater chance of collision than if only one is moving. \n\nSource: I am using the analogy of enzymatic efficiency: there is greater successful (desired) collision when both molecules are in motion.",
"Side note: in real life, you always move.\n\nFirst, for whatever reason, you can't know that they aren't standing still themselves sometimes- random motion doesn't have to mean continuous motion. They could be on a ferris wheel with a near stationary position relative to the park size.\n\nSecond, given the geography of the place, you can always optimize your search- he's moving randomly, you're not. Orbit the center of the place, check the extrema on occasion, etc.\n\nThirdly, standing stock still in an amusement park for up to infinity hours is just depressing. Take a walk, get an ice cream.",
"EDIT TL;DR It depends on how the park is designed. If you stand still in a spot that's unlikely to be visited, like some offshoot of the park, it will take longer than if you walked around, but if you stand in the middle of a * - shaped park, it's better than walking around.\n\nIf we model this as a (lazy) random walk on a graph, expected time for you two to find each other in the situation where both of you are walking is known as the *meeting time*. In the case where only one of you is walking, this is the *hitting time*. Let *M* denote the meeting time in the worst starting position, and *H* the worst hitting time. We want to compare H and M.\n\nIt turns out that the inequality\n\nM < K H\n\nholds for some constant K (and apparently it's possible that K is as small as 1/2). [Details and a complete answer here](_URL_1_). The inequality appears as Proposition 1. It thus seems that the answer (as of that paper) is unknown for general graphs (i.e. general layouts of the amusement park), and depends on whether this K can be brought down to less than 1 or not.\n\nIMO the other answers so far don't model the situation as well. Amusement parks are not generally arranged as grids, and they're not translationally invariant (so looking at the other person's movement as an origin shift is inaccurate), and I suspect that whether M > H or M < H depends on the underlying graph, i.e. the way the theme park is laid out.\n\nEDIT: In fact, I think I do have an example of a graph where M > H and another where M < H for specific starting positions. The first is a star graph, with one person standing in the middle, and the second is a large clique with one extra vertex connected to the clique by one edge, where one person starts at the extra vertex.",
"Imagine that both people are standing still: the chance of you two colliding is zero if you don't start in the same spot.\n\nNext, imagine one person is moving very slowly: it will *probably* take a long time for you two to collide.\n\nNow, what if one person is staying still, and the other person is moving really quickly: the *expected* amount of time to collide goes down, because the moving person is going to cover ground faster.\n\n**What if both people are moving?**\nThis is almost exactly the same as if one person is completely still, and the other person is moving as fast as both people combined!",
"I think the average time of finding someone by standing still would be more consistent, for example someone wandering around might pass through there every hour. \n\nIf you're wandering around too, then the mean time-to-find is probably the same but with a higher deviation, for instance you may run into them in 3 minutes or you could be just missing each other for hours.",
"/u/GemOfEvan and others have given a monte-carlo solution with the tally converging to half the time if both are moving as opposed to one standing still. However the reason it is half the time can be easily understood using a transformation of reference frame. If the seeker changes from not moving to moving at a velocity v, then in his instantaneous rest frame this looks like the person he is seeking changes his velocity from v to 2v. From this point of view, it is clear that the person he is searching for will inevitably cross his path twice as soon if he is moving twice as fast. This can be worked out cleanly using only Galilean transformations for those that want to see an actual mathematical proof and is left as an exercise to the reader.",
"Standing still...at the exit. If you are both moving then it is possible that you will keep missing each other indefinitely.\n\nBy standing at the exit you exploit the main limiting factor - time. The park has to close at some point.",
"**TLDR**: if you know your target will always be moving, it doesn't matter; the odds will be the same. If, however, they might also stand still from time to time, then moving is strictly better than standing still.\n\n\n**Code**: I wrote up the graph walks over at _URL_3_ with a run-in-the-browser page for it over on _URL_2_\n\n\n**An explanation**\n\n\nLet's model the amusement park as a graph, with \"places to be\" as nodes, \"paths to walk from place to place\" as edges, and \"finding someone\" either being on in the same place or walking in opposite directions on the same path, so you bump into each other (or at least see each other as you pass by). I'm also going to assume you don't start both in the same place, for obvious reasons.\n\n\nFor any graph with 'n' nodes, we can set up all possible \"who is where\" configurations, and then see what the odds are of finding each other in a single step. We'll either find each other, or we'll end up in a starting configuration, so if we don't find each other on step one, the odds of finding each other on the next step follow the same model.\n\n\nYou also stipulated that the person you're looking for HAS to move, but this seems silly. They're not looking for you, so they could very well be standing still, too. That gives us two problems to look at: which of the \"I stand still\" vs \"I move around\" tactics wins when (a) my target *must* move, and (b) my target *can* move.\n\n\n**Let's begin!**\n\n\nThe simplest amusement park has an entrance, a ride, and a way to get from one to the other. Boring, but let's look at it anyway. There is only one possible starting position:\n\n\n1. (you)---(target)\n\n\nIf we follow your rules, and say our target *must* move, then:\n\n- if we don't move, and our target moves, we'll meet on the left.\n\n- if we do move, and our target moves, we'll meet on the way.\n\nOdds of meeting as nomove:move = 1:1\n\n\nIf we follow the slightly more realistic rules where our target *may* move, then:\n\n- if we don't move, and our target moves, we'll meet on the left.\n\n- if they don't move, we won't meet.\n\n- if we do move, and our target moves, we'll meet in the middle, and\n\n- if they don't move, we'll meet on the right.\n\nOdds of meeting as nomove:move = 0.5:1\n\n\nIn this very boring park, depending on what our target's policy is, \"moving\" is as good as, or better than, \"not moving\".\n\n\nSo let's look at the three node case. We're assuming no dead ends so we're looking at a ring with three nodes, and two possible starting configurations:\n\n\n1. (you)--(target)--( )--(you), and\n\n2. (you)--( )--(target)--(you).\n\n\nThat looks like four nodes, but the last node is the first node, used to show the ring being closed. Both we and our target have two directions we can walk in, left or right.\n\n\nIf we follow your rules, and say our target *must* move, then:\n\n- if we don't move, and our target moves left, we'll meet if we start from 1. and won't meet from 2.\n\n- if we don't move, and our target moves right, we won't meet if we start from 1. and will from 2.\n\n- if we move left, and our target moves left, we won't meet form either start.\n\n- if we move left, and our target moves right, we'll meet from 1. and cross paths from 2.\n\n- if we move right, and our target moves left, we'll cross paths from 1. and meet from 2.\n\n- if we move right, and our target moves right, we won't meet from either start.\n\nOdds of meeting as nomove:move = (2 out of 4):(4 out of 8) = 1/2:1/2\n\nIf we follow the slightly more realistic rules where our target *may* move, then:\n\n- if we don't move, and our target doesn't move, we won't meet.\n\n- if we don't move, and our target moves left, we'll meet if we start from 1. and won't meet from 2.\n\n- if we don't move, and our target moves right, we won't meet if we start from 1. and will from 2.\n\n- if we move left, and our target moves left, we won't meet form either start.\n\n- if we move left, and our target doesn't move, we'll only meet starting from 2.\n\n- if we move left, and our target moves right, we'll meet from 1. and cross paths from 2.\n\n- if we move right, and our target doesn't move, we'll only meet starting from 1.\n\n- if we move right, and our target moves left, we'll cross paths from 1. and meet from 2.\n\n- if we move right, and our target moves right, we won't meet from either start.\n\nOdds of meeting as nomove:move = (2 out of 6):(6 out of 12) = 1/3:1/2\n\n\nAgain we see that depending on what our target's policy is, \"moving\" is either as good as, or better than, \"not moving\".\n\n\nFor a four node graph things get more complicated because the graph complexity can now range from \"a ring with four nodes\" to \"a fully connected graph\" (where each of the four nodes is connected to the other three). At this point, typing becomes bothersome, but the procedure for testing remains the same: we generate all possible starting configurations, and then see what the odds of meeting are in a single step for each. If we run them, then we still see that if our target is not allowed to stand still, \"nomove\" vs. \"move\" is still equal odds, but if they *are* allowed to stand still, \"move\" is the winning strategy (ring result: 2/6:4/12 = 1/3:1/3 vs. 2/9:6/18 = 2/9:3/9, fully connected result: 3/9:3/9=1/3:1/3 vs. 3/12:12/48=2/16:3/16)\n\n\nTaking that to its conclusion: if you don't know what the target's policy is, just walk around, because you'll always either perform on par with, or better than, standing still in the hopes that you spot them as they walk by. However, it's worth noting that the more complex the amusement park graph becomes, the smaller the difference in odds becomes between \"stay where you are\" and \"look around for them\". \n\n\nOf course, in real life, you've simply agreed before hand to meet back at the concession stand if you can't find each other for more than 10 minutes. But that's less fun.\n\n*On a final note*: the odds of meeting are only 100% given infinite time if the park has a flat, 2D graph, thanks to the fact that a 2D random walk is guaranteed to through its starting point given infinite time. However, if there are any bridges or tunnels, with up/down stair cases to connect to other paths (say there's a high traffic overpass in the park, for instance), then that turns our graph into a 3D space, and all bets are off: a random walk in 3d may never pass through its starting point, even given infinite time, and so the chances of finding our target will never become 100%.",
"This has been commonly referred to as The Rendezvous Problem or Telephone Problem, and is considered to be a largely unsolved mathematical problem. The Anderson-Weber strategy is thought to be one of the best solutions. \n\nHere's the mathematical explanation From Cambridge U Statslab website (NOT ME): hthttp://_URL_4_\n\n\" A reasonable strategy has been proposed by Anderson-Weber. This is one in which, in each block of n-1 successive steps a person either stays put at his present location (with probability p), or tours the other n-1 locations in random order (with probability 1-p), repeating this until meeting occurs. When n is large, the best choice of p is about 0.2475, and the expected time to meet is about 0.8289n steps. There might be a better strategy - no one knows. The principal results that are now known are\n1. The Anderson-Weber strategy is optimal for n=2, with p=1/2. The expected meeting time is 2. Proved in 1990.\n2. The Anderson-Weber strategy is optimal for n=3, with p=1/3. The expected meeting time is 5/2. Proved in 2006.\"\nThis is from my previous answer to the same question on Quora.",
"This is actually semi-related to something I study in Economics called game theory. It is the study of strategy. An experiment actually occurred where people were let loose in NYC in an attempt to find others who were also looking for them with no other hints provided. ABC did a special on this called Mission Impossible: search for strangers in NYC. All teams were successful in finding each other but their strategies relied on finding landmarks mainly. I realize this is only partially related to your question.",
"The size of the park will largely impact your outcome. You could also develop strategies (re: algorithms) to improve your chances of finding them based on park structure. A BFS style search on an open grid would probably give you quickest results assuming both objects are moving at the same speed. Feel free to correct me if I've overlooked something since I just glanced this over.\n\nedit: on second thought, you're not an agent in the matrix so you can't be everywhere at once. BFS wouldn't do anything except find the shortest path to the object once located.",
"None of the comments I see seem to point out that traffic at theme parks is not \"random.\" For instance, around opening time, the traffic would move towards the rides. Around lunchtime, towards food places. Around closing, towards the exit. If you positioned yourself correctly, walking *against* where a crowd would be would allow you to scan more area.",
"**TLDR: Given the setting, it depends on the randomness.**\n\nThis is highly related to my work as a math PhD student (Kinetric equations, Lattice Boltzmann Equations,..) and I would like to point out one more interesting fact.\n\nEven if we assume a random search pattern, it is not directly clear which \"type of randomness\" we have to deal with.\n\nConsider the following (eventually unrealistic) simplification. Assume, that you are hunting for food (food = the person you are looking for) and you can be in exactly two states. Either you are looking around for your food, or you are moving. This means, that while you are moving, you won't notice the food around you. I know, this is somehow unrealisitc for this scenario, but my point is a different one.\n\nThe standard theory for [Random Walks](_URL_8_) and [Brownian motion](_URL_5_) most of the time assumes, that your steplength is sampled from a [Gaussian distribution](_URL_6_). This means, that it is highly unlikely to perform a long step and rather likely to perform a small step (there is a justification for this, namely the fact that your steplength corresponds to the distance to collision with a background media which is likely to be small). \n\nHowever, it has beend observed, that the optimal search pattern for foraging is to sample steps from a different distribution, namely one that is algebraically decaying (and not exponentially, like Gaussian). This means, that large jumps are still less likely than small jumps, but more likely than in the Gaussian case and the mean jump length is actually inifinity. In the given context, this is considered an optimal strategy for foraging.\nThere is even the [Levy flight foraging hypothesis](_URL_7_): \n\n*Since Lévy flights and walks can optimize search efficiencies, therefore natural selection should have led to adaptations for Lévy flight foraging.*\n\nAnd this has actually been observed. There is an [article in Nature](_URL_9_) by Viswanathan et al. that shows, that the flight pattern of an albatross is exactly of the above mentioned form. \n\nSo to summarize: If you would know, that the person you are looking for and under the assumption, that you can only walk or look exclusively, it might be a good idea to consider the type of random motion.\n\nPersonal opinion: I'm not sure, that this assumption on walking XOR looking is mandatory. The important part are the assumptions on the target. In the foraging setting this means: Target does not move (or relatively slow compared to own movement) and more importantly, there is some correlation between food at position X and food around position X. The albatross basically searches randomely in a small area and tha performs a larger jump to get away from that area, since there is probably no food left.",
"Ok, here is how I would prove that moving is always better. Here are the assumptions of my model:\n\n1. The 2 walkers are modelled by Brownian motion with equal scalar diffusion coefficients D. The larger D the faster the 2 walkers move. The positions of the walkers at time t is denoted by A(t) and B(t), respectively.\n2. Assume their field of vision is a ball around them of radius r. The simulation will stop when they spot each other, i.e. |A-B| < r. \n3. Assume they start their search from points A(0) and B(0) on the plane. \n4. Assume that the walkers cannot go further than R away from each other, i.e. |A(t) - B(t)| < R at all times (i.e the fun park has finite size).\n\n\nNoting that X(t) = A(t) - B(t) is also a Brownian motion with diffusion coefficient 2D. We wish to measure the MEAN FIRST HITTING TIME for the process X(t) to the ball of radius r around the origin.\n\nSolving the equation for mean first passage time in spherical coordinates, we get that the mean first passage time is T2(|A0-B0|) where\n > T2(s) = (f(s) - f(r))/(2*D), \nfor f(s) = -0.25s^2 + 0.5*R^2 log(s),\n\nand where |A(0) - B(0)| is the distance between the walkers at the start. On the other hand, if only one guy was walking, the mean first passage time would be twice that, since the equation would be:\n > T1(s) = (f(s)-f(r))/D.\n\nThat is, T1 = 2*T2. This is consistent with the simulations done by /u/GemOfEvan. Treat all this with suspicion, I'm on a bus.",
"Given your \"spherical cow\" restraints your question basically boils down to the following:\n\nConsider 2 points inside a 2-dimensional area.\nPoint 2 is performing a 2-dimensional random walk.\nYour goal is for point 2 to come within x units of point 1.\nIs this more likely to happen if point 1 is stationary or also performing a 2-dimensional random walk.\n\nLet's call 'P' the probability that point 2 is within x units of point 1.\n\nP = (pi * x^2 )/(area of park)\n\nAs long as point 1 is more than x units away from the walls of the park, P will always be the same. P will only decrease if point 1 gets closer to a wall than x units.\nIf point 1 is also performing a 2-dimensional random walk then there will be times when point 1 gets too close to a wall and P gets smaller, thus reducing the probability that it gets close to point 2.\n\nTLDR: Staying in one place would have better odds assuming that said place is further away from the edge of the park than you can realistically see.",
"This is a little late to the party, but I made a [web app that illustrates four different strategies](_URL_10_) for randomly finding someone and tallied how well they perform.\n\nGenerally standing still works best if the other person is walking around in a non-random fashion. If the other person is walking around randomly, then the best strategy appears to be to walk around in a manner so as to avoid places you've already been.",
"This is actually in my homeowork problem, see [problem 1 here!](_URL_11_). Although the question is slightly different.\n\nThe trick here is this: instead of two independent randomly walks on a graph G, think of it as one random walk on (G, G). The terminal condition that two random walk visit the same node v at the same time becomes hitting (v, v) for some v in G under this new random walk.",
"I would think that if you moved against the prevailing traffic flow, you'd be much more likely to find someone than moving with the prevailing flow of traffic through the park. If everyone is moving in random directions (not realistic at all), it would still make sense to walk around as you would encounter more people as you are essentially doubling the rate of change for people that you pass by.",
"Isn't there a chance where neither would move, either the seeker thinks that it would be better if he does move, or the one being seeked is tired so he has stopped.\n\nThat alone would make it better if the seeker to start moving. of course, I am not doing the maths like some of our redditors here. Kudos to them",
"If the theme park is of infinite size and 2-dimensional, you will always find each other with infinite time, as you stated. However, this is not true if it is 3-dimensional. A drunk man will always find his way home, a drunk bird may never.\n\nSee _URL_12_",
"I thought about it like this:\nInstead of messing with 3 dimensions, lets work with two. So both parties can either move left or right. The only options are: you move left, friend moves left (no change in distance). You move left, friend moves right (distance increase, assuming you started on left). You move right, friend moves left (closer!). You move right, friend moves right (no change in distance). In only one of those situations did you get closer, so by my maths... carry the two.... if you're both moving you have only a 25% chance of running into them. \nIf you weren't moving there would only be two things to happen: move closer or farther. 50% .\nI don't see how adding more dimensions would change anything. There are just more directions, but the odds would stay essentially the same.\nAll that being said- I don't do math and I sure as heck don't show my work when I do.\nTl;dl \nStay still, I can't prove it with a simulation.",
"This is one of the best threads of its kind I have ever read, but there is one thing that these simulations are not taking into account. When someone is lost in a forest, for instance, the assumption should also be included that when the searcher had searched a sector, that sector is that not searched again. One of the biggest pieces of advice that they give people that are ever lost in the forest, for instance, is that when you know you are lost, do not move. It is very natural for searchers to assume that an area that they have searched it is no longer searchable.\n\nI wonder what these simulations would look like with that fact taken into account.\n\nI would like to ask the simulators to program their simulators to do this, and see how many sims actually complete (with all sectors searched) with the person not found at all.",
"Think about it this way:\n\nIf one person were moving randomly, each step would randomly either move him *closer* or *further* from the other person, linearly. Since it's random, the only way he is going to reach the other person is by a series of favorable random direction choices.\n\nTherefore if he were to be moving twice as fast, or took 2 random steps for every one, he would statistically find the other person twice as fast. More \"rolls of the dice,\" if you will.\n\nAlternatively, the other person could move at the same speed, rather than him moving twice as fast. It would give the same result. Twice as many random movements per time period that either bring them closer or further. Twice as many \"rolls of the dice.\"",
"In general, this can be simplified down to a random walk of one object encountering a specified point on a bounded grid, vs the same object moving twice as actively/rapidly encountering the same point. Obviously, the more rapid the motion, the faster the object will encounter the point. Should be T/2, roughly. Grid size will impact the time reduction somewhat. \n\nThis works because one object can be seen as fixed, with the grid moving randomly around it, while the other object moves relative to the grid. \n\nOf course, a more accurate model might incorporate FOV, resistance to backtracking, obstacles, etc, but with both objects exhibiting identical properties in all cases, I would expect that T/2 would hold. \n\nTl/dr motion is relative.",
"Late to the party, but here's a simple explanation. Let's model the system as a random walk. Over time, a single random walk will fan out by the normal distribution. The standard deviation will will be a function of time and walking speed. We switch our frame of reference to one of the people. Now, the other person will have be doing a random walk at 2x time. Thus, the standard deviation of the normal distribution will be 2x (might be sqrt of 2 as I need to verify math) greater. The greater the std dev, the more likely to hit far out points.",
"Tacking on a question to this thread:\n\nIf me and a friend flip a coin 4x until we both get the same sequence is it better for me to keep my original 4x flips or for both of us to keep flipping a new 4x flip.\n\nExample:\n\nI flip THTH and now wait for him to flip THTH or we can both keep flipping. Which methodology arrives at an answer quicker?",
"What if the park is circular-ish? If you both walk in the same direction (for instance counter-clockwise) at a similar pace it could take hours before you run into each other. If you know the other person is moving, by standing still at a bottleneck you would be guaranteed to find them much faster then if you are both walking in same direction.",
"This is a common game theory problem. Basically you want to do the opposite of why the other person is doing. If they're standing still, you would want to walk around. If they're waking around, you would wan to stay put. It's all about that imperfect information :-/",
"As long as they aren't wearing a diaper, or they're a camel/cheapass who only takes sips of the nasty fountain water when absolutely needed on a cool day, you can camp out the restroom facilities.\n\nThat is, if they don't pee while riding Splashderp Mountain D:"
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"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/5mYnGiT.png",
"http://www.stat.berkeley.edu/~aldous/Papers/me38.pdf",
"http://pomax.github.io/AmusementParkProblem",
"https://github.com/Pomax/AmusementParkProblem",
"www.statslab.cam.ac.uk/~rrw1/research/rendezvous.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownian_motion",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9vy_flight_foraging_hypothesis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_walk",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v381/n6581/abs/381413a0.html",
"http://emptypipes.org/2015/08/03/random-finding/",
"http://web.stanford.edu/class/cme305/hw/hw3.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_walk#Lattice_random_walk"
]
} | If I wanted to randomly find someone in an amusement park, would my odds of finding them be greater if I stood still or roamed around?
Assumptions: The other person is constantly and randomly roaming Foot traffic concentration is the same at all points of the park Field of vision is always the same and unobstructed Same walking speed for both parties There is a time limit, because, as /u/kivishlorsithletmos pointed out, the odds are 100% assuming infinite time. The other person is NOT looking for you. They are wandering around having the time of their life without you. You could also assume that you and the other person are the only two people in the park to eliminate issues like others obstructing view etc. Bottom line: the theme park is just used to personify a general statistics problem. So things like popular rides, central locations, and crowds can be overlooked. | [
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|
7aq0nt | Can a powerful electrical charge go through a non conductor? | For example, if I were to touch and immensely powerful electrical charge using only a small piece of rubber could it still shock me? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dpbxrpx",
"dpc0s6z",
"dpc22kd"
],
"text": [
"Air is non-conductor and yet lightning happens\n\nfrom an electrical engineering point of view the barrier between conductor and non-conductor is mostly an arbitrary line depending on the voltage that you are expecting have in a system.\n\nFrom a physics point of view... Outside the macro-scale I find the terms a bit to generic. There is a big difference in \"metal-conductive\" and \"salt water-conductive\", yet... perhaps only because it's more common in their line of work, if I say \"conductive\" to any of my colleagues I suspect their mind will immediately jump to metal",
"Materials are insulators up to a certain voltage. For example, at 12v (car battery) you are an insulator. But go stick your finger in a socket in your house (110v) and you are suddenly a conductor.\n\nInsulators are only that up to whatever voltage that's required in order for them to start conducting. \n\nIf you want to dig deeper, there's a measure of resistivity that gauges how good of an insulator something is. The higher the resistivity, the more voltage it can block. \n\nSo to answer your question, if you had a latex glove on and touched a 1 MV source, you would probably die. But if you had a glove that was 1-2 meters thick, then you would be fine. This is because of it's measure of resistivity. More material means you need more juice to get through it.",
"Your terminology is confusing. Charge is not volts or amps. It is a certain number of elementary charges. They could be electrons or \"holes\" where electrons have been removed from. A \"powerful electric charge\" could have 1 volt or a million. A million volts would jump through or around your small rubber. One volt would not. Materials have a property called \"breakdown voltage\". You can look up the breakdown voltage for rubber. \n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
9,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_strength#Breakdown_field_strength",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown_voltage"
]
} | Can a powerful electrical charge go through a non conductor?
For example, if I were to touch and immensely powerful electrical charge using only a small piece of rubber could it still shock me? | [
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7aq4q5 | What things in nature are a binary outcome but not really a 50/50 chance? | For a crude example (there are exceptions of course) humans are born as either a male or female, but despite this being a 1 or the other scenario is it as clear cut at 50/50? Is one more likely than another?
This question isnt just about humans at birth its for all of nature | askscience | {
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"Tornado rotation direction. Most rotate cyclonically but ~5% rotate anticyclonically (has to do with with details of how they are formed).",
"Though there are, as mentioned, some unusual cases between male and female, generally speaking all bi-sexed species will trend towards a 50-50 split between male and female due to a specific natural selection process. If you had, for example, more females than male, then each male would have a better chance of having more children than each female. So those individuals that produce more male children would be more successful in the long run. Thus, rates of male birth will rise over time. The same goes in reverse if there are more males than females, so the species will move towards an equilibrium over time.",
"As you acknowledged, biological sex isn't exactly binary. The physical traits we associate with maleness and femaleness can exist in whole and in part. The sex chromosomes can be inherited in extra number like XXY. The Y chromosome can be damaged. The SRY gene associated with some parts of male development can be transferred to an X chromosome. Some people have mutations which make their cells less sensitive to androgens so they develop the characteristics of females despite having testes. That said, worldwide there seems to be a 1-2% higher birthrate for male children.\n\nFor an example similar to what I believe you're asking for go back the the Punnett square. For most genes you have two copies, each inherited from one parent. Let's take a binary trait like albinism. Albinism can be cause by a recessive mutation to OCA1. \n\nOne parent might have the genotype Oo, so one functional gene(O), one dysfunctional(o). The other parent might have Oo as well. Both parents have a non-albino phenotype. \n\nOf their children 25% will inherit OO, 50% Oo, and 25% oo. So in this case only 25% will be albino. \n\nSince the (o) genes are rare however the actual rate of albinism in the population is a very low percentage number. This is true of most variations in the genome. A polymorphism (multiple shape) is a place where more than 1% of the tested population has a difference in their genes at that location. \n\nSo in that sense there are many traits that can be thought of in a binary way, but with a non-50% chance of being inherited. About 70% of people can taste phenylthocarbamide, for example.",
"Would rain count? It's always either definitively raining or it's not, but most places on Earth don't get an exactly 50% mix of rain and not-rain.\n\nAtomic decay as well - an atom either decays or doesn't, but the probability is usually not 50/50.",
"There are many rare genetic diseases that you either have or not, and as the name indicates, the probability is much lower than 50% for all of them."
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} | What things in nature are a binary outcome but not really a 50/50 chance?
For a crude example (there are exceptions of course) humans are born as either a male or female, but despite this being a 1 or the other scenario is it as clear cut at 50/50? Is one more likely than another? This question isnt just about humans at birth its for all of nature | [
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|
8o1qyl | If Water Is Molecularly Weaker Than Rock, How Can Rivers Wear It Down Over Time? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e009ozd",
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],
"text": [
"Molecularly weaker is a nonsensical term. Especially since many rocks aren’t even “a molecule”. \n\nOne way that water wears away rocks is that it’s a great polar solvent. It won’t dissolve most rocks as fast as an ionic crystal (e.g. salt), or a stronger base or acid, but it will dissolve components of rocks that need acids to dissolve and components that need bases.",
"Primarily, water caries with it sand and other abrasive materials that wear down the rock. The grand canyon formed primarily from the sedimentary rock being worn down over time. \n\nWhen water freezes and expands in rock cracks, the rock is fractured and weakened. This is one factor in how granite domes are formed. It's called exfoliation:\n_URL_1_\n\nMany rocks are made up of a variety of minerals. Many of those minerals are water-soluble and/or sensitive to the acidity of the water. Most surface water is not chemically pure, making a variety of chemical reactions possible.\n\nLastly simple kinetic energy will eventually wear down the rock. Water sprayed under extreme pressure can cut rock. In commercial cutters, an abrasive is added to the stream as well.\nSand is formed from wave action at the water's edge smashing rocks together until they eventually end up being tiny polished pebbles.\n\nFun fact, waters considered a \"Universal Solvent\":\n_URL_0_",
"There are a couple of different ways that rocks and minerals can be weathered by moving water. One is by being dissolved, which is most evident in rocks like limestone, sandstone, or mica. Most of these are carbonaceous, and can be especially eroded by acidic water. Silicate minerals which make up most of the earth's crust are not especially soluble in water, but given a geologic timescale significant erosion can happen.\n\nNext is mechanical weathering which is tied to sediment transport, where the momentum of the water moves silt, sand, and other rocks along a river. Most of what water has as an advantage against the rock is time and volume, due to the water cycle."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://water.usgs.gov/edu/solvent.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exfoliating_granite"
]
} | If Water Is Molecularly Weaker Than Rock, How Can Rivers Wear It Down Over Time?
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6es7rh | What's the biological advantage of metamorphosis/pupating if the process is so energy-consuming (destroying the entire body in the pupa and rebuilding it again, rather than simply growing up) and vulnerable? | Not to mention leaving the pupa immobile and completely vulnerable for long stretches of time.
Why do almost all flying insects start as grubs, then mature to have wings, rather than just mature to have wings without pupating (like birds)? | askscience | {
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"The caterpillar has low mobility and can focus on eating plant food, while the butterfly can live on nectar and because of its high mobility the offspring can be spread in a wider area. So a single specoes can benefit from two different niches.",
"First of all, 'almost all' insects is a bit of a stretch. Insects can be divided in groups using metamorphosis. There is a group which has no metamorphosis at all, for example silverfish. The only difference between a juvenile and adult siverfish is that the adult has functional sex organs. Then there are 'hemimatabolous' insects, of which the juveniles somewhat resemble the adults (although not always, for example coloration or shape can be very different), but without wings. For example, grasshoppers, aphids, stick insects, cockroaches, praying mantids, earwigs, termites, cicadas and many more. Althought hey may sometimes have a specific stage between juvenile and adult, it is mobile and therefore not a true pupa. The third group has the complete metamorphosis and the pua stage, these include beetles, butterflies, flies, wasps, ants, and more. \n\nSo in the last group, you will notice that the larval stage and adult stage look extremely different from each other. They are so different that for a long time some grubs and adult beetles were considered different species. So why are they so different? Because a larva's ecological niche is very different from the adult's. Many larva have a very different food source and therefore are specialised on obtaining that specific food source. Adults, on the other hand, have another food source and their main purpose is to reproduce so they have features that aid in distribution. \n\nTake for example a caterpillar and an adult butterfly. A caterpillar feeds on plants and therefore is built to most efficiently consume and store food. They don't have very sophisticated eyes because they are born on their host plant. They do have chewing jaws to eat the plant they are on. Depending on there environment and potential enemies they have defenses against predators, such as spines or toxins or camouflage, or specific behaviors to avoid predation. The butterfly, on the other hand, spends most of their time looking for a mate and afterwards a place to deposit eggs. They have wings and antennae for this, as well as larger eyes to use vision while flying around. While some butterfly species do not eat as adults (luna moths for example), others feed on nectar and to do this, they possess elongated mouthparts. \n\nSuppose that these animal was only a caterpillar or larva. It would have strong difficulties dispersing and finding another (non-related) caterpillar to mate with. On the other hand, the butterfly would rely solely on nectar as a food source, which may not always be available. They cannot eat much else with their mouthparts. Both forms are hyperspecialised. By having metamorphosis they can have the best of both worlds. And because it is such a dramatic change, the process of becoming the other form takes time and therefore has a pupal stage. \n\nPupae are not completely vulnerable, they have defenses as well. While they are fixed to a structure they are not completely immobile, and can shake or vibrate when an attacker comes. Mosquito pupae can actually move a lot. Pupae can also be hidden in cocoons, so they are protected by a layer of silk which is hard go get through. They can be chemically defended. They are often in hard to reach spaces or well camouflaged. A pupal stage can be very advantageous to survive unsuitable seasons. \n\nAnd it all works. Otherwise insects with complete metamorphosis would have gone extinct ages ago. Fossils of holometabolous insects (those with complete metamorphosis) have been found from the Carboniferous. The most species-diverse group of insects (beetles) are holometabolous. Being able to specialise on multiple food sources is very advantageous. Very importantly, the juvenile insects do not have to compete with the adults! That is a huge advantage when your reproductive strategy is to produce enormous amounts of offspring of which only a few will survive.",
"I believe the most straight forward answer is actually contradictory to a point you made in your opening statement. Metamorphosis is an energy drain, but nature is focusing on both the parent and the offspring. In the long run, metamorphosis is efficient.\n\nFor bugs to be born in their final stage of development as birds and most mammals are, it would be a considerable drain on the parent. Bugs lay eggs in batches ranging in the tens to the tens of thousands. Hatching the eggs as larva saves the parent energy which can be used to create more offspring.\n\nAdaptations like wings use a lot of energy to maintain. Consider a butterfly, whose wings are nearly 3x the size of the body. Every second the metabolism burns more energy than the caterpillar from which the butterfly originated from. The larva act as batteries that eat and store energy to complete metamorphosis. Gestation for bugs isn't very long, but if you consider the prepupal stage as part of gestation albeit outside of the parent then it makes more sense. Bugs gather energy that they couldn't get from their parent and use it complete their development.\n\nYes, being in frozen for a period of time leaves you vulnerable. That's why bugs play the game of numbers. More offspring means more that will survive and reproduce. To raise one offspring without pupating would require almost a 1:1 ratio for a bug. One parent would have to dedicate their time to raise one or two offsprings. It's taxing on the parent and not a good strategy overall.",
"_URL_0_\n\nOne of the best examples of why pupating at times is necessary, the beetle's final form is so divorced from its early stages in size, shape and purpose. \n\nThe massive armoured shell it eventually develops wouldn't be a viable option to keep breaking out of and building new ones as it grows. Growing like this allows the growth of a strong structure normal growth patterns likely wouldn't allow (which is the opposite of some things like moths who would likely damage themselves massively if they had to grow up with even smaller and even more fragile wings)\n\nCreatures have evolved this way as it seemingly maximises survival...\n\nP.s\nThe video I must say does freak me out a little bit, some of its stages are just so nasty."
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} | What's the biological advantage of metamorphosis/pupating if the process is so energy-consuming (destroying the entire body in the pupa and rebuilding it again, rather than simply growing up) and vulnerable?
Not to mention leaving the pupa immobile and completely vulnerable for long stretches of time. Why do almost all flying insects start as grubs, then mature to have wings, rather than just mature to have wings without pupating (like birds)? | [
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|
bvvdjr | When people forge metal and parts flake off, what's actually happening to the metal? | Are the flakes impurities? Or is it lost material? And why is it coming off in flakes? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"I'm just an amateur blacksmith, not a materials scientist, but it is my understanding that scale -- what we call the \"flakes\" you're talking about that come off when you hammer a piece -- is a layer of rapidly oxidizing iron on the surface layer of the piece that you shatter and flake off when you hit it with the hammer.",
"Because the metal is at a high temperature oxygen diffuses rapidly into the metal, which forms various iron oxides (FeO, Fe2O3, etc.; You can look at the phase diagram to see which phases form). This layer is not that strong and little pieces fall off during forging.\n\nTL;DR It's rust/lost material\n\nSource: Chemistry student",
"When iron is heated, it’s microstructure (its ‘lattice’) changes which allows for the rapid diffusion of various elements within. When introduced to oxygen, it creates iron oxide (in this case, hammerscale). There are several different types of hammerscale, not all of which is flaky. Spheroidal hammerscale can be produced through bloomsmithing, while flake scale usually comes from later stages of iron processing. \n\nI am under the impression that the reason it takes the flaky form, is due to the shape of the metal. A bar, for example is flat, and thus a thin layer of rapid oxidation on the surface takes a similar shape. When you brush or hammer, this thin layer of brittle oxide breaks into smaller flakes. Spheroid scale then, is produced while the iron bloom is relatively amorphous.\n\nIn archaeological contexts this is very useful to know as it gives us an indication of what the area might have been used for.\n\nThis material can be forged back into the metal if you’re not careful and keep your piece clean. This can introduce brittleness.\n\nEdit: the change of lattice also supports the absorption of carbon. This is a process known as carburization. This was one of the ways the ancients were able to produce steel from bloomery iron. \n\nSource: archaeometallurgist",
"Welding engineer here: \n\n\nYou are witnessing scale commonly called mill scale. But lets break down the phenomenon. \n\n\nEvery metal loves oxygen and wants to trade up those metallic bonds for oxygen bonds. On a very slow time scale we call this rust or tarnishing or more generally oxidation. \n\n & #x200B;\n\n As things heat up the ability for oxygen to bond to metals increase. We call this the diffusion rate. For example salt will dissolve much faster into water if it's rapidly boiling than if it's frozen solid. When metal gets hot up to forging temperatures the ability to oxidize goes from days or weeks to seconds.\n\nwrought iron and steel, the traditional forged materials are special in that the iron and other elements that bond to oxygen are extremely brittle and have no mechanical properties much like a really rusty piece of iron. So when exposed to air at forging temperatures it grows a skin of iron oxide, and actions like beating it with a hammer or bending it tend to cause it to flake off, since it's very brittle and fragile. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nOverall there's no danger to this process, it loses a little weight but nothing significant and as long as the metal is not folded over for the scale to end up back into the middle it doesn't really effect mechanical properties. It also acts as an insulator. In the end it's desirable in some processes but since it usually has to be removed before the piece is used it's generally not desirable for precision applications which is why a lot of thin metal is \"cold rolled\" which means the shaping activities are done at a much lower temperature where oxidation doesn't happen. \n\n\nWhile not unique to steel it doesn't happen to all metals, aluminum for example it's oxide layer is incredibly durable and tough and also grows very quickly such that it can't really be removed unless you're in an environment with no oxygen. Same for things like Gold. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nAlso the diffusion rate for every metal when liquid is basically instantaneous on the order of micro seconds. exposure of liquid metal to air turns most of them into unusuable chunks of metal sponges with unusable material properties so in things like welding or refining inert atmospheres are created in various ways.",
"I'm an amateur machinist, foundryman, welder, blacksmith and got a chemistry degree back in the day.\n\nWhat we think of as rust consists of hydrated iron oxides Fe2O3·nH2O. And since there is water from the combustion byproducts of a forge, some of the scale will be actual rust. One of the interesting aspects of rust is that as the iron oxidizes, it's size, molecular shape, chemical and physical attributes all change. There are several forms of iron oxide, but in general, rust is bigger than the iron it is made from (at the molecular level) so it can't stay aligned and bonded to the underlying iron very well. That's why it's weak and flakes off your fender and makes more room for more rust to form. \n\nBy comparison, aluminum oxide is virtually the same size as the parent aluminum. So the aluminum oxide that forms on the surface of bare aluminum is tough, perhaps tougher than the aluminum itself, and well bonded to the underlying metal. That's why aluminum doesn't \"rust\" even though it does oxidize readily. \n\nPretty accessible article on wiki:\n\n [_URL_1_](_URL_0_)",
"What flakes off is the oxide layer at the surface. Most metals, especially when heated, form what's known as a passivation layer on their surface, a thin layer of oxide that stops further oxidation. It's the reason why you can actually use metals like aluminium or magnesium in industrial applications, despite them being actually quite easy to oxidize. \n\nSo why is it flaking? Because most oxides don't have the ductility of a metal because they don't have the electron gas any more, and with that lost almost all the properties of metals and instead are closer to ceramics in properties. Most of the time when you see forging, you're seeing one specific metal, iron, whose oxide layers are especially prone to flaking because they increase in volume a lot compared to the iron they formed from (the same reason why you have rust flaking off rusty sheet metal)",
"Mechanical engineer here. When a hot piece of typical steel is cooling the outer surface undergoes rapid oxidisation. That’s the primary cause of the flaking.\n\nIt’s part of the reason metals are often worked cold nowadays, even though it’s more energy intensive.",
"It could be both impurities (slag) being drawn to the outside of the metal as it heats up, but there can also be lost material in the form of \"flash\" which is metal that did not form correctly for one reason or another (not enough lubrication, not enough space when dies/tooling are incorrectly engineered or put together). \nTL;DR - During heating, impurities. During forging, lubrication or tooling. \nSource - Electrician at an AAM Metal Forming plant.",
"The part that flakes off is generally formed by oxides that cover the metal's surface. Most metals have a oxide surface due to contact with air. Oxidization process incrises with the temperature and it may form a deeper layer of oxides. During the forging, that layer may detach.",
"It's called scale. Basically super rust from the oxygen and heat in the fire. It is considered lost material, for certain projects, blacksmiths will need to factor that loss into how much stock they need to start with.",
"Nowadays, oxidised metal mostly, but....\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIn ye olden dayes, before Henry Bessemer invented his converter, they didn't know the exact science of making steel. Iron was produced as 'sponge iron' as a 'bloom' in a bloomery. The bloom was hammered and reheated repeatedly to remove the impurities, which were mostly carbon/graphite from the coke or charcoal fuel. This turned it into wrought iron. Cast iron came along later, but that was brittle, due to the slag inclusions, caused by melting the iron in direct contact with the coke fuel.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThere a program on the BBC iPlayer, '[How it Works- Metal](_URL_2_)' if you can get it, which briefly describes the development.\n\nThey stopped producing wrought iron in the UK in the early 1970s and many blacksmiths then shut down. The decorative 'wrought ironwork' you can buy is almost invariably mild steel, which is cheaper but harder to work manually."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(III)_oxide",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(III)\\_oxide",
"https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01fkc5n/how-it-works-1-metal"
]
} | When people forge metal and parts flake off, what's actually happening to the metal?
Are the flakes impurities? Or is it lost material? And why is it coming off in flakes? | [
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|
130elp | Why am i cold inside at 66 degrees F, but very comfortable if not warm outside at the same temp? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6zormh",
"c6zpcl2",
"c6zphgq",
"c6zq2fn"
],
"text": [
"There are a variety of factors. One is the sunlight; sun shining on you directly delivers thermal energy through radiation, which can warm you enough to make a noticeable difference. Another is activity; you are likely to be doing more intense activity outside (even if it is just walking, you are probably walking longer distances and at a quicker pace than inside). Then there's also the fact that you're likely wearing more clothing outside. Finally, there is a simple psychological element, especially when the sun is shining.",
"Mechanical engineer here. What you are experiencing is called \"thermal comfort\" and it is the name given to ensuring people are comfortable. Many people falsely assume that temperature is the only factor in deciding if they are warm or cold. However, there are many factors that play a role in thermal comfort. These include temperature, humidity, personal activity, wind speed (indoor or out), carbon dioxide levels, and radiation from the sun or heat source or radiation away from the body to cold surfaces. \n\nThe complex combination of these determines whether or not the person is comfortable. Also, psychological factors play a large role, such as tolerance, drug addiction and meat sweats.",
"Also another somewhat related question. When our bodies have to have a temperature regulated at about 98.6 degrees, why does a temperature of say 90 degrees feel so warm to us? Why haven't we adapted our internal body temperature closer to the average temperature of Earth?",
"are you often wearing shoes inside at 66 degrees? Is this the same case outside?"
],
"score": [
166,
41,
6,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why am i cold inside at 66 degrees F, but very comfortable if not warm outside at the same temp?
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jw4jz | Could somebody explain conscience through evolution? | edit:
**Note:** Conscience, NOT consciousness. | askscience | {
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"It is an altruistic trait, meaning that it prefers preservation of the group rather than the individual. There are many examples of altruistic traits in nature (honey bees, mole rats).\n\nI imagine it originally evolved as a way to care about the group, and was selected for because those who cared about their clan or tribe and kept them healthy had a greater chance to get laid and spread their seed.\n\nEdit: It appears Darwin addressed this:\n_URL_0_",
"Let's begin with the definition of conscience - \"an inner feeling or voice viewed as acting as a guide of rightness or wrongness of one's behaviour\". - From the American Oxford Dictionary (installed on my computer)\n\nSo we want to know where the decision making on morality comes from from an evolutionary point of view. So let's begin with where we need to get to - to have a sense of right and wrong a living thing first needs to be conscious, it needs to have an ability to choose (i.e. its actions cannot be a purely automatic because if its actions were automatic it wouldn't need to evaluate right ones versus wrong ones.)\n\nConsciousness arises in animals that have more than one sense organ and consciousness is some integration between those two sensory stimuli. Now, it may not quite be called conscience to describe when a moth is drawn to a fire but feels it's wrong to proceed any closer when it gets too close to the fire because the heat becomes too intense, but that is at least a primitive type of right vs wrong decision making you can observe in a creature with very little consciousness. Similarly a fly will sit on a piece of fruit and eat it until a hand comes to shoo it away - it knows it's right to fly away from the fruit at that time even though the fruit is good, because the hand is worse.\n\nAs consciousness becomes more sophisticated, particularly in humans, which are the only animal we know of with a conceptual consciousness, the decisions of right and wrong become more complex and can be based on rational concepts rather than just emotional reactions. It is from our conceptual faculty that we can have an explicit, articulated conscience guide us - e.g. \"I will study because that will allow me to learn valuable knowledge which I can apply to furthering my life.\" or its opposite \"I am not studying and I know I should and I know this is wrong\". \n\nSo in summary, it all comes from the very purpose which consciousness serves which is to evaluate input for the purpose of decision making. A proper conscience will guide you to stay alive and be productive and happy and act in your self interest, while an improper one will guide you toward self-destruction. To the extent that conscience is guided by evolution you can see how a self-destructive conscience would be one that would be eliminated through the fact that specimens possessing it would be unlikely to reproduce successfully.",
"I fear I may have happened on this thread too late and therefore my response will bet buried, but oh well.\n\nI am going to talk about what I believe you are looking for, though I could be off base.\n\nI research **the evolution of human altruism**. That is, when someone takes a fitness relevant loss in order to have some fitness relevant result (this can be negative or positive) on another non-kin person.\n\nThe strongest going theory right now to explain the evolution of this behavior is [dual inheritance theory](_URL_2_), AKA Culture-Gene Coevolution.\n\nThis is a pretty multi-staged process, one that I do not feel this medium is well suited to explain. However, I highly recommend you read [this book chapter PDF by Joe Henrich et al](_URL_2_).\n\nA couple quick points that people may be interested in, is that the chapter explains how other forms of selection, such as kin selection and reciprocity (indirect or otherwise) are *not sufficient* to explain the level of human altruism we see experimentally.\n\nIf you have any specific questions, whether in regards to the chapter or the topic in general, I am happy to answer them!",
"Relevant exerpt from peter Watts' novel Blindsight:\n\nEvolution has no foresight. Complex machinery develops its own agendas. Brains—cheat. Feedback loops evolve to promote stable heartbeats and then stumble upon the temptation of rhythm and music. The rush evoked by fractal imagery, the algorithms used for habitat selection, metastasize into art. Thrills that once had to be earned in increments of fitness can now be had from pointless introspection. Aesthetics rise unbidden from a trillion dopamine receptors, and the system moves beyond modeling the organism. It begins to model the very process of modeling. It consumes ever-more computational resources, bogs itself down with endless recursion and irrelevant simulations. Like the parasitic DNA that accretes in every natural genome, it persists and proliferates and produces nothing but itself. Metaprocesses bloom like cancer, and awaken, and call themselves *I*.",
"It would have a lot to do with self-monitoring of social status in a species like ours. I assume even other non-human primates will have something similar. Being able to simulate the minds of others and see how they felt about your actions would be tremendously valuable. \n\nThere's a bunch of books on this, BTW. A quick Amazon search brings up stuff like: _URL_3_",
"Apologies for speculation, but it seems this is still a disputed question even among evolutionary biologists so...\n\nI think that there are two kinds of 'conscience' that results in our acting morally. There is a kind of empathetic conscience, where you feel bad for causing somebody else pain, because you love them, or because they are so similar to you that you can imagine what it feels like to be them. I think this is explained by Kin Selection - you want to help those that share your genes.\n\nAnother type of conscience is more abstract, and usually religious. Young people are taught that certain things are wrong, and they should not do them, and they should feel bad for doing them. These are social constructs, and many of them are (i believe) strategies evolved by physically weak but mentally strong individuals to prevent the physically strong from using violence to their advantage. \n\n\"Moral law is an invention of mankind for the disenfranchisement of the powerful in favor of the weak. Historical law subverts it at every turn. A moral view can never be proven right or wrong by any ultimate test. A man falling dead in a duel is not thought thereby to be proven in error as to his views. His very involvement in such a trial gives evidence of a new and broader view.\" -Blood Meridian, Cormac McCarthy,",
"It is beneficial to have a group around you, to help watch out for predators and to collectively scout for food. This is particularly so if you are not a very tough animal, but you are good at foraging, and dextrous- having successful group cohesion is as good as having claws or speed. If that group is mutually antagonistic, the group won't help one another, but if that group is mutually helpful, the group will benefit everyone. Therefore conscience is an emotional drive to be nice to your friends and loved ones- to promote group cohesion. This promotes survival for all involved.\n\nThis also seems to be why we evolved deviousness and deception- because once your group is functional, you will have the most successful offspring if you can betray the group without the consequences that come from them knowing about it... and as long as you do so within the bounds of conscience, such that you are not destroying the group altogether.",
"Paraphrasing what I've read from Eliezer Yudkowsky:\n\nConscience is a trait that prevents bearers from committing anti-social behavior, even when they think they can get away with it. For context, getting caught doing anti-social behavior - stealing, hurting people, basically anything your conscience thinks is wrong - would get you exiled and unable to reproduce in the ancestral environment.\n\nSo why is not doing anti-social behavior when you think you can get away with it a good idea? Because often enough in the ancestral environment, people who thought they could get away with bad things were **wrong**, failed to reproduce, and having a personal conscience drove the competing traits to extinction.\n\ntl;dr people who had a conscience didn't get exiled for committing social offenses that they thought they could get away with, and out-bred those who did think they could get away with being a douchebag but were wrong about it.",
"If you're interested in a quite in-depth study on this topic, I'd suggest reading the Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins, which spends a great deal of time on this subject.",
"TIL English differentiates between \"conscience\" and \"consciousness\". In Spanish we just have \"conciencia\"."
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"url": [
"http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~suchii/D.onM.html",
"http://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~henrich/pdfs/Henrich_Joyce_Volume_Final.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory",
"http://www.amazon.com/Moral-Psychology-Evolution-Adaptations-Innateness/dp/0262693542/"
]
} | Could somebody explain conscience through evolution?
edit: **Note:** Conscience, NOT consciousness. | [
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