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The **China national football team** (simplified Chinese: 中国国家足球队; traditional Chinese: 中國國家足球隊; pinyin: *Zhōngguó guójiā zúqiú duì*, recognised as **China PR** by FIFA) represents the People's Republic of China in international association football and is governed by the Chinese Football Association. China won the EAFF East Asian Cup in 2005 and 2010, was runner-up at the AFC Asian Cup in 1984 and 2004 and made its sole FIFA World Cup appearance in 2002, losing all matches without scoring a goal. History ------- ### Republic of China (1913–1949) China's first-ever international representative match was arranged by Elwood Brown, president of the Philippine Athletic Association, who proposed the creation of the Far Eastern Championship Games, a multi-sport event considered to be a precursor to the Asian Games. He invited China to participate in the inaugural 1913 Far Eastern Championship Games held in the Philippines, which included association football within the schedule. To represent them, it was decided that the winner of the football at the Chinese National Games in 1910 should have the honour to represent the country, where it was won by South China Football Club. The club's founder and coach Mok Hing (Chinese: 莫慶) would become China's first coach and on 4 February 1913 in a one-off tournament game held in the Manila he led China to a 2–1 defeat against the Philippines national football team. The political unrest of the Xinhai Revolution that mired China's participation in the first tournament, especially in renaming the team as Republic of China national football team, did not stop Shanghai being awarded the 1915 Far Eastern Championship Games. Once again South China Football Club, now known as South China Athletic Association won the right to represent the nation. This time in a two legged play-off against the Philippines, China won the first game 1–0 and then drew the second 0–0 to win their first ever tournament. With the games being the first and only regional football tournament for national teams outside Britain, China looked to establish themselves as a regional powerhouse by winning a total of nine championships. The Chinese Football Association was founded in 1924 and then was first affiliated with FIFA in 1931. With these foundations in place China looked to establish themselves within the international arena and along with Japan were the first Asian sides to participate in the Football at the Summer Olympics when they competed within the 1936 Summer Olympics held in Germany. At the tournament China were knocked out within their first game at the round of 16 when they were beaten by Great Britain Olympic football team 2–0 on 6 August 1936. On 7 July 1937 the Second Sino-Japanese War officially erupted, which saw the relations between China and Japan completely eroded especially once it was announced that Japan would hold the 1938 Far Eastern Championship Games. The tournament would be officially cancelled while Japan held their own tournament called the 2600th Anniversary of the Japanese Empire, which included the Japanese puppet states Manchukuo and the collaborationist National Reorganised Government of China based in occupied Nanjing. But none of the top Chinese players competed in the Japanese Empire anniversary games. None of the games during the Second Sino-Japanese War are officially recognized and once the war ended on 9 September 1945 China looked to the Olympics once again for international recognition. On 2 August 1948 China competed in the Football at the 1948 Summer Olympics where they were once again knocked out in the last sixteen, this time by Turkey national football team in a 4–0 defeat. When the players returned they found the country in the midst of the Chinese Civil War. When it ended, the team had been split into two, one called the People's Republic of China national football team and the other called Republic of China national football team (later renamed Chinese Taipei national football team). ### Early People's Republic (1950–1976) The newly instated People's Republic of China reformed CFA before having FIFA acknowledge their 1931 membership on 14 June 1952. Finland, who were one of the first nations to hold diplomatic relations with China's new government, invited the country to take part in the 1952 Summer Olympics. Li Fenglou would become the country's first permanent manager to lead them in the tournament, however the Chinese delegation was delayed and they missed the entire competition, nevertheless the Finland national football team would still greet Li and the Chinese team with a friendly game on 4 August 1952 making it People's Republic of China's official first game, which ended in a 4–0 defeat. In preparation for entering their first FIFA competition, China sent a young squad to train in Hungary in 1954. However, when they entered the 1958 FIFA World Cup qualification process China were knocked out by Indonesia. On 7 June 1958, China stopped participating within any FIFA recognised football events when FIFA officially started to recognise the Republic of China as a different country. This sparked a diplomatic argument that had already seen China withdraw from the 1956 Summer Olympics for the same reasons. For years the People's Republic of China would only play in friendlies with nations who recognized them as the sole heir to the China name. On 25 October 1971 the United Nations would recognise the People's Republic country as the sole heir to the China name in their General Assembly Resolution 2758 act. Due to this hearing in 1973, the Nationalist Chinese team, which had been using the name "Republic of China", would stop using that name and would eventually rename themselves as "Chinese Taipei" in 1980. These acts would see China rejoin the international sporting community, first by becoming a member of the Asian Football Confederation in 1974 and by rejoining FIFA again in 1979. ### 1980–2009: an Asian powerhouse The 1974 Asian Games reintroduced the team back into international football while the 1976 AFC Asian Cup saw them came third. In 1980, China participated in the 1982 FIFA World Cup qualifiers for a berth in the 1982 World Cup, but they lost a play-off game against New Zealand. During the 1986 FIFA World Cup qualifiers for the 1986 World Cup, China faced Hong Kong at home in the final match of the first qualifying round on 19 May 1985 where China only needed a draw to advance. However, Hong Kong produced a 2–1 upset win which resulted in riots inside and outside the stadium in Beijing. During the 1990 FIFA World Cup qualifiers, China again reached the final round. They just missed out on qualifying as they conceded two goals in the final three minutes against Qatar in their final group match. During the 1994 FIFA World Cup qualifiers – when they were led by their first ever foreign manager, Klaus Schlapner – China failed to reach the final round of qualifying, coming second behind Iraq. In 1987, the first Chinese footballers moved abroad when future national team player Xie Yuxin joined FC Zwolle (Netherlands) and ex-national teamer Gu Guangming joined SV Darmstadt 98 (Germany). In 1988, national team captain Jia Xiuquan and striker Liu Haiguang both joined FK Partizan (Yugoslavia). After failing to reach the 1998 FIFA World Cup, China appointed Serbian manager Bora Milutinović as coach of the national team, and China saw its fortune increased. The country managed to take fourth-place finish in the 2000 AFC Asian Cup where the Chinese side performed well, and only fell to heavyweights Japan and South Korea by one goal margin. The good performance in Lebanon boosted the confidence of Chinese side, and in 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifiers, China lost only one and drew only one, winning all the remaining games, most notably an important 1–0 win over Oman, to finally reach the 2002 FIFA World Cup, its first and only World Cup up to date. In the 2002 World Cup, China was eliminated after three matches without gaining a single point nor even scoring a goal during their participation in the tournament. China hosted the 2004 AFC Asian Cup, ultimately fell 1–3 to Japan in a final match. The match's outcome sparked anger among Chinese supporters, who rioted in response to bad refereeing. There were an estimated 250 million viewers for the match, the largest single-event sports audience in the country's history at that time. After winning the 2005 East Asian Football Championship following a 2–0 win against North Korea, they started qualification for the 2007 AFC Asian Cup. During this time, the team became the subject of immense criticism and national embarrassment in the media when they had managed to score only one goal, Shao Jiayi's penalty kick during injury time, against Singapore at home and only managed a draw with Singapore in the away game. During preparations for the 2007 AFC Asian Cup, the team spent the weeks leading up to the tournament on a tour of the United States. While the 4–1 loss to the United States was unexpected, a 1–0 loss to Major League Soccer side Real Salt Lake which finished bottom of the league in the 2007 season caused serious concern. During the 2007 AFC Asian Cup, the team played three group matches, winning against Malaysia, drawing with Iran after leading 2–1, and losing 3–0 to Uzbekistan. After high expectations, China's performance at the tournament drew criticism online which condemned the team's members and even the association. Zhu was later replaced as manager by Vladimir Petrović after these performances. Some commented that China's reliance on foreign managers for the past decade had been an indicator of its poor domestic manager development. In June 2008, China failed to qualify for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, losing against Qatar and Iraq at home. After the 2008 Summer Olympics, Petrović was sacked as the manager and Yin Tiesheng was announced as the team's caretaker. ### 2010–present: stagnation #### Gao Hongbo era In April 2009, China appointed Gao Hongbo as the new manager, replacing Yin Tiesheng. His arrival saw China opt for a new strategy, turning towards ground passing tactics and adopting the 4–2–3–1 formation. It was noted that Chinese footballers had relied too heavily on the long ball tactic for almost a decade. Wei Di, the chief of the Chinese Football Association, stressed that, "Anytime, no matter win or loss, they must show their team spirit and courage. I hope, after one year's effort, the national team can give the public a new image." Gao was knocked out of the 2011 AFC Asian Cup's group stage. His winning percentage (65%), the highest for a Chinese manager since Nian Weisi (67.86%), did not defer the Chinese Football Association from replacing him with José Antonio Camacho in August 2011, less than a month before the qualification process for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. #### Appointment of José Antonio Camacho On 13 August 2011, José Antonio Camacho was appointed as the new manager of the team, signing a three-year deal for a reported annual salary of $8 million. Wei Di, CFA chief, explained the decision as being part of a long-term plan to help the country catch up with rivals Japan and South Korea. He noted that, "Compared with our neighbours Japan and South Korea, Chinese football is lagging far behind, we need to work with a long-term view and start to catch up with a pragmatic approach. A lot of our fans expect China to qualify for the 2014 World Cup finals in Brazil. They are afraid that changing the coach at the last moment may cause bad effect to the team's qualifying prospect. I can totally understand that. But we do not have any time to waste." Yu Hongchen, the vice-president of the Chinese Football Administrative Centre, also stated, "The qualifying stage of 2014 World Cup is just a temporary task for him. Even if the task is failed, Camacho will not lose the job. When we started to find a new coach for the national team, we mainly focus on European countries such as Germany, the Netherlands and Spain. First of all, they have advanced football concepts, and secondly they have a productive youth training system, which we can learn from. We hope he can help us to find a suitable style." Camacho managed a team to an 8–0 loss against Brazil on 10 September 2012 which would go on record as China's biggest ever international defeat. This massive loss also succumbed China to their worst ever FIFA ranking (109th). Camacho led China during their qualification process for the 2015 AFC Asian Cup whereby losing the first group match 2–1 to Saudi Arabia. After a 5–1 loss against Thailand in a friendly, Camacho sacked a week as manager with Fu Bo assigned as the caretaker. In light of continued struggles, in 2015, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Xi Jinping expressed the goal of having China's men's national team be the top team in Asia by 2030 and the following year China revealed its ambitious blueprint to be the best in the world by 2050. #### Alain Perrin and Gao Hongbo returns After Camacho, there was Alain Perrin, who finally led China to qualify for the 2015 AFC Asian Cup, which also included luck from the Thailand–Lebanon encounter, in which Thailand lost but salvaged an important goal by Adisak Kraisorn to help improve China's goal difference with the Lebanese. Soon after that, Perrin led China into a series of friendlies, where some positive results against Macedonia, Kuwait, Paraguay and Thailand boosted some optimism. In the 2015 Asian Cup, Perrin's China was placed in a group with Saudi Arabia, Uzbekistan and North Korea. China emerged victoriously in all three games, qualified for the knockout stage for the first time since the 2004 edition. The Chinese Dragons then lost to host Australia 0–2 with Tim Cahill scoring a brace. Despite this, China's 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifiers immediately represented a huge problem for the Chinese side; they were held goalless by Hong Kong at home twice, and lost to Qatar. Perrin was sacked for the team's poor performance at the middle of the second round following another goalless draw to Hong Kong, and former coach Gao Hongbo returned to the role on 3 February 2016, where he had to face a task of guiding China in at the expense of North Korea which had a better second-place ranking than China. Gao's first two matches were consecutive wins against Maldives and Qatar, and with North Korea suddenly slipping out against the Philippines, these results secured the team's passage to the 2019 AFC Asian Cup and entering the final qualifying stage for the World Cup. China continued their World Cup hunt by a 2–3 defeat to South Korea; and a goalless draw to AFC's then highest ranked Iran at home. However, China followed that with a 0–1 loss at home to Syria and 0–2 away to Uzbekistan next month. Gao Hongbo resigned. His team had been winless in the first four matches of the final qualifying stage for the World Cup, including a home loss to Syria which was criticised by a number of fans. #### Lippi's tenure On 22 October 2016, Marcello Lippi was appointed manager of the team ahead for the last remaining matches. A match saw China defeat South Korea for the first time in a FIFA-sanctioned tournament, amidst the heat of tensions over South Korea's deployment of THAAD. However, China's away loss to Iran and a 2–2 draw to Syria meant China was unable to compete with and dragged behind by Syria who managed a 2–2 draw with Iran and not to be qualified for the 2018 World Cup under Lippi's tenure, but improvements could be seen following two late wins over Uzbekistan and Qatar. Lippi led the side during the final stage of the 2019 AFC Asian Cup, where China won 2–1 to Kyrgyzstan and 3–0 to Philippines, before losing 2–0 to group leaders South Korea on 16 January. China then beat Thailand 2–1 to earn a place in the quarter-finals, where it was knocked 3–0 out by Iran; Lippi subsequently confirmed his departure. Another Italian, Fabio Cannavaro was appointed as the next China's manager in conjunction with coaching Guangzhou Evergrande but he stepped down after only two matches. Lacked of option in searching for a new coach, CFA reappointed Marcello Lippi. To improve the team, China had begun a series of naturalization on foreign-based players, with Nico Yennaris, an English-born Cypriot, and Tyias Browning, another English-born player, being naturalized. Subsequently, Elkeson, a Brazilian player with no Chinese ancestry, was naturalized. Despite the process of naturalization, the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification for China proved to be rockier than expected, the team could only beat the Maldives and Guam, before being held goalless in the Philippines and followed with a denting 1–2 away loss to Syria, and Lippi resigned as coach. #### Li Tie's era 2002 FIFA World Cup ace Li Tie was appointed as China's head coach on 2 January 2020. Trailing behind Syria by five points before Li took charge, China were still unable to reclaim their first place but nonetheless managed to win all of their remaining fixtures, including an important 2–0 win over the Philippines and notably a 3–1 win over Syria to guarantee them as the best second-placed team, thus reaching the third round. In the third round, China shared Group B with Asian powerhouses Japan, Australia and Saudi Arabia, alongside Oman and Vietnam. The Chinese started poorly with two losses to Australia and Japan in Doha due to the COVID-19 pandemic at home preventing the country from hosting. After this poor start, China salvaged five points in the next four matches, including a hard-fought 3–2 win over Vietnam and two 1–1 draws to Oman and especially Australia, all occurring in Sharjah, the UAE. However, despite these improvements, Li Tie was sacked on 2 December 2021 amidst heavy criticism. #### Li Xiaopeng's era After Li Tie's resignation, his World Cup teammate Li Xiaopeng took the head coach position with immense pressure. China's first game under Li Xiaopeng, however, was a 0–2 away loss to Japan in Saitama, effectively ending China's hopes of finishing in the top two and could only rely on the play-offs. Yet, on 1 February 2022, coinciding with the traditional Lunar New Year in China, the Chinese stumbled to a shock 1–3 away loss to Vietnam in Hanoi, officially extending China's hunt for a second World Cup appearance to 24 years. This agonising defeat, the first in Chinese football history to its southern neighbour on a special day for both nations, triggered widespread public criticism and condemnation among Chinese fans. With their World Cup hopes completely lost, China grabbed a solitary point coming from a 1–1 draw with the Saudis before losing to Oman 0–2 in Muscat, finishing fifth with two more points than Vietnam. After poor forms in the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualifiers, China took part in the 2022 EAFF E-1 Football Championship under interim manager Aleksandar Janković. Within the leadership of the Serbian, China won four points, finishing third after a 1–0 win over Hong Kong, though for the first time in 12 years, China did not lose to Japan away. Team image ---------- The team is colloquially termed "Dragon's Team" (Chinese: 龙之队; pinyin: *Lóng zhī duì*), "Team China" (Chinese: 中国队), the "National Team" (Chinese: 国家队) or "*Guózú*" (Chinese: 国足, short for Chinese: 国家足球队; pinyin: *Guójiā Zúqiú Duì*; lit. 'national football team'). China's home kit is traditionally all-red with a white or yellow trim while their away kit is traditionally an inverted version of the home kit, fully white with a red trim. During the 1996 AFC Asian Cup, China employed a third kit which was all blue with a white trim and was used against Saudi Arabia during the tournament. The team has also started to use cooling vests in certain warmer climates. After decades of having Adidas producing the team's kits, China's current kit has been produced and manufactured by Nike since 2015. | Kit supplier | Period | Contractannouncement | Contractduration | Value | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Germany Adidas | 1991–2014 | | | | | | United States Nike | 2015–present | 2015-01-03 | 2015–2026 (11 years) | $16 million per year | | Rivalries --------- ### Japan China's rivalry with Japan was exemplified after their 3–1 defeat in the 2004 AFC Asian Cup Final on home soil. The subsequent rioting by Chinese fans at the Workers' Stadium was said to be provoked by controversial officiating during the tournament and the heightened anti-Japanese sentiment at the time. ### South Korea Another rivalry is with neighbour South Korea who China played 27 matches against between 1978 and 2010, without winning a single match. The media coined the term "Koreaphobia" to describe this phenomenon, but China finally registered its first win against South Korea on 10 February 2010, winning 3–0 during the 2010 East Asian Football Championship and eventually going on to win the tournament. ### Hong Kong A rivalry with Hong Kong has been created due to political tensions as well as issues during 2018 World Cup qualification. With Hong Kong fans booing the Chinese national anthem, which Hong Kong share with China, 2018 World Cup qualifier matches were also very tense with both matches resulting in 0–0 draws. ### Uzbekistan The rivalry with Uzbekistan is just a recent development, but also stemmed from previous results which saw China suffered shock defeats to the hand of Uzbekistan in several competitive football games. The two nations first met each other in the final for the 1994 Asian Games, where Uzbekistan, with a squad depleted due to the collapse of the Soviet Union, stunned China with a 4–2 win to claim gold in Uzbekistan's debut in any major football tournament; the game had been accused of match-fixing, though evidence have yet to emerge. This was soon repeated again in the 1996 AFC Asian Cup, which was Uzbekistan's debut in a major competitive football tournament, which China suffered a blowing 0–2 defeat to the Uzbeks, with both goals scored in the dying times right in what would be Uzbekistan's first-ever Asian Cup fixture. Since then, Uzbekistan has frequently become a problematic opponent for China, with China often lost more than won in competitive games against the Uzbeks. China has never beaten Uzbekistan in Uzbek soil, with all two visiting trips ended in defeats for the Chinese. Results and fixtures -------------------- The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.   Win   Draw   Loss   Fixture ### 2022 China  v  South Korea | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 20 July 2022 (2022-07-20) EAFF E-1 Football Championship | **China** | **0–3** | **South Korea** | Toyota, Japan | | 19:00 UTC+9 | | Report (EAFF)Report (EAFF) | * Zhu Chenjie 40' (o.g.) * Kwon Chang-hoon 54' * Cho Gue-sung 80' | Stadium: Toyota StadiumAttendance: 200Referee: Akhrol Riskullaev (Uzbekistan) | Japan  v  China | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 24 July 2022 (2022-07-24) EAFF E-1 Football Championship | **Japan** | **0–0** | **China** | Toyota, Japan | | 19:20 UTC+9 | | Report (EAFF)Report (EAFF) | | Stadium: Toyota StadiumAttendance: 10,526Referee: Nivon Robesh Gamini (Sri Lanka) | China  v  Hong Kong | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 27 July 2022 (2022-07-27) EAFF E-1 Football Championship | **China** | **1–0** | **Hong Kong** | Toyota, Japan | | 16:00 UTC+9 | * Tan Long 67' | Report (EAFF)Report (EAFF) | | Stadium: Toyota StadiumAttendance: 4,220Referee: Mongkolchai Pechsri (Thailand) | ### 2023 New Zealand  v  China | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 23 March 2023 (2023-03-23) Friendly | **New Zealand** | **0–0** | **China** | Auckland, New Zealand | | 19:00 UTC+13 | | Report | | Stadium: Mount Smart StadiumAttendance: 12,049Referee: Sivakorn Pu-udom (Thailand) | New Zealand  v  China | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 26 March 2023 (2023-03-26) Friendly | **New Zealand** | **2–1** | **China** | Wellington, New Zealand | | 16:00 UTC+13 | * Zhu Chenjie 43' (o.g.) * Garbett 81' | Report | * Ba Dun 90+2' | Stadium: Sky StadiumReferee: Kim Woo-sung (South Korea) | China  v  Myanmar | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 16 June 2023 (2023-06-16) Friendly | **China** | **4–0** | **Myanmar** | Dalian, China | | 18:30 UTC+8 | * Zhang Linpeng 29' * Lin Liangming 35' * Wu Lei 75', 81' | Report | | Stadium: Dalian Barracuda Bay Football StadiumAttendance: 27,651Referee: Ryo Tanimoto (Japan) | China  v  Palestine | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 20 June 2023 (2023-06-20) Friendly | **China** | **2–0** | **Palestine** | Dalian, China | | 19:35 UTC+8 | * Wu Lei 34' * Jiang Guangtai 65' | Report | | Stadium: Dalian Barracuda Bay Football StadiumAttendance: 16,151Referee: Yudai Yamamoto (Japan) | China  v  Malaysia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | September 2023 (2023-09) Friendly | **China** | **–** | **Malaysia** | Beijing, China | | --:-- UTC+8 | | | | Stadium: Beijing National Stadium | ### 2024 China  v  Tajikistan | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 13 January 2024 (2024-01-13) AFC Asian Cup | **China** | **v** | **Tajikistan** | Doha, Qatar | | 17:30 UTC+3 | | | | Stadium: Abdullah bin Khalifa Stadium | Lebanon  v  China | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 17 January 2024 (2024-01-17) AFC Asian Cup | **Lebanon** | **v** | **China** | Doha, Qatar | | 14:30 UTC+3 | | | | Stadium: Al Thumama Stadium | Qatar  v  China | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 22 January 2024 (2024-01-22) AFC Asian Cup | **Qatar** | **v** | **China** | Al Rayyan, Qatar | | 18:00 UTC+3 | | | | Stadium: Khalifa International Stadium | * **1 :** Non FIFA 'A' international match Coaching staff -------------- Source| Position | Name | | --- | --- | | Technical director | China Li Jianxiao | | Head coach | Serbia Aleksandar Janković | | Team manager | China Qi Jun | | Assistant coach | Spain Pep Muñoz | | China Sun Jihai | | China Gao Yao | | Serbia Marko Perovic | | Goalkeeper coach | China Ou Chuliang | | China Li Leilei | | Conditioning coach | Brazil Irwing De Freitas | | Fitness coach | China Hu Yu | | Video analyst | China Jiang Yong | | China Zhang Bin | | Match analyst | China Sui Han | | Therapists | China Jin Ri | | China Gao Jianguo | | China Hang Yanrui | | Manager | China Wang Yue | | Logistics | China Guo Rui | | China Chen Xi | | | China Che Hengzhi | | Doctor | China Wang Shucheng | | Team coordinator | China Yuan Jiayang | | ### Coaching history #### 1930–1948 | # | Name | Game | Record | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Hong KongRepublic of China (1912–1949) Tong Fuk Cheung | 1930 Far Eastern Games | **Champions** | | 2 | Hong KongRepublic of China (1912–1949) Lee Wai Tong | 1934 Far Eastern Games | **Champions** | | 3 | Hong Kong Ngan Shing Kwan | 1936 Summer Olympics | First round | | 4 | Hong KongRepublic of China (1912–1949) Lee Wai Tong (2nd time) | 1948 Summer Olympics | First round | #### 1951–present *As of 24 February 2023* | # | Name | Period | Played | Won | Drawn | Lost | GF | GA | Win % | Achievements | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | China Li Fenglou | 1951–1952 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 00.00% | | | 2 | China Ke Lun | 1956 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 100.00% | | | 3 | China Dai Linjing | 1957 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 7 | 25.00% | | | 4 | China Chen Chengda | 1958–1962 | 7 | 4 | 0 | 3 | 14 | 8 | 57.14% | | | 5 | China Nian Weisi | 1963 | 13 | 7 | 3 | 3 | 26 | 11 | 53.85% | | | 6 | China Fang Renqiu | 1964 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 00.00% | | | 7 | China Nian Weisi (2nd time) | 1965–1973 | 28 | 19 | 6 | 3 | 97 | 40 | 67.86% | | | 8 | China Nian Weisi (3rd time) | 1974–1976 | 27 | 14 | 5 | 8 | 58 | 40 | 51.85% | Third place at the 1976 AFC Asian Cup | | 9 | China Zhang Honggen | 1977 | 10 | 6 | 1 | 3 | 20 | 12 | 60.00% | | | 10 | China Nian Weisi (4th time) | 1978 | 14 | 8 | 1 | 5 | 25 | 12 | 57.14% | Bronze medal at the 1978 Asian Games | | 11 | China Zhang Honggen (2nd time) | 1979 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 00.00% | | | 12 | China Nian Weisi (5th time) | 1980 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | 4 | 40.00% | | | 13 | China Su Yongshun | 1980–1982 | 20 | 9 | 5 | 6 | 20 | 18 | 45.00% | | | 14 | China Zhang Honggen (3rd time) | 1982 | 10 | 3 | 5 | 2 | 11 | 10 | 30.00% | | | 15 | China Zeng Xuelin | 1983–1985 | 42 | 24 | 6 | 12 | 99 | 35 | 57.14% | Runners-up of the 1984 AFC Asian Cup | | 16 | China Nian Weisi (6th time) | 1985–1986 | 26 | 14 | 7 | 5 | 44 | 24 | 53.85% | | | 17 | China Gao Fengwen | 1986–1990 | 56 | 27 | 13 | 16 | 112 | 40 | 48.21% | Fourth place at the 1988 AFC Asian Cup | | 18 | China Xu Genbao | 1991–1992 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 00.00% | | | \* | China Chen Xirong (caretaker) | 1992 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 9 | 10 | 60.00% | | | 19 | Germany Klaus Schlappner | 1992–1993 | 25 | 9 | 6 | 10 | 35 | 27 | 36.00% | Third place at the 1992 AFC Asian Cup | | 20 | China Qi Wusheng | 1994–1997 | 55 | 27 | 13 | 15 | 97 | 60 | 49.09% | Silver medal at the 1994 Asian Games | | 21 | England Bobby Houghton | 1997–1999 | 17 | 10 | 3 | 4 | 36 | 15 | 58.82% | Bronze medal at the 1998 Asian Games | | \* | China Jin Zhiyang (caretaker) | 2000 | 5 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 31 | 0 | 100.00% | | | 22 | Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Bora Milutinović | 2000–2002 | 46 | 20 | 11 | 15 | 75 | 50 | 43.48% | Group stage of the 2002 FIFA World CupFourth place at the 2000 AFC Asian Cup | | \* | China Shen Xiangfu (caretaker) | 2002 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 5 | 3 | 33.33% | | | 23 | Netherlands Arie Haan | 2002–2004 | 30 | 17 | 7 | 6 | 52 | 22 | 56.67% | Runners-up of the 2004 AFC Asian Cup | | 24 | China Zhu Guanghu | 2005–2007 | 27 | 9 | 6 | 12 | 35 | 37 | 33.33% | Winners of the 2005 East Asian Football Championship | | 25 | Serbia Vladimir Petrović | 2007–2008 | 18 | 6 | 7 | 5 | 28 | 16 | 33.33% | Third place at the 2008 East Asian Football Championship | | \* | China Yin Tiesheng (caretaker) | 2008–2009 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 11 | 12 | 33.33% | | | 26 | China Gao Hongbo | 2009–2011 | 38 | 24 | 10 | 4 | 65 | 31 | 63.16% | Winners of the 2010 East Asian Football Championship | | 27 | Spain José Antonio Camacho | 2011–2013 | 20 | 7 | 2 | 11 | 23 | 31 | 35.00% | | | \* | China Fu Bo (caretaker) | 2013–2014 | 9 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 18 | 11 | 44.44% | Runners-up of the 2013 EAFF East Asian Cup | | 28 | France Alain Perrin | 2014–2016 | 25 | 11 | 10 | 4 | 45 | 18 | 44.00% | Quarter-Finals at the 2015 AFC Asian CupRunners-up of the 2015 EAFF East Asian Cup | | 29 | China Gao Hongbo (2nd time) | 2016 | 8 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 12 | 9 | 37.50% | Qualified – 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification – AFC third round | | 30 | Italy Marcello Lippi | 2016–2019 | 30 | 10 | 9 | 11 | 35 | 41 | 33.33% | Third place of the 2017 EAFF E-1 Football Championship Quarter-Finals at the 2019 AFC Asian Cup | | \* | Italy Fabio Cannavaro (caretaker) | 2019 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 00.00% | | | 31 | Italy Marcello Lippi | 2019 | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 16 | 2 | 66.67% | | | 32 | China Li Tie | 2019–2021 | 13 | 6 | 2 | 5 | 27 | 15 | 46.2% | Third place of the 2019 EAFF E-1 Football Championship | | 33 | China Li Xiaopeng | 2021–2022 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 8 | 0.00% | | | \* | Serbia Aleksandar Janković (caretaker) | 2022 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 33.33% | Third place of the 2022 EAFF E-1 Football Championship | | 34 | Serbia Aleksandar Janković | 2023– | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 2 | 33.33% | | Players ------- ### Current squad The following players were called up for the Friendly matches against Myanmar and Palestine on 16 and 20 June 2023. *Caps and goals are correct as of 20 June 2023, after the match against Palestine.* | No. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1GK | Yan Junling | (1991-01-28) 28 January 1991 (age 32) | 47 | 0 | China Shanghai Port | | 12 | 1GK | Liu Dianzuo | (1990-06-26) 26 June 1990 (age 33) | 3 | 0 | China Wuhan Three Towns | | 23 | 1GK | Wang Dalei | (1989-01-10) 10 January 1989 (age 34) | 28 | 0 | China Shandong Taishan | | --- | | 2 | 2DF | Tyias Browning | (1994-05-30) 30 May 1994 (age 29) | 16 | 1 | China Shanghai Port | | 3 | 2DF | Gao Zhunyi | (1995-08-21) 21 August 1995 (age 27) | 13 | 0 | China Wuhan Three Towns | | 4 | 2DF | Wang Shenchao | (1989-02-08) 8 February 1989 (age 34) | 19 | 0 | China Shanghai Port | | 5 | 2DF | Zhang Linpeng | (1989-05-09) 9 May 1989 (age 34) | 96 | 6 | China Shanghai Port | | 16 | 2DF | Ming Tian | (1995-04-08) 8 April 1995 (age 28) | 5 | 0 | China Tianjin Jinmen Tiger | | 20 | 2DF | Liu Yang | (1995-06-17) 17 June 1995 (age 28) | 17 | 0 | China Shandong Taishan | | 22 | 2DF | Wei Zhen | (1997-02-12) 12 February 1997 (age 26) | 2 | 0 | China Shanghai Port | | 27 | 2DF | Li Lei | (1992-05-30) 30 May 1992 (age 31) | 6 | 0 | China Beijing Guoan | | --- | | 6 | 3MF | Wang Shangyuan | (1993-06-02) 2 June 1993 (age 30) | 5 | 0 | China Henan | | 8 | 3MF | Xu Xin | (1994-04-19) 19 April 1994 (age 29) | 10 | 1 | China Shanghai Port | | 10 | 3MF | Xie Pengfei | (1993-06-29) 29 June 1993 (age 29) | 8 | 0 | China Wuhan Three Towns | | 11 | 3MF | Lin Liangming | (1997-06-04) 4 June 1997 (age 26) | 4 | 1 | China Dalian Pro | | 13 | 3MF | Wang Qiuming | (1993-01-09) 9 January 1993 (age 30) | 2 | 0 | China Tianjin Jinmen Tiger | | 14 | 3MF | Chen Pu | (1997-01-15) 15 January 1997 (age 26) | 4 | 0 | China Shandong Taishan | | 21 | 3MF | Liu Binbin | (1993-06-16) 16 June 1993 (age 30) | 14 | 1 | China Shandong Taishan | | 25 | 3MF | Sun Guowen | (1993-09-30) 30 September 1993 (age 29) | 3 | 0 | China Shandong Taishan | | 26 | 3MF | Zhang Jiaqi | (1991-12-09) 9 December 1991 (age 31) | 6 | 0 | China Zhejiang | | --- | | 7 | 4FW | Wu Lei | (1991-11-19) 19 November 1991 (age 31) | 83 | 30 | China Shanghai Port | | 9 | 4FW | Ai Kesen | (1989-07-13) 13 July 1989 (age 33) | 15 | 4 | China Chengdu Rongcheng | | 18 | 4FW | Wang Ziming | (1996-08-05) 5 August 1996 (age 26) | 4 | 0 | China Beijing Guoan | ### Recent call-ups The following players have also been called up to the squad within the last twelve months. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | Latest call-up | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | GK | Han Jiaqi | (1999-07-03) 3 July 1999 (age 23) | 3 | 0 | China Beijing Guoan | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | GK | Huang Zihao | (2001-06-09) 9 June 2001 (age 22) | 0 | 0 | China Nanjing City | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | GK | Peng Peng | (2000-11-24) 24 November 2000 (age 22) | 0 | 0 | China Henan | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | --- | | DF | Ren Hang | (1989-02-23) 23 February 1989 (age 34) | 32 | 1 | China Wuhan Three Towns | v.  New Zealand, 23 March 2023INJ | | DF | Zhu Chenjie | (2000-08-23) 23 August 2000 (age 22) | 19 | 1 | China Shanghai Shenhua | v.  New Zealand, 23 March 2023 | | DF | Deng Hanwen | (1995-01-08) 8 January 1995 (age 28) | 14 | 0 | China Wuhan Three Towns | v.  Myanmar, 16 Jun 2023INJ | | DF | Liu Yiming | (1995-02-28) 28 February 1995 (age 28) | 13 | 0 | China Wuhan Three Towns | v.  New Zealand, 23 March 2023 | | DF | Li Ang | (1993-09-15) 15 September 1993 (age 29) | 8 | 0 | China Shanghai Port | v.  New Zealand, 23 March 2023 | | DF | He Yupeng | (1999-12-05) 5 December 1999 (age 23) | 3 | 0 | China Dalian Pro | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | DF | Wen Jiabao | (1999-01-02) 2 January 1999 (age 24) | 3 | 0 | China Shanghai Shenhua | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | DF | Xu Haofeng | (1999-01-27) 27 January 1999 (age 24) | 3 | 0 | China Shenzhen | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | DF | Jiang Shenglong | (2000-12-24) 24 December 2000 (age 22) | 2 | 0 | China Shanghai Shenhua | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | DF | Su Shihao | (1999-12-29) 29 December 1999 (age 23) | 2 | 0 | China Qingdao Youth Island | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | DF | Wu Shaocong | (2000-03-20) 20 March 2000 (age 23) | 2 | 0 | Turkey İstanbul Başakşehir | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | DF | Yeljan Shinar | (1999-06-06) 6 June 1999 (age 24) | 1 | 0 | China Nantong Zhiyun | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | DF | Li Shuai | (1995-06-18) 18 June 1995 (age 28) | 1 | 0 | China Shanghai Port | v.  New Zealand, 23 March 2023 | | DF | Liang Shaowen | (2002-06-12) 12 June 2002 (age 21) | 0 | 0 | China Beijing Guoan | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | DF | Niu Ziyi | (1999-09-21) 21 September 1999 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | China Henan | v.  South Korea, 20 July 2022 INJ | | --- | | MF | Wu Xi | (1989-02-19) 19 February 1989 (age 34) | 82 | 9 | China Shanghai Shenhua | v.  New Zealand, 23 March 2023 | | MF | He Chao | (1995-04-19) 19 April 1995 (age 28) | 7 | 0 | China Wuhan Three Towns | v.  New Zealand, 23 March 2023 | | MF | Dai Wai Tsun | (1999-07-25) 25 July 1999 (age 23) | 7 | 0 | China Shenzhen | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | MF | Chen Guokang | (1999-01-23) 23 January 1999 (age 24) | 3 | 0 | China Meizhou Hakka | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | MF | Xu Yue | (1999-11-10) 10 November 1999 (age 23) | 3 | 0 | China Shenzhen | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | MF | Dilyimit Tudi | (1999-02-25) 25 February 1999 (age 24) | 2 | 0 | China Changchun Yatai | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | MF | Huang Jiahui | (2000-10-07) 7 October 2000 (age 22) | 2 | 0 | China Dalian Pro | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | MF | Tao Qianglong | (2001-11-20) 20 November 2001 (age 21) | 2 | 0 | China Wuhan Three Towns | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | MF | Liu Ruofan | (1999-01-28) 28 January 1999 (age 24) | 0 | 0 | China Shanghai Shenhua | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | MF | Yao Xuchen | (1999-09-11) 11 September 1999 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | China Cangzhou Mighty Lions | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | --- | | FW | Wei Shihao | (1995-04-08) 8 April 1995 (age 28) | 21 | 2 | China Wuhan Three Towns | v.  Myanmar, 16 Jun 2023INJ | | FW | Tan Long | (1988-04-01) 1 April 1988 (age 35) | 11 | 2 | China Changchun Yatai | v.  New Zealand, 23 March 2023 | | FW | Fang Hao | (2000-01-03) 3 January 2000 (age 23) | 3 | 0 | China Beijing Guoan | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | FW | Ba Dun | (1995-09-16) 16 September 1995 (age 27) | 2 | 1 | China Tianjin Jinmen Tiger | v.  New Zealand, 23 March 2023 | | FW | Liu Zhurun | (2001-10-06) 6 October 2001 (age 21) | 2 | 0 | China Shanghai Port | v.  Hong Kong, 27 July 2022 | | --- INJ Withdrew due to injury PRE Preliminary squad RET Retired from the national team SUS Serving suspension | Individual records ------------------ *As of 20 June 2023*. *Players in **bold** are still active with China.* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Most appearances | Rank | Name | Caps | Goals | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Li Weifeng | **112** | 14 | 1998–2011 | | 2 | Gao Lin | **109** | 22 | 2005–2019 | | 3 | Zheng Zhi | **108** | 15 | 2002–2019 | | 4 | Hao Haidong | **106** | 39 | 1992–2004 | | Fan Zhiyi | **106** | 17 | 1992–2002 | | 6 | **Zhang Linpeng** | **96** | 6 | 2009–present | | 7 | Li Tie | **92** | 6 | 1997–2010 | | 8 | **Hao Junmin** | **90** | 12 | 2005–present | | 9 | Zhao Xuri | **87** | 2 | 2003–2019 | | 10 | Ma Mingyu | **86** | 12 | 1996–2002 | | Li Ming | **86** | 8 | 1992–2004 | | Top goalscorers | Rank | Name | Goals | Caps | Ratio | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Hao Haidong | 39 | 106 | 0.37 | 1992–2004 | | 2 | **Wu Lei** | 30 | 83 | 0.36 | 2010–present | | 3 | Yang Xu | 28 | 54 | 0.52 | 2009–2023 | | 4 | Su Maozhen | 27 | 53 | 0.51 | 1994–2002 | | 5 | Li Jinyu | 24 | 70 | 0.34 | 1997–2008 | | 6 | Gao Lin | 22 | 109 | 0.2 | 2005–2019 | | 7 | Ma Lin | 21 | 45 | 0.47 | 1985–1990 | | 8 | Liu Haiguang | 20 | 57 | 0.35 | 1983–1990 | | Li Bing | 20 | 65 | 0.31 | 1992–2001 | | 10 | Zhao Dayu | 19 | 29 | 0.66 | 1982–1986 | | **Yu Dabao** | 19 | 65 | 0.3 | 2010–present | | ### Manager records Most manager appearances China Gao Fengwen: 56 Team records ------------ Biggest victory 19–0 vs. **Guam**, 26 January 2000 Competitive record ------------------ ### FIFA World Cup China has only appeared at one World Cup with the appearance being in the 2002 FIFA World Cup where they finished bottom of the group which included a 4–0 loss to Brazil. | | | Qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Uruguay 1930 | *Did not enter* | *Declined participation* | | Italy 1934 | | France 1938 | | Brazil 1950 | | Switzerland 1954 | | Sweden 1958 | *Did not qualify* | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 5 | | Chile 1962 | *Did not enter* | *Declined participation* | | England 1966 | | Mexico 1970 | | Germany 1974 | | Argentina 1978 | | Spain 1982 | *Did not qualify* | 12 | 7 | 2 | 3 | 19 | 8 | | Mexico 1986 | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 23 | 2 | | Italy 1990 | 11 | 7 | 0 | 4 | 18 | 9 | | United States 1994 | 8 | 6 | 0 | 2 | 18 | 4 | | France 1998 | 14 | 8 | 3 | 3 | 24 | 16 | | South Korea Japan 2002 | Group stage | 31st | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 9 | 14 | 12 | 1 | 1 | 38 | 5 | | Germany 2006 | *Did not qualify* | 6 | 5 | 0 | 1 | 14 | 1 | | South Africa 2010 | 8 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 14 | 4 | | Brazil 2014 | 8 | 5 | 0 | 3 | 23 | 9 | | Russia 2018 | 18 | 8 | 5 | 5 | 35 | 11 | | Qatar 2022 | 18 | 7 | 4 | 7 | 39 | 22 | | Canada Mexico United States 2026 | *To be determined* | *To be determined* | | **Total** | **Group stage** | **1/22** | **3** | **0** | **0** | **3** | **0** | **9** | **126** | **73** | **20** | **33** | **269** | **96** | ### AFC Asian Cup | | | Qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | | Round | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Hong Kong 1956 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | South Korea 1960 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | Israel 1964 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | Iran 1968 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | Thailand 1972 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | Iran 1976 | Third place | **3rd** | **4** | **1** | **1** | **2** | **2** | **4** | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 14 | 4 | | Kuwait 1980 | Group stage | 7th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 9 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 2 | | Singapore 1984 | *Runners-up* | **2nd** | **6** | **4** | **0** | **2** | **11** | **4** | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 15 | 0 | | Qatar 1988 | Fourth place | **4th** | **6** | **2** | **2** | **2** | **7** | **5** | 5 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 10 | 1 | | Japan 1992 | Third place | **3rd** | **5** | **1** | **3** | **1** | **6** | **6** | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 0 | | United Arab Emirates 1996 | Quarter-finals | 8th | 4 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 6 | 7 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 16 | 1 | | Lebanon 2000 | Fourth place | **4th** | **6** | **2** | **2** | **2** | **11** | **7** | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 29 | 0 | | China 2004 | *Runners-up* | **2nd** | **6** | **3** | **2** | **1** | **13** | **6** | *Qualified as hosts* | | Indonesia Malaysia Thailand Vietnam 2007 | Group stage | 9th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 7 | 3 | | Qatar 2011 | 9th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 13 | 5 | | Australia 2015 | Quarter-finals | 7th | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 6 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 5 | 6 | | United Arab Emirates 2019 | 6th | 5 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 27 | 1 | | Qatar 2023 | *Qualified* | 8 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 30 | 3 | | Saudi Arabia 2027 | *To be determined* | *To be determined* | | Total | 13/18 | 0 Titles | 56 | 23 | 13 | 20 | 88 | 65 | 58 | 39 | 11 | 8 | 166 | 26 | ### Summer Olympics | Year | | Result | Pos | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | France 1900 to Netherlands 1928 | *Did not enter* | | Germany 1936 | First round | 12 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | | United Kingdom 1948 | 14 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 4 | | Finland 1952 to Australia 1956 | *Withdrew after qualifying* | | Italy 1960 to Canada 1976 | *Not an IOC member* | | Soviet Union 1980 to United States 1984 | *Did not qualify* | | South Korea 1988 | First round | 14 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 5 | | **Total** | 3/25 | - | 5 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 11 | *For 1992 to 2016, see China national under-23 football team* ### Asian Games | Year | | Result | Rank | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | India 1951 | *Did not enter* | | 1954 | *Did not enter* | | Japan 1958 | *Did not enter* | | 1962 | *Did not enter* | | 1966 | *Did not enter* | | 1970 | *Did not enter* | | Iran 1974 | First round | 10 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 7 | 4 | | Thailand 1978 | Third place | 3 | 7 | 5 | 0 | 2 | 16 | 5 | | India 1982 | Quarter-finals | 7 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 3 | | South Korea 1986 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 7 | | China 1990 | 6 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 8 | 4 | | Japan 1994 | *Runners-up* | 2 | 7 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 16 | 8 | | Thailand 1998 | Third place | 3 | 8 | 6 | 0 | 2 | 24 | 7 | | **Total\*** | **7/13** | - | **37** | **23** | **3** | **11** | **85** | **38** | \* Including 1998 onwards (until 2010) *For 2002 to 2018, see China national under-23 football team* ### EAFF East Asian Cup | Year | | Result | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Japan 2003 | Third place | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 4 | | South Korea 2005 | **Champions** | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 5 | 3 | | China 2008 | Third place | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 5 | | Japan 2010 | **Champions** | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 0 | | South Korea 2013 | *Runners-up* | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 7 | 6 | | China 2015 | *Runners-up* | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 | | Japan 2017 | Third place | 3 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 5 | | South Korea 2019 | Third place | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 3 | | Japan 2022 | Third place | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | | **Total** | | **9/9** | **27** | **9** | **9** | **9** | **36** | **32** | Head-to-head record ------------------- *As of 27 July 2022 after match against  Hong Kong*   Positive Record   Neutral Record   Negative Record | Nations | First Played | Played | Win | Draw | Loss | Goals For | Goals Against | Goal Diff | Win Percentage | Confederation | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Afghanistan | 1984 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | +6 | 100% | AFC | |  Albania | 1973 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 50% | UEFA | |  Algeria | 2004 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 6 | −4 | 33.33% | CAF | |  Andorra | 2004 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 50% | UEFA | |  Argentina | 1984 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 | 100% | CONMEBOL | |  Australia | 1983 | 11 | 4 | 2 | 5 | 11 | 19 | −8 | 45.45% | AFC | |  Bahrain | 1986 | 7 | 3 | 4 | 0 | 14 | 8 | +6 | 71.43% | AFC | |  Bangladesh | 1980 | 5 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 15 | 0 | +15 | 100% | AFC | |  Bhutan | 2015 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 18 | 0 | +18 | 100% | AFC | |  Bosnia and Herzegovina | 1997 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | +3 | 100% | UEFA | |  Botswana | 2009 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 | 100% | CAF | |  Brazil | 2002 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 12 | −12 | 16.67% | CONMEBOL | |  Brunei | 1975 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 22 | 1 | +21 | 100% | AFC | |  Cambodia | 1963 | 6 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 24 | 3 | +21 | 100% | AFC | |  Canada | 1984 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 8 | 7 | +1 | 66.67% | CONCACAF | |  Chile | 2003 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 50% | CONMEBOL | |  Colombia | 1995 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 5 | −3 | 50% | CONMEBOL | |  DR Congo | 1977 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | +1 | 100% | CAF | |  Costa Rica | 2002 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 8 | −2 | 40% | CONCACAF | |  Croatia | 2017 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 50% | UEFA | |  Cuba | 1971 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 | 100% | CONCACAF | |  Czech Republic | 2018 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 4 | −3 | 0% | UEFA | |  Egypt | 1963 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | −2 | 25% | CAF | |  El Salvador | 2008 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 50% | CONCACAF | |  England | 1936 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 5 | −5 | 0% | UEFA | |  Estonia | 2003 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | +4 | 100% | UEFA | |  Fiji | 1975 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 | 100% | OFC | |  Finland | 1952 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 6 | 7 | −1 | 0% | UEFA | |  France | 2006 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | −1 | 50% | UEFA | |  Germany | 2005 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | −1 | 25% | UEFA | |  Ghana | 2012 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 50% | CAF | |  Guam | 2000 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 33 | 0 | +33 | 100% | AFC | |  Guinea | 1965 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 8 | 3 | +5 | 83.33% | CAF | |  Haiti | 2003 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 6 | −1 | 25% | CONCACAF | |  Honduras | 2006 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 | +2 | 50% | CONCACAF | |  Hong Kong | 1975 | 22 | 13 | 7 | 2 | 38 | 8 | +30 | 75% | AFC | |  Hungary | 2004 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | +1 | 100% | UEFA | |  Iceland | 2017 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | −2 | 0% | UEFA | |  India | 1956 | 12 | 7 | 5 | 0 | 17 | 5 | +12 | 79.17% | AFC | |  Indonesia | 1934 | 17 | 11 | 3 | 3 | 42 | 14 | +26 | 73.53% | AFC | |  Iran | 1976 | 23 | 4 | 6 | 13 | 18 | 39 | −21 | 30.43% | AFC | |  Iraq | 1976 | 17 | 6 | 2 | 9 | 18 | 20 | −2 | 41.18% | AFC | |  Italy | 1986 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | −2 | 0% | UEFA | |  Jamaica | 1977 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | +5 | 100% | CONCACAF | |  Japan | 1917 | 36 | 12 | 9 | 15 | 52 | 45 | +7 | 45.83% | AFC | |  Jordan | 1984 | 11 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 18 | 14 | +4 | 70.83% | AFC | |  Kazakhstan | 1997 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 2 | +3 | 66.67% | UEFA | |  Kenya | 1984 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | −1 | 0% | CAF | |  North Korea | 1959 | 24 | 11 | 6 | 7 | 29 | 22 | +7 | 58.33% | AFC | |  South Korea | 1978 | 38 | 2 | 12 | 23 | 26 | 52 | −26 | 23.68% | AFC | |  Kuwait | 1975 | 18 | 8 | 5 | 5 | 24 | 16 | +8 | 58.33% | AFC | |  Kyrgyzstan | 2009 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 1 | +4 | 100% | AFC | |  Laos | 2011 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 3 | +10 | 100% | AFC | |  Latvia | 2010 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 | 100% | UEFA | |  Lebanon | 1998 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 13 | 1 | +12 | 90% | AFC | |  Liechtenstein | 1982 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | −2 | 0% | UEFA | |  Macau | 1978 | 5 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 22 | 2 | +20 | 100% | AFC | |  Malaysia | 1976 | 15 | 11 | 3 | 1 | 37 | 7 | +30 | 83.33% | AFC | |  Maldives | 2001 | 6 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 28 | 1 | +27 | 100% | AFC | |  Mali | 1966 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 3 | +2 | 50% | CAF | |  Mexico | 1987 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 7 | −5 | 0% | CONCACAF | |  Morocco | 1977 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 5 | +1 | 75% | CAF | |  Myanmar | 1957 | 9 | 7 | 0 | 2 | 28 | 4 | +24 | 77.78% | AFC | |    Nepal | 1972 | 5 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 19 | 5 | +14 | 100% | AFC | |  Netherlands | 1996 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 4 | −4 | 0% | UEFA | |  New Zealand | 1975 | 14 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 13 | 15 | −2 | 39.29% | OFC | |  North Macedonia | 2004 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 0 | +4 | 80% | UEFA | |  Norway | 1992 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | +1 | 100% | UEFA | |  Oman | 1987 | 10 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 19 | 11 | +8 | 60% | AFC | |  Pakistan | 1963 | 8 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 23 | 8 | +15 | 75% | AFC | |  Palestine | 2006 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 8 | 2 | +6 | 80% | AFC | |  Papua New Guinea | 1985 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 2 | +3 | 75% | OFC | |  Paraguay | 1996 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 4 | −1 | 50% | CONMEBOL | |  Peru | 1978 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 3 | +1 | 50% | CONMEBOL | |  Philippines | 1913 | 24 | 18 | 4 | 2 | 59 | 13 | +46 | 83.33% | AFC | |  Poland | 1984 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | −2 | 0% | UEFA | |  Portugal | 2002 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | −2 | 0% | UEFA | |  Qatar | 1978 | 19 | 8 | 5 | 6 | 23 | 16 | +7 | 55.26% | AFC | |  Republic of Ireland | 1984 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | −2 | 0% | UEFA | |  Romania | 1984 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 5 | −3 | 0% | UEFA | |  Russia | 1959 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | −1 | 0% | UEFA | |  Saudi Arabia | 1978 | 20 | 7 | 5 | 8 | 24 | 26 | −2 | 47.5% | AFC | |  Senegal | 1972 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 2 | +3 | 75% | CAF | |  Serbia | 2000 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 7 | −7 | 0% | UEFA | |  Sierra Leone | 1974 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 | 100% | CAF | |  Singapore | 1984 | 17 | 11 | 5 | 1 | 38 | 12 | +26 | 79.41% | AFC | |  Slovenia | 2002 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 50% | UEFA | |  Somalia | 1972 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 5 | +5 | 100% | CAF | |  Spain | 2005 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 4 | −4 | 0% | UEFA | |  Sri Lanka | 1972 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 2 | +2 | 100% | AFC | |  Sudan | 1957 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 | 100% | CAF | |  Sweden | 2001 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 6 | −4 | 16.67% | UEFA | |  Switzerland | 2006 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 4 | −3 | 0% | UEFA | |  Syria | 1966 | 14 | 8 | 2 | 4 | 29 | 13 | +16 | 64.29% | AFC | |  Tajikistan | 1997 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 9 | 1 | +8 | 90% | AFC | |  Tanzania | 1966 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 15 | 8 | +7 | 83.33% | CAF | |  Thailand | 1970 | 28 | 18 | 4 | 6 | 61 | 24 | +37 | 71.43% | AFC | |  Trinidad and Tobago | 2001 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 2 | +5 | 100% | CONCACAF | |  Tunisia | 2015 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 50% | CAF | |  Turkey | 1948 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 7 | −7 | 0% | UEFA | |  Turkmenistan | 1994 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 10 | 3 | +7 | 87.5% | AFC | |  United Arab Emirates | 1984 | 11 | 4 | 5 | 2 | 16 | 8 | +8 | 59.09% | AFC | |  United States | 1977 | 8 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 7 | 17 | −10 | 25% | CONCACAF | |  Uruguay | 1982 | 6 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 9 | −7 | 33.33% | CONMEBOL | |  Uzbekistan | 1994 | 13 | 5 | 1 | 7 | 14 | 19 | −5 | 42.31% | AFC | |  Venezuela | 1978 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 | 100% | CONMEBOL | |  Vietnam | 1956 | 16 | 13 | 1 | 2 | 36 | 21 | +15 | 84.38% | AFC | |  Wales | 2018 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 6 | −6 | 0% | UEFA | |  Yemen | 1988 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 1 | +4 | 62.5% | AFC | |  Zambia | 1972 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 50% | CAF | |  Zimbabwe | 1997 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | 100% | CAF | | Total | **1912** | **649** | **319** | **143** | **186** | **1149** | **679** | **+482** | **58.56%** | All | ### 1913–1923 All matches before the founding of Chinese Football Association in 1924 are not counted as A-level match by FIFA: | Nations | First Played | Played | Win | Draw | Loss | Goals For | Goals Against | Goal Diff | Win Percentage | Confederation | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Australia | 1923 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 9 | 19 | −10 | 25% | AFC | |  Japan | 1917 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 1 | +13 | 100% | AFC | |  Hong Kong | 1923 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 50% | AFC | |  Philippines | 1913 | 10 | 6 | 2 | 2 | 15 | 6 | +9 | 70% | AFC | | Total | **1913** | **20** | **10** | **4** | **6** | **39** | **27** | **+12** | **61.25%** | All | Honours ------- ### Continental * **AFC Asian Cup** + *Runners-up (2):* 1984, 2004 + Third place (2): 1976, 1992 * **Asian Games** + *Silver medal (1):* 1994 + Bronze medal (2): 1978, 1998 ### Regional * **EAFF E-1 Football Championship** + **Winners (2):** 2005, 2010 + *Runners-up (2):* 2013, 2015 + Third place (5): 2003, 2008, 2017, 2019, 2022 * **Dynasty Cup** + *Runners-up (2):* 1990, 1998 * **Far Eastern Games** + **Winners (9):** 1915, 1917, 1919, 1921, 1923, 1925, 1927, 1930 (shared), 1934 + *Runners-up (1):* 1913 ### Minor tournaments * China **China Cup** + Third place (1): 2017 * Malaysia **Dunhill Cup** + **Winners (1):** 1997 + *Runners-up (1):* 1999 * China **Four Nations Tournament** + **Winners (2):** January 2000, September 2000 + Third place (1): 2001 * Thailand **King's Cup** + **Winners (1):** 1993 + *Runners-up (1):* 2001 + Third place (1): 1980 (shared) * Japan **Kirin Cup** + Third place (1): 1984 (shared) * Hong Kong **Lunar New Year Cup** + **Winners (1):** 1978 + *Runners-up (2):* 1989, 1990 * Singapore **Merlion Cup** + **Winners (1):** 1986 + Third place (1): 1983 * India **Nehru Cup** + *Runners-up (4):* 1982, 1983, 1984, 1986 + Third place (1): 1997 See also -------- * Sport in China + Football in China - Women's football in China * China national football B team * China national under-23 football team * China national under-20 football team * China national under-17 football team * China national futsal team * China national under-20 futsal team * China national beach soccer team * China women's national football team

China national football team

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_national_football_team

**Osmaniye** (pronounced [osˈmaːnije]) is a city on the eastern edge of the Çukurova plain in southern Turkey. It is the seat of Osmaniye Province and Osmaniye District. Its population is 252,186 (2022). Backed by the foothills of the Nur Mountains, Osmaniye lay on one of the old Silk Roads and was always a place of strategic importance since it straddled the main route between Anatolia and the Middle East. Osmaniye lies at the centre of a rich agricultural region watered by the Ceyhan river and known for growing peanuts. During the intensely hot summers many residents escape either to the Mediterranean coast or into the Nur mountains. The yayla of Zorkun is a particularly popular mountain retreat. Osmaniye is strongly associated with Devlet Bahçeli, the leader of the MHP, who was its member of parliament for many years. History ------- Although Osmaniye was probably inhabited in turn by the Hittites, Persians, Byzantines and Armenians, there is nothing left to show their presence in the modern city. An Islamic presence was first established by the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid, auxiliaries in his army being the first Turks to fight in Anatolia. They obviously liked the area and following the Turkish victory over the Byzantines at Malazgirt in 1071 waves of Turkish conquest began. The Nur Mountains were settled by the Ulaşlı tribe of the Turkmens. The Ulaşlı remained the dominant local power into the period of the Ottoman Empire and were even involved in the Celali uprisings, during a period of crisis for the Ottomans in the 17th century. Eventually, in 1865 the Ottoman general Derviş Paşa was charged with bringing law and order to the Çukurova. He established his headquarters in the Osmaniye villages of Dereobası, Fakıuşağı and Akyar and brought the Ulaşlı down from the mountains to the village of Hacıosmanlı. This eventually became the province of Osmaniye. Between 1924 and 1933 the city of Osmaniye was the capital of the province of the same name. However, in 1933 the province was abolished and Osmaniye became the district governorate for Adana province. Then in 1996 Osmaniye was reinstated as Turkey's 80th province with the city of Osmaniye as its capital. Since then it has received more investment for infrastructure and now feels more like a city than the market town of old. Local attractions ----------------- Osmaniye town has few attractions for visitors other than the city-centre Kent Müzesi (City Museum). However, it makes a good base for visiting the scant remains of the nearby Roman city of Hierapolis-Castabala which huddles at the base of a craggy rock with a castle, probably built by the Armenians, perched on top of it. Climate ------- Köppen map of Osmaniye Province and surrounding regions: * Csa * Csb * Dsa * Dsb Osmaniye has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen: *Csa,* Trewartha*: Cs*) with very hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. | Climate data for Osmaniye (1991–2020, extremes 1987–2020) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 23.7(74.7) | 28.0(82.4) | 32.0(89.6) | 36.5(97.7) | 41.7(107.1) | 42.6(108.7) | 42.8(109.0) | 43.6(110.5) | 45.0(113.0) | 38.4(101.1) | 31.0(87.8) | 29.0(84.2) | 45.0(113.0) | | Average high °C (°F) | 14.5(58.1) | 16.0(60.8) | 19.3(66.7) | 23.3(73.9) | 27.7(81.9) | 31.3(88.3) | 33.4(92.1) | 34.3(93.7) | 32.2(90.0) | 28.4(83.1) | 21.8(71.2) | 16.1(61.0) | 24.9(76.8) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 8.8(47.8) | 10.1(50.2) | 13.2(55.8) | 17.0(62.6) | 21.3(70.3) | 25.2(77.4) | 27.9(82.2) | 28.6(83.5) | 25.7(78.3) | 21.2(70.2) | 14.6(58.3) | 10.1(50.2) | 18.6(65.5) | | Average low °C (°F) | 3.8(38.8) | 4.7(40.5) | 7.5(45.5) | 11.0(51.8) | 15.1(59.2) | 19.1(66.4) | 22.6(72.7) | 23.3(73.9) | 19.6(67.3) | 14.6(58.3) | 8.4(47.1) | 5.1(41.2) | 12.9(55.2) | | Record low °C (°F) | −8.5(16.7) | −6.8(19.8) | −4.0(24.8) | 0.1(32.2) | 4.6(40.3) | 11.5(52.7) | 15.0(59.0) | 15.0(59.0) | 7.8(46.0) | 4.1(39.4) | −4.5(23.9) | −5.4(22.3) | −8.5(16.7) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 106.5(4.19) | 99.8(3.93) | 116.9(4.60) | 87.2(3.43) | 74.2(2.92) | 42.4(1.67) | 19.8(0.78) | 10.7(0.42) | 34.6(1.36) | 68.1(2.68) | 86.6(3.41) | 93.0(3.66) | 839.8(33.06) | | Average precipitation days | 10.87 | 10.57 | 11.33 | 11.27 | 7.97 | 3.57 | 1.73 | 1.43 | 3.97 | 7.23 | 7.30 | 10.20 | 87.4 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 108.5 | 110.2 | 151.9 | 180.0 | 232.5 | 228.0 | 238.7 | 226.3 | 207.0 | 167.4 | 114.0 | 99.2 | 2,063.7 | | Mean daily sunshine hours | 3.5 | 3.9 | 4.9 | 6.0 | 7.5 | 7.6 | 7.7 | 7.3 | 6.9 | 5.4 | 3.8 | 3.2 | 5.6 | | Source: Turkish State Meteorological Service |

Osmaniye

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmaniye

***Nymphaea*** (/nɪmˈfiːə/) is a genus of hardy and tender aquatic plants in the family Nymphaeaceae. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution. Many species are cultivated as ornamental plants, and many cultivars have been bred. Some taxa occur as introduced species where they are not native, and some are weeds. Plants of the genus are known commonly as **water lilies**, or **waterlilies** in the United Kingdom. The genus name is from the Greek νυμφαία, *nymphaia* and the Latin *nymphaea*, which mean "water lily" and were inspired by the nymphs of Greek and Latin mythology. Description ----------- Water lilies are aquatic rhizomatous herbaceous perennials, sometimes with stolons as well. The stem is angular and erect. The leaves grow from the rhizome on long petioles (stalk that attaches the leaf blade to the stem). Floating round leaves of waterlily grow up to 30 centimetres (12 inches) across. The disc-shaped leaf blades are notched and split to the stem in a V-shape at the centre, and are often purple underneath. Most of them float on the surface of the water. The leaves have smooth or spine-toothed edges, and they can be rounded or pointed. The flowers rise out of the water or float on the surface, opening during the day or at night. Many species of *Nymphaea* display protogynous flowering. The temporal separation of these female and male phases is physically reinforced by flower opening and closing, so the first flower opening displays female pistil and then closes at the end of the female phase, and reopens with male stamens. Each has at least eight petals in shades of white, pink, blue, or yellow. Many stamens are at the center. Water lily flowers are entomophilous, meaning they are pollinated by insects, often beetles. The fruit is berry-like and borne on a curving or coiling peduncle. The plant reproduces by root tubers and seeds. Taxonomy -------- This is one of several genera of plants known commonly as lotuses. It is not related to the legume genus *Lotus* or the East Asian and South Asian lotuses of genus *Nelumbo*. It is closely related to *Nuphar* lotuses, however. In *Nymphaea*, the petals are much larger than the sepals, whereas in *Nuphar*, the petals are much smaller. The process of fruit maturation also differs, with *Nymphaea* fruit sinking below the water level immediately after the flower closes, and *Nuphar* fruit remaining above the surface. ### Subgenera * *Anecphya* * *Brachyceras* * *Hydrocallis* * *Lotos* * *Nymphaea*: + section *Chamaenymphaea* + section *Nymphaea* + section *Xanthantha* ### Species As accepted by Plants of the World Online; * *Nymphaea abhayana* A.Chowdhury & M.Chowdhury * *Nymphaea alba* L. – white water lily * *Nymphaea alexii* S.W.L.Jacobs & Hellq. * *Nymphaea amazonum* Mart. & Zucc. – Amazon water lily * *Nymphaea ampla* (Salisb.) DC. – dotleaf water lily * *Nymphaea atrans* S.W.L.Jacobs * *Nymphaea belophylla* Trickett * *Nymphaea × borealis* E.G.Camus * *Nymphaea candida* C.Presl * *Nymphaea carpentariae* S.W.L.Jacobs & Hellq. * *Nymphaea conardii* Wiersema – roundleaf water lily * *Nymphaea × daubenyana* W.T.Baxter ex Daubeny * *Nymphaea dimorpha* I.M.Turner * *Nymphaea divaricata* Hutch. * *Nymphaea elegans* Hook. – tropical royalblue water lily * *Nymphaea elleniae* S.W.L.Jacobs * *Nymphaea gardneriana* Planch. * *Nymphaea georginae* S.W.L.Jacobs & Hellq. * *Nymphaea gigantea* Hook. – giant water lily * *Nymphaea glandulifera* Rodschied – sleeping beauty water lily * *Nymphaea gracilis* Zucc. * *Nymphaea guineensis* Schumach. & Thonn. * *Nymphaea hastifolia* Domin * *Nymphaea heudelotii* Planch. * *Nymphaea immutabilis* S.W.L.Jacobs * *Nymphaea jacobsii* Hellq. * *Nymphaea jamesoniana* Planch. – James' water lily * *Nymphaea kimberleyensis* (S.W.L.Jacobs) S.W.L.Jacobs & Hellq. * *Nymphaea lasiophylla* Mart. & Zucc. * *Nymphaea leibergii* (Morong) Rydb. – Leiberg's water lily * *Nymphaea lingulata* Wiersema * *Nymphaea loriana* Wiersema, Hellq. & Borsch * *Nymphaea lotus* L. – Egyptian white water lily * *Nymphaea lukei* S.W.L.Jacobs & Hellq. * *Nymphaea macrosperma* Merr. & L.M.Perry * *Nymphaea maculata* Schumach. & Thonn. * *Nymphaea malabarica* Poir. * *Nymphaea manipurensis* Asharani & Biseshwori * *Nymphaea mexicana* Zucc. – yellow water lily * *Nymphaea micrantha* Guill. & Perr. * *Nymphaea noelae* S.W.L.Jacobs & Hellq. * *Nymphaea nouchali* Burm.f. – blue lotus * *Nymphaea novogranatensis* Wiersema * *Nymphaea odorata* Aiton – fragrant water lily * *Nymphaea ondinea* Löhne, Wiersema & Borsch * *Nymphaea oxypetala* Planch. * *Nymphaea potamophila* Wiersema * *Nymphaea prolifera* Wiersema * *Nymphaea pubescens* Willd. – hairy water lily * *Nymphaea pulchella* DC. * *Nymphaea × rosea* (Sims) Sweet * *Nymphaea rubra* Roxb. ex Andrews – India red water lily * *Nymphaea rudgeana* G.Mey. * *Nymphaea siamensis* Puripany. * *Nymphaea stuhlmannii* (Engl.) Schweinf. & Gilg * *Nymphaea sulphurea* Gilg * *Nymphaea × sundvikii* Hiitonen * *Nymphaea tenuinervia* Casp. * *Nymphaea tetragona* Georgi – pygmy water lily * *Nymphaea thermarum* Eb.Fisch. * *Nymphaea × thiona* D.B.Ward * *Nymphaea vanildae* C.T.Lima & Giul. * *Nymphaea vaporalis* S.W.L.Jacobs & Hellq. * *Nymphaea violacea* Lehm. Note; *Nymphaea caerulea* – blue Egyptian lotus - synonym of *Nymphaea nouchali* var. *caerulea*. Cultivation ----------- Water lilies are not only decorative, but also provide useful shade which helps reduce the growth of algae in ponds and lakes. Many of the water lilies familiar in water gardening are hybrids and cultivars. These cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit: * 'Escarboucle' (orange-red) * 'Gladstoniana' (double white flowers with prominent yellow stamens) * 'Gonnère' (double white scented flowers) * 'James Brydon;' (cupped rose-red flowers) * 'Marliacea Chromatella' (pale yellow flowers) * 'Pygmaea Helvola' (miniature, with cupped fragrant yellow flowers) Uses ---- All water lilies are poisonous and contain an alkaloid called nupharin in almost all of their parts, with the exception of the seeds and in some species, the tubers. The European species contain large amounts of nupharin, and are considered inedible. The amount of nupharin in the leaves and stalks appears to vary seasonally in European species. In some species, the rhizomes and tubers are eaten after boiling has neutralised the nupharin. The tubers of a number of Australian, Asian and African species are completely edible, during the dry season some consist almost entirely of starch. The Ancient Egyptians ate them boiled. In India, it has mostly been eaten as a famine food or as a medicinal (both cooked), but in one area the dried rhizomes were pounded into a sort of bread, and the tubers are often eaten in the floodplains. In Vietnam, the rhizomes were eaten roasted. In Sri Lanka it was formerly eaten as a type of medicine and its price was too high to serve as a normal meal, but in the 1940s or earlier some villagers began to grow water lilies in the paddy fields left uncultivated during the monsoon season (Yala season), and the price dropped. The tubers are called *manel* here and eaten boiled and in curries. The tubers of all occurring species were eaten in West Africa and Madagascar (where they are called *tantamon* for blue and *laze-laze* for white), usually boiled or roasted. In West Africa, usage varied between cultures, in the Upper Guinea the rhizomes were only considered famine foods - here the tubers were either roasted in ashes, or dried and ground into a flour. The Buduma people ate the seeds and rhizomes. Some tribes ate the rhizomes raw. The Hausa people of Ghana, Nigeria and the people of Southern Sudan used the tubers of *Nymphaea lotus*, the seeds (inside the tubers) are locally referred to as ‘gunsi’ in Ghana. They are ground into flour. In China the tubers were eaten cooked. The plants were also said to be eaten in the Philippines. In the 1950s there were no records of leaves or flowers being eaten. In a North American species, the boiled young leaves and unopened flower buds are said to be edible. The seeds, high in starch, protein, and oil, may be popped, parched, or ground into flour. Potato-like tubers can be collected from the species *N. tuberosa* (=*N. odorata*). The tubers of *Nymphaea gigantea* of Australia were roasted by certain tribes, these turn the colour blue when boiled, the tubers of other species were also roasted elsewhere on that continent. Water lilies were said to have been a major food source for a certain tribe of indigenous Australians in 1930, with the flowers and stems eaten raw, while the "roots and seedpods" were cooked either on an open fire or in a ground oven. Culture ------- The Ancient Egyptians used the water lilies of the Nile as cultural symbols. Since 1580 it has become popular in the English language to apply the Latin word *lotus*, originally used to designate a tree, to the water lilies growing in Egypt, and much later the word was used to translate words in Indian texts. The lotus motif is a frequent feature of temple column architecture. In Egypt, the lotus, rising from the bottom mud to unfold its petals to the sun, suggested the glory of the sun's own emergence from the primaeval slime. It was a metaphor of creation. It was a symbol of the fertility gods and goddesses as well as a symbol of the upper Nile as the giver of life. The flowers of the blue Egyptian water lily (*N. caerulea*) open in the morning and close at dusk, while those of the white water lily (*N. lotus*) open at night and close in the morning. Egyptians found this symbolic of the separation of deities and of death and the afterlife. Remains of both flowers have been found in the burial tomb of Ramesses II. A Roman belief existed that drinking a liquid of crushed *Nymphaea* in vinegar for 10 consecutive days turned a boy into a eunuch. The Nymphaea, which is also called (Nilufar in Persian), can be seen in many reliefs of the Achaemenid period (552 BC) such as the statue of Anahita in the Persepolis. Lotus flower was included in Kaveh the blacksmith's Derafsh and later as the flag of the Sasanian Empire Derafsh Kaviani. Today, it is known as the symbol of Iranians Solar Hijri Calendar. A Syrian terra-cotta plaque from the 14th–13th centuries BC shows the goddess Asherah holding two lotus blossoms. An ivory panel from the 9th-8th centuries BC shows the god Horus seated on a lotus blossom, flanked by two cherubs. There is a Polish poem by 19th-century poet Juliusz Słowacki in which the rhizomes are eaten. The French Impressionist painter Claude Monet is known for his many paintings of water lilies in the pond in his garden at Giverny. *N. nouchali* is the national flower of Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Water lilies are also used as ritual narcotics. According to one source, this topic "was the subject of a lecture by William Emboden given at Nash Hall of the Harvard Botanical Museum on the morning of April 6, 1979". Examples -------- * Nymphaea alba*Nymphaea alba* * Nymphaea colorata*Nymphaea colorata* * Nymphaea gigantea*Nymphaea gigantea* * Nymphaea nouchali*Nymphaea nouchali* * Nymphaea 'Attraction'*Nymphaea* 'Attraction' * Nymphaea laydekeri purpurata*Nymphaea laydekeri purpurata* * Nymphaea mexicana*Nymphaea mexicana* * Nymphaea capensis*Nymphaea capensis* * Nymphaea candida*Nymphaea candida* * Nymphaea × daubenyana*Nymphaea* × *daubenyana* See also -------- * Albert de Lestang, propagator and seed collector * List of plants known as lily Further reading --------------- * Slocum, P. D. *Waterlilies and Lotuses*. Timber Press. 2005. ISBN 0-88192-684-1 (restricted online version at Google Books)

Nymphaea

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nymphaea

The **sulphur-crested cockatoo** (***Cacatua galerita***) is a relatively large white cockatoo found in wooded habitats in Australia, New Guinea, and some of the islands of Indonesia. They can be locally very numerous, leading to them sometimes being considered pests. A highly intelligent bird, they are well known in aviculture, although they can be demanding pets. Distribution ------------ In Australia, sulphur-crested cockatoos can be found widely in the north and east, ranging from the Kimberley to as far south as Tasmania, but avoiding arid inland areas with few trees. They are numerous in suburban habitats in cities such as Adelaide, Melbourne, Canberra, Sydney and Brisbane. Except for highland areas, they occur throughout most of New Guinea and on nearby smaller islands such as Waigeo, Misool and Aru, and various islands in the Cenderawasih Bay and Milne Bay. There are four recognised subspecies: | Image | Scientific name | Common Name | Distribution | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | *C. g. triton* (Temminck, 1849) | Triton cockatoo | Found in New Guinea and the surrounding islands | | | *C. g. eleonora* (Finsch, 1867) | Eleonora cockatoo | Restricted to the Aru Islands in the Maluku province of eastern Indonesia | | | *C. g. fitzroyi* (Mathews, 1912) | Mathews cockatoo | Northern Australia from West Australia to the Gulf of Carpentaria | | | *C. g. galerita* (Latham 1790) | Greater sulphur-crested cockatoo | Found from Cape York to Tasmania. | | ### Introduced species Within Australia, sulphur-crested cockatoos of the nominate race have also been introduced to Perth, which is far outside the natural range. Outside Australia, they have been introduced to Singapore, where their numbers have been estimated to be between 500 and 2000. They have also been introduced to Palau and New Zealand. In New Zealand, the introduced populations may number less than 1000. This species has also been recorded as established in Hawaii and from various islands in Wallacea (e.g. Kai Islands and Ambon), but it is unclear if it has managed to become established there. Description ----------- Sulphur-crested cockatoos are 44–55 cm (17.5–21.5 in) long, with the Australian subspecies larger than subspecies from New Guinea and nearby islands. The plumage is overall white, while the underwing and -tail are tinged yellow. The expressive crest is yellow. The bill is black, the legs are grey, and the eye-ring is whitish. Males typically have almost black eyes, whereas the females have a more red or brown eye, but this requires optimum viewing conditions to be seen. The differences between the subspecies are subtle. *C. g. fitzroyi* is similar to the nominate race but lacks the yellow on the ear tufts and has slightly blueish skin around the eye. *C. g. eleonora* is similar to *C. g. fitzroyi* but is smaller and has broader feathers in the crest, and *C. g. triton* is similar to *C. g. eleonora* except it has a smaller bill. It is similar in appearance to the three species of corellas found in Australia. However, corellas are smaller, lack the prominent yellow crest and have pale bills. In captivity, the sulphur-crested cockatoo is easily confused with the smaller yellow-crested cockatoo or the blue-eyed cockatoo with a differently shaped crest and a darker blue eye-ring. Behaviour --------- Sulphur-crested cockatoos' distinctive raucous calls can be very loud, which is a result of an adaptation in order to travel through the forest environments in which they live, including tropical and subtropical rainforests. These birds are naturally curious, as well as very intelligent. They have adapted very well to European settlement in Australia and live in many urban areas. Being intelligent, in Sydney, Australia they have learned how to open garbage bins as a source of food. The behavior spreads among the birds by imitation. In captivity some will spontaneously dance to music with a variety of unique moves. These birds are very long-lived, and can live upwards of 70 years in captivity, although they only live to about 20–40 years in the wild. They have been known to engage in geophagy, the process of eating clay to detoxify their food. These birds produce a very fine powder to waterproof themselves instead of oil as many other birds do. The sulphur-crested cockatoo is a seasonal breeder in Australia; little is known about its breeding behaviour in New Guinea. In southern Australia the breeding season is from August to January, whereas in northern Australia the season is from May to September. The nest is a bed of wood chips in a hollow in a tree. Like many other parrots it competes with others of its species and with other species for nesting sites. Two to three eggs are laid and incubation lasts between 25–27 days. Both parents incubate the eggs and raise the nestlings. The nestling period is between 9 and 12 weeks, and the young fledglings remain with their parents for a number of months after fledging. Sulphur-crested cockatoos have a range of visually observable expressions. A 2009 study involving an Eleonora cockatoo (the subspecies *Cacatua galerita eleonora*) named Snowball found that sulphur-crested cockatoos are capable of synchronizing movements to a musical beat. Sulphur-crested cockatoos use facial expressions (with their feathers) to indicate positive emotions. Species that feed on the ground are very vulnerable to predator attack. The cockatoo has evolved a behavioural adaptation to protect against this: whenever there is a flock on the ground, there is at least one high up in a tree (usually a dead tree), keeping guard. This is so well known that it has even entered Australian slang: a person keeping guard for sudden police raids on illegal gambling gatherings is referred to as a *cockatoo* or *cocky* for short. Pest status ----------- In some parts of Australia, sulphur-crested cockatoos can be very numerous, and may cause damage to cereal and fruit crops and newly planted tree seedlings, as well as soft timber on houses and outdoor furniture. Consequently, they are sometimes shot or poisoned as pests. A government permit is required for any culling, because the birds are a protected species under the Australian Commonwealth Law. Aviculture ---------- Sulphur-crested cockatoos may no longer be imported into the United States as a result of the Wild Bird Conservation Act (WBCA). However, they have been bred in captivity, with Eleonora and Triton cockatoos the most common subspecies seen in aviculture in the USA and Europe. They are socially demanding pets and have a natural desire to chew wood and other hard and organic materials. They are also loud, often unleashing loud squawks or piercing screeches. They may also make aggressive, unpredictable movements which can frighten people and animals unaware of the accompanying affection. One cockatoo called Fred was still alive at 100 years of age in 2014. Cocky Bennett of Tom Ugly's Point in Sydney was a celebrated sulphur-crested cockatoo who reached an age of 100 years or more. He had lost his feathers and was naked for much of his life, and died in the early years of the twentieth century. His body was stuffed and preserved after death. Another 'cocky', born in 1921 and residing in Arncliffe with his owner Charlie Knighton, was 76 years old in the late 1990s. Their longevity can cause a problem of being a beloved pet and bonding to an adult who then, as they age together, dies while the bird is in their prime but has lost their life partner. The deceased owner's children are often faced with the problem of how to rehome the bird. RSPCA in Canberra regularly form large flocks of these birds which are then rehabilitated to the wild as a family unit. Sulphur-crested cockatoos, along with many other parrots, are susceptible to psittacine beak and feather disease, a viral disease, which causes birds to lose their feathers and grow grotesquely shaped beaks. The disease occurs naturally in the wild, and in captivity. ### Bibliography * Lendon, Alan H. (1973). *Australian Parrots in Field and Aviary* (2nd ed.). Sydney: Angus and Robertson. ISBN 0-207-12424-8. * Rowley, Ian (1997). "Family Cacatuidae (Cockatoos)". In Josep, del Hoyo; Andrew, Elliott; Jordi, Sargatal (eds.). *Sandgrouse to Cuckoos*. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 4. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 9788487334221. ### Further reading * Flegg, Jim (2002). *Birds of Australia: Photographic Field Guide*. Sydney: Reed New Holland. ISBN 1-876334-78-9. * Higgins, Peter J., ed. (1999). "*Cacatua galerita* Sulphur-crested Cockatoo" (PDF). *Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 4: Parrots to dollarbird*. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. pp. 163–176. ISBN 978-0-19-553071-1.

Sulphur-crested cockatoo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulphur-crested_cockatoo

**Kutaisi** (/kuːˈtaɪsiː/, Georgian: ქუთაისი [ˈkʰutʰɑisi]) is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world and the third-most populous city in Georgia after Tbilisi and Batumi. Situated 221 kilometres (137 miles) west of Tbilisi, on the Rioni River, it is the capital of the western region of Imereti. Historically one of the major cities of Georgia, it served as political center of Colchis in the Middle Ages as capital of the Kingdom of Abkhazia and Kingdom of Georgia and later as the capital of the Kingdom of Imereti. From October 2012 to December 2018, Kutaisi was the seat of the Parliament of Georgia as an effort to decentralise the Georgian government. History ------- Archaeological evidence indicates that the city functioned as the capital of the Colchis in the sixth to fifth centuries BC. It is believed that, in *Argonautica*, a Greek epic poem about Jason and the Argonauts and their journey to Colchis, author Apollonius Rhodius considered Kutaisi their final destination as well as the residence of King Aeëtes. Later, it was the capital of the kingdom of Lazica until being occupied briefly by the Arabs. An Arab incursion into western Georgia was repelled by Abkhazians jointly with Lazic and Iberian allies in 736, towards c.786, Leon II won his full independence from Byzantine and transferred his capital to Kutaisi, thus unifying Lazica and Abasgia via a dynastic union. The latter led the unification of the Georgian monarchy in the 11th century. From 1008 to 1122, Kutaisi served as the capital of the United Kingdom of Georgia, and, from the 15th century until 1810, it was the capital of the Imeretian Kingdom. In 1508, the city was conquered by Selim I, who was the son of Bayezid II, the sultan of the Ottoman Empire. During the 17th century, Imeretian kings made many appeals to Russian Empire to help them in their struggle for independence from the Ottomans. All these appeals were ignored as Russia did not want to spoil relations with Turkey. Only in the reign of Catherine the Great, in 1768, were troops of general Gottlieb Heinrich Totleben sent to join the forces of King Heraclius II of Georgia, who hoped to reconquer the Ottoman-held southern Georgian lands, with Russian help. Totleben helped King Solomon I of Imereti to recover his capital, Kutaisi, on August 6, 1770. Finally, the Russian-Turkish wars ended in 1810 with the annexation of the Imeretian Kingdom by the Russian Empire. The city was the administrative capital of the Kutais Uyezd and the larger Kutaisi Governorate, which included much of west Georgia. In March 1879, the city was the site of a blood libel trial that attracted attention all over Russia; the ten accused Jews were acquitted. Kutaisi was a major industrial center before Georgia's independence on 9 April 1991. Independence was followed by the economic collapse of the country, and, as a result, many inhabitants of Kutaisi have had to work abroad. Small-scale trade prevails among the rest of the population. In 2011, Mikheil Saakashvili, the president of Georgia, signed a constitutional amendment relocating the parliament to Kutaisi. On 26 May 2012, Saakashvili inaugurated the new Parliament building in Kutaisi. This was done in an effort to decentralise power and shift some political control closer to Abkhazia, although it has been criticised as marginalising the legislature, and also for the demolition of a Soviet War Memorial formerly at the new building's location. The subsequent government of the Georgian Dream passed a new constitution that moved the parliament back to Tbilisi, effective from January 2019. Culture ------- ### Landmarks The landmark of the city is the ruined Bagrati Cathedral, built by Bagrat III, king of Georgia, in the early 11th century. The Gelati Monastery a few km east of the city, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. One of the famous churches in Georgia is Motsameta monastery. It is named after two saints, brothers David and Constantine. They were the Dukes of Margveti, and were martyred by Arab invaders in the 8th  century. Besides the churches, there are other places of note such as: Sataplia Cave, where one can observe footprints of dinosaurs; ruins of Geguti Palace, which was one of the residences of Georgian monarchs; "Okros Chardakhi" – Georgian Kings’ Palace; the Pantheon, where many notable citizens are buried; The Kutaisi Synagogue which was built in 1885. * A street in central KutaisiA street in central Kutaisi * Church of AnnunciationChurch of Annunciation * Court of AppealsCourt of Appeals * Kutaisi Public SchoolKutaisi Public School * Local synagogue built in 1886Local synagogue built in 1886 * Kutaisi State OperaKutaisi State Opera * Akaki Tsereteli State UniversityAkaki Tsereteli State University ### Museums and other cultural institutions * Kutaisi State Historical Museum * Kutaisi Museum of Sport * Kutaisi Museum of Martial Art * Museum of Zakaria Paliashvili * Kutaisi State Historical Archive * Kutaisi State Scientific-Universal Library * Akaki Tsereteli State University ### Theatres and cinema * Kutaisi Lado Meskhishvili State Academic Theatre * Kutaisi Meliton Balanchivadze State Opera House * Kutaisi Iakob Gogebashvili State Puppet Theatre * Cinema and Entertaining Center “Suliko” * Hermann-Wedekind-Jugendtheater ### Education Higher educational institutions in Kutaisi: * Akaki Tsereteli State University * Kutaisi International University * Georgian State University of Subtropical Agriculture * Kutaisi University (Unik) * Cadets Military Lyceum of Georgia ### Professional unions and public organizations * Georgian Writers’ Union * Georgian Painters’ Union * Folk Palace ### Media Local newspapers include: *Kutaisi*, *Imeretis Moabe*, *PS*, *Akhali Gazeti*, and *Kutaisuri Versia*. Other publications include *Chveneburebi*, a journal published by the Ministry of Diaspora Issues, and *Gantiadi*, a scientific journal. TV: "Rioni"; Radio: "Dzveli Kalaki" (old City) Also nearly all of Georgia's national-level newspapers, journals and television stations have their representatives in Kutaisi. Geography --------- Kutaisi is located along both banks of the Rioni River. The city lies at an elevation of 125–300 metres (410–984 feet) above sea level. To the east and northeast, Kutaisi is bounded by the Northern Imereti Foothills, to the north by the Samgurali Range, and to the west and the south by the Colchis Plain. ### Landscape Kutaisi is surrounded by deciduous forests to the northeast and the northwest. The low-lying outskirts of the city have a largely agricultural landscape. The city center has many gardens and its streets are lined with high, leafy trees. In the springtime, when the snow starts to melt in the nearby mountains, the storming Rioni River in the middle of the city is heard far beyond its banks. ### Climate Kutaisi has a humid subtropical climate (*Cfa*) with a well-defined on-shore/monsoonal flow (characteristic of the Colchis Plain) during the autumn and winter months. The summers are generally hot and relatively dry while the winters are wet and cool. The average annual temperature in the city is 14.8 °C (58.6 °F). January is the coldest month with an average temperature of 5.4 °C (41.7 °F) while August is the hottest month with an average temperature of 24.7 °C (76.5 °F). The absolute minimum recorded temperature is −17.0 °C (1.4 °F) and the absolute maximum is 43.1 °C (109.6 °F). Average annual precipitation is around 1,500 mm (59.06 in). Rain may fall in every season of the year. The city often experiences heavy, wet snowfall (snowfall of 30 cm / 12 in or more per single snowstorm is not uncommon) in the winter, but the snow cover usually does not last for more than a week. Kutaisi experiences powerful easterly winds in the summer which descend from the nearby mountains. | Climate data for Kutaisi (normals and extremes 1981–2010) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 21.4(70.5) | 22.8(73.0) | 29.0(84.2) | 33.9(93.0) | 37.6(99.7) | 39.0(102.2) | 43.1(109.6) | 42.0(107.6) | 40.0(104.0) | 35.2(95.4) | 28.6(83.5) | 24.6(76.3) | 43.1(109.6) | | Average high °C (°F) | 9.2(48.6) | 10.1(50.2) | 14.2(57.6) | 19.9(67.8) | 23.9(75.0) | 26.9(80.4) | 28.6(83.5) | 29.3(84.7) | 26.4(79.5) | 21.8(71.2) | 15.8(60.4) | 11.4(52.5) | 19.8(67.6) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.6(42.1) | 5.9(42.6) | 9.0(48.2) | 13.8(56.8) | 17.8(64.0) | 21.2(70.2) | 23.6(74.5) | 24.0(75.2) | 20.9(69.6) | 16.7(62.1) | 11.4(52.5) | 7.7(45.9) | 14.8(58.6) | | Average low °C (°F) | 3.2(37.8) | 3.1(37.6) | 5.6(42.1) | 9.6(49.3) | 13.4(56.1) | 17.1(62.8) | 19.9(67.8) | 20.1(68.2) | 16.9(62.4) | 13.3(55.9) | 8.5(47.3) | 5.2(41.4) | 11.3(52.3) | | Record low °C (°F) | −6.6(20.1) | −9.8(14.4) | −5.3(22.5) | −2.1(28.2) | 2.6(36.7) | 8.5(47.3) | 13.0(55.4) | 12.1(53.8) | 8.7(47.7) | 3.0(37.4) | −0.5(31.1) | −6.7(19.9) | −9.8(14.4) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 164.7(6.48) | 121.4(4.78) | 129.6(5.10) | 88.0(3.46) | 91.3(3.59) | 110.0(4.33) | 98.0(3.86) | 96.6(3.80) | 114.6(4.51) | 148.4(5.84) | 145.8(5.74) | 152.5(6.00) | 1,461(57.52) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 11.7 | 13.8 | 13.8 | 13.3 | 12.1 | 11.9 | 13.6 | 11.6 | 10.8 | 10.3 | 11.8 | 14.5 | 149.2 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 68 | 68 | 69 | 66 | 69 | 72 | 76 | 75 | 74 | 71 | 65 | 64 | 70 | | Source 1: World Meteorological Organization | | Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (days with precipitation and humidity) | Population ---------- **Historical population and ethnic composition of Kutaisi**| Year | Georgians | Jews | Armenians | Russians | Others | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1886 | 15,200 | 67.1% | 2.788 | 12.3% | 2,320 | 10.2% | 1,526 | 6.7% | | | **22,643** | | 1897 | 22,017 | 67.8% | 3,419 | 10.5% | 1,264 | 3.9% | 3,684 | 11.3% | | | **32,476** | | 1916 | 33,843 | 58.2% | 10,479 | 18.0% | 1,845 | 3.2% | 10,975 | 18.9% | 1,009 | 1.7% | **58,151** | | 1926 | 39,871 | 82.7% | 4,738 | 9.8% | 830 | 1.7% | 890 | 1.8% | | | **48,196** | | 1939 | 59,612 | 76.9% | 6,986 | 4.7% | 977 | 1.3% | 8,753 | 11.3% | | | **77,515** | | 1959 | 96,614 | 75.4% | 581 | 0.5% | 1,614 | 1.3% | 16,213 | 12.6% | | | **128,203** | | 1970 | | | | | | | | | | | **160,937** | | 1979 | | | | | | | | | | | **194,297** | | 1989 | | | | | | | | | | | **234,870** | | 2002 | 181,465 | 97.6% | | | 613 | 0.3% | 2,223 | 1.2% | 1,664 | 0.9% | **185,965** | | 2014 | 146,153 | 99.00% | 60 | 0.04% | 127 | 0.09% | 533 | 0.36% | 762 | 0.52% | **147,635** | | Administrative division ----------------------- There are 12 administrative units in Kutaisi: 1. Avtokarkhana 2. Gamarjveba 3. Gumati 4. Vakisubani 5. Kakhianouri 6. Mukhnari 7. Nikea 8. Sapichkhia 9. Sulkhan-Saba 10. Ukimerioni 11. City-museum 12. Dzelkviani Government ---------- ### Mayor The most recent mayoral election was held on 2 October 2021, with a runoff held on 30 October, and the results were as follows: | Candidate | Party | First round | Second round | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Votes | % | Votes | % | | | Khatia Dekanoidze | United National Movement | 28,325 | 43.33 | 32,703 | 48.36 | | | **Ioseb Khakhaleishvili** | Georgian Dream | 27,093 | 41.45 | 34,925 | 51.64 | | | Giorgi Goguadze | For Georgia | 5,698 | 8.72 | | | | Andro Losaberidze | Strategy Aghmashenebeli | 3,276 | 5.01 | | | | Irina Saghinadze | Free Georgia | 971 | 1.49 | | | Total | 65,363 | 100.00 | 67,628 | 100.00 | | | | Valid votes | 65,363 | 95.51 | 67,628 | 96.58 | | Invalid/blank votes | 3,074 | 4.49 | 2,396 | 3.42 | | Total votes | 68,437 | 100.00 | 70,024 | 100.00 | | Registered voters/turnout | 153,861 | 44.48 | 153,726 | 45.55 | | Source: CEC, CEC | **List of elected mayors of Kutaisi** * **Ioseb Khakhaleishvili** (GD) (2020–) * Giorgi Chighvaria (GD) (2017–2020) * Shota Murghulia (GD) (2014–2017) ### City council The Kutaisi city council (Sakrebulo) governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on October 2, 2021, and the results were as follows: | Party | Lead candidate | Votes |  % | +/- | Seats | +/- | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Georgian Dream | Dimitri Mkheidze | 25,957 | 39.21 | Decrease 9.94 | 18 | Decrease 1 | | | United National Movement | Giga Shushania | 24,893 | 37.60 | Increase 14.23 | 14 | Increase 10 | | | For Georgia | Eleonora Archaia | 4,440 | 6.71 | New | 2 | New | | | Strategy Aghmashenebeli | Koba Guruli | 2,168 | 3.28 | Increase 0.64 | 1 | Increase 1 | | | | | Lelo | Gia Gurgenidze | 1,339 | 2.02 | New | 0 | New | | | Labour Party | Samson Gugava | 1,130 | 1.71 | Decrease 2.05 | 0 | Steady | | | Girchi - More Freedom | Dachi Dididze | 1,073 | 1.62 | New | 0 | New | | | For the People | Shota Chikovani | 820 | 1.24 | New | 0 | New | | | Alliance of Patriots | Nona Asatiani | 804 | 1.21 | Decrease 2.68 | 0 | Steady | | | European Georgia | David Gogisvanidze | 733 | 1.11 | Decrease 10.82 | 0 | Decrease 2 | | Total | 68,486 | 100.0 | | 35 | ±10 | | Electorate/voter turnout | 153,861 | 44.53 | Decrease 0.81 | | | | Source: არჩევნების შედეგები | Economy ------- Kutaisi has traditionally been an important industrial center in Georgia, but after the collapse of the Soviet Union most of the old manufacturing lines either stopped working or had to greatly reduce their operations. Nevertheless, the city continues to be an important regional center for the greater Imereti area, acting as a commercial hub for the surrounding countryside. In recent years, the city has started attracting more investment from various multinational corporations. The Auto Mechanical Plant, originally established in 1945, is located in Kutaisi. There are two free industrial zones in Kutaisi: The Kutaisi free industrial zone (Kutaisi FIZ) and the Hualing free industrial zone (Hualing FIZ). The Kutaisi FIZ was created in 2009 and was established on the initiative of Fresh Electric, an Egypt-based home appliances producer. The Hualing FIZ operates since 2015, and specializes in wood and stone processing, furniture and mattress production and metal construction. Both of the free industrial zones offer multiple incentives to investors such as tax exemptions and reduced barriers for trade. In 2019, German solar panel manufacturer AE Solar opened a new, fully automated manufacturing line in Kutaisi. With a total output of 500 MW per year it is the largest solar panel factory under one roof in Europe. During the same year Changan Automobile announced plans to construct an electric car factory in Kutaisi, with an annual production capacity of up to 40,000 vehicles. The company plans to export annually about 20,000 cars to the EU. The factory plans to employ about 3,000 people. Sport ----- Kutaisi has a great tradition in sports, with many famous sports clubs. FC Torpedo Kutaisi has participated on the highest level of the Soviet Union football league. After Georgia achieved independence, it won many domestic and international titles. RC AIA Kutaisi won the Soviet Championship several times in rugby, and after independence, national championships and cups. The women's football club FC Martve takes part at the 2017–18 UEFA Women's Champions League qualifying round after becoming champion in the Georgia women's football championship in 2016. Kutaisi also has an influential basketball club BC Kutaisi 2010, 2016 Champion of the Georgian Superliga, which plays its home games at the *Kutaisi Sport Palas*. Transport --------- ### Airport David the Builder Kutaisi International Airport (IATA: KUT, ICAO: UGKO) is an airport located 14 km (8.70 mi) west of Kutaisi. It is one of three international airports currently in operation in Georgia. ### Railway Kutaisi has two main railway stations, along with multiple smaller ones. Direct inter-city, as well as suburban railway services, are provided to Tbilisi (Central) and other major cities across the country. The rail operator on all lines is Georgian Railways. Local celebrations ------------------ Kutaisoba is the most important holiday in Kutaisi. It is celebrated on 2 May. On this day the population of Kutaisi crowds into the central park, with their children and celebrate together. Some people make masks and there are many kinds of performances. Also, children sell chamomiles. It is an old tradition, in the past ladies collected money for poor people, so today children also collect money for them. On Kutaisoba one can see traditional Georgian dances and can hear folk music. Also, it is an old tradition to go to the forest, which is near Kutaisi. Families barbecue and play games. On this day, people wear traditional clothes, choxa. There is a tradition of writing lyrics that have been written by writers from Kutaisi, and then airplanes throw them from the sky. There is also a competition in different kinds of martial arts. Notable natives --------------- * Aeëtes – King of Kingdom of Colchis * Bagrat III – King of united Kingdom of Georgia in 975–1014 * George I – King of united Kingdom of Georgia in 1014–1027 * Bagrat IV – King of united Kingdom of Georgia in 1027–1072 * George II – King of united Kingdom of Georgia in 1072–1089 * David IV – King of united Kingdom of Georgia in 1089–1125 * Veriko Anjaparidze – Georgian actress * Revaz Gabriadze – cinematographer, writer, director, production designer * Niko Nikoladze (1843–1928) – Georgian public figure * Meliton Balanchivadze (1862–1937) – Georgian composer * Zakaria Paliashvili (1871–1933) – Georgian composer * Iakob Nikoladze (1876–1951) – Georgian sculptor, designer of the previous state flag of Georgia. * Władysław Raczkiewicz (1885–1947) – the first president of the Polish government-in-exile, 1939–1947 * Joseph Orbeli (1887–1961) – orientalist * David Kakabadze (1889–1952) – Georgian painter * Victor Dolidze (1890–1933) – Georgian composer * Petre Otskheli (1907–1937) Georgian modernist set and costume designer * Otar Korkia (1923–2005) – Georgian basketball player and coach (Olympic silver medalist) * Dodo Chichinadze (1924–2009) – Georgian actress * Revaz Dzodzuashvili (b. 1945) – Georgian football player, World Cup 1966 bronze medalist * Zurab Sakandelidze (b. 1945) – Georgian basketball player, Olympic champion * Mikheil Korkia (b. 1948) – Georgian basketball player, Olympic champion * Meir Pichhadze (1955–2010) – Israeli painter, Kutaisi native * Tengiz Sulakvelidze (b. 1956) – Georgian football player, played in 1982 FIFA World Cup, Euro 1988 silver medalist * Ramaz Shengelia (1957–2012) – Georgian football player, played in 1982 FIFA World Cup * Maia Chiburdanidze (b. 1961) – the seventh Women's World Chess Champion * Besik Khamashuridze (b. 1977) – Georgian rugby player, won 53 caps, RC Aia Kutaisi player-coach * David Khakhaleishvili (b. 1971) – Olympic champion in Wrestling * Davit Aslanadze (b.1976) – Football player * Katie Melua (b. 1984) – A Georgian-British singer and songwriter that was born and grew up here. * Nika Sichinava (b. 1994) – Georgian football player, played for Yunist Chernihiv and FC Inhulets Petrove. International relations ----------------------- ### Twin towns – sister cities Kutaisi is twinned with: * Israel Ashkelon, Israel * United States Columbia, United States * Ukraine Dnipro, Ukraine * Azerbaijan Ganja, Azerbaijan * Belarus Gomel, Belarus * Turkey Karşıyaka, Turkey * Ukraine Kharkiv, Ukraine * China Laiwu (Jinan), China * Ukraine Lviv, Ukraine * Ukraine Mykolaiv, Ukraine * China Nanchang, China * Wales Newport, Wales, UK * Poland Poznań, Poland * Ukraine Sumy, Ukraine * Hungary Szombathely, Hungary * Moldova Ungheni, Moldova * Latvia Valka, Latvia * Ukraine Zhytomyr, Ukraine ### Cooperation agreements Kutaisi has cooperation agreements with: * Lithuania Kaunas, Lithuania * Slovenia Maribor, Slovenia * Estonia Tartu, Estonia See also -------- * Colchis * Imereti * The Forest Song Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. ↑ Prior to the 2014 Local self-governance reform, mayors were elected by the city assembly.

Kutaisi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutaisi

**Magic**, which encompasses the subgenres of **illusion**, **stage magic**, and **close up magic**, among others, is a performing art in which audiences are entertained by tricks, effects, or illusions of seemingly impossible feats, using natural means. It is to be distinguished from paranormal magic which are effects claimed to be created through supernatural means. It is one of the oldest performing arts in the world. Modern entertainment magic, as pioneered by 19th-century magician Jean-Eugène Robert-Houdin, has become a popular theatrical art form. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, magicians such as Maskelyne and Devant, Howard Thurston, Harry Kellar, and Harry Houdini achieved widespread commercial success during what has become known as "the Golden Age of Magic". During this period, performance magic became a staple of Broadway theatre, vaudeville, and music halls. Magic retained its popularity in the television age, with magicians such as Paul Daniels, David Copperfield, Criss Angel, Doug Henning, Penn & Teller, David Blaine, and Derren Brown modernizing the art form. The world's largest-selling publication for magicians, *Magic* magazine, curated a list of the "100 most influential magicians of the 20th century" to have contributed to the modern development of the art of magic. According to the magician-culled list titled "Those Who Most Affected The Art in America", Houdini holds the first rank. Then, in decreasing order, Dai Vernon, David Copperfield, Harry Blackstone, Doug Henning, Tarbell, Cardini, Mark Wilson, Siegfried and Roy, and finally Thurston at number 10. History ------- The term "magic" etymologically derives from the Greek word *mageia* (μαγεία). In ancient times, Greeks and Persians had been at war for centuries, and the Persian priests, called *magosh* in Persian, came to be known as *magoi* in Greek. Ritual acts of Persian priests came to be known as *mageia*, and then *magika*—which eventually came to mean any foreign, unorthodox, or illegitimate ritual practice. To the general public, successful acts of illusion could be perceived as if it were similar to a feat of magic supposed to have been able to be performed by the ancient magoi. The performance of tricks of illusion, or magical illusion, and the apparent workings and effects of such acts have often been referred to as "magic" and particularly as magic tricks. One of the earliest known books to explain magic secrets, *The Discoverie of Witchcraft*, was published in 1584. It was created by Reginald Scot to stop people from being killed for witchcraft. During the 17th century, many books were published that described magic tricks. Until the 18th century, magic shows were a common source of entertainment at fairs. The "Father" of modern entertainment magic was Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin, who had a magic theatre in Paris in 1845. John Henry Anderson was pioneering the same transition in London in the 1840s. Towards the end of the 19th century, large magic shows permanently staged at big theatre venues became the norm. As a form of entertainment, magic easily moved from theatrical venues to television magic specials. Performances that modern observers would recognize as conjuring have been practiced throughout history. For example, a trick with three cups and balls has been performed since 3 BC. and is still performed today on stage and in street magic shows. For many recorded centuries, magicians were associated with the devil and the occult. During the 19th and 20th centuries, many stage magicians even capitalized on this notion in their advertisements. The same level of ingenuity that was used to produce famous ancient deceptions such as the Trojan Horse would also have been used for entertainment, or at least for cheating in money games. They were also used by the practitioners of various religions and cults from ancient times onwards to frighten uneducated people into obedience or turn them into adherents. However, the profession of the illusionist gained strength only in the 18th century, and has enjoyed several popular vogues since. ### Magic tricks Opinions vary among magicians on how to categorize a given effect, but a number of categories have been developed. Magicians may pull a rabbit from an empty hat, make something seem to disappear, or transform a red silk handkerchief into a green silk handkerchief. Magicians may also destroy something, like cutting a head off, and then "restore" it, make something appear to move from one place to another, or they may escape from a restraining device. Other illusions include making something appear to defy gravity, making a solid object appear to pass through another object, or appearing to predict the choice of a spectator. Many magic routines use combinations of effects. Among the earliest books on the subject is Gantziony's work of 1489, *Natural and Unnatural Magic*, which describes and explains old-time tricks. In 1584, Englishman Reginald Scot published *The Discoverie of Witchcraft*, part of which was devoted to debunking the claims that magicians used supernatural methods, and showing how their "magic tricks" were in reality accomplished. Among the tricks discussed were sleight-of-hand manipulations with rope, paper and coins. At the time, fear and belief in witchcraft was widespread and the book tried to demonstrate that these fears were misplaced. Popular belief held that all obtainable copies were burned on the accession of James I in 1603. During the 17th century, many similar books were published that described in detail the methods of a number of magic tricks, including *The Art of Conjuring* (1614) and *The Anatomy of Legerdemain: The Art of Juggling* (c. 1675). Until the 18th century, magic shows were a common source of entertainment at fairs, where itinerant performers would entertain the public with magic tricks, as well as the more traditional spectacles of sword swallowing, juggling and fire breathing. In the early 18th century, as belief in witchcraft was waning, the art became increasingly respectable and shows would be put on for rich private patrons. A notable figure in this transition was the English showman, Isaac Fawkes, who began to promote his act in advertisements from the 1720s—he even claimed to have performed for King George II. One of Fawkes' advertisements described his routine in some detail: > He takes an empty bag, lays it on the Table and turns it several times inside out, then commands 100 Eggs out of it and several showers of real Gold and silver, then the Bag beginning to swell several sorts of wild fowl run out of it upon the Table. He throws up a Pack of Cards, and causes them to be living birds flying about the room. He causes living Beasts, Birds, and other Creatures to appear upon the Table. He blows the spots of the Cards off and on, and changes them to any pictures. > > From 1756 to 1781, Jacob Philadelphia performed feats of magic, sometimes under the guise of scientific exhibitions, throughout Europe and in Russia. ### Modern stage magic The "Father" of modern entertainment magic was Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin, originally a clockmaker, who opened a magic theatre in Paris in 1845. He transformed his art from one performed at fairs to a performance that the public paid to see at the theatre. His speciality was constructing mechanical automata that appeared to move and act as if alive. Many of Robert-Houdin's mechanisms for illusion were pirated by his assistant and ended up in the performances of his rivals, John Henry Anderson and Alexander Herrmann. John Henry Anderson was pioneering the same transition in London. In 1840 he opened the New Strand Theatre, where he performed as *The Great Wizard of the North*. His success came from advertising his shows and captivating his audience with expert showmanship. He became one of the earliest magicians to attain a high level of world renown. He opened a second theatre in Glasgow in 1845. Towards the end of the century, large magic shows permanently staged at big theatre venues became the norm. The British performer J N Maskelyne and his partner Cooke were established at the Egyptian Hall in London's Piccadilly in 1873 by their manager William Morton, and continued there for 31 years. The show incorporated stage illusions and reinvented traditional tricks with exotic (often Oriental) imagery. The potential of the stage was exploited for hidden mechanisms and assistants, and the control it offers over the audience's point of view. Maskelyne and Cooke invented many of the illusions still performed today—one of his best-known being levitation. The model for the look of a 'typical' magician—a man with wavy hair, a top hat, a goatee, and a tailcoat—was Alexander Herrmann (1844–1896), also known as Herrmann the Great. Herrmann was a French magician and was part of the Herrmann family name that is the "first-family of magic". The escapologist and magician Harry Houdini (1874–1926) took his stage name from Robert-Houdin and developed a range of stage magic tricks, many of them based on what became known after his death as escapology. Houdini was genuinely skilled in techniques such as lockpicking and escaping straitjackets, but also made full use of the range of conjuring techniques, including fake equipment and collusion with individuals in the audience. Houdini's show-business savvy was as great as his performance skill. There is a Houdini Museum dedicated to him in Scranton, Pennsylvania. The Magic Circle was formed in London in 1905 to promote and advance the art of stage magic. As a form of entertainment, magic easily moved from theatrical venues to television specials, which opened up new opportunities for deceptions, and brought stage magic to huge audiences. Famous magicians of the 20th century included Okito, David Devant, Harry Blackstone Sr., Harry Blackstone Jr., Howard Thurston, Theodore Annemann, Cardini, Joseph Dunninger, Dai Vernon, Fred Culpitt, Tommy Wonder, Siegfried & Roy, and Doug Henning. Popular 20th- and 21st-century magicians include David Copperfield, Lance Burton, James Randi, Penn and Teller, David Blaine, Criss Angel, Hans Klok, Derren Brown and Dynamo. Well-known women magicians include Dell O'Dell and Dorothy Dietrich. Most television magicians perform before a live audience, who provide the remote viewer with a reassurance that the illusions are not obtained with post-production visual effects. Many of the principles of stage magic are old. There is an expression, "it's all done with smoke and mirrors", used to explain something baffling, but effects seldom use mirrors today, due to the amount of installation work and transport difficulties. For example, the famous Pepper's Ghost, a stage illusion first used in 19th-century London, required a specially built theatre. Modern performers have vanished objects as large as the Taj Mahal, the Statue of Liberty, and a space shuttle, using other kinds of optical deceptions. Types of magic performance -------------------------- Magic is often described according to various specialties or genres. ### Stage illusions Stage illusions are performed for large audiences, typically within a theatre or auditorium. This type of magic is distinguished by large-scale props, the use of assistants and often exotic animals such as elephants and tigers. Famous stage illusionists, past and present, include Harry Blackstone, Sr., Howard Thurston, Chung Ling Soo, David Copperfield, Lance Burton, Silvan, Siegfried & Roy, and Harry Blackstone, Jr. ### Parlor magic Parlor magic is done for larger audiences than close-up magic (which is for a few people or even one person) and for smaller audiences than stage magic. In parlor magic, the performer is usually standing and on the same level as the audience, which may be seated on chairs or even on the floor. According to the *Encyclopedia of Magic and Magicians* by T.A. Waters, "The phrase [parlor magic] is often used as a pejorative to imply that an effect under discussion is not suitable for professional performance." Also, many magicians consider the term "parlor" old fashioned and limiting, since this type of magic is often done in rooms much larger than the traditional parlor, or even outdoors. A better term for this branch of magic may be "platform", "club" or "cabaret". Examples of such magicians include Jeff McBride, David Abbott, Channing Pollock, Black Herman, and Fred Kaps. ### Close-up magic Close-up magic (or table magic) is performed with the audience close to the magician, sometimes even one-on-one. It usually makes use of everyday items as props, such as cards (see Card manipulation), coins (see Coin magic), and seemingly 'impromptu' effects. This may be called "table magic", particularly when performed as dinner entertainment. Ricky Jay, Mahdi Moudini, and Lee Asher, following in the traditions of Dai Vernon, Slydini, and Max Malini, are considered among the foremost practitioners of close-up magic. ### Escapology Escapology is the branch of magic that deals with escapes from confinement or restraints. Harry Houdini is a well-known example of an *escape artist* or *escapologist*. ### Pickpocket magic Pickpocket magicians use magic to misdirect members of the audience while removing wallets, belts, ties, and other personal effects. It can be presented on a stage, in a cabaret setting, before small close-up groups, or even for one spectator. Well-known pickpockets include James Freedman, David Avadon, Bob Arno, and Apollo Robbins. ### Mentalism Mentalism creates the impression in the minds of the audience that the performer possesses special powers to read thoughts, predict events, control other minds, and similar feats. It can be presented on a stage, in a cabaret setting, before small close-up groups, or even for one spectator. Well-known mentalists of the past and present include Alexander, The Zancigs, Axel Hellstrom, Dunninger, Kreskin, Deddy Corbuzier, Derren Brown, Rich Ferguson, Guy Bavli, Banachek, Max Maven, and Alain Nu. ### Séances Theatrical séances simulate spiritualistic or mediumistic phenomena for theatrical effect. This genre of stage magic has been misused at times by charlatans pretending to actually be in contact with spirits or supernatural forces. For this reason, some well-known magicians such as James Randi (AKA "The Amazing Randi") have made it their goal to debunk such paranormal phenomena and illustrate that any such effects may be achieved by natural or human means. Randi was the "foremost skeptic" in this regard in the United States. ### Children's magic Children's magic is performed for an audience primarily composed of children. It is typically performed at birthday parties, preschools, elementary schools, Sunday schools, or libraries. This type of magic is usually comedic in nature and involves audience interaction as well as volunteer assistants. ### Online magic Online magic tricks were designed to function on a computer screen. The computer screen affords ways to incorporate magic from the magician's wand to the computer mouse. The use of computing technologies in performance can be traced back to a 1984 presentation by David Copperfield, who used a Commodore 64 to create a "magic show" for his audience. More recently, virtual performers have been experimenting with captivating digital animations and illusions that blur the lines between magic tricks and reality. In some cases, the computer essentially replaces the online magician. In a 2008 TED Talk, Penn Jillette discussed how technology will continue to play a role in magic by influencing media and communication. According to Jillette, magicians continue to innovate in not only digital communication but also live performances that utilize digital effects. The 2020 COVID-19 lockdowns ushered onto the world stage a surge of online magic shows. These shows are performed via video conferencing platforms such as Zoom. Some online magic tricks recreate traditional card tricks and require user participation, while others, like Plato's Cursed Triangle, are based on mathematical, geometrical, and/or optical illusions. One such online magic trick, called Esmeralda's Crystal Ball, became a viral phenomenon that fooled so many computer users into believing that their computer had supernatural powers, that the fact-checking website Snopes dedicated a page to debunking the trick. ### Mathemagic Mathemagic is a genre of stage magic that combines magic and mathematics. It is commonly used by children's magicians and mentalists. ### Corporate magic Corporate magic or trade show magic uses magic as a communication and sales tool, as opposed to just straightforward entertainment. Corporate magicians may come from a business background and typically present at meetings, conferences and product launches. They run workshops and can sometimes be found at trade shows, where their patter and illusions enhance an entertaining presentation of the products offered by their corporate sponsors. Pioneer performers in this arena include Eddie Tullock and Guy Bavli. ### Gospel magic Gospel magic uses magic to catechize and evangelize. Gospel magic was first used by St. John Bosco to interest children in 19th-century Turin, Italy to come back to school, to accept assistance and to attend church. The Jewish equivalent is termed Torah magic. ### Street magic Street magic is a form of street performing or busking that employs a hybrid of stage magic, platform, and close-up magic, usually performed 'in the round' or surrounded by the audience. Notable modern street magic performers include Jeff Sheridan and Gazzo. Since the first David Blaine TV special *Street Magic* aired in 1997, the term "street magic" has also come to describe a style of 'guerilla' performance in which magicians approach and perform for unsuspecting members of the public on the street. Unlike traditional street magic, this style is almost purely designed for TV and gains its impact from the wild reactions of the public. Magicians of this type include David Blaine and Cyril Takayama. ### Bizarre magic Bizarre magic is a branch of stage magic that creates eerie effects through its use of narratives and esoteric imagery. The experience may be more akin to small, intimate theater or to a conventional magic show. Bizarre magic often uses horror, supernatural, and science fiction imagery in addition to the standard commercial magic approaches of comedy and wonder. ### Shock magic Shock magic is a genre of magic that shocks the audience. Sometimes referred to as "geek magic", it takes its roots from circus sideshows, in which 'freakish' performances were shown to audiences. Common shock magic or geek magic effects include eating razor blades, needle-through-arm, string through neck and pen-through-tongue. ### Comedy magic Comedy magic is the use of magic in which is combined with stand-up comedy. Famous comedy magicians include The Amazing Johnathan, Holly Balay, Mac King, and Penn & Teller. ### Quick change magic Quick change magic is the use of magic which is combined with the very quick changing of costumes. Famous quick-change artists include Sos & Victoria Petrosyan. ### Camera magic Camera magic (or "video magic") is magic that is aimed at viewers watching broadcasts or recordings. It includes tricks based on the restricted viewing angles of cameras and clever editing. Camera magic often features paid extras posing as spectators who may even be assisting in the performance. Camera magic can be done live, such as Derren Brown's lottery prediction. Famous examples of camera magic include David Copperfield's Floating Over the Grand Canyon and many of Criss Angel's illusions. ### Classical magic Classical magic is a style of magic that conveys feelings of elegance and skill akin to prominent magicians of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. ### Mechanical magic Mechanical magic is a form of stage magic in which the magician uses a variety of mechanical devices to perform acts that appear to be physically impossible. Examples include such things as a false-bottomed mortar in which the magician places an audience member's watch only to later produce several feet away inside a wooden frame. Mechanical magic requires a certain degree of sleight of hand and carefully functioning mechanisms and devices to be performed convincingly. This form of magic was popular around the turn of the 19th century—today, many of the original mechanisms used for this magic have become antique collector's pieces and may require significant and careful restoration to function. Categories of effects --------------------- Magicians describe the type of tricks they perform in various ways. Opinions vary as to how to categorize a given effect, and disagreement as to what categories actually exist. For instance, some magicians consider "penetrations" a separate category, while others consider penetrations a form of restoration or teleportation. Some magicians today, such as Guy Hollingworth and Tom Stone have begun to challenge the notion that all magic effects fit into a limited number of categories. Among magicians who believe in a limited number of categories (such as Dariel Fitzkee, Harlan Tarbell, S.H. Sharpe), there has been disagreement as to how many different types of effects there are. Some of these are listed below. * Production: The magician produces something from nothing—a rabbit from an empty hat, a fan of cards from thin air, a shower of coins from an empty bucket, a dove from a pan, or the magician himself or herself, appearing in a puff of smoke on an empty stage—all of these effects are *productions*. * Vanish: The magician makes something disappear—a coin, a cage of doves, milk from a newspaper, an assistant from a cabinet, or even the Statue of Liberty. A vanish, being the reverse of a production, may use a similar technique in reverse. * Transformation: The magician transforms something from one state into another—a silk handkerchief changes color, a lady turns into a tiger, an indifferent card changes to the spectator's chosen card. * Restoration: The magician destroys an object—a rope is cut, a newspaper is torn, a woman is cut in half, a borrowed watch is smashed to pieces—then restores it to its original state. * Transposition: A transposition involves two or more objects. The magician will cause these objects to change places, as many times as he pleases, and in some cases, ends with a kicker by transforming the objects into something else. * Teleportation: The magician causes something to move from one place to another—a borrowed ring is found inside a ball of wool, a canary inside a light bulb, an assistant from a cabinet to the back of the theatre, or a coin from one hand to the other. When two objects exchange places, it is called a transposition: a simultaneous, double transportation. A transportation can be seen as a combination of a vanish and a production. When performed by a mentalist it might be called teleportation. * Escape: The magician (or less often, an assistant) is placed in a restraining device (i.e., handcuffs or a straitjacket) or a death trap, and escapes to safety. Examples include being put in a straitjacket and into an overflowing tank of water, and being tied up and placed in a car being sent through a car crusher. * Levitation: The magician defies gravity, either by making something float in the air, or with the aid of another object (suspension)—a silver ball floats around a cloth, an assistant floats in mid-air, another is suspended from a broom, a scarf dances in a sealed bottle, the magician levitates his own body in midair. There are many popular ways to create this illusion, including Asrah levitation, Balducci levitation, invisible thread, and King levitation. The flying illusion has often been performed by David Copperfield. Harry Blackstone floated a light bulb over the heads of the public. * Penetration: The magician makes a solid object pass through another—a set of steel rings link and unlink, a candle penetrates an arm, swords pass through an assistant in a basket, a salt shaker penetrates a tabletop, or a man walks through a mirror. Sometimes referred to as "solid-through-solid". * Prediction: The magician accurately predicts the choice of a spectator or the outcome of an event—a newspaper headline, the total amount of loose change in the spectator's pocket, a picture drawn on a slate—under seemingly impossible circumstances. Many magic routines use combinations of effects. For example, in "cups and balls" a magician may use vanishes, productions, penetrations, teleportation and transformations as part of the one presentation. The methodology behind magic is often referred to as a science (often a branch of physics) while the performance aspect is more of an art form. Learning magic -------------- Dedication to magic can teach confidence and creativity, as well as the work ethic associated with regular practice and the responsibility that comes with devotion to an art. The teaching of performance magic was once a secretive practice. Professional magicians were unwilling to share knowledge with anyone outside the profession to prevent the laity from learning their secrets. This often made it difficult for an interested apprentice to learn anything but the basics of magic. Some had strict rules against members discussing magic secrets with anyone but established magicians. From the 1584 publication of Reginald Scot's *Discoverie of Witchcraft* until the end of the 19th century, only a few books were available for magicians to learn the craft, whereas today mass-market books offer a myriad titles. Videos and DVDs are newer media, but many of the methods found in this format are readily found in previously published books. However, they can serve as a visual demonstration. Persons interested in learning to perform magic can join magic clubs. Here magicians, both seasoned and novitiate, can work together and help one another for mutual improvement, to learn new techniques, to discuss all aspects of magic, to perform for each other—sharing advice, encouragement, and criticism. Before a magician can join one of these clubs, they usually have to audition. The purpose is to show to the membership they are a magician and not just someone off the street wanting to discover magic secrets. The world's largest magic organization is the International Brotherhood of Magicians; it publishes a monthly journal, *The Linking Ring*. The oldest organization is the Society of American Magicians, which publishes the monthly magazine *M-U-M* and of which Houdini was a member and president for several years. In London, England, there is The Magic Circle, which houses the largest magic library in Europe. Also PSYCRETS—The British Society of Mystery Entertainers—caters specifically to mentalists, bizarrists, storytellers, readers, spiritualist performers, and other mystery entertainers. Davenport's Magic in London's The Strand was the world's oldest family-run magic shop. It is now closed. The Magic Castle in Hollywood, California, is home to the Academy of Magical Arts. Traditionally, magicians refuse to reveal the methods behind their tricks to the audience. Membership in professional magicians' organizations often requires a commitment never to reveal the secrets of magic to non-magicians. When Justin Flom in 2020 began disclosing how tricks worked in Facebook videos, other magicians publicly and privately criticized and ostracized him. Magic performances tend to fall into a few specialties or genres. Stage illusions use large-scale props and even large animals. Platform magic is performed for a medium to large audience. Close-up magic is performed with the audience close to the magician. Escapology involves escapes from confinement or restraints. Pickpocket magicians take audience members' wallets, wristwatches, belts, and ties. Mentalism creates the illusion that the magician can read minds. Comedy magic is the use of magic combined with stand-up comedy, an example being Penn & Teller. Some modern illusionists believe that it is unethical to give a performance that claims to be anything other than a clever and skillful deception. Others argue that they can claim that the effects are due to magic. These apparently irreconcilable differences of opinion have led to some conflicts among performers. Another issue is the use of deceptive practices for personal gain outside the venue of a magic performance. Examples include fraudulent mediums, con men and grifters who use deception for cheating at card games. Misuse of the term “magic” -------------------------- Some modern illusionists believe that it is unethical to give a performance that claims to be anything other than a clever and skillful deception. Most of these performers therefore eschew the term "magician" (which they view as making a claim to supernatural power) in favor of "illusionist" and similar descriptions; for example, the performer Jamy Ian Swiss makes these points by billing himself as an "honest liar". Alternatively, many performers say that magical acts, as a form of theatre, need no more of a disclaimer than any play or film; this policy was advocated by the magician and mentalist Joseph Dunninger, who stated "For those who believe, no explanation is necessary; for those who do not believe, no explanation will suffice." These apparently irreconcilable differences of opinion have led to some conflicts among performers. For example, more than thirty years after the illusionist Uri Geller made his first appearances on television in the 1970s to exhibit his self-proclaimed psychic ability to bend spoons, his actions still provoke controversy among some magic performers, because he claimed what he did was not an illusion. On the other hand, because Geller bent—and continues to bend—spoons within a performance context and has lectured at several magic conventions, the Dunninger quote may be said to apply. In 2016, self-proclaimed psychic The Amazing Kreskin was barred from sending fraudulent letters to solicit money from the elderly. “This settlement ends these efforts to cheat Iowa's most vulnerable people,” stated Attorney General Tom Miller. “The letters were shamelessly predatory and manipulative, variously promising riches, protection from ill-health, and even personal friendship to each recipient – all to get the victim to send money.” Less fraught with controversy, however, may be the use of deceptive practices by those who employ stage magic techniques for personal gain outside the venue of a magic performance. Fraudulent mediums have long capitalized on the popular belief in paranormal phenomena to prey on the bereaved for financial gain. From the 1840s to the 1920s, during the greatest popularity of the spiritualism religious movement as well as public interest in séances, a number of fraudulent mediums used stage magic methods to perform illusions such as table-knocking, slate-writing, and telekinetic effects, which they attributed to the actions of ghosts or other spirits. The great escapologist and illusionist Harry Houdini devoted much of his time to exposing such fraudulent operators. Magician James Randi, magic duo Penn & Teller, and the mentalist Derren Brown have also devoted much time to investigating and debunking paranormal, occult, and supernatural claims. Fraudulent faith healers have also been shown to employ sleight of hand to give the appearance of removing chicken-giblet "tumors" from patients' abdomens. Con men and grifters too may use techniques of stage magic for fraudulent goals. Cheating at card games is an obvious example, and not a surprising one: one of the most respected textbooks of card techniques for magicians, *The Expert at the Card Table* by Erdnase, was primarily written as an instruction manual for card sharps. The card trick known as "Find the Lady" or "Three-card Monte" is an old favourite of street hustlers, who lure the victim into betting on what seems like a simple proposition: to identify, after a seemingly easy-to-track mixing sequence, which one of three face-down cards is the Queen. Another example is the shell game, in which a pea is hidden under one of three walnut shells, then shuffled around the table (or sidewalk) so slowly as to make the pea's position seemingly obvious. Although these are well known as frauds, people still lose money on them; a shell-game ring was broken up in Los Angeles as recently as December 2009. Researching magic ----------------- Because of the secretive nature of magic, research can be a challenge. Many magic resources are privately held and most libraries only have small populist collections of magicana. However, organizations exist to band together independent collectors, writers, and researchers of magic history, including the Magic Collectors' Association, which publishes a quarterly magazine and hosts an annual convention; and the Conjuring Arts Research Center, which publishes a monthly newsletter and biannual magazine, and offers its members use of a searchable database of rare books and periodicals. Performance magic is particularly notable as a key area of popular culture from the mid-19th to mid-20th centuries. Many performances and performers can be followed through newspapers of the time. Many books have been written about magic tricks; so many are written every year that at least one magic author has suggested that more books are written about magic than any other performing art. Although the bulk of these books are not seen on the shelves of libraries or public bookstores, the serious student can find many titles through specialized stores catering to the needs of magic performers. Several notable public research collections on magic are the *WG Alma Conjuring Collection* at the State Library of Victoria; the *R. B. Robbins Collection of Stage Magic and Conjuring* at the State Library of NSW; the *H. Adrian Smith Collection of Conjuring and Magicana* at Brown University; and the *Carl W. Jones Magic Collection, 1870s–1948* at Princeton University. See also -------- * Carleete * Exposure (magic) * Intellectual rights to magic methods * List of magicians Further reading --------------- * Barrett, Caitlín E. "Plaster Perspectives on "Magical" Gems: Rethinking the Meaning of "Magic"". *Cornell Collection of Antiquities*. Cornell University Library. Archived from the original on 26 May 2015. Retrieved 24 August 2015. * Burlingame, H. J. (1895). *History of Magic and Magicians*. Charles L. Burlingame & Company. * Christopher, Maurine; Christopher, Milbourne (1996). *The Illustrated History of Magic*. Heinemann. ISBN 0435070169. * Christopher, Milbourne (1962). *Panorama of Magic*. * Daniel, Noel; Caveney, Mike; Steinmeyer, Jim, eds. (2009). *Magic 1400–1950s*. Los Angeles: Taschen. ISBN 978-3836509770. * Dunninger, Joseph. *The Complete Encyclopedia of Magic*. * Nadis, Fred, ed. (2006). *Wonder Shows: Performing Science, Magic, and Religion in America*. Rutgers University Press. * Frost, Thomas (1876). *The Lives of the Conjurors*. Tinsley Brothers. * Hart, Martin T. (2014). *We know how they did it!*. *Piddington's Secrets*. Manipulatist Books Global. * Price, David (1985). *Magic: A Pictorial History of Conjurers in the Theatre*. Cornwall Books. * Randi, James (1992). *Conjuring: A Definitive History*. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312086342. * Stebbins, Robert A. (1993). *Career, Culture and Social Psychology in a Variety Art: The Magician*. Malabar, FL: Krieger. * Hawk, Mike. *The Illusionist*. Tiverton, ON: IBM, 1999. 234–238. Print. (Hawk 234–238)[*ISBN missing*]

Magic (illusion)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_(illusion)

**Hercule Poirot** (UK: /ˈɛərkjuːl ˈpwɑːroʊ/, US: /hɜːrˈkjuːl pwɑːˈroʊ/) is a fictional Belgian detective created by British writer Agatha Christie. Poirot is one of Christie's most famous and long-running characters, appearing in 33 novels, two plays (*Black Coffee* and *Alibi*), and 51 short stories published between 1920 and 1975. Poirot has been portrayed on radio, in film and on television by various actors, including Austin Trevor, John Moffatt, Albert Finney, Peter Ustinov, Ian Holm, Tony Randall, Alfred Molina, Orson Welles, David Suchet, Kenneth Branagh, and John Malkovich. Overview -------- ### Influences Poirot's name was derived from two other fictional detectives of the time: Marie Belloc Lowndes' Hercule Popeau and Frank Howel Evans' Monsieur Poiret, a retired French police officer living in London. Evans' Jules Poiret "was small and rather heavyset, hardly more than five feet, but moved with his head held high. The most remarkable features of his head were the stiff military moustache. His apparel was neat to perfection, a little quaint and frankly dandified." He was accompanied by Captain Harry Haven, who had returned to London from a Colombian business venture ended by a civil war. A more obvious influence on the early Poirot stories is that of Arthur Conan Doyle. In *An Autobiography*, Christie states, "I was still writing in the Sherlock Holmes tradition – eccentric detective, stooge assistant, with a Lestrade-type Scotland Yard detective, Inspector Japp". For his part, Conan Doyle acknowledged basing his detective stories on the model of Edgar Allan Poe's C. Auguste Dupin and his anonymous narrator, and basing his character Sherlock Holmes on Joseph Bell, who in his use of "ratiocination" prefigured Poirot's reliance on his "little grey cells". Poirot also bears a striking resemblance to A. E. W. Mason's fictional detective Inspector Hanaud of the French Sûreté, who first appeared in the 1910 novel *At the Villa Rose* and predates the first Poirot novel by 10 years. Christie's Poirot was clearly the result of her early development of the detective in her first book, written in 1916 and published in 1920. Belgium's occupation by Germany during World War I provided a plausible explanation of why such a skilled detective would be available to solve mysteries at an English country house. At the time of Christie's writing, it was considered patriotic to express sympathy towards the Belgians, since the invasion of their country had constituted Britain's *casus belli* for entering World War I, and British wartime propaganda emphasised the "Rape of Belgium". ### Popularity Poirot first appeared in *The Mysterious Affair at Styles* (published in 1920) and exited in *Curtain* (published in 1975). Following the latter, Poirot was the only fictional character to receive an obituary on the front page of *The New York Times*. By 1930, Agatha Christie found Poirot "insufferable", and by 1960 she felt that he was a "detestable, bombastic, tiresome, ego-centric little creep". Despite this, Poirot remained an exceedingly popular character with the general public. Christie later stated that she refused to kill him off, claiming that it was her duty to produce what the public liked. ### Appearance and proclivities Captain Arthur Hastings's first description of Poirot: > He was hardly more than five feet four inches but carried himself with great dignity. His head was exactly the shape of an egg, and he always perched it a little on one side. His moustache was very stiff and military. Even if everything on his face was covered, the tips of moustache and the pink-tipped nose would be visible. > > The neatness of his attire was almost incredible; I believe a speck of dust would have caused him more pain than a bullet wound. Yet this quaint dandified little man who, I was sorry to see, now limped badly, had been in his time one of the most celebrated members of the Belgian police. > > Agatha Christie's initial description of Poirot in *The Murder on the Orient Express*: > By the step leading up into the sleeping-car stood a young French lieutenant, resplendent in uniform, conversing with a small man [Hercule Poirot] muffled up to the ears of whom nothing was visible but a pink-tipped nose and the two points of an upward-curled moustache. > > In the later books, his limp is not mentioned, suggesting it may have been a temporary wartime injury. (In *Curtain*, Poirot admits he was wounded when he first came to England.) Poirot has green eyes that are repeatedly described as shining "like a cat's" when he is struck by a clever idea, and dark hair, which he dyes later in life. In *Curtain*, he admits to Hastings that he wears a wig and a false moustache. However, in many of his screen incarnations, he is bald or balding. Frequent mention is made of his patent leather shoes, damage to which is frequently a source of misery for him, but comical for the reader. Poirot's appearance, regarded as fastidious during his early career, later falls hopelessly out of fashion. Among Poirot's most significant personal attributes is the sensitivity of his stomach: > The plane dropped slightly. *"Mon estomac,"* thought Hercule Poirot, and closed his eyes determinedly. > > He suffers from sea sickness, and, in *Death in the Clouds*, he states that his air sickness prevents him from being more alert at the time of the murder. Later in his life, we are told: > Always a man who had taken his stomach seriously, he was reaping his reward in old age. Eating was not only a physical pleasure, it was also an intellectual research. > > Poirot is extremely punctual and carries a pocket watch almost to the end of his career. He is also particular about his personal finances, preferring to keep a bank balance of 444 pounds, 4 shillings, and 4 pence. Actor David Suchet, who portrayed Poirot on television, said "there's no question he's obsessive-compulsive". Film portrayer Kenneth Branagh said that he "enjoyed finding the sort of obsessive-compulsive" in Poirot. As mentioned in *Curtain* and *The Clocks*, he is fond of classical music, particularly Mozart and Bach. ### Methods In *The Mysterious Affair at Styles*, Poirot operates as a fairly conventional, clue-based and logical detective; reflected in his vocabulary by two common phrases: his use of "the little grey cells" and "order and method". Hastings is irritated by the fact that Poirot sometimes conceals important details of his plans, as in *The Big Four*. In this novel, Hastings is kept in the dark throughout the climax. This aspect of Poirot is less evident in the later novels, partly because there is rarely a narrator to mislead. In *Murder on the Links,* still largely dependent on clues himself, Poirot mocks a rival "bloodhound" detective who focuses on the traditional trail of clues established in detective fiction (e.g., Sherlock Holmes depending on footprints, fingerprints, and cigar ash). From this point on, Poirot establishes his psychological bona fides. Rather than painstakingly examining crime scenes, he enquires into the nature of the victim or the psychology of the murderer. He predicates his actions in the later novels on his underlying assumption that particular crimes are committed by particular types of people. Poirot focuses on getting people to talk. In the early novels, he casts himself in the role of "Papa Poirot", a benign confessor, especially to young women. In later works, Christie made a point of having Poirot supply false or misleading information about himself or his background to assist him in obtaining information. In *The Murder of Roger Ackroyd*, Poirot speaks of a non-existent mentally disabled nephew to uncover information about homes for the mentally unfit. In *Dumb Witness*, Poirot invents an elderly invalid mother as a pretence to investigate local nurses. In *The Big Four*, Poirot pretends to have (and poses as) an identical twin brother named Achille: however, this brother was mentioned again in *The Labours of Hercules*. > "If I remember rightly – though my memory isn't what it was – you also had a brother called Achille, did you not?" Poirot's mind raced back over the details of Achille Poirot's career. Had all that really happened? "Only for a short space of time," he replied. > > Poirot is also willing to appear more foreign or vain in an effort to make people underestimate him. He admits as much: > It is true that I can speak the exact, the idiomatic English. But, my friend, to speak the broken English is an enormous asset. It leads people to despise you. They say – a foreigner – he can't even speak English properly. ... Also I boast! An Englishman he says often, "A fellow who thinks as much of himself as that cannot be worth much." ... And so, you see, I put people off their guard. > > He also has a tendency to refer to himself in the third person. In later novels, Christie often uses the word *mountebank* when characters describe Poirot, showing that he has successfully passed himself off as a charlatan or fraud. Poirot's investigating techniques assist him solving cases; "For in the long run, either through a lie, or through truth, people were bound to give themselves away..." At the end, Poirot usually reveals his description of the sequence of events and his deductions to a room of suspects, often leading to the culprit's apprehension. Life ---- ### Origins Christie was purposely vague about Poirot's origins, as he is thought to be an elderly man even in the early novels. In *An Autobiography,* she admitted that she already imagined him to be an old man in 1920. At the time, however, she did not know that she would write works featuring him for decades to come. A brief passage in *The Big Four* provides original information about Poirot's birth or at least childhood in or near the town of Spa, Belgium: "But we did not go into Spa itself. We left the main road and wound into the leafy fastnesses of the hills, till we reached a little hamlet and an isolated white villa high on the hillside." Christie strongly implies that this "quiet retreat in the Ardennes" near Spa is the location of the Poirot family home. An alternative tradition holds that Poirot was born in the village of Ellezelles (province of Hainaut, Belgium). A few memorials dedicated to Hercule Poirot can be seen in the centre of this village. There appears to be no reference to this in Christie's writings, but the town of Ellezelles cherishes a copy of Poirot's birth certificate in a local memorial 'attesting' Poirot's birth, naming his father and mother as Jules-Louis Poirot and Godelieve Poirot. Christie wrote that Poirot is a Catholic by birth, but not much is described about his later religious convictions, except sporadic references to his "going to church". Christie provides little information regarding Poirot's childhood, only mentioning in *Three Act Tragedy* that he comes from a large family with little wealth, and has at least one younger sister. Apart from French and English, Poirot is also fluent in German. ### Policeman > Gustave ... was not a policeman. I have dealt with policemen all my life and I *know*. He could pass as a detective to an outsider but not to a man who was a policeman himself. > > > — Hercule Poirot Christie 1947c Hercule Poirot was active in the Brussels police force by 1893. Very little mention is made about this part of his life, but in "The Nemean Lion" (1939) Poirot refers to a Belgian case of his in which "a wealthy soap manufacturer ... poisoned his wife in order to be free to marry his secretary". As Poirot was often misleading about his past to gain information, the truthfulness of that statement is unknown; it does, however, scare off a would-be wife-killer. In the short story "The Chocolate Box" (1923), Poirot reveals to Captain Arthur Hastings an account of what he considers to be his only failure. Poirot admits that he has failed to solve a crime "innumerable" times: > I have been called in too late. Very often another, working towards the same goal, has arrived there first. Twice I have been struck down with illness just as I was on the point of success. > > Nevertheless, he regards the 1893 case in "The Chocolate Box", as his only failure through his fault only. Again, Poirot is not reliable as a narrator of his personal history and there is no evidence that Christie sketched it out in any depth. During his police career, Poirot shot a man who was firing from a roof into the public below. In *Lord Edgware Dies*, Poirot reveals that he learned to read writing upside down during his police career. Around that time he met Xavier Bouc, director of the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits. Inspector Japp offers some insight into Poirot's career with the Belgian police when introducing him to a colleague: > You've heard me speak of Mr Poirot? It was in 1904 he and I worked together – the Abercrombie forgery case – you remember he was run down in Brussels. Ah, those were the days Moosier. Then, do you remember "Baron" Altara? There was a pretty rogue for you! He eluded the clutches of half the police in Europe. But we nailed him in Antwerp – thanks to Mr. Poirot here. > > In *The Double Clue,* Poirot mentions that he was Chief of Police of Brussels, until "the Great War" (World War I) forced him to leave for England. ### Private detective > I had called in at my friend Poirot's rooms to find him sadly overworked. So much had he become the rage that every rich woman who had mislaid a bracelet or lost a pet kitten rushed to secure the services of the great Hercule Poirot. > > During World War I, Poirot left Belgium for England as a refugee, although he returned a few times. On 16 July 1916 he again met his lifelong friend, Captain Arthur Hastings, and solved the first of his cases to be published, *The Mysterious Affair at Styles*. It is clear that Hastings and Poirot are already friends when they meet in Chapter 2 of the novel, as Hastings tells Cynthia that he has not seen him for "some years" (*Agatha Christie's Poirot* has Hastings reveal that they met on a shooting case where Hastings was a suspect). Particulars such as the date of 1916 for the case and that Hastings had met Poirot in Belgium, are given in *Curtain: Poirot's Last Case*, Chapter 1. After that case, Poirot apparently came to the attention of the British secret service and undertook cases for the British government, including foiling the attempted abduction of the Prime Minister. Readers were told that the British authorities had learned of Poirot's keen investigative ability from certain members of Belgium's royal family. Florin Court became the fictional residence of Agatha Christie's Poirot, known as "Whitehaven Mansions" After the war, Poirot became a private detective and began undertaking civilian cases. He moved into what became both his home and work address, Flat 203 at 56B Whitehaven Mansions. Hastings first visits the flat when he returns to England in June 1935 from Argentina in *The A.B.C. Murders*, Chapter 1. The TV programmes place this in Florin Court, Charterhouse Square, in the wrong part of London. According to Hastings, it was chosen by Poirot "entirely on account of its strict geometrical appearance and proportion" and described as the "newest type of service flat". (The Florin Court building was actually built in 1936, decades after Poirot fictionally moved in.) His first case in this period was "The Affair at the Victory Ball", which allowed Poirot to enter high society and begin his career as a private detective. Between the world wars, Poirot travelled all over Europe and the Middle East investigating crimes and solving murders. Most of his cases occurred during this time and he was at the height of his powers at this point in his life. In *The Murder on the Links*, the Belgian pits his grey cells against a French murderer. In the Middle East, he solved the cases *Death on the Nile* and *Murder in Mesopotamia* with ease and even survived *An Appointment with Death*. As he passed through Eastern Europe on his return trip, he solved *The Murder on the Orient Express*. However, he did not travel to Africa or Asia, probably to avoid seasickness. > It is this villainous sea that troubles me! The *mal de mer* – it is horrible suffering! > > It was during this time he met the Countess Vera Rossakoff, a glamorous jewel thief. The history of the countess is, like Poirot's, steeped in mystery. She claims to have been a member of the Russian aristocracy before the Russian Revolution and suffered greatly as a result, but how much of that story is true is an open question. Even Poirot acknowledges that Rossakoff offered wildly varying accounts of her early life. Poirot later became smitten with the woman and allowed her to escape justice. > It is the misfortune of small, precise men always to hanker after large and flamboyant women. Poirot had never been able to rid himself of the fatal fascination that the countess held for him. > > Although letting the countess escape was morally questionable, it was not uncommon. In *The Nemean Lion*, Poirot sided with the criminal, Miss Amy Carnaby, allowing her to evade prosecution by blackmailing his client Sir Joseph Hoggins, who, Poirot discovered, had plans to commit murder. Poirot even sent Miss Carnaby two hundred pounds as a final payoff prior to the conclusion of her dog kidnapping campaign. In *The Murder of Roger Ackroyd*, Poirot allowed the murderer to escape justice through suicide and then withheld the truth to spare the feelings of the murderer's relatives. In *The Augean Stables*, he helped the government to cover up vast corruption. In *Murder on the Orient Express*, Poirot allowed the murderers to go free after discovering that twelve different people participated in the murder, each one stabbing the victim in a darkened carriage after drugging him into unconsciousness so that there was no way for anyone to definitively determine which of them actually delivered the killing blow. The victim had committed a disgusting crime which led to the deaths of at least five people, and there was no question of his guilt, but he had been acquitted in America in a miscarriage of justice. Considering it poetic justice that twelve jurors had acquitted him and twelve people had stabbed him, Poirot produced an alternative sequence of events to explain the death involving an unknown additional passenger on the train, with the medical examiner agreeing to doctor his own report to support this theory. After his cases in the Middle East, Poirot returned to Britain. Apart from some of the so-called Labours of Hercules (see next section) he very rarely went abroad during his later career. He moved into Styles Court towards the end of his life. While Poirot was usually paid handsomely by clients, he was also known to take on cases that piqued his curiosity, although they did not pay well. Poirot shows a love of steam trains, which Christie contrasts with Hastings' love of autos: this is shown in *The Plymouth Express*, *The Mystery of the Blue Train*, *Murder on the Orient Express*, and *The ABC Murders* (in the TV series, steam trains are seen in nearly all of the episodes). ### Retirement > That's the way of it. Just a case or two, just one case more – the Prima Donna's farewell performance won't be in it with yours, Poirot. > > Confusion surrounds Poirot's retirement. Most of the cases covered by Poirot's private detective agency take place before his retirement to attempt to grow larger marrows, at which time he solves *The Murder of Roger Ackroyd*. It has been said that the twelve cases related in *The Labours of Hercules* (1947) must refer to a different retirement, but the fact that Poirot specifically says that he intends to grow marrows indicates that these stories also take place before *Roger Ackroyd*, and presumably Poirot closed his agency once he had completed them. There is specific mention in "The Capture of Cerberus" of the twenty-year gap between Poirot's previous meeting with Countess Rossakoff and this one. If the *Labours* precede the events in *Roger Ackroyd*, then the Ackroyd case must have taken place around twenty years *later* than it was published, and so must any of the cases that refer to it. One alternative would be that having failed to grow marrows once, Poirot is determined to have another go, but this is specifically denied by Poirot himself. Also, in "The Erymanthian Boar", a character is said to have been turned out of Austria by the Nazis, implying that the events of *The Labours of Hercules* took place after 1937. Another alternative would be to suggest that the Preface to the *Labours* takes place at one date but that the labours are completed over a matter of twenty years. None of the explanations is especially attractive. In terms of a rudimentary chronology, Poirot speaks of retiring to grow marrows in Chapter 18 of *The Big Four* (1927) which places that novel out of published order before *Roger Ackroyd*. He declines to solve a case for the Home Secretary because he is retired in Chapter One of *Peril at End House* (1932). He has certainly retired at the time of *Three Act Tragedy* (1935) but he does not enjoy his retirement and repeatedly takes cases thereafter when his curiosity is engaged. He continues to employ his secretary, Miss Lemon, at the time of the cases retold in *Hickory Dickory Dock* and *Dead Man's Folly*, which take place in the mid-1950s. It is, therefore, better to assume that Christie provided no authoritative chronology for Poirot's retirement but assumed that he could either be an active detective, a consulting detective, or a retired detective as the needs of the immediate case required. One consistent element about Poirot's retirement is that his fame declines during it so that in the later novels he is often disappointed when characters (especially younger characters) recognise neither him nor his name: > "I should, perhaps, Madame, tell you a little more about myself. I am *Hercule Poirot*." > > > > The revelation left Mrs Summerhayes unmoved. > > > > > "What a lovely name," she said kindly. "Greek, isn't it?" > > ### Post–World War II > He, I knew, was not likely to be far from his headquarters. The time when cases had drawn him from one end of England to the other was past. > > — Hastings[*page needed*] Poirot is less active during the cases that take place at the end of his career. Beginning with *Three Act Tragedy* (1934), Christie had perfected during the inter-war years a subgenre of Poirot novel in which the detective himself spent much of the first third of the novel on the periphery of events. In novels such as *Taken at the Flood*, *After the Funeral*, and *Hickory Dickory Dock*, he is even less in evidence, frequently passing the duties of main interviewing detective to a subsidiary character. In *Cat Among the Pigeons*, Poirot's entrance is so late as to be almost an afterthought. Whether this was a reflection of his age or of Christie's distaste for him, is impossible to assess. *Crooked House* (1949) and *Ordeal by Innocence* (1957), which could easily have been Poirot novels, represent a logical endpoint of the general diminution of his presence in such works. Towards the end of his career, it becomes clear that Poirot's retirement is no longer a convenient fiction. He assumes a genuinely inactive lifestyle during which he concerns himself with studying famous unsolved cases of the past and reading detective novels. He even writes a book about mystery fiction in which he deals sternly with Edgar Allan Poe and Wilkie Collins.[*page needed*] In the absence of a more appropriate puzzle, he solves such inconsequential domestic riddles as the presence of three pieces of orange peel in his umbrella stand. [*page needed*] Poirot (and, it is reasonable to suppose, his creator) becomes increasingly bemused by the vulgarism of the up-and-coming generation's young people. In *Hickory Dickory Dock*, he investigates the strange goings-on in a student hostel, while in *Third Girl* (1966) he is forced into contact with the smart set of Chelsea youths. In the growing drug and pop culture of the sixties, he proves himself once again but has become heavily reliant on other investigators (especially the private investigator, Mr. Goby) who provide him with the clues that he can no longer gather for himself. > *You're too old*. Nobody told me you were so old. I really don't want to be rude but – there it is. *You're too old*. I'm really very sorry. > > — Norma Restarick to Poirot in *Third Girl*, Chapter 1[*page needed*] Notably, during this time his physical characteristics also change dramatically, and by the time Arthur Hastings meets Poirot again in *Curtain*, he looks very different from his previous appearances, having become thin with age and with obviously dyed hair. ### Death On the ITV television series, Poirot died in October 1949 from complications of a heart condition at the end of *Curtain: Poirot's Last Case*. This took place at Styles Court, the scene of his first English case in 1916. In Christie's novels, he lived into the early 1970s, perhaps even until 1975 when *Curtain* was published. In both the novel and the television adaptation, he had moved his amyl nitrite pills out of his own reach, possibly because of guilt. He thereby became the murderer in *Curtain*, although it was for the benefit of others. Poirot himself noted that he wanted to kill his victim shortly before his own death so that he could avoid succumbing to the arrogance of the murderer, concerned that he might come to view himself as entitled to kill those whom he deemed necessary to eliminate. The "murderer" that he was hunting had never actually killed anyone, but he had manipulated others to kill for him, subtly and psychologically manipulating the moments where others desire to commit murder so that they carry out the crime when they might otherwise dismiss their thoughts as nothing more than a momentary passion. Poirot thus was forced to kill the man himself, as otherwise he would have continued his actions and never been officially convicted, as he did not legally do anything wrong. It is revealed at the end of *Curtain* that he fakes his need for a wheelchair to fool people into believing that he is suffering from arthritis, to give the impression that he is more infirm than he is. His last recorded words are "*Cher ami!*", spoken to Hastings as the Captain left his room. (The TV adaptation adds that as Poirot is dying alone, he whispers out his final prayer to God in these words: "Forgive me... forgive...") Poirot was buried at Styles, and his funeral was arranged by his best friend Hastings and Hastings' daughter Judith. Hastings reasoned, "Here was the spot where he had lived when he first came to this country. He was to lie here at the last." Poirot's actual death and funeral occurred in *Curtain*, years after his retirement from the active investigation, but it was not the first time that Hastings attended the funeral of his best friend. In *The Big Four* (1927), Poirot feigned his death and subsequent funeral to launch a surprise attack on the Big Four. Recurring characters -------------------- ### Captain Arthur Hastings Hastings, a former British Army officer, meets Poirot during Poirot's years as a police officer in Belgium and almost immediately after they both arrive in England. He becomes Poirot's lifelong friend and appears in many cases. Poirot regards Hastings as a poor private detective, not particularly intelligent, yet helpful in his way of being fooled by the criminal or seeing things the way the average man would see them and for his tendency to unknowingly "stumble" onto the truth. Hastings marries and has four children – two sons and two daughters. As a loyal, albeit somewhat naïve companion, Hastings is to Poirot what Watson is to Sherlock Holmes. Hastings is capable of great bravery and courage, facing death unflinchingly when confronted by *The Big Four* and displaying unwavering loyalty towards Poirot. However, when forced to choose between Poirot and his wife in that novel, he initially chooses to betray Poirot to protect his wife. Later, though, he tells Poirot to draw back and escape the trap. The two are an airtight team until Hastings meets and marries Dulcie Duveen, a beautiful music hall performer half his age, after investigating the *Murder on the Links*. They later emigrated to Argentina, leaving Poirot behind as a "very unhappy old man". However, Poirot and Hastings reunite during the novels *The Big Four*, *Peril at End House*, *The ABC Murders*, *Lord Edgware Dies*, and *Dumb Witness,* when Hastings arrives in England for business, with Poirot noting in *ABC Murders* that he enjoys having Hastings over because he feels that he always has his most interesting cases with Hastings. The two collaborate for the final time in *Curtain: Poirot's Last Case* when the seemingly-crippled Poirot asks Hastings to assist him in his final case. When the killer they are tracking nearly manipulates Hastings into committing murder, Poirot describes this in his final farewell letter to Hastings as the catalyst that prompted him to eliminate the man himself, as Poirot *knew* that his friend was not a murderer and refused to let a man capable of manipulating Hastings in such a manner go on. ### Mrs Ariadne Oliver Detective novelist Ariadne Oliver is Agatha Christie's humorous self-caricature. Like Christie, she is not overly fond of the detective whom she is most famous for creating–in Ariadne's case, Finnish sleuth Sven Hjerson. We never learn anything about her husband, but we do know that she hates alcohol and public appearances and has a great fondness for apples until she is put off them by the events of *Hallowe'en Party*. She also has a habit of constantly changing her hairstyle, and in every appearance by her much is made of her clothes and hats. Her maid Maria prevents the public adoration from becoming too much of a burden on her employer but does nothing to prevent her from becoming too much of a burden on others. She has authored more than 56 novels and greatly dislikes people modifying her characters. She is the only one in Poirot's universe to have noted that "It's not natural for five or six people to be on the spot when B is murdered and all have a motive for killing B." She first met Poirot in the story *Cards on the Table* and has bothered him ever since. ### Miss Felicity Lemon Poirot's secretary, Miss Felicity Lemon, has few human weaknesses. The only mistakes she makes within the series are a typing error during the events of *Hickory Dickory Dock* and the mis-mailing of an electricity bill, although she was worried about strange events surrounding her sister who worked at a student hostel at the time. Poirot described her as being "Unbelievably ugly and incredibly efficient. Anything that she mentioned as worth consideration usually was worth consideration." She is an expert on nearly everything and plans to create the perfect filing system. She also worked for the government statistician-turned-philanthropist Parker Pyne. Whether this was during one of Poirot's numerous retirements or before she entered his employment is unknown. In *The Agatha Christie Hour*, she was portrayed by Angela Easterling, while in *Agatha Christie's Poirot* she was portrayed by Pauline Moran (where she was shown to be efficient, prim and modest, but not remotely "unbelievably ugly".) On a number of occasions, she joins Poirot in his inquiries or seeks out answers alone at his request. ### Chief Inspector James Harold Japp Japp is a Scotland Yard Inspector and appears in many of the stories trying to solve cases that Poirot is working on. Japp is outgoing, loud, and sometimes inconsiderate by nature, and his relationship with the refined Belgian is one of the stranger aspects of Poirot's world. He first met Poirot in Belgium in 1904, during the Abercrombie Forgery. Later that year they joined forces again to hunt down a criminal known as Baron Altara. They also meet in England where Poirot often helps Japp and lets him take credit in return for special favours. These favours usually entail Poirot being supplied with other interesting cases. In *Agatha Christie's Poirot*, Japp was portrayed by Philip Jackson. In the film, *Thirteen at Dinner* (1985), adapted from *Lord Edgware Dies*, the role of Japp was taken by the actor David Suchet, who would later star as Poirot in the ITV adaptations. Major novels ------------ The Poirot books take readers through the whole of his life in England, from the first book (*The Mysterious Affair at Styles*), where he is a refugee staying at Styles, to the last Poirot book (*Curtain*), where he visits Styles before his death. In between, Poirot solves cases outside England as well, including his most famous case, *Murder on the Orient Express* (1934). Hercule Poirot became famous in 1926 with the publication of *The Murder of Roger Ackroyd*, whose surprising solution proved controversial. The novel is still among the most famous of all detective novels: Edmund Wilson alludes to it in the title of his well-known attack on detective fiction, "Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?" Aside from *Roger Ackroyd*, the most critically acclaimed Poirot novels appeared from 1932 to 1942, including *Murder on the Orient Express* (1934); *The ABC Murders* (1935)*; Cards on the Table* (1936); and *Death on the Nile* (1937), a tale of multiple murders upon a Nile steamer. *Death on the Nile* was judged by the famed detective novelist John Dickson Carr to be among the ten greatest mystery novels of all time. The 1942 novel *Five Little Pigs* (a.k.a. *Murder in Retrospect*), in which Poirot investigates a murder committed sixteen years before by analysing various accounts of the tragedy, has been called "the best Christie of all" by critic and mystery novelist Robert Barnard. In 2014, the Poirot canon was added to by Sophie Hannah, the first author to be commissioned by the Christie estate to write an original story. The novel was called *The Monogram Murders*, and was set in the late 1920s, placing it chronologically between *The Mystery of the Blue Train* and *Peril at End House*. A second Hannah-penned Poirot came out in 2016, called *Closed Casket*, and a third, *The Mystery of Three Quarters*, in 2018. Portrayals ---------- ### Stage The first actor to portray Poirot was Charles Laughton. He appeared on the West End in 1928 in the play *Alibi* which had been adapted by Michael Morton from the novel *The Murder of Roger Ackroyd*. In 1932, the play was performed as *The Fatal Alibi* on Broadway. Another Poirot play, *Black Coffee* opened in London at the Embassy Theatre on 8 December 1930 and starred Francis L. Sullivan as Poirot. Another production of *Black Coffee* ran in Dublin, Ireland from 23 to 28 June 1931, starring Robert Powell. American playwright Ken Ludwig adapted *Murder on the Orient Express* into a play, which premiered at the McCarter Theatre in Princeton, New Jersey on 14 March 2017. It starred Allan Corduner in the role of Hercule Poirot. ### Film #### Austin Trevor Austin Trevor debuted the role of Poirot on screen in the 1931 British film *Alibi*. The film was based on the stage play. Trevor reprised the role of Poirot twice, in *Black Coffee* and *Lord Edgware Dies*. Trevor said once that he was probably cast as Poirot simply because he could do a French accent. Notably, Trevor's Poirot did not have a moustache. Leslie S. Hiscott directed the first two films, and Henry Edwards took over for the third. #### Tony Randall Tony Randall portrayed Poirot in *The Alphabet Murders*, a 1965 film also known as *The ABC Murders*. This was more a satire of Poirot than a straightforward adaptation and was greatly changed from the original. Much of the story, set in modern times, was played for comedy, with Poirot investigating the murders while evading the attempts by Hastings (Robert Morley) and the police to get him out of England and back to Belgium. #### Albert Finney Albert Finney played Poirot in 1974 in the cinematic version of *Murder on the Orient Express*. As of now, Finney is the only actor to receive an Academy Award nomination for playing Poirot, though he did not win. #### Peter Ustinov Peter Ustinov as Poirot in a 1982 adaptation of the novel *Evil Under the Sun* Peter Ustinov played Poirot six times, starting with *Death on the Nile* (1978). He reprised the role in *Evil Under the Sun* (1982) and *Appointment with Death* (1988). Christie's daughter Rosalind Hicks observed Ustinov during a rehearsal and said, "That's not Poirot! He isn't at all like that!" Ustinov overheard and remarked "He is *now!*" He appeared again as Poirot in three television films: *Thirteen at Dinner* (1985), *Dead Man's Folly* (1986), and *Murder in Three Acts* (1986). Earlier adaptations were set during the time in which the novels were written, but these television films were set in the contemporary era. The first of these was based on *Lord Edgware Dies* and was made by Warner Bros. It also starred Faye Dunaway, with David Suchet as Inspector Japp, just before Suchet began to play Poirot. David Suchet considers his performance as Japp to be "possibly the worst performance of [his] career". #### Kenneth Branagh Kenneth Branagh played Poirot in film adaptations of *Murder on the Orient Express* in 2017 and *Death on the Nile* in 2022, both of which he also directed. He is currently set to return for a third film. #### Other * Anatoly Ravikovich, *Zagadka Endkhauza* (*End House Mystery*) (1989; based on "Peril at End House") ### Television #### David Suchet David Suchet starred as Poirot in the ITV series *Agatha Christie's Poirot* from 1989 until June 2013, when he announced that he was bidding farewell to the role. "No one could've guessed then that the series would span a quarter-century or that the classically trained Suchet would complete the entire catalogue of whodunits featuring the eccentric Belgian investigator, including 33 novels and dozens of short stories." His final appearance in the show was in an adaptation of *Curtain: Poirot's Last Case*, aired on 13 November 2013. The writers of the "Binge!" article of *Entertainment Weekly* Issue #1343–44 (26 December 2014 – 3 January 2015) picked Suchet as "Best Poirot" in the "Hercule Poirot & Miss Marple" timeline. The episodes were shot in various locations in the UK and abroad (for example *Triangle at Rhodes* and *Problem at Sea*), whilst other scenes were shot at Twickenham Studios. #### Other * Heini Göbel, (1955; an adaptation of *Murder on the Orient Express* for the West German television series *Die Galerie der großen Detektive*) * José Ferrer, *Hercule Poirot* (1961; Unaired TV Pilot, MGM; adaptation of "The Disappearance of Mr. Davenheim") * Martin Gabel, *General Electric Theater* (4/1/1962; adaptation of "The Disappearance of Mr. Davenheim") * Horst Bollmann, *Black Coffee* 1973 * Ian Holm, *Murder by the Book*, 1986 * Arnolds Liniņš, *Slepkavība Stailzā* (*The Mysterious Affair at Styles*), 1990 * Hugh Laurie, *Spice World*, 1997 * Alfred Molina, *Murder on the Orient Express*, 2001 * Konstantin Raikin, *Neudacha Puaro* (*Poirot's Failure*) (2002; based on "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd") * Anthony O'Donnell, *Agatha Christie: A Life in Pictures*, 2004 * Shirō Itō (Takashi Akafuji), *Meitantei Akafuji Takashi* (*The Detective Takashi Akafuji*), 2005 * Mansai Nomura (Takeru Suguro), *Orient Kyūkō Satsujin Jiken* (*Murder on the Orient Express*), 2015; *Kuroido Goroshi* (*The Murder of Kuroido*), 2018 (based on "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd"); *Shi to no Yakusoku*, 2021 (based on *Appointment with Death*) * John Malkovich was Poirot in the 2018 BBC adaptation of *The ABC Murders*. ### Anime In 2004, NHK (Japanese public TV network) produced a 39-episode anime series titled *Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple*, as well as a manga series under the same title released in 2005. The series, adapting several of the best-known Poirot and Marple stories, ran from 4 July 2004 through 15 May 2005, and in repeated reruns on NHK and other networks in Japan. Poirot was voiced by Kōtarō Satomi and Miss Marple was voiced by Kaoru Yachigusa. ### Radio From 1985 to 2007, BBC Radio 4 produced a series of twenty-seven adaptations of Poirot novels and short stories, adapted by Michael Bakewell and directed by Enyd Williams. Twenty five starred John Moffatt as Poirot; Maurice Denham and Peter Sallis played Poirot on BBC Radio 4 in the first two adaptations, *The Mystery of the Blue Train* and in *Hercule Poirot's Christmas* respectively. In 1939, Orson Welles and the Mercury Players dramatised *Roger Ackroyd* on CBS's *Campbell Playhouse*. On 6 October 1942, the Mutual radio series *Murder Clinic* broadcast "The Tragedy at Marsden Manor" starring Maurice Tarplin as Poirot. A 1945 radio series of at least 13 original half-hour episodes (none of which apparently adapt any Christie stories) transferred Poirot from London to New York and starred character actor Harold Huber, perhaps better known for his appearances as a police officer in various Charlie Chan films. On 22 February 1945, "speaking from London, Agatha Christie introduced the initial broadcast of the Poirot series via shortwave". An adaptation of *Murder in the Mews* was broadcast on the BBC Light Programme in March 1955 starring Richard Bebb as Poirot; this program was thought lost, but was discovered in the BBC archives in 2015. ### Other audio In 2017, Audible released an original audio adaptation of *Murder on the Orient Express* starring Tom Conti as Poirot. The cast included Jane Asher as Mrs. Hubbard, Jay Benedict as Monsieur Bouc, Ruta Gedmintas as Countess Andrenyi, Sophie Okonedo as Mary Debenham, Eddie Marsan as Ratchett, Walles Hamonde as Hector MacQueen, Paterson Joseph as Colonel Arbuthnot, Rula Lenska as Princess Dragimiroff and Art Malik as the Narrator. According to the Publisher's Summary on Audible.com, "sound effects [were] recorded on the Orient Express itself." In 2021, L.A. Theatre Works produced an adaptation of *The Murder on the Links*, dramatised by Kate McAll. Alfred Molina starred as Poirot, with Simon Helberg as Hastings. ### Video games The video game *Agatha Christie - Hercule Poirot: The First Cases* has Poirot voice acted by Will De Renzy-Martin. ### Parodies and references Parodies of Hercule Poirot have appeared in a number of movies, including *Revenge of the Pink Panther*, where Poirot makes a cameo appearance in a mental asylum, portrayed by Andrew Sachs and claiming to be "the greatest detective in all of France, the greatest in all the world"; Neil Simon's *Murder by Death*, where "Milo Perrier" is played by American actor James Coco; the 1977 film *The Strange Case of the End of Civilization as We Know It* (1977); the film *Spice World*, where Hugh Laurie plays Poirot; and in *Sherlock Holmes: The Awakened*, Poirot appears as a young boy on the train transporting Holmes and Watson. Holmes helps the boy in opening a puzzle-box, with Watson giving the boy advice about using his "little grey cells". In the book series *Geronimo Stilton*, the character Hercule Poirat is inspired by Hercule Poirot. The Belgian brewery Brasserie Ellezelloise makes a stout called *Hercule* with a moustachioed caricature of Hercule Poirot on the label. In season 2, episode 4 of TVFPlay's Indian web series *Permanent Roommates*, one of the characters refers to Hercule Poirot as her inspiration while she attempts to solve the mystery of the cheating spouse. Throughout the episode, she is mocked as Hercule Poirot and Agatha Christie by the suspects. TVFPlay also telecasted a spoof of Indian TV suspense drama *CID* as "*Qissa Missing Dimaag Ka: C.I.D Qtiyapa*". In the first episode, when Ujjwal is shown to browse for the best detectives of the world, David Suchet appears as Poirot in his search. See also -------- * *Poirot Investigates* * Tropes in Agatha Christie's novels Literature ---------- ### Works * Christie, Agatha (1939). *The Mysterious Affair at Styles*. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-61298-214-4. * Christie, Agatha (1947). *Prologue*. Collins. * Christie, Agatha (1947a). *The Apples of the Hesperides*. Collins. * Christie, Agatha (1947b). *The Stymphalean Birds*. Collins. * Christie, Agatha (1947c). *The Erymanthian Boar*. Collins. * Christie, Agatha (1948). *Taken at the Flood*. * Christie, Agatha (1952). *Mrs. McGinty's Dead*. * Christie, Agatha (1961). *The Pale Horse by A.Christie*. Collins. * Christie, Agatha (1975). *Curtain: Poirot's Last Case*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-712112-0. * Christie, Agatha (1980). *Evil Under the Sun: Death Comes as the End; The Sittaford Mystery*. Lansdowne Press. ISBN 978-0-7018-1458-8. * Christie, Agatha (1991). *The A.B.C. murders: [a Hercule Poirot mystery]*. Berkley Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-425-13024-7. * Christie, Agatha (28 September 2004a). *The Clocks*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-174050-3. * Christie, Agatha (6 January 2004b). *The Big Four*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-173909-5. * Christie, Agatha (25 January 2005). *After the Funeral: Hercule Poirot Investigates*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-173991-0. * Christie, Agatha (3 October 2006a). *The Labours of Hercules: Hercule Poirot Investigates*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-174638-3. * Christie, Agatha (3 October 2006b). *Three Act Tragedy*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-175403-6. * Christie, Agatha (17 March 2009). *The Murder of Roger Ackroyd*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-176340-3. * Christie, Agatha (17 March 2009b). *Peril at End House*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-174927-8. * Christie, Agatha (10 February 2010). *Death in the Clouds*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-174311-5. * Christie, Agatha (1 February 2011a). *Five Little Pigs: A Hercule Poirot Mystery*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-207357-0. * Christie, Agatha (29 March 2011). *Murder on the Orient Express: A Hercule Poirot Mystery*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-207350-1. * Christie, Agatha (1 September 2011b). *The Dream: A Hercule Poirot Short Story*. HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-00-745198-2. * Christie, Agatha (14 June 2011c). *Third Girl: A Hercule Poirot Mystery*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-207376-1. * Christie, Agatha (12 April 2012). *The Kidnapped Prime Minister: A Hercule Poirot Short Story*. HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-00-748658-8. * Christie, Agatha (2013). *Hercule Poirot: The Complete Short Stories: A Hercule Poirot Collection with Foreword by Charles Todd*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-225165-7. * Christie, Agatha (9 July 2013a). *The Lost Mine: A Hercule Poirot Story*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-229818-8. * Christie, Agatha (23 July 2013b). *Double Sin: A Hercule Poirot Story*. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-229845-4. ### Reviews * Barnard, Robert (1980), *A Talent to Deceive*, London: Fontana/Collins * Goddard, John (2018), *Agatha Christie’s Golden Age: An Analysis of Poirot’s Golden Age Puzzles*, Stylish Eye Press, ISBN 978-1-999-61200-9 * Hart, Anne (2004), *Agatha Christie's Poirot: The Life and Times of Hercule Poirot*, London: Harper and Collins * Kretzschmar, Judith; Stoppe, Sebastian; Vollberg, Susanne, eds. (2016), *Hercule Poirot trifft Miss Marple. Agatha Christie intermedial*, Darmstadt: Büchner, ISBN 978-3-941310-48-3. * Osborne, Charles (1982), *The Life and Crimes of Agatha Christie*, London: Collins

Hercule Poirot

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hercule_Poirot

**Anthropology** is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including past human species. Social anthropology studies patterns of behavior, while cultural anthropology studies cultural meaning, including norms and values. A portmanteau term sociocultural anthropology is commonly used today. Linguistic anthropology studies how language influences social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the biological development of humans. Archaeological anthropology, often termed as "anthropology of the past," studies human activity through investigation of physical evidence. It is considered a branch of anthropology in North America and Asia, while in Europe, archaeology is viewed as a discipline in its own right or grouped under other related disciplines, such as history and palaeontology. Etymology --------- The abstract noun *anthropology* is first attested in reference to history. Its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann. Their Neo-Latin **anthropologia** derived from the combining forms of the Greek words *ánthrōpos* (ἄνθρωπος, "human") and *lógos* (λόγος, "study"). Its adjectival form appeared in the works of Aristotle. It began to be used in English, possibly via French **Anthropologie**, by the early 18th century. Origin and development of the term ---------------------------------- ### Through the 19th century In 1647, the Bartholins, early scholars of the University of Copenhagen, defined **l'anthropologie** as follows: > Anthropology, that is to say the science that treats of man, is divided ordinarily and with reason into Anatomy, which considers the body and the parts, and Psychology, which speaks of the soul. > > Sporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently, such as the use by Étienne Serres in 1839 to describe the natural history, or paleontology, of man, based on comparative anatomy, and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the French National Museum of Natural History by Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau. Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use the term *ethnology*, was formed in 1839. Its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848, the *Société* was abandoned. Meanwhile, the Ethnological Society of New York, currently the American Ethnological Society, was founded on its model in 1842, as well as the Ethnological Society of London in 1843, a break-away group of the Aborigines' Protection Society. These anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-human-rights activists. They maintained international connections. Anthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. Theorists in such diverse fields as anatomy, linguistics, and ethnology, making feature-by-feature comparisons of their subject matters, were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals, languages, and folkways were the result of processes or laws unknown to them then. For them, the publication of Charles Darwin's *On the Origin of Species* was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect. Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s. There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. Paul Broca in Paris was in the process of breaking away from the Société de biologie to form the first of the explicitly anthropological societies, the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris, meeting for the first time in Paris in 1859. When he read Darwin, he became an immediate convert to *Transformisme*, as the French called evolutionism. His definition now became "the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature". Broca, being what today would be called a neurosurgeon, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech. He wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called Broca's area after him. His interest was mainly in Biological anthropology, but a German philosopher specializing in psychology, Theodor Waitz, took up the theme of general and social anthropology in his six-volume work, entitled *Die Anthropologie der Naturvölker*, 1859–1864. The title was soon translated as "The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples". The last two volumes were published posthumously. Waitz defined anthropology as "the science of the nature of man". Following Broca's lead, Waitz points out that anthropology is a new field, which would gather material from other fields, but would differ from them in the use of comparative anatomy, physiology, and psychology to differentiate man from "the animals nearest to him". He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation. The history of civilization, as well as ethnology, are to be brought into the comparison. It is to be presumed fundamentally that the species, man, is a unity, and that "the same laws of thought are applicable to all men". Waitz was influential among British ethnologists. In 1863, the explorer Richard Francis Burton and the speech therapist James Hunt broke away from the Ethnological Society of London to form the Anthropological Society of London, which henceforward would follow the path of the new anthropology rather than just ethnology. It was the 2nd society dedicated to general anthropology in existence. Representatives from the French *Société* were present, though not Broca. In his keynote address, printed in the first volume of its new publication, *The Anthropological Review*, Hunt stressed the work of Waitz, adopting his definitions as a standard. Among the first associates were the young Edward Burnett Tylor, inventor of cultural anthropology, and his brother Alfred Tylor, a geologist. Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist. Similar organizations in other countries followed: The Anthropological Society of Madrid (1865), the American Anthropological Association in 1902, the Anthropological Society of Vienna (1870), the Italian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology (1871), and many others subsequently. The majority of these were evolutionists. One notable exception was the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory (1869) founded by Rudolph Virchow, known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists. Not religious himself, he insisted that Darwin's conclusions lacked empirical foundation. During the last three decades of the 19th century, a proliferation of anthropological societies and associations occurred, most independent, most publishing their own journals, and all international in membership and association. The major theorists belonged to these organizations. They supported the gradual osmosis of anthropology curricula into the major institutions of higher learning. By 1898, 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had some curriculum in anthropology. None of the 75 faculty members were under a department named anthropology. ### 20th and 21st centuries This meager statistic expanded in the 20th century to comprise anthropology departments in the majority of the world's higher educational institutions, many thousands in number. Anthropology has diversified from a few major subdivisions to dozens more. Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene. The organization has reached a global level. For example, the World Council of Anthropological Associations (WCAA), "a network of national, regional and international associations that aims to promote worldwide communication and cooperation in anthropology", currently contains members from about three dozen nations. Since the work of Franz Boas and Bronisław Malinowski in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, *social* anthropology in Great Britain and *cultural* anthropology in the US have been distinguished from other social sciences by their emphasis on cross-cultural comparisons, long-term in-depth examination of context, and the importance they place on participant-observation or experiential immersion in the area of research. Cultural anthropology, in particular, has emphasized cultural relativism, holism, and the use of findings to frame cultural critiques. This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from Boas' arguments against 19th-century racial ideology, through Margaret Mead's advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of post-colonial oppression and promotion of multiculturalism. Ethnography is one of its primary research designs as well as the text that is generated from anthropological fieldwork. In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of social anthropology tends to dominate. In the United States, anthropology has traditionally been divided into the four field approach developed by Franz Boas in the early 20th century: *biological* or *physical* anthropology; *social*, *cultural*, or *sociocultural* anthropology; and archaeological anthropology; plus linguistic anthropology. These fields frequently overlap but tend to use different methodologies and techniques. European countries with overseas colonies tended to practice more ethnology (a term coined and defined by Adam F. Kollár in 1783). It is sometimes referred to as sociocultural anthropology in the parts of the world that were influenced by the European tradition. Fields ------ Anthropology is a global discipline involving humanities, social sciences and natural sciences. Anthropology builds upon knowledge from natural sciences, including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of *Homo sapiens*, human physical traits, human behavior, the variations among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past of *Homo sapiens* has influenced its social organization and culture, and from social sciences, including the organization of human social and cultural relations, institutions, social conflicts, etc. Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and Persia and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity, such as by Al-Biruni of the Islamic Golden Age. As such, anthropology has been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as cognitive science, global studies, and various ethnic studies. According to Clifford Geertz, > "anthropology is perhaps the last of the great nineteenth-century conglomerate disciplines still for the most part organizationally intact. Long after natural history, moral philosophy, philology, and political economy have dissolved into their specialized successors, it has remained a diffuse assemblage of ethnology, human biology, comparative linguistics, and prehistory, held together mainly by the vested interests, sunk costs, and administrative habits of academia, and by a romantic image of comprehensive scholarship." > > Sociocultural anthropology has been heavily influenced by structuralist and postmodern theories, as well as a shift toward the analysis of modern societies. During the 1970s and 1990s, there was an epistemological shift away from the positivist traditions that had largely informed the discipline.[*full citation needed*] During this shift, enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a central place in cultural and social anthropology. In contrast, archaeology and biological anthropology remained largely positivist. Due to this difference in epistemology, the four sub-fields of anthropology have lacked cohesion over the last several decades. ### Sociocultural Sociocultural anthropology draws together the principal axes of cultural anthropology and social anthropology. Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people *make sense* of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the *relationships* among individuals and groups. Cultural anthropology is more related to philosophy, literature and the arts (how one's culture affects the experience for self and group, contributing to a more complete understanding of the people's knowledge, customs, and institutions), while social anthropology is more related to sociology and history. In that, it helps develop an understanding of social structures, typically of others and other populations (such as minorities, subgroups, dissidents, etc.). There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree. Inquiry in sociocultural anthropology is guided in part by cultural relativism, the attempt to understand other societies in terms of their own cultural symbols and values. Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates reductionism in cross-cultural comparison. This project is often accommodated in the field of ethnography. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and the product of ethnographic research, i.e. an ethnographic monograph. As a methodology, ethnography is based upon long-term fieldwork within a community or other research site. Participant observation is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology. Ethnology involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. The process of participant-observation can be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an emic (conceptual, vs. etic, or technical) point of view. The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal. Sociocultural anthropology also covers economic and political organization, law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language (which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology). Comparison across cultures is a key element of method in sociocultural anthropology, including the industrialized (and de-industrialized) West. The Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (SCCS) includes 186 such cultures. ### Biological Biological anthropology and physical anthropology are synonymous terms to describe anthropological research focused on the study of humans and non-human primates in their biological, evolutionary, and demographic dimensions. It examines the biological and social factors that have affected the evolution of humans and other primates, and that generate, maintain or change contemporary genetic and physiological variation. ### Archaeological Archaeology is the study of the human past through its material remains. Artifacts, faunal remains, and human altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and material lives of past societies. Archaeologists examine material remains in order to deduce patterns of past human behavior and cultural practices. Ethnoarchaeology is a type of archaeology that studies the practices and material remains of living human groups in order to gain a better understanding of the evidence left behind by past human groups, who are presumed to have lived in similar ways. ### Linguistic Linguistic anthropology (not to be confused with anthropological linguistics) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in language across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including sociolinguistics, pragmatics, cognitive linguistics, semiotics, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. ### Ethnography Ethnography is a method of analysing social or cultural interaction. It often involves participant observation though an ethnographer may also draw from texts written by participants of in social interactions. Ethnography views first-hand experience and social context as important. Tim Ingold distinguishes ethnography from anthropology arguing that anthropology tries to construct general theories of human experience, applicable in general and novel settings, while ethnography concerns itself with fidelity. He argues that the anthropologist must make his writing consistent with their understanding of literature and other theory, but notes that ethnography may be of use to the anthropologists and the fields inform one another. Key topics by field: sociocultural ---------------------------------- ### Art, media, music, dance and film #### Art One of the central problems in the anthropology of art concerns the universality of 'art' as a cultural phenomenon. Several anthropologists have noted that the Western categories of 'painting', 'sculpture', or 'literature', conceived as independent artistic activities, do not exist, or exist in a significantly different form, in most non-Western contexts. To surmount this difficulty, anthropologists of art have focused on formal features in objects which, without exclusively being 'artistic', have certain evident 'aesthetic' qualities. Boas' *Primitive Art*, Claude Lévi-Strauss' *The Way of the Masks* (1982) or Geertz's 'Art as Cultural System' (1983) are some examples in this trend to transform the anthropology of 'art' into an anthropology of culturally specific 'aesthetics'. #### Media Media anthropology (also known as the anthropology of media or mass media) emphasizes ethnographic studies as a means of understanding producers, audiences, and other cultural and social aspects of mass media. The types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts of media production (e.g., ethnographies of newsrooms in newspapers, journalists in the field, film production) to contexts of media reception, following audiences in their everyday responses to media. Other types include cyber anthropology, a relatively new area of internet research, as well as ethnographies of other areas of research which happen to involve media, such as development work, social movements, or health education. This is in addition to many classic ethnographic contexts, where media such as radio, the press, new media, and television have started to make their presences felt since the early 1990s. #### Music Ethnomusicology is an academic field encompassing various approaches to the study of music (broadly defined), that emphasize its cultural, social, material, cognitive, biological, and other dimensions or contexts instead of or in addition to its isolated sound component or any particular repertoire. Ethnomusicology can be used in a wide variety of fields, such as teaching, politics, cultural anthropology etc. While the origins of ethnomusicology date back to the 18th and 19th centuries, it was formally termed "ethnomusicology" by Dutch scholar Jaap Kunst c. 1950. Later, the influence of study in this area spawned the creation of the periodical *Ethnomusicology* and the Society of Ethnomusicology. #### Visual Visual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study and production of ethnographic photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, new media. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with ethnographic film, visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation, including areas such as performance, museums, art, and the production and reception of mass media. Visual representations from all cultures, such as sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphs, paintings, and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology. ### Economic, political economic, applied and development #### Economic Economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it is highly critical. Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish-British founder of anthropology, Bronisław Malinowski, and his French compatriot, Marcel Mauss, on the nature of gift-giving exchange (or reciprocity) as an alternative to market exchange. Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange. The school of thought derived from Marx and known as Political Economy focuses on production, in contrast. Economic anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists, and have now turned to examine corporations, banks, and the global financial system from an anthropological perspective. #### Political economy Political economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and methods of historical materialism to the traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political economy introduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of social structure and culture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The first of these areas was concerned with the "pre-capitalist" societies that were subject to evolutionary "tribal" stereotypes. Sahlin's work on hunter-gatherers as the "original affluent society" did much to dissipate that image. The second area was concerned with the vast majority of the world's population at the time, the peasantry, many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperialism, and the creation of the capitalist world-system. More recently, these political economists have more directly addressed issues of industrial (and post-industrial) capitalism around the world. #### Applied Applied anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. It is a "complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy". Applied anthropology is the practical side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. It is closely related to development anthropology (distinct from the more critical anthropology of development). #### Development Anthropology of development tends to view development from a *critical* perspective. The kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach involve pondering why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, is poverty increasing? Why is there such a gap between plans and outcomes? Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer? Why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis? In short, why does so much planned development fail? ### Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality #### Kinship *Kinship* can refer both to *the study of* the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures, or it can refer to *the patterns of social relationships* themselves. Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms, such as "descent", "descent groups", "lineages", "affines", "cognates", and even "fictive kinship". Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent (one's social relations during development), and also relatives by marriage. Within kinship you have two different families. People have their biological families and it is the people they share DNA with. This is called consanguineal relations or "blood ties". People can also have a chosen family in which they chose who they want to be a part of their family. In some cases people are closer with their chosen family more than with their biological families. #### Feminist Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology (archeological, biological, cultural, linguistic) that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white feminists of Europe, America, and elsewhere. From the perspective of the Western world, historically such 'peripheral' perspectives have been ignored, observed only from an outsider perspective, and regarded as less-valid or less-important than knowledge from the Western world. Exploring and addressing that double bias against women from marginalized racial or ethnic groups is of particular interest in intersectional feminist anthropology. Feminist anthropologists have stated that their publications have contributed to anthropology, along the way correcting against the systemic biases beginning with the "patriarchal origins of anthropology (and (academia)" and note that from 1891 to 1930 doctorates in anthropology went to males more than 85%, more than 81% were under 35, and only 7.2% to anyone over 40 years old, thus reflecting an age gap in the pursuit of anthropology by first-wave feminists until later in life. This correction of systemic bias may include mainstream feminist theory, history, linguistics, archaeology, and anthropology. Feminist anthropologists are often concerned with the construction of gender across societies. Gender constructs are of particular interest when studying sexism. According to St. Clair Drake, Vera Mae Green was, until "[w]ell into the 1960s", the only African-American female anthropologist who was also a Caribbeanist. She studied ethnic and family relations in the Caribbean as well as the United States, and thereby tried to improve the way black life, experiences, and culture were studied. However, Zora Neale Hurston, although often primarily considered to be a literary author, was trained in anthropology by Franz Boas, and published *Tell my Horse* about her "anthropological observations" of voodoo in the Caribbean (1938). Feminist anthropology is inclusive of the anthropology of birth as a specialization, which is the anthropological study of pregnancy and childbirth within cultures and societies. ### Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal #### Medical Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation". It is believed that William Caudell was the first to discover the field of medical anthropology. Currently, research in medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the following six basic fields: > > * the development of systems of medical knowledge and medical care > * the patient-physician relationship > * the integration of alternative medical systems in culturally diverse environments > * the interaction of social, environmental and biological factors which influence health and illness both in the individual and the community as a whole > * the critical analysis of interaction between psychiatric services and migrant populations ("critical ethnopsychiatry": Beneduce 2004, 2007) > * the impact of biomedicine and biomedical technologies in non-Western settings > > > Other subjects that have become central to medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering (Farmer, 1999, 2003; Beneduce, 2010) as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthropology in terms of research methodology and theoretical production, such as *cultural psychiatry* and *transcultural psychiatry* or *ethnopsychiatry*. #### Nutritional Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between economic systems, nutritional status and food security, and how changes in the former affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development (either in terms of human development or traditional western models) for any given group of people. #### Psychological Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and enculturation within a particular cultural group – with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories – shape processes of human cognition, emotion, perception, motivation, and mental health. It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes. #### Cognitive Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural innovation, and transmission over time and space using the methods and theories of the cognitive sciences (especially experimental psychology and evolutionary biology) often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and interpretation of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them. #### Transpersonal Transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship between altered states of consciousness and culture. As with transpersonal psychology, the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness (ASC) and transpersonal experience. However, the field differs from mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more cognizance of cross-cultural issues – for instance, the roles of myth, ritual, diet, and text in evoking and interpreting extraordinary experiences. ### Political and legal #### Political Political anthropology concerns the structure of political systems, looked at from the basis of the structure of societies. Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more "complex" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena. The turn towards complex societies meant that political themes were taken up at two main levels. Firstly, anthropologists continued to study political organization and political phenomena that lay outside the state-regulated sphere (as in patron-client relations or tribal political organization). Secondly, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions). An anthropology of the state developed, and it is a most thriving field today. Geertz' comparative work on "Negara", the Balinese state, is an early, famous example. #### Legal Legal anthropology or anthropology of law specializes in "the cross-cultural study of social ordering". Earlier legal anthropological research often focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation. More recent applications include issues such as human rights, legal pluralism, and political uprisings. #### Public Public anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky, a professor at Hawaii Pacific University, to "demonstrate the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effectively address problems beyond the discipline – illuminating larger social issues of our times as well as encouraging broad, public conversations about them with the explicit goal of fostering social change". ### Nature, science, and technology #### Cyborg Cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the American Anthropological Association's annual meeting in 1993. The sub-group was very closely related to STS and the Society for the Social Studies of Science. Donna Haraway's 1985 *Cyborg Manifesto* could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings. #### Digital Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital-era technology, and extends to various areas where anthropology and technology intersect. It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometimes considered part of material culture. The field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. These include techno-anthropology, digital ethnography, cyberanthropology, and virtual anthropology. #### Ecological Ecological anthropology is defined as the "study of cultural adaptations to environments". The sub-field is also defined as, "the study of relationships between a population of humans and their biophysical environment". The focus of its research concerns "how cultural beliefs and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments, and how their environments change across space and time. The contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology, and arguably at least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today, is political ecology. Many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture, politics and power, globalization, localized issues, century anthropology and more. The focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments for/against or creation of policy, and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land. Often, the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly (organizing, participation) or indirectly (articles, documentaries, books, ethnographies). Such is the case with environmental justice advocate Melissa Checker and her relationship with the people of Hyde Park. #### Environment Social sciences, like anthropology, can provide interdisciplinary approaches to the environment. Professor Kay Milton, Director of the Anthropology research network in the School of History and Anthropology, describes anthropology as distinctive, with its most distinguishing feature being its interest in non-industrial indigenous and traditional societies. Anthropological theory is distinct because of the consistent presence of the concept of culture; not an exclusive topic but a central position in the study and a deep concern with the human condition. Milton describes three trends that are causing a fundamental shift in what characterizes anthropology: dissatisfaction with the cultural relativist perspective, reaction against cartesian dualisms which obstructs progress in theory (nature culture divide), and finally an increased attention to globalization (transcending the barriers or time/space). Environmental discourse appears to be characterized by a high degree of globalization. (The troubling problem is borrowing non-indigenous practices and creating standards, concepts, philosophies and practices in western countries.) Anthropology and environmental discourse now have become a distinct position in anthropology as a discipline. Knowledge about diversities in human culture can be important in addressing environmental problems - anthropology is now a study of human ecology. Human activity is the most important agent in creating environmental change, a study commonly found in human ecology which can claim a central place in how environmental problems are examined and addressed. Other ways anthropology contributes to environmental discourse is by being theorists and analysts, or by refinement of definitions to become more neutral/universal, etc. In exploring environmentalism - the term typically refers to a concern that the environment should be protected, particularly from the harmful effects of human activities. Environmentalism itself can be expressed in many ways. Anthropologists can open the doors of environmentalism by looking beyond industrial society, understanding the opposition between industrial and non industrial relationships, knowing what ecosystem people and biosphere people are and are affected by, dependent and independent variables, "primitive" ecological wisdom, diverse environments, resource management, diverse cultural traditions, and knowing that environmentalism is a part of culture. ### Historical Ethnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures and indigenous customs by examining historical records. It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today. Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recognize the utility of such source material as maps, music, paintings, photography, folklore, oral tradition, site exploration, archaeological materials, museum collections, enduring customs, language, and place names. ### Religion The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between magical thinking and religion, and that every religion is a cultural product, created by the human community that worships it. ### Urban Urban anthropology is concerned with issues of urbanization, poverty, and neoliberalism. Ulf Hannerz quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were "a notoriously agoraphobic lot, anti-urban by definition". Various social processes in the Western World as well as in the "Third World" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of "specialists in 'other cultures'" closer to their homes. There are two main approaches to urban anthropology: examining the types of cities or examining the social issues within the cities. These two methods are overlapping and dependent of each other. By defining different types of cities, one would use social factors as well as economic and political factors to categorize the cities. By directly looking at the different social issues, one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic of the city. Key topics by field: archaeological and biological -------------------------------------------------- ### Anthrozoology Anthrozoology (also known as "human–animal studies") is the study of interaction between living things. It is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine and zoology. A major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions. It includes scholars from a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, biology, and philosophy. ### Biocultural Biocultural anthropology is the scientific exploration of the relationships between human biology and culture. Physical anthropologists throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship from a racial perspective; that is, from the assumption that typological human biological differences lead to cultural differences. After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human biology. ### Evolutionary Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the evolution of human physiology and human behaviour and the relation between hominins and non-hominin primates. Evolutionary anthropology is based in natural science and social science, combining the human development with socioeconomic factors. Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans, past and present. It is based on a scientific approach, and brings together fields such as archaeology, behavioral ecology, psychology, primatology, and genetics. It is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience, past and present. ### Forensic Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology and human osteology in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of decomposition. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective "forensic" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law. ### Palaeoanthropology Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of paleontology and physical anthropology. It is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints. Genetics and morphology of specimens are crucially important to this field. Markers on specimens, such as enamel fractures and dental decay on teeth, can also give insight into the behaviour and diet of past populations. Organizations ------------- Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of anthropologists is the American Anthropological Association (AAA), which was founded in 1903. Its members are anthropologists from around the globe. In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the European Association of Social Anthropologists (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe. The EASA seeks to advance the status of anthropology in Europe and to increase visibility of marginalized anthropological traditions and thereby contribute to the project of a global anthropology or world anthropology. Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various sub-fields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as geology, physics, zoology, paleontology, anatomy, music theory, art history, sociology and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well. ### List of major organizations * American Anthropological Association * American Ethnological Society * Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red, AIBR * Anthropological Society of London * Center for World Indigenous Studies * Ethnological Society of London * Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology * Network of Concerned Anthropologists * N.N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology * Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland * Society for Anthropological Sciences * Society for Applied Anthropology * USC Center for Visual Anthropology Ethics ------ As the field has matured it has debated and arrived at ethical principles aimed at protecting both the subjects of anthropological research as well as the researchers themselves, and professional societies have generated codes of ethics. Anthropologists, like other researchers (especially historians and scientists engaged in field research), have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism. Some commentators have contended: * That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derives some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004). * That ethnographic work is often ahistorical, writing about people as if they were "out of time" in an "ethnographic present" (Johannes Fabian, *Time and Its Other*). * In his article "The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequence," Herbert S. Lewis critiqued older anthropological works that presented other cultures as if they were strange and unusual. While the findings of those researchers should not be discarded, the field should learn from its mistakes. ### Cultural relativism As part of their quest for scientific objectivity, present-day anthropologists typically urge cultural relativism, which has an influence on all the sub-fields of anthropology. This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms. There should be no notions, in good anthropology, of one culture being better or worse than another culture.[*page needed*] Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting genocide, infanticide, racism, sexism, mutilation (including circumcision and subincision), and torture. Topics like racism, slavery, and human sacrifice attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies, to genes, to acculturation, to colonialism, have been proposed to explain their origins and continued recurrences. To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as "racism" and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the major and minor sub-fields. ### Military involvement Anthropologists' involvement with the U.S. government, in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists. But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the Axis Powers (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces, while others worked in intelligence (for example, Office of Strategic Services and the Office of War Information). At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies. Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up little. Many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement. Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association (AAA). Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the state. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. The "Principles of Professional Responsibility" issued by the American Anthropological Association and amended through November 1986 stated that "in relation with their own government and with host governments ... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given." The current "Principles of Professional Responsibility" does not make explicit mention of ethics surrounding state interactions. Anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are working with the US military as part of the US Army's strategy in Afghanistan. *The Christian Science Monitor* reports that "Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs" in Afghanistan, under the *Human Terrain System* (HTS) program; in addition, HTS teams are working with the US military in Iraq. In 2009, the American Anthropological Association's Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities (CEAUSSIC) released its final report concluding, in part, that, > When ethnographic investigation is determined by military missions, not subject to external review, where data collection occurs in the context of war, integrated into the goals of counterinsurgency, and in a potentially coercive environment – all characteristic factors of the HTS concept and its application – it can no longer be considered a legitimate professional exercise of anthropology. In summary, while we stress that constructive engagement between anthropology and the military is possible, CEAUSSIC suggests that the AAA emphasize the incompatibility of HTS with disciplinary ethics and practice for job seekers and that it further recognize the problem of allowing HTS to define the meaning of 'anthropology' within DoD. > > Post-World War II developments ------------------------------ Before WWII British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. After the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology. ### Basic trends There are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular place, problem or phenomenon in detail, using a variety of methods, over a more extensive period than normal in many parts of academia. In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological. Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation and in the possibility of human universals (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures). They use many different methods of study, but modern population genetics, participant observation and other techniques often take anthropologists "into the field," which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called "fieldwork." On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs. Along with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the Paleolithic and the Neolithic, of particular use in archaeology. Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past. Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to culture regions as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have developed various kinds of comparative method, a central part of their science. ### Commonalities between fields Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises (see History of anthropology), including but not limited to fossil-hunting, exploring, documentary film-making, paleontology, primatology, antiquity dealings and curatorship, philology, etymology, genetics, regional analysis, ethnology, history, philosophy, and religious studies, it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made. Some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of "other cultures", both in terms of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-Western societies). For example, the classic of urban anthropology, Ulf Hannerz in the introduction to his seminal *Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology* mentions that the "Third World" had habitually received most of attention; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in "other cultures" looked for them far away and started to look "across the tracks" only in late 1960s. Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's "home". It is also argued that other fields of study, like History and Sociology, on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West. In France, the study of Western societies has been traditionally left to sociologists, but this is increasingly changing, starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac Chiva and journals like *Terrain* ("fieldwork"), and developing with the center founded by Marc Augé (*Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains*, the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies). Since the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the North Atlantic region, frequently examining the connections between locations rather than limiting research to a single locale. There has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people; increasingly, research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories, social movements, governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses. See also -------- * Anthropological science fiction * Christian anthropology, a sub-field of theology * Circumscription theory * Culture * Dual inheritance theory * Emic and etic * Engaged theory * Ethnobiology * Human behavioral ecology * Human ethology * Human Relations Area Files * Intangible cultural heritage * Origins of society * Philosophical anthropology, a sub-field of philosophy * Prehistoric medicine * Qualitative research **Lists** * Outline of anthropology * List of indigenous peoples * List of anthropologists ### Works cited * Hunt, James (1863). "Introductory Address on the Study of Anthropology". *The Anthropological Review*. **I**. * Schiller, Francis (1979). *Paul Broca, Founder of French Anthropology, Explorer of the Brain*. Berkeley: University of California Press. * Waitz, Theodor (1863). *Introduction to Anthropology*. Translated by J. Frederick Collingwood for the Anthropological Society of London. London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts. Further reading --------------- ### Dictionaries and encyclopedias * Barnard, Alan; Spencer, Jonathan, eds. (2010). *The Routledge Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology*. London: Routledge. * Barfield, Thomas (1997). *The Dictionary of Anthropology*. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing. * Jackson, John L. (2013). *Oxford Bibliographies: Anthropology*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Levinson, David; Ember, Melvin, eds. (1996). *Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology*. Vol. 1–4. New York: Henry Holt. * Rapport, Nigel; Overing, Joanna (2007). *Social and Cultural Anthropology: The Key Concepts*. New York: Routledge. ### Fieldnotes and memoirs * Barley, Nigel (1983). *The innocent anthropologist: notes from a mud hut*. London: British Museum Publications. * Geertz, Clifford (1995). *After the fact: two countries, four decades, one anthropologist*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. * Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1967). *Tristes tropiques*. Translated from the French by John Russell. New York: Atheneum. * Malinowski, Bronisław (1967). *A diary in the strict sense of the term*. Translated by Norbert Guterman. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. * Mead, Margaret (1972). *Blackberry winter: my earlier years*. New York: William Marrow. * —— (1977). *Letters from the field, 1925–1975*. New York: Harper & Row. * Rabinow, Paul (1977). *Reflections on fieldwork in Morocco*. Quantum Books. Berkeley: University of California Press. ### Histories * Asad, Talal, ed. (1973). *Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter*. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities k. * Barth, Fredrik; Gingrich, Andre; Parkin, Robert (2005). *One Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, and American anthropology*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. * Darnell, Regna. (2001). *Invisible Genealogies: A History of Americanist Anthropology*. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. * Gisi, Lucas Marco (2007). *Einbildungskraft und Mythologie. Die Verschränkung von Anthropologie und Geschichte im 18. Jahrhundert*. Berlin; New York: de Gruyter. * Harris, Marvin. (2001) [1968]. *The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture*. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. * Kehoe, Alice B. (1998). *The Land of Prehistory: A Critical History of American Archaeology*. New York; London: Routledge. * Lewis, H.S. (1998). "The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequences". *American Anthropologist*. **100** (3): 716–731. doi:10.1525/aa.1998.100.3.716. Archived from the original on 5 March 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2016. * —— (2004). "Imagining Anthropology's History". *Reviews in Anthropology*. **33** (3): 243–261. doi:10.1080/00938150490486418. S2CID 162956412. * —— (2005). "Anthropology, the Cold War, and Intellectual History". In Darnell, R.; Gleach, F.W. (eds.). *Histories of Anthropology Annual, Vol. I*. * Pels, Peter; Salemink, Oscar, eds. (2000). *Colonial Subjects: Essays on the Practical History of Anthropology*. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. * Price, David (2004). *Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists*. Durham: Duke University Press.. * Sera-Shriar, Efram (2013). *The Making of British Anthropology, 1813–1871*. Science and Culture in the Nineteenth Century, 18. London; Vermont: Pickering and Chatto. * Stocking, George Jr. (1968). *Race, Culture and Evolution*. New York: Free Press. * Trencher, Susan (2000). *Mirrored Images: American Anthropology and American Culture, 1960–1980*. Westport, Conn.: Bergin & Garvey. * Wolf, Eric (1982). *Europe and the People Without History*. Berkeley; Los Angeles: California University Press. ### Textbooks and key theoretical works * Clifford, James; Marcus, George E. (1986). *Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography*. Berkeley: University of California Press. * Geertz, Clifford (1973). *The Interpretation of Cultures*. New York: Basic Books. * Harris, Marvin (1997). *Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology* (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. * Salzmann, Zdeněk (1993). *Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology*. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. * Shweder, Richard A.; LeVine, Robert A., eds. (1984). *Culture Theory: essays on mind, self, and emotion*. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ### Organisations * "AAANet Home". American Anthropological Association. 2010. * "Home". European Association of Social Anthropologists. 2015. * Hagen, Ed (2015). "AAPA". American Association of Physical Anthropologists. * "Home". Australian Anthropological Society. Retrieved 23 March 2015. * "AIBR, Revista de Antropología Iberoamericana" (in Spanish). Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red. Retrieved 24 March 2015. * "Home". Human Relations Area Files. Retrieved 24 March 2015. * "Home". National Association for the Practice of Anthropology. Retrieved 24 March 2015. * "About". Radical Anthropology Group. Retrieved 24 March 2015. * "Home". Royal Anthropological Institute. Retrieved 24 March 2015. * "Home". The Society for Applied Anthropology. Retrieved 24 March 2015. * "Anthropology". American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 25 March 2015. * "Department of Anthropology". Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 25 March 2015. * "Anthropological Index Online". Royal Anthropological Institute. (AIO)

Anthropology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology

**Supernatural** refers to phenomena or entities that are beyond the laws of nature. The term is derived from Medieval Latin *supernaturalis*, from Latin *super-* (above, beyond, or outside of) + *natura* (nature) Though the corollary term "nature", has had multiple meanings since the ancient world, the term "supernatural" emerged in the Middle Ages and did not exist in the ancient world. The supernatural is featured in folklore and religious contexts, but can also feature as an explanation in more secular contexts, as in the cases of superstitions or belief in the paranormal. The term is attributed to non-physical entities, such as angels, demons, gods, and spirits. It also includes claimed abilities embodied in or provided by such beings, including magic, telekinesis, levitation, precognition, and extrasensory perception. Etymology and history of the concept ------------------------------------ Occurring as both an adjective and a noun, descendants of the modern English compound *supernatural* enter the language from two sources: via Middle French (*supernaturel*) and directly from the Middle French's term's ancestor, post-Classical Latin (*supernaturalis*). Post-classical Latin *supernaturalis* first occurs in the 6th century, composed of the Latin prefix *super-* and *nātūrālis* (see nature). The earliest known appearance of the word in the English language occurs in a Middle English translation of Catherine of Siena's *Dialogue* (*orcherd of Syon*, around 1425; *Þei haue not þanne þe supernaturel lyȝt ne þe liȝt of kunnynge, bycause þei vndirstoden it not*). The semantic value of the term has shifted over the history of its use. Originally the term referred exclusively to Christian understandings of the world. For example, as an adjective, the term can mean "belonging to a realm or system that transcends nature, as that of divine, magical, or ghostly beings; attributed to or thought to reveal some force beyond scientific understanding or the laws of nature; occult, paranormal" or "more than what is natural or ordinary; unnaturally or extraordinarily great; abnormal, extraordinary". Obsolete uses include "of, relating to, or dealing with metaphysics". As a noun, the term can mean "a supernatural being", with a particularly strong history of employment in relation to entities from the mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. ### History of the concept The ancient world had no word that resembled "supernatural". Dialogues from Neoplatonic philosophy in the third century AD contributed to the development of the concept the supernatural via Christian theology in later centuries. The term *nature* had existed since antiquity, with Latin authors like Augustine using the word and its cognates at least 600 times in *City of God*. In the medieval period, "nature" had ten different meanings and "natural" had eleven different meanings. Peter Lombard, a medieval scholastic in the 12th century, asked about causes that are beyond nature, in that how there could be causes that were God's alone. He used the term *praeter naturam* in his writings. In the scholastic period, Thomas Aquinas classified miracles into three categories: "above nature", "beyond nature", and "against nature". In doing so, he sharpened the distinction between nature and miracles more than the early Church Fathers had done. As a result, he had created a dichotomy of sorts of the natural and supernatural. Though the phrase *"supra naturam"* was used since the 4th century AD, it was in the 1200s that Thomas Aquinas used the term *"supernaturalis"* and despite this, the term had to wait until the end of the medieval period before it became more popularly used. The discussions on "nature" from the scholastic period were diverse and unsettled with some postulating that even miracles are natural and that natural magic was a natural part of the world. Epistemology and metaphysics ---------------------------- The metaphysical considerations of the existence of the supernatural can be difficult to approach as an exercise in philosophy or theology because any dependencies on its antithesis, the natural, will ultimately have to be inverted or rejected. One complicating factor is that there is disagreement about the definition of "natural" and the limits of naturalism. Concepts in the supernatural domain are closely related to concepts in religious spirituality and occultism or spiritualism. > For sometimes we use the word *nature* for that *Author of nature* whom the schoolmen, harshly enough, call *natura naturans*, as when it is said that *nature* hath made man partly corporeal and partly immaterial. Sometimes we mean by the *nature* of a thing the *essence*, or that which the schoolmen scruple not to call the *quiddity* of a thing, namely, the *attribute* or *attributes* on whose score it is what it is, whether the thing be corporeal or not, as when we attempt to define the *nature* of an *angle*, or of a *triangle*, or of a *fluid* body, as such. Sometimes we take *nature* for an internal principle of motion, as when we say that a stone let fall in the air is by *nature* carried towards the centre of the earth, and, on the contrary, that fire or flame does *naturally* move upwards toward firmament. Sometimes we understand by *nature* the established course of things, as when we say that *nature* makes the night succeed the day, *nature* hath made respiration necessary to the life of men. Sometimes we take *nature* for an aggregate of powers belonging to a body, especially a living one, as when physicians say that *nature* is strong or weak or spent, or that in such or such diseases *nature* left to herself will do the cure. Sometimes we take nature for the universe, or system of the corporeal works of God, as when it is said of a phoenix, or a chimera, that there is no such thing in *nature*, i.e. in the world. And sometimes too, and that most commonly, we would express by *nature* a semi-deity or other strange kind of being, such as this discourse examines the notion of. > > And besides these more absolute acceptions, if I may so call them, of the word *nature*, it has divers others (more relative), as *nature* is wont to be set or in opposition or contradistinction to other things, as when we say of a stone when it falls downwards that it does it by a *natural motion*, but that if it be thrown upwards its motion that way is *violent*. So chemists distinguish vitriol into *natural* and *fictitious*, or made by art, i.e. by the intervention of human power or skill; so it is said that water, kept suspended in a sucking pump, is not in its *natural* place, as that is which is stagnant in the well. We say also that wicked men are still in the state of *nature*, but the regenerate in a state of *grace*; that cures wrought by medicines are natural operations; but the miraculous ones wrought by Christ and his apostles were *supernatural*. > > > — Robert Boyle, *A Free Enquiry into the Vulgarly Received Notion of Nature* Nomological possibility is possibility under the actual laws of nature. Most philosophers since David Hume have held that the laws of nature are metaphysically contingent—that there could have been different natural laws than the ones that actually obtain. If so, then it would not be logically or metaphysically impossible, for example, for you to travel to Alpha Centauri in one day; it would just have to be the case that you could travel faster than the speed of light. But of course there is an important sense in which this is not nomologically possible; given that the laws of nature are what they are. In the philosophy of natural science, impossibility assertions come to be widely accepted as overwhelmingly probable rather than considered proved to the point of being unchallengeable. The basis for this strong acceptance is a combination of extensive evidence of something not occurring, combined with an underlying scientific theory, very successful in making predictions, whose assumptions lead logically to the conclusion that something is impossible. While an impossibility assertion in natural science can never be absolutely proved, it could be refuted by the observation of a single counterexample. Such a counterexample would require that the assumptions underlying the theory that implied the impossibility be re-examined. Some philosophers, such as Sydney Shoemaker, have argued that the laws of nature are in fact necessary, not contingent; if so, then nomological possibility is equivalent to metaphysical possibility. The term *supernatural* is often used interchangeably with paranormal or preternatural—the latter typically limited to an adjective for describing abilities which appear to exceed what is possible within the boundaries of the laws of physics. Epistemologically, the relationship between the supernatural and the natural is indistinct in terms of natural phenomena that, *ex hypothesi,* violate the laws of nature, in so far as such laws are realistically accountable. > Parapsychologists use the term psi to refer to an assumed unitary force underlying the phenomena they study. Psi is defined in the *Journal of Parapsychology* as "personal factors or processes in nature which transcend accepted laws" (1948: 311) and "which are non-physical in nature" (1962:310), and it is used to cover both extrasensory perception (ESP), an "awareness of or response to an external event or influence not apprehended by sensory means" (1962:309) or inferred from sensory knowledge, and psychokinesis (PK), "the direct influence exerted on a physical system by a subject without any known intermediate energy or instrumentation" (1945:305). > > — Michael Winkelman, *Current Anthropology* Views on the "supernatural" vary, for example it may be seen as: * **indistinct from nature**. From this perspective, some events occur according to the laws of nature, and others occur according to a separate set of principles external to known nature. For example, in Scholasticism, it was believed that God was capable of performing any miracle so long as it didn't lead to a logical contradiction. Some religions posit immanent deities, however, and do not have a tradition analogous to the supernatural; some believe that everything anyone experiences occurs by the will (occasionalism), in the mind (neoplatonism), or as a part (nondualism) of a more fundamental divine reality (platonism). * **incorrect human attribution**. In this view all events have natural and only natural causes. They believe that human beings ascribe supernatural attributes to purely natural events, such as lightning, rainbows, floods, and the origin of life. Anthropological studies ----------------------- Anthropological studies across cultures indicate that people do not hold or use natural and supernatural explanations in a mutually exclusive or dichotomous fashion. Instead, the reconciliation of natural and supernatural explanations is normal and pervasive across cultures. Cross cultural studies indicate that there is coexistence of natural and supernatural explanations in both adults and children for explaining numerous things about the world such as illness, death, and origins. Context and cultural input play a large role in determining when and how individuals incorporate natural and supernatural explanations. The coexistence of natural and supernatural explanations in individuals may be the outcomes two distinct cognitive domains: one concerned with the physical-mechanical relations and another with social relations. Studies on indigenous groups have allowed for insights on how such coexistence of explanations may function. Supernatural concepts --------------------- ### Deity A *deity* (/ˈdiːəti/ () or /ˈdeɪ.əti/ ()) is a supernatural being considered divine or sacred. The *Oxford Dictionary of English* defines deity as "a god or goddess (in a polytheistic religion)", or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater than those of ordinary humans, but who interacts with humans, positively or negatively, in ways that carry humans to new levels of consciousness, beyond the grounded preoccupations of ordinary life." A male deity is a god, while a female deity is a goddess. Religions can be categorized by how many deities they worship. Monotheistic religions accept only one deity (predominantly referred to as God), polytheistic religions accept multiple deities. Henotheistic religions accept one supreme deity without denying other deities, considering them as equivalent aspects of the same divine principle; and nontheistic religions deny any supreme eternal creator deity but accept a pantheon of deities which live, die, and are reborn just like any other being. Various cultures have conceptualized a deity differently than a monotheistic God. A deity need not be omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent or eternal, The monotheistic God, however, does have these attributes. Monotheistic religions typically refer to God in masculine terms, while other religions refer to their deities in a variety of ways – masculine, feminine, androgynous and gender neutral. Historically, many ancient cultures – such as Ancient India, Ancient Egyptian, Ancient Greek, Ancient Roman, Nordic and Asian culture – personified natural phenomena, variously as either their conscious causes or simply their effects, respectively. Some Avestan and Vedic deities were viewed as ethical concepts. In Indian religions, deities have been envisioned as manifesting within the temple of every living being's body, as sensory organs and mind. Deities have also been envisioned as a form of existence (Saṃsāra) after rebirth, for human beings who gain merit through an ethical life, where they become guardian deities and live blissfully in heaven, but are also subject to death when their merit runs out. ### Angel An angel is generally a supernatural being found in various religions and mythologies. In Abrahamic religions and Zoroastrianism, angels are often depicted as benevolent celestial beings who act as intermediaries between God or Heaven and Earth. Other roles of angels include protecting and guiding human beings, and carrying out God's tasks. Within Abrahamic religions, angels are often organized into hierarchies, although such rankings may vary between sects in each religion, and are given specific names or titles, such as Gabriel or "Destroying angel". The term "angel" has also been expanded to various notions of spirits or figures found in other religious traditions. The theological study of angels is known as "angelology". In fine art, angels are usually depicted as having the shape of human beings of extraordinary beauty; they are often identified using the symbols of bird wings, halos, and light. ### Prophecy Prophecy involves a process in which messages are communicated by a god to a prophet. Such messages typically involve inspiration, interpretation, or revelation of divine will concerning the prophet's social world and events to come (compare divine knowledge). Prophecy is not limited to any one culture. It is a common property to all known ancient societies around the world, some more than others. Many systems and rules about prophecy have been proposed over several millennia. ### Revelation In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form of truth or knowledge through communication with a deity or other supernatural entity or entities. Some religions have religious texts which they view as divinely or supernaturally revealed or inspired. For instance, Orthodox Jews, Christians and Muslims believe that the *Torah* was received from Yahweh on biblical Mount Sinai. Most Christians believe that both the Old Testament and the New Testament were inspired by God. Muslims believe the Quran was revealed by God to Muhammad word by word through the angel Gabriel (*Jibril*). In Hinduism, some Vedas are considered **apauruṣeya**, "not human compositions", and are supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called *śruti*, "what is heard". Aleister Crowley stated that *The Book of the Law* had been revealed to him through a higher being that called itself *Aiwass*. A revelation communicated by a supernatural entity reported as being present during the event is called a vision. Direct conversations between the recipient and the supernatural entity, or physical marks such as stigmata, have been reported. In rare cases, such as that of Saint Juan Diego, physical artifacts accompany the revelation. The Roman Catholic concept of interior locution includes just an inner voice heard by the recipient. In the Abrahamic religions, the term is used to refer to the process by which God reveals knowledge of himself, his will, and his divine providence to the world of human beings. In secondary usage, revelation refers to the resulting human knowledge about God, prophecy, and other divine things. Revelation from a supernatural source plays a less important role in some other religious traditions such as Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. ### Reincarnation Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each biological death. It is also called rebirth or transmigration, and is a part of the Saṃsāra doctrine of cyclic existence. It is a central tenet of all major Indian religions, namely Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. The idea of reincarnation is found in many ancient cultures, and a belief in rebirth/metempsychosis was held by Greek historic figures, such as Pythagoras, Socrates, and Plato. It is also a common belief of various ancient and modern religions such as Spiritism, Theosophy, and Eckankar, and as an esoteric belief in many streams of Orthodox Judaism. It is found as well in many tribal societies around the world, in places such as Australia, East Asia, Siberia, and South America. Although the majority of denominations within Christianity and Islam do not believe that individuals reincarnate, particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers of Cathars, Alawites, the Druze, and the Rosicrucians. The historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic of Neoplatonism, Orphism, Hermeticism, Manicheanism, and Gnosticism of the Roman era as well as the Indian religions have been the subject of recent scholarly research. Unity Church and its founder Charles Fillmore teaches reincarnation. In recent decades, many Europeans and North Americans have developed an interest in reincarnation, and many contemporary works mention it. ### Karma Karma (/ˈkɑːrmə/; Sanskrit: कर्म, romanized: *karma*, IPA: [ˈkɐɽmɐ] (); Pali: *kamma*) means action, work or deed; it also refers to the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual (cause) influence the future of that individual (effect). Good intent and good deeds contribute to good karma and future happiness, while bad intent and bad deeds contribute to bad karma and future suffering. With origins in ancient India's Vedic civilization, the philosophy of karma is closely associated with the idea of rebirth in many schools of Indian religions (particularly Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism) as well as Taoism. In these schools, karma in the present affects one's future in the current life, as well as the nature and quality of future lives – one's *saṃsāra*. ### Christian theology In Catholic theology, the supernatural order is, according to New Advent, defined as "the ensemble of effects exceeding the powers of the created universe and gratuitously produced by God for the purpose of raising the rational creature above its native sphere to a God-like life and destiny." The *Modern Catholic Dictionary* defines it as "the sum total of heavenly destiny and all the divinely established means of reaching that destiny, which surpass the mere powers and capacities of human nature." ### Process theology Process theology is a school of thought influenced by the metaphysical process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) and further developed by Charles Hartshorne (1897–2000). > It is not possible, in process metaphysics, to conceive divine activity as a "supernatural" intervention into the "natural" order of events. Process theists usually regard the distinction between the supernatural and the natural as a by-product of the doctrine of creation *ex nihilo*. In process thought, there is no such thing as a realm of the natural in contrast to that which is supernatural. On the other hand, if "the natural" is defined more neutrally as "what is in the nature of things," then process metaphysics characterizes the natural as the creative activity of actual entities. In Whitehead's words, "It lies in the nature of things that the many enter into complex unity" (Whitehead 1978, 21). It is tempting to emphasize process theism's denial of the supernatural and thereby highlight that the processed God cannot do in comparison what the traditional God could do (that is, to bring something from nothing). In fairness, however, equal stress should be placed on process theism's denial of the natural (as traditionally conceived) so that one may highlight what the creatures cannot do, in traditional theism, in comparison to what they can do in process metaphysics (that is, to be part creators of the world with God). > > — Donald Viney, "Process Theism" in *The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy* ### Heaven *Heaven*, or *the heavens*, is a common religious, cosmological, or transcendent place where beings such as gods, angels, spirits, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or live. According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to Earth or incarnate, and earthly beings can ascend to heaven in the afterlife, or in exceptional cases enter heaven alive. Heaven is often described as a "higher place", the holiest place, a Paradise, in contrast to hell or the Underworld or the "low places", and universally or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity, goodness, piety, faith, or other virtues or right beliefs or simply the will of God. Some believe in the possibility of a heaven on Earth in a *world to come*. Another belief is in an axis mundi or world tree which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world, and the underworld. In Indian religions, heaven is considered as *Svarga loka*, and the soul is again subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its *karma*. This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves *Moksha* or *Nirvana*. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as *otherworld.* ### Underworld The *underworld* is the supernatural world of the dead in various religious traditions, located below the world of the living. Chthonic is the technical adjective for things of the underworld. The concept of an underworld is found in almost every civilization and "may be as old as humanity itself". Common features of underworld myths are accounts of living people making journeys to the underworld, often for some heroic purpose. Other myths reinforce traditions that entrance of souls to the underworld requires a proper observation of ceremony, such as the ancient Greek story of the recently dead Patroclus haunting Achilles until his body could be properly buried for this purpose. Persons having social status were dressed and equipped in order to better navigate the underworld. A number of mythologies incorporate the concept of the soul of the deceased making its own journey to the underworld, with the dead needing to be taken across a defining obstacle such as a lake or a river to reach this destination. Imagery of such journeys can be found in both ancient and modern art. The descent to the underworld has been described as "the single most important myth for Modernist authors". ### Spirit A *spirit* is a supernatural being, often but not exclusively a non-physical entity; such as a ghost, fairy, jinn, or angel. The concepts of a person's spirit and soul, often also overlap, as both are either contrasted with or given ontological priority over the body and both are believed to survive bodily death in some religions, and "spirit" can also have the sense of "ghost", i.e. a manifestation of the spirit of a deceased person. In English Bibles, "the Spirit" (with a capital "S"), specifically denotes the Holy Spirit. Spirit is often used metaphysically to refer to the consciousness or personality. Historically, it was also used to refer to a "subtle" as opposed to "gross" material substance, as in the famous last paragraph of Sir Isaac Newton's *Principia Mathematica*. ### Demon A *demon* (from Koine Greek δαιμόνιον *daimónion*) is a supernatural and often malevolent being prevalent in religion, occultism, literature, fiction, mythology and folklore. In Ancient Near Eastern religions as well as in the Abrahamic traditions, including ancient and medieval Christian demonology, a demon is considered a harmful spiritual entity, below the heavenly planes which may cause demonic possession, calling for an exorcism. In Western occultism and Renaissance magic, which grew out of an amalgamation of Greco-Roman magic, Jewish Aggadah and Christian demonology, a demon is believed to be a spiritual entity that may be conjured and controlled. ### Magic *Magic* or *sorcery* is the use of rituals, symbols, actions, gestures, or language with the aim of utilizing supernatural forces. Belief in and practice of magic has been present since the earliest human cultures and continues to have an important spiritual, religious, and medicinal role in many cultures today. The term *magic* has a variety of meanings, and there is no widely agreed upon definition of what it is. Scholars of religion have defined magic in different ways. One approach, associated with the anthropologists Edward Tylor and James G. Frazer, suggests that magic and science are opposites. An alternative approach, associated with the sociologists Marcel Mauss and Emile Durkheim, argues that magic takes place in private, while religion is a communal and organised activity. Many scholars of religion have rejected the utility of the term *magic* and it has become increasingly unpopular within scholarship since the 1990s. The term *magic* comes from the Old Persian *magu*, a word that applied to a form of religious functionary about which little is known. During the late sixth and early fifth centuries BCE, this term was adopted into Ancient Greek, where it was used with negative connotations, to apply to religious rites that were regarded as fraudulent, unconventional, and dangerous. This meaning of the term was then adopted by Latin in the first century BCE. The concept was then incorporated into Christian theology during the first century CE, where magic was associated with demons and thus defined against religion. This concept was pervasive throughout the Middle Ages, although in the early modern period Italian humanists reinterpreted the term in a positive sense to establish the idea of natural magic. Both negative and positive understandings of the term were retained in Western culture over the following centuries, with the former largely influencing early academic usages of the word. Throughout history, there have been examples of individuals who practiced magic and referred to themselves as magicians. This trend has proliferated in the modern period, with a growing number of magicians appearing within the esoteric milieu.[*not verified in body*] British esotericist Aleister Crowley described magic as the art of effecting change in accordance with will. ### Divination Divination (from Latin *divinare* "to foresee, to be inspired by a god", related to *divinus*, divine) is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual. Used in various forms throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a querent should proceed by reading signs, events, or omens, or through alleged contact with a supernatural agency. Divination can be seen as a systematic method with which to organize what appear to be disjointed, random facets of existence such that they provide insight into a problem at hand. If a distinction is to be made between divination and fortune-telling, divination has a more formal or ritualistic element and often contains a more social character, usually in a religious context, as seen in traditional African medicine. Fortune-telling, on the other hand, is a more everyday practice for personal purposes. Particular divination methods vary by culture and religion. Divination is dismissed by the scientific community and skeptics as being superstition. In the 2nd century, Lucian devoted a witty essay to the career of a charlatan, "Alexander the false prophet", trained by "one of those who advertise enchantments, miraculous incantations, charms for your love-affairs, visitations for your enemies, disclosures of buried treasure, and successions to estates". ### Witchcraft Witchcraft or witchery broadly means the practice of and belief in magical skills and abilities exercised by solitary practitioners and groups. *Witchcraft* is a broad term that varies culturally and societally, and thus can be difficult to define with precision, and cross-cultural assumptions about the meaning or significance of the term should be applied with caution. Witchcraft often occupies a religious divinatory or medicinal role, and is often present within societies and groups whose cultural framework includes a magical world view. ### Miracle A *miracle* is an event not explicable by natural or scientific laws. Such an event may be attributed to a supernatural being (a deity), a miracle worker, a saint or a religious leader. Informally, the word "miracle" is often used to characterise any beneficial event that is statistically unlikely but not contrary to the laws of nature, such as surviving a natural disaster, or simply a "wonderful" occurrence, regardless of likelihood, such as a birth. Other such miracles might be: survival of an illness diagnosed as terminal, escaping a life-threatening situation or 'beating the odds'. Some coincidences may be seen as miracles. A true miracle would, by definition, be a non-natural phenomenon, leading many rational and scientific thinkers to dismiss them as physically impossible (that is, requiring violation of established laws of physics within their domain of validity) or impossible to confirm by their nature (because all possible physical mechanisms can never be ruled out). The former position is expressed for instance by Thomas Jefferson and the latter by David Hume. Theologians typically say that, with divine providence, God regularly works through nature yet, as a creator, is free to work without, above, or against it as well. The possibility and probability of miracles are then equal to the possibility and probability of the existence of God. Skepticism ---------- Skepticism (American English) or scepticism (British English; see spelling differences) is generally any questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more items of putative knowledge or belief. It is often directed at domains such as the supernatural, morality (moral skepticism), religion (skepticism about the existence of God), or knowledge (skepticism about the possibility of knowledge, or of certainty). In fiction and popular culture ------------------------------ Supernatural entities and powers are common in various works of fantasy. Examples include the television shows *Supernatural* and *The X-Files*, the magic of the *Harry Potter* series, *The Lord of the Rings* series, *The Wheel of Time* series and *A Song of Ice and Fire* series. See also -------- * Journal of Parapsychology * Liberal naturalism * Magical thinking * Paranormal * Parapsychology * Religious naturalism * Romanticism * Spirit photography Further reading --------------- * Economic Production and the Spread of Supernatural Beliefs ~ Daniel Araújo (PDF). January 7, 2022. * Bouvet R, Bonnefon J. F. (2015). "Non-Reflective Thinkers Are Predisposed to Attribute Supernatural Causation to Uncanny Experiences". *Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin*. **41** (7): 955–61. doi:10.1177/0146167215585728. PMID 25948700. S2CID 33570482. * McNamara P, Bulkeley K (2015). "Dreams as a Source of Supernatural Agent Concepts". *Frontiers in Psychology*. **6**: 283. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00283. PMC 4365543. PMID 25852602. * Riekki T, Lindeman M, Raij T. T. (2014). "Supernatural Believers Attribute More Intentions to Random Movement than Skeptics: An fMRI Study". *Social Neuroscience*. **9** (4): 400–411. doi:10.1080/17470919.2014.906366. PMID 24720663. S2CID 33940568.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) * Purzycki Benjamin G (2013). "The Minds of Gods: A Comparative Study of Supernatural Agency". *Cognition*. **129** (1): 163–179. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2013.06.010. PMID 23891826. S2CID 23554738. * Thomson P, Jaque S. V. (2014). "Unresolved Mourning, Supernatural Beliefs and Dissociation: A Mediation Analysis". *Attachment and Human Development*. **16** (5): 499–514. doi:10.1080/14616734.2014.926945. PMID 24913392. S2CID 10290610. * Vail K. E, Arndt J, Addollahi A. (2012). "Exploring the Existential Function of Religion and Supernatural Agent Beliefs Among Christians, Muslims, Atheists, and Agnostics". *Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin*. **38** (10): 1288–1300. doi:10.1177/0146167212449361. PMID 22700240. S2CID 2019266.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Supernatural

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernatural

A **gemstone** (also called a **fine gem**, **jewel**, **precious stone**, **semiprecious stone**, or simply **gem**) is a piece of mineral crystal which, in cut and polished form, is used to make jewelry or other adornments. However, certain rocks (such as lapis lazuli, opal, and obsidian) and occasionally organic materials that are not minerals (such as amber, jet, and pearl) are also used for jewelry and are therefore often considered to be gemstones as well. Most gemstones are hard, but some soft minerals are used in jewelry because of their luster or other physical properties that have aesthetic value. Rarity and notoriety are other characteristics that lend value to gemstones. Found all over the world, the industry of coloured gemstones (this meaning anything other than diamonds) is currently estimated to be around 10–12 billion US dollars. Apart from jewelry, from earliest antiquity engraved gems and hardstone carvings, such as cups, were major luxury art forms. A gem expert is a gemologist, a gem maker is called a lapidarist or gemcutter; a diamond cutter is called a diamantaire. Characteristics and classification ---------------------------------- The traditional classification in the West, which goes back to the ancient Greeks, begins with a distinction between *precious* and *semi-precious*; similar distinctions are made in other cultures. In modern use, the precious stones are emerald, ruby, sapphire and diamond, with all other gemstones being semi-precious. This distinction reflects the rarity of the respective stones in ancient times, as well as their quality: all are translucent with fine color in their purest forms, except for the colorless diamond, and very hard, with hardnesses of 8 to 10 on the Mohs scale. Other stones are classified by their color, translucency, and hardness. The traditional distinction does not necessarily reflect modern values; for example, while garnets are relatively inexpensive, a green garnet called tsavorite can be far more valuable than a mid-quality emerald. Another traditional term for semi-precious gemstones used in art history and archaeology is hardstone. Use of the terms 'precious' and 'semi-precious' in a commercial context is, arguably, misleading in that it suggests certain stones are more valuable than others, when this is not reflected in the actual market value. In modern times gemstones are identified by gemologists, who describe gems and their characteristics using technical terminology specific to the field of gemology. The first characteristic a gemologist uses to identify a gemstone is its chemical composition. For example, diamonds are made of carbon (C) and rubies of aluminium oxide (Al 2O 3). Many gems are crystals which are classified by their crystal system such as cubic or trigonal or monoclinic. Another term used is habit, the form the gem is usually found in. For example, diamonds, which have a cubic crystal system, are often found as octahedrons. Gemstones are classified into different *groups*, *species*, and *varieties*. For example, ruby is the red variety of the species corundum, while any other color of corundum is considered sapphire. Other examples are the emerald (green), aquamarine (blue), red beryl (red), goshenite (colorless), heliodor (yellow), and morganite (pink), which are all varieties of the mineral species beryl. Gems are characterized in terms of refractive index, dispersion, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, fracture and luster. They may exhibit pleochroism or double refraction. They may have luminescence and a distinctive absorption spectrum. Material or flaws within a stone may be present as inclusions. Gemstones may also be classified in terms of their "water". This is a recognized grading of the gem's luster, transparency, or "brilliance". Very transparent gems are considered "first water", while "second" or "third water" gems are those of a lesser transparency. Value ----- Gemstones have no universally accepted grading system. Diamonds are graded using a system developed by the Gemological Institute of America (GIA) in the early 1950s. Historically, all gemstones were graded using the naked eye. The GIA system included a major innovation: the introduction of 10x magnification as the standard for grading clarity. Other gemstones are still graded using the naked eye (assuming 20/20 vision). A mnemonic device, the "four Cs" (color, cut, clarity, and carats), has been introduced to help describe the factors used to grade a diamond. With modification, these categories can be useful in understanding the grading of all gemstones. The four criteria carry different weights depending upon whether they are applied to colored gemstones or to colorless diamonds. In diamonds, the cut is the primary determinant of value, followed by clarity and color. The ideal cut diamond will sparkle, to break down light into its constituent rainbow colors (dispersion), chop it up into bright little pieces (scintillation), and deliver it to the eye (brilliance). In its rough crystalline form, a diamond will do none of these things; it requires proper fashioning and this is called "cut". In gemstones that have color, including colored diamonds, the purity, and beauty of that color is the primary determinant of quality. Physical characteristics that make a colored stone valuable are color, clarity to a lesser extent (emeralds will always have a number of inclusions), cut, unusual optical phenomena within the stone such as color zoning (the uneven distribution of coloring within a gem) and asteria (star effects). Ancient Greeks, for example, greatly valued asteria gemstones, which they regarded as powerful love charms, and Helen of Troy was supposed to have worn star-corundum.[*failed verification*] Aside from the diamond, ruby, sapphire, and emerald, the pearl (not, strictly speaking, a gemstone) and opal have also been considered[*by whom?*] to be precious. Up to the discoveries of bulk amethyst in Brazil in the 19th century, amethyst was considered a "precious stone" as well, going back to ancient Greece. Even in the last century certain stones such as aquamarine, peridot and cat's eye (cymophane) have been popular and hence been regarded as precious. Today the gemstone trade no longer makes such a distinction. Many gemstones are used in even the most expensive jewelry, depending on the brand-name of the designer, fashion trends, market supply, treatments, etc. Nevertheless, diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds still have a reputation that exceeds those of other gemstones. Rare or unusual gemstones, generally understood to include those gemstones which occur so infrequently in gem quality that they are scarcely known except to connoisseurs, include andalusite, axinite, cassiterite, clinohumite and red beryl. Gemstone pricing and value are governed by factors and characteristics in the quality of the stone. These characteristics include clarity, rarity, freedom from defects, the beauty of the stone, as well as the demand for such stones. There are different pricing influencers for both colored gemstones, and for diamonds. The pricing on colored stones is determined by market supply-and-demand, but diamonds are more intricate. Diamond value can change based on location, time, and on the evaluations of diamond vendors.[*failed verification*] Proponents of energy medicine also value gemstones on the basis of alleged healing powers. Grading ------- There are a number of laboratories which grade and provide reports on gemstones. * Gemological Institute of America (GIA), the main provider of education services and diamond grading reports * International Gemological Institute (IGI), independent laboratory for grading and evaluation of diamonds, jewelry, and colored stones * Hoge Raad Voor Diamant (HRD Antwerp), The Diamond High Council, Belgium is one of Europe's oldest laboratories; its main stakeholder is the Antwerp World Diamond Centre * American Gemological Society (AGS) is not as widely recognized nor as old as the GIA * American Gem Trade Laboratory which is part of the American Gem Trade Association (AGTA), a trade organization of jewelers and dealers of colored stones * American Gemological Laboratories (AGL), owned by Christopher P. Smith * European Gemological Laboratory (EGL), founded in 1974 by Guy Margel in Belgium * Gemmological Association of All Japan (GAAJ-ZENHOKYO), Zenhokyo, Japan, active in gemological research * The Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand (Public Organization) or GIT, Thailand's national institute for gemological research and gem testing, Bangkok * Gemmology Institute of Southern Africa, Africa's premium gem laboratory * Asian Institute of Gemological Sciences (AIGS), the oldest gemological institute in South East Asia, involved in gemological education and gem testing * Swiss Gemmological Institute (SSEF), founded by Henry Hänni, focusing on colored gemstones and the identification of natural pearls * Gübelin Gem Lab, the traditional Swiss lab founded by Eduard Gübelin * Institute for Gems and Gold Research of VINAGEMS (Vietnam), founded by Dr. Van Long Pham Each laboratory has its own methodology to evaluate gemstones. A stone can be called "pink" by one lab while another lab calls it "padparadscha". One lab can conclude a stone is untreated, while another lab might conclude that it is heat-treated. To minimize such differences, seven of the most respected labs, AGTA-GTL (New York), CISGEM (Milano), GAAJ-ZENHOKYO (Tokyo), GIA (Carlsbad), GIT (Bangkok), Gübelin (Lucerne) and SSEF (Basel), have established the Laboratory Manual Harmonisation Committee (LMHC), for the standardization of wording reports, promotion of certain analytical methods and interpretation of results. Country of origin has sometimes been difficult to determine, due to the constant discovery of new source locations. Determining a "country of origin" is thus much more difficult than determining other aspects of a gem (such as cut, clarity, etc.). Another important new gemstone that has been rising in popularity is Cuprian Elbaite Tourmaline which are also called "Paraiba Tourmaline". Paraiba tourmaline were first discovered in early 1990 and recently in 2007 in Mozambique, Africa. They are famous for their Glowing Neon Blue Color. Paraiba Tourmaline have become one of the most popular gemstones in recent times thanks to their unique color and recently considered to be one of the important gemstones after Ruby, Emerald and Sapphire according to Gübelin Gemlab. Even though it is a tourmaline, paraiba are considered to be one of the most expensive gemstones. Gem dealers are aware of the differences between gem laboratories and will make use of the discrepancies to obtain the best possible certificate. Cutting and polishing --------------------- A few gemstones are used as gems in the crystal or other forms in which they are found. Most, however, are cut and polished for usage as jewelry. The two main classifications are stones cut as smooth, dome-shaped stones called cabochons, and stones which are cut with a faceting machine by polishing small flat windows called facets at regular intervals at exact angles. Stones which are opaque or semi-opaque such as opal, turquoise, variscite, etc. are commonly cut as cabochons. These gems are designed to show the stone's color or surface properties as in opal and star sapphires. Grinding wheels and polishing agents are used to grind, shape and polish the smooth dome shape of the stones. Gems that are transparent are normally faceted, a method that shows the optical properties of the stone's interior to its best advantage by maximizing reflected light which is perceived by the viewer as sparkle. There are many commonly used shapes for faceted stones. The facets must be cut at the proper angles, which varies depending on the optical properties of the gem. If the angles are too steep or too shallow, the light will pass through and not be reflected back toward the viewer. The faceting machine is used to hold the stone onto a flat lap for cutting and polishing the flat facets. Rarely, some cutters use special curved laps to cut and polish curved facets. Colors ------ The color of any material is due to the nature of light itself. Daylight, often called white light, is all of the colors of the spectrum combined. When light strikes a material, most of the light is absorbed while a smaller amount of a particular frequency or wavelength is reflected. The part that is reflected reaches the eye as the perceived color. A ruby appears red because it absorbs all the other colors of white light while reflecting the red. A material which is mostly the same can exhibit different colors. For example, ruby and sapphire have the same primary chemical composition (both are corundum) but exhibit different colors because of impurities. Even the same named gemstone can occur in many different colors: sapphires show different shades of blue and pink and "fancy sapphires" exhibit a whole range of other colors from yellow to orange-pink, the latter called "padparadscha sapphire". This difference in color is based on the atomic structure of the stone. Although the different stones formally have the same chemical composition and structure, they are not exactly the same. Every now and then an atom is replaced by a completely different atom, sometimes as few as one in a million atoms. These so-called impurities are sufficient to absorb certain colors and leave the other colors unaffected. For example, beryl, which is colorless in its pure mineral form, becomes emerald with chromium impurities. If manganese is added instead of chromium, beryl becomes pink morganite. With iron, it becomes aquamarine. Some gemstone treatments make use of the fact that these impurities can be "manipulated", thus changing the color of the gem. Treatment --------- Gemstones are often treated to enhance the color or clarity of the stone. In some cases, the treatment applied to the gemstone can also increase its durability. Even though natural gemstones can be transformed using the traditional method of cutting and polishing, other treatment options allow the stone's appearance to be enhanced. Depending on the type and extent of treatment, they can affect the value of the stone. Some treatments are used widely because the resulting gem is stable, while others are not accepted most commonly because the gem color is unstable and may revert to the original tone. ### Early history Before the innovation of modern-day tools, thousands of years ago, people were recorded to use a variety of techniques to treat and enhance gemstones. Some of the earliest methods of gemstone treatment date back to the Minoan Age, for example, foiling, which is where metal foil is used to enhance a gemstone's colour. Other methods that were recorded 2000 years ago in the book Natural History written by Pliny the Elder include oiling and dyeing/staining. ### Heat Heat can either improve or spoil gemstone color or clarity. The heating process has been well known to gem miners and cutters for centuries, and in many stone types heating is a common practice. Most citrine is made by heating amethyst, and partial heating with a strong gradient results in "ametrine" – a stone partly amethyst and partly citrine. Aquamarine is often heated to remove yellow tones, or to change green colors into the more desirable blue, or enhance its existing blue color to a deeper blue. Nearly all tanzanite is heated at low temperatures to remove brown undertones and give a more desirable blue / purple color. A considerable portion of all sapphire and ruby is treated with a variety of heat treatments to improve both color and clarity. When jewelry containing diamonds is heated for repairs, the diamond should be protected with boric acid; otherwise, the diamond, which is pure carbon, could be burned on the surface or even burned completely up. When jewelry containing sapphires or rubies is heated, those stones should not be coated with boric acid (which can etch the surface) or any other substance. They do not have to be protected from burning, like a diamond (although the stones do need to be protected from heat stress fracture by immersing the part of the jewelry with stones in the water when metal parts are heated). ### Radiation The irradiation process is widely practiced in jewelry industry and enabled the creation of gemstone colors that do not exist or are extremely rare in nature. However, particularly when done in a nuclear reactor, the processes can make gemstones radioactive. Health risks related to the residual radioactivity of the treated gemstones have led to government regulations in many countries. Virtually all blue topaz, both the lighter and the darker blue shades such as "London" blue, has been irradiated to change the color from white to blue. Most green quartz (Oro Verde) are also irradiated to achieve the yellow-green color. Diamonds are mainly irradiated to become blue-green or green, although other colors are possible. When light-to-medium-yellow diamonds are treated with gamma rays they may become green; with a high-energy electron beam, blue. ### Waxing/oiling Emeralds containing natural fissures are sometimes filled with wax or oil to disguise them. This wax or oil is also colored to make the emerald appear of better color as well as clarity. Turquoise is also commonly treated in a similar manner. ### Fracture filling Fracture filling has been in use with different gemstones such as diamonds, emeralds, and sapphires. In 2006 "glass-filled rubies" received publicity. Rubies over 10 carats (2 g) with large fractures were filled with lead glass, thus dramatically improving the appearance (of larger rubies in particular). Such treatments are fairly easy to detect. ### Bleaching Another treatment method that is commonly used to treat gemstones is bleaching. This method uses a chemical in order to reduce the colour of the gem. After bleaching, a combination treatment can be done by dying the gemstone once the unwanted colours are removed. Hydrogen peroxide is the most commonly used product used to alter gemstones and have notably been used to treat jade and pearls. The treatment of bleaching can also be followed by impregnation, which allows the gemstone's durability to be increased. Synthetic and artificial gemstones ---------------------------------- Synthetic gemstones are distinct from imitation or simulated gems. Synthetic gems are physically, optically, and chemically identical to the natural stone, but are created in a laboratory. Imitation or simulated stones are chemically different from the natural stone, but may appear quite similar to it; they can be more easily manufactured synthetic gemstones of a different mineral (spinel), glass, plastic, resins, or other compounds. Examples of simulated or imitation stones include cubic zirconia, composed of zirconium oxide, synthetic moissanite, and un-colored, synthetic corundum or spinels; all of which are diamond simulants. The simulants imitate the look and color of the real stone but possess neither their chemical nor physical characteristics. In general, all are less hard than diamond. Moissanite actually has a *higher* refractive index than diamond, and when presented beside an equivalently sized and cut diamond will show more "fire". Cultured, synthetic, or "lab-created" gemstones are not imitations: The bulk mineral and trace coloring elements are the same in both. For example, diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds have been manufactured in labs that possess chemical and physical characteristics identical to the naturally occurring variety. Synthetic (lab created) corundum, including ruby and sapphire, is very common and costs much less than the natural stones. Small synthetic diamonds have been manufactured in large quantities as industrial abrasives, although larger gem-quality synthetic diamonds are becoming available in multiple carats. Whether a gemstone is a natural stone or synthetic, the chemical, physical, and optical characteristics are the same: They are composed of the same mineral and are colored by the same trace materials, have the same hardness and density and strength, and show the same color spectrum, refractive index, and birefringence (if any). Lab-created stones tend to have a more vivid color since impurities common in natural stones are not present in the synthetic stone. Synthetics are made free of common naturally occurring impurities that reduce gem clarity or color unless intentionally added in order to provide a more drab, natural appearance, or to deceive an assayer. On the other hand, synthetics often show flaws not seen in natural stones, such as minute particles of corroded metal from lab trays used during synthesis. Types of Synthetic Gemstones ---------------------------- Some gemstones are more difficult to synthesize than others and not all stones are commercially viable to attempt to synthesize. These are the most common on the market currently. ### Synthetic Corundum Includes ruby (red variation) and sapphire (other color variations) both of which are considered highly desired and valued. Ruby was the first gemstone to be synthesized by Auguste Verneuil with his development of the flame-fusion process in 1902. Synthetic corundum continues to be made typically by flame-fusion as it is most cost-effective, but can also be produced through flux growth and hydrothermal growth. ### Synthetic Beryls The most common synthesized beryl is emerald (green). Yellow, red and blue beryls are possible but much more rare. Synthetic emerald became possible with the development of the flux growth process and is produced in this way and well as hydrothermal growth. ### Synthetic Quartz Types of synthetic quartz include citrine, rose quartz, and amethyst. Natural occurring quartz is not rare is synthetically produced as it has practical application outside of aesthetic purposes. Quartz generates an electrical current when under pressure and is used in watches, clocks, and oscillators. ### Synthetic Spinel Synthetic spinel was first produced by accident when can be created in any color making it popular to simulate various natural gemstones. It is created through flux growth and hydrothermal growth. Creation process of synthetic gemstones --------------------------------------- There are mainly two categories for creation of these minerals, melt or solution processes. ### Verneuil Flame Fusion Process (Melt Process) Flame fusion process was the first process used which successfully created large quantities of synthetic gemstones to be sold on the market. This remains the most cost effective and common method of creating corundums today. The flame fusion process is completed in a Verneuil furnace. The furnace consists of an inverted blowpipe burner which produces an extremely hot oxyhydrogen flame, a powder dispenser, and a ceramic pedestal. A chemical powder which corresponds to the desired gemstone is passed through this flames. This melts the ingredients which drop on to a plate and solidify into a crystal called a *Boule*. For corundum the flame must be 2000 °C. This process takes hours and yields a crystal with the same properties as its natural counterpart. To produce corundum, a pure aluminium powder is used with different additives to achieve different colors. * Chromic oxide for ruby * Iron and titanium oxide for blue sapphire * Nickel oxide for yellow sapphire * Nickel, chromium and iron for orange sapphire * Manganese for pink sapphire * Copper for blue-green sapphire * Cobalt for dark blue sapphire ### Czochralski Process (Melt Process) In 1918 this process was developed by J. Czocharalski and is also referred to as the "crystal pulling" method. In this process, the required gemstone materials are added to a crucible. A seed stone is placed into the melt in the crucible. As the gem begins to crystallize on the seed, the seed is pulled away and the gem continues to grow. This is used for corundum but is currently the least popular method. ### Flux Growth (Solution Process) Flux growth process was the first process which was able to synthesize emerald. Flux growth begins with a crucible which can withstand high heat; either graphite or platinum which is filled with a molten liquid referred to as flux. The specific gem ingredients are added and dissolved in this fluid and recrystallize to form the desired gemstone.This is a longer process compared to the flame fusion process and can take two months up to a year depending on the desired final size. ### Hydrothermal Growth (Solution Process) Hydrothermal growth process attempts to imitate the natural growth process of minerals. The required gem materials are sealed in a container of water and placed extreme pressure. The water is heated beyond its boiling point which allows normally insoluble materials to dissolve. As more material cannot be added once the container is sealed, in order to create a larger gem the process would begin with a "seed" stone from a previous batch which the new material will crystallize on. This process takes a few weeks to complete. Characteristics of synthetic gemstones -------------------------------------- Synthetic gemstones share chemical and physical properties with natural gemstones but there are some slight differences that can be used to discern synthetic from real. These differences are slight and often require microscopy as a tool to distinguish differences. Undetectable synthetics pose a threat to the market if they are able to be sold as real rare gemstones. Because of this there are certain characteristic gemologists look for. Each crystal is characteristic to the environment and growth process under which it was created. Gemstones created from the flame-fusion process may have * small air bubbles which were trapped inside the boule during formation process * visible banding from formation of the boule * chatter marks which on the surface which appear crack like which are caused from damage during polishing of the gemstone Gemstones created from flux melt process may have * small cavities which are filled with flux solution * inclusions in the gemstone from crucible used Gemstones created from hydrothermal growth may have * inclusions from container used History of synthetic gemstones ------------------------------ Prior to development of synthesising processes the alternatives on the market to natural gemstones were imitations or fake. It was in 1837 that the first successful synthesis of ruby occurred. French chemist Marc Gaudin managed to produce small crystals of ruby from melting together potassium aluminium sulphate and potassium chromate through what would later be known as the flux melt process. Following this, another French chemist Fremy was able to grow large quantities of small ruby crystals using a lead flux. A few years later an alternative to flux melt was developed which led to the introduction of what was labeled "reconstructed ruby" to the market. Reconstructed ruby was sold as a process which produced larger rubies from melting together bits of natural ruby. In later attempts to recreate this process it was found to not be possible and is believed reconstructed rubies were most likely created using a multi-step method of melting of ruby powder. Auguste Verneuil a student of Fremy went on to develop flame-fusion as an alternative to the flux-melt method. He developed large furnaces which were able to produce large quantities of corundums more efficiently and shifted the gemstone market dramatically. This process is still used today and the furnaces have not changed much from the original design. World production of corundum using this method reaches 1000 million carats a year. List of rare gemstones ---------------------- * Painite was discovered in 1956 in Ohngaing in Myanmar. The mineral was named in honor of the British gemologist Arthur Charles Davy Pain. In 2005, painite was described by the Guinness Book of World Records as the rarest gem mineral on earth.[*page needed*] * Tanzanite was discovered in 1967 in Northern Tanzania. With its supply possibly declining in the next 30 years, this gemstone is considered to be more rare than a diamond. This type of gemstone receives its vibrant blue from being heated. * Hibonite was discovered in 1956 in Madagascar. It was named after the discoverer, French geologist Paul Hibon. Gem quality hibonite has been found only in Myanmar. * Red beryl or bixbite was discovered in an area near Beaver, Utah in 1904 and named after the American mineralogist Maynard Bixby. * Jeremejevite was discovered in 1883 in Russia and named after its discoverer, Pawel Wladimirowich Jeremejew (1830–1899). * Chambersite was discovered in 1957 in Chambers County, Texas, US, and named after the deposit's location. * Taaffeite was discovered in 1945. It was named after the discoverer, the Irish gemologist Count Edward Charles Richard Taaffe. * Musgravite was discovered in 1967 in the Musgrave Mountains in South Australia and named for the location. * Black Opal is directly mined in New South Wales, Australia, making it the rarest type of opal. Having a darker composition, this gemstone can be in a variety of colours. * Grandidierite was discovered by Antoine François Alfred Lacroix (1863–1948) in 1902 in Tuléar Province, Madagascar. It was named in honor of the French naturalist and explorer Alfred Grandidier (1836–1912). * Poudretteite was discovered in 1965 at the Poudrette Quarry in Canada and named after the quarry's owners and operators, the Poudrette family. * Serendibite was discovered in Sri Lanka by Sunil Palitha Gunasekera in 1902 and named after Serendib, the old Arabic name for Sri Lanka. * Zektzerite was discovered by Bart Cannon in 1968 on Kangaroo Ridge near Washington Pass in Okanogan County, Washington, USA. The mineral was named in honor of mathematician and geologist Jack Zektzer, who presented the material for study in 1976. In popular culture ------------------ French singer-songwriter Nolwenn Leroy was inspired by the gemstones for her 2017 album *Gemme* (meaning gemstone in French) and the single of the same name. See also -------- * Assembled gem * Gemology * List of gemstones by species * List of individual gemstones * List of diamonds * List of emeralds by size * List of sapphires by size * Luminous gemstones

Gemstone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemstone

**Scotland** (Scots: *Scotland*, Scottish Gaelic: *Alba* [ˈal̪ˠapə] ()) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a 96-mile (154-kilometre) border with England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, the North Sea to the northeast and east, and the Irish Sea to the south. It also contains more than 790 islands, principally in the archipelagos of the Hebrides and the Northern Isles. Most of the population, including the capital Edinburgh, is concentrated in the Central Belt—the plain between the Scottish Highlands and the Southern Uplands—in the Scottish Lowlands. Scotland is divided into 32 administrative subdivisions or local authorities, known as council areas. Glasgow City is the largest council area in terms of population, with Highland being the largest in terms of area. Limited self-governing power, covering matters such as education, social services and roads and transportation, is devolved from the Scottish Government to each subdivision. Scotland is the second-largest country in the United Kingdom, and accounted for 8.3% of the population in 2012. The Kingdom of Scotland emerged in the 9th century, from the merging of the Gaelic Kingdom of Dál Riata and the Kingdom of the Picts, and continued to exist as an independent sovereign state until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI of Scotland became king of England and Ireland, thus forming a personal union of the three kingdoms. Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created the Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. In 1801, the Kingdom of Great Britain entered into a political union with the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (in 1922, the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being officially renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in 1927). Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles and other royal symbols of statehood specific to the pre-union Kingdom of Scotland. The legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland; Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. The continued existence of legal, educational, religious and other institutions distinct from those in the remainder of the UK have all contributed to the continuation of Scottish culture and national identity since the 1707 incorporating union with England. In 1999, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. The head of the Scottish Government is the first minister, who is supported by the deputy first minister. Scotland is represented in the United Kingdom Parliament by 59 members of parliament (MPs). It is also a member of the British–Irish Council, sending five members of the Scottish Parliament to the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly, as well as being part of the Heads of Government Council, represented by the first minister, and the Inter-ministerial Standing Committee Council, represented by relevant cabinet secretaries and ministers in areas relating to education, finance and economy, environment and trade and investment. Etymology --------- *Scotland* comes from *Scoti*, the Latin name for the Gaels. Philip Freeman has speculated on the likelihood of a group of raiders adopting a name from an Indo-European root, \**skot*, citing the parallel in Greek *skotos* (σκότος), meaning "darkness, gloom". The Late Latin word *Scotia* ('land of the Gaels') was initially used to refer to Ireland, and likewise in early Old English *Scotland* was used for Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, *Scotia* was being used to refer to (Gaelic-speaking) Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside *Albania* or *Albany*, both derived from the Gaelic *Alba*. The use of the words *Scots* and *Scotland* to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Prehistory ---------- Repeated glaciations, which covered the entire land mass of modern Scotland, destroyed any traces of human habitation that may have existed before the Mesolithic period. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, as the ice sheet retreated after the last glaciation. At the time, Scotland was covered in forests, had more bog-land, and the main form of transport was by water. These settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period. Neolithic habitation, burial, and ritual sites are particularly common and well preserved in the Northern Isles and Western Isles, where a lack of trees led to most structures being built of local stone. Evidence of sophisticated pre-Christian belief systems is demonstrated by sites such as the Callanish Stones on Lewis and the Maes Howe on Orkney, which were built in the third millennium BC. History ------- ### Early history The first written reference to Scotland was in 320 BC by Greek sailor Pytheas, who called the northern tip of Britain "Orcas", the source of the name of the Orkney islands. During the first millennium BC, the society changed dramatically to a chiefdom model, as consolidation of settlement led to the concentration of wealth and underground stores of surplus food. The Roman conquest of Britain was never completed, and most of modern Scotland was not brought under Roman political control. The first Roman incursion into Scotland occurred in 79 AD, when Agricola invaded Scotland; he defeated a Caledonian army at the Battle of Mons Graupius in 83 AD. After the Roman victory, Roman forts were briefly set along the Gask Ridge close to the Highland line, but by three years after the battle, the Roman armies had withdrawn to the Southern Uplands. Remains of Roman forts established in the 1st century have been found as far north as the Moray Firth. By the reign of the Roman emperor Trajan (r. 98–117), Roman control had lapsed to Britain south of a line between the River Tyne and the Solway Firth. Along this line, Trajan's successor Hadrian (r. 117–138) erected Hadrian's Wall in northern England and the *Limes Britannicus* became the northern border of the Roman Empire. The Roman influence on the southern part of the country was considerable, and they introduced Christianity to Scotland. The Antonine Wall was built from 142 at the order of Hadrian's successor Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161), defending the Roman part of Scotland from the unadministered part of the island, north of a line between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth. The Roman invasion of Caledonia 208–210 was undertaken by emperors of the imperial Severan dynasty in response to the breaking of treaty by the Caledonians in 197, but permanent conquest of the whole of Great Britain was forestalled by Roman forces becoming bogged down in punishing guerrilla warfare and the death of the senior emperor Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) at Eboracum (York) after taking ill while on campaign. Although forts erected by the Roman army of the Severan campaign were placed near those established by Agricola and were clustered at the mouths of the glens in the Highlands, the Caledonians were again in revolt in 210–211 and these were overrun. To the Roman historians Tacitus and Cassius Dio, the Scottish Highlands and the area north of the River Forth was called Caledonia. According to Cassius Dio, the inhabitants of Caledonia were the Caledonians and the Maeatae. Other ancient authors used the adjective "Caledonian" to pertain to anywhere in northern or inland Britain, often mentioning the region's people and animals, its cold climate, its pearls, and a noteworthy region of wooden hills (Latin: *saltus*) which the 2nd-century AD Roman philosopher Ptolemy, in his *Geography*, described as being south-west of the Beauly Firth. The name Caledonia is echoed in the place names of Dunkeld, Rohallion, and Schiehallion. The Great Conspiracy constituted a seemingly coordinated invasion against Roman rule in Britain in the later 4th century, which included the participation of the Gaelic Scoti and the Caledonians, who were then known as Picts by the Romans. This was defeated by the *comes* Theodosius, however, Roman military government was withdrawn from the island altogether by the early 5th century, resulting in the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain and the immigration of the Saxons to southeastern Scotland and the rest of eastern Great Britain. ### Kingdom of Scotland Political divisions in early medieval ScotlandNorse kingdoms at the end of the eleventh century Beginning in the sixth century, the area that is now Scotland was divided into three areas: Pictland, a patchwork of small lordships in central Scotland; the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria, which had conquered southeastern Scotland; and Dál Riata, which included territory in western Scotland and northern Ireland, and spread Gaelic language and culture into Scotland. These societies were based on the family unit and had sharp divisions in wealth, although the vast majority were poor and worked full-time in subsistence agriculture. The Picts kept slaves (mostly captured in war) through the ninth century. Gaelic influence over Pictland and Northumbria was facilitated by the large number of Gaelic-speaking clerics working as missionaries. Operating in the sixth century on the island of Iona, Saint Columba was one of the earliest and best-known missionaries. The Vikings began to raid Scotland in the eighth century. Although the raiders sought slaves and luxury items, their main motivation was to acquire land. The oldest Norse settlements were in northwest Scotland, but they eventually conquered many areas along the coast. Old Norse entirely displaced Gaelic in the Northern Isles. In the ninth century, the Norse threat allowed a Gael named Cináed mac Ailpín (Kenneth I) to seize power over Pictland, establishing a royal dynasty to which the modern monarchs trace their lineage, and marking the beginning of the end of Pictish culture. The kingdom of Cináed and his descendants, called Alba, was Gaelic in character but existed on the same area as Pictland. By the end of the tenth century, the Pictish language went extinct as its speakers shifted to Gaelic. From a base in eastern Scotland north of the River Forth and south of the River Spey, the kingdom expanded first southwards, into the former Northumbrian lands, and northwards into Moray. Around the turn of the millennium, there was a centralization in agricultural lands and the first towns began to be established. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, much of Scotland was under the control of a single ruler. Initially, Gaelic culture predominated, but immigrants from France, England and Flanders steadily created a more diverse society, with the Gaelic language starting to be replaced by Scots. Altogether, a modern nation-state emerged from this. At the end of this period, war against England started the growth of a Scottish national consciousness. David I (1124–1153) and his successors centralized royal power and united mainland Scotland, capturing regions such as Moray, Galloway, and Caithness, although he did not succeed at extending his power over the Hebrides, which had been ruled by various Scottish clans following the death of Somerled in 1164. The system of feudalism was consolidated, with both Anglo-Norman incomers and native Gaelic chieftains being granted land in exchange for serving the king. The complex relationship with Scotland's southern neighbour over this period is characterised by Scottish kings making successful and unsuccessful attempts to exploit English political turmoil, followed by the longest period of peace between Scotland and England in the mediaeval period: from 1217–1296. ### Wars of Scottish Independence The death of Alexander III in March 1286 broke the succession line of Scotland's kings. Edward I of England arbitrated between various claimants for the Scottish crown. In return for surrendering Scotland's nominal independence, John Balliol was pronounced king in 1292. In 1294, Balliol and other Scottish lords refused Edward's demands to serve in his army against the French. Scotland and France sealed a treaty on 23 October 1295, known as the Auld Alliance. War ensued, and John was deposed by Edward who took personal control of Scotland. Andrew Moray and William Wallace initially emerged as the principal leaders of the resistance to English rule in the Wars of Scottish Independence, until Robert the Bruce was crowned king of Scotland in 1306. Victory at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 proved the Scots had regained control of their kingdom. In 1320 the world's first documented declaration of independence, the Declaration of Arbroath, won the support of Pope John XXII, leading to the legal recognition of Scottish sovereignty by the English Crown. A civil war between the Bruce dynasty and their long-term rivals of the House of Comyn and House of Balliol lasted until the middle of the 14th century. Although the Bruce faction was successful, David II's lack of an heir allowed his half-nephew Robert II, the Lord High Steward of Scotland, to come to the throne and establish the House of Stewart. The Stewarts ruled Scotland for the remainder of the Middle Ages. The country they ruled experienced greater prosperity from the end of the 14th century through the Scottish Renaissance to the Reformation, despite the effects of the Black Death in 1349 and increasing division between Highlands and Lowlands. Multiple truces reduced warfare on the southern border. ### Union of the Crowns The Treaty of Perpetual Peace was signed in 1502 by James IV of Scotland and Henry VII of England. James married Henry's daughter, Margaret Tudor. James invaded England in support of France under the terms of the Auld Alliance and became the last British monarch to die in battle, at Flodden in 1513. The war with England during the minority years of Mary, Queen of Scots between 1543 and 1551 is known as the Rough Wooing. In 1560, the Treaty of Edinburgh brought an end to the Siege of Leith and recognized the Protestant Elizabeth I as Queen of England. The Parliament of Scotland met and immediately adopted the Scots Confession, which signalled the Scottish Reformation's sharp break from papal authority and Roman Catholic teaching. The Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, was forced to abdicate in 1567. In 1603, James VI, King of Scots inherited the thrones of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Ireland in the Union of the Crowns, and moved to London. The first Union Jack was designed at James's behest, to be flown in addition to the St Andrew's Cross on Scots vessels at sea. James VI and I intended to create a single kingdom of Great Britain, but was thwarted in his attempt to do so by the Parliament of England, which supported the wrecking proposal that a full legal union be sought instead, a proposal to which the Scots Parliament would not assent, causing the king to withdraw the plan. With the exception of a short period under the Protectorate, Scotland remained a separate state in the 17th century, but there was considerable conflict between the crown and the Covenanters over the form of church government. The military was strengthened, allowing the imposition of royal authority on the western Highland clans. The 1609 Statutes of Iona compelled the cultural integration of Hebridean clan leaders. In 1641 and again in 1643, the Parliament of Scotland unsuccessfully sought a union with England which was "federative" and not "incorporating", in which Scotland would retain a separate parliament. The issue of union split the parliament in 1648. After the execution of the Scottish king at Whitehall in 1649, amid the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and its events in Scotland, Oliver Cromwell, the victorious Lord Protector, imposed the British Isles' first written constitution – the Instrument of Government – on Scotland in 1652 as part of the republican Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The Protectorate Parliament was the first Westminster parliament to include representatives nominally from Scotland. The monarchy of the House of Stuart was resumed with the Restoration in Scotland in 1660. The Parliament of Scotland sought a commercial union with England in 1664; the proposal was rejected in 1668. In 1670 the Parliament of England rejected a proposed political union with Scotland. English proposals along the same lines were abandoned in 1674 and in 1685. The Battle of Altimarlach in 1680 was the last significant clan battle fought between highland clans. After the fall and flight into exile of the Catholic Stuart king, James VII and II the Glorious Revolution in Scotland and the Convention of Estates replaced the House of Stuart in favour of William III and Mary II who was Mary Stuart. The Scots Parliament rejected proposals for a political union in 1689. Jacobitism, the political support for the exiled Catholic Stuart dynasty, remained a threat to the security of the British state under the Protestant House of Orange and the succeeding House of Hanover until the defeat of the Jacobite rising of 1745. In common with countries such as France, Norway, Sweden and Finland, Scotland experienced famines during the 1690s. Mortality, reduced childbirths and increased emigration reduced the population of parts of the country about 10–15%. In 1698, the Company of Scotland attempted a project to secure a trading colony on the Isthmus of Panama. Almost every Scottish landowner who had money to spare is said to have invested in the Darien scheme. ### Treaty of Union After another proposal from the English House of Lords was rejected in 1695, and a further Lords motion was voted down in the House of Commons in 1700, the Parliament of Scotland again rejected union in 1702. The failure of the Darien Scheme bankrupted the landowners who had invested, though not the burghs. Nevertheless, the nobles' bankruptcy, along with the threat of an English invasion, played a leading role in convincing the Scots elite to back a union with England. On 22 July 1706, the Treaty of Union was agreed between representatives of the Scots Parliament and the Parliament of England. The following year, twin Acts of Union were passed by both parliaments to create the united Kingdom of Great Britain with effect from 1 May 1707 with popular opposition and anti-union riots in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and elsewhere. The newly formed Parliament of Great Britain rejected proposals from the Parliament of Ireland that the third kingdom be incorporated in the union. With trade tariffs with England abolished, trade blossomed, especially with Colonial America. The clippers belonging to the Glasgow Tobacco Lords were the fastest ships on the route to Virginia. Until the American War of Independence in 1776, Glasgow was the world's premier tobacco port, dominating world trade. The disparity between the wealth of the merchant classes of the Scottish Lowlands and the ancient clans of the Scottish Highlands grew, amplifying centuries of division. The deposed Jacobite Stuart claimants had remained popular in the Highlands and north-east, particularly amongst non-Presbyterians, including Roman Catholics and Episcopalian Protestants. Two major Jacobite risings launched in 1715 and 1745 failed to remove the House of Hanover from the British throne. The threat of the Jacobite movement to the United Kingdom and its monarchs effectively ended at the Battle of Culloden, Great Britain's last pitched battle. In the Highlands, clan chiefs gradually started to think of themselves more as commercial landlords than leaders of their people. These social and economic changes included the first phase of the Highland Clearances and, ultimately, the demise of clanship. ### Industrial age and the Scottish Enlightenment The Scottish Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution turned Scotland into an intellectual, commercial and industrial powerhouse — so much so Voltaire said "We look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilisation." With the demise of Jacobitism and the advent of the Union, thousands of Scots, mainly Lowlanders, took up numerous positions of power in politics, civil service, the army and navy, trade, economics, colonial enterprises and other areas across the nascent British Empire. Historian Neil Davidson notes "after 1746 there was an entirely new level of participation by Scots in political life, particularly outside Scotland." Davidson also states "far from being 'peripheral' to the British economy, Scotland – or more precisely, the Lowlands – lay at its core." The Scottish Reform Act 1832 increased the number of Scottish MPs and widened the franchise to include more of the middle classes. From the mid-century, there were increasing calls for Home Rule for Scotland and the post of Secretary of State for Scotland was revived. Towards the end of the century Prime Ministers of Scottish descent included William Gladstone, and the Earl of Rosebery. In the late 19th century the growing importance of the working classes was marked by Keir Hardie's success in the Mid Lanarkshire by-election, 1888, leading to the foundation of the Scottish Labour Party, which was absorbed into the Independent Labour Party in 1895, with Hardie as its first leader. Glasgow became one of the largest cities in the world and known as "the Second City of the Empire" after London. After 1860, the Clydeside shipyards specialised in steamships made of iron (after 1870, made of steel), which rapidly replaced the wooden sailing vessels of both the merchant fleets and the battle fleets of the world. It became the world's pre-eminent shipbuilding centre. The industrial developments, while they brought work and wealth, were so rapid that housing, town-planning, and provision for public health did not keep pace with them, and for a time living conditions in some of the towns and cities were notoriously bad, with overcrowding, high infant mortality, and growing rates of tuberculosis. While the Scottish Enlightenment is traditionally considered to have concluded toward the end of the 18th century, disproportionately large Scottish contributions to British science and letters continued for another 50 years or more, thanks to such figures as the physicists James Clerk Maxwell and Lord Kelvin, and the engineers and inventors James Watt and William Murdoch, whose work was critical to the technological developments of the Industrial Revolution throughout Britain. In literature, the most successful figure of the mid-19th century was Walter Scott. His first prose work, *Waverley* in 1814, is often called the first historical novel. It launched a highly successful career that probably more than any other helped define and popularise Scottish cultural identity. In the late 19th century, a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations, such as Robert Louis Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle, J. M. Barrie and George MacDonald. Scotland also played a major part in the development of art and architecture. The Glasgow School, which developed in the late 19th century, and flourished in the early 20th century, produced a distinctive blend of influences including the Celtic Revival the Arts and Crafts movement, and Japonism, which found favour throughout the modern art world of continental Europe and helped define the Art Nouveau style. Proponents included architect and artist Charles Rennie Mackintosh. This period saw a process of rehabilitation for Highland culture. In the 1820s, as part of the Romantic revival, tartan and the kilt were adopted by members of the social elite, not just in Scotland, but across Europe, prompted by the popularity of Macpherson's Ossian cycle and then Walter Scott's Waverley novels. The Highlands remained poor and the only part of mainland Britain with a recurrent famine. A small range of products were exported from the region, which had negligible industrial production and a continued population growth that tested the subsistence agriculture. These problems, and the desire to improve agriculture and profits were the driving forces of the ongoing Highland Clearances, in which many of the population of the Highlands suffered eviction as lands were enclosed, principally so that they could be used for sheep farming. The first phase of the clearances followed patterns of agricultural change throughout Britain. The second phase was driven by overpopulation, the Highland Potato Famine and the collapse of industries that had relied on the wartime economy of the Napoleonic Wars. The population of Scotland grew steadily in the 19th century, from 1,608,000 in the census of 1801 to 2,889,000 in 1851 and 4,472,000 in 1901. Even with the development of industry, there were not enough good jobs. As a result, during the period 1841–1931, about 2 million Scots migrated to North America and Australia, and another 750,000 Scots relocated to England. After prolonged years of struggle in the Kirk, the Evangelicals gained control of the General Assembly in 1834 and passed the Veto Act, which allowed congregations to reject unwanted "intrusive" presentations to livings by patrons. The following "Ten Years' Conflict" of legal and political wrangling ended in defeat for the non-intrusionists in the civil courts. The result was a schism from the church by some of the non-intrusionists led by Dr Thomas Chalmers, known as the Great Disruption of 1843. Roughly a third of the clergy, mainly from the North and Highlands, formed the separate Free Church of Scotland. In the late 19th century growing divisions between fundamentalist Calvinists and theological liberals resulted in a further split in the Free Church as the rigid Calvinists broke away to form the Free Presbyterian Church in 1893. Catholic emancipation in 1829 and the influx of large numbers of Irish immigrants, particularly after the famine years of the late 1840s, mainly to the growing lowland centres like Glasgow, led to a transformation in the fortunes of Catholicism. In 1878, despite opposition, a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical hierarchy was restored to the country, and Catholicism became a significant denomination within Scotland. Industrialisation, urbanisation and the Disruption of 1843 all undermined the tradition of parish schools. From 1830 the state began to fund buildings with grants; then from 1846 it was funding schools by direct sponsorship; and in 1872 Scotland moved to a system like that in England of state-sponsored largely free schools, run by local school boards. The historic University of Glasgow became a leader in British higher education by providing the educational needs of youth from the urban and commercial classes, as opposed to the upper class. The University of St Andrews pioneered the admission of women to Scottish universities. From 1892 Scottish universities could admit and graduate women and the numbers of women at Scottish universities steadily increased until the early 20th century. Caused by the advent of refrigeration and imports of lamb, mutton and wool from overseas, the 1870s brought with them a collapse of sheep prices and an abrupt halt in the previous sheep farming boom. Land prices subsequently plummeted, too, and accelerated the process of the so-called "Balmoralisation" of Scotland, an era in the second half of the 19th century that saw an increase in tourism and the establishment of large estates dedicated to field sports like deer stalking and grouse shooting, especially in the Scottish Highlands. The process was named after Balmoral estate, purchased by Queen Victoria in 1848, that fuelled the romanticisation of upland Scotland and initiated an influx of the newly wealthy acquiring similar estates in the following decades. In the late 19th century just 118 people owned half of Scotland, with nearly 60 per cent of the whole country being part of shooting estates. While their relative importance has somewhat declined due to changing recreational interests throughout the 20th century, deer stalking and grouse shooting remain of prime importance on many private estates in Scotland. ### World War I, II and Industrial growth Scotland played a major role in the British effort in the First World War. It especially provided manpower, ships, machinery, fish and money. With a population of 4.8 million in 1911, Scotland sent over half a million men to the war, of whom over a quarter died in combat or from disease, and 150,000 were seriously wounded. Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig was Britain's commander on the Western Front. The war saw the emergence of a radical movement called "Red Clydeside" led by militant trades unionists. Formerly a Liberal stronghold, the industrial districts switched to Labour by 1922, with a base among the Irish Catholic working-class districts. Women were especially active in building neighbourhood solidarity on housing issues. The "Reds" operated within the Labour Party with little influence in Parliament and the mood changed to passive despair by the late 1920s. The shipbuilding industry expanded by a third and expected renewed prosperity, but instead, a serious depression hit the economy by 1922 and it did not fully recover until 1939. The interwar years were marked by economic stagnation in rural and urban areas, and high unemployment. Indeed, the war brought with it deep social, cultural, economic, and political dislocations. Thoughtful Scots pondered their declension, as the main social indicators such as poor health, bad housing, and long-term mass unemployment, pointed to terminal social and economic stagnation at best, or even a downward spiral. Service abroad on behalf of the Empire lost its allure to ambitious young people, who left Scotland permanently. The heavy dependence on obsolescent heavy industry and mining was a central problem, and no one offered workable solutions. The despair reflected what Finlay (1994) describes as a widespread sense of hopelessness that prepared local business and political leaders to accept a new orthodoxy of centralised government economic planning when it arrived during the Second World War. During the Second World War, Scotland was targeted by Nazi Germany largely due to its factories, shipyards, and coal mines. Cities such as Glasgow and Edinburgh were targeted by German bombers, as were smaller towns mostly located in the central belt of the country. Perhaps the most significant air-raid in Scotland was the Clydebank Blitz of March 1941, which intended to destroy naval shipbuilding in the area. 528 people were killed and 4,000 homes totally destroyed. Perhaps Scotland's most unusual wartime episode occurred in 1941 when Rudolf Hess flew to Renfrewshire, possibly intending to broker a peace deal through the Duke of Hamilton. Before his departure from Germany, Hess had given his adjutant, Karlheinz Pintsch, a letter addressed to Hitler that detailed his intentions to open peace negotiations with the British. Pintsch delivered the letter to Hitler at the Berghof around noon on 11 May. Albert Speer later said Hitler described Hess's departure as one of the worst personal blows of his life, as he considered it a personal betrayal. Hitler worried that his allies, Italy and Japan, would perceive Hess's act as an attempt by Hitler to secretly open peace negotiations with the British. As in World War I, Scapa Flow in Orkney served as an important Royal Navy base. Attacks on Scapa Flow and Rosyth gave RAF fighters their first successes downing bombers in the Firth of Forth and East Lothian. The shipyards and heavy engineering factories in Glasgow and Clydeside played a key part in the war effort, and suffered attacks from the Luftwaffe, enduring great destruction and loss of life. As transatlantic voyages involved negotiating north-west Britain, Scotland played a key part in the battle of the North Atlantic. Shetland's relative proximity to occupied Norway resulted in the Shetland bus by which fishing boats helped Norwegians flee the Nazis, and expeditions across the North Sea to assist resistance. Scottish industry came out of the depression slump by a dramatic expansion of its industrial activity, absorbing unemployed men and many women as well. The shipyards were the centre of more activity, but many smaller industries produced the machinery needed by the British bombers, tanks and warships. Agriculture prospered, as did all sectors except for coal mining, which was operating mines near exhaustion. Real wages, adjusted for inflation, rose 25% and unemployment temporarily vanished. Increased income, and the more equal distribution of food, obtained through a tight rationing system, dramatically improved the health and nutrition. After 1945, Scotland's economic situation worsened due to overseas competition, inefficient industry, and industrial disputes. Only in recent decades has the country enjoyed something of a cultural and economic renaissance. Economic factors contributing to this recovery included a resurgent financial services industry, electronics manufacturing, (see Silicon Glen), and the North Sea oil and gas industry. The introduction in 1989 by Margaret Thatcher's government of the Community Charge (widely known as the Poll Tax) one year before the rest of Great Britain, contributed to a growing movement for Scottish control over domestic affairs. Following a referendum on devolution proposals in 1997, the Scotland Act 1998 was passed by the British Parliament, which established a devolved Scottish Parliament and Scottish Government with responsibility for most laws specific to Scotland. The Scottish Parliament was reconvened in Edinburgh on 4 July 1999. The first to hold the office of first minister of Scotland was Donald Dewar, who served until his sudden death in 2000. ### 21st century The Scottish Parliament Building at Holyrood opened in October 2004 after lengthy construction delays and running over budget. The Scottish Parliament's form of proportional representation (the additional member system) resulted in no one party having an overall majority for the first three Scottish parliament elections. The pro-independence Scottish National Party led by Alex Salmond achieved an overall majority in the 2011 election, winning 69 of the 129 seats available. The success of the SNP in achieving a majority in the Scottish Parliament paved the way for the September 2014 referendum on Scottish independence. The majority voted against the proposition, with 55% voting no to independence. More powers, particularly in relation to taxation, were devolved to the Scottish Parliament after the referendum, following cross-party talks in the Smith Commission. Geography and natural history ----------------------------- The mainland of Scotland comprises the northern third of the land mass of the island of Great Britain, which lies off the north-west coast of Continental Europe. The total area is 30,414 square miles (78,772 km2), comparable to the size of the Czech Republic. Scotland's only land border is with England, and runs for 96 miles (154 km) between the basin of the River Tweed on the east coast and the Solway Firth in the west. The Atlantic Ocean borders the west coast and the North Sea is to the east. The island of Ireland lies only 13 miles (21 km) from the south-western peninsula of Kintyre; Norway is 190 miles (305 km) to the east and the Faroe Islands, 168 miles (270 km) to the north. The territorial extent of Scotland is generally that established by the 1237 Treaty of York between Scotland and the Kingdom of England and the 1266 Treaty of Perth between Scotland and Norway. Important exceptions include the Isle of Man, which having been lost to England in the 14th century is now a crown dependency outside of the United Kingdom; the island groups Orkney and Shetland, which were acquired from Norway in 1472; and Berwick-upon-Tweed, lost to England in 1482 The geographical centre of Scotland lies a few miles from the village of Newtonmore in Badenoch. Rising to 1,344 metres (4,409 ft) above sea level, Scotland's highest point is the summit of Ben Nevis, in Lochaber, while Scotland's longest river, the River Tay, flows for a distance of 118 miles (190 km). ### Geology and geomorphology The whole of Scotland was covered by ice sheets during the Pleistocene ice ages and the landscape is much affected by glaciation. From a geological perspective, the country has three main sub-divisions. The Highlands and Islands lie to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, which runs from Arran to Stonehaven. This part of Scotland largely comprises ancient rocks from the Cambrian and Precambrian, which were uplifted during the later Caledonian orogeny. It is interspersed with igneous intrusions of a more recent age, remnants of which formed mountain massifs such as the Cairngorms and Skye Cuillins. In north-eastern mainland Scotland weathering of rock that occurred before the Last Ice Age has shaped much of the landscape. A significant exception to the above are the fossil-bearing beds of Old Red Sandstones found principally along the Moray Firth coast. The Highlands are generally mountainous and the highest elevations in the British Isles are found here. Scotland has over 790 islands divided into four main groups: Shetland, Orkney, and the Inner Hebrides and Outer Hebrides. There are numerous bodies of freshwater including Loch Lomond and Loch Ness. Some parts of the coastline consist of machair, a low-lying dune pasture land. The Central Lowlands is a rift valley mainly comprising Paleozoic formations. Many of these sediments have economic significance for it is here that the coal and iron bearing rocks that fuelled Scotland's industrial revolution are found. This area has also experienced intense volcanism, Arthur's Seat in Edinburgh being the remnant of a once much larger volcano. This area is relatively low-lying, although even here hills such as the Ochils and Campsie Fells are rarely far from view. The Southern Uplands are a range of hills almost 125 miles (200 km) long, interspersed with broad valleys. They lie south of a second fault line (the Southern Uplands fault) that runs from Girvan to Dunbar. The geological foundations largely comprise Silurian deposits laid down some 400 to 500 million years ago. The high point of the Southern Uplands is Merrick with an elevation of 843 m (2,766 ft). The Southern Uplands is home to Scotland's highest village, Wanlockhead (430 m or 1,411 ft above sea level). ### Climate The climate of most of Scotland is temperate and oceanic, and tends to be very changeable. As it is warmed by the Gulf Stream from the Atlantic, it has much milder winters (but cooler, wetter summers) than areas on similar latitudes, such as Labrador, southern Scandinavia, the Moscow region in Russia, and the Kamchatka Peninsula on the opposite side of Eurasia. Temperatures are generally lower than in the rest of the UK, with the temperature of −27.2 °C (−17.0 °F) recorded at Braemar in the Grampian Mountains, on 11 February 1895, the coldest ever recorded anywhere in the UK. Winter maxima average 6 °C (43 °F) in the Lowlands, with summer maxima averaging 18 °C (64 °F). The highest temperature recorded was 35.1 °C (95.2 °F) at Floors Castle, Scottish Borders on 19 July 2022. The west of Scotland is usually warmer than the east, owing to the influence of Atlantic ocean currents and the colder surface temperatures of the North Sea. Tiree, in the Inner Hebrides, is one of the sunniest places in the country: it had more than 300 hours of sunshine in May 1975. Rainfall varies widely across Scotland. The western highlands of Scotland are the wettest, with annual rainfall in a few places exceeding 3,000 mm (120 in). In comparison, much of lowland Scotland receives less than 800 mm (31 in) annually. Heavy snowfall is not common in the lowlands, but becomes more common with altitude. Braemar has an average of 59 snow days per year, while many coastal areas average fewer than 10 days of lying snow per year. ### Flora and fauna Scotland's wildlife is typical of the north-west of Europe, although several of the larger mammals such as the lynx, brown bear, wolf, elk and walrus were hunted to extinction in historic times. There are important populations of seals and internationally significant nesting grounds for a variety of seabirds such as gannets. The golden eagle is something of a national icon. On the high mountain tops, species including ptarmigan, mountain hare and stoat can be seen in their white colour phase during winter months. Remnants of the native Scots pine forest exist and within these areas the Scottish crossbill, the UK's only endemic bird species and vertebrate, can be found alongside capercaillie, Scottish wildcat, red squirrel and pine marten. Various animals have been re-introduced, including the white-tailed eagle in 1975, the red kite in the 1980s, and there have been experimental projects involving the beaver and wild boar. Today, much of the remaining native Caledonian Forest lies within the Cairngorms National Park and remnants of the forest remain at 84 locations across Scotland. On the west coast, remnants of ancient Celtic Rainforest still remain, particularly on the Taynish peninsula in Argyll, these forests are particularly rare due to high rates of deforestation throughout Scottish history. The flora of the country is varied incorporating both deciduous and coniferous woodland as well as moorland and tundra species. Large-scale commercial tree planting and management of upland moorland habitat for the grazing of sheep and field sport activities like deer stalking and driven grouse shooting impacts the distribution of indigenous plants and animals. The UK's tallest tree is a grand fir planted beside Loch Fyne, Argyll in the 1870s, and the Fortingall Yew may be 5,000 years old and is probably the oldest living thing in Europe.[*dubious – discuss*] Although the number of native vascular plants is low by world standards, Scotland's substantial bryophyte flora is of global importance. Demographics ------------ ### Population The population of Scotland at the 2001 Census was 5,062,011. This rose to 5,295,400, the highest ever, at the 2011 Census. The most recent ONS estimate, for mid-2019, was 5,463,300. In the 2011 Census, 62% of Scotland's population stated their national identity as 'Scottish only', 18% as 'Scottish and British', 8% as 'British only', and 4% chose 'other identity only'. In August 2012, the Scottish population reached an all-time high of 5.25 million people. The reasons given were that, in Scotland, births were outnumbering the number of deaths, and immigrants were moving to Scotland from overseas. In 2011, 43,700 people moved from Wales, Northern Ireland or England to live in Scotland. Mid-2020 Scottish Government estimates the population of Scotland to stand at 5,470,824 inhabitants. The most recent census in Scotland was conducted by the Scottish Government and the National Records of Scotland in March 2022. Over the course of its history, Scotland has long had a tradition of migration from Scotland and immigration into Scotland. In 2021, the Scottish Government released figures showing that an estimated 41,000 people had immigrated from other international countries into Scotland, whilst an average of 22,100 people had migrated from Scotland. Scottish Government data from 2002 shows that by 2021, there had been a sharp increase in immigration to Scotland, with 2002 estimates standing at 27,800 immigrants. While immigration had increased from 2002, migration from Scotland had dropped, with 2002 estimates standing at 26,200 people migrating from Scotland. ### Urbanisation Although Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland, the largest city is Glasgow, which has just over 584,000 inhabitants. The Greater Glasgow conurbation, with a population of almost 1.2 million, is home to nearly a quarter of Scotland's population. The Central Belt is where most of the main towns and cities are located, including Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dundee, and Perth. Scotland's only major city outside the Central Belt is Aberdeen. The Scottish Lowlands host 80% of the total population, where the Central Belt accounts for 3.5 million people. In general, only the more accessible and larger islands remain inhabited. Currently, fewer than 90 remain inhabited. The Southern Uplands are essentially rural in nature and dominated by agriculture and forestry. Because of housing problems in Glasgow and Edinburgh, five new towns were designated between 1947 and 1966. They are East Kilbride, Glenrothes, Cumbernauld, Livingston, and Irvine. |    Largest cities or towns in ScotlandScotland's Census 2011 | | --- | | | Rank | Name | Council area | Pop. | Rank | Name | Council area | Pop. | | | GlasgowGlasgowEdinburghEdinburgh | 1 | Glasgow | Glasgow City | 590,507 | 11 | Dunfermline | Fife | 49,706 | AberdeenAberdeenDundeeDundee | | 2 | Edinburgh | City of Edinburgh | 459,366 | 12 | Inverness | Highland | 48,201 | | 3 | Aberdeen | Aberdeen City | 195,021 | 13 | Perth | Perth and Kinross | 46,970 | | 4 | Dundee | Dundee City | 147,285 | 14 | Ayr | South Ayrshire | 46,849 | | 5 | Paisley | Renfrewshire | 76,834 | 15 | Kilmarnock | East Ayrshire | 46,159 | | 6 | East Kilbride | South Lanarkshire | 74,395 | 16 | Greenock | Inverclyde | 44,248 | | 7 | Livingston | West Lothian | 56,269 | 17 | Coatbridge | North Lanarkshire | 43,841 | | 8 | Hamilton | South Lanarkshire | 53,188 | 18 | Glenrothes | Fife | 39,277 | | 9 | Cumbernauld | North Lanarkshire | 52,270 | 19 | Airdrie | North Lanarkshire | 37,132 | | 10 | Kirkcaldy | Fife | 49,709 | 20 | Stirling | Stirling | 36,142 | ### Languages Scotland has three officially recognised languages: English, Scots, and Scottish Gaelic. Scottish Standard English, a variety of English as spoken in Scotland, is at one end of a bipolar linguistic continuum, with broad Scots at the other. Scottish Standard English may have been influenced to varying degrees by Scots. The 2011 census indicated that 63% of the population had "no skills in Scots". Others speak Highland English. Gaelic is mostly spoken in the Western Isles, where a large proportion of people still speak it. Nationally, its use is confined to 1% of the population. The number of Gaelic speakers in Scotland dropped from 250,000 in 1881 to 60,000 in 2008. Immigration since World War II has given Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Dundee small South Asian communities. In 2011, there were an estimated 49,000 ethnically Pakistani people living in Scotland, making them the largest non-White ethnic group. Since the enlargement of the European Union more people from Central and Eastern Europe have moved to Scotland, and the 2011 census indicated that 61,000 Poles live there. There are many more people with Scottish ancestry living abroad than the total population of Scotland. In the 2000 Census, 9.2 million Americans self-reported some degree of Scottish descent. Ulster's Protestant population is mainly of lowland Scottish descent, and it is estimated that there are more than 27 million descendants of the Scots-Irish migration now living in the US. In Canada, the Scottish-Canadian community accounts for 4.7 million people. About 20% of the original European settler population of New Zealand came from Scotland. ### Living and healthcare standards The total fertility rate (TFR) in Scotland is below the replacement rate of 2.1 (the TFR was 1.73 in 2011). The majority of births are to unmarried women (51.3% of births were outside of marriage in 2012). Life expectancy for those born in Scotland between 2012 and 2014 is 77.1 years for males and 81.1 years for females. This is the lowest of any of the four countries of the UK. The number of hospital admissions in Scotland for diseases such as cancer was 2,528 in 2002. Over the next ten years, by 2012, this had increased to 2,669. Hospital admissions for other diseases, such as coronary heart disease (CHD) were lower, with 727 admissions in 2002, and decreasing to 489 in 2012. Data collated by the Scottish Government in 2018/2019 asked the general population of Scotland to self assess their general health to provide a large sample for subnational analysis. The data collated highlighted that 72% of people in Scotland ranked their general health as "good or very good", 19.8% as "fair" and 8.1% of people saying that their general health is "bad or very bad". ### Religion Forms of Christianity have dominated religious life in what is now the Scotland for more than 1,400 years. In 2011 just over half (54%) of the Scottish population reported being a Christian while nearly 37% reported not having a religion in a 2011 census. Since the Scottish Reformation of 1560, the national church (the Church of Scotland, also known as The Kirk) has been Protestant in classification and Reformed in theology. Since 1689 it has had a Presbyterian system of church government and enjoys independence from the state. Its membership dropped just below 300,000 in 2020 (5% of the total population) The Church operates a territorial parish structure, with every community in Scotland having a local congregation. Scotland also has a significant Roman Catholic population, 19% professing that faith, particularly in Greater Glasgow and the north-west. After the Reformation, Roman Catholicism in Scotland continued in the Highlands and some western islands like Uist and Barra, and it was strengthened during the 19th century by immigration from Ireland. Other Christian denominations in Scotland include the Free Church of Scotland, and various other Presbyterian offshoots. Scotland's third largest church is the Scottish Episcopal Church. There are an estimated 75,000 Muslims in Scotland (about 1.4% of the population), and significant but smaller Jewish, Hindu and Sikh communities, especially in Glasgow. The Samyé Ling monastery near Eskdalemuir, which celebrated its 40th anniversary in 2007, is the first Buddhist monastery in western Europe. ### Education Granted university status in 1992, the University of the West of Scotland (UWS) can trace its history back to 1897, as Paisley College of Technology.University of St Andrews is the oldest University in Scotland and third oldest in the English-speaking world. Education in Scotland is the responsibility of the Scottish Government and is overseen by its executive agency Education Scotland. The Scottish education system has always been distinct from the rest of the United Kingdom, with a characteristic emphasis on a broad education. In the 15th century, the Humanist emphasis on education cumulated with the passing of the Education Act 1496, which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools to learn "perfyct Latyne", resulting in an increase in literacy among a male and wealthy elite. In the Reformation, the 1560 *First Book of Discipline* set out a plan for a school in every parish, but this proved financially impossible. In 1616 an act in Privy council commanded every parish to establish a school. By the late seventeenth century there was a largely complete network of parish schools in the lowlands, but in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas. Education remained a matter for the church rather than the state until the Education (Scotland) Act 1872. The *Curriculum for Excellence*, Scotland's national school curriculum, presently provides the curricular framework for children and young people from age 3 to 18. All 3- and 4-year-old children in Scotland are entitled to a free nursery place. Formal primary education begins at approximately 5 years old and lasts for 7 years (P1–P7); children in Scotland study National Qualifications of the Curriculum for Excellence between the ages of 14 and 18. The school leaving age is 16, after which students may choose to remain at school and study further qualifications. A small number of students at certain private schools may follow the English system and study towards GCSEs and A and AS-Levels instead. There are fifteen Scottish universities, some of which are amongst the oldest in the world. The four universities founded before the end of the 16th century – the University of St Andrews, the University of Glasgow, the University of Aberdeen and the University of Edinburgh – are collectively known as the ancient universities of Scotland, all of which rank among the 200 best universities in the world in the THE rankings, with Edinburgh placing in the top 50. Scotland had more universities per capita in QS' World University Rankings' top 100 in 2012 than any other nation. The country produces 1% of the world's published research with less than 0.1% of the world's population, and higher education institutions account for 9% of Scotland's service sector exports. Scotland's University Courts are the only bodies in Scotland authorised to award degrees. Tuition fees are handled by the Student Awards Agency Scotland (SAAS), which pays the fees of what it defines as "Young Students". Young Students are defined as those under 25, without children, marriage, civil partnership or cohabiting partner, who have not been outside of full-time education for more than three years. Fees must be paid by those outside the young student definition, typically from £1,200 to £1,800 for undergraduate courses, dependent on year of application and type of qualification. Postgraduate fees can be up to £3,400. The system has been in place since 2007 when graduate endowments were abolished. Labour's education spokesperson Rhona Brankin criticised the Scottish system for failing to address student poverty. Scotland's universities are complemented in the provision of Further and Higher Education by 43 colleges. Colleges offer National Certificates, Higher National Certificates, and Higher National Diplomas. These Group Awards, alongside Scottish Vocational Qualifications, aim to ensure Scotland's population has the appropriate skills and knowledge to meet workplace needs. In 2014, research reported by the Office for National Statistics found that Scotland was the most highly educated country in Europe and among the most well-educated in the world in terms of tertiary education attainment, with roughly 40% of people in Scotland aged 16–64 educated to NVQ level 4 and above. Based on the original data for EU statistical regions, all four Scottish regions ranked significantly above the European average for completion of tertiary-level education by 25- to 64-year-olds. Kilmarnock Academy in East Ayrshire is one of only two schools in the UK, and the only school in Scotland, to have educated two Nobel Prize Laureates – Alexander Fleming, discoverer of Penicillin, and John Boyd Orr, 1st Baron Boyd-Orr, for his scientific research into nutrition and his work as the first Director-General of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). ### Health care Health care in Scotland is mainly provided by NHS Scotland, Scotland's public health care system. This was founded by the National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1947 (later repealed by the National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1978) that took effect on 5 July 1948 to coincide with the launch of the NHS in England and Wales. Prior to 1948, half of Scotland's landmass was already covered by state-funded health care, provided by the Highlands and Islands Medical Service. Healthcare policy and funding is the responsibility of the Scottish Government's Health Directorates. In 2014, the NHS in Scotland had around 140,000 staff. Politics and government ----------------------- King Charles III Monarch since 2022Humza Yousaf First Minister since 2023 The head of state of the United Kingdom is the monarch, who is King Charles III. The monarchy of the United Kingdom continues to use a variety of styles, titles and other royal symbols of statehood specific to pre-union Scotland, including: the Royal Standard of Scotland, the Royal coat of arms used in Scotland together with its associated Royal Standard, royal titles including that of Duke of Rothesay, certain Great Officers of State, the chivalric Order of the Thistle and, since 1999, reinstating a ceremonial role for the Crown of Scotland after a 292-year hiatus. Queen Elizabeth II's regnal numbering caused controversy in 1953 because there had never been an Elizabeth I in Scotland. MacCormick v Lord Advocate was a legal action was brought in Scotland's Court of Session by the Scottish Covenant Association to contest the right of the Queen to entitle herself "Elizabeth II" within Scotland, but the Crown won the appeal against the case's dismissal, as royal titulature was legislated for by the Royal Titles Act 1953 and a matter of royal prerogative. Scotland has limited self-government within the United Kingdom, as well as representation in the British Parliament. Executive and legislative powers respectively have been devolved to the Scottish Government and the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood in Edinburgh since 1999. The British Parliament retains control over reserved matters specified in the Scotland Act 1998, including taxes, social security, defence, international relations and broadcasting. The Scottish Parliament has legislative authority for all other areas relating to Scotland. It initially had only a limited power to vary income tax, but powers over taxation and social security were significantly expanded by the Scotland Acts of 2012 and 2016. The 2016 Act gave the Scottish Government powers to manage the affairs of the Crown Estate in Scotland, leading to the creation of Crown Estate Scotland. The Scottish Parliament can give legislative consent over devolved matters back to the British Parliament by passing a Legislative Consent Motion if United Kingdom-wide legislation is considered more appropriate for a certain issue. The programmes of legislation enacted by the Scottish Parliament have seen a divergence in the provision of public services compared to the rest of the UK. For instance, university education and some care services for the elderly are free at point of use in Scotland, while fees are paid in the rest of the UK. Scotland was the first country in the UK to ban smoking in enclosed public places. Bute House is the official residence and workplace of the first minister.Holyrood is the seat of the national parliament of Scotland. The Scottish Parliament is a unicameral legislature with 129 members (MSPs): 73 of them represent individual constituencies and are elected on a first-past-the-post system; the other 56 are elected in eight different electoral regions by the additional member system. MSPs normally serve for a five-year period. The Parliament nominates one of its Members, who is then appointed by the monarch to serve as first minister. Other ministers are appointed by the first minister and serve at his/her discretion. Together they make up the Scottish Government, the executive arm of the devolved government. The Scottish Government is headed by the first minister, who is accountable to the Scottish Parliament and is the minister of charge of the Scottish Government. The first minister is also the political leader of Scotland. The Scottish Government also comprises the deputy first minister, who deputises for the first minister during a period of absence. Alongside the deputy first minister's requirements as Deputy, the minister also has a cabinet ministerial responsibility. The current Scottish Government has nine cabinet secretaries and there are 15 other ministers who work alongside the cabinet secretaries in their appointed areas. In the 2021 election, the Scottish National Party (SNP) won 64 of the 129 seats available. Humza Yousaf, the leader of the SNP, has been the first minister since March 2023. The Scottish Conservatives, Scottish Labour, the Scottish Liberal Democrats and the Scottish Greens also have representation in the Parliament. The next Scottish Parliament election is due to be held on 7 May 2026. Scotland is represented in the British House of Commons by 59 MPs elected from territory-based Scottish constituencies. In the 2019 general election, the SNP won 48 of the 59 seats. This represented a significant increase from the 2017 general election, when the SNP won 35 seats. Conservative, Labour and Liberal Democrat parties also represent Scottish constituencies in the House of Commons. The next general election is scheduled for 2 May 2024. The Scotland Office represents the British government in Scotland on reserved matters and represents Scottish interests within the government. The Scotland Office is led by the Secretary of State for Scotland, who sits in the Cabinet of the United Kingdom. Conservative MP Alister Jack has held the position since July 2019. ### Devolved government relations Since 1999, relations between the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland with the Government of the United Kingdom has been conducted under the banner of *Intergovernmental Relations*. The First Minister, other cabinet secrateries and junior ministers of the Scottish Government are in daily communication relating to areas of national and international interest, discussing joint policy making and strengthening approaches to working together. A *Memorandum of Understanding*, created in 1999, lays emphasis on the principles of good communication, consultation and co-operation. Overall, accountability for intergovernmental relations is the responsibility of the First Minister. The First Minister is a member of the Heads of Government Council ("The Council") (previously the Joint Ministerial Committee). Other cabinet secreraties and junior ministers within the Scottish Government participate in tier two (the Inter-ministerial Standing Committee) and tier 3 (the Inter-ministerial Group) of The Council which may include areas including education, finance and economy, investment and trade and rural affairs. Since devolution in 1999, Scotland has devolved stronger working relations across the two other devolved governments, the Welsh Government and Northern Ireland Executive. Whilst there are no formal concordats between the Scottish Government, Welsh Government and Northern Ireland Executive, ministers from each devolved government meet at various points throughout the year at various events such as the British-Irish Council and also meet to discuss matters and issues that are devolved to each government. The Scottish Government considers the successful re-establishment of the Plenary, and establishment of the Domestic fora to be important facets of the relationship with the British Government and the other devolved administrations. In the aftermath of the United Kingdom's decision to withdraw from the European Union in 2016, the Scottish Government has called for there to be a joint approach from each of the devolved governments. In early 2017, the devolved governments met to discuss Brexit and agree on Brexit strategies from each devolved government which lead for Theresa May to issue a statement that stated that the devolved governments will not have a central role or decision-making process in the Brexit process, but that the central government plans to "fully engage" Scotland in talks alongside the governments of Wales and Northern Ireland. ### International diplomacy Whilst foreign policy remains a reserved matter, the Scottish Government may promote the economy and Scottish interests on the world stage and encourage foreign businesses, international devolved, regional and central governments to invest in Scotland. Whilst the first minister usually undertakes a number of international visits to promote Scotland, international relations, European and Commonwealth relations are also included within the portfolios of the Cabinet Secretary for Culture, Tourism and External Affairs (responsible for international development) and the Minister for International Development and Europe (responsible for European Union relations and international relations). Whilst an independent sovereign nation, Scotland had a close "special relationship" with France (known then as the Kingdom of France). In 1295, Scotland and France signed what became known as the Auld Alliance in Paris, which acted as a military and diplomatic alliance between English invasion and expansion. The French military sought the assistance of Scotland in 1415 during the Battle of Agincourt which was close to bringing the Kingdom of France to collapse. The Auld Alliance was seen as important for Scotland and its position within Europe, having signed a treaty of military, economic and diplomatic co-operation with a wealthy European nation. There had been an agreement between Scotland and France that allowed citizens of both countries to hold dual citizenship, which was revoked by the French Government in 1903. In recent times, there have been arguments that indicate that the Auld Alliance was never formally ended by either Scotland or France, and that many elements of the treaty may remain in place today. Scotland and France still have a special relationship, with a Statement of Intent being signed in 2013 which committed them to build on shared history, friendship, co-operation between governments and cultural exchange programmes. During the 31st G8 summit in 2005, the first minister of Scotland Jack McConnell welcomed each head of government of the G8 nations to the country's Glasgow Prestwick Airport on behalf of prime minister Tony Blair. At the same time, McConnell and the then Scottish Executive pioneered the way forward to launch what would become the Scotland Malawi Partnership which co-ordinates Scottish activities to strengthen existing links with Malawi. During McConnell's time as first minister, several relations with Scotland, including Scottish and Russian relations strengthened following a visit by President of Russia Vladimir Putin to Edinburgh. McConnell, speaking at the end, highlighted that the visit by Putin was a "post-devolution" step towards "Scotland regaining its international identity". Under the Salmond administration, Scotland's trade and investment deals with countries such as China and Canada, where Salmond established the Canada Plan 2010–2015 which aimed to strengthen "the important historical, cultural and economic links" between Canada and Scotland. To promote Scotland's interests and Scottish businesses in North America, there is a Scottish Affairs Office located in Washington, D.C., with the aim to promoting Scotland in the United States and Canada. During a 2017 visit to the United States, the first minister Nicola Sturgeon met Jerry Brown, Governor of California, where they signed an agreement committing the Government of California and the Scottish Government to work together to tackle climate change, as well as Sturgeon signing a £6.3 million deal for Scottish investment from American businesses and firms promoting trade, tourism and innovation. During an official visit to the Republic of Ireland in 2016, Sturgeon stated that is it "important for Ireland and Scotland and the whole of the British Isles that Ireland has a strong ally in Scotland". During the same engagement, Sturgeon became the first head of government to address the Seanad Éireann, the upper house of the Oireachtas (the Irish parliament). #### International Offices Scotland has a network of eight international offices across the world, these are located in: * Beijing (Scottish Government Beijing Office) (British Embassy) * Berlin (Scottish Government Berlin Office) * Brussels (Scotland House Brussels) * Copenhagen (Scottish Government Copenhagen Office) * Dublin (Scottish Government Dublin Office) (British Embassy) * London (Scotland House London) * Ottawa (Scottish Government Ottawa Office) (British High Commission) * Paris (Scottish Government Office) (British Embassy) * Washington DC (Scottish Government Washington DC Office) (British Embassy) ### Constitutional changes A policy of devolution had been advocated by the three main British political parties with varying enthusiasm during recent history. A previous Labour leader, John Smith, described the revival of a Scottish parliament as the "settled will of the Scottish people". The devolved Scottish Parliament was created after a referendum in 1997 found majority support for both creating the Parliament and granting it limited powers to vary income tax. The Scottish National Party (SNP), which supports Scottish independence, was first elected to form the Scottish Government in 2007. The new government established a "National Conversation" on constitutional issues, proposing a number of options such as increasing the powers of the Scottish Parliament, federalism, or a referendum on Scottish independence from the United Kingdom. In rejecting the last option, the three main opposition parties in the Scottish Parliament created a commission to investigate the distribution of powers between devolved Scottish and UK-wide bodies. The Scotland Act 2012, based on proposals by the commission, was subsequently enacted devolving additional powers to the Scottish Parliament. In August 2009 the SNP proposed a bill to hold a referendum on independence in November 2010. Opposition from all other major parties led to an expected defeat. After the 2011 Scottish Parliament election gave the SNP an overall majority in the Scottish Parliament, the 2014 Scottish independence referendum was held on 18 September. The referendum resulted in a rejection of independence, by 55.3% to 44.7%. During the campaign, the three main parties in the British Parliament pledged to extend the powers of the Scottish Parliament. An all-party commission chaired by Robert Smith, Baron Smith of Kelvin was formed, which led to a further devolution of powers through the Scotland Act 2016. Following the European Union Referendum Act 2015, the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum was held on 23 June 2016 on Britain's membership of the European Union. A majority in the United Kingdom voted to withdraw from the EU, whilst a majority within Scotland voted to remain a member. The first minister, Nicola Sturgeon, announced the following day that as a result a new independence referendum was "highly likely". On 31 January 2020, the United Kingdom formally withdrew from the European Union. At Holyrood, Sturgeon's governing SNP continues to campaign for such a referendum; in December 2019 a formal request for the powers to hold one under Section 30 of the Scotland Act was submitted. In June 2022, Sturgeon announced plans to hold a referendum on 19 October 2023. At Westminster, the governing second Johnson ministry of the Conservative Party is opposed to another referendum and has refused the first minister's request. Because constitutional affairs are reserved matters under the Scotland Act, the Scottish Parliament would again have to be granted temporary additional powers under Section 30 in order to hold a legally binding vote. Scotland has historical and cultural ties with northern countries outside the British Isles, such as the countries of Scandinavia. Scottish Government policy advocates for stronger political relations with the Nordic and Baltic countries, which has resulted in some Nordic-inspired policies being adopted such as baby boxes. ### Administrative subdivisions Historical subdivisions of Scotland included the mormaerdom, stewartry, earldom, burgh, parish, county and regions and districts. Some of these names are still sometimes used as geographical descriptors. Modern Scotland is subdivided in various ways depending on the purpose. In local government, there have been 32 single-tier council areas since 1996, whose councils are responsible for the provision of all local government services. Decisions are made by councillors who are elected at local elections every five years. The head of each council is usually the Lord Provost alongside the Leader of the council, with a Chief Executive being appointed as director of the council area. Community Councils are informal organisations that represent specific sub-divisions within each council area. In the Scottish Parliament, there are 73 constituencies and eight regions. For the Parliament of the United Kingdom, there are 59 constituencies. Until 2013, the Scottish fire brigades and police forces were based on a system of regions introduced in 1975. For healthcare and postal districts, and a number of other governmental and non-governmental organisations such as the churches, there are other long-standing methods of subdividing Scotland for the purposes of administration. City status in the United Kingdom is conferred by letters patent. There are eight cities in Scotland: Aberdeen, Dundee, Dunfermline, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Inverness, Stirling and Perth. ### Military Of the money spent on UK defence, about £3.3 billion can be attributed to Scotland as of 2018/2019. Scotland had a long military tradition predating the Treaty of Union with England; the Scots Army and Royal Scots Navy were (with the exception of the Atholl Highlanders, Europe's only legal private army) merged with their English counterparts to form the Royal Navy and the British Army, which together form part of the British Armed Forces. Numerous Scottish regiments have at various times existed in the British Army. Distinctively Scottish regiments in the British Army include the Scots Guards, the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards and the 154 (Scottish) Regiment RLC, an Army Reserve regiment of the Royal Logistic Corps. In 2006, as a result of the *Delivering Security in a Changing World* white paper, the Scottish infantry regiments in the Scottish Division were amalgamated to form the Royal Regiment of Scotland. As a result of the Cameron–Clegg coalition's Strategic Defence and Security Review 2010, the Scottish regiments of the line in the British Army infantry, having previously formed the Scottish Division, were reorganised into the Scottish, Welsh and Irish Division in 2017. Before the formation of the Scottish Division, the Scottish infantry was organised into a Lowland Brigade and Highland Brigade. Because of their topography and perceived remoteness, parts of Scotland have housed many sensitive defence establishments. Between 1960 and 1991, the Holy Loch was a base for the US fleet of Polaris ballistic missile submarines. Today, Her Majesty's Naval Base Clyde, 25 miles (40 kilometres) north-west of Glasgow, is the base for the four Trident-armed *Vanguard*-class ballistic missile submarines that comprise the Britain's nuclear deterrent. Scapa Flow was the major Fleet base for the Royal Navy until 1956. Scotland's Scapa Flow was the main base for the Royal Navy in the 20th century. As the Cold War intensified in 1961, the United States deployed Polaris ballistic missiles, and submarines, in the Firth of Clyde's Holy Loch. Public protests from CND campaigners proved futile. The Royal Navy successfully convinced the government to allow the base because it wanted its own Polaris submarines, and it obtained them in 1963. The RN's nuclear submarine base opened with four *Resolution*-class Polaris submarines at the expanded Faslane Naval Base on the Gare Loch. The first patrol of a Trident-armed submarine occurred in 1994, although the US base was closed at the end of the Cold War. A single front-line Royal Air Force base is located in Scotland. RAF Lossiemouth, located in Moray, is the most northerly air defence fighter base in the United Kingdom and is home to three fast-jet squadrons equipped with the Eurofighter Typhoon. ### Law and criminal justice Scots law has a basis derived from Roman law, combining features of both uncodified civil law, dating back to the *Corpus Juris Civilis*, and common law with medieval sources. The terms of the Treaty of Union with England in 1707 guaranteed the continued existence of a separate legal system in Scotland from that of England and Wales. Prior to 1611, there were several regional law systems in Scotland, most notably Udal law in Orkney and Shetland, based on old Norse law. Various other systems derived from common Celtic or Brehon laws survived in the Highlands until the 1800s. Scots law provides for three types of courts responsible for the administration of justice: civil, criminal and heraldic. The supreme civil court is the Court of Session, although civil appeals can be taken to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (or before 1 October 2009, the House of Lords). The High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court in Scotland. The Court of Session is housed at Parliament House, in Edinburgh, which was the home of the pre-Union Parliament of Scotland with the High Court of Justiciary and the Supreme Court of Appeal currently located at the Lawnmarket. The sheriff court is the main criminal and civil court, hearing most cases. There are 49 sheriff courts throughout the country. District courts were introduced in 1975 for minor offences and small claims. These were gradually replaced by Justice of the Peace Courts from 2008 to 2010. The Court of the Lord Lyon regulates heraldry. For three centuries the Scots legal system was unique for being the only national legal system without a parliament. This ended with the advent of the Scottish Parliament in 1999, which legislates for Scotland. Many features within the system have been preserved. Within criminal law, the Scots legal system is unique in having three possible verdicts: "guilty", "not guilty" and "*not proven*". Both "not guilty" and "not proven" result in an acquittal, typically with no possibility of retrial in accordance with the rule of double jeopardy. A retrial can hear new evidence at a later date that might have proven conclusive in the earlier trial at first instance, where the person acquitted subsequently admits the offence or where it can be proved that the acquittal was tainted by an attempt to pervert the course of justice – see the provisions of the Double Jeopardy (Scotland) Act 2011. Many laws differ between Scotland and the other parts of the United Kingdom, and many terms differ for certain legal concepts. Manslaughter, in England and Wales, is broadly similar to culpable homicide in Scotland, and arson is called wilful fire raising. Indeed, some acts considered crimes in England and Wales, such as forgery, are not so in Scotland. Procedure also differs. Scots juries, sitting in criminal cases, consist of fifteen jurors, which is three more than is typical in many countries. The Lord Advocate is the chief legal officer of the Scottish Government and the Crown in Scotland. The Lord Advocate is the head of the systems in Scotland for the investigation and prosecution of crime, the investigation of deaths as well as serving as the principal legal adviser to the Scottish Government and representing the government in legal proceedings. They are the chief public prosecutor for Scotland and all prosecutions on indictment are conducted by the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service in the Lord Advocate's name on behalf of the Monarch. The officeholder is one of the Great Officers of State of Scotland. The current Lord Advocate is Dorothy Bain, who was nominated by First Minister Nicola Sturgeon and appointed in June 2021. The Lord Advocate is supported by the Solicitor General for Scotland, currently Ruth Charteris. The Solicitor General supports the Lord Advocate in the deployment of the Lord Advocate's functions, and may exercise their statutory and common law powers if deemed necessary. The Scottish Prison Service (SPS) manages the prisons in Scotland, which collectively house over 8,500 prisoners. The Cabinet Secretary for Justice is responsible for the Scottish Prison Service within the Scottish Government. Economy ------- Scotland has a Western-style open mixed economy closely linked with the rest of the UK and the wider world. Traditionally, the Scottish economy was dominated by heavy industry underpinned by shipbuilding in Glasgow, coal mining and steel industries. Petroleum related industries associated with the extraction of North Sea oil have also been important employers from the 1970s, especially in the north-east of Scotland. De-industrialisation during the 1970s and 1980s saw a shift from a manufacturing focus towards a more service-oriented economy. Scotland's gross domestic product (GDP), including oil and gas produced in Scottish waters, was estimated at £150 billion for the calendar year 2012. In 2014, Scotland's per capita GDP was one of the highest in the EU. As of April 2019 the Scottish unemployment rate was 3.3%, below the UK's overall rate of 3.8%, and the Scottish employment rate was 75.9%. Edinburgh is the financial services centre of Scotland, with many large finance firms based there, including: Lloyds Banking Group (owners of HBOS); the Government-owned Royal Bank of Scotland and Standard Life. Edinburgh was ranked 15th in the list of world financial centres in 2007, but fell to 37th in 2012, following damage to its reputation, and in 2016 was ranked 56th out of 86. Its status had returned to 17th by 2020. In 2014, total Scottish exports (excluding intra-UK trade) were estimated to be £27.5 billion. Scotland's primary exports include whisky, electronics and financial services. The United States, Netherlands, Germany, France, and Norway constitute the country's major export markets. Whisky is one of Scotland's more known goods of economic activity. Exports increased by 87% in the decade to 2012 and were valued at £4.3 billion in 2013, which was 85% of Scotland's food and drink exports. It supports around 10,000 jobs directly and 25,000 indirectly. It may contribute £400–682 million to Scotland, rather than several billion pounds, as more than 80% of whisky produced is owned by non-Scottish companies. A briefing published in 2002 by the Scottish Parliament Information Centre (SPICe) for the Scottish Parliament's Enterprise and Life Long Learning Committee stated that tourism accounted for up to 5% of GDP and 7.5% of employment. Scotland was one of the industrial powerhouses of Europe from the time of the Industrial Revolution onwards, being a world leader in manufacturing. This left a legacy in the diversity of goods and services which Scotland produces, from textiles, whisky and shortbread to jet engines, buses, computer software, ships, avionics and microelectronics, as well as banking, insurance, investment management and other related financial services. In common with most other advanced industrialised economies, Scotland has seen a decline in the importance of both manufacturing industries and primary-based extractive industries. This has been combined with a rise in the service sector of the economy, which has grown to be the largest sector in Scotland. ### Income and poverty The average weekly income for workplace based employees in Scotland is £573, and £576 for residence based employees. Scotland has the third highest median gross salary between the Countries of the United Kingdom and regions at £26,007 and is higher than the overall UK average annual salary of £25,971. With an average of £14.28, Scotland has the third highest median hourly rate (excluding overtime working hours) of any of the countries of the United Kingdom, and like the annual salary, is higher than the average UK figure as a whole. The highest paid industries in Scotland tend of be in the utility electricity, gas and air conditioning sectors, with average hourly rates of £21. Industries like tourism, accommodation and food and drink tend to be the lowest paid at £8.91. The top eight local authorities for pay by where people live are; East Renfrewshire (£20.87 per hour), East Dunbartonshire (£17.56 per hour), Renfrewshire (£15.34 per hour), Edinburgh (£15.26 per hour), South Lanarkshire (£15.22 per hour), Stirling (£14.96 per hour), the Shetland Isles (£14.90 per hour), Glasgow (£14.68 per hour), Na h-Eileanan Siar (£14.68 per hour) and Midlothian (£14.55 per hour). The top eight local authorities for pay based on where people work are; East Ayrshire (£16.92 per hour), Edinburgh (£15.64 per hour), Glasgow (£15.35 per hour), Stirling (£15.19 per hour), Aberdeen (£15 per hour), Dundee (£14.91 per hour), Perth and Kinross (£14.84 per hour), the Shetland Isles (£14.81 per hour), Na h-Eileanan Siar (£14.81 per hour) and North Ayrshire (£14.48 per hour). Scotland's cities commonly have the largest salaries in Scotland for where people work. 2021/2022 date indicates that there were 2.6 million dwellings across Scotland, with 318,369 local authority dwellings. Typical prices for a house in Scotland was £195,391 in August 2022. Between 2016 and 2020, the Scottish Government estimated that 10% of people in Scotland were in persistent poverty following housing costs, with similar rates of persistent poverty for children (10%), working-age adults (10%) and pensioners (11%). Persistent child poverty rates had saw a relatively sharp drop, however, the accuracy of this was deemed to be questionable due to a number of various factors such as households re-entering the longitudinal sample allowing data gaps to be filled. Poverty figures in Scotland were largely the same in the previous calculation period between 2015 and 2019. 2021 Scottish Government analysis found that relative poverty rates had steadied following a period of small increases since the 1990s when it had been falling. The income of households were found to be continuing to rise and fall, with the median household income continuing to rise. It is estimated that 19% of Scotland's population (roughly 1.03 million people) were living in relative poverty after housing costs between 2017 and 2020, with 17% of the population estimated to be living in relative poverty before the deduction of housing costs in the same period. Child poverty had been gradually rising by 2021 following a period of reduction between the late nineties and 2010, child poverty rates have been gradually rising again with an estimated 24% (240,000 children) living in relative poverty following housing costs, with an estimated 21% of children living in relative poverty before housing costs were deducted. The Scottish Government introduced the Scottish Child Payment in 2021 for low income families with children under six years of age in an attempt to reduce child poverty rates, with families receiving a payment of roughly £1,040 per year. ### Currency Although the Bank of England is the central bank for the UK, three Scottish clearing banks issue Sterling banknotes: the Bank of Scotland, the Royal Bank of Scotland and the Clydesdale Bank. The issuing of banknotes by retail banks in Scotland is subject to the Banking Act 2009, which repealed all earlier legislation under which banknote issuance was regulated, and the Scottish and Northern Ireland Banknote Regulations 2009. The value of the Scottish banknotes in circulation in 2013 was £3.8 billion, underwritten by the Bank of England using funds deposited by each clearing bank, under the Banking Act 2009, in order to cover the total value of such notes in circulation. ### Infrastructure and transportation Scotland's primary sources for energy are provided through renewable energy (61.8%), nuclear (25.7%) and fossil fuel generation (10.9%). In Scotland, 98.6% of all electricity used was from renewable sources. This is minus net exports. Between October 2021 and September 2022 63.1% of all electricity generated in Scotland was from renewable sources, 83.6% was classed as low carbon and 14.5% was from fossil fuels. The Scottish Government has a target to have the equivalent of 50% of the energy for Scotland's heat, transport and electricity consumption to be supplied from renewable sources by 2030. Scotland has five international airports operating scheduled services to Europe, North America and Asia, as well as domestic services to England, Northern Ireland and Wales. * Aberdeen Airport * Edinburgh Airport * Glasgow Airport * Glasgow Prestwick Airport * Inverness Airport Highlands and Islands Airports operates eleven airports across the Highlands, Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles, which are primarily used for short distance, public service operations, although Inverness Airport has a number of scheduled flights to destinations across the UK and mainland Europe. Edinburgh Airport is currently Scotland's busiest airport handling over 13 million passengers in 2017. It is also the UK's 6th busiest airport. British Airways, EasyJet, Jet2, and Ryanair operate the majority of flights between Scotland and other major UK and European airports. Four airlines are based in Scotland: * Directflight * Hebridean Air Services * Loch Lomond Seaplanes * Loganair Network Rail owns and operates the fixed infrastructure assets of the railway system in Scotland, while the Scottish Government retains overall responsibility for rail strategy and funding in Scotland. Scotland's rail network has 359 railway stations and around 1,710 miles (2,760 km) of track. In 2018–19 there were 102 million passenger journeys on Scottish railways. The East and West Coast Main Lines are the two cross-border railways that connect the networks of Scotland and England. London North Eastern Railway (LNER) provides inter-city rail journeys on the former between Inverness, Aberdeen and Edinburgh to London King's Cross via York, while Avanti West Coast runs services on the latter from either Edinburgh or Glasgow Central to London Euston with some services serving Birmingham New Street. TransPennine Express, Lumo, CrossCountry, Caledonian Sleeper and ScotRail also operate services to England. Domestic rail services within Scotland are operated by ScotRail. Glasgow's Subway is one of the four underground urban rail networks in the UK (the others being in London, Newcastle and Liverpool). Edinburgh has a tramway to and from the airport. During the time of British Rail, the West Coast Main Line from London Euston to Glasgow Central was electrified in the early 1970s, followed by the East Coast Main Line in the late 1980s. British Rail created the ScotRail brand. When British Rail existed, many railway lines in Strathclyde were electrified. Strathclyde Passenger Transport Executive was at the forefront with the acclaimed "largest electrified rail network outside London". Some parts of the network are electrified, but there are no electrified lines in the Highlands, Angus, Aberdeenshire, the cities of Dundee or Aberdeen, or Perth & Kinross, and none of the islands have a rail link. Trains serving railheads such as Wemyss Bay, Kyle of Lochalsh and Mallaig are often timed to connect with ferries to some of Scotland's islands. The Scottish motorways and major trunk roads are managed by Transport Scotland. The remainder of the road network is managed by the Scottish local authorities in each of their areas. Regular ferry services operate between the Scottish mainland and outlying islands. Ferries serving both the inner and outer Hebrides are principally operated by the state-owned enterprise Caledonian MacBrayne. Services to the Northern Isles are operated by Serco. Other routes, served by multiple companies, connect southwest Scotland to Northern Ireland. DFDS Seaways operated a freight-only Rosyth – Zeebrugge ferry service, until a fire damaged the vessel DFDS were using. A passenger service was also operated between 2002 and 2010. Culture and society ------------------- ### Scottish music Half-length portrait of Robert Burns by Alexander NasmythMan playing bagpipes in the HighlandsRobert Burns, regarded as the national poet of Scotland is a well known and respected poet worldwide (left). The bagpipes are a well-known symbol of Scotland and an early example of popular Scottish music (right). Scottish music is a significant aspect of the nation's culture, with both traditional and modern influences. A famous traditional Scottish instrument is the Great Highland bagpipe, a woodwind reed instrument consisting of three drones and a melody pipe (called the chanter), which are fed continuously by a reservoir of air in a bag. The popularity of pipe bands—primarily featuring bagpipes, various types of snares and drums, and showcasing Scottish traditional dress and music—has spread throughout the world. Bagpipes are featured in holiday celebrations, parades, funerals, weddings, and other events internationally. Many military regiments have a pipe band of their own. In addition to the Great Highland pipes, several smaller, somewhat quieter bellows-blown varieties of bagpipe are played in Scotland, including the smallpipes and the Border pipes. The clàrsach (harp), piano, fiddle and piano accordion are some of the most popular traditional Scottish instruments, the latter two heavily featured in Scottish country dance bands. The bodhrán, popularised in Ireland in the 1960s, soon found its place within the Scottish musical tradition. Stringed instruments such as the guitar, mandolin, banjo and Irish bouzouki, free-reed instruments (such as the concertina and button accordion) all feature. The tin whistle is commonly featured and with its affinity to and technical similarities with the pipes, it is often played as an additional instrument by pipers. There are many successful mainstream and popular Scottish bands and individual artists in varying styles including Annie Lennox, Amy Macdonald, Runrig, Belle and Sebastian, Boards of Canada, Camera Obscura, Capercaillie, Cocteau Twins, Deacon Blue, Franz Ferdinand, Susan Boyle, Emeli Sandé, Julie Fowlis, Alasdair Fraser, Aly Bain, Texas, The View, The Fratellis, Twin Atlantic, Bay City Rollers and Biffy Clyro. Other Scottish musicians include Shirley Manson (of the band Garbage), Paolo Nutini, Andy Stewart and Calvin Harris, all of whom have achieved considerable commercial success in international music markets Shirley Manson performed at the 1999 opening of the Scottish Parliament concert at Princes Street Gardens with her band Garbage. Rock band Simple Minds were the most commercially successful Scottish band of the 1980s, having found success in international markets such as the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, whilst pop singer Lewis Capaldi was recognised as the best selling artist in the UK in 2019. Awards in recognition of Scottish musical talent in Scotland include the Scottish Music Awards, Scottish Album of the Year Award, the Scots Trad Music Awards and the BBC Radio Scotland Young Traditional Musician award. ### Literature and media Scottish authors and novelistsConan DoyleSir Arthur Conan Doyle, creator of Sherlock HolmesIan RankinSir Ian Rankin, writer of the Inspector Rebus novelsRobert Louis Stevenson, writer of Treasure Island Scotland has a literary heritage dating back to the early Middle Ages. The earliest extant literature composed in what is now Scotland was in Brythonic speech in the 6th century, but is preserved as part of Welsh literature. Later medieval literature included works in Latin, Gaelic, Old English and French. The first surviving major text in Early Scots is the 14th-century poet John Barbour's epic *Brus*, focusing on the life of Robert I, and was soon followed by a series of vernacular romances and prose works. In the 16th century, the crown's patronage helped the development of Scots drama and poetry, but the accession of James VI to the English throne removed a major centre of literary patronage and Scots was sidelined as a literary language. Interest in Scots literature was revived in the 18th century by figures including James Macpherson, whose Ossian Cycle made him the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation and was a major influence on the European Enlightenment. It was also a major influence on Robert Burns, whom many consider the national poet, and Walter Scott, whose Waverley Novels did much to define Scottish identity in the 19th century. Towards the end of the Victorian era a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations as writers in English, including Robert Louis Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle, J. M. Barrie and George MacDonald. In the 20th century the Scottish Renaissance saw a surge of literary activity and attempts to reclaim the Scots language as a medium for serious literature. Members of the movement were followed by a new generation of post-war poets including Edwin Morgan, who would be appointed the first Scots Makar by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004. From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival, particularly associated with a group of writers including Irvine Welsh. Scottish poets who emerged in the same period included Carol Ann Duffy, who, in May 2009, was the first Scot named the monarch's Poet Laureate. National newspapers such as the *Daily Record*, *The Herald*, *The Scotsman* and *The National* are all produced in Scotland. Important regional dailies include the Evening News in Edinburgh, *The Courier* in Dundee in the east, and *The Press and Journal* serving Aberdeen and the north. Scotland is represented at the Celtic Media Festival, which showcases film and television from the Celtic countries. Scottish entrants have won many awards since the festival began in 1980. Television in Scotland is largely the same as UK-wide broadcasts. The national broadcaster is BBC Scotland, a division of the BBC. It runs three national television stations BBC One Scotland, BBC Scotland channel and the Gaelic-language broadcaster BBC Alba, and the national radio stations, *BBC Radio Scotland* and *BBC Radio nan Gàidheal*, amongst others. The main Scottish commercial television station is STV which broadcasts on two of the three ITV regions of Scotland. Scotland has a number of production companies which produce films and television programmes for Scottish, British and international audiences. Popular films associated with Scotland through Scottish production or being filmed in Scotland include *Braveheart* (1995), *Highlander* (1986), *Trainspotting* (1996), *Red Road* (2006), *Neds* (2010), *The Angel's Share* (2012), *Brave* (2012) and *Outlaw King* (2018). Popular television programmes associated with Scotland include the long running BBC Scotland soap opera *River City* which has been broadcast since 2002, *Still Game*, a popular Scottish sitcom broadcast throughout the United Kingdom (2002–2007, revived in 2016), *Rab C. Nesbitt*, *Two Doors Down* and *Take the High Road*. *The Rig* (2023) was the first Amazon Prime Video production to be filmed and produced entirely in Scotland. Wardpark Studios in Cumbernauld is one of Scotland's television and film production studios where the television programme *Outlander* is produced. Dumbarton Studios, located in Dumbarton is largely used for BBC Scotland programming, used for the filming and production of television programmes such as *Still Game*, *River City*, *Two Doors Down*, and *Shetland*. ### Celtic connections As one of the Celtic nations, Scotland and Scottish culture are represented at inter-Celtic events at home and over the world. Scotland hosts several music festivals including Celtic Connections (Glasgow), and the Hebridean Celtic Festival (Stornoway). Festivals celebrating Celtic culture, such as Festival Interceltique de Lorient (Brittany), the Pan Celtic Festival (Ireland), and the National Celtic Festival (Portarlington, Australia), feature elements of Scottish culture such as language, music and dance. ### National identity The image of St. Andrew, martyred while bound to an X-shaped cross, first appeared in the Kingdom of Scotland during the reign of William I. Following the death of King Alexander III in 1286 an image of Andrew was used on the seal of the Guardians of Scotland who assumed control of the kingdom during the subsequent interregnum. Use of a simplified symbol associated with Saint Andrew, the saltire, has its origins in the late 14th century; the Parliament of Scotland decreeing in 1385 that Scottish soldiers should wear a white Saint Andrew's Cross on the front and back of their tunics. Use of a blue background for the Saint Andrew's Cross is said to date from at least the 15th century. Since 1606 the saltire has also formed part of the design of the Union Flag. There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the thistle, the nation's floral emblem (celebrated in the song, The Thistle o' Scotland), the Declaration of Arbroath, incorporating a statement of political independence made on 6 April 1320, the textile pattern tartan that often signifies a particular Scottish clan and the royal Lion Rampant flag. Highlanders can thank James Graham, 3rd Duke of Montrose, for the repeal in 1782 of the Act of 1747 prohibiting the wearing of tartans. Although there is no official national anthem of Scotland, *Flower of Scotland* is played on special occasions and sporting events such as football and rugby matches involving the Scotland national teams and since 2010 is also played at the Commonwealth Games after it was voted the overwhelming favourite by participating Scottish athletes. Other currently less popular candidates for the National Anthem of Scotland include *Scotland the Brave*, *Highland Cathedral*, *Scots Wha Hae* and *A Man's A Man for A' That*. St Andrew's Day, 30 November, is the national day, although Burns' Night tends to be more widely observed, particularly outside Scotland. In 2006, the Scottish Parliament passed the St Andrew's Day Bank Holiday (Scotland) Act 2007, designating the day an official bank holiday. Tartan Day is a recent innovation from Canada. The national animal of Scotland is the unicorn, which has been a Scottish heraldic symbol since the 12th century. ### Cuisine Scottish cuisine has distinctive attributes and recipes of its own but shares much with wider British and European cuisine as a result of local and foreign influences, both ancient and modern. Traditional Scottish dishes exist alongside international foodstuffs brought about by migration. Scotland's natural larder of game, dairy products, fish, fruit, and vegetables is the chief factor in traditional Scots cooking, with a high reliance on simplicity and a lack of spices from abroad, as these were historically rare and expensive. Irn-Bru is the most common Scottish carbonated soft drink, often described as "Scotland's other national drink" (after whisky). During the Late Middle Ages and early modern era, French cuisine played a role in Scottish cookery due to cultural exchanges brought about by the "Auld Alliance", especially during the reign of Mary, Queen of Scots. Mary, on her return to Scotland, brought an entourage of French staff who are considered responsible for revolutionising Scots cooking and for some of Scotland's unique food terminology. ### Sports Scotland hosts its own national sporting competitions and has independent representation at several international sporting events, including the FIFA World Cup, the UEFA Nations League, the UEFA European Championship, the Rugby Union World Cup, the Rugby League World Cup, the Cricket World Cup, the Netball World Cup and the Commonwealth Games. Scotland has its own national governing bodies, such as the Scottish Football Association (the second oldest national football association in the world) and the Scottish Rugby Union. Variations of football have been played in Scotland for centuries, with the earliest reference dating back to 1424. The world's first official international association football match was held in 1872 and was the idea of C. W. Alcock of the Football Association which was seeking to promote Association Football in Scotland. The match took place at the West of Scotland Cricket Club's Hamilton Crescent ground in the Partick area of Glasgow. The match was between Scotland and England and resulted in a 0–0 draw. Following this, the newly developed football became the most popular sport in Scotland. The Scottish Cup was first contested in 1873. Queen's Park F.C., in Glasgow, is probably the oldest association football club in the world outside England. The Scottish Football Association (SFA), the second-oldest national football association in the world, is the main governing body for Scottish association football, and a founding member of the International Football Association Board (IFAB) which governs the Laws of the Game. As a result of this key role in the development of the sport Scotland is one of only four countries to have a permanent representative on the IFAB; the other four representatives being appointed for set periods by FIFA. The SFA also has responsibility for the Scotland national football team, whose supporters are commonly known as the "Tartan Army". As of December 2019[update], Scotland are ranked as the 50th best national football team in the FIFA World Rankings. The national team last attended the World Cup in France in 1998, but finished last in their group stage. The Scotland women's team have achieved more recent success, qualifying for both Euro 2017 and the 2019 World Cup. As of December 2019[update], they were ranked as the 22nd best women's national team in the FIFA Rankings. Scottish clubs have achieved some success in European competitions, with Celtic winning the European Cup in 1967, Rangers and Aberdeen winning the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1972 and 1983 respectively, and Aberdeen also winning the UEFA Super Cup in 1983. Celtic, Rangers and Dundee United have also reached European finals. The most recent appearance by a Scottish club in a European final was by Rangers in 2022. With the modern game of golf originating in 15th-century Scotland, the country is promoted as the home of golf. To many golfers the Old Course in the Fife town of St Andrews, an ancient links course dating to before 1552, is considered a site of pilgrimage. In 1764, the standard 18-hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes. The world's oldest golf tournament, and golf's first major, is The Open Championship, which was first played on 17 October 1860 at Prestwick Golf Club, in Ayrshire, Scotland, with Scottish golfers winning the earliest majors. There are many other famous golf courses in Scotland, including Carnoustie, Gleneagles, Muirfield, and Royal Troon. The Scottish Football Union was founded on Monday 3 March 1873 at a meeting held at Glasgow Academy, Elmbank Street, Glasgow. The Scottish Rugby Union is the second oldest rugby union in the world. In 1924 the SFU changed its name to become the Scottish Rugby Union. International games were played at Inverleith from 1899 to 1925 when Murrayfield was opened. The SRU owns Murrayfield Stadium which is the main home ground of the Scottish national team. Scotland is represented in rugby tournaments by the Scotland national rugby union team. As of 4 December 2022, Scotland are 7th in the World Rugby Rankings. The Scotland rugby team played their first official test match, winning 1–0 against England at Raeburn Place in 1871. Scotland has competed in the Six Nations from the inaugural tournament in 1883, winning it 14 times outright—including the last Five Nations in 1999—and sharing it another 8. The Rugby World Cup was introduced in 1987 and Scotland have competed in all nine competitions, the most recent being in 2019, where they failed to reach the quarter-finals. Their best finish came in 1991, where they lost to the All Blacks in the third place play-off. Scotland competes with the England rugby team annually for the Calcutta Cup. Each year, this fixture is played out as part of the Six Nations, with Scotland having last won in 2023. Other distinctive features of the national sporting culture include the Highland games, curling and shinty. In boxing, Scotland has had 13 world champions, including Ken Buchanan, Benny Lynch and Jim Watt. Scotland has also been successful in motorsport, particularly in Formula One. Notable drivers include; David Coulthard, Jim Clark, Paul Di Resta, and Jackie Stewart. In IndyCar, Dario Franchitti has won 4 consecutive IndyCar world championships. Scotland has competed at every Commonwealth Games since 1930 and has won 356 medals in total—91 Gold, 104 Silver and 161 Bronze. Edinburgh played host to the Commonwealth Games in 1970 and 1986, and most recently Glasgow in 2014. See also -------- * Celtic languages * Celts * Ethnic groups in Europe * Outline of Scotland Further reading --------------- * Devine, T. M. [1999] (2000). *The Scottish Nation 1700–2000* (New edition). London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-023004-1 * Donnachie, Ian and George Hewitt. *Dictionary of Scottish History.* (2001). 384 pp. * Keay, John, and Julia Keay. *Collins Encyclopedia of Scotland* (2nd ed. 2001), 1101pp; 4000 articles; emphasis on history * Koch, J. T. *Celtic Culture: a Historical Encyclopedia* (ABC-CLIO, 2006), ISBN 1-85109-440-7, 999pp. * MacGibbon, David and Ross, Thomas, *The ecclesiastical architecture of Scotland from the earliest Christian times to the seventeenth century; vol. 3/3*, (1897). * Tabraham, Chris, and Colin Baxter. *The Illustrated History of Scotland* (2004) excerpt and text search * Trevor-Roper, Hugh, *The Invention of Scotland: Myth and History*, Yale, 2008, ISBN 0-300-13686-2 * Watson, Fiona, *Scotland; From Prehistory to the Present*. Tempus, 2003. 286 pp. * Wilson, Neil. *Lonely Planet Scotland* (2013) * Wormald, Jenny, *Scotland: A History* (2005) excerpt and text search 57°N 4°W / 57°N 4°W / 57; -4

Scotland

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland

**Universal Serial Bus** (**USB**) is an industry standard that specifies the physical interfaces and protocols for connecting, data transferring and powering of hosts, such as personal computers, peripherals, e.g. keyboards and mobile devices, and intermediate hubs. USB was designed to standardize the connection of peripherals to computers, replacing various interfaces such as serial ports, parallel ports, game ports, and ADB ports. It has become commonplace on a wide range of devices, such as keyboards, mice, cameras, printers, scanners, flash drives, smartphones, game consoles, and power banks. As of 2023,[update] USB consists of four generations of specifications: USB 1.‘‘x’’, USB 2.0, USB 3.‘‘x’’, and USB4. Since USB4 the specification enhances the data transfer and power supply functionality with > connection-oriented, tunneling architecture designed to combine multiple protocols onto a single physical interface, so that the total speed and performance of the USB4 Fabric can be dynamically shared. > > USB4 particularly supports the tunneling of the Thunderbolt 3 protocols, namely PCI Express (PCIe, load/store interface) and DisplayPort. USB4 also adds host-to-host interfaces. Each specification subversion supports different maximum signaling rates from 1.5 Mbit/s in USB 1.0 to 80 Gbit/s in USB4. USB also provides power supply to peripheral devices; the latest versions of the standard extend the power delivery limits for battery charging and devices requiring up to 240 watts (USB Power Delivery (USB-PD)). Over the years USB(-PD) has been adopted as the standard power supply and charging format for many mobile devices, such as mobile phones, reducing the need for proprietary chargers. USB connector interfaces are classified into three types: A (host), B (peripheral), and C (2014, replaces A and B). The A and B types know different sizes: Standard, Mini, and Micro. The standard size is the largest and is mainly used for desktop and larger peripheral equipment. The mini size was introduced for mobile devices, but it was replaced by the thinner micro size. The micro size is nowadays the most common for smartphones and tablets. The USB Type-C connector interface is the newest and the only one applicable to USB4. It is reversible and *can* support various functionalities and protocols; some are mandatory, many just optional, and depending on the type of the device: host, peripheral device, or hub. Since the USB 1.1 specification fully replaces the USB 1.0 specification, and since the USB 3.2 specification fully replaces the USB 3.1 (and therefore the USB 3.0 specification as well), and since USB 2.0 is backward-compatible with USB 1.0/1.1, and since the USB 3.x specifications include the USB 2.0 specification, and since USB4 "functionally replaces" the USB 3.2 specification "while retaining USB 2.0 bus operating in parallel", backward-compatibility is always given, but obviously always comes along with a decrease in, both, signaling rates and power rates, and less supported functionalities. The USB 3.0 specification defined a new architecture and protocol, named *SuperSpeed* (aka *SuperSpeed USB*, marketed as *SS*), which included a new lane for a new signal coding scheme (8b/10b symbols, 5 Gbps; also known as *Gen 1*) providing full-duplex data transfers that physically required five additional wires and pins, while preserving the USB 2.0-architectur and -protocols and therefore keeping the original 4 pins/wires for the USB 2.0 backward-compatibility resulting in 9 wires (with 9 or 10 pins at connector interfaces; ID-pin is not wired) in total. The USB 3.1 specification introduced an *Enhanced SuperSpeed*-architecture – while preserving the *SuperSpeed*-architecture and -protocol – with an additional *SuperSpeedPlus*-architecture adding a new coding scheema (128b/132b symbols, 10 Gbps; also known as *Gen 2*) and protocol named *SuperSpeedPlus* (aka *SuperSpeedPlus USB*, for some time period marketed as *SS+*). The USB 3.2 specification even added an additional second lane to the *Enhanced SuperSpeed*-architecture besides other enhancements, so that *SuperSpeedPlus USB* implements the Gen 1x2, Gen 2x1 and Gen 2x2 operation modes. The *SuperSpeed*-architecture and -protocol (aka *SuperSpeed USB*) still implements the one-lane Gen 1x1 operation mode. Therefore, two-lane operations, namely USB 3.2 Gen 1x**2** (10 Gbit/s) and Gen 2x**2** (20 Gbit/s), are only possible with Full-Featured USB Type-C fabrics (24 pins). As of 2023,[update] they are hardly yet implemented by most products so far. On the other hand, USB 3.2 Gen 1(x1) (5 Gbit/s) and Gen 2(x1) (10 Gbit/s) implementations are quite common now for some years. Overview -------- USB was designed to standardize the connection of peripherals to personal computers, both to communicate with and to supply electric power. It has largely replaced interfaces such as serial ports and parallel ports and has become commonplace on a wide range of devices. Examples of peripherals that are connected via USB include computer keyboards and mice, video cameras, printers, portable media players, mobile (portable) digital telephones, disk drives, and network adapters. USB connectors have been increasingly replacing other types as charging cables of portable devices. ### Connector type quick reference Each USB connection is made using two connectors: a socket (or *receptacle*) and a plug. In the following table, schematics for only the sockets are shown, although for each there is a corresponding plug (or plugs). Available connectors by USB standard| Standard | USB 1.01996 | USB 1.11998 | USB 2.02001 | USB 2.0Revised | USB 3.02008 | USB 3.12013 | USB 3.22017 | USB42019 | USB4 V2.02022 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Maximum signaling rate | Low-Speed | Full-Speed | High-Speed | SS (Gen 1) | SS+ (Gen 2) | USB 3.2 Gen 2x2 | USB4 Gen 3×2 | USB4 Gen 4 | | 1.5 Mbit/s | 12 Mbit/s | 480 Mbit/s | 5 Gbit/s | 10 Gbit/s | 20 Gbit/s | 40 Gbit/s | 80 Gbit/s | | Standard A connector | | | | *One-lane operation only* | — | | Standard B connector | | | *One-lane operation only* | — | | Mini-A connector | — | | — | | Mini-B connector | — | | — | | Mini-AB connector | — | | — | | Micro-A connector | — | | | *One-lane operation only* | — | | Micro-B connector | — | | | *One-lane operation only* | — | | Micro-AB connector | — | | | *One-lane operation only* | — | | Type-C connector | Backward compatibility only | (Enlarged to show detail) | ### Objectives The Universal Serial Bus was developed to simplify and improve the interface between personal computers and peripheral devices, such as cell phones, computer accessories, and monitors, when compared with previously existing standard or *ad hoc* proprietary interfaces. From the computer user's perspective, the USB interface improves ease of use in several ways: * The USB interface is self-configuring, eliminating the need for the user to adjust the device's settings for speed or data format, or configure interrupts, input/output addresses, or direct memory access channels. * USB connectors are standardized at the host, so any peripheral can use most available receptacles. * USB takes full advantage of the additional processing power that can be economically put into peripheral devices so that they can manage themselves. As such, USB devices often do not have user-adjustable interface settings. * The USB interface is hot-swappable (devices can be exchanged without rebooting the host computer). * Small devices can be powered directly from the USB interface, eliminating the need for additional power supply cables. * Because use of the USB logo is only permitted after compliance testing, the user can have confidence that a USB device will work as expected without extensive interaction with settings and configuration. * The USB interface defines protocols for recovery from common errors, improving reliability over previous interfaces. * Installing a device that relies on the USB standard requires minimal operator action. When a user plugs a device into a port on a running computer, it either entirely automatically configures using existing device drivers, or the system prompts the user to locate a driver, which it then installs and configures automatically. The USB standard also provides multiple benefits for hardware manufacturers and software developers, specifically in the relative ease of implementation: * The USB standard eliminates the requirement to develop proprietary interfaces to new peripherals. * The wide range of transfer speeds available from a USB interface suits devices ranging from keyboards and mice up to streaming video interfaces. * A USB interface can be designed to provide the best available latency for time-critical functions or can be set up to do background transfers of bulk data with little impact on system resources. * The USB interface is generalized with no signal lines dedicated to only one function of one device. ### Limitations As with all standards, USB possesses multiple limitations to its design: * USB cables are limited in length, as the standard was intended for peripherals on the same table-top, not between rooms or buildings. However, a USB port can be connected to a gateway that accesses distant devices. * USB data transfer rates are slower than those of other interconnects such as 100 Gigabit Ethernet. * USB has a strict tree network topology and master/slave protocol for addressing peripheral devices; those devices cannot interact with one another except via the host, and two hosts cannot communicate over their USB ports directly. Some extension to this limitation is possible through USB On-The-Go in, Dual-Role-Devices and protocol bridge. * A host cannot broadcast signals to all peripherals at once—each must be addressed individually. * While converters exist between certain legacy interfaces and USB, they might not provide a full implementation of the legacy hardware. For example, a USB-to-parallel-port converter might work well with a printer, but not with a scanner that requires bidirectional use of the data pins. For a product developer, using USB requires the implementation of a complex protocol and implies an "intelligent" controller in the peripheral device. Developers of USB devices intended for public sale generally must obtain a USB ID, which requires that they pay a fee to the USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF). Developers of products that use the USB specification must sign an agreement with the USB-IF. Use of the USB logos on the product requires annual fees and membership in the organization. History ------- A group of seven companies began the development of USB in 1995: Compaq, DEC, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, and Nortel. The goal was to make it fundamentally easier to connect external devices to PCs by replacing the multitude of connectors at the back of PCs, addressing the usability issues of existing interfaces, and simplifying software configuration of all devices connected to USB, as well as permitting greater data transfer rates for external devices and Plug and Play features. Ajay Bhatt and his team worked on the standard at Intel; the first integrated circuits supporting USB were produced by Intel in 1995. ### USB 1.x Released in January 1996, USB 1.0 specified signaling rates of 1.5 Mbit/s (*Low Bandwidth* or *Low Speed*) and 12 Mbit/s (*Full Speed*). It did not allow for extension cables, due to timing and power limitations. Few USB devices made it to the market until USB 1.1 was released in August 1998. USB 1.1 was the earliest revision that was widely adopted and led to what Microsoft designated the "Legacy-free PC". Neither USB 1.0 nor 1.1 specified a design for any connector smaller than the standard type A or type B. Though many designs for a miniaturized type B connector appeared on many peripherals, conformity to the USB 1.x standard was hampered by treating peripherals that had miniature connectors as though they had a tethered connection (that is: no plug or receptacle at the peripheral end). There was no known miniature type A connector until USB 2.0 (revision 1.01) introduced one. ### USB 2.0 USB 2.0 was released in April 2000, adding a higher maximum signaling rate of 480 Mbit/s (maximum theoretical data throughput 53 MByte/s) named *High Speed* or *High Bandwidth*, in addition to the USB 1.x *Full Speed* signaling rate of 12 Mbit/s (maximum theoretical data throughput 1.2 MByte/s). Modifications to the USB specification have been made via engineering change notices (ECNs). The most important of these ECNs are included into the USB 2.0 specification package available from USB.org: * *Mini-A and Mini-B Connector* * *Micro-USB Cables and Connectors Specification 1.01* * *InterChip USB Supplement* * *On-The-Go Supplement 1.3* USB On-The-Go makes it possible for two USB devices to communicate with each other without requiring a separate USB host * *Battery Charging Specification 1.1* Added support for dedicated chargers, host chargers behavior for devices with dead batteries * *Battery Charging Specification 1.2*: with increased current of 1.5 A on charging ports for unconfigured devices, allowing High Speed communication while having a current up to 1.5 A * *Link Power Management Addendum ECN*, which adds a *sleep* power state ### USB 3.x The USB 3.0 specification was released on 12 November 2008, with its management transferring from USB 3.0 Promoter Group to the USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF) and announced on 17 November 2008 at the SuperSpeed USB Developers Conference. USB 3.0 adds a *SuperSpeed* operation mode, with associated backward-compatible plugs, receptacles, and cables. SuperSpeed plugs and receptacles are identified with a distinct logo and blue inserts in standard format receptacles. The SuperSpeed bus provides for a operation mode at a rate of 5.0 Gbit/s, in addition to the three existing operation modes. Its efficiency is dependent on a number of factors including physical symbol encoding and link level overhead. At a 5 Gbit/s signaling rate with 8b/10b encoding, each byte needs 10 bits to transmit, so the raw throughput is 500 MB/s. When flow control, packet framing and protocol overhead are considered, it is realistic for 400 MB/s (3.2 Gbit/s) or more to transmit to an application. Communication is full-duplex in SuperSpeed operation mode; earlier modes are half-duplex, arbitrated by the host. Low-power and high-power devices remain operational with this standard, but devices using SuperSpeed can take advantage of increased available current of between 150 mA and 900 mA, respectively. USB 3.1, released in July 2013 has two variants. The first one preserves USB 3.0's *SuperSpeed* operation mode and is labeled *USB 3.1 Gen 1*, and the second version introduces a new *SuperSpeed+* operation mode under the label of *USB 3.1 Gen 2*. SuperSpeed+ doubles the maximum data signaling rate to 10 Gbit/s, while reducing line encoding overhead to just 3% by changing the encoding scheme to 128b/132b. USB 3.2, released in September 2017, preserves existing USB 3.1 *SuperSpeed* and *SuperSpeed+* operation modes but introduces two new *SuperSpeed+* operation modes with the new USB-C Fabrics with signaling rates of 10 and 20 Gbit/s (1.25 and 2.5 GB/s). The increase in bandwidth is a result of multi-lane operation over existing wires that were intended for flip-flop capabilities of the USB-C connector. USB 3.0 also introduced the USB Attached SCSI protocol (UASP), which provides generally faster transfer speeds than the BOT (Bulk-Only-Transfer) protocol. #### Naming scheme Starting with the USB 3.2 standard, USB-IF introduced a new naming scheme. To help companies with branding of the different operation modes, USB-IF recommended branding the 5, 10, and 20 Gbit/s operation modes as *SuperSpeed USB 5Gbps*, *SuperSpeed USB 10Gbps*, and *SuperSpeed USB 20Gbps*, respectively. As of September 2022, this naming scheme is deprecated. ### USB4 The certified USB4 40Gbps logoThe USB4 40Gbps trident logoThe certified USB4 40Gbps logo and *trident* logo The USB4 specification was released on 29 August 2019 by the USB Implementers Forum. USB4 is based on the Thunderbolt 3 protocol. It supports 40 Gbit/s throughput, is compatible with Thunderbolt 3, and backward compatible with USB 3.2 and USB 2.0. The architecture defines a method to share a single high-speed link with multiple end device types dynamically that best serves the transfer of data by type and application. The USB4 specification states that the following technologies shall be supported by USB4: | Connection | Mandatory for | Remarks | | --- | --- | --- | | host | hub | device | | **USB 2.0** (480 Mbit/s) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Contrary to other functions—which use the multiplexing of high-speed links—USB 2.0 over USB-C utilizes its own differential pair of wires. | | **Tunneled USB 3.2 Gen 2x1** (10 Gbit/s) | Yes | Yes | No | | | **Tunneled USB 3.2 Gen 2x2** (20 Gbit/s) | No | No | No | | | **Tunneled USB3 Gen T** (5-80 Gbit/s) | No | No | No | A type of USB3 Tunneling architecture where the Enhanced SuperSpeed protocol is extended to allow operation at the maximum bandwidth available on the USB4 Link. | | **USB4 Gen 2** (10 or 20 Gbit/s) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Either one or two lanes | | **USB4 Gen 3** (20 or 40 Gbit/s) | No | Yes | No | | **DisplayPort** | Yes | Yes | No | The specification requires that hosts and hubs support the DisplayPort Alternate Mode. | | **Host-to-Host communications** | Yes | Yes | — | A LAN-like connection between two peers. | | **PCI Express** | No | Yes | No | The PCI Express function of USB4 replicates the functionality of previous versions of the Thunderbolt specification. | | **Thunderbolt 3** | No | Yes | No | Thunderbolt 3 uses USB-C cables; the USB4 specification allows hosts and devices and requires hubs to support interoperability with the standard using the Thunderbolt 3 Alternate Mode. | | **Other Alternate Modes** | No | No | No | USB4 products may optionally offer interoperability with the HDMI, MHL, and VirtualLink Alternate Modes. | During CES 2020, USB-IF and Intel stated their intention to allow USB4 products that support all the optional functionality as Thunderbolt 4 products. The first products compatible with USB4 are expected to be Intel's Tiger Lake series and AMD's Zen 3 series of CPU, released in 2020. The USB4 2.0 specification was released on 1 September 2022 by the USB Implementers Forum. #### September 2022 naming scheme Because of the previous confusing naming schemes, USB-IF decided to change it once again. As of 2 September 2022, marketing names follow the syntax "USB *X*Gbps", where X is the speed of transfer in Gb/s. Overview of the updated names and logos can be seen in the adjacent table. The operation modes USB 3.2 Gen 2x2 and USB4 Gen 2x2 – or: USB 3.2 Gen 2x1 and USB4 Gen 2x1 – are not interchangeable or compatible; all participating controllers must operate with the same mode. ### Version history #### Release versions | Name | Release date | Maximum signaling rate | Note | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | USB 0.7 | November 1994 | ? | Pre-release | | USB 0.8 | December 1994 | ? | Pre-release | | USB 0.9 | April 1995 | 12 Mbit/s : Full Speed (FS) | Pre-release | | USB 0.99 | August 1995 | ? | Pre-release | | USB 1.0-RC | November 1995 | ? | Release Candidate | | USB 1.0 | January 1996 | 1.5 Mbit/s : Low Speed (LS)12 Mbit/s : Full Speed (FS) | | | USB 1.1 | August 1998 | | | USB 2.0 | April 2000 | 480 Mbit/s : High Speed (HS) | | | USB 3.0 | November 2008 | 5 Gbit/s : SuperSpeed (SS) | Also referred to as USB 3.1 Gen 1 and USB 3.2 Gen 1×1. | | USB 3.1 | July 2013 | 10 Gbit/s : SuperSpeed+ (SS+) | Includes new USB 3.1 Gen 2, also named USB 3.2 Gen 2×1 in later specification. | | USB 3.2 | August 2017 | 20 Gbit/s : SuperSpeed+ two-lane | Includes new USB 3.2 Gen 1×2 and Gen 2×2 multi-link modes. Requires USB-C Fabrics. | | USB4 | August 2019 | 40 Gbit/s : two-lane | Includes new USB4 Gen 2×2 (64b/66b encoding) and Gen 3×2 (128b/132b encoding) modes and introduces USB4 routing for tunneling of USB 3.2, DisplayPort 1.4a and PCI Express traffic and host-to-host transfers, based on the Thunderbolt 3 protocol; requires USB-C Fabrics. | | USB4 2.0 | September 2022 | 120 Gbit/s | Includes new 80 and 120 Gbit/s modes over type C connector. Requires USB-C Fabrics. | #### Power-related standards | Release name | Release date | Max. power | Note | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | USB Battery Charging Rev. 1.0 | 2007-03-08 | 7.5 W (5 V, 1.5 A) | | | USB Battery Charging Rev. 1.1 | 2009-04-15 | 7.5 W (5 V, 1.5 A) | Page 28, Table 5–2, but with limitation on paragraph 3.5. In ordinary USB 2.0's standard-A port, 1.5 A only. | | USB Battery Charging Rev. 1.2 | 2010-12-07 | 7.5 W (5 V, 1.5 A) | | | USB Power Delivery Rev. 1.0 (V. 1.0) | 2012-07-05 | 100 W (20 V, 5 A) | Using FSK protocol over bus power (VBUS) | | USB Power Delivery Rev. 1.0 (V. 1.3) | 2014-03-11 | 100 W (20 V, 5 A) | | | USB Type-C Rev. 1.0 | 2014-08-11 | 15 W (5 V, 3 A) | New connector and cable specification | | USB Power Delivery Rev. 2.0 (V. 1.0) | 2014-08-11 | 100 W (20 V, 5 A) | Using BMC protocol over communication channel (CC) on USB-C cables. | | USB Type-C Rev. 1.1 | 2015-04-03 | 15 W (5 V, 3 A) | | | USB Power Delivery Rev. 2.0 (V. 1.1) | 2015-05-07 | 100 W (20 V, 5 A) | | | USB Type-C Rev. 1.2 | 2016-03-25 | 15 W (5 V, 3 A) | | | USB Power Delivery Rev. 2.0 (V. 1.2) | 2016-03-25 | 100 W (20 V, 5 A) | | | USB Power Delivery Rev. 2.0 (V. 1.3) | 2017-01-12 | 100 W (20 V, 5 A) | | | USB Power Delivery Rev. 3.0 (V. 1.1) | 2017-01-12 | 100 W (20 V, 5 A) | | | USB Type-C Rev. 1.3 | 2017-07-14 | 15 W (5 V, 3 A) | | | USB Power Delivery Rev. 3.0 (V. 1.2) | 2018-06-21 | 100 W (20 V, 5 A) | | | USB Type-C Rev. 1.4 | 2019-03-29 | 15 W (5 V, 3 A) | | | USB Type-C Rev. 2.0 | 2019-08-29 | 15 W (5 V, 3 A) | Enabling USB4 over USB Type-C connectors and cables. | | USB Power Delivery Rev. 3.0 (V. 2.0) | 2019-08-29 | 100 W (20 V, 5 A) | | | USB Power Delivery Rev. 3.1 (V. 1.0) | 2021-05-24 | 240 W (48 V, 5 A) | | | USB Type-C Rev. 2.1 | 2021-05-25 | 15 W (5 V, 3 A) | | | USB Power Delivery Rev. 3.1 (V. 1.1) | 2021-07-06 | 240 W (48 V, 5 A) | | | USB Power Delivery Rev. 3.1 (V. 1.2) | 2021-10-26 | 240 W (48 V, 5 A) | Including errata through October 2021 This version incorporates the following ECNs:* Clarify use of Retries * Battery Capabilities * FRS timing problem * PPS power rule clarifications * Peak current support for EPR AVS APDO | System design ------------- A USB system consists of a host with one or more downstream ports, and multiple peripherals, forming a tiered-star topology. Additional USB hubs may be included, allowing up to five tiers. A USB host may have multiple controllers, each with one or more ports. Up to 127 devices may be connected to a single host controller. USB devices are linked in series through hubs. The hub built into the host controller is called the *root hub*. A USB device may consist of several logical sub-devices that are referred to as *device functions*. A *composite device* may provide several functions, for example, a webcam (video device function) with a built-in microphone (audio device function). An alternative to this is a *compound device,* in which the host assigns each logical device a distinct address and all logical devices connect to a built-in hub that connects to the physical USB cable. USB device communication is based on *pipes* (logical channels). A pipe is a connection from the host controller to a logical entity within a device, called an *endpoint*. Because pipes correspond to endpoints, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Each USB device can have up to 32 endpoints (16 *in* and 16 *out*), though it is rare to have so many. Endpoints are defined and numbered by the device during initialization (the period after physical connection called "enumeration") and so are relatively permanent, whereas pipes may be opened and closed. There are two types of pipe: stream and message. * A *message* pipe is bi-directional and is used for *control* transfers. Message pipes are typically used for short, simple commands to the device, and for status responses from the device, used, for example, by the bus control pipe number 0. * A *stream* pipe is a uni-directional pipe connected to a uni-directional endpoint that transfers data using an *isochronous*, *interrupt*, or *bulk* transfer: Isochronous transfersAt some guaranteed data rate (for fixed-bandwidth streaming data) but with possible data loss (e.g., realtime audio or video) Interrupt transfersDevices that need guaranteed quick responses (bounded latency) such as pointing devices, mice, and keyboards Bulk transfersLarge sporadic transfers using all remaining available bandwidth, but with no guarantees on bandwidth or latency (e.g., file transfers) When a host starts a data transfer, it sends a TOKEN packet containing an endpoint specified with a tuple of *(device\_address, endpoint\_number)*. If the transfer is from the host to the endpoint, the host sends an OUT packet (a specialization of a TOKEN packet) with the desired device address and endpoint number. If the data transfer is from the device to the host, the host sends an IN packet instead. If the destination endpoint is a uni-directional endpoint whose manufacturer's designated direction does not match the TOKEN packet (e.g. the manufacturer's designated direction is IN while the TOKEN packet is an OUT packet), the TOKEN packet is ignored. Otherwise, it is accepted and the data transaction can start. A bi-directional endpoint, on the other hand, accepts both IN and OUT packets. Endpoints are grouped into *interfaces* and each interface is associated with a single device function. An exception to this is endpoint zero, which is used for device configuration and is not associated with any interface. A single device function composed of independently controlled interfaces is called a *composite device*. A composite device only has a single device address because the host only assigns a device address to a function. When a USB device is first connected to a USB host, the USB device enumeration process is started. The enumeration starts by sending a reset signal to the USB device. The signaling rate of the USB device is determined during the reset signaling. After reset, the USB device's information is read by the host and the device is assigned a unique 7-bit address. If the device is supported by the host, the device drivers needed for communicating with the device are loaded and the device is set to a configured state. If the USB host is restarted, the enumeration process is repeated for all connected devices. The host controller directs traffic flow to devices, so no USB device can transfer any data on the bus without an explicit request from the host controller. In USB 2.0, the host controller polls the bus for traffic, usually in a round-robin fashion. The throughput of each USB port is determined by the slower speed of either the USB port or the USB device connected to the port. High-speed USB 2.0 hubs contain devices called transaction translators that convert between high-speed USB 2.0 buses and full and low speed buses. There may be one translator per hub or per port. Because there are two separate controllers in each USB 3.0 host, USB 3.0 devices transmit and receive at USB 3.0 signaling rates regardless of USB 2.0 or earlier devices connected to that host. Operating signaling rates for earlier devices are set in the legacy manner. Device classes -------------- The functionality of a USB device is defined by a class code sent to a USB host. This allows the host to load software modules for the device and to support new devices from different manufacturers. Device classes include: | Class | Usage | Description | Examples, or exception | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 00h | Device | Unspecified | Device class is unspecified, interface descriptors are used to determine needed drivers | | 01h | Interface | Audio | Speaker, microphone, sound card, MIDI | | 02h | Both | Communications and CDC control | UART and RS-232 serial adapter, Modem, Wi-Fi adapter, Ethernet adapter. Used together with class 0Ah *(CDC-Data*) below | | 03h | Interface | Human interface device (HID) | Keyboard, mouse, joystick | | 05h | Interface | Physical interface device (PID) | Force feedback joystick | | 06h | Interface | Media (PTP/MTP) | Scanner, Camera | | 07h | Interface | Printer | Laser printer, inkjet printer, CNC machine | | 08h | Interface | USB mass storage, USB Attached SCSI | USB flash drive, memory card reader, digital audio player, digital camera, external drive | | 09h | Device | USB hub | High speed USB hub | | 0Ah | Interface | CDC-Data | Used together with class 02h *(Communications and CDC Control*) above | | 0Bh | Interface | Smart Card | USB smart card reader | | 0Dh | Interface | Content security | Fingerprint reader | | 0Eh | Interface | Video | Webcam | | 0Fh | Interface | Personal healthcare device class (PHDC) | Pulse monitor (watch) | | 10h | Interface | Audio/Video (AV) | Webcam, TV | | 11h | Device | Billboard | Describes USB-C alternate modes supported by device | | DCh | Both | Diagnostic device | USB compliance testing device | | E0h | Interface | Wireless Controller | Bluetooth adapter, Microsoft RNDIS | | EFh | Both | Miscellaneous | ActiveSync device | | FEh | Interface | Application-specific | IrDA Bridge, Test & Measurement Class (USBTMC), USB DFU (Device Firmware Upgrade) | | FFh | Both | Vendor-specific | Indicates that a device needs vendor-specific drivers | ### USB mass storage / USB drive The USB mass storage device class (MSC or UMS) standardizes connections to storage devices. At first intended for magnetic and optical drives, it has been extended to support flash drives and SD card readers. The ability to boot a write-locked SD card with a USB adapter is particularly advantageous for maintaining the integrity and non-corruptible, pristine state of the booting medium. Though most personal computers since early 2005 can boot from USB mass storage devices, USB is not intended as a primary bus for a computer's internal storage. However, USB has the advantage of allowing hot-swapping, making it useful for mobile peripherals, including drives of various kinds. Several manufacturers offer external portable USB hard disk drives, or empty enclosures for disk drives. These offer performance comparable to internal drives, limited by the number and types of attached USB devices, and by the upper limit of the USB interface. Other competing standards for external drive connectivity include eSATA, ExpressCard, FireWire (IEEE 1394), and most recently Thunderbolt. Another use for USB mass storage devices is the portable execution of software applications (such as web browsers and VoIP clients) with no need to install them on the host computer. ### Media Transfer Protocol Media Transfer Protocol (MTP) was designed by Microsoft to give higher-level access to a device's filesystem than USB mass storage, at the level of files rather than disk blocks. It also has optional DRM features. MTP was designed for use with portable media players, but it has since been adopted as the primary storage access protocol of the Android operating system from the version 4.1 Jelly Bean as well as Windows Phone 8 (Windows Phone 7 devices had used the Zune protocol – an evolution of MTP). The primary reason for this is that MTP does not require exclusive access to the storage device the way UMS does, alleviating potential problems should an Android program request the storage while it is attached to a computer. The main drawback is that MTP is not as well supported outside of Windows operating systems. ### Human interface devices A USB mouse or keyboard can usually be used with older computers that have PS/2 ports with the aid of a small USB-to-PS/2 adapter. For mice and keyboards with dual-protocol support, a passive adapter that contains no logic circuitry may be used: the USB hardware in the keyboard or mouse is designed to detect whether it is connected to a USB or PS/2 port, and communicate using the appropriate protocol. Active converters that connect USB keyboards and mice (usually one of each) to PS/2 ports also exist. ### Device Firmware Upgrade mechanism *Device Firmware Upgrade* (DFU) is a vendor- and device-independent mechanism for upgrading the firmware of USB devices with improved versions provided by their manufacturers, offering (for example) a way to deploy firmware bug fixes. During the firmware upgrade operation, USB devices change their operating mode effectively becoming a PROM programmer. Any class of USB device can implement this capability by following the official DFU specifications. DFU can also give the user the freedom to flash USB devices with alternative firmware. One consequence of this is that USB devices after being re-flashed may act as various unexpected device types. For example, a USB device that the seller intends to be just a flash drive can "spoof" an input device like a keyboard. See BadUSB. ### Audio streaming The USB Device Working Group has laid out specifications for audio streaming, and specific standards have been developed and implemented for audio class uses, such as microphones, speakers, headsets, telephones, musical instruments, etc. The working group has published three versions of audio device specifications: USB Audio 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0, referred to as "UAC" or "ADC". UAC 3.0 primarily introduces improvements for portable devices, such as reduced power usage by bursting the data and staying in low power mode more often, and power domains for different components of the device, allowing them to be shut down when not in use. UAC 2.0 introduced support for High Speed USB (in addition to Full Speed), allowing greater bandwidth for multi-channel interfaces, higher sample rates, lower inherent latency, and 8× improvement in timing resolution in synchronous and adaptive modes. UAC2 also introduced the concept of clock domains, which provides information to the host about which input and output terminals derive their clocks from the same source, as well as improved support for audio encodings like DSD, audio effects, channel clustering, user controls, and device descriptions. UAC 1.0 devices are still common, however, due to their cross-platform driverless compatibility, and also partly due to Microsoft's failure to implement UAC 2.0 for over a decade after its publication, having finally added support to Windows 10 through the Creators Update on 20 March 2017. UAC 2.0 is also supported by macOS, iOS, and Linux, however Android only implements a subset of the UAC 1.0 specification. USB provides three isochronous (fixed-bandwidth) synchronization types, all of which are used by audio devices: * Asynchronous – The ADC or DAC are not synced to the host computer's clock at all, operating off a free-running clock local to the device. * Synchronous – The device's clock is synced to the USB start-of-frame (SOF) or Bus Interval signals. For instance, this can require syncing an 11.2896 MHz clock to a 1 kHz SOF signal, a large frequency multiplication. * Adaptive – The device's clock is synced to the amount of data sent per frame by the host While the USB spec originally described asynchronous mode being used in "low cost speakers" and adaptive mode in "high-end digital speakers", the opposite perception exists in the hi-fi world, where asynchronous mode is advertised as a feature, and adaptive/synchronous modes have a bad reputation. In reality, all types can be high-quality or low-quality, depending on the quality of their engineering and the application. Asynchronous has the benefit of being untied from the computer's clock, but the disadvantage of requiring sample rate conversion when combining multiple sources. Connectors ---------- The connectors the USB committee specifies support a number of USB's underlying goals, and reflect lessons learned from the many connectors the computer industry has used. The female connector mounted on the host or device is called the *receptacle*, and the male connector attached to the cable is called the *plug*. The official USB specification documents also periodically define the term *male* to represent the plug, and *female* to represent the receptacle. The design is intended to make it difficult to insert a USB plug into its receptacle incorrectly. The USB specification requires that the cable plug and receptacle be marked so the user can recognize the proper orientation. The USB-C plug however is reversible. USB cables and small USB devices are held in place by the gripping force from the receptacle, with no screws, clips, or thumb-turns as some connectors use. The different A and B plugs prevent accidentally connecting two power sources. However, some of this directed topology is lost with the advent of multi-purpose USB connections (such as USB On-The-Go in smartphones, and USB-powered Wi-Fi routers), which require A-to-A, B-to-B, and sometimes Y/splitter cables. USB connector types multiplied as the specification progressed. The original USB specification detailed standard-A and standard-B plugs and receptacles. The connectors were different so that users could not connect one computer receptacle to another. The data pins in the standard plugs are recessed compared to the power pins, so that the device can power up before establishing a data connection. Some devices operate in different modes depending on whether the data connection is made. Charging docks supply power and do not include a host device or data pins, allowing any capable USB device to charge or operate from a standard USB cable. Charging cables provide power connections, but not data. In a charge-only cable, the data wires are shorted at the device end, otherwise the device may reject the charger as unsuitable. Cabling ------- The USB 1.1 standard specifies that a standard cable can have a maximum length of 5 meters (16 ft 5 in) with devices operating at full speed (12 Mbit/s), and a maximum length of 3 meters (9 ft 10 in) with devices operating at low speed (1.5 Mbit/s). USB 2.0 provides for a maximum cable length of 5 meters (16 ft 5 in) for devices running at high speed (480 Mbit/s). The USB 3.0 standard does not directly specify a maximum cable length, requiring only that all cables meet an electrical specification: for copper cabling with AWG 26 wires the maximum practical length is 3 meters (9 ft 10 in). ### USB bridge cables USB bridge cables, or data transfer cables can be found within the market, offering direct PC to PC connections. A bridge cable is a special cable with a chip and active electronics in the middle of the cable. The chip in the middle of the cable acts as a peripheral to both computers and allows for peer-to-peer communication between the computers. The USB bridge cables are used to transfer files between two computers via their USB ports. Popularized by Microsoft as Windows Easy Transfer, the Microsoft utility used a special USB bridge cable to transfer personal files and settings from a computer running an earlier version of Windows to a computer running a newer version. In the context of the use of *Windows Easy Transfer* software, the bridge cable can sometimes be referenced as *Easy Transfer cable*. Many USB bridge / data transfer cables are still USB 2.0, but there are also a number of USB 3.0 transfer cables. Despite USB 3.0 being 10 times faster than USB 2.0, USB 3.0 transfer cables are only 2 - 3 times faster given their design.[*clarification needed*] The USB 3.0 specification introduced an A-to-A cross-over cable without power for connecting two PCs. These are not meant for data transfer but are aimed at diagnostic uses. #### Dual-role USB connections USB bridge cables have become less important with USB dual-role-device capabilities introduced with the USB 3.1 specification. Under the most recent specifications, USB supports most scenarios connecting systems directly with a Type-C cable. For the capability to work, however, connected systems must support role-switching. Dual-role capabilities requires there be *two* controllers within the system, as well as a *role controller*. While this can be expected in a mobile platform such as a tablet or a phone, desktop PCs and laptops often will not support dual roles. Power ----- Upstream USB connectors supply power at a nominal 5V DC via the V\_BUS pin to downstream USB devices. ### Low-power and high-power devices Low-power devices may draw at most 1-unit load, and all devices must act as low-power devices when starting out as unconfigured. 1 unit load is 100 mA for USB devices up to USB 2.0, while USB 3.0 defines a unit load as 150 mA. Multi-lane operations (USB-C) support low power devices with a unit load of 250 mA. High-power devices (such as a typical 2.5-inch USB hard disk drive) draw at least 1 unit load and at most 5-unit loads (5x100mA = 500 mA) for devices up to USB 2.0- or 6-unit loads (6x150mA = 900 mA) for SuperSpeed (USB 3.0 and up) devices. Multi-lane operations (USB-C) support high power devices with up to 1500 mA (6x250mA). USB power standards| Specification | Current | Voltage | Power (max.) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Low-power device | 100 mA | 5 V | 0.50 W | | Low-power SuperSpeed (USB 3.0) device | 150 mA | 5 V | 0.75 W | | High-power device | 500 mA | 5 V | 2.5 W | | High-power SuperSpeed (USB 3.0) device | 900 mA | 5 V | 4.5 W | | Multi-lane SuperSpeed (USB 3.2 Gen x2) device | 1.5 A | 5 V | 7.5 W | | Battery Charging (BC) 1.1 | 1.5 A | 5 V | 7.5 W | | Battery Charging (BC) 1.2 | 1.5 A | 5 V | 7.5 W | | USB-C (multi-lane) | 1.5 A | 5 V | 7.5 W | | 3 A | 5 V | 15 W | | Power Delivery 1.0/2.0/3.0 Type-C | 5 A | 20 V | 100 W | | Power Delivery 3.1 Type-C | 5 A | 48 V | 240 W | | 1. 1 2 The VBUS supply from a low-powered hub port may drop to 4.40 V. 2. ↑ Up to five unit loads; with non-SuperSpeed devices, one unit load is 100 mA. 3. ↑ Up to six unit loads; with SuperSpeed devices, one unit load is 150 mA. 4. 1 2 Up to six unit loads; with multi-lane devices, one unit load is 250 mA. 5. 1 2 >3 A (>60 W) operation requires an electronically marked cable rated at 5 A. 6. ↑ >20 V (>100 W) operation requires an electronically marked Extended Power Range (EPR) cable. | To recognize Battery Charging mode, a dedicated charging port places a resistance not exceeding 200 Ω across the D+ and D− terminals. Shorted or near-shorted data lanes with less than 200 Ω of resistance across the "D+" and "D−" terminals signify a dedicated charging port (DCP) with indefinite charging rates. In addition to standard USB, there is a proprietary high-powered system known as PoweredUSB, developed in the 1990s, and mainly used in point-of-sale terminals such as cash registers. Signaling --------- USB signals are transmitted using differential signaling on twisted-pair data wires with 90 Ω ± 15% characteristic impedance. USB 2.0 and earlier specifications define a single pair in half-duplex (HDx). USB 3.0 and later specifications define one dedicated pair for USB 2.0 compatibility and two or four pairs for data transfer: two pairs in full-duplex (FDx) for single lane variants require SuperSpeed connectors; four pairs in full-duplex for two lane (×2) variants require USB-C connectors. | Operation mode | Old name | Introduced in | Encoding | Data wire pairs | Nominal rate | USB-IF marketing name | Logo | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Low-Speed | Does not appear | USB 1.0 | NRZI | 1 HDx | 1.5 Mbit/s | Low-Speed USB | | | Full-Speed | 12 Mbit/s | | High-Speed | USB 2.0 | 480 Mbit/s | Hi-Speed USB | | USB 3.2 Gen 1×1 | USB 3.0,USB 3.1 Gen 1 | USB 3.0 | 8b/10b | 2 FDx (+ 1 HDx) | 5 Gbit/s | SuperSpeed USB 5Gbps | | | USB 3.2 Gen 2×1 | USB 3.1 Gen 2 | USB 3.1 | 128b/132b | 2 FDx (+ 1 HDx) | 10 Gbit/s | SuperSpeed USB 10Gbps | | | USB 3.2 Gen 1×2 | Does not appear | USB 3.2 | 8b/10b | 4 FDx (+ 1 HDx) | 10 Gbit/s | — | | USB 3.2 Gen 2×2 | 128b/132b | 4 FDx (+ 1 HDx) | 20 Gbit/s | SuperSpeed USB 20Gbps | | | USB4 Gen 2×1 | USB4 | 64b/66b | 2 FDx (+ 1 HDx) | 10 Gbit/s | — | | USB4 Gen 2×2 | 64b/66b | 4 FDx (+ 1 HDx) | 20 Gbit/s | USB4 20Gbps | | | USB4 Gen 3×1 | 128b/132b | 2 FDx (+ 1 HDx) | 20 Gbit/s | — | | USB4 Gen 3×2 | 128b/132b | 4 FDx (+ 1 HDx) | 40 Gbit/s | USB4 40Gbps | | 1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 USB 2.0 implementation 2. 1 2 3 4 USB4 can use optional Reed–Solomon forward error correction (RS FEC). In this mode, 12 × 16 B (128 bit) symbols are assembled together with 2 B (12 bit + 4 bit reserved) synchronization bits indicating the respective symbol types and 4 B of RS FEC to allow to correct up to 1 B of errors anywhere in the total 198 B block. * **Low-speed (LS)** and **Full-speed (FS)** modes use a single data wire pair, labeled D+ and D−, in half-duplex. Transmitted signal levels are 0.0–0.3 V for logical low, and 2.8–3.6 V for logical high level. The signal lines are not terminated. * **High-speed (HS)** uses the same wire pair, but with different electrical conventions. Lower signal voltages of −10 to 10 mV for low and 360 to 440 mV for logical high level, and termination of 45 Ω to ground or 90 Ω differential to match the data cable impedance. * **SuperSpeed (SS)** adds two additional pairs of shielded twisted data wires (and new, mostly compatible expanded connectors) besides another grounding wire. These are dedicated to full-duplex SuperSpeed operation. The SuperSpeed link operates independently from USB 2.0 channel and takes a precedence on connection. Link configuration is performed using LFPS (Low Frequency Periodic Signaling, approximately at 20 MHz frequency), and electrical features include voltage de-emphasis at transmitter side, and adaptive linear equalization on receiver side to combat electrical losses in transmission lines, and thus the link introduces the concept of *link training*. * **SuperSpeed+ (SS+)** uses a new coding scheme with an increased signaling rate (Gen 2×1 mode) and/or the additional lane of USB-C (Gen 1×2 and Gen 2×2 modes). A USB connection is always between a host or hub at the *A* connector (or USB-C) end, and a device or hub's "upstream" port at the other end. Protocol layer -------------- During USB communication, data is transmitted as packets. Initially, all packets are sent from the host via the root hub, and possibly more hubs, to devices. Some of those packets direct a device to send some packets in reply. Transactions ------------ The basic transactions of USB are: * OUT transaction * IN transaction * SETUP transaction * Control transfer exchange Related standards ----------------- ### Media Agnostic USB The USB Implementers Forum introduced the Media Agnostic USB (MA-USB) v.1.0 wireless communication standard based on the USB protocol on 29 July 2015. Wireless USB is a cable-replacement technology, and uses ultra-wideband wireless technology for data rates of up to 480 Mbit/s. The USB-IF used WiGig Serial Extension v1.2 specification as its initial foundation for the MA-USB specification and is compliant with SuperSpeed USB (3.0 and 3.1) and Hi-Speed USB (USB 2.0). Devices that use MA-USB will be branded as 'Powered by MA-USB', provided the product qualifies its certification program. ### InterChip USB InterChip USB is a chip-to-chip variant that eliminates the conventional transceivers found in normal USB. The HSIC physical layer uses about 50% less power and 75% less board area compared to USB 2.0. It is an alternative standard to SPI and I2C. ### USB-C USB-C (officially *USB Type-C*) is a standard that defines a new connector, and several new connection features. Among them it supports *Alternate Mode*, which allows transporting other protocols via the USB-C connector and cable. This is commonly used to support the DisplayPort or HDMI protocols, which allows connecting a display, such as a computer monitor or television set, via USB-C. All other connectors are not capable of two-lane operations (Gen 1x2 and Gen 2x2) in USB 3.2, but can be used for one-lane operations (Gen1x1 and Gen2x1). ### DisplayLink DisplayLink is a technology which allows multiple displays to be connected to a computer via USB. It was introduced around 2006, and before the advent of Alternate Mode over USB-C it was the only way to connect displays via USB. It is a proprietary technology, not standardized by the USB Implementers Forum and typically requires a separate device driver on the computer. Comparisons with other connection methods ----------------------------------------- ### FireWire (IEEE 1394) At first, USB was considered a complement to FireWire (IEEE 1394) technology, which was designed as a high-bandwidth serial bus that efficiently interconnects peripherals such as disk drives, audio interfaces, and video equipment. In the initial design, USB operated at a far lower data rate and used less sophisticated hardware. It was suitable for small peripherals such as keyboards and pointing devices. The most significant technical differences between FireWire and USB include: * USB networks use a tiered-star topology, while IEEE 1394 networks use a tree topology. * USB 1.0, 1.1, and 2.0 use a "speak-when-spoken-to" protocol, meaning that each peripheral communicates with the host when the host specifically requests it to communicate. USB 3.0 allows for device-initiated communications towards the host. A FireWire device can communicate with any other node at any time, subject to network conditions. * A USB network relies on a single host at the top of the tree to control the network. All communications are between the host and one peripheral. In a FireWire network, any capable node can control the network. * USB runs with a 5 V power line, while FireWire supplies 12 V and theoretically can supply up to 30 V. * Standard USB hub ports can provide from the typical 500 mA/2.5 W of current, only 100 mA from non-hub ports. USB 3.0 and USB On-The-Go supply 1.8 A/9.0 W (for dedicated battery charging, 1.5 A/7.5 W full bandwidth or 900 mA/4.5 W high bandwidth), while FireWire can in theory supply up to 60 watts of power, although 10 to 20 watts is more typical. These and other differences reflect the differing design goals of the two buses: USB was designed for simplicity and low cost, while FireWire was designed for high performance, particularly in time-sensitive applications such as audio and video. Although similar in theoretical maximum signaling rate, FireWire 400 is faster than USB 2.0 high-bandwidth in real-use, especially in high-bandwidth use such as external hard drives. The newer FireWire 800 standard is twice as fast as FireWire 400 and faster than USB 2.0 high-bandwidth both theoretically and practically. However, FireWire's speed advantages rely on low-level techniques such as direct memory access (DMA), which in turn have created opportunities for security exploits such as the DMA attack. The chipset and drivers used to implement USB and FireWire have a crucial impact on how much of the bandwidth prescribed by the specification is achieved in the real world, along with compatibility with peripherals. ### Ethernet The *IEEE 802.3af*, *802.3at*, and *802.3bt* Power over Ethernet (PoE) standards specify more elaborate power negotiation schemes than powered USB. They operate at 48 V DC and can supply more power (up to 12.95 W for *802.3af*, 25.5 W for *802.3at* aka *PoE+*, 71 W for *802.3bt* aka *4PPoE*) over a cable up to 100 meters compared to USB 2.0, which provides 2.5 W with a maximum cable length of 5 meters. This has made PoE popular for VoIP telephones, security cameras, wireless access points, and other networked devices within buildings. However, USB is cheaper than PoE provided that the distance is short and power demand is low. Ethernet standards require electrical isolation between the networked device (computer, phone, etc.) and the network cable up to 1500 V AC or 2250 V DC for 60 seconds. USB has no such requirement as it was designed for peripherals closely associated with a host computer, and in fact it connects the peripheral and host grounds. This gives Ethernet a significant safety advantage over USB with peripherals such as cable and DSL modems connected to external wiring that can assume hazardous voltages under certain fault conditions. ### MIDI The *USB Device Class Definition for MIDI Devices* transmits Music Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) music data over USB. The MIDI capability is extended to allow up to sixteen simultaneous *virtual MIDI cables*, each of which can carry the usual MIDI sixteen channels and clocks. USB is competitive for low-cost and physically adjacent devices. However, Power over Ethernet and the MIDI plug standard have an advantage in high-end devices that may have long cables. USB can cause ground loop problems between equipment, because it connects ground references on both transceivers. By contrast, the MIDI plug standard and Ethernet have built-in isolation to 500V or more. ### eSATA/eSATAp The eSATA connector is a more robust SATA connector, intended for connection to external hard drives and SSDs. eSATA's transfer rate (up to 6 Gbit/s) is similar to that of USB 3.0 (up to 5 Gbit/s) and USB 3.1 (up to 10 Gbit/s). A device connected by eSATA appears as an ordinary SATA device, giving both full performance and full compatibility associated with internal drives. eSATA does not supply power to external devices. This is an increasing disadvantage compared to USB. Even though USB 3.0's 4.5 W is sometimes insufficient to power external hard drives, technology is advancing, and external drives gradually need less power, diminishing the eSATA advantage. eSATAp (power over eSATA; aka ESATA/USB) is a connector introduced in 2009 that supplies power to attached devices using a new, backward compatible, connector. On a notebook eSATAp usually supplies only 5 V to power a 2.5-inch HDD/SSD; on a desktop workstation it can additionally supply 12 V to power larger devices including 3.5-inch HDD/SSD and 5.25-inch optical drives. eSATAp support can be added to a desktop machine in the form of a bracket connecting the motherboard SATA, power, and USB resources. eSATA, like USB, supports hot plugging, although this might be limited by OS drivers and device firmware. ### Thunderbolt Thunderbolt combines PCI Express and Mini DisplayPort into a new serial data interface. Original Thunderbolt implementations have two channels, each with a transfer speed of 10 Gbit/s, resulting in an aggregate unidirectional bandwidth of 20 Gbit/s. Thunderbolt 2 uses link aggregation to combine the two 10 Gbit/s channels into one bidirectional 20 Gbit/s channel. Thunderbolt 3 uses USB-C. Thunderbolt 3 has two physical 20 Gbit/s bi-directional channels, aggregated to appear as a single logical 40 Gbit/s bi-directional channel. Thunderbolt 3 controllers can incorporate a USB 3.1 Gen 2 controller to provide compatibility with USB devices. They are also capable of providing DisplayPort alternate mode over the USB-C Fabrics, making a Thunderbolt 3 port a superset of a USB 3.1 Gen 2 port with DisplayPort alternate mode. DisplayPort Alt Mode 2.0: USB4 supports DisplayPort 2.0 over its alternate mode. DisplayPort 2.0 can support 8K resolution at 60 Hz with HDR10 color. DisplayPort 2.0 can use up to 80 Gbit/s, which is double the amount available to USB data, because it sends all the data in one direction (to the monitor) and can thus use all eight data lanes at once. After the specification was made royalty-free and custodianship of the Thunderbolt protocol was transferred from Intel to the USB Implementers Forum, Thunderbolt 3 has been effectively implemented in the USB4 specification—with compatibility with Thunderbolt 3 optional but encouraged for USB4 products. Interoperability ---------------- Various protocol converters are available that convert USB data signals to and from other communications standards. Security threats ---------------- Due to the prevalency of the USB standard, there are many exploits using the USB standard. One of the biggest instances of this today is known as the USB Killer, a device which damages devices by sending high voltage pulses across the data lines. In versions of Microsoft Windows before Windows XP, Windows would automatically run a script (if present) on certain devices via autorun, one of which are USB mass storage devices, which may contain malicious software. See also -------- ### USB * USB hardware * USB protocol * USB-C * USB hub * Extensible Host Controller Interface (XHCI) * List of device bit rates#Peripheral * WebUSB ### Derived and related standards * DockPort * LIO Target * Media Transfer Protocol * Mobile High-Definition Link * Thunderbolt (interface) * Windows Easy Transfer Further reading --------------- * Axelson, Jan (1 September 2006). *USB Mass Storage: Designing and Programming Devices and Embedded Hosts* (1st ed.). Lakeview Research. ISBN 978-1-931-44804-8. * ——— (1 December 2007). *Serial Port Complete: COM Ports, USB Virtual COM Ports, and Ports for Embedded Systems* (2nd ed.). Lakeview Research. ISBN 978-1-931-44806-2. * ——— (2015). *USB Complete: The Developer's Guide* (5th ed.). Lakeview Research. ISBN 978-1-931448-28-4. * Hyde, John (February 2001). *USB Design by Example: A Practical Guide to Building I/O Devices* (2nd ed.). Intel Press. ISBN 978-0-970-28465-5. * "Debugging USB 2.0 for Compliance: It's Not Just a Digital World" (PDF). *Keysight Technologies*. Technologies Application Note. Keysight (1382–3). External links -------------- ### General overview * Joel Johnson (29 May 2019). "The unlikely origins of USB, the port that changed everything". Fast Company. * Leigh, Peter (24 May 2020). *Why Does USB Keep Changing?* (video). * Parikh, Bijal. "USB (Universal Serial Bus): An Overview". *Engineers Garage*. WTWH Media. Retrieved 7 May 2022. * Barnatt, Christopher (25 September 2022). *Explaining USB: From 1.0 to USB4 V2.0 (ExplainingComputers)* (video). ### Technical documents * "USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF)". *USB.org*. * "USB Document Library (USB 3.2, USB 2.0, Wireless USB, USB-C, USB Power Delivery)". *USB.org*. * "Universal Host Controller Interface (UHCI)" (PDF). Intel – via mit.edu. * "USB 3.0 Standard-A, Standard-B, Powered-B connectors". *Pinouts guide*. Archived from the original on 14 May 2016. * Muller, Henk (July 2012). "How To Create And Program USB Devices". Electronic Design. * Garney, John (June 1996). "An Analysis of Throughput Characteristics of Universal Serial Bus" (PDF). * Hershenhoren, Razi; Reznik, Omer (October 2010). "USB 2.0 Protocol Engine" (PDF). * IEC 62680 (Universal Serial Bus interfaces for data and power): + IEC 62680-1.1:2015 - Part 1-1: Common components - USB Battery Charging Specification, Revision 1.2 + IEC 62680-1-2:2018 - Part 1-2: Common components - USB Power Delivery specification + IEC 62680-1-3:2018 - Part 1-3: Common components - USB Type-C Cable and Connector Specification + IEC 62680-1-4:2018 - Part 1-4: Common components - USB Type-C Authentication Specification + IEC 62680-2-1:2015 - Part 2-1: Universal Serial Bus Specification, Revision 2.0 + IEC 62680-2-2:2015 - Part 2-2: Micro-USB Cables and Connectors Specification, Revision 1.01 + IEC 62680-2-3:2015 - Part 2-3: Universal Serial Bus Cables and Connectors Class Document Revision 2.0 + IEC 62680-3-1:2017 - Part 3-1: Universal Serial Bus 3.1 Specification

USB

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB

**Chios** (/ˈkaɪ.ɒs, ˈkaɪ.oʊs, ˈkiː-/; Greek: Χίος, romanized: *Chíos* [ˈçi.os] (), traditionally known as **Scio** in English) is the fifth largest Greek island, situated in the northern Aegean Sea, and the tenth largest island in the overall Mediterranean Sea. The island is separated from Turkey by the Chios Strait. Chios is notable for its exports of mastic gum and its nickname is "the Mastic Island". Tourist attractions include its medieval villages and the 11th-century monastery of Nea Moni, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Administratively, the island forms a separate municipality within the Chios regional unit, which is part of the North Aegean region. The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is Chios. Locals refer to Chios town as *Chora* (Χώρα literally means land or country, but usually refers to the capital or a settlement at the highest point of a Greek island). The island was also the site of the Chios massacre, in which thousands of Greeks on the island were massacred, expelled, and enslaved by Ottoman troops during the Greek War of Independence in 1822. Chios remained a part of the Ottoman Empire until 1912. Geography --------- Chios island is crescent or kidney-shaped, 50 km (31 mi) long from north to south, and 29 km (18 mi) at its widest, covering an area of 842.289 km2 (325.210 sq mi). The terrain is mountainous and arid, with a ridge of mountains running the length of the island. The two largest of these mountains, Pelineon (1,297 m (4,255 ft)) and Epos (1,188 m (3,898 ft)), are situated in the north of the island. The center of the island is divided between east and west by a range of smaller peaks, known as Provatas. ### Regions Chios can be divided into five regions: #### East coast Midway up the east coast lie the main population centers, the main town of Chios, and the regions of Vrontados and Kambos. Chios Town, with a population of 32,400, is built around the island's main harbour and medieval castle. The current castle, with a perimeter of 1,400 m (4,600 ft), was principally constructed during the time of Genoese and Ottoman rule, although remains have been found dating settlements there back to 2000 B.C. The town was substantially damaged by an earthquake in 1881, and only partially retains its original character. North of Chios Town lies the large suburb of Vrontados (population 4,500), which claims to be the birthplace of Homer. The suburb lies in the Omiroupoli municipality, and its connection to the poet is supported by an archaeological site known traditionally as "Teacher's Rock". #### Southern region (Mastichochória) In the southern region of the island are the *Mastichochoria* (literally 'mastic villages'), the seven villages of Mesta (Μεστά), Pyrgi (Πυργί), Olympi (Ολύμποι), Kalamoti (Καλαμωτή), Vessa (Βέσσα), Lithi (Λιθί), and Elata (Ελάτα), which together have controlled the production of mastic gum in the area since the Roman period. The villages, built between the 14th and 16th centuries, have a carefully designed layout with fortified gates and narrow streets to protect against the frequent raids by marauding pirates. Between Chios Town and the Mastichochoria lie a large number of historic villages including Armolia (Αρμόλια), Myrmighi (Μυρμήγκι), and Kalimassia (Καλλιμασιά). Along the east coast are the fishing villages of Kataraktis (Καταρράκτης) and to the south, Nenita (Νένητα). #### Interior Directly in the centre of the island, between the villages of Avgonyma to the west and Karyes to the east, is the 11th century monastery of Nea Moni, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The monastery was built with funds given by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX, after three monks, living in caves nearby, had petitioned him while he was in exile on the island of Lesbos. The monastery had substantial estates attached, with a thriving community until the massacre of 1822. It was further damaged during the 1881 earthquake. In 1952, due to the shortage of monks, Nea Moni was converted to a convent. ### Climate The island's climate is warm and moderate, categorised as temperate, Mediterranean (Köppen: *Csa*), with modest variation due to the stabilising effect of the surrounding sea. Average temperatures normally range from a summer high of 30 °C (86 °F) to a winter low of 7 °C (45 °F) in January, although temperatures of over 40 °C (104 °F) or below freezing can sometimes be encountered. The island normally experiences steady breezes (average 3–5 m/s (6.7–11.2 mph)) throughout the year, with wind direction predominantly northerly ("Etesian" Wind—locally called the "Meltemi") or southwesterly (Sirocco). | Climate data for Chios town (23m) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 12.8(55.0) | 13(55) | 17.3(63.1) | 19.4(66.9) | 24.5(76.1) | 29.4(84.9) | 32(90) | 32.4(90.3) | 28.6(83.5) | 24.4(75.9) | 19.6(67.3) | 16.1(61.0) | 22.5(72.4) | | Average low °C (°F) | 7.2(45.0) | 8(46) | 10(50) | 11.8(53.2) | 15.5(59.9) | 20.9(69.6) | 23.3(73.9) | 24(75) | 20.5(68.9) | 16.6(61.9) | 13.4(56.1) | 10.7(51.3) | 15.2(59.2) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 139.6(5.50) | 94.4(3.72) | 41.8(1.65) | 61.2(2.41) | 27.6(1.09) | 10.9(0.43) | 0.1(0.00) | 0(0) | 3.6(0.14) | 23.2(0.91) | 88.2(3.47) | 178(7.0) | 668.6(26.32) | | Source: http://penteli.meteo.gr/stations/chios/ (2019 – 2020 averages) | ### Geology The Chios Basin is a hydrographic sub-unit of the Aegean Sea adjacent to the island of Chios. A kind of white dirt found near Pyrgi on the southern part of the island was famed as an astringent and cosmetic since antiquity as **Chian earth** (Latin: *Chia terra*; Greek: πηλομαιοτικο, *pēlomaiotiko*). Extracted around May each year, it was considered less valuable than the similar medicinal earth produced by Lemnos given that the Limnian earth was considered protective against venoms and poisons but nonetheless reputed to be "the greatest of all cosmetics... giv[ing] a whiteness and smoothness to the skin and prevent[ing] wrinkles beyond any of the other substances... for the same purposes." History ------- ### Etymology The ancient writer Pausanias tells us that the poet Ion of Chios believed the island received its name from *Chios*, the son of Poseidon by a nymph of the island, who was born amidst snowfall (Ancient Greek: χιών *chiōn* 'snow'). Known as **Ophioussa** (Ὀφιοῦσσα, 'snake island') and **Pityoussa** (Πιτυοῦσσα, 'pine-tree island') in antiquity, during the later Middle Ages the island was ruled by a number of non-Greek powers and was known as *Scio* (Genoese), *Chio* (Italian) and *Sakız* (صاقيز in Ottoman Turkish). The capital during that time was Kastron (Κάστρον, 'castle'). ### Prehistoric period Archaeological research on Chios has found evidence of habitation dating back at least to the Neolithic era. The primary sites of research for this period have been cave dwellings at Hagio(n) Galas in the north and a settlement and accompanying necropolis in modern-day Emporeio at the far south of the island. Scholars lack information on this period. The size and duration of these settlements have therefore not been well-established. The British School at Athens under the direction of Sinclair Hood excavated the Emporeio site in 1952–1955, and most current information comes from these digs. The Greek Archaeological Service has also been excavating periodically on Chios since 1970, though much of its work on the island remains unpublished. The noticeable uniformity in the size of houses at Emporeio leads some scholars to believe that there may have been little social distinction during the Neolithic era on the island. The inhabitants apparently all benefited from agricultural and livestock farming. It is also widely held by scholars that the island was not occupied by humans during the Middle Bronze Age (2300–1600), though researchers have recently suggested that the lack of evidence from this period may only demonstrate the lack of excavations on Chios and the northern Aegean. By at least the 11th century BC the island was ruled by a monarchy, and the subsequent transition to aristocratic (or possibly tyrannic) rule occurred sometime over the next four centuries. Future excavations may reveal more information about this period. 9th-century Euboean and Cypriote presence on the island is attested by ceramics, while a Phoenician presence is noted at Erythrae, the traditional competitor of Chios on the mainland. ### Archaic and Classical periods Pherecydes, native to the Aegean, wrote that the island was occupied by the Leleges, Pre-Greeks who were reported to be subjected to the Minoans on Crete. They were eventually driven out by invading Ionians. Chios was one of the original twelve member states of the Ionian League. As a result, Chios, at the end of the 7th century BC, was one of the first cities to strike or mint coins, establishing the sphinx as its symbol. It maintained this tradition for almost 900 years. In the 6th century BC, Chios' government adopted a constitution similar to that developed by Solon in Athens and later developed democratic elements with a voting assembly and people's magistrates called *damarchoi*. In 546 BC, Chios was subjected to the Persian Empire. Chios joined the Ionian Revolt against the Persians in 499 BC. The naval power of Chios during this period is demonstrated by the fact that the Chians had the largest fleet (100 ships) of all of the Ionians at the Battle of Lade in 494 BC. At Lade, the Chian fleet doggedly continued to fight the Persian fleet even after the defection of the Samians and others, but the Chians were ultimately forced to retreat and were again subjected to Persian domination. The defeat of Persia at the Battle of Mycale in 479 BC meant the liberation of Chios from Persian rule. When the Athenians formed the Delian League, Chios joined as one of the few members who did not have to pay tribute but who supplied ships to the alliance. By the fifth to fourth centuries BC, the island had grown to an estimated population of over 120,000 (two to three times the estimated population in 2005), based on the huge necropolis at the main city of Chios. It is thought that the majority of the population lived in that area. In 412 BC, during the Peloponnesian War, Chios revolted against Athens, and the Athenians besieged it. Relief only came the following year when the Spartans were able to raise the siege. In the 4th century BC, Chios was a member of the Second Athenian League but revolted against Athens during the Social War (357–355 BC), and Chios became independent again until the rise of Macedonia. ### Hellenistic period Theopompus returned to Chios with the other exiles in 333 BC after Alexander had invaded Asia Minor and decreed their return, as well as the exile or trial of Persian supporters on the island. Theopompus was exiled again sometime after Alexander's death and took refuge in Egypt. During this period, the island also had become the largest exporter of Greek wine, which was noted for being of relatively high quality (see "Chian wine"). Chian amphoras, with a characteristic sphinx emblem and bunches of grapes, have been found in nearly every country with whom the ancient Greeks traded. These countries included Gaul, Upper Egypt, and Southern Russia. ### Roman period During the Third Macedonian War, thirty-five vessels allied to Rome, carrying about 1,000 Galatian troops, as well as a number of horses, were sent by Eumenes II to his brother Attalus. Leaving from Elaea, they were headed to the harbour of Phanae, planning to disembark from there to Macedonia. However, Perseus's naval commander Antenor intercepted the fleet between Erythrae (on the Western coast of Turkey) and Chios. According to Livy, they were caught completely off-guard by Antenor. Eumenes' officers at first thought the intercepting fleet were friendly Romans, but scattered upon realizing they were facing an attack by their Macedonian enemy, some choosing to abandon ship and swim to Erythrae. Others, crashing their ships into land on Chios, fled toward the city. The Chians however closed their gates, startled at the calamity. And the Macedonians, who had docked closer to the city anyway, cut the rest of the fleet off outside the city gates, and on the road leading to the city. Of the 1,000 men, 800 were killed, 200 taken prisoner.' After the Roman conquest Chios became part of the province of Asia. Pliny remarks upon the islanders' use of variegated marble in their buildings, their appreciation for such stone above murals or other forms of artificial decoration, and the cosmetic properties of the local earth. The marble from Chios, called *marmor chium* or "portasanta" today, became one of the most desireable and expensive in the Roman world and later. It has a pinkish coloured background containing yellow-orange, brown and grey spots of variable shape and size, separated by whitish or red veins. The name "portasanta" derives from the door jambs of St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, being made of this marble. According to the Acts of the Apostles, Luke the Evangelist, Paul the Apostle and their companions passed Chios during Paul's third missionary journey, on a passage from Lesbos to Samos. ### Byzantine period After the permanent division of the Roman Empire in 395 AD, Chios was for seven centuries part of the Byzantine Empire. This came to an end when the island was briefly held (1090–97) by Tzachas, a Turkish bey in the region of Smyrna during the first expansion of the Turks to the Aegean coast. However, the Turks were driven back from the Aegean coast by the Byzantines aided by the First Crusade, and the island was restored to Byzantine rule by admiral Constantine Dalassenos. This relative stability was ended by the sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade (1204) and during the turmoil of the 13th century the island's ownership was constantly affected by the regional power struggles. After the Fourth Crusade, the Byzantine empire was divided up by the Latin emperors of Constantinople, with Chios nominally becoming a possession of the Republic of Venice. However, defeats for the Latin empire resulted in the island reverting to Byzantine rule in 1225. ### Genoese period (1304–1566) The Byzantine rulers had little influence and through the Treaty of Nymphaeum, authority was ceded to the Republic of Genoa (1261). At this time the island was frequently attacked by pirates, and by 1302–1303 was a target for the renewed Turkish fleets. To prevent Turkish expansion, the island was reconquered and kept as a renewable concession, at the behest of the Byzantine emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus, by the Genovese Benedetto I Zaccaria (1304), then admiral to Philip of France. Zaccaria installed himself as ruler of the island, founding the short-lived Lordship of Chios. His rule was benign and effective control remained in the hands of the local Greek landowners. Benedetto Zacharia was followed by his son Paleologo and then his grandsons or nephews Benedetto II and Martino. They attempted to turn the island towards the Latin and Papal powers, and away from the predominant Byzantine influence. The locals, still loyal to the Byzantine Empire, responded to a letter from the emperor and, despite a standing army of a thousand infantrymen, a hundred cavalrymen and two galleys, expelled the Zacharia family from the island (1329) and dissolved the fiefdom. Local rule was brief. In 1346, a chartered company or *Maona* (the "*Maona di Chio e di Focea*") was set up in Genoa to reconquer and exploit Chios and the neighbouring town of Phocaea in Asia Minor. Although the islanders firmly rejected an initial offer of protection, the island was invaded by a Genoese fleet, led by Simone Vignoso, and the castle besieged. Again rule was transferred peacefully, as on 12 September the castle was surrendered and a treaty signed with no loss of privileges to the local landowners as long as the new authority was accepted. The Maona was controlled by the Giustiniani family. The Genoese, being interested in profit rather than conquest, controlled the trade-posts and warehouses, in particular the trade of mastic, alum, salt and pitch. Other trades such as grain, wine oil and cloth and most professions were run jointly with the locals. After a failed uprising in 1347, and being heavily outnumbered (less than 10% of the population in 1395), the Latins maintained light control over the local population, remaining largely in the town and allowing full religious freedom. In this way the island remained under Genoese control for two centuries. A notable Genoese inhabitant from this period was Christopher Columbus who lived in Chios in the 1470s before his voyages to the Americas. In 1566, when Genoa lost Chios to the Ottoman Empire, there were 12.000 Greeks and 2.500 Genoese (or 17% of the total population) in the island. ### Ottoman period: economic prosperity and the Great Destruction In the April of 1566, the island of Chios was captured by the Ottoman Empire after the surrender to Piyale Pasha. Subsequently, the Genoans were sent to the capital and after some time upon the request of the French ambassador they were allowed to return with a firman. During Ottoman rule, the government and tax gathering again remained in the hands of Greeks and the Turkish garrison was small and inconspicuous. As well as the Latin and Turkish influx, documents record a small Jewish population from at least 1049 AD. The original Greek (Romaniote) Jews, thought to have been brought over by the Romans, were later joined by Sephardic Jews welcomed by the Ottomans during the Iberian expulsions of the late 15th century. The mainstay of the island's famous wealth was the mastic crop. Chios was able to make a substantial contribution to the imperial treasury while at the same time maintaining only a light level of taxation. The Ottoman government regarded it as one of the most valuable provinces of the Empire. When the Greek War of Independence broke out, the island's leaders were reluctant to join the revolutionaries, fearing the loss of their security and prosperity. However, in March 1822, several hundred armed Greeks from the neighbouring island of Samos landed in Chios. They proclaimed the revolution and launched attacks against the Turks, at which point islanders decided to join the struggle. Ottomans landed a large force on the island consequently and put down the rebellion. The Ottoman massacre of Chios expelled, killed or enslaved thousands of the inhabitants of the island. It wiped out whole villages and affected the Mastichochoria area, the mastic growing villages in the south of the island. It triggered also negative public reaction in Western Europe, as portrayed by Eugène Delacroix, and in the writing of Lord Byron and Victor Hugo. In 1825, Thomas Barker of Bath painted a fresco depicting the Chios Massacre on the walls of Doric House, Bath, Somerset. Finally, Chios was not included in the modern Greek state and remained under Ottoman rule. In 1881, an earthquake, estimated as 6.5 on the moment magnitude scale, damaged a large portion of the island's buildings and resulted in great loss of life. Reports of the time spoke of 5,500–10,000 fatalities. Remarkably, despite the terrible devastation, in the later 19th century Chios emerged as the motherland of the modern Greek shipping industry. Indicatively, while in 1764, Chios had 6 vessels with 90 sailors on record, in 1875 there were 104 ships with over 60,000 registered tonnes, and in 1889 were recorded 440 sailing ships of various types with 3,050 sailors. The dynamic development of Chian shipping in the 19th century is further attested by the various shipping related services that were present in the island during this time, such as the creation of the shipping insurance companies *Chiaki Thalassoploia* (Χιακή Θαλασσοπλοΐα), *Dyo Adelfai* (Δυο Αδελφαί), *Omonoia* (Ομόνοια) and the shipping bank *Archangelos* (Αρχάγγελος) (1863). The boom of Chian shipping took place with the successful transition from sailing vessels to steam. To this end, Chian ship owners were supported by the strong *diaspora* presence of Chian merchants and bankers, and the connections they had developed with the financing centers of the time (Istanbul, London), the establishment in London of shipping businessmen, the creation of shipping academies in Chios and the expertise of Chian personnel on board. ### In independent Greece Chios joined the rest of independent Greece after the First Balkan War (1912). The Greek Navy landed at Chios in November 1912 and took control of the island after a series of clashes that lasted for over a month. The Ottoman Empire recognized Greece's annexation of Chios and the other Aegean islands by signing the Treaty of London (1913). Although Greece was officially neutral, the island was occupied by the British during World War I, on 17 February 1916. This may have been due to the island's proximity to the Ottoman Empire and the city of İzmir in particular. It was affected also by the population exchange after the Greco–Turkish War of 1919–1922, with the incoming Greek refugees settling in Kastro (previously a Turkish neighborhood) and in new settlements hurriedly built south of Chios town. The island saw some local violence during the Greek Civil War setting neighbour against neighbour. This ended when the final band of communist fighters was trapped and killed in the orchards of Kampos and their bodies driven through the main town on the back of a truck. In March 1948, the island was used as an internment camp for female political detainees (communists or relatives of guerillas) and their children, who were housed in military barracks near the town of Chios. Up to 1300 women and 50 children were housed in cramped and degrading conditions, until March 1949 when the camp was closed and the inhabitants moved to Trikeri. The production of mastic was threatened by the Chios forest fire that swept the southern half of the island in August 2012 and destroyed some mastic groves. By 2015, Chios had become a transit point for refugees and asylum seekers entering the EU from Turkey. A reception and identification centre was formed at VIAL near the village of Chalkeio, however, in 2021 the Greek government announced a new closed reception centre will be built in a more isolated location at Akra Pachy near the village of Pantoukios. Demographics ------------ According to the 2011 census, Chios has a permanent resident population of 52,674. Government ---------- The present municipality Chios was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 8 former municipalities, that became municipal units: * Agios Minas * Amani * Chios (town) * Ionia * Kampochora * Kardamyla * Mastichochoria * Omiroupoli Economy ------- ### Commerce The local merchant shipping community transports several locally grown products including mastic, olives, figs, wine, mandarins, and cherries. ### Cuisine Local specialities of the island include: * *Kordelia*, pasta * *Malathropita* * *Neratzopita* * *Mastello* (cheese) * *Valanes*, type of pasta * *Sfougato*, type of omelette * *Mamoulia* (dessert) * *Masourakia* (dessert) * *Mastiha (drink)* * *Souma (drink)* ### Antimony mines Sporadically for some time during the early 19th century to 1950s there was mining activity on the island at Keramos Antimony Mines. Culture ------- * Nea Moni is a monastery with fine mosaics from Constantine IX's reign and a World Heritage Site. * An ancient inscription (at Chios Archaeological Museum) from a fifth-century funerary monument for Heropythos the son of Philaios, traced his family back over fourteen generations to Kyprios at the tenth century BC, before there were any written records in Greece. Forts * Castle of Chios, a Byzantine fort built in the 10th century + St. George's church Museums * Chios Byzantine Museum * The Chios Mastic Museum * Archaeological Museum of Chios * Chios Maritime Museum Traditions * The town of Vrontados is home to a unique Easter celebration, where competing teams of locals gather at the town's two (rival) churches to fire tens of thousands of homemade rockets at the other church's bell tower while the Easter service is going on inside the churches, in what has become known as *rouketopolemos*. Sports * F.C. Lailapas (Chios town) * NC Chios, water polo * Panchiakos GS Media * Alithia TV * *Chiakos Laos*, newspaper * *Politis*, newspaper * *Dimokratiki*, newspaper ### Twin town, sister cities Chios is twinned with: * Slovakia Brezno, Slovakia * Greece Ermoupoli, Greece * Italy Genoa, Italy *(since 1985)* * China Guiyang, China * Italy Ortona, Italy * Greece Polykastro, Greece Notable natives and inhabitants ------------------------------- A native of Chios is known in English as a Chian. ### Ancient * Homer (8th century BC), poet. See History of the Pelopennesian War by Thucydides, section 3.104.5, wherein Thucydides quotes Homer's self-reference: "A blind old man of Scio's rocky isle." * Oenopides (c. 490 – c. 420 BC), mathematician and geometer * Ion of Chios (484-421 BC), tragedy writer * Hippocrates of Chios (c. 470 – c. 410 BC), notable mathematician, geometer and astronomer * Theopompus of Chios (378 – c. 320 BC), rhetorical historian * Erasistratus of Chios (304–250 BC), pioneering anatomist, royal physician and founder of the ancient medical school of Alexandria, who discovered the linking between organs through the systems of veins, arteries and nerves * Aristo of Chios (c. 260 BC), Stoic philosopher * Claudia Metrodora (c. 54–68 AD), public benefactor ### Medieval * Saint Markella (14th century), martyr and saint of the Greek Orthodox church * Leo Kalothetos (1315–1363), provincial governor of the Byzantine empire * Leonard of Chios, Greek Dominican scholar * Giovanni Giustiniani (1418-1453), died during the Fall of Constantinople and buried in Chios * Matrona of Chios (\* 15th century, † before 1455), saint of the Greek Orthodox church * Andreas Argenti (saint) († 1465 n. Chr.), neomartyr of the Orthodox Church * Andrea Bianco (15th century), Genoese cartographer resided on Chios * In 1982, Ruth Durlacher hypothesised that Chios was Christopher Columbus's birthplace. Columbus himself said he was from the Republic of Genoa, which included the island of Chios at the time. Columbus was friendly with a number of Chian Genoese families, referenced Chios in his writings and used the Greek language for some of his notes. 'Columbus' remains a common surname on Chios. Other common Greek spellings are: Kouloumbis and Couloumbis. * Vincenzo Giustiniani, Italian banker * Francisco Albo (16th century), pilot of Magellan expedition, the first circumnavigation of the Earth * Leo Allatius (Leone Allacci) (c. 1586–1669), Greek Catholic scholar and theologian * Constantine Rodocanachi (1635–1687), Ottoman Greek academic, chemist, lexicographer, and physician to Charles II of England ### Modern * Scylitzes family of Byzantine descent * Mavrokordatos family * Damalas family * Athanasios Parios (1722–1813), Greek hieromonk and notable theologian, philosopher, educator, and hymnographer of his time * Macarius of Corinth (1731–1805), metropolitan bishop of Corinth, mystic and spiritual theological writer * Nikephoros of Chios (ca. 1750–1821), abbot of Nea Moni monastery, theological writer and orthodox saint * Eustratios Argentis (theologian) * Eustratios Argenti (national hero) (1767‒1798), executed with Rigas Velestinlis * Alexandros Kontostavlos (1789–1865), politician * Christophorus Plato Castanis (1814–1866), Ottoman Greek academic, author and classicist, as well as former slave, orphan and refugee to the United States * Alexandros Georgios Paspatis (1814–1891), linguist, historian and physician, researcher of the Romani language and of the history and culture of the Roma people * George Colvocoresses (1816–1872), military officer * Mustapha Khaznadar (1817–1878), was Prime Minister of the Beylik of Tunis * Michel Emmanuel Rodocanachi (1821–1901), trader and banker of London * Andreas Syggros (1830), banker, descended from Chios * George Glarakis (1789-1855), politician, Minister of Education (1838) * Patriarch Constantine V of Constantinople (1833–?) * Ralli Brothers (18th–19th century), founders of major 19th century trading enterprise * Ibrahim Edhem Pasha (1819–1893), Ottoman Grand Vizier * Namık Kemal (1840–1888), one of the principal founders of modern Turkish literature, served as a sub-prefect (exiled in practical terms) of Chios from 1886 to his death on the island in 1888 * Osman Hamdi Bey (1842–1910), Ottoman painter, archaeologist * Ioannis Psycharis (1854–1929), philologist, descended from Chios * Ambrosios Skaramagas, merchant * Konstantinos Amantos (1874–1960), Byzantine scholar, professor at the University of Athens, member of the Athens Academy * Stylianos Miliadis, painter * Kostia Vlastos (1883–1967), banker, of the old Vlastos family * John D. Chandris (1890–1942), Greek shipowner * Stavros Livanos (1891–1963), shipping magnate * Ioannis Despotopoulos (1903–1992), architect * Kostas Perrikos (1905–1943), Greek Resistance figure, leader of PEAN * Yiannis Carras, shipowner * Adamantios Lemos (1916–2006), actor * Andreas Papandreou (1919–1996), politician, Prime Minister of Greece * Mikis Theodorakis (1925-2021), composer, born on the island * Jani Christou (1926–1970), composer * George P. Livanos (1926–1997), Greek shipowner * Petros Molyviatis, politician * Stamatios Krimigis (1938), NASA space scientist * Takis Fotopoulos (1940), political philosopher * Adamantios Vassilakis (1942), diplomat * Dimitris Varos (1949), author, poet, journalist * Theodoros Veniamis (1950), shipowner * Mark Palios (1952, of Chian descent), former professional footballer and former chief executive of the English Football Association * Matthew Mirones (1956), New York politician * Nikos Pateras (1963), shipowner * Angeliki Frangou (1965), shipowner * John Sitaras (1972), fitness professional * Ioannis Fountoulis (1988), water polo player See also -------- * Chian wine * Chian diaspora Further reading --------------- * Fanny Aneroussi, Leonidas Mylonadis: *The Kampos of Chios in its Heyday: Houses and Surroundings*. Translated from the Greek by Antonis Scotiniotis. (Aipos Series, no 12). Akritas Publications, Nea Smyrni 1992, ISBN 960-7006-87-9. * Charalambos Th. Bouras: *Chios*. (Guides to Greece, no 4). National Bank of Greece, Athens 1974. * Charalambos Th. Bouras: *Greek Traditional Architecture: Chios*. Melissa, Athens 1984. * Athena Zacharou-Loutrari, Vaso Penna, Tasoula Mandala: *Chios: History and Art.* Translated from the Greek by Athena Dallas-Damis ... (The Monuments of Chios). The Chios Prefecture, Chios 1989. OCLC 31423355. * Hubert Pernot: *En Pays Turc: L’île de Chios*. (Dijon, Imprimerie Darantière, Rue Chabot-Charny, 65). Avec 17 mélodies populaires et 118 simili-gravures. J. Maisonneuve, Libraire-Éditeur, Paris 1903. (online) * Arnold C. Smith: *The Architecture of Chios: Subsidiary Buildings, Implements and Crafts*. Edited by Philip Pandely Argenti. Tison, London 1962. * Michales G. Tsankares, Alkes X. Xanthakes: *Chios: hekato chronia photographies, 1850–1950.* (*Chios: One Hundred Years of Photographs, 1850–1950*). Synolo, Athens 1996, ISBN 960-85416-4-6. * Eleftherios Yalouris: *The Archeology and Early History of Chios. (From the Neolithic Period to the End of the Sixth Century B.C.)*. University of Oxford, Merton College, dissertation, 1976.

Chios

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chios

The **prisoner's dilemma** is a game analyzed in game theory. It is a thought experiment that challenges two completely rational agents: each can cooperate for mutual benefit or betray their partner ("defect") for individual reward. This dilemma was originally framed by Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher in 1950 while they worked at RAND. Albert W. Tucker later formalized the game by structuring the rewards in terms of prison sentences and named it the "prisoner's dilemma". The prisoner's dilemma game can model many real-world situations involving strategic behavior. In casual usage, the label "prisoner's dilemma" may be applied to any situation in which two entities could gain important benefits from cooperating or suffer from the failure to do so but find it difficult or expensive to coordinate their activities. Premise ------- William Poundstone described this "typical contemporary version" of the game in his 1993 book *Prisoner's Dilemma*: > Two members of a criminal gang are arrested and imprisoned. Each prisoner is in solitary confinement with no means of speaking to or exchanging messages with the other. The police admit they don't have enough evidence to convict the pair on the principal charge. They plan to sentence both to a year in prison on a lesser charge. Simultaneously, the police offer each prisoner a Faustian bargain. If he testifies against his partner, he will go free while the partner will get three years in prison on the main charge. Oh, yes, there is a catch ... If *both* prisoners testify against each other, both will be sentenced to two years in jail. The prisoners are given a little time to think this over, but in no case may either learn what the other has decided until he has irrevocably made his decision. Each is informed that the other prisoner is being offered the very same deal. Each prisoner is concerned only with his own welfare—with minimizing his own prison sentence. > > This leads to four different possible outcomes for the prisoners A and B: 1. If A and B both remain silent, they will each serve one year in prison. 2. If A testifies against B but B remains silent, A will be set free while B serves three years in prison. 3. If A remains silent but B testifies against A, A will serve three years in prison and B will be set free. 4. If A and B testify against each other, they will each serve two years. As a projection of rational behavior in terms of loyalty to one's partner in crime, the prisoner's dilemma suggests that criminals who are offered a greater reward will betray their partner. Loyalty to one's partner is, in this game, irrational. This particular assumption of rationality implies that the only possible outcome for two purely rational prisoners is betrayal, even though mutual cooperation would yield a greater net reward. Alternative ideas governing behavior have been proposed—see, for example, Elinor Ostrom. The best response, i.e., the dominant strategy, is to betray the other, which aligns with the sure-thing principle. The prisoner's dilemma also illustrates that the decisions made under collective rationality may not necessarily be the same as those made under individual rationality. This conflict is also evident in the "Tragedy of the Commons". In reality, systemic bias towards cooperative behavior happens despite predictions by simple models of "rational" self-interested action. This bias towards cooperation has been evident since this game was first conducted at RAND: Secretaries involved often trusted each other and worked together toward the best common outcome. The prisoner's dilemma became the focus of extensive experimental research. This research has taken three forms: single play (agents play one game only), iterated play (agents play several games in succession), and iterated play against a programmed player. Research on the prisoner's dilemma has served to justify Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative, which holds that a rational agent should "act in the way you wish others to act". This theory is vital for a situation involving different players acting in their best interest who must take others' actions into consideration to make their own choice. In the "iterative" variant of the game, where two agents play against each other several times, each agent has the opportunity to penalize the other for previous decisions. If the number of times the game will be played is known to the players, then by backward induction two classically rational players will betray each other repeatedly, for the same reasons as the single-shot variant. In an infinite or unknown-length game there is no fixed optimum strategy, and prisoner's dilemma tournaments have been held to compete and test algorithms for such cases. The iterated version of the prisoner's dilemma is of particular interest to researchers. Previous researchers observed that, due to the experiment's iterative nature, the frequency of cooperation could change based on the outcomes of each iteration. Specifically, a player may be less willing to cooperate if their counterpart did not cooperate many times, which causes disappointment. Conversely, as time elapses, the likelihood of cooperation tends to rise, owing to the establishment of a "tacit agreement" among participating players. Another aspect of the iterated version of the experiment is that this tacit agreement between players has always been established successfully even when the number of iterations is made public to both sides. Strategy for the prisoner's dilemma ----------------------------------- Two prisoners are separated into individual rooms and cannot communicate with each other. The normal game is shown below: | Prisoner BPrisoner A | Prisoner B stays silent(*cooperates*) | Prisoner B testifies(*defects*) | | --- | --- | --- | | Prisoner A stays silent(*cooperates*) | Each serve 1 year | Prisoner A: 3 yearsPrisoner B: goes free | | Prisoner A testifies(*defects*) | Prisoner A: goes freePrisoner B: 3 years | Each serve 2 years | It is assumed that both prisoners understand the nature of the game, have no loyalty to each other, and will have no opportunity for retribution or reward outside of the game. Regardless of what the other decides, each prisoner gets a higher reward by betraying the other ("defecting"). The reasoning involves analyzing both players' best responses: B will either cooperate or defect. If B cooperates, A should defect, because going free is better than serving 1 year. If B defects, A should also defect, because serving 2 years is better than serving 3. So, either way, A should defect since defecting is A's best response regardless of B's strategy. Parallel reasoning will show that B should defect. Defection always results in a better payoff than cooperation, so it is a strictly dominant strategy for both A and B. Mutual defection is the only strong Nash equilibrium in the game (i.e., the only outcome from which each player could only do worse by unilaterally changing strategy). The dilemma is that mutual cooperation yields a better outcome than mutual defection but is not the rational outcome because the choice to cooperate, from a self-interested perspective, is irrational. Thus, Prisoner's dilemma is a game where the Nash equilibrium is not Pareto efficient. Generalized form ---------------- The structure of the traditional prisoner's dilemma can be generalized from its original prisoner setting. Suppose that the two players are represented by the colors red and blue and that each player chooses to either "cooperate" or "defect". If both players cooperate, they both receive the reward *R* for cooperating. If both players defect, they both receive the punishment payoff *P*. If Blue defects while Red cooperates, then Blue receives the temptation payoff *T*, while Red receives the "sucker's" payoff, *S*. Similarly, if Blue cooperates while Red defects, then Blue receives the sucker's payoff *S*, while Red receives the temptation payoff *T*. This can be expressed in normal form: Canonical PD payoff matrix| RedBlue | Cooperate | Defect | | --- | --- | --- | | Cooperate | *R**R* | *T**S* | | Defect | *S**T* | *P**P* | and to be a prisoner's dilemma game in the strong sense, the following condition must hold for the payoffs: T > R > P > S {\displaystyle T>R>P>S} {\displaystyle T>R>P>S} The payoff relationship R > P {\displaystyle R>P} {\displaystyle R>P} implies that mutual cooperation is superior to mutual defection, while the payoff relationships T > R {\displaystyle T>R} {\displaystyle T>R} and P > S {\displaystyle P>S} {\displaystyle P>S} imply that defection is the dominant strategy for both agents. The iterated prisoner's dilemma ------------------------------- If two players play the prisoner's dilemma more than once in succession, remember their opponent's previous actions, and are allowed to change their strategy accordingly, the game is called the iterated prisoner's dilemma. In addition to the general form above, the iterative version also requires that 2 R > T + S {\displaystyle 2R>T+S} {\displaystyle 2R>T+S}, to prevent alternating cooperation and defection giving a greater reward than mutual cooperation. The iterated prisoner's dilemma game is fundamental to some theories of human cooperation and trust. Assuming that the game effectively models transactions between two people that require trust, cooperative behavior in populations can be modeled by a multi-player iterated version of the game. In 1975, Grofman and Pool estimated the count of scholarly articles devoted to it at over 2,000. The iterated prisoner's dilemma is also called the "peace-war game". If the iterated game is played a finite number of times and both players know this, then the dominant strategy is to defect in all rounds. The only possible Nash equilibrium is to always defect. The proof is inductive: One might as well defect on the last turn, since the opponent will not have a chance to later retaliate. Therefore, both will defect on the last turn. Thus, the player might as well defect on the second-to-last turn, since the opponent will defect on the last no matter what is done, and so on. The same applies if the game length is unknown but has a known upper limit. For cooperation to emerge between game-theoretic rational players, the number of rounds must be unknown to the players or infinite. In that case, "always defect" may no longer be a strictly dominant strategy but only a Nash equilibrium. As shown by Robert Aumann in a 1959 paper, rational players repeatedly interacting for indefinitely long games can sustain cooperation. According to a 2019 experimental study in the *American Economic Review* that tested what strategies real-life subjects used in iterated prisoners' dilemma situations with perfect monitoring, the majority of chosen strategies were always to defect, tit-for-tat, and grim trigger. Which strategy the subjects chose depended on the parameters of the game. ### Strategy for the iterated prisoner's dilemma Interest in the iterated prisoner's dilemma (IPD) was kindled by Robert Axelrod in his 1984 book *The Evolution of Cooperation*, in which he reports on a tournament that he organized of the *N* step prisoner's dilemma (with *N* fixed) in which participants have to choose their strategy repeatedly and remember their previous encounters. Axelrod invited academic colleagues from around the world to devise computer strategies to compete in an IPD tournament. The programs that were entered varied widely in algorithmic complexity, initial hostility, capacity for forgiveness, and so forth. Axelrod discovered that when these encounters were repeated over a long period of time with many players, each with different strategies, greedy strategies tended to do very poorly in the long run while more altruistic strategies did better, as judged purely by self-interest. He used this to show a possible mechanism for the evolution of altruistic behavior from mechanisms that are initially purely selfish, by natural selection. The winning deterministic strategy was tit for tat, developed and entered into the tournament by Anatol Rapoport. It was the simplest of any program entered, containing only four lines of BASIC, and won the contest. The strategy is simply to cooperate on the first iteration of the game; after that, the player does what his or her opponent did on the previous move. Depending on the situation, a slightly better strategy can be "tit for tat with forgiveness". When the opponent defects, on the next move, the player sometimes cooperates anyway, with a small probability (around 1–5%). This allows for occasional recovery from getting trapped in a cycle of defections. The exact probability depends on the line-up of opponents. After analyzing the top-scoring strategies, Axelrod stated several conditions necessary for a strategy to succeed: NiceThe most important condition is that the strategy must be "nice". That is, it will not defect before its opponent does (this is sometimes referred to as an "optimistic" algorithm). Almost all the top-scoring strategies were nice. A purely selfish strategy will not "cheat" on its opponent for purely self-interested reasons first. RetaliatingThe successful strategy must not be a blind optimist; it must sometimes retaliate. An example of a non-retaliating strategy is Always Cooperate, a very bad choice that will frequently be exploited by "nasty" strategies. ForgivingSuccessful strategies must be forgiving. Though players will retaliate, they will cooperate again if the opponent does not continue to defect. This can stop long runs of revenge and counter-revenge, maximizing points. Non-enviousThe last quality is being non-envious, meaning not striving to score more than the opponent. The optimal (points-maximizing) strategy for the one-time PD game is simply defection; as explained above, this is true whatever the composition of opponents (collectively called a "population") may be. In the iterated-PD game, the optimal strategy depends upon the strategies of likely opponents, and how they will react to defections and cooperations. Consider, for example, a population where everyone defects every time, except for one who follows the tit-for-tat strategy. That person is at a slight disadvantage because of the loss on the first turn. In such a population, the optimal strategy is to defect every time. In turn, given a population with a certain percentage of always-defectors and the rest being tit-for-tat players, the optimal strategy depends on the percentage and number of iterations played. In the strategy called Pavlov, win-stay, lose-switch, faced with a failure to cooperate, the player switches strategy the next turn. In certain circumstances,[*specify*] Pavlov beats all other strategies by giving preferential treatment to co-players using a similar strategy. Deriving the optimal strategy is generally done in two ways: * Bayesian Nash equilibrium: If the statistical distribution of opposing strategies can be determined (e.g., 50% tit for tat, 50% always cooperate) an optimal counterstrategy can be derived analytically. * Monte Carlo simulations of populations have been made, where individuals with low scores die off, and those with high scores reproduce (a genetic algorithm for finding an optimal strategy). The mix of algorithms in the final population generally depends on the mix in the initial population. The introduction of mutation (random variation during reproduction) lessens the dependency on the initial population; empirical experiments with such systems tend to produce tit for tat players (see for instance Chess 1988),[*clarification needed*] but no analytic proof exists that this will always occur. Although tit-for-tat is considered the most robust basic strategy, a team from Southampton University in England introduced a more successful strategy at the 20th-anniversary iterated prisoner's dilemma competition. It relied on collusion between programs to achieve the highest number of points for a single program. The university submitted 60 programs to the competition, which were designed to recognize each other through a series of five to ten moves at the start. Once this recognition was made, one program would always cooperate and the other would always defect, assuring the maximum number of points for the defector. If the program realized that it was playing a non-Southampton player, it would continuously defect in an attempt to minimize the competing program's score. As a result, the 2004 Prisoners' Dilemma Tournament results show University of Southampton's strategies in the first three places (and a number of positions towards the bottom), despite having fewer wins and many more losses than the GRIM strategy. (In a PD tournament, the aim of the game is not to "win" matches; that can easily be achieved by frequent defection). The Southampton strategy takes advantage of the fact that multiple entries were allowed in this particular competition and that a team's performance was measured by that of the highest-scoring player (meaning that the use of self-sacrificing players was a form of min-maxing). Because of this new rule, this competition also has little theoretical significance when analyzing single-agent strategies as compared to Axelrod's seminal tournament. But it provided a basis for analyzing how to achieve cooperative strategies in multi-agent frameworks, especially in the presence of noise. In fact, long before this new-rules tournament was played, Dawkins, in his book *The Selfish Gene*, pointed out the possibility of such strategies winning if multiple entries were allowed, but remarked that Axelrod would most likely not have allowed them if they had been submitted. It also relies on circumventing the rule that no communication is allowed between players, which the Southampton programs arguably did with their preprogrammed "ten-move dance" to recognize one another, reinforcing how valuable communication can be in shifting the balance of the game. Even without implicit collusion between software strategies (exploited by the Southampton team), tit-for-tat is not always the absolute winner of any given tournament; it would be more precise to say that its long-run results over a series of tournaments outperform its rivals. (In any one event a given strategy can be slightly better adjusted to the competition than tit-for-tat, but tit-for-tat is more robust). The same applies to tit-for-tat-with-forgiveness and other optimal strategies: on any given day they might not "win" against a specific mix of counterstrategies. An alternative way of putting it is using the Darwinian ESS simulation. In such a simulation, tit-for-tat will almost always come to dominate, though nasty strategies will drift in and out of the population because a tit-for-tat population is penetrable by non-retaliating nice strategies, which in turn are easy prey for the nasty strategies. Dawkins showed that here, no static mix of strategies form a stable equilibrium, and the system will always oscillate between bounds. ### Stochastic iterated prisoner's dilemma In a stochastic iterated prisoner's dilemma game, strategies are specified in terms of "cooperation probabilities". In an encounter between player *X* and player *Y*, *X*'s strategy is specified by a set of probabilities *P* of cooperating with *Y*. *P* is a function of the outcomes of their previous encounters or some subset thereof. If *P* is a function of only their most recent *n* encounters, it is called a "memory-n" strategy. A memory-1 strategy is then specified by four cooperation probabilities: P = { P c c , P c d , P d c , P d d } {\displaystyle P=\{P\_{cc},P\_{cd},P\_{dc},P\_{dd}\}} P=\{P_{cc},P_{cd},P_{dc},P_{dd}\}, where P a b {\displaystyle P\_{ab}} P_{ab} is the probability that *X* will cooperate in the present encounter given that the previous encounter was characterized by (ab). For example, if the previous encounter was one in which *X* cooperated and *Y* defected, then P c d {\displaystyle P\_{cd}} P_{cd} is the probability that *X* will cooperate in the present encounter. If each of the probabilities are either 1 or 0, the strategy is called deterministic. An example of a deterministic strategy is the tit-for-tat strategy written as *P*={1,0,1,0}, in which *X* responds as *Y* did in the previous encounter. Another is the win–stay, lose–switch strategy written as *P*={1,0,0,1}, in which *X* responds as in the previous encounter, if it was a "win" (i.e., cc or dc) but changes strategy if it was a loss (i.e., cd or dd). It has been shown that for any memory-n strategy there is a corresponding memory-1 strategy that gives the same statistical results, so that only memory-1 strategies need be considered. If we define *P* as the above 4-element strategy vector of *X* and Q = { Q c c , Q c d , Q d c , Q d d } {\displaystyle Q=\{Q\_{cc},Q\_{cd},Q\_{dc},Q\_{dd}\}} Q=\{Q_{cc},Q_{cd},Q_{dc},Q_{dd}\} as the 4-element strategy vector of *Y*, a transition matrix *M* may be defined for *X* whose *ij* th entry is the probability that the outcome of a particular encounter between *X* and *Y* will be *j* given that the previous encounter was *i*, where *i* and *j* are one of the four outcome indices: *cc*, *cd*, *dc*, or *dd*. For example, from *X*'s point of view, the probability that the outcome of the present encounter is *cd* given that the previous encounter was *cd* is equal to M c d , c d = P c d ( 1 − Q d c ) {\displaystyle M\_{cd,cd}=P\_{cd}(1-Q\_{dc})} M_{cd,cd}=P_{cd}(1-Q_{dc}). (The indices for *Q* are from *Y*'s point of view: a *cd* outcome for *X* is a *dc* outcome for *Y*.) Under these definitions, the iterated prisoner's dilemma qualifies as a stochastic process and *M* is a stochastic matrix, allowing all of the theory of stochastic processes to be applied. One result of stochastic theory is that there exists a stationary vector *v* for the matrix *M* such that v ⋅ M = v {\displaystyle v\cdot M=v} v\cdot M=v. Without loss of generality, it may be specified that *v* is normalized so that the sum of its four components is unity. The *ij* th entry in M n {\displaystyle M^{n}} M^{n} will give the probability that the outcome of an encounter between *X* and *Y* will be *j* given that the encounter *n* steps previous is *i*. In the limit as *n* approaches infinity, *M* will converge to a matrix with fixed values, giving the long-term probabilities of an encounter producing *j* which will be independent of *i*. In other words, the rows of M ∞ {\displaystyle M^{\infty }} M^{\infty } will be identical, giving the long-term equilibrium result probabilities of the iterated prisoner's dilemma without the need to explicitly evaluate a large number of interactions. It can be seen that *v* is a stationary vector for M n {\displaystyle M^{n}} M^{n} and particularly M ∞ {\displaystyle M^{\infty }} M^{\infty }, so that each row of M ∞ {\displaystyle M^{\infty }} M^{\infty } will be equal to *v*. Thus, the stationary vector specifies the equilibrium outcome probabilities for *X*. Defining S x = { R , S , T , P } {\displaystyle S\_{x}=\{R,S,T,P\}} S_{x}=\{R,S,T,P\} and S y = { R , T , S , P } {\displaystyle S\_{y}=\{R,T,S,P\}} S_{y}=\{R,T,S,P\} as the short-term payoff vectors for the {cc,cd,dc,dd} outcomes (From *X*'s point of view), the equilibrium payoffs for *X* and *Y* can now be specified as s x = v ⋅ S x {\displaystyle s\_{x}=v\cdot S\_{x}} s_{x}=v\cdot S_{x} and s y = v ⋅ S y {\displaystyle s\_{y}=v\cdot S\_{y}} s_{y}=v\cdot S_{y}, allowing the two strategies *P* and *Q* to be compared for their long-term payoffs. #### Zero-determinant strategies In 2012, William H. Press and Freeman Dyson published a new class of strategies for the stochastic iterated prisoner's dilemma called "zero-determinant" (ZD) strategies. The long term payoffs for encounters between *X* and *Y* can be expressed as the determinant of a matrix which is a function of the two strategies and the short term payoff vectors: s x = D ( P , Q , S x ) {\displaystyle s\_{x}=D(P,Q,S\_{x})} {\displaystyle s_{x}=D(P,Q,S_{x})} and s y = D ( P , Q , S y ) {\displaystyle s\_{y}=D(P,Q,S\_{y})} {\displaystyle s_{y}=D(P,Q,S_{y})}, which do not involve the stationary vector *v*. Since the determinant function s y = D ( P , Q , f ) {\displaystyle s\_{y}=D(P,Q,f)} {\displaystyle s_{y}=D(P,Q,f)} is linear in *f*, it follows that α s x + β s y + γ = D ( P , Q , α S x + β S y + γ U ) {\displaystyle \alpha s\_{x}+\beta s\_{y}+\gamma =D(P,Q,\alpha S\_{x}+\beta S\_{y}+\gamma U)} {\displaystyle \alpha s_{x}+\beta s_{y}+\gamma =D(P,Q,\alpha S_{x}+\beta S_{y}+\gamma U)} (where *U* = {1, 1, 1, 1}). Any strategies for which D ( P , Q , α S x + β S y + γ U ) = 0 {\displaystyle D(P,Q,\alpha S\_{x}+\beta S\_{y}+\gamma U)=0} {\displaystyle D(P,Q,\alpha S_{x}+\beta S_{y}+\gamma U)=0} is by definition a ZD strategy, and the long-term payoffs obey the relation α s x + β s y + γ = 0 {\displaystyle \alpha s\_{x}+\beta s\_{y}+\gamma =0} {\displaystyle \alpha s_{x}+\beta s_{y}+\gamma =0}. Tit-for-tat is a ZD strategy which is "fair" in the sense of not gaining advantage over the other player. However, the ZD space also contains strategies that, in the case of two players, can allow one player to unilaterally set the other player's score or alternatively, force an evolutionary player to achieve a payoff some percentage lower than his own. The extorted player could defect but would thereby hurt himself by getting a lower payoff. Thus, extortion solutions turn the iterated prisoner's dilemma into a sort of ultimatum game. Specifically, *X* is able to choose a strategy for which D ( P , Q , β S y + γ U ) = 0 {\displaystyle D(P,Q,\beta S\_{y}+\gamma U)=0} {\displaystyle D(P,Q,\beta S_{y}+\gamma U)=0}, unilaterally setting s y {\displaystyle s\_{y}} s_{y} to a specific value within a particular range of values, independent of *Y*'s strategy, offering an opportunity for *X* to "extort" player *Y* (and vice versa). (It turns out that if *X* tries to set s x {\displaystyle s\_{x}} s_{x} to a particular value, the range of possibilities is much smaller, only consisting of complete cooperation or complete defection.) An extension of the IPD is an evolutionary stochastic IPD, in which the relative abundance of particular strategies is allowed to change, with more successful strategies relatively increasing. This process may be accomplished by having less successful players imitate the more successful strategies, or by eliminating less successful players from the game, while multiplying the more successful ones. It has been shown that unfair ZD strategies are not evolutionarily stable. The key intuition is that an evolutionarily stable strategy must not only be able to invade another population (which extortionary ZD strategies can do) but must also perform well against other players of the same type (which extortionary ZD players do poorly because they reduce each other's surplus). Theory and simulations confirm that beyond a critical population size, ZD extortion loses out in evolutionary competition against more cooperative strategies, and as a result, the average payoff in the population increases when the population is larger. In addition, there are some cases in which extortioners may even catalyze cooperation by helping to break out of a face-off between uniform defectors and win–stay, lose–switch agents. While extortionary ZD strategies are not stable in large populations, another ZD class called "generous" strategies *is* both stable and robust. In fact, when the population is not too small, these strategies can supplant any other ZD strategy and even perform well against a broad array of generic strategies for iterated prisoner's dilemma, including win–stay, lose–switch. This was proven specifically for the donation game by Alexander Stewart and Joshua Plotkin in 2013. Generous strategies will cooperate with other cooperative players, and in the face of defection, the generous player loses more utility than its rival. Generous strategies are the intersection of ZD strategies and so-called "good" strategies, which were defined by Akin (2013) to be those for which the player responds to past mutual cooperation with future cooperation and splits expected payoffs equally if he receives at least the cooperative expected payoff. Among good strategies, the generous (ZD) subset performs well when the population is not too small. If the population is very small, defection strategies tend to dominate. ### Continuous iterated prisoner's dilemma Most work on the iterated prisoner's dilemma has focused on the discrete case, in which players either cooperate or defect, because this model is relatively simple to analyze. However, some researchers have looked at models of the continuous iterated prisoner's dilemma, in which players are able to make a variable contribution to the other player. Le and Boyd found that in such situations, cooperation is much harder to evolve than in the discrete iterated prisoner's dilemma. The basic intuition for this result is straightforward: in a continuous prisoner's dilemma, if a population starts off in a non-cooperative equilibrium, players who are only marginally more cooperative than non-cooperators get little benefit from assorting with one another. By contrast, in a discrete prisoner's dilemma, tit-for-tat cooperators get a big payoff boost from assorting with one another in a non-cooperative equilibrium, relative to non-cooperators. Since nature arguably offers more opportunities for variable cooperation rather than a strict dichotomy of cooperation or defection, the continuous prisoner's dilemma may help explain why real-life examples of tit-for-tat-like cooperation are extremely rare in nature (ex. Hammerstein) even though tit for tat seems robust in theoretical models. ### Emergence of stable strategies Players cannot seem to coordinate mutual cooperation, thus often get locked into the inferior yet stable strategy of defection. In this way, iterated rounds facilitate the evolution of stable strategies. Iterated rounds often produce novel strategies, which have implications to complex social interaction. One such strategy is win-stay lose-shift. This strategy outperforms a simple Tit-For-Tat strategy – that is, if you can get away with cheating, repeat that behavior. However, if you get caught, switch. The only problem of this tit-for-tat strategy is that they are vulnerable to signal error. The problem arises when one individual cheats in retaliation, but the other interprets it as cheating. As a result of this, the second individual now cheats, and then it starts a see-saw pattern of cheating in a chain reaction. Even without repeated games, strong enlightened self-interest can result in a stable and efficient outcome. Real-life examples ------------------ The prisoner setting may seem contrived, but there are in fact many examples in human interaction as well as interactions in nature that have the same payoff matrix. The prisoner's dilemma is therefore of interest to the social sciences such as economics, politics, and sociology, as well as to the biological sciences such as ethology and evolutionary biology. Many natural processes have been abstracted into models in which living beings are engaged in endless games of prisoner's dilemma. This wide applicability of the PD gives the game its substantial importance. ### Environmental studies In environmental studies, the PD is evident in crises such as global climate-change. It is argued all countries will benefit from a stable climate, but any single country is often hesitant to curb CO2 emissions. The immediate benefit to any one country from maintaining current behavior is perceived to be greater than the purported eventual benefit to that country if all countries' behavior was changed, therefore explaining the impasse concerning climate-change in 2007. An important difference between climate-change politics and the prisoner's dilemma is uncertainty; the extent and pace at which pollution can change climate is not known. The dilemma faced by governments is therefore different from the prisoner's dilemma in that the payoffs of cooperation are unknown. This difference suggests that states will cooperate much less than in a real iterated prisoner's dilemma, so that the probability of avoiding a possible climate catastrophe is much smaller than that suggested by a game-theoretical analysis of the situation using a real iterated prisoner's dilemma. Osang and Nandy (2003) provide a theoretical explanation with proofs for a regulation-driven win-win situation along the lines of Michael Porter's hypothesis, in which government regulation of competing firms is substantial. ### Animals Cooperative behavior of many animals can be understood as an example of the iterated prisoner's dilemma. Often animals engage in long-term partnerships, which can be more specifically modeled as iterated prisoner's dilemma. For example, guppies inspect predators cooperatively in groups, and they are thought to punish non-cooperative inspectors. Vampire bats are social animals that engage in reciprocal food exchange. Applying the payoffs from the prisoner's dilemma can help explain this behavior. ### Psychology In addiction research / behavioral economics, George Ainslie points out that addiction can be cast as an intertemporal PD problem between the present and future selves of the addict. In this case, *defecting* means *relapsing*, and it is easy to see that not defecting both today and in the future is by far the best outcome. The case where one abstains today but relapses in the future is the worst outcome – in some sense the discipline and self-sacrifice involved in abstaining today have been "wasted" because the future relapse means that the addict is right back where they started and will have to start over (which is quite demoralizing and makes starting over more difficult). Relapsing today and tomorrow is a slightly "better" outcome, because while the addict is still addicted, they haven't put the effort in to trying to stop. The final case, where one engages in the addictive behavior today while abstaining "tomorrow" will be familiar to anyone who has struggled with an addiction. The problem here is that (as in other PDs) there is an obvious benefit to defecting "today", but tomorrow one will face the same PD, and the same obvious benefit will be present then, ultimately leading to an endless string of defections. John Gottman in his research described in "The Science of Trust" defines good relationships as those where partners know not to enter the (D,D) cell or at least not to get dynamically stuck there in a loop. In cognitive neuroscience, fast brain signaling associated with processing different rounds may indicate choices at the next round. Mutual cooperation outcomes entail brain activity changes predictive of how quickly a person will cooperate in kind at the next opportunity; this activity may be linked to basic homeostatic and motivational processes, possibly increasing the likelihood to short-cut into the (C,C) cell of the game. ### Economics The prisoner's dilemma has been called the *E. coli* of social psychology, and it has been used widely to research various topics such as oligopolistic competition and collective action to produce a collective good. Advertising is sometimes cited as a real example of the prisoner's dilemma. When cigarette advertising was legal in the United States, competing cigarette manufacturers had to decide how much money to spend on advertising. The effectiveness of Firm A's advertising was partially determined by the advertising conducted by Firm B. Likewise, the profit derived from advertising for Firm B is affected by the advertising conducted by Firm A. If both Firm A and Firm B chose to advertise during a given period, then the advertisement from each firm negates the other's, receipts remain constant, and expenses increase due to the cost of advertising. Both firms would benefit from a reduction in advertising. However, should Firm B choose not to advertise, Firm A could benefit greatly by advertising. Nevertheless, the optimal amount of advertising by one firm depends on how much advertising the other undertakes. As the best strategy is dependent on what the other firm chooses there is no dominant strategy, which makes it slightly different from a prisoner's dilemma. The outcome is similar, though, in that both firms would be better off were they to advertise less than in the equilibrium. Sometimes cooperative behaviors do emerge in business situations. For instance, cigarette manufacturers endorsed the making of laws banning cigarette advertising, understanding that this would reduce costs and increase profits across the industry. This analysis is likely to be pertinent in many other business situations involving advertising. Without enforceable agreements, members of a cartel are also involved in a (multi-player) prisoner's dilemma. 'Cooperating' typically means keeping prices at a pre-agreed minimum level. 'Defecting' means selling under this minimum level, instantly taking business (and profits) from other cartel members. Anti-trust authorities want potential cartel members to mutually defect, ensuring the lowest possible prices for consumers. ### Sport Doping in sport has been cited as an example of a prisoner's dilemma. Two competing athletes have the option to use an illegal and/or dangerous drug to boost their performance. If neither athlete takes the drug, then neither gains an advantage. If only one does, then that athlete gains a significant advantage over the competitor, reduced by the legal and/or medical dangers of having taken the drug. If both athletes take the drug, however, the benefits cancel out and only the dangers remain, putting them both in a worse position than if neither had used doping. ### International politics In international relations theory, the Prisoner's Dilemma is often used to demonstrate why cooperation fails in situations when cooperation between states is collectively optimal but individually suboptimal. A classic example the security dilemma whereby an increase in one state's security (such as increasing its military strength) leads other states to fear for their own security (because they do not know if the security-increasing state intends to use its growing military for offensive purposes). Consequently, security-increasing measures can lead to tensions, escalation or conflict with one or more other parties, producing an outcome which no party truly desires; a political instance of the prisoner's dilemma. The security dilemma is particularly intense in situations when (1) it is hard to distinguish offensive weapons from defensive weapons, and (2) offense has the advantage in any conflict over defense. Military technology and geography strongly affect the offense-defense balance. The prisoner's dilemma has frequently been used by realist international relations theorists to demonstrate the why all states (regardless of their internal policies or professed ideology) under international anarchy will struggle to cooperate with one another even when all benefit from such cooperation. Critics of realism however argue that iteration and extending the shadow of the future are solutions to the prisoner's dilemma. When actors play the prisoner's dilemma once, they have incentives to defect, but when they expect to play it repeatedly, they have greater incentives to cooperate. ### Multiplayer dilemmas Many real-life dilemmas involve multiple players. Although metaphorical, Hardin's tragedy of the commons may be viewed as an example of a multi-player generalization of the PD: Each villager makes a choice for personal gain or restraint. The collective reward for unanimous (or even frequent) defection is very low payoffs (representing the destruction of the "commons"). A commons dilemma most people can relate to is washing the dishes in a shared house. By not washing dishes an individual can gain by saving his time, but if that behavior is adopted by every resident, the collective cost is no clean plates for anyone. The commons are not always exploited: William Poundstone, in a book about the prisoner's dilemma, describes a situation in New Zealand where newspaper boxes are left unlocked. It is possible for people to take a paper without paying (*defecting*), but very few do, feeling that if they do not pay then neither will others, destroying the system. Subsequent research by Elinor Ostrom, winner of the 2009 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, hypothesized that the tragedy of the commons is oversimplified, with the negative outcome influenced by outside influences. Without complicating pressures, groups communicate and manage the commons among themselves for their mutual benefit, enforcing social norms to preserve the resource and achieve the maximum good for the group, an example of effecting the best-case outcome for PD. Related games ------------- ### Closed-bag exchange Douglas Hofstadter once suggested that people often find problems such as the PD problem easier to understand when it is illustrated in the form of a simple game, or trade-off. One of several examples he used was "closed bag exchange": > Two people meet and exchange closed bags, with the understanding that one of them contains money, and the other contains a purchase. Either player can choose to honor the deal by putting into his or her bag what he or she agreed, or he or she can defect by handing over an empty bag. > > ### *Friend or Foe?* *Friend or Foe?* is a game show that aired from 2002 to 2003 on the Game Show Network in the US. It is an example of the prisoner's dilemma game tested on real people, but in an artificial setting. On the game show, three pairs of people compete. When a pair is eliminated, they play a game similar to the prisoner's dilemma to determine how the winnings are split. If they both cooperate (Friend), they share the winnings 50–50. If one cooperates and the other defects (Foe), the defector gets all the winnings, and the cooperator gets nothing. If both defect, both leave with nothing. Notice that the reward matrix is slightly different from the standard one given above, as the rewards for the "both defect" and the "cooperate while the opponent defects" cases are identical. This makes the "both defect" case a weak equilibrium, compared with being a strict equilibrium in the standard prisoner's dilemma. If a contestant knows that their opponent is going to vote "Foe", then their own choice does not affect their own winnings. In a specific sense, *Friend or Foe* has a rewards model between prisoner's dilemma and the game of Chicken. The rewards matrix is | Pair 2Pair 1 | "Friend"(cooperate) | "Foe"(defect) | | --- | --- | --- | | "Friend"(cooperate) | 11 | 20 | | "Foe"(defect) | 02 | 00 | This payoff matrix has also been used on the British television programs *Trust Me*, *Shafted*, *The Bank Job* and *Golden Balls*, and on the American game shows *Take It All*, as well as for the winning couple on the Reality Show shows *Bachelor Pad* and *Love Island*. Game data from the *Golden Balls* series has been analyzed by a team of economists, who found that cooperation was "surprisingly high" for amounts of money that would seem consequential in the real world but were comparatively low in the context of the game. ### Iterated snowdrift Researchers from the University of Lausanne and the University of Edinburgh have suggested that the "Iterated Snowdrift Game" may more closely reflect real-world social situations. Although this model is actually a chicken game, it will be described here. In this model, the risk of being exploited through defection is lower, and individuals always gain from taking the cooperative choice. The snowdrift game imagines two drivers who are stuck on opposite sides of a snowdrift, each of whom is given the option of shoveling snow to clear a path or remaining in their car. A player's highest payoff comes from leaving the opponent to clear all the snow by themselves, but the opponent is still nominally rewarded for their work. This may better reflect real-world scenarios, the researchers giving the example of two scientists collaborating on a report, both of whom would benefit if the other worked harder. "But when your collaborator doesn't do any work, it's probably better for you to do all the work yourself. You'll still end up with a completed project." | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Example snowdrift payouts (A, B)| B  A | Cooperates | Defects | | --- | --- | --- | | Cooperates | 500, 500 | 200, 800 | | Defects | 800, 200 | 0, 0 | | Example PD payouts (A, B)| B  A | Cooperates | Defects | | --- | --- | --- | | Cooperates | 500, 500 | −200, 1200 | | Defects | 1200, −200 | 0, 0 | | ### Coordination games In coordination games, players must coordinate their strategies for a good outcome. An example is two cars that abruptly meet in a blizzard; each must choose whether to swerve left or right. If both swerve left, or both right, the cars do not collide. The local left- and right-hand traffic convention helps to co-ordinate their actions. Symmetrical co-ordination games include Stag hunt and Bach or Stravinsky. ### Asymmetric prisoner's dilemmas A more general set of games is asymmetric. As in the prisoner's dilemma, the best outcome is cooperation, and there are motives for defection. Unlike the symmetric prisoner's dilemma, though, one player has more to lose and/or more to gain than the other. Some such games have been described as a prisoner's dilemma in which one prisoner has an alibi, whence the term "alibi game". In experiments, players getting unequal payoffs in repeated games may seek to maximize profits, but only under the condition that both players receive equal payoffs; this may lead to a stable equilibrium strategy in which the disadvantaged player defects every X game, while the other always co-operates. Such behavior may depend on the experiment's social norms around fairness. Software -------- Several software packages have been created to run simulations and tournaments of the prisoner's dilemma, some of which have their source code available: * The source code for the second tournament run by Robert Axelrod (written by Axelrod and many contributors in Fortran) is available online * Prison, a library written in Java, last updated in 1998 * Axelrod-Python, written in Python * Evoplex, a fast agent-based modeling program released in 2018 by Marcos Cardinot In fiction ---------- Hannu Rajaniemi set the opening scene of his *The Quantum Thief* trilogy in a "dilemma prison". The main theme of the series has been described as the "inadequacy of a binary universe" and the ultimate antagonist is a character called the All-Defector. Rajaniemi is a Cambridge-trained mathematician and holds a Ph.D. in mathematical physics – the interchangeability of matter and information is a major feature of the books, which take place in a "post-singularity" future. The first book in the series was published in 2010, with the two sequels, *The Fractal Prince* and *The Causal Angel*, published in 2012 and 2014, respectively. A game modeled after the (iterated) prisoner's dilemma is a central focus of the 2012 video game *Zero Escape: Virtue's Last Reward* and a minor part in its 2016 sequel *Zero Escape: Zero Time Dilemma*. In *The Mysterious Benedict Society and the Prisoner's Dilemma* by Trenton Lee Stewart, the main characters start by playing a version of the game and escaping from the "prison" altogether. Later they become actual prisoners and escape once again. In *The Adventure Zone: Balance* during *The Suffering Game* subarc, the player characters are twice presented with the prisoner's dilemma during their time in two liches' domain, once cooperating and once defecting. In the 8th novel from the author James S. A. Corey *Tiamat's Wrath,* Winston Duarte explains the prisoner's dilemma to his 14-year-old daughter, Teresa, to train her in strategic thinking. An extreme version of the prisoner's dilemma is featured in the 2008 film *The Dark Knight* in which the Joker rigs two ferries, one containing prisoners and the other containing civilians, arming both groups with the means to detonate the bomb on each other's ferries. Ultimately, the two sides decide not to act. See also -------- * Abilene paradox * Centipede game * Christmas truce * Externality * Folk theorem (game theory) * Free-rider problem * Gift-exchange game * Hobbesian trap * Innocent prisoner's dilemma * Liar Game * Optional prisoner's dilemma * Prisoner's dilemma and cooperation * Public goods game * Reciprocal altruism * Rent-seeking * Social preferences * Superrationality * Swift trust theory * Tragedy of the commons * Traveler's dilemma * Unscrupulous diner's dilemma Further reading --------------- * Amadae, S. (2016). "Prisoner's Dilemma", *Prisoners of Reason*. Cambridge University Press, NY, pp. 24–61. * Aumann, Robert (1959). "Acceptable points in general cooperative *n*-person games". In Luce, R. D.; Tucker, A. W. (eds.). *Contributions to the Theory 23 of Games IV*. Annals of Mathematics Study. Vol. 40. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 287–324. MR 0104521. * Axelrod, R. (1984). *The Evolution of Cooperation*. ISBN 0-465-02121-2 * Bicchieri, Cristina (1993). Rationality and Coordination. Cambridge University Press. * Chess, David M. (December 1988). "Simulating the evolution of behavior: the iterated prisoners' dilemma problem" (PDF). *Complex Systems*. **2** (6): 663–70. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-05-30. * Collins, Rory W. (March 2022). "The prisoner's dilemma paradox: Rationality, morality, and reciprocity". *Think: Philosophy for Everyone*. **21** (61): 45–55. doi:10.1017/S1477175621000464. * Dresher, M. (1961). *The Mathematics of Games of Strategy: Theory and Applications* Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. * Greif, A. (2006). *Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade.* Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. * Kopelman, Shirli (February 2020). "Tit for tat and beyond: the legendary work of Anatol Rapoport". *Negotiation and Conflict Management Research*. **13** (1): 60–84. doi:10.1111/ncmr.12172. * Rapoport, Anatol and Albert M. Chammah (1965). *Prisoner's Dilemma*. University of Michigan Press. * Schneider, Mark; Shields, Timothy W. (June 2022). "Motives for cooperation in the one-shot prisoner's dilemma". *Journal of Behavioral Finance*. **23** (4): 438–456. doi:10.1080/15427560.2022.2081974. S2CID 249903572.

Prisoner's dilemma

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma

**Japan** (Japanese: 日本, *Nippon* or *Nihon*, and formally 日本国, *Nihonkoku*) is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north toward the East China Sea, Philippine Sea, and Taiwan in the south. Japan is a part of the Ring of Fire, and spans an archipelago of 14,125 islands, with the five main islands being Hokkaido, Honshu (the "mainland"), Shikoku, Kyushu, and Okinawa. Tokyo is the nation's capital and largest city, followed by Yokohama, Osaka, Nagoya, Sapporo, Fukuoka, Kobe, and Kyoto. Japan is the eleventh most populous country in the world, as well as one of the most densely populated. About three-fourths of the country's terrain is mountainous, concentrating its highly urbanized population on narrow coastal plains. Japan is divided into 47 administrative prefectures and eight traditional regions. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous metropolitan area in the world. Japan has the world's highest life expectancy, though it is experiencing a population decline. Japan has been inhabited since the Upper Paleolithic period (30,000 BC). Between the 4th and 9th centuries, the kingdoms of Japan became unified under an emperor and the imperial court based in Heian-kyō. Beginning in the 12th century, political power was held by a series of military dictators (*shōgun*) and feudal lords (*daimyō*) and enforced by a class of warrior nobility (*samurai*). After a century-long period of civil war, the country was reunified in 1603 under the Tokugawa shogunate, which enacted an isolationist foreign policy. In 1854, a United States fleet forced Japan to open trade to the West, which led to the end of the shogunate and the restoration of imperial power in 1868. In the Meiji period, the Empire of Japan adopted a Western-modeled constitution and pursued a program of industrialization and modernization. Amidst a rise in militarism and overseas colonization, Japan invaded China in 1937 and entered World War II as an Axis power in 1941. After suffering defeat in the Pacific War and two atomic bombings, Japan surrendered in 1945 and came under a seven-year Allied occupation, during which it adopted a new constitution. Under the 1947 constitution, Japan has maintained a unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature, the National Diet. Japan is a developed country and a great power, having one of the highest gross domestic product per capita, with one of the largest domestic product base. Japan has renounced its right to declare war, though it maintains a Self-Defense Force that rank as one of the world's strongest militaries. A global leader in the automotive, robotics, and electronics industries, the country has made significant contributions to science and technology. It is part of multiple major international and intergovernmental institutions. Japan is considered a cultural superpower as the culture of Japan is well known around the world, including its art, cuisine, film, music, and popular culture, which encompasses prominent manga, anime, and video game industries. Etymology --------- The name for Japan in Japanese is written using the kanji 日本 and is pronounced *Nippon* or *Nihon*. Before 日本 was adopted in the early 8th century, the country was known in China as *Wa* (倭, changed in Japan around 757 to 和) and in Japan by the endonym *Yamato*. *Nippon*, the original Sino-Japanese reading of the characters, is favored for official uses, including on banknotes and postage stamps. *Nihon* is typically used in everyday speech and reflects shifts in Japanese phonology during the Edo period. The characters 日本 mean "sun origin", which is the source of the popular Western epithet "Land of the Rising Sun". The name "Japan" is based on Chinese pronunciations of 日本 and was introduced to European languages through early trade. In the 13th century, Marco Polo recorded the early Mandarin or Wu Chinese pronunciation of the characters 日本國 as *Cipangu*. The old Malay name for Japan, *Japang* or *Japun*, was borrowed from a southern coastal Chinese dialect and encountered by Portuguese traders in Southeast Asia, who brought the word to Europe in the early 16th century. The first version of the name in English appears in a book published in 1577, which spelled the name as *Giapan* in a translation of a 1565 Portuguese letter. History ------- ### Prehistoric to classical history A Paleolithic culture from around 30,000 BC constitutes the first known habitation of the islands of Japan. This was followed from around 14,500 BC (the start of the Jōmon period) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture characterized by pit dwelling and rudimentary agriculture. Clay vessels from the period are among the oldest surviving examples of pottery. From around 700 BC, the Japonic-speaking Yayoi people began to enter the archipelago from the Korean Peninsula, intermingling with the Jōmon; the Yayoi period saw the introduction of practices including wet-rice farming, a new style of pottery, and metallurgy from China and Korea. According to legend, Emperor Jimmu (grandson of Amaterasu) founded a kingdom in central Japan in 660 BC, beginning a continuous imperial line. Japan first appears in written history in the Chinese *Book of Han*, completed in 111 AD. Buddhism was introduced to Japan from Baekje (a Korean kingdom) in 552, but the development of Japanese Buddhism was primarily influenced by China. Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class, including figures like Prince Shōtoku, and gained widespread acceptance beginning in the Asuka period (592–710). The far-reaching Taika Reforms in 645 nationalized all land in Japan, to be distributed equally among cultivators, and ordered the compilation of a household registry as the basis for a new system of taxation. The Jinshin War of 672, a bloody conflict between Prince Ōama and his nephew Prince Ōtomo, became a major catalyst for further administrative reforms. These reforms culminated with the promulgation of the Taihō Code, which consolidated existing statutes and established the structure of the central and subordinate local governments. These legal reforms created the *ritsuryō* state, a system of Chinese-style centralized government that remained in place for half a millennium. The Nara period (710–784) marked the emergence of a Japanese state centered on the Imperial Court in Heijō-kyō (modern Nara). The period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent literary culture with the completion of the *Kojiki* (712) and *Nihon Shoki* (720), as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired artwork and architecture. A smallpox epidemic in 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population. In 784, Emperor Kanmu moved the capital, settling on Heian-kyō (modern-day Kyoto) in 794. This marked the beginning of the Heian period (794–1185), during which a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged. Murasaki Shikibu's *The Tale of Genji* and the lyrics of Japan's national anthem *"Kimigayo"* were written during this time. ### Feudal era Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence and dominance of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the Taira clan by the Minamoto clan in the Genpei War, samurai Minamoto no Yoritomo established a military government at Kamakura. After Yoritomo's death, the Hōjō clan came to power as regents for the *shōgun*. The Zen school of Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class. The Kamakura shogunate repelled Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281 but was eventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo. Go-Daigo was defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336, beginning the Muromachi period (1336–1573). The succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords (*daimyō*) and a civil war began in 1467, opening the century-long Sengoku period ("Warring States"). During the 16th century, Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries reached Japan for the first time, initiating direct commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West. Oda Nobunaga used European technology and firearms to conquer many other *daimyō*; his consolidation of power began what was known as the Azuchi–Momoyama period. After the death of Nobunaga in 1582, his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, unified the nation in the early 1590s and launched two unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597. Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori and used his position to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, Ieyasu defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. He was appointed *shōgun* by Emperor Go-Yōzei in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo). The shogunate enacted measures including *buke shohatto*, as a code of conduct to control the autonomous *daimyō*, and in 1639 the isolationist *sakoku* ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period (1603–1868). Modern Japan's economic growth began in this period, resulting in roads and water transportation routes, as well as financial instruments such as futures contracts, banking and insurance of the Osaka rice brokers. The study of Western sciences (*rangaku*) continued through contact with the Dutch enclave in Nagasaki. The Edo period gave rise to *kokugaku* ("national studies"), the study of Japan by the Japanese. ### Modern era Emperor Meiji (明治天皇, *Meiji-tennō*); 1852–1912The Japanese Empire in 1942 The United States Navy sent Commodore Matthew C. Perry to force the opening of Japan to the outside world. Arriving at Uraga with four "Black Ships" in July 1853, the Perry Expedition resulted in the March 1854 Convention of Kanagawa. Subsequent similar treaties with other Western countries brought economic and political crises. The resignation of the *shōgun* led to the Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized state nominally unified under the emperor (the Meiji Restoration). Adopting Western political, judicial, and military institutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, introduced the Meiji Constitution (November 29, 1890), and assembled the Imperial Diet. During the Meiji period (1868–1912), the Empire of Japan emerged as the most developed nation in Asia and as an industrialized world power that pursued military conflict to expand its sphere of influence. After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea and the southern half of Sakhalin. The Japanese population doubled from 35 million in 1873 to 70 million by 1935, with a significant shift to urbanization. The early 20th century saw a period of Taishō democracy (1912–1926) overshadowed by increasing expansionism and militarization. World War I allowed Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to capture German possessions in the Pacific and in China. The 1920s saw a political shift towards statism, a period of lawlessness following the 1923 Great Tokyo Earthquake, the passing of laws against political dissent, and a series of attempted coups. This process accelerated during the 1930s, spawning several radical nationalist groups that shared a hostility to liberal democracy and a dedication to expansion in Asia. In 1931, Japan invaded and occupied Manchuria; following international condemnation of the occupation, it resigned from the League of Nations two years later. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany; the 1940 Tripartite Pact made it one of the Axis Powers. The Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). In 1940, the Empire invaded French Indochina, after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan. On December 7–8, 1941, Japanese forces carried out surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor, as well as on British forces in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong, among others, beginning World War II in the Pacific. Throughout areas occupied by Japan during the war, numerous abuses were committed against local inhabitants, with many forced into sexual slavery. After Allied victories during the next four years, which culminated in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender. The war cost Japan its colonies and millions of lives. The Allies (led by the United States) repatriated millions of Japanese settlers from their former colonies and military camps throughout Asia, largely eliminating the Japanese Empire and its influence over the territories it conquered. The Allies convened the International Military Tribunal for the Far East to prosecute Japanese leaders for war crimes. In 1947, Japan adopted a new constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices. The Allied occupation ended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952, and Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. A period of record growth propelled Japan to become the second-largest economy in the world; this ended in the mid-1990s after the popping of an asset price bubble, beginning the "Lost Decade". On March 11, 2011, Japan suffered one of the largest earthquakes in its recorded history, triggering the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. On May 1, 2019, after the historic abdication of Emperor Akihito, his son Naruhito became Emperor, beginning the Reiwa era. Geography --------- Japan comprises 14,125 islands extending along the Pacific coast of Asia. It stretches over 3000 km (1900 mi) northeast–southwest from the Sea of Okhotsk to the East China Sea. The country's five main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and Okinawa. The Ryukyu Islands, which include Okinawa, are a chain to the south of Kyushu. The Nanpō Islands are south and east of the main islands of Japan. Together they are often known as the Japanese archipelago. As of 2019[update], Japan's territory is 377,975.24 km2 (145,937.06 sq mi). Japan has the sixth-longest coastline in the world at 29,751 km (18,486 mi). Because of its far-flung outlying islands, Japan has the eighth-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 4,470,000 km2 (1,730,000 sq mi). The Japanese archipelago is 67% forests and 14% agricultural. The primarily rugged and mountainous terrain is restricted for habitation. Thus the habitable zones, mainly in the coastal areas, have very high population densities: Japan is the 40th most densely populated country. Honshu has the highest population density at 450 persons/km2 (1200/sq mi) as of 2010[update], while Hokkaido has the lowest density of 64.5 persons/km2 as of 2016[update]. As of 2014[update], approximately 0.5% of Japan's total area is reclaimed land (*umetatechi*). Lake Biwa is an ancient lake and the country's largest freshwater lake. Japan is substantially prone to earthquakes, tsunami and volcanic eruptions because of its location along the Pacific Ring of Fire. It has the 17th highest natural disaster risk as measured in the 2016 World Risk Index. Japan has 111 active volcanoes. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunami, occur several times each century; the 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed over 140,000 people. More recent major quakes are the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, which triggered a large tsunami. ### Climate The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate but varies greatly from north to south. The northernmost region, Hokkaido, has a humid continental climate with long, cold winters and very warm to cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the winter. In the Sea of Japan region on Honshu's west coast, northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall during winter. In the summer, the region sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures because of the foehn. The Central Highland has a typical inland humid continental climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter. The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the Seto Inland Sea from seasonal winds, bringing mild weather year-round. The Pacific coast features a humid subtropical climate that experiences milder winters with occasional snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind. The Ryukyu and Nanpō Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the rain front gradually moves north. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain. According to the Environment Ministry, heavy rainfall and increasing temperatures have caused problems in the agricultural industry and elsewhere. The highest temperature ever measured in Japan, 41.1 °C (106.0 °F), was recorded on July 23, 2018, and repeated on August 17, 2020. ### Biodiversity Japan has nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin Islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands. Japan has over 90,000 species of wildlife as of 2019[update], including the brown bear, the Japanese macaque, the Japanese raccoon dog, the small Japanese field mouse, and the Japanese giant salamander. A large network of national parks has been established to protect important areas of flora and fauna as well as 52 Ramsar wetland sites. Four sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their outstanding natural value. ### Environment In the period of rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations; as a result, environmental pollution was widespread in the 1950s and 1960s. Responding to rising concerns, the government introduced environmental protection laws in 1970. The oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energy because of Japan's lack of natural resources. Japan ranks 20th in the 2018 Environmental Performance Index, which measures a nation's commitment to environmental sustainability. Japan is the world's fifth-largest emitter of carbon dioxide. As the host and signatory of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate change. In 2020 the government of Japan announced a target of carbon-neutrality by 2050. Environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter, and toxics), waste management, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change, chemical management and international co-operation for conservation. Government and politics ----------------------- Japan is a unitary state and constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited to a ceremonial role. Executive power is instead wielded by the Prime Minister of Japan and his Cabinet, whose sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people. Naruhito is the Emperor of Japan, having succeeded his father Akihito upon his accession to the Chrysanthemum Throne in 2019. Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, a bicameral parliament. It consists of a lower House of Representatives with 465 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and an upper House of Councillors with 245 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal suffrage for adults over 18 years of age, with a secret ballot for all elected offices. The prime minister as the head of government has the power to appoint and dismiss Ministers of State, and is appointed by the emperor after being designated from among the members of the Diet. Fumio Kishida is Japan's prime minister; he took office after winning the 2021 Liberal Democratic Party leadership election. The right-wing big tent Liberal Democratic Party has been the dominant party in the country since the 1950s, often called the 1955 System. Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as *Kujikata Osadamegaki*. Since the late 19th century, the judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably Germany. In 1896, Japan established a civil code based on the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, which remains in effect with post–World War II modifications. The Constitution of Japan, adopted in 1947, is the oldest unamended constitution in the world. Statutory law originates in the legislature, and the constitution requires that the emperor promulgate legislation passed by the Diet without giving him the power to oppose legislation. The main body of Japanese statutory law is called the Six Codes. Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts. According to data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union, the majority of members of the Japanese parliament are male and range in age from 50 to 70. In April 2023, according to Japanese public broadcaster NHK, Ryosuke Takashima, 26, is the Japan's youngest-ever mayor. ### Administrative divisions Japan is divided into 47 prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor and legislature. In the following table, the prefectures are grouped by region: | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | |   **Hokkaido** --- 1. Hokkaido | **Tōhoku** --- 2. Aomori 3. Iwate 4. Miyagi 5. Akita 6. Yamagata 7. Fukushima | **Kantō** --- 8. Ibaraki 9. Tochigi 10. Gunma 11. Saitama 12. Chiba 13. Tokyo 14. Kanagawa | **Chūbu** --- 15. Niigata 16. Toyama 17. Ishikawa 18. Fukui 19. Yamanashi 20. Nagano 21. Gifu 22. Shizuoka 23. Aichi | | **Kansai** --- 24. Mie 25. Shiga 26. Kyoto 27. Osaka 28. Hyōgo 29. Nara 30. Wakayama | **Chūgoku** --- 31. Tottori 32. Shimane 33. Okayama 34. Hiroshima 35. Yamaguchi | **Shikoku** --- 36. Tokushima 37. Kagawa 38. Ehime 39. Kōchi | **Kyūshū** --- 40. Fukuoka 41. Saga 42. Nagasaki 43. Kumamoto 44. Ōita 45. Miyazaki 46. Kagoshima 47. Okinawa | ### Foreign relations A member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan is one of the G4 nations seeking reform of the Security Council. Japan is a member of the G7, APEC, and "ASEAN Plus Three", and is a participant in the East Asia Summit. It is the world's fifth-largest donor of official development assistance, donating US$9.2 billion in 2014. In 2021, Japan had the fourth-largest diplomatic network in the world. Japan has close economic and military relations with the United States, with which it maintains a security alliance. The United States is a major market for Japanese exports and a major source of Japanese imports, and is committed to defending the country, with military bases in Japan. Japan is also a member of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (more commonly "the Quad"), a multilateral security dialogue reformed in 2017 aiming to limit Chinese influence in the Indo-Pacific region, along with the United States, Australia, and India, reflecting existing relations and patterns of cooperation. Japan's relationship with South Korea had historically been strained because of Japan's treatment of Koreans during Japanese colonial rule, particularly over the issue of comfort women. In 2015, Japan agreed to settle the comfort women dispute with South Korea by issuing a formal apology and paying money to the surviving comfort women. As of 2019[update] Japan is a major importer of Korean music (K-pop), television (K-dramas), and other cultural products. Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors. Japan contests Russia's control of the Southern Kuril Islands, which were occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945. South Korea's control of the Liancourt Rocks is acknowledged but not accepted as they are claimed by Japan. Japan has strained relations with China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands and the status of Okinotorishima. ### Military Japan is the second-highest-ranked Asian country in the 2022 Global Peace Index, after Singapore. It spent 1% of its total GDP on its defence budget in 2020, and maintained the tenth-largest military budget in the world in 2022. The country's military (the Japan Self-Defense Forces) is restricted by Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force in international disputes. The military is governed by the Ministry of Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force. The deployment of troops to Iraq and Afghanistan marked the first overseas use of Japan's military since World War II. The Government of Japan has been making changes to its security policy which include the establishment of the National Security Council, the adoption of the National Security Strategy, and the development of the National Defense Program Guidelines. In May 2014, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe said Japan wanted to shed the passiveness it has maintained since the end of World War II and take more responsibility for regional security. In December 2022, Prime Minister Fumio Kishida further confirmed this trend, instructing the government to increase spending by 65% until 2027. Recent tensions, particularly with North Korea and China, have reignited the debate over the status of the JSDF and its relation to Japanese society. ### Domestic law enforcement Domestic security in Japan is provided mainly by the prefectural police departments, under the oversight of the National Police Agency. As the central coordinating body for the Prefectural Police Departments, the National Police Agency is administered by the National Public Safety Commission. The Special Assault Team comprises national-level counter-terrorism tactical units that cooperate with territorial-level Anti-Firearms Squads and Counter-NBC Terrorism Squads. The Japan Coast Guard guards territorial waters surrounding Japan and uses surveillance and control countermeasures against smuggling, marine environmental crime, poaching, piracy, spy ships, unauthorized foreign fishing vessels, and illegal immigration. The Firearm and Sword Possession Control Law strictly regulates the civilian ownership of guns, swords, and other weaponry. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, among the member states of the UN that report statistics as of 2018[update], the incidence rates of violent crimes such as murder, abduction, sexual violence, and robbery are very low in Japan. Economy ------- Japan has the world's third-largest economy by nominal GDP, after that of the United States and China; and the fourth-largest economy by PPP. As of 2021[update], Japan's labor force is the world's eighth-largest, consisting of over 68.6 million workers. As of 2021[update], Japan has a low unemployment rate of around 2.8%. Its poverty rate is the second highest among the G7 nations, and exceeds 15.7% of the population. Japan has the highest ratio of public debt to GDP among advanced economies, with national debt estimated at 248% relative to GDP as of 2022[update]. The Japanese yen is the world's third-largest reserve currency after the US dollar and the euro. Japan was the world's fourth-largest exporter and importer in 2021. Its exports amounted to 18.4% of its total GDP in 2021. As of 2022[update], Japan's main export markets were China (23.9 percent, including Hong Kong) and the United States (18.5 percent). Its main exports are motor vehicles, iron and steel products, semiconductors, and auto parts. Japan's main import markets as of 2022[update] were China (21.1 percent), the United States (9.9 percent), and Australia (9.8 percent). Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, and raw materials for its industries. The Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features: keiretsu enterprises are influential, and lifetime employment and seniority-based career advancement are common in the Japanese work environment. Japan has a large cooperative sector, with three of the world's ten largest cooperatives, including the largest consumer cooperative and the largest agricultural cooperative as of 2018[update]. It ranks highly for competitiveness and economic freedom. Japan ranked sixth in the Global Competitiveness Report in 2019. It attracted 31.9 million international tourists in 2019, and was ranked eleventh in the world in 2019 for inbound tourism. The 2021 *Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report* ranked Japan first in the world out of 117 countries. Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $46.1 billion. ### Agriculture and fishery The Japanese agricultural sector accounts for about 1.2% of the total country's GDP as of 2018[update]. Only 11.5% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation. Because of this lack of arable land, a system of terraces is used to farm in small areas. This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area, with an agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% as of 2018[update]. Japan's small agricultural sector is highly subsidized and protected. There has been a growing concern about farming as farmers are aging with a difficult time finding successors. Japan ranked seventh in the world in tonnage of fish caught and captured 3,167,610 metric tons of fish in 2016, down from an annual average of 4,000,000 tons over the previous decade. Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch, prompting critiques that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such as tuna. Japan has sparked controversy by supporting commercial whaling. ### Industry and services Japan has a large industrial capacity and is home to some of the "largest and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemical substances, textiles, and processed foods". Japan's industrial sector makes up approximately 27.5% of its GDP. The country's manufacturing output is the third highest in the world as of 2019[update]. Japan is the third-largest automobile producer in the world as of 2022[update] and is home to Toyota, the world's largest automobile company by vehicle production. Quantitatively, Japan was the world's largest exporter of cars in 2021, though it was overtaken by China in early 2023. The Japanese shipbuilding industry faces increasing competition from its East Asian neighbors, South Korea and China; as a 2020 government initiative identified this sector as a target for increasing exports. Japan's service sector accounts for about 69.5% of its total economic output as of 2021[update]. Banking, retail, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries, with companies such as Toyota, Mitsubishi UFJ, -NTT, ÆON, Softbank, Hitachi, and Itochu listed as among the largest in the world. ### Science and technology Japan is a leading nation in scientific research, particularly in the natural sciences and engineering. The country ranks twelfth among the most innovative countries in the 2020 Bloomberg Innovation Index and 13th in the Global Innovation Index in 2022, up from 15th in 2019. Relative to gross domestic product, Japan's research and development budget is the second highest in the world, with 867,000 researchers sharing a 19-trillion-yen research and development budget as of 2017[update]. The country has produced twenty-two Nobel laureates in either physics, chemistry or medicine, and three Fields medalists. Japan leads the world in robotics production and use, supplying 55% of the world's 2017 total. Japan has the second highest number of researchers in science and technology per capita in the world with 14 per 1000 employees. Once considered the strongest in the world, the Japanese consumer electronics industry is in a state of decline as regional competition arises in neighboring East Asian countries such as South Korea and China. However, video gaming in Japan remains a major industry. In 2014, Japan's consumer video game market grossed $9.6 billion, with $5.8 billion coming from mobile gaming. By 2015, Japan had become the world's fourth-largest PC game market, behind only China, the United States, and South Korea. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency is Japan's national space agency; it conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the International Space Station: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibō) was added to the station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2008. The space probe *Akatsuki* was launched in 2010 and achieved orbit around Venus in 2015. Japan's plans in space exploration include building a Moon base and landing astronauts by 2030. In 2007, it launched lunar explorer SELENE (Selenological and Engineering Explorer) from Tanegashima Space Center. The largest lunar mission since the Apollo program, its purpose was to gather data on the Moon's origin and evolution. The explorer entered a lunar orbit on October 4, 2007, and was deliberately crashed into the Moon on June 11, 2009. Infrastructure -------------- ### Transportation Japan has invested heavily in transportation infrastructure. The country has approximately 1,200,000 kilometers (750,000 miles) of roads made up of 1,000,000 kilometers (620,000 miles) of city, town and village roads, 130,000 kilometers (81,000 miles) of prefectural roads, 54,736 kilometers (34,011 miles) of general national highways and 7641 kilometers (4748 miles) of national expressways as of 2017[update]. Since privatization in 1987, dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; major companies include seven JR enterprises, Kintetsu, Seibu Railway and Keio Corporation. The high-speed Shinkansen (bullet trains) that connect major cities are known for their safety and punctuality. There are 175 airports in Japan as of 2013[update]. The largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport in Tokyo, was Asia's second-busiest airport in 2019. The Keihin and Hanshin superport hubs are among the largest in the world, at 7.98 and 5.22 million TEU respectively as of 2017[update]. ### Energy As of 2019[update], 37.1% of energy in Japan was produced from petroleum, 25.1% from coal, 22.4% from natural gas, 3.5% from hydropower and 2.8% from nuclear power, among other sources. Nuclear power was down from 11.2 percent in 2010. By May 2012 all of the country's nuclear power plants had been taken offline because of ongoing public opposition following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011, though government officials continued to try to sway public opinion in favor of returning at least some to service. The Sendai Nuclear Power Plant restarted in 2015, and since then several other nuclear power plants have been restarted. Japan lacks significant domestic reserves and has a heavy dependence on imported energy. The country has therefore aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency. ### Water supply and sanitation Responsibility for the water and sanitation sector is shared between the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, in charge of water supply for domestic use; the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism, in charge of water resources development as well as sanitation; the Ministry of the Environment, in charge of ambient water quality and environmental preservation; and the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, in charge of performance benchmarking of utilities. Access to an improved water source is universal in Japan. About 98% of the population receives piped water supply from public utilities. Demographics ------------ Japan has a population of almost 125 million, of which nearly 122 million are Japanese nationals (2022 estimates). A small population of foreign residents makes up the remainder. In 2019, 92% of the total Japanese population lived in cities. The capital city, Tokyo, has a population of 13.9 million (2022). It is part of the Greater Tokyo Area, the biggest metropolitan area in the world with 38,140,000 people (2016). Japan is an ethnically and culturally homogeneous society, with the Japanese people forming 98.1% of the country's population. Minority ethnic groups in the country include the indigenous Ainu and Ryukyuan people. Zainichi Koreans, Chinese, Filipinos, Brazilians mostly of Japanese descent, and Peruvians mostly of Japanese descent are also among Japan's small minority groups. *Burakumin* make up a social minority group. Japan is the world's fastest aging country and has the highest proportion of elderly citizens of any country, comprising one-third of its total population; this is the result of a post–World War II baby boom, which was followed by an increase in life expectancy and a decrease in birth rates. Japan has a total fertility rate of 1.4, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1, and is among the world's lowest; it has a median age of 48.4, the highest in the world. As of 2020[update], over 28.7 percent of the population is over 65, or more than one in four out of the Japanese population. As a growing number of younger Japanese are not marrying or remaining childless, Japan's population is expected to drop to around 88 million by 2065. The changes in demographic structure have created several social issues, particularly a decline in the workforce population and an increase in the cost of social security benefits. The Government of Japan projects that there will be almost one elderly person for each person of working age by 2060. Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population. On April 1, 2019, Japan's revised immigration law was enacted, protecting the rights of foreign workers to help reduce labor shortages in certain sectors. |   Largest cities or towns in Japan2015 Census | | --- | | Rank | Name | Prefecture | Pop. | Rank | Name | Prefecture | Pop. | | 1 | Tokyo | Tokyo | 9,272,740 | 11 | Hiroshima | Hiroshima | 1,194,034 | | 2 | Yokohama | Kanagawa | 3,724,844 | 12 | Sendai | Miyagi | 1,082,159 | | 3 | Osaka | Osaka | 2,691,185 | 13 | Chiba | Chiba | 971,882 | | 4 | Nagoya | Aichi | 2,295,638 | 14 | Kitakyushu | Fukuoka | 961,286 | | 5 | Sapporo | Hokkaido | 1,952,356 | 15 | Sakai | Osaka | 839,310 | | 6 | Fukuoka | Fukuoka | 1,538,681 | 16 | Niigata | Niigata | 810,157 | | 7 | Kobe | Hyōgo | 1,537,272 | 17 | Hamamatsu | Shizuoka | 797,980 | | 8 | Kawasaki | Kanagawa | 1,475,213 | 18 | Kumamoto | Kumamoto | 740,822 | | 9 | Kyoto | Kyoto | 1,475,183 | 19 | Sagamihara | Kanagawa | 720,780 | | 10 | Saitama | Saitama | 1,263,979 | 20 | Okayama | Okayama | 719,474 | ### Religion Japan's constitution guarantees full religious freedom. Upper estimates suggest that 84–96 percent of the Japanese population subscribe to Shinto as its indigenous religion. However, these estimates are based on people affiliated with a temple, rather than the number of true believers. Many Japanese people practice both Shinto and Buddhism; they can either identify with both religions or describe themselves as non-religious or spiritual. The level of participation in religious ceremonies as a cultural tradition remains high, especially during festivals and occasions such as the first shrine visit of the New Year. Taoism and Confucianism from China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs. Christianity was first introduced into Japan by Jesuit missions starting in 1549. Today, 1% to 1.5% of the population are Christians. Throughout the latest century, Western customs originally related to Christianity (including Western style weddings, Valentine's Day and Christmas) have become popular as secular customs among many Japanese. About 90% of those practicing Islam in Japan are foreign-born migrants as of 2016[update]. As of 2018[update] there were an estimated 105 mosques and 200,000 Muslims in Japan, 43,000 of which were Japanese nationals. Other minority religions include Hinduism, Judaism, and Baháʼí Faith, as well as the animist beliefs of the Ainu. ### Languages The Japanese language is Japan's *de facto* national language and the primary written and spoken language of most people in the country. Japanese writing uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on cursive script and radicals used by kanji), as well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals. English has taken a major role in Japan as a business and international link language. As a result, the prevalence of English in the educational system has increased, with English classes becoming mandatory at all levels of the Japanese school system by 2020. Japanese Sign Language is the primary sign language used in Japan and has gained some official recognition, but its usage has been historically hindered by discriminatory policies and a lack of educational support. Besides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages (Amami, Kunigami, Okinawan, Miyako, Yaeyama, Yonaguni), part of the Japonic language family, are spoken in the Ryukyu Islands chain. Few children learn these languages, but local governments have sought to increase awareness of the traditional languages. The Ainu language, which is a language isolate, is moribund, with only a few native speakers remaining as of 2014[update]. Additionally, a number of other languages are taught and used by ethnic minorities, immigrant communities, and a growing number of foreign-language students, such as Korean (including a distinct Zainichi Korean dialect), Chinese and Portuguese. ### Education Since the 1947 Fundamental Law of Education, compulsory education in Japan comprises elementary and junior high school, which together last for nine years. Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school. The two top-ranking universities in Japan are the University of Tokyo and Kyoto University. Starting in April 2016, various schools began the academic year with elementary school and junior high school integrated into one nine-year compulsory schooling program; MEXT plans for this approach to be adopted nationwide. The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) coordinated by the OECD ranks the knowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as the third best in the world. Japan is one of the top-performing OECD countries in reading literacy, math and sciences with the average student scoring 520 and has one of the world's highest-educated labor forces among OECD countries. It spent roughly 3.1% of its total GDP on education as of 2018[update], below the OECD average of 4.9%. In 2021, the country ranked third for the percentage of 25 to 64-year-olds that have attained tertiary education with 55.6%. Approximately 65% of Japanese aged 25 to 34 have some form of tertiary education qualification, and bachelor's degrees are held by 34.2% of Japanese aged 25 to 64, the second most in the OECD after South Korea. In 2020, the share of women among tertiary programmes graduates was 51,8%. ### Health Health care in Japan is provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance. Japan spent 10.74% of its total GDP on healthcare in 2019. In 2020, the overall life expectancy in Japan at birth was 84.62 years (81.64 years for males and 87.74 years for females), the highest in the world; while it had a very low infant mortality rate (2 per 1,000 live births). Since 1981, the principal cause of death in Japan is cancer, which accounted for 27% of the total deaths in 2018—followed by cardiovascular diseases, which led to 15% of the deaths. Japan has one of the world's highest suicide rates, which is considered a major social issue. Another significant public health issue is smoking among Japanese men. However, Japan has the lowest rate of heart disease in the OECD, and the lowest level of dementia among developed countries. Culture ------- Contemporary Japanese culture combines influences from Asia, Europe, and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include crafts such as ceramics, textiles, lacquerware, swords and dolls; performances of bunraku, kabuki, noh, dance, and rakugo; and other practices, the tea ceremony, ikebana, martial arts, calligraphy, origami, onsen, Geisha and games. Japan has a developed system for the protection and promotion of both tangible and intangible Cultural Properties and National Treasures. Twenty-two sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, eighteen of which are of cultural significance. Japan is considered a cultural superpower. ### Art and architecture Hokusai's 19th-century ukiyo-e woodblock print *The Great Wave off Kanagawa*Ritsurin Garden, one of the most famous strolling gardens in Japan The history of Japanese painting exhibits synthesis and competition between native Japanese esthetics and imported ideas. The interaction between Japanese and European art has been significant: for example ukiyo-e prints, which began to be exported in the 19th century in the movement known as Japonism, had a significant influence on the development of modern art in the West, most notably on post-Impressionism. Japanese architecture is a combination of local and other influences. It has traditionally been typified by wooden or mud plaster structures, elevated slightly off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs. The Shrines of Ise have been celebrated as the prototype of Japanese architecture. Traditional housing and many temple buildings see the use of tatami mats and sliding doors that break down the distinction between rooms and indoor and outdoor space. Since the 19th century, Japan has incorporated much of Western modern architecture into construction and design. It was not until after World War II that Japanese architects made an impression on the international scene, firstly with the work of architects like Kenzō Tange and then with movements like Metabolism. ### Literature and philosophy The earliest works of Japanese literature include the *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki* chronicles and the *Man'yōshū* poetry anthology, all from the 8th century and written in Chinese characters. In the early Heian period, the system of phonograms known as *kana* (hiragana and katakana) was developed. *The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter* is considered the oldest extant Japanese narrative. An account of court life is given in *The Pillow Book* by Sei Shōnagon, while *The Tale of Genji* by Murasaki Shikibu is often described as the world's first novel. During the Edo period, the chōnin ("townspeople") overtook the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers of literature. The popularity of the works of Saikaku, for example, reveals this change in readership and authorship, while Bashō revivified the poetic tradition of the Kokinshū with his haikai (haiku) and wrote the poetic travelogue *Oku no Hosomichi*. The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese literature integrated Western influences. Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai were significant novelists in the early 20th century, followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Kafū Nagai and, more recently, Haruki Murakami and Kenji Nakagami. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors – Yasunari Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburō Ōe (1994). Japanese philosophy has historically been a fusion of both foreign, particularly Chinese and Western, and uniquely Japanese elements. In its literary forms, Japanese philosophy began about fourteen centuries ago. Confucian ideals remain evident in the Japanese concept of society and the self, and in the organization of the government and the structure of society. Buddhism has profoundly impacted Japanese psychology, metaphysics, and esthetics. ### Performing arts Japanese music is eclectic and diverse. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the 9th and 10th centuries. The popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, dates from the 16th century. Western classical music, introduced in the late 19th century, forms an integral part of Japanese culture. Kumi-daiko (ensemble drumming) was developed in postwar Japan and became very popular in North America. Popular music in post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European trends, which has led to the evolution of J-pop. Karaoke is a significant cultural activity. The four traditional theaters from Japan are *noh*, *kyōgen*, *kabuki*, and *bunraku*. Noh is one of the oldest continuous theater traditions in the world. ### Holidays Officially, Japan has 16 national, government-recognized holidays. Public holidays in Japan are regulated by the Public Holiday Law (国民の祝日に関する法律, *Kokumin no Shukujitsu ni Kansuru Hōritsu*) of 1948. Beginning in 2000, Japan implemented the Happy Monday System, which moved a number of national holidays to Monday in order to obtain a long weekend. The national holidays in Japan are New Year's Day on January 1, Coming of Age Day on the second Monday of January, National Foundation Day on February 11, The Emperor's Birthday on February 23, Vernal Equinox Day on March 20 or 21, Shōwa Day on April 29, Constitution Memorial Day on May 3, Greenery Day on May 4, Children's Day on May 5, Marine Day on the third Monday of July, Mountain Day on August 11, Respect for the Aged Day on the third Monday of September, Autumnal Equinox on September 23 or 24, Health and Sports Day on the second Monday of October, Culture Day on November 3, and Labor Thanksgiving Day on November 23. ### Cuisine Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties that use traditional recipes and local ingredients. Seafood and Japanese rice or noodles are traditional staples. Japanese curry, since its introduction to Japan from British India, is so widely consumed that it can be termed a national dish, alongside ramen and sushi. Traditional Japanese sweets are known as *wagashi*. Ingredients such as red bean paste and mochi are used. More modern-day tastes include green tea ice cream. Popular Japanese beverages include sake, which is a brewed rice beverage that typically contains 14–17% alcohol and is made by multiple fermentation of rice. Beer has been brewed in Japan since the late 17th century. Green tea is produced in Japan and prepared in forms such as matcha, used in the Japanese tea ceremony. ### Media According to the 2015 NHK survey on television viewing in Japan, 79 percent of Japanese watch television daily. Japanese television dramas are viewed both within Japan and internationally; other popular shows are in the genres of variety shows, comedy, and news programs. Many Japanese media franchises such as *Dragon Ball*, *One Piece*, and *Naruto* have gained considerable global popularity and are among the world's highest-grossing media franchises. *Pokémon* in particular is estimated to be the highest-grossing media franchise of all time. Japanese newspapers are among the most circulated in the world as of 2016[update]. Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries globally. Ishirō Honda's *Godzilla* became an international icon of Japan and spawned an entire subgenre of *kaiju* films, as well as the longest-running film franchise in history. Japanese comics, known as manga, developed in the mid-20th century and have become popular worldwide. A large number of manga series have become some of the best-selling comics series of all time, rivalling the American comics industry. Japanese animated films and television series, known as anime, were largely influenced by Japanese manga and have become highly popular internationally. ### Sports Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport. Japanese martial arts such as judo and kendo are taught as part of the compulsory junior high school curriculum. Baseball is the most popular sport in the country. Japan's top professional league, Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), was established in 1936. Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League (J.League) in 1992, association football gained a wide following. The country co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea. Japan has one of the most successful football teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup four times, and the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2011. Golf is also popular in Japan. In motorsport, Japanese automotive manufacturers have been successful in multiple different categories, with titles and victories in series such as Formula One, MotoGP, and the World Rally Championship. Drivers from Japan have victories at the Indianapolis 500 and the 24 Hours of Le Mans as well as podium finishes in Formula One, in addition to success in domestic championships. Super GT is the most popular national racing series in Japan, while Super Formula is the top-level domestic open-wheel series. The country hosts major races such as the Japanese Grand Prix. Japan hosted the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964 and the Winter Olympics in Sapporo in 1972 and Nagano in 1998. The country hosted the official 2006 Basketball World Championship and will co-host the 2023 Basketball World Championship. Tokyo hosted the 2020 Summer Olympics in 2021, making Tokyo the first Asian city to host the Olympics twice. The country gained the hosting rights for the official Women's Volleyball World Championship on five occasions, more than any other nation. Japan is the most successful Asian Rugby Union country and hosted the 2019 IRB Rugby World Cup. See also -------- * Index of Japan-related articles * Outline of Japan **Government** **General information** * Japan from *UCB Libraries GovPubs* * Japan from BBC News * Japan from the OECD * Geographic data related to Japan at OpenStreetMap 36°N 138°E / 36°N 138°E / 36; 138

Japan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan

**This article contains special characters.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. **This page uses orthographic and related notations.** For the notations `⟨ ⟩`, `/ /` and `[ ]`  used in this article, see IPA Brackets and transcription delimiters. The **tilde** (/ˈtɪldeɪ, -di, -də, ˈtɪld/) **˜** or **~**, is a grapheme with several uses. The name of the character came into English from Spanish, which in turn came from the Latin *titulus*, meaning "title" or "superscription". Its primary use is as a diacritic (accent) in combination with a base letter; but for historical reasons, it is also used in standalone form within a variety of contexts. History ------- ### Use by medieval scribes The tilde was originally written over an omitted letter or several letters as a scribal abbreviation, or "mark of suspension" and "mark of contraction", shown as a straight line when used with capitals. Thus, the commonly used words *Anno Domini* were frequently abbreviated to *Ao Dñi*, with an elevated terminal with a suspension mark placed over the "n". Such a mark could denote the omission of one letter or several letters. This saved on the expense of the scribe's labor and the cost of vellum and ink. Medieval European charters written in Latin are largely made up of such abbreviated words with suspension marks and other abbreviations; only uncommon words were given in full. The text of the Domesday Book of 1086, relating for example, to the manor of Molland in Devon (see adjacent picture), is highly abbreviated as indicated by numerous tildes. The text with abbreviations expanded is as follows: > *Mollande tempore regis Edwardi geldabat pro quattuor hidis et uno ferling. Terra est quadraginta carucae. In dominio sunt tres carucae et decem servi et triginta villani et viginti bordarii cum sedecim carucis. Ibi duodecim acrae prati et quindecim acrae silvae. Pastura tres leugae in longitudine et latitudine. Reddit quattuor et viginti libras ad pensam. Huic manerio est adjuncta Blachepole. Elwardus tenebat tempore regis Edwardi pro manerio et geldabat pro dimidia hida. Terra est duae carucae. Ibi sunt quinque villani cum uno servo. Valet viginti solidos ad pensam et arsuram. Eidem manerio est injuste adjuncta Nimete et valet quindecim solidos. Ipsi manerio pertinet tercius denarius de Hundredis Nortmoltone et Badentone et Brantone et tercium animal pasturae morarum.* > > ### Role of mechanical typewriters On typewriters designed for languages that routinely use diacritics (accent marks), there are two possible solutions. Keys can be dedicated to precomposed characters or alternatively a dead key mechanism can be provided. With the latter, a mark is made when a dead key is typed, but unlike normal keys, the paper carriage does not move on and thus the next letter to be typed is printed under that accent. Typewriters for Spanish typically have a dedicated key for Ñ/ñ but, as Portuguese uses Ã/ã and Õ/õ, a single dead-key (rather than take two keys to dedicate) is the most practical solution. The tilde symbol did not exist independently as a movable type or hot-lead printing character since the type cases for Spanish or Portuguese would include sorts for the accented forms. ### The centralized ASCII tilde | | | | --- | --- | | Serif: | —~— | | Sans-serif: | —~— | | Monospace: | —~— | | A free-standing tilde between two em dashesin three font families | The first ASCII standard (X3.64-1963) did not have a tilde. Like Portuguese and Spanish, the French, German and Scandinavian languages also needed symbols in excess of the basic 26 needed for English. The ASA worked with and through the CCITT to internationalize the code-set, to meet the basic needs of at least the Western European languages. > It appears to have been at their May 13–15, 1963 meeting that the CCITT decided that the proposed ISO 7-bit code standard would be suitable for their needs if a lower case alphabet and five diacritical marks [...] were added to it. At the October 29–31 meeting, then, the ISO subcommittee altered the ISO draft to meet the CCITT requirements, replacing the up-arrow and left-arrow with diacriticals, adding diacritical meanings to the apostrophe and quotation mark, and making the number sign a dual for the tilde. > > — Yucca's free information site (which cites the original sources). Thus ISO 646 was born (and the ASCII standard updated to X3.64-1967), providing the tilde and other symbols as optional characters. ISO 646 and ASCII incorporated many of the overprinting lower-case diacritics from typewriters, including tilde. Overprinting was intended to work by putting a backspace code between the codes for letter and diacritic. However even at that time, mechanisms that could do this or any other overprinting were not widely available, did not work for capital letters, and were impossible on video displays, with the result that this concept failed to gain significant acceptance. Consequently, many of these free-standing diacritics (and the underscore) were quickly reused by software as additional syntax, basically becoming new types of syntactic symbols that a programming language could use. As this usage became predominant, type design gradually evolved so these diacritic characters became larger and more vertically centered, making them useless as overprinted diacritics but much easier to read as free-standing characters that had come to be used for entirely different and novel purposes. Most modern fonts align the plain ASCII "spacing" (free-standing) tilde at the same level as dashes, or only slightly higher. The free-standing tilde is at code 126 in ASCII, where it was inherited into Unicode as U+007E. A similar shaped mark (⁓) is known in typography and lexicography as a swung dash: these are used in dictionaries to indicate the omission of the entry word. ### Connection to Spanish As indicated by the etymological origin of the word "tilde" in English, this symbol has been closely associated with the Spanish language. The connection stems from the use of the tilde above the letter ⟨n⟩ to form the (different) letter ⟨ñ⟩ in Spanish, a feature shared by only a few other languages, most of which are historically connected to Spanish. This peculiarity can help non-native speakers quickly identify a text as being written in Spanish with little chance of error. Particularly during the 1990s, Spanish-speaking intellectuals and news outlets demonstrated support for the language and the culture by defending this letter against globalisation and computerisation trends that threatened to remove it from keyboards and other standardised products and codes. The Instituto Cervantes, founded by Spain's government to promote the Spanish language internationally, chose as its logo a highly stylised Ñ with a large tilde. The 24-hour news channel CNN in the US later adopted a similar strategy on its existing logo for the launch of its Spanish-language version, therefore being written as CN͠N. And similarly to the National Basketball Association (NBA), the Spain men's national basketball team is nicknamed "ÑBA". In Spanish itself the word *tilde* is used more generally for diacritics, including the stress-marking acute accent. The diacritic ~ is more commonly called *virgulilla* or *la tilde de la eñe*, and is not considered an accent mark in Spanish, but rather simply a part of the letter ñ (much like the dot over ı makes an i character that is familiar to readers of English). Usage ----- ### Letters with tilde This is a table of precomposed letters with tilde: * Tilde ◌̃    **Latin**: Ã ã * Ẵ ẵ * Ẫ ẫ * Ằ ằ * ᵬ * ᵭ * Ẽ ẽ * Ễ ễ * Ḛ ḛ * ᵮ * Ĩ ĩ * Ḭ ḭ * ɫ * ᵯ * Ñ ñ * ᵰ * Õ õ * Ỗ ỗ * Ỡ ỡ * Ṑ ṑ * Ṍ ṍ * Ṏ ṏ * Ȭ ȭ * ᵱ * ᵳ * ᵲ * ꭨ * ᵴ * ᵵ * Ũ ũ * Ữ ữ * Ṹ ṹ * Ṵ ṵ * Ṽ ṽ * Ỹ ỹ * ᵶ A tilde diacritic can be added to almost any character by using a combining tilde. ### Common use in English The English language does not use the tilde as a diacritic, though it is used in some loanwords. The standalone form of the symbol is used more widely. Informally, it means "approximately", "about", or "around", such as "~30 minutes before", meaning "*approximately* 30 minutes before". It may also mean "similar to", including "of the same order of magnitude as", such as "x ~ y" meaning that x and y are of the same order of magnitude. Another approximation symbol is the double tilde ≈, meaning "approximately/almost equal to". The tilde is also used to indicate congruence of shapes by placing it over an = symbol, thus ≅. In more recent digital usage, tildes on either side of a word or phrase have sometimes come to convey a particular tone that "let[s] the enclosed words perform both sincerity and irony", which can pre-emptively defuse a negative reaction. For example, BuzzFeed journalist Joseph Bernstein interprets the tildes in the following tweet: "in the ~ spirit of the season ~ will now link to some of the (imho) #Bestof2014 sports reads. if you hate nice things, mute that hashtag." as a way of making it clear that both the author and reader are aware that the enclosed phrase – "spirit of the season" – "is cliche and we know this quality is beneath our author, and we don't want you to think our author is a cliche person generally". The symbol is used in social media to indicate sarcasm. ### Diacritical use In some languages, the tilde is a diacritic mark placed over a letter to indicate a change in its pronunciation: #### Pitch The tilde was firstly used in the polytonic orthography of Ancient Greek, as a variant of the circumflex, representing a rise in pitch followed by a return to standard pitch. #### Abbreviation Later, it was used to make abbreviations in medieval Latin documents. When an ⟨n⟩ or ⟨m⟩ followed a vowel, it was often omitted, and a tilde (physically, a small ⟨N⟩) was placed over the preceding vowel to indicate the missing letter; this is the origin of the use of tilde to indicate nasalization (compare the development of the umlaut as an abbreviation of ⟨e⟩.) The practice of using the tilde over a vowel to indicate omission of an ⟨n⟩ or ⟨m⟩ continued in printed books in French as a means of reducing text length until the 17th century. It was also used in Portuguese and Spanish. The tilde was also used occasionally to make other abbreviations, such as over the letter ⟨q⟩, making q̃, to signify the word *que* ("that"). #### Nasalization It is also as a small ⟨n⟩ that the tilde originated when written above other letters, marking a Latin ⟨n⟩ which had been elided in old Galician-Portuguese. In modern Portuguese it indicates nasalization of the base vowel: *mão* "hand", from Lat. *manu-*; *razões* "reasons", from Lat. *rationes*. This usage has been adopted in the orthographies of several native languages of South America, such as Guarani and Nheengatu, as well as in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and many other phonetic alphabets. For example, [ljɔ̃] is the IPA transcription of the pronunciation of the French place-name *Lyon*. In Breton, the symbol ⟨ñ⟩ after a vowel means that the letter ⟨n⟩ serves only to give the vowel a nasalised pronunciation, without being itself pronounced, as it normally is. For example, ⟨an⟩ gives the pronunciation [ãn] whereas ⟨añ⟩ gives [ã]. In the DMG romanization of Tunisian Arabic, the tilde is used for nasal vowels õ and ṏ. #### Palatal n The tilded ⟨n⟩ (⟨ñ⟩, ⟨Ñ⟩) developed from the digraph ⟨nn⟩ in Spanish. In this language, ⟨ñ⟩ is considered a separate letter called *eñe* (IPA: [ˈeɲe]), rather than a letter-diacritic combination; it is placed in Spanish dictionaries between the letters ⟨n⟩ and ⟨o⟩. In Spanish, the word *tilde* actually refers to diacritics in general, e.g. the acute accent in *José*, while the diacritic in ⟨ñ⟩ is called "virgulilla" (IPA: [birɣuˈliʝa]). Current languages in which the tilded ⟨n⟩ (⟨ñ⟩) is used for the palatal nasal consonant /ɲ/ include * Asturian * Aymara * Basque * Chamorro * Filipino * Galician * Guaraní * Iñupiaq * Mapudungun * Papiamento * Quechua * Spanish * Tetum * Wolof #### Tone In Vietnamese, a tilde over a vowel represents a creaky rising tone (*ngã*). Letters with the tilde are not considered separate letters of the Vietnamese alphabet. #### International Phonetic Alphabet In phonetics, a tilde is used as a diacritic that is placed above a letter, below it or superimposed onto the middle of it: * A tilde above a letter indicates nasalization, e.g. [ã], [ṽ]. * A tilde superimposed onto the middle of a letter indicates velarization or pharyngealization, e.g. [ɫ], [z̴]. If no precomposed Unicode character exists, the Unicode character U+0334 ◌̴ COMBINING TILDE OVERLAY can be used to generate one. * A tilde below a letter indicates laryngealisation, e.g. [d̰]. If no precomposed Unicode character exists, the Unicode character U+0330 ◌̰ COMBINING TILDE BELOW can be used to generate one. #### Letter extension In Estonian, the symbol ⟨õ⟩ stands for the close-mid back unrounded vowel, and it is considered an independent letter. #### Other uses Some languages and alphabets use the tilde for other purposes, such as: * Arabic script: A symbol resembling the tilde (U+0653 ـٓ ARABIC MADDAH ABOVE) is used over the letter ⟨ا⟩ (/a/) to become ⟨آ⟩, denoting a long /aː/ sound. * Guaraní: The tilded ⟨G̃⟩ (note that ⟨G/g⟩ with tilde is not available as a precomposed glyph in Unicode) stands for the velar nasal consonant. Also, the tilded ⟨y⟩ (⟨Ỹ⟩) stands for the nasalized upper central rounded vowel [ɨ̃]. Munduruku, Parintintín, and two older spellings of Filipino words also use ⟨g̃⟩. * Syriac script: A tilde (~) under the letter *Kaph* represents a [t͡ʃ] sound, transliterated as *ch* or *č*. * Estonian and Võro use the tilde above the letter o (**õ**) to indicate the vowel [ɤ], a rare sound among languages. * Unicode has a combining vertical tilde character: U+033E ◌̾ COMBINING VERTICAL TILDE. It is used to indicate middle tone in linguistic transcription of certain dialects of the Lithuanian language. ### Punctuation The tilde is used in various ways in punctuation, such as: #### Range In some languages (though not generally in English), a tilde-like wavy dash may be used as punctuation (instead of an unspaced hyphen, en dash or em dash) between two numbers, to indicate a range rather than subtraction or a hyphenated number (such as a part number or model number). For example, "12~15" means "12 to 15", "~3" means "up to three", and "100~" means "100 and greater". East Asian languages almost always use this convention, but it is often done for clarity in some other languages as well. Chinese uses the wavy dash and full-width em dash interchangeably for this purpose. In English, the tilde is often used to express ranges and model numbers in electronics, but rarely in formal grammar or in type-set documents, as a wavy dash preceding a number sometimes represents an approximation (see below). #### Approximation Before a number the tilde can mean 'approximately'; '~42' means 'approximately 42'. When used with currency symbols that precede the number (national conventions differ), the tilde precedes the symbol, thus for example '~$10' means 'about ten dollars'. The symbols ≈ (almost equal to) and ≅ (approximately equal to) are among the other symbols used to express approximation. #### Japanese The **wave dash** (波ダッシュ, *nami dasshu*) is used for various purposes in Japanese, including to denote ranges of numbers (e.g., *5〜10* means between 5 and 10) in place of dashes or brackets, and to indicate origin. The wave dash is also used to separate a title and a subtitle in the same line, as a colon is used in English. When used in conversations via email or instant messenger it may be used as a sarcasm mark. The sign is used as a replacement for the *chōon*, katakana character, in Japanese, extending the final syllable. ##### Unicode and Shift JIS encoding of wave dash Correct JIS wave dashCorrect JIS wave dash, current in UnicodePrevious Unicode wave dash (incorrect)Previous Unicode wave dash (incorrect) In practice the full-width tilde (全角チルダ, *zenkaku chiruda*) (Unicode U+FF5E ～ FULLWIDTH TILDE), is often used instead of the wave dash (波ダッシュ, *nami dasshu*) (Unicode U+301C 〜 WAVE DASH), because the Shift JIS code for the wave dash, 0x8160, which should be mapped to U+301C, is instead mapped to U+FF5E in Windows code page 932 (Microsoft's code page for Japanese), a widely used extension of Shift JIS. This decision avoided a shape definition error in the original (6.2) Unicode code charts: the wave dash reference glyph in JIS / Shift JIS matches the Unicode reference glyph for U+FF5E FULLWIDTH TILDE, while the original reference glyph for U+301C was reflected, incorrectly, when Unicode imported the JIS wave dash. In other platforms such as the classic Mac OS and macOS, 0x8160 is correctly mapped to U+301C. It is generally difficult, if not impossible, for users of Japanese Windows to type U+301C, especially in legacy, non-Unicode applications. A similar situation exists regarding the Korean KS X 1001 character set, in which Microsoft maps the EUC-KR or UHC code for the wave dash (0xA1AD) to U+223C ∼ TILDE OPERATOR, while IBM and Apple map it to U+301C. Microsoft also uses U+FF5E to map the KS X 1001 raised tilde (0xA2A6), while Apple uses U+02DC ˜ SMALL TILDE. The current Unicode reference glyph for U+301C has been corrected to match the JIS standard in response to a 2014 proposal, which noted that while the existing Unicode reference glyph had been matched by fonts from the discontinued Windows XP, all other major platforms including later versions of Microsoft Windows shipped with fonts matching the JIS reference glyph for U+301C. The JIS / Shift JIS wave dash is still formally mapped to U+301C as of JIS X 0213, whereas the WHATWG Encoding Standard used by HTML5 follows Microsoft in mapping 0x8160 to U+FF5E. These two code points have a similar or identical glyph in several fonts, reducing the confusion and incompatibility. ### Mathematics #### As a unary operator A tilde in front of a single quantity can mean "approximately", "about" or "of the same order of magnitude as." In written mathematical logic, the tilde represents negation: "~*p*" means "not *p*", where "*p*" is a proposition. Modern use often replaces the tilde with the negation symbol (¬) for this purpose, to avoid confusion with equivalence relations. #### As a relational operator In mathematics, the tilde operator (Unicode U+223C), sometimes called "twiddle", is often used to denote an equivalence relation between two objects. Thus "x ~ y" means "x is equivalent to y". It is a weaker statement than stating that x equals y. The expression "x ~ y" is sometimes read aloud as "x twiddles y", perhaps as an analogue to the verbal expression of "x = y". The tilde can indicate approximate equality in a variety of ways. It can be used to denote the asymptotic equality of two functions. For example, f (x) ~ g(x) means that lim x → ∞ f ( x ) g ( x ) = 1 {\displaystyle \lim \_{x\to \infty }{\frac {f(x)}{g(x)}}=1} {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to \infty }{\frac {f(x)}{g(x)}}=1}. A tilde is also used to indicate "approximately equal to" (e.g. 1.902 ~= 2). This usage probably developed as a typed alternative to the libra symbol used for the same purpose in written mathematics, which is an equal sign with the upper bar replaced by a bar with an upward hump, bump, or loop in the middle (︍︍♎︎) or, sometimes, a tilde (≃). The symbol "≈" is also used for this purpose. In physics and astronomy, a tilde can be used between two expressions (e.g. h ~ 10−34 J s) to state that the two are of the same order of magnitude. In statistics and probability theory, the tilde means "is distributed as"; see random variable(e.g. X ~ B(n,p) for a binomial distribution). A tilde can also be used to represent geometric similarity (e.g. ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF, meaning triangle ABC is similar to DEF). A triple tilde (**≋**) is often used to show congruence, an equivalence relation in geometry. In graph theory, the tilde can be used to represent adjacency between vertices. The edge ( x , y ) {\displaystyle (x,y)} (x,y) connects vertices x {\displaystyle x} x and y {\displaystyle y} y which can be said to be adjacent, and this adjacency can be denoted x ∼ y {\displaystyle x\sim y} x\sim y. #### As a diacritic The symbol " f ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {f}}} {\tilde {f}}" is pronounced as "eff tilde" or, informally, as "eff twiddle". This can be used to denote the Fourier transform of *f*, or a lift of *f*, and can have a variety of other meanings depending on the context. A tilde placed below a letter in mathematics can represent a vector quantity (e.g. ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , … , x n ) = x ∼ {\displaystyle (x\_{1},x\_{2},x\_{3},\ldots ,x\_{n})={\underset {^{\sim }}{\mathbf {x} }}} (x_{1},x_{2},x_{3},\ldots ,x_{n})={\underset {^{\sim }}{\mathbf {x} }}). In statistics and probability theory, a tilde placed on top of a variable is sometimes used to represent the median of that variable; thus y ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {\mathbf {y} }}} {\tilde {\mathbf {y} }} would indicate the median of the variable y {\displaystyle \mathbf {y} } \mathbf {y} . A tilde over the letter n ( n ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {n}}} {\tilde {n}}) is sometimes used to indicate the harmonic mean. In machine learning, a tilde may represent a candidate value for a cell state in GRUs or LSTM units. (e.g. c̃) ### Physics Often in physics, one can consider an equilibrium solution to an equation, and then a perturbation to that equilibrium. For the variables in the original equation (for instance X {\displaystyle X} X) a substitution X → x + x ~ {\displaystyle X\to x+{\tilde {x}}} X\to x+{\tilde {x}} can be made, where x {\displaystyle x} x is the equilibrium part and x ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {x}}} {\tilde {x}} is the perturbed part. A tilde is also used in particle physics to denote the hypothetical supersymmetric partner. For example, an electron is referred to by the letter *e*, and its superpartner the selectron is written *ẽ*. In multibody mechanics, the tilde operator maps three-dimensional vectors ω ∈ R 3 {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\omega }}\in \mathbb {R} ^{3}} {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\omega }}\in \mathbb {R} ^{3}} to skew-symmetrical matrices ω ~ = [ 0 − ω 3 ω 2 ω 3 0 − ω 1 − ω 2 ω 1 0 ] {\displaystyle {\tilde {\boldsymbol {\omega }}}={\begin{bmatrix}0&-\omega \_{3}&\omega \_{2}\\\omega \_{3}&0&-\omega \_{1}\\-\omega \_{2}&\omega \_{1}&0\end{bmatrix}}} {\displaystyle {\tilde {\boldsymbol {\omega }}}={\begin{bmatrix}0&-\omega _{3}&\omega _{2}\\\omega _{3}&0&-\omega _{1}\\-\omega _{2}&\omega _{1}&0\end{bmatrix}}} (see or ). ### Economics For relations involving preference, economists sometimes use the tilde to represent indifference between two or more bundles of goods. For example, to say that a consumer is indifferent between bundles *x* and *y*, an economist would write *x* ~ *y*. ### Electronics It can approximate the sine wave symbol (∿, U+223F), which is used in electronics to indicate alternating current, in place of +, −, or ⎓ for direct current. ### Linguistics The tilde may indicate alternating allomorphs or morphological alternation, as in //ˈniː~ɛl+t// for *kneel~knelt* (the plus sign '+' indicates a morpheme boundary). The tilde may represent some sort of phonetic or phonemic variation between two sounds, which might be allophones or in free variation. For example, [χ ~ x] can represent "either [χ] or [x]". In formal semantics, it is also used as a notation for the *squiggle operator* which plays a key role in many theories of focus. ### Computing Computer programmers use the tilde in various ways and sometimes call the symbol (as opposed to the diacritic) a **squiggle**, **squiggly**, **swiggle**, or **twiddle**. According to the Jargon File, other synonyms sometimes used in programming include **not**, **approx**, **wiggle**, **enyay** (after *eñe*) and (humorously) **sqiggle** /ˈskɪɡəl/. #### Directories and URLs On Unix-like operating systems (including AIX, BSD, Linux and macOS), tilde normally indicates the current user's home directory. For example, if the current user's home directory is /home/user, then the command cd ~ is equivalent to cd /home/user, cd $HOME, or cd. This convention derives from the Lear-Siegler ADM-3A terminal in common use during the 1970s, which happened to have the tilde symbol and the word "Home" (for moving the cursor to the upper left) on the same key. When prepended to a particular username, the tilde indicates that user's home directory (e.g., ~janedoe for the home directory of user janedoe, such as /home/janedoe). Used in URLs on the World Wide Web, it often denotes a personal website on a Unix-based server. For example, http://www.example.com/~johndoe/ might be the personal website of John Doe. This mimics the Unix shell usage of the tilde. However, when accessed from the web, file access is usually directed to a subdirectory in the user's home directory, such as /home/*username*/public\_html or /home/*username*/www. In URLs, the characters %7E (or %7e) may substitute for a tilde if an input device lacks a tilde key. Thus, http://www.example.com/~johndoe/ and http://www.example.com/%7Ejohndoe/ will behave in the same manner. #### Computer languages The tilde is used in the AWK programming language as part of the pattern match operators for regular expressions: * `*variable* ~ /*regex*/` returns true if the variable is matched. * `*variable* !~ /*regex*/` returns false if the variable is matched. A variant of this, with the plain tilde replaced with `=~`, was adopted in Perl, and this semi-standardization has led to the use of these operators in other programming languages, such as Ruby or the SQL variant of the database PostgreSQL. In APL and MATLAB, tilde represents the monadic logical function NOT, and in APL it additionally represents the dyadic multiset function *without* (set difference). In C the tilde character is used as bitwise NOT unary operator, following the notation in logic (an `!` causes a logical NOT, instead). This is also used by most languages based on or influenced by C, such as C++, D and C#. The MySQL database also use tilde as bitwise invert as does Microsoft's SQL Server Transact-SQL (T-SQL) language. JavaScript also uses tilde as bitwise NOT, and because JavaScript internally uses floats and the bitwise complement only works on integers, numbers are stripped of their decimal part before applying the operation. This has also given rise to using two tildes `~~x` as a short syntax for a cast to integer (numbers are stripped of their decimal part and changed into their complement, and then back). In C++ and C#, the tilde is also used as the first character in a class's method name (where the rest of the name must be the same name as the class) to indicate a destructor – a special method which is called at the end of the object's life. In ASP.NET application tilde ('~') is used as a shortcut to the root of the application's virtual directory. In the CSS stylesheet language, the tilde is used for the indirect adjacent combinator as part of a selector. In the D programming language, the tilde is used as an array concatenation operator, as well as to indicate an object destructor and bitwise not operator. Tilde operator can be overloaded for user types, and binary tilde operator is mostly used to merging two objects, or adding some objects to set of objects. It was introduced because plus operator can have different meaning in many situations. For example, what to do with "120" + "14" ? Is this a string "134" (addition of two numbers), or "12014" (concatenation of strings) or something else? D disallows + operator for arrays (and strings), and provides separate operator for concatenation (similarly PHP programming language solved this problem by using dot operator for concatenation, and + for number addition, which will also work on strings containing numbers). In Eiffel, the tilde is used for object comparison. If *a* and *b* denote objects, the boolean expression *a* ~ *b* has value true if and only if these objects are equal, as defined by the applicable version of the library routine *is\_equal*, which by default denotes field-by-field object equality but can be redefined in any class to support a specific notion of equality. If *a* and *b* are references, the object equality expression *a* ~ *b* is to be contrasted with *a* = *b* which denotes reference equality. Unlike the call *a*.*is\_equal* (*b*), the expression *a* ~ *b* is type-safe even in the presence of covariance. In the Apache Groovy programming language the tilde character is used as an operator mapped to the bitwiseNegate() method. Given a String the method will produce a java.util.regex.Pattern. Given an integer it will negate the integer bitwise like in C. `=~` and `==~` can in Groovy be used to match a regular expression. In Haskell, the tilde is used in type constraints to indicate type equality. Also, in pattern-matching, the tilde is used to indicate a lazy pattern match. In the Inform programming language, the tilde is used to indicate a quotation mark inside a quoted string. In "text mode" of the LaTeX typesetting language a tilde diacritic can be obtained using, e.g., `\~{n}`, yielding "ñ". A stand-alone tilde can be obtained by using `\textasciitilde` or `\string~`. In "math mode" a tilde diacritic can be written as, e.g., `\tilde{x}`. For a wider tilde `\widetilde` can be used. The `\sim` command produce a tilde-like binary relation symbol that is often used in mathematical expressions, and the double-tilde ≈ is obtained with `\approx`. The `url` package also supports entering tildes directly, e.g., `\url{http://server/~name}`. In both text and math mode, a tilde on its own (`~`) renders a white space with no line breaking. In MediaWiki syntax, four tildes are used as a shortcut for a user's signature. In Common Lisp, the tilde is used as the prefix for format specifiers in format strings. In Max/MSP, a tilde is used to denote objects that process at the computer's sampling rate, i.e. mainly those that deal with sound. In Standard ML, the tilde is used as the prefix for negative numbers and as the unary negation operator. In OCaml, the tilde is used to specify the label for a labeled parameter. In R, the tilde operator is used to separate the left- and right-hand sides in a model formula. In Object REXX, the twiddle is used as a "message send" symbol. For example, `Employee.name~lower()` would cause the `lower()` method to act on the object `Employee`'s `name` attribute, returning the result of the operation. `~~` returns the object that received the method rather than the result produced. Thus it can be used when the result need not be returned or when cascading methods are to be used. `team~~insert("Jane")~~insert("Joe")~~insert("Steve")` would send multiple concurrent `insert` messages, thus invoking the `insert` method three consecutive times on the `team` object. In Raku, `~~` is used instead of `=~` for a regular expression. Because the dot operator is used for member access instead of `->`, concatenation is done with a single tilde. ``` my $concatResult = "Hello " ~ "world!"; $concatResult ~~ /<|w><[A..Z]><[a..z]>\*<|w>/; say $/; # outputs "Hello" # the $/ variable holds the last regex match result ``` #### Keyboards The presence (or absence) of a tilde engraved on the keyboard depends on the territory where it was sold. In either case, computer's system settings determine the keyboard mapping and the default setting will match the engravings on the keys. Even so, it certainly possible to configure a keyboard for a different locale than that supplied by the retailer. On American and British keyboards, the tilde is a standard keytop and pressing it produces a free-standing "ASCII Tilde". To generate a letter with a tilde diacritic requires the US international or UK extended keyboard setting. * With US-international, the `/~ key is a dead key: pressing the `~` key and then a letter produces the tilde-accented form of that letter. (For example, `~` `a` produces ã.) With this setting active, an ASCII tilde can be inserted with the dead key followed by the space bar, or alternatively by striking the dead key twice in a row. * With UK-extended, the key works normally but becomes a 'dead key' when combined with AltGr. Thus `AltGr`+`#` followed by a letter produces the accented form of that letter. * With a Mac either of the Alt/Option keys function similarly. * With Linux, the compose key facility is used. Instructions for other national languages and keyboards are beyond the scope of this article. In the US and European Windows systems, the Alt code for a single tilde is `126`. #### Backup filenames The dominant Unix convention for naming backup copies of files is appending a tilde to the original file name. It originated with the Emacs text editor and was adopted by many other editors and some command-line tools. Emacs also introduced an elaborate numbered backup scheme, with files named filename.~1~, filename.~2~ and so on. It didn't catch on, as the rise of version control software eliminates the need for this usage. #### Microsoft filenames The tilde was part of Microsoft's filename mangling scheme when it extended the FAT file system standard to support long filenames for Microsoft Windows. Programs written prior to this development could only access filenames in the so-called 8.3 format—the filenames consisted of a maximum of eight characters from a restricted character set (e.g. no spaces), followed by a period, followed by three more characters. In order to permit these legacy programs to access files in the FAT file system, each file had to be given two names—one long, more descriptive one, and one that conformed to the 8.3 format. This was accomplished with a name-mangling scheme in which the first six characters of the filename are followed by a tilde and a digit. For example, "Program Files" might become "PROGRA~1". The tilde symbol is also often used to prefix hidden temporary files that are created when a document is opened in Windows. For example, when a document "Document1.doc" is opened in Word, a file called "~$cument1.doc" is created in the same directory. This file contains information about which user has the file open, to prevent multiple users from attempting to change a document at the same time. ### Juggling notation In the juggling notation system Beatmap, tilde can be added to either "hand" in a pair of fields to say "cross the arms with this hand on top". Mills Mess is thus represented as (~2x,1)(1,2x)(2x,~1)\*. Unicode ------- <?> **This section contains uncommon Unicode characters.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of the intended characters. ### Variants and similars Unicode has code-points for many forms of non-combined tilde, for symbols incorporating tildes, and for characters visually similar to a tilde. | Character | Code point | Name | Comments | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | ~ | U+007E | TILDE | The keyboard tilde. Center-height alignment. | | ˜ | U+02DC | SMALL TILDE | A spacing version of the combining tilde diacritic. | | ˷ | U+02F7 | MODIFIER LETTER LOW TILDE | A spacing version of the combining tilde diacritic. | | ◌̃ | U+0303 | COMBINING TILDE | Used in IPA to indicate a nasal vowel. | | ◌̰ | U+0330 | COMBINING TILDE BELOW | Used in IPA to indicate creaky voice. | | ◌̴ | U+0334 | COMBINING TILDE OVERLAY | Overstrikes the preceding letter. Used in IPA to indicate velarization or pharyngealization. | | ◌̾ | U+033E | COMBINING VERTICAL TILDE | | | ◌͂ | U+0342 | COMBINING GREEK PERISPOMENI | Used as an Ancient Greek accent under the name "circumflex"; it can also be written as an inverted breve. | | ◌͊ | U+034A | COMBINING NOT TILDE ABOVE | Used in extIPA to indicate a denasalization. | | ◌͋ | U+034B | COMBINING HOMOTHETIC ABOVE | Used in extIPA to indicate a nareal fricative. | | ◌͠◌ | U+0360 | COMBINING DOUBLE TILDE | A diacritic that applies to a pair of letters. | | ◌֘ | U+0598 | HEBREW ACCENT ZARQA | Hebrew cantillation mark. | | ◌֮ | U+05AE | HEBREW ACCENT ZINOR | Hebrew cantillation mark. | | ◌᷉ | U+1DC9 | COMBINING ACUTE-GRAVE-ACUTE | Used in IPA as a tone mark. | | ⁓ | U+2053 | SWUNG DASH | A punctuation mark. | | ∼ | U+223C | TILDE OPERATOR | Used in mathematics. In-line. Ends not curved as much. | | ∽ | U+223D | REVERSED TILDE | In some fonts it is the tilde's simple mirror image; others extend the tips to resemble a ᔕ, or an open ∞. | | ∿ | U+223F | SINE WAVE | Used in electronics to indicate alternating current, in place of +, −, or ⎓ for direct current. | | ≁ | U+2241 | NOT TILDE | | | ≂ | U+2242 | MINUS TILDE | | | ≃ | U+2243 | ASYMPTOTICALLY EQUAL TO | | | ≄ | U+2244 | NOT ASYMPTOTICALLY EQUAL TO | | | ≅ | U+2245 | APPROXIMATELY EQUAL TO | | | ≆ | U+2246 | APPROXIMATELY BUT NOT ACTUALLY EQUAL TO | | | ≇ | U+2247 | NEITHER APPROXIMATELY NOR ACTUALLY EQUAL TO | | | ≈ | U+2248 | ALMOST EQUAL TO | | | ≉ | U+2249 | NOT ALMOST EQUAL TO | | | ≊ | U+224A | ALMOST EQUAL OR EQUAL TO | | | ≋ | U+224B | TRIPLE TILDE | | | ≌ | U+224C | ALL EQUAL TO | | | ⋍ | U+22CD | REVERSED TILDE EQUALS | | | ⍨ | U+2368 | APL FUNCTIONAL SYMBOL TILDE DIAERESIS | | | ⍫ | U+236B | APL FUNCTIONAL SYMBOL DEL TILDE | | | ⍭ | U+236D | APL FUNCTIONAL SYMBOL STILE TILDE | | | ⍱ | U+2371 | APL FUNCTIONAL SYMBOL DOWN CARET TILDE | | | ⍲ | U+2372 | APL FUNCTIONAL SYMBOL UP CARET TILDE | | | ⥲ | U+2972 | TILDE OPERATOR ABOVE RIGHTWARDS ARROW | | | ⥳ | U+2973 | LEFTWARDS ARROW ABOVE TILDE OPERATOR | | | ⥴ | U+2974 | RIGHTWARDS ARROW ABOVE TILDE OPERATOR | | | ⧤ | U+29E4 | EQUALS SIGN AND SLANTED PARALLEL WITH TILDE ABOVE | | | ⨤ | U+2A24 | PLUS SIGN WITH TILDE ABOVE | | | ⨦ | U+2A26 | PLUS SIGN WITH TILDE BELOW | | | ⩪ | U+2A6A | TILDE OPERATOR WITH DOT ABOVE | | | ⩫ | U+2A6B | TILDE OPERATOR WITH RISING DOTS | | | ⩳ | U+2A73 | EQUALS SIGN ABOVE TILDE OPERATOR | | | ⫇ | U+2AC7 | SUBSET OF ABOVE TILDE OPERATOR | | | ⫈ | U+2AC8 | SUPERSET OF ABOVE TILDE OPERATOR | | | ⫳ | U+2AF3 | PARALLEL WITH TILDE OPERATOR | | | ⭁ | U+2B41 | REVERSE TILDE OPERATOR ABOVE LEFTWARDS ARROW | | | ⭇ | U+2B47 | REVERSE TILDE OPERATOR ABOVE RIGHTWARDS ARROW | | | ⭉ | U+2B49 | TILDE OPERATOR ABOVE LEFTWARDS ARROW | | | ⭋ | U+2B4B | LEFTWARDS ARROW ABOVE REVERSE TILDE OPERATOR | | | ⭌ | U+2B4C | RIGHTWARDS ARROW ABOVE REVERSE TILDE OPERATOR | | | ⸛ | U+2E1B | TILDE WITH RING ABOVE | | | ⸞ | U+2E1E | TILDE WITH DOT ABOVE | | | ⸟ | U+2E1F | TILDE WITH DOT BELOW | | | ⸯ | U+2E2F | VERTICAL TILDE | | | 〜 | U+301C | WAVE DASH | Used in Japanese punctuation. | | 〰 | U+3030 | WAVY DASH | | | ◌︢ | U+FE22 | COMBINING DOUBLE TILDE LEFT HALF | | | ◌︣ | U+FE23 | COMBINING DOUBLE TILDE RIGHT HALF | | | ◌︩ | U+FE29 | COMBINING TILDE LEFT HALF BELOW | | | ◌︪ | U+FE2A | COMBINING TILDE RIGHT HALF BELOW | | | ﹋ | U+FE4B | WAVY OVERLINE | | | ﹏ | U+FE4F | WAVY LOW LINE | | | ～ | U+FF5E | FULLWIDTH TILDE | Em wide. In-line. Ends not curved much. | | ~ | U+E007E | TAG TILDE | Formatting tag control character. | ### Precomposed characters A number of characters in Unicode, have tilde precomposed. | Unicode precomposaed characters with tilde diacritic | | --- | | Letter | Code point | Name | | Ẵ | U+1EB4 | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH BREVE AND TILDE | | ẵ | U+1EB5 | LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH BREVE AND TILDE | | Ẫ | U+1EAA | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE | | ẫ | U+1EAB | LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE | | Ã | U+00C3 | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH TILDE | | ã | U+00E3 | LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH TILDE | | ᵬ | U+1D6C | LATIN SMALL LETTER B WITH MIDDLE TILDE | | ᵭ | U+1D6D | LATIN SMALL LETTER D WITH MIDDLE TILDE | | Ễ | U+1EC4 | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE | | ễ | U+1EC5 | LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE | | Ḛ | U+1E1A | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E WITH TILDE BELOW | | ḛ | U+1E1B | LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH TILDE BELOW | | Ẽ | U+1EBC | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E WITH TILDE | | ẽ | U+1EBD | LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH TILDE | | ᵮ | U+1D6E | LATIN SMALL LETTER F WITH MIDDLE TILDE | | Ḭ | U+1E2C | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH TILDE BELOW | | ḭ | U+1E2D | LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH TILDE BELOW | | Ĩ | U+0128 | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH TILDE | | ĩ | U+0129 | LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH TILDE | | Ɫ | U+2C62 | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L WITH MIDDLE TILDE | | ɫ | U+026B | LATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH MIDDLE TILDE | | ꭞ | U+AB5E | MODIFIER LETTER SMALL L WITH MIDDLE TILDE | | ꬸ | U+AB38 | LATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH DOUBLE MIDDLE TILDE | | ᷬ | U+1DEC | COMBINING LATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH DOUBLE MIDDLE TILDE | | ᵯ | U+1D6F | LATIN SMALL LETTER M WITH MIDDLE TILDE | | ᵰ | U+1D70 | LATIN SMALL LETTER N WITH MIDDLE TILDE | | Ñ | U+00D1 | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N WITH TILDE | | ñ | U+00F1 | LATIN SMALL LETTER N WITH TILDE | | Ỗ | U+1ED6 | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE | | ỗ | U+1ED7 | LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH CIRCUMFLEX AND TILDE | | Ỡ | U+1EE0 | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH HORN AND TILDE | | ỡ | U+1EE1 | LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH HORN AND TILDE | | Ṍ | U+1E4C | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND ACUTE | | ṍ | U+1E4D | LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND ACUTE | | Ṏ | U+1E4E | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND DIAERESIS | | ṏ | U+1E4F | LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND DIAERESIS | | Ȭ | U+022C | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND MACRON | | ȭ | U+022D | LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH TILDE AND MACRON | | Õ | U+00D5 | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O WITH TILDE | | õ | U+00F5 | LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH TILDE | | ᵱ | U+1D71 | LATIN SMALL LETTER P WITH MIDDLE TILDE | | ᵳ | U+1D73 | LATIN SMALL LETTER R WITH FISHHOOK AND MIDDLE TILDE | | ᵲ | U+1D72 | LATIN SMALL LETTER R WITH MIDDLE TILDE | | ꭨ | U+AB68 | LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED R WITH MIDDLE TILDE | | ᵴ | U+1D74 | LATIN SMALL LETTER S WITH MIDDLE TILDE | | ᵵ | U+1D75 | LATIN SMALL LETTER T WITH MIDDLE TILDE | | Ữ | U+1EEE | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH HORN AND TILDE | | ữ | U+1EEF | LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH HORN AND TILDE | | Ṹ | U+1E78 | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH TILDE AND ACUTE | | ṹ | U+1E79 | LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH TILDE AND ACUTE | | Ṵ | U+1E74 | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH TILDE BELOW | | ṵ | U+1E75 | LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH TILDE BELOW | | Ũ | U+0168 | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U WITH TILDE | | ũ | U+0169 | LATIN SMALL LETTER U WITH TILDE | | Ṽ | U+1E7C | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V WITH TILDE | | ṽ | U+1E7D | LATIN SMALL LETTER V WITH TILDE | | Ỹ | U+1EF8 | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y WITH TILDE | | ỹ | U+1EF9 | LATIN SMALL LETTER Y WITH TILDE | | ᵶ | U+1D76 | LATIN SMALL LETTER Z WITH MIDDLE TILDE | See also -------- * Circumflex + Caret (computing) * Tittle * Double tilde (disambiguation) * Backtick

Tilde

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilde

**Bamboos** are a diverse group of mostly evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily **Bambusoideae** of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family, in the case of *Dendrocalamus sinicus* individual culms reaching a length of 46 meters, up to 36 centimeters in thickness and a weight of up to 450 kilograms. The internodes of bamboos can also be of great length. *Kinabaluchloa wrayi* has internodes up to 2.5 meters in length. and Arthrostylidium schombergkii with lower internodes up to 5 meters in length, exceeded in length only by papyrus. By contrast, the culms of the tiny bamboo *Raddiella vanessiae* of the Kaieteur Plateau in French Guiana are only 10–20 millimeters in length by about two millimeters in width. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, but it probably comes from the Dutch or Portuguese language, which originally borrowed it from Malay or Kannada. In bamboo, as in other grasses, the internodal regions of the stem are usually hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross-section are scattered throughout the walls of the culm instead of in a cylindrical cambium layer between the bark (phloem) and the wood (xylem) as in Dicots and Conifers. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering. Bamboos include some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 91 centimetres (36 inches) within a 24-hour period, at a rate of almost 40 millimeters (1+1⁄2 in) an hour (equivalent to 1 mm every 90 seconds). Growth up to 47.6 inches (156 centimeters) in 24 hours has been observed in the instance of Japanese giant timber bamboo (*Phyllostachys bambusoides*). This rapid growth and tolerance for marginal land, make bamboo a good candidate for afforestation, carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation. Bamboo is versatile and has notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a raw product, and depicted often in arts, such as in bamboo paintings and bambooworking. Bamboo, like wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures. Bamboo's strength-to-weight ratio is similar to timber, and its strength is generally similar to a strong softwood or hardwood timber. Some bamboos have displayed remarkable strength under test conditions. *Bambusa tulda* of Bangladesh and adjoining India has tested as high as 60,000 pounds (27,000 Kg or 27 tonnes) per square inch in tensile strength. Other bamboos have extraordinarily hard wood. *Bambusa tabacaria* of China contains so much silica that it will make sparks when struck by an axe. Taxonomy -------- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | BOP clade | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Bambusoideae** | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos) | | | | | Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos) | | | | | | | | Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos) | | | | | | | | Pooideae | | | | | | | | Oryzoideae | | | | | | | | Phylogeny of the bamboo within the BOP clade of grasses, as suggested by analyses of the whole of Poaceae and of the bamboos in particular. | Bamboos have long been considered the most basal grass genera, mostly because of the presence of bracteate, indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules, six stamens, and three stigmata. Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in the Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae, the Puelioideae, and the Ehrhartoideae. The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives). The bamboos comprise three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions representing the New World herbaceous species (Olyreae), tropical woody bamboos (Bambuseae), and temperate woody bamboos (Arundinarieae). The woody bamboos do not form a monophyletic group; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, more than 1,400 species are placed in 115 genera. **Tribe Olyreae** (herbaceous bamboos) 21 genera: * Subtribe Buergersiochloinae one genus: *Buergersiochloa*. * Subtribe Olyrineae 17 genera: *Agnesia*, *Arberella*, *Cryptochloa*, *Diandrolyra*, *Ekmanochloa*, *Froesiochloa*, *Lithachne*, *Maclurolyra*, *Mniochloa*, *Olyra*, *Parodiolyra*, *Piresiella*, *Raddia*, *Raddiella*, *Rehia*, *Reitzia* (syn. *Piresia*), *Sucrea*. * Subtribe Parianinae three genera: *Eremitis*, *Pariana*, *Parianella*. **Tribe Bambuseae** (tropical woody bamboos) 73 genera: * Subtribe Arthrostylidiinae: 15 genera: *Actinocladum*, *Alvimia*, *Arthrostylidium*, *Athroostachys*, *Atractantha*, *Aulonemia*, *Cambajuva*, *Colanthelia*, *Didymogonyx*, *Elytrostachys*, *Filgueirasia*, *Glaziophyton*, *Merostachys*, *Myriocladus*, *Rhipidocladum*. * Subtribe Bambusinae: 17 genera: *Bambusa*, *Bonia*, *Cochinchinochloa*, *Dendrocalamus*, *Fimbribambusa*, *Gigantochloa*, *Maclurochloa*, *Melocalamus*, *Neomicrocalamus*, *Oreobambos*, *Oxytenanthera*, *Phuphanochloa*, *Pseudoxytenanthera*, *Soejatmia*, *Thyrsostachys*, *Vietnamosasa*, *Yersinochloa*. * Subtribe Chusqueinae: one genus: *Chusquea*. * Subtribe Dinochloinae: 7 genera: *Cyrtochloa*, *Dinochloa*, *Mullerochloa*, *Neololeba*, *Pinga*, *Parabambusa*, *Sphaerobambos*. * Subtribe Greslaniinae: one genus: *Greslania*. * Subtribe Guaduinae: 5 genera: *Apoclada*, *Eremocaulon*, *Guadua*, *Olmeca*, *Otatea*. * Subtribe Hickeliinae: 9 genera: *Cathariostachys*, *Decaryochloa*, *Hickelia*, *Hitchcockella*, *Nastus*, *Perrierbambus*, *Sirochloa*, *Sokinochloa*, *Valiha*. * Subtribe Holttumochloinae: 3 genera: *Holttumochloa*, *Kinabaluchloa*, *Nianhochloa*. * Subtribe Melocanninae: 9 genera: *Annamocalamus*, *Cephalostachyum*, *Davidsea*, *Melocanna*, *Neohouzeaua*, *Ochlandra*, *Pseudostachyum*, *Schizostachyum*, *Stapletonia*. * Subtribe Racemobambosinae: 3 genera: *Chloothamnus*, *Racemobambos*, *Widjajachloa*. * Subtribe Temburongiinae: one genus: *Temburongia*. * *incertae sedis* 2 genera: *Ruhooglandia*, *Temochloa*. **Tribe Arundinarieae** (temperate woody bamboos) 31 genera: *Acidosasa*, *Ampelocalamus*, *Arundinaria*, *Bashania*, *Bergbambos*, *Chimonobambusa*, *Chimonocalamus*, *Drepanostachyum*, *Fargesia*, *Ferrocalamus*, *Gaoligongshania*, *Gelidocalamus*, *Himalayacalamus*, *Indocalamus*, *Indosasa*, *Kuruna*, *Oldeania*, *Oligostachyum*, *Phyllostachys*, *Pleioblastus*, *Pseudosasa*, *Sarocalamus*, *Sasa*, *Sasaella*, *Sasamorpha*, *Semiarundinaria*, *Shibataea*, *Sinobambusa*, *Thamnocalamus*, *Vietnamocalamus*, *Yushania*. Distribution ------------ Most bamboo species are native to warm and moist tropical and to warm temperate climates. Their range also extends to cool mountainous regions and highland cloud forests. In the Asia-Pacific region they occur across East Asia, from north to 50 °N latitude in Sakhalin, to south to northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. China, Japan, Korea, India and Australia, all have several endemic populations. They also occur in small numbers in sub-Saharan Africa, confined to tropical areas, from southern Senegal in the north to southern Mozambique and Madagascar in the south. In the Americas, bamboo has a native range from 47 °S in southern Argentina and the beech forests of central Chile, through the South American tropical rainforests, to the Andes in Ecuador near 4,300 m (14,000 ft). Three species of bamboo, all in the genus *Arundinaria*, are also native through Central America and Mexico, northward into the Southeastern United States. Bamboo thickets called canebrakes once formed a dominant ecosystem in some parts of the Southeastern United States, but they are now considered critically endangered ecosystems. Canada and continental Europe are not known to have any native species of bamboo. Many species are also cultivated as garden plants outside of this range, including in Europe and areas of North America where no native wild bamboo exists. Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as *Phyllostachys nigra* (Henon) and *Phyllostachys edulis* (Moso). * Bamboo forest in Arashiyama, Kyoto, JapanBamboo forest in Arashiyama, Kyoto, Japan * Serra dos Órgãos National Park, BrazilSerra dos Órgãos National Park, Brazil * Bamboo forest in Guangde, ChinaBamboo forest in Guangde, China * Bamboo forest, Gochangupseong Fortress, South KoreaBamboo forest, Gochangupseong Fortress, South Korea * Arundinaria gigantea, a North American bamboo, in KentuckyArundinaria gigantea, a North American bamboo, in Kentucky * Panoramic view of bamboo forest in HawaiiPanoramic view of bamboo forest in Hawaii Ecology ------- The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping", and "running", with short and long underground rhizomes, respectively. Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. Running bamboos need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to the species, soil and climate conditions. Some send out runners of several meters a year, while others stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time, they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas. Bamboos include some of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates up to 910 mm (36 in) in 24 hours. These depend on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and a more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 30–100 mm (1–4 in) per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo grow over 30 m (100 ft) tall, and be as large as 250–300 mm (10–12 in) in diameter. The size range for mature bamboo is species-dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range covering many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.5–12 m (15–39 ft), depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide. Unlike all trees, individual bamboo culms emerge from the ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During this time, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year, the culm hardens further. The shoot is now a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species- and climate-dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboo has a wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms are produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter. Many tropical bamboo species die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier temperate bamboos survive temperatures as low as −29 °C (−20 °F). Some of the hardiest bamboo species are grown in USDA plant hardiness zone 5, although they typically defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA zone 7 and above, most bamboo remain fully leafed out and green year-round. ### Mass flowering *Phyllostachys glauca* 'Yunzhu' in flowerBunches of bamboo seeds Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant declines and often dies entirely. In fact, many species only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular 'cohort' flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known is 120 years, and it is for the species *Phyllostachys bambusoides* (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The commercially important bamboo Guadua, or Cana brava (*Guadua angustifolia*) bloomed for the first time in recorded history in 1971, suggesting a blooming interval well in excess of 130 years. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery. ### Invasive species Some bamboo species are acknowledged as having high potential for becoming invasive species. A study commissioned by International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation, found that invasive species typically are varieties that spread via rhizomes rather than by clumping, as most commercially viable woody bamboos do. In the United States, the National Invasive Species Information Center agency of the Department of Agriculture has Golden Bamboo (Phyllostachys aurea) listed as an invasive species. ### Animal diet Bamboo contains large amounts of protein and very low amounts of carbohydrates allowing this plant to be the source of food for many animals. Soft bamboo shoots, stems and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal, and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. The red panda can eat up to 9 pounds a day which is also about the full body weight of the animal. With raw bamboo containing trace amounts of harmful cyanide with higher concentrations in bamboo shoots, the golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would be lethal to a human. Mountain gorillas of Central Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks. The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth *Omphisa fuscidentalis*) of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan, China feed off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy. Bamboo is also used for livestock feed with research showing some bamboo varieties have higher protein content over other varieties of bamboo. Cultivation ----------- Bamboo foliage with yellow stems (probably *Phyllostachys aurea*)Bamboo foliage with black stems (probably *Phyllostachys nigra*)A young bamboo shoot (Phyllostachys parvifolia)A bamboo hedge contained by an in-ground barrier, shown during and after construction ### General Bamboo forestry (also known as bamboo farming, cultivation, agriculture or agroforestry) is a cultivation and raw material industry that provides the raw materials for the broader bamboo industry, worth over 72 billion dollars globally in 2019. Historically a dominant raw material in South and South East Asia, the global bamboo industry has significantly grown in recent decades in part because of the high sustainability of bamboo as compared to other biomass cultivation strategies, such as traditional timber forestry. For example, as of 2016, the U.S. Fiber corporation Resource Fiber is contracting farmers in the United States for bamboo cultivation. Or in 2009, United Nations Industrial Development Organization published guidelines for cultivation of bamboo in semi-arid climates in Ethiopia and Kenya. Because bamboo can grow on otherwise marginal land, bamboo can be profitably cultivated in many degraded lands. Moreover, because of the rapid growth, bamboo is an effective climate change mitigation and carbon sequestration crop, absorbing between 100 and 400 tonnes of carbon per hectare. In 1997, an international intergovernmental organization was established to promote the development of bamboo cultivation, the International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation. Bamboo is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus *Phyllostachys*, are known as "timber bamboos". Bamboo is typically harvested as a source material for construction, food, crafts and other manufactured goods. Bamboo cultivation in South, South East Asia and East Asia stretches back thousands of years. One practice, in South Korea, has been designated as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. ### Harvesting Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation. As compared to forest trees, bamboo species grow fast. Bamboo plantations can be readily harvested for a shorter period than tree plantations. Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to these cycles: * **Lifecycle of the culm**: As each individual culm goes through a five to seven-year lifecycle, they are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the lifecycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species. * **Annual cycle**: Most all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season and disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop, while harvesting immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots, therefore harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season. Also during this high-rainfall period, sap levels are at their highest, and then diminish towards the dry season. * **Daily cycle**: During the height of the day, photosynthesis is at its peak, producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest and many traditional practitioners believe the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon. ### Leaching Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or post-harvest photosynthesis. For example: * Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant. * A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap. * Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks. * Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment). In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation. Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction, and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material. Toxicity -------- Gardeners working with bamboo plants have occasionally reported allergic reactions varying from no effects during previous exposures, to immediate itchiness and rash developing into red welts after several hours where the skin had been in contact with the plant (contact allergy), and in some cases into swollen eyelids and breathing difficulties (dyspnoea). A skin prick test using bamboo extract was positive for the immunoglobulin E (IgE) in an available case study. The shoots (newly emerged culms) of bamboo contain the toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside), which produces cyanide in the gut. Uses ---- ### Culinary The shoots of most species are edible either raw or cooked, with the tough sheath removed. Cooking removes the slight bitterness. The shoots are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called *khorisa*. In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice (*alu tama* (आलु तामा) in Nepali). In Indonesia, they are sliced thin and then boiled with *santan* (thick coconut milk) and spices to make a dish called *gulai rebung*. Other recipes using bamboo shoots are *sayur lodeh* (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and *lun pia* (sometimes written *lumpia*: fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely. Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots. The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make *ulanzi* (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients, such as the zongzi from China. Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali: तामा *tama*) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurants around the world serve this dish as *aloo bodi tama*. Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winters. Baby shoots (Nepali: *tusa*) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो *Nigalo*) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in hilly regions. In Sambalpur, India, the tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare *kardi*. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, *karira*. This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably *amil*, a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare a garnish known as *hendua*. It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves. In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (*kirlu*) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare *kirla sukke*. In southern India and some regions of southwest China, the seeds of the dying bamboo plant are consumed as a grain known as "bamboo rice". The taste of cooked bamboo seeds is reported to be similar to wheat and the appearance similar to rice, but bamboo seeds have been found to have lower nutrient levels than both. The seeds can be pulverized into a flour with which to make cakes. The Indian state of Sikkim has promoted bamboo water bottles to keep the state free from plastic bottles The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of pu'er tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste. ### Fuel Bamboo charcoal is charcoal made from species of bamboo. Bamboo charcoal is typically made from the culms or refuse of mature bamboo plants and burned in ovens at temperatures ranging from 600 to 1200 °C. It is an especially porous charcoal, making it useful in the manufacture of activated carbon. Bamboo charcoal has a long history of use in China, with documents dating as early as 1486 during the Ming dynasty in Chuzhou. There is also mention of it during the Qing dynasty, during the reigns of emperors Kangxi, Qianlong, and Guangxu. ### Working Bamboo was used by humans for various purposes from a very early time. Categories of bambooworking include: #### Writing surface Bamboo was in widespread use in early China as a medium for written documents. The earliest surviving examples of such documents, written in ink on string-bound bundles of bamboo strips (or "slips"), date from the fifth century BC during the Warring States period. References in earlier texts surviving on other media indicate some precursor of these Warring States period bamboo slips was used as early as the late Shang period (from about 1250 BC). Bamboo or wooden strips were used as the standard writing material during the early Han dynasty, and excavated examples have been found in abundance. Subsequently, paper began to displace bamboo and wooden strips from mainstream uses, and by the fourth century AD, bamboo slips had been largely abandoned as a medium for writing in China. Bamboo fiber has been used to make paper in China since early times. A high-quality, handmade bamboo paper is still produced in small quantities. Coarse bamboo paper is still used to make spirit money in many Chinese communities. Bamboo pulps are mainly produced in China, Myanmar, Thailand, and India, and are used in printing and writing papers. Several paper industries are surviving on bamboo forests. Ballarpur (Chandrapur, Maharstra) paper mills use bamboo for paper production. The most common bamboo species used for paper are *Dendrocalamus asper* and *Bambusa blumeana*. It is also possible to make dissolving pulp from bamboo. The average fiber length is similar to hardwoods, but the properties of bamboo pulp are closer to softwood pulps due to it having a very broad fiber length distribution. With the help of molecular tools, it is now possible to distinguish the superior fiber-yielding species/varieties even at juvenile stages of their growth, which can help in unadulterated merchandise production. In Central India, there are regular bamboo working circles in forest areas of Maharashtra, Madhyapradesh, Odisha and Chhattisgarh. Most of the bamboo is harvested for papermaking. Bamboo is cut after three years of its germination. No cutting is done during the rainy season (July–September); broken and malformed culms are harvested first. #### Writing pen In olden times, people in India used hand-made pens (known as Kalam or boru (बोरू)) made from thin bamboo sticks (with diameters of 5–10 mm and lengths of 100–150 mm) by simply peeling them on one side and making a nib-like pattern at the end. The pen would then be dipped in ink for writing. #### Textiles Since the fibers of bamboo are very short (less than 3 mm or 1⁄8 in), they are not usually transformed into yarn by a natural process. The usual process by which textiles labeled as being made of bamboo are produced uses only rayon made from the fibers with heavy employment of chemicals. To accomplish this, the fibers are broken down with chemicals and extruded through mechanical spinnerets; the chemicals include lye, carbon disulfide, and strong acids. Retailers have sold both end products as "bamboo fabric" to cash in on bamboo's current ecofriendly cachet. The Canadian Competition Bureau and the US Federal Trade Commission, as of mid-2009, are cracking down on the practice of labeling bamboo rayon as natural bamboo fabric. Under the guidelines of both agencies, these products must be labeled as rayon with the optional qualifier "from bamboo". ##### Fabric Bamboo textile is any cloth, yarn or clothing made from bamboo fibres. While historically used only for structural elements, such as bustles and the ribs of corsets, in recent years different technologies have been developed that allow bamboo fibre to be used for a wide range of textile and fashion applications. Examples include clothing such as shirt tops, pants, and socks for adults and children, as well as bedding such as sheets and pillow covers. Bamboo yarn can also be blended with other textile fibres, such as hemp or spandex. Bamboo is an alternative to plastic that is renewable and can be replenished at a fast rate. Modern clothing labeled as being made from bamboo is usually viscose rayon, a fiber made by dissolving the cellulose in the bamboo, and then extruding it to form fibres. This process removes the natural characteristics of bamboo fibre, rendering it identical to rayon from other cellulose sources. #### Construction Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural building material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures. In its natural form, bamboo as a construction material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific, to some extent in Central and South America, and by extension in the aesthetic of Tiki culture. In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by making cables of split bamboo or twisting whole culms of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the area of Qian-Xian is referenced in writings dating back to 960 AD and may have stood since as far back as the third century BC, due largely to continuous maintenance. Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China for buildings over six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the most basic sort of housing where bamboo is used; the walls are split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles may be used as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental or decorative element in buildings such as fencing, fountains, grates, and gutters, largely due to the ready abundance of quality timber. Many ethnic groups in remote areas that have water access in Asia use bamboo that is 3–5 years old to make rafts. They use 8 to 12 poles, 6–7 m (20–23 ft) long, laid together side by side to a width of about 1 m (3 ft). Once the poles are lined up together, they cut a hole crosswise through the poles at each end and use a small bamboo pole pushed through that hole like a screw to hold all the long bamboo poles together. Floating houses use whole bamboo stalks tied together in a big bunch to support the house floating in the water. #### Fishing and aquaculture Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make fishing rods. The split cane rod is especially prized for fly fishing. #### Firecrackers Bamboo has been traditionally used in Malaysia as a firecracker called a *meriam buluh* or bamboo cannon. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and calcium carbide are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. #### Weapons Bamboo has often been used to construct weapons and is still incorporated in several Asian martial arts. * A bamboo staff, sometimes with one end sharpened, is used in the Tamil martial art of *silambam*, a word derived from a term meaning "hill bamboo". * Staves used in the Indian martial art of *gatka* are commonly made from bamboo, a material favoured for its light weight. * A bamboo sword called a *shinai* is used in the Japanese martial art of *kendo*. * Bamboo is used for crafting the bows, called *yumi*, and arrows used in the Japanese martial art *kyūdō*. * The first gunpowder-based weapons, such as the fire lance, were made of bamboo. * Sharpened bamboo javelins weighted with sand known as *bagakay* were used as disposable missile weapons in both land and naval warfare in the Philippines. They were thrown in groups at a time at enemy ships or massed enemy formations. Non-disposable finely-crafted throwing spears made from bamboo weighted with sand known as *sugob* were also used. *Sugob* were mainly used for close-quarters combat and were only thrown when they could be retrieved. * Metal-tipped blowgun-spears called sumpit (or sumpitan), used by various ethnic groups in the islands of the Philippines, Borneo, and Sulawesi, were generally made from hollowed bamboo. They used thick short darts dipped in the concentrated sap of *Antiaris toxicaria* which could cause lethal cardiac arrest. #### Desalination Bamboo can be used in water desalination. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.[*dubious – discuss*] #### Musical instruments #### Indicator of climate change The Song dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese scientist and polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used the evidence of underground petrified bamboo found in the dry northern climate of Yan'an, Shanbei region, Shaanxi province to support his geological theory of gradual climate change. #### Kitchenware and other usage Bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an eco-friendly alternative to other manufactured utensils. Bamboo is also used to make eating utensils such as chopsticks, trays, and tea scoops. Several manufacturers offer bamboo bicycles, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards. Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils and cutting boards, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jōmon period (2000–1000 BC). Bamboo also has a long history of use in Asian furniture. Chinese bamboo furniture is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition, and bamboo is also used for floors due to its high hardness. In culture ---------- Several Asian cultures, including that of the Andaman Islands, believe humanity emerged from a bamboo stem. ### China Bamboo's long life makes it a Chinese symbol of uprightness and an Indian symbol of friendship. The rarity of its blossoming has led to the flowers' being regarded as a sign of impending famine. This may be due to rats feeding upon the profusion of flowers, then multiplying and destroying a large part of the local food supply. The most recent flowering began in May 2006 (see Mautam). Various bamboo species bloom in this manner about every 28–60 years. In Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as *méi lán zhú jú* 梅蘭竹菊 in Chinese) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the *junzi* ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (*sōng* 松), the bamboo (*zhú* 竹), and the plum blossom (*méi* 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (歲寒三友; *suìhán sānyǒu*) in Chinese culture. #### Attributions of character Bamboo, one of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, orchid, plum blossom and chrysanthemum), plays such an important role in traditional Chinese culture that it is even regarded as a behavior model of the gentleman. As bamboo has features such as uprightness, tenacity, and modesty, people endow bamboo with integrity, elegance, and plainness, though it is not physically strong. Countless poems praising bamboo written by ancient Chinese poets are actually metaphorically about people who exhibited these characteristics. An ancient poet, Bai Juyi (772–846), thought that to be a gentleman, a man does not need to be physically strong, but he must be mentally strong, upright, and perseverant. Just as a bamboo is hollow-hearted, he should open his heart to accept anything of benefit and never have arrogance or prejudice. Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (*sǔn* 筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to be incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called *Sǔn Pǔ* (筍譜) offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoot has always been a traditional dish on the Chinese dinner table, especially in southern China. In ancient times, those who could afford a big house with a yard would plant bamboo in their garden. #### Mythology In a Chinese legend, the Emperor Yao gave two of his daughters to the future Emperor Shun as a test for his potential to rule. Shun passed the test of being able to run his household with the two emperor's daughters as wives, and thus Yao made Shun his successor, bypassing his unworthy son. After Shun's death, the tears of his two bereaved wives fell upon the bamboos growing there explains the origin of spotted bamboo. The two women later became goddesses Xiangshuishen after drowning themselves in the Xiang River. ### Japan Bamboo is a symbol of prosperity in Japan, and are used to make New Year's decorations called *kadomatsu*. Bamboo forests sometimes surround Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples as part of a sacred barrier against evil. In the folktale *Tale of the Bamboo Cutter* (*Taketori Monogatari*), princess Kaguya emerges from a shining bamboo section. In Japan, the Chinese "Three Friends of Winter" (*kansai sanyū*) concept is traditionally used as a ranking system, where pine (松 *matsu*) is the first rank, bamboo (竹 *take*) is the second rank, and plum (梅 *ume*) is the third rank. This system is used in many traditional arts like with sushi sets, embroidering kimono or tiers of accommodations at traditional *ryōkan* taverns. ### Malaysia In Malaysia, a similar story includes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. ### Philippines In Philippine mythology, one of the more famous creation accounts tells of the first man *Malakás* ("Strong") and the first woman *Maganda* ("Beautiful") each emerging from one half of a split bamboo stem on an island formed after the battle between Sky and Ocean. ### Vietnam #### Attributions of character Bamboo plays an important part of the culture of Vietnam. Bamboo symbolizes the spirit of Vovinam (a Vietnamese martial arts): *cương nhu phối triển* (coordination between hard and soft (martial arts)). Bamboo also symbolizes the Vietnamese hometown and Vietnamese soul: the gentlemanlike, straightforwardness, hard working, optimism, unity, and adaptability. A Vietnamese proverb says, "Tre già, măng mọc" (When the bamboo is old, the bamboo sprouts appear), the meaning being Vietnam will never be annihilated; if the previous generation dies, the children take their place. Therefore, the Vietnam nation and Vietnamese value will be maintained and developed eternally. Traditional Vietnamese villages are surrounded by thick bamboo hedges (*lũy tre*). During Ngô Đình Diệm's presidency, bamboo was the national symbol of South Vietnam, it was featured on the national coat of arms, presidential standard, and South Vietnamese đồng coins at the time. #### Mythology A bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Thánh Gióng, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. The ancient Vietnamese legend *Cây tre trăm đốt* (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (*Bụt*) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. *Bụt* gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: *Khắc nhập, khắc xuất*, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo. ### Africa #### Bozo The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase *bo-so*, which means "bamboo house". ### Saint Lucia Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia. ### Hawaiian Hawaiian bamboo *('ohe)* is a *kinolau* or body form of the Polynesian creator god Kāne. ### North America Arundinaria bamboos, known as giant cane or river cane, are a central part of the material cultures of Southeastern Native American nations, so much so that they have been called "the plastic of the Southeastern Indians." Among the Cherokee, river cane has been used to make waterproof baskets, mats, fishing poles, flutes, blowguns, arrows, and to build houses, among other uses; the seed and young shoots are also edible. See also -------- * List of bamboo species * Bambuseae * Bamboo blossom * International Network for Bamboo and Rattan * Bamboo construction * Bamboo textile * Bamboo processing machine * Ceremonial pole * Mautam Further reading --------------- *Bamboo – The Plant and its Uses*. Part of the Tropical Forestry book series (TROPICAL, volume 10), 2015.

Bamboo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo

An **Internet forum**, or **message board**, is an online discussion site where people can hold conversations in the form of posted messages. They differ from chat rooms in that messages are often longer than one line of text, and are at least temporarily archived. Also, depending on the access level of a user or the forum set-up, a posted message might need to be approved by a moderator before it becomes publicly visible. Forums have a specific set of jargon associated with them; for example, a single conversation is called a "thread", or *topic*. A discussion forum is hierarchical or tree-like in structure; a forum can contain a number of subforums, each of which may have several topics. Within a forum's topic, each new discussion started is called a thread and can be replied to by as many people as they so wish. Depending on the forum's settings, users can be anonymous or have to register with the forum and then subsequently log in to post messages. On most forums, users do not have to log in to read existing messages. History ------- The modern forum originated from bulletin boards and so-called computer conferencing systems, which are a technological evolution of the dial-up bulletin board system. From a technological standpoint, *forums* or *boards* are web applications that manage user-generated content. Early Internet forums could be described as a web version of an electronic mailing list or newsgroup (such as those that exist on Usenet), allowing people to post messages and comment on other messages. Later developments emulated the different newsgroups or individual lists, providing more than one forum dedicated to a particular topic. Internet forums are prevalent in several developed countries. Japan posts the most, with over two million per day on their largest forum, 2channel. China also has millions of posts on forums such as Tianya Club. Some of the first forum systems were the Planet-Forum system, developed at the beginning of the 1970s; the EIES system, first operational in 1976; and the KOM system, first operational in 1977. One of the first forum sites (which is still active today) is Delphi Forums, once called Delphi. The service, with four million members, dates to 1983. Forums perform a function similar to that of dial-up bulletin board systems and Usenet networks that were first created in the late 1970s. Early web-based forums date back as far as 1994, with the WIT project from the W3 Consortium, and starting at this time, many alternatives were created. A sense of virtual community often develops around forums that have regular users. Technology, video games, sports, music, fashion, religion, and politics are popular areas for forum themes, but there are forums for a huge number of topics. Internet slang and image macros popular across the Internet are abundant and widely used in Internet forums. Forum software packages are widely available on the Internet and are written in a variety of programming languages, such as PHP, Perl, Java, and ASP. The configuration and records of posts can be stored in text files or in a database. Each package offers different features, from the most basic, providing text-only postings, to more advanced packages, offering multimedia support and formatting code (usually known as BBCode). Many packages can be integrated easily into an existing website to allow visitors to post comments on articles. Several other web applications, such as blog software, also incorporate forum features. WordPress comments at the bottom of a blog post allow for a single-threaded discussion of any given blog post. Slashcode, on the other hand, is far more complicated, allowing fully threaded discussions and incorporating a robust moderation and meta-moderation system as well as many of the profile features available to forum users. Some stand-alone threads on forums have reached fame and notability, such as the "I am lonely will anyone speak to me" thread on MovieCodec.com's forums, which was described as the "web's top hangout for lonely folk" by *Wired* magazine. Structure --------- A forum consists of a tree-like directory structure. The top end is "Categories". A forum can be divided into categories for the relevant discussions. Under the categories are sub-forums, and these sub-forums can further have more sub-forums. The *topics* (commonly called *threads*) come under the lowest level of sub-forums, and these are the places under which members can start their discussions or *posts*. Logically, forums are organized into a finite set of generic topics (usually with one main topic), driven and updated by a group known as *members*, and governed by a group known as *moderators*. It can also have a graph structure. All message boards will use one of three possible display formats. Each of the three basic message board display formats: Non-Threaded/Semi-Threaded/Fully Threaded, has its own advantages and disadvantages. If messages are not related to one another at all, a Non-Threaded format is best. If a user has a message topic and multiple replies to that message topic, a semi-threaded format is best. If a user has a message topic and replies to that message topic and responds to replies, then a fully threaded format is best. ### User groups Internally, Western-style forums organize visitors and logged-in members into user groups. Privileges and rights are given based on these groups. A user of the forum can automatically be promoted to a more privileged user group based on criteria set by the administrator. A person viewing a closed thread as a *member* will see a box saying he does not have the right to submit messages there, but a *moderator* will likely see the same box, granting him access to more than just posting messages. An unregistered user of the site is commonly known as a *guest* or *visitor*. Guests are typically granted access to all functions that do not require database alterations or breach privacy. A guest can usually view the contents of the forum or use such features as *read marking*, but occasionally an administrator will disallow visitors to read their forum as an incentive to become a registered member. A person who is a very frequent visitor of the forum, a section, or even a thread is referred to as a lurker, and the habit is referred to as *lurking*. Registered members often will refer to themselves as *lurking* in a particular location, which is to say they have no intention of participating in that section but enjoy reading the contributions to it. #### Moderators The *moderators* (short singular form: "mod") are users (or employees) of the forum who are granted access to the posts and threads of all members for the purpose of *moderating discussion* (similar to arbitration) and also keeping the forum clean (neutralizing spam and spambots, etc.). Moderators also answer users' concerns about the forum and general questions, as well as respond to specific complaints. Common privileges of moderators include: deleting, merging, moving, and splitting of posts and threads, locking, renaming, and stickying of threads; banning, unbanning, suspending, unsuspending, warning the members; or adding, editing, and removing the polls of threads. "Junior modding", "backseat modding", or "forum copping" can refer negatively to the behavior of ordinary users who take a moderator-like tone in criticizing other members. Essentially, it is the duty of the moderator to manage the day-to-day affairs of a forum or board as it applies to the stream of user contributions and interactions. The relative effectiveness of this user management directly impacts the quality of a forum in general, its appeal, and its usefulness as a community of interrelated users. Moderators act as unpaid volunteers on many websites, which has sparked controversies and community tensions. On Reddit, some moderators have prominently expressed dissatisfaction with their unpaid labor being underappreciated, while other site users have accused moderators of abusing special access privileges to act as a "cabal" of "petty tyrants". On 4chan, moderators are subject to notable levels of mockery and contempt. There, they are often referred to as janitors (or, more pejoratively, "jannies") given their job, which is tantamount to cleaning up the imageboards' infamous shitposting. #### Administrators The *administrators* (short form: "admin") manage the technical details required for running the site. As such, they have the authority to appoint and revoke members as moderators, manage the rules, create sections and sub-sections, as well as perform any database operations (database backup, etc.). Administrators often also act as moderators. Administrators may also make forum-wide announcements or change the appearance (known as the skin) of a forum. There are also many forums where administrators share their knowledge. ### Post A *post* is a user-submitted message enclosed in a block containing the user's details and the date and time it was submitted. Members are usually allowed to edit or delete their own posts. Posts are contained in threads, where they appear as blocks one after another. The first post starts the thread; this may be called the TS (thread starter) or OP (original post). Posts that follow in the thread are meant to continue discussion about that post or respond to other replies; it is not uncommon for discussions to be derailed. On Western forums, the classic way to show a member's own details (such as name and avatar) has been on the left side of the post, in a narrow column of fixed width, with the post controls located on the right, at the bottom of the main body, above the signature block. In more recent forum software implementations, the Asian style of displaying the members' details above the post has been copied. Posts have an internal limit, usually measured in characters. Often, one is required to have a message with a minimum length of 10 characters. There is always an upper limit, but it is rarely reached – most boards have it at either 10,000, 20,000, 30,000, or 50,000 characters. Most forums keep track of a user's postcount. The postcount is a measurement of how many posts a certain user has made. Users with higher postcounts are often considered more reputable than users with lower postcounts, but not always. For instance, some forums have disabled postcounts with the hopes that doing so will emphasize the quality of information over quantity. ### Thread A *thread* (sometimes called a *topic*) is a collection of posts, usually displayed from oldest to latest, although this is typically configurable: Options for newest to oldest and for a threaded view (a tree-like view applying logical reply structure before chronological order) can be available. A thread is defined by a title, an additional description that may summarize the intended discussion, and an opening or **original post** (common abbreviation **OP**, which can also be used to refer to the **original poster**), which opens whatever dialogue or makes whatever announcement the poster wishes. A thread can contain any number of posts, including multiple posts from the same members, even if they are one after the other. #### Bumping A thread is contained in a forum and may have an associated date that is taken as the date of the last post (options to order threads by other criteria are generally available). When a member posts in a thread, it will jump to the top since it is the latest updated thread. Similarly, other threads will jump in front of it when they receive posts. When a member posts in a thread for no reason but to have it go to the top, it is referred to as a *bump* or *bumping*. It has been suggested that "bump" is an acronym of "bring up my post"; however, this is almost certainly a backronym, and the usage is entirely consistent with the verb "bump" which means "to knock to a new position". On some messageboards, users can choose to *sage* (correctly pronounced /sa-ɣe/ though often confused as IPA: [seɪdʒ]) a post if they wish to make a post but not "bump" it. The word "sage" derives from the 2channel terminology 下げる *sageru*, meaning "to lower". #### Stickying Threads that are important but rarely receive posts are *sticky*ed (or, in some software, "pinned"). A *sticky thread* will always appear in front of normal threads, often in its own section. A "threaded discussion group" is simply any group of individuals who use a forum for threaded, or asynchronous, discussion purposes. The group may or may not be the only users of the forum. A thread's popularity is measured on forums in reply (total posts minus one, the opening post, in most default forum settings) counts. Some forums also track page views. Threads meeting a set number of posts or a set number of views may receive a designation such as "hot thread" and be displayed with a different icon compared to other threads. This icon may stand out more to emphasize the thread. If the forum's users have lost interest in a particular thread, it becomes a *dead thread*. | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | Discussion ---------- Forums prefer the premise of open and free discussion and often adopt de facto standards. The most common topics on forums include questions, comparisons, polls of opinion, and debates. It is not uncommon for nonsense or unsocial behavior to sprout as people lose their temper, especially if the topic is controversial. Poor understanding of the differences in values among the participants is a common problem on forums. Because replies to a topic are often worded to target someone's point of view, discussion will usually go slightly off in several directions as people question each other's validity, sources, and so on. Circular discussion and ambiguity in replies can extend for several tens of posts in a thread, eventually ending when everyone gives up or attention spans waver and a more interesting subject takes over. It is not uncommon for debate to end in ad hominem attacks. ### Liabilities of owners and moderators Several lawsuits have been brought against the forums and moderators, claiming libel and damage. A recent case is the Scubaboard lawsuit, where a business in the Maldives filed a suit against Scubaboard for libel and defamation in January 2010. For the most part, though, forum owners and moderators in the United States are protected by Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act, which states that "[n]o provider or user of an interactive computer service shall be treated as the publisher or speaker of any information provided by another information content provider." In 2019, Facebook was faced with a class action lawsuit set forth by moderators diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder. It was settled for $52 million the following year. Common features --------------- By default to be an Internet forum, the web application needs an ability to submit threads and replies. Typically, threads are in newer to older view, and replies in older to newer view. ### Tripcodes and capcodes Most imageboards and 2channel-style discussion boards allow (and encourage) anonymous posting and use a system of tripcodes instead of registration. A tripcode is the hashed result of a password that allows one's identity to be recognized without storing any data about users. In a tripcode system, a secret password is added to the user's name following a separator character (often a number sign). This password, or tripcode, is hashed into a special key, or trip, distinguishable from the name by HTML styles. Tripcodes cannot be faked but on some types of forum software they are insecure and can be guessed. On other types, they can be brute forced with software designed to search for tripcodes such as Tripcode Explorer. Moderators and administrators will frequently assign themselves capcodes, or tripcodes where the guessable trip is replaced with a special notice (such as "# Administrator"), or cap. ### Private message A *private message*, or PM for short, is a message sent in private from a member to one or more other members. The ability to send so-called blind carbon copies is sometimes available. When sending a *blind carbon copy* (bcc), the users to whom the message is sent directly will not be aware of the recipients of the blind carbon copy or even if one was sent in the first place. Private messages are generally used for personal conversations. They can also be used with tripcodes—a message is addressed to a public trip and can be picked up by typing in the tripcode. ### Attachment An attachment can be almost any file. When someone attaches a file to a person's post they are uploading that particular file to the forum's server. Forums usually have very strict limit on what can be attached and what cannot be (among which the size of the files in question). Attachments can be part of a thread, social group, etc., ### BBCode and HTML HyperText Markup Language (HTML) is sometimes allowed but usually its use is discouraged or when allowed, it is extensively filtered. Modern bulletin board systems often will have it disabled altogether or allow only administrators use it, as allowing it on any normal user level is considered a security risk due to a high rate of XSS vulnerabilities. When HTML is disabled Bulletin Board Code (BBCode) is the most common preferred alternative. BBCode usually consists of a tag, similar to HTML only instead of `<` and `>` the tagname is enclosed within square brackets (meaning: `[` and `]`). Commonly `[i]` is used for italic type, `[b]` is used for bold, `[u]` for underline, `[color="value"]` for color and `[list]` for lists, as well as `[img]` for images and `[url]` for links. The following example BBCode: `[b]This[/b] is [i]clever[/i] [b] [i]text[/i] [/b]` when the post is viewed the code is rendered to HTML and will appear as: **This** is *clever* ***text***. Many forum packages offer a way to create Custom BBCodes, or BBcodes that are not built into the package, where the administrator of the board can create complex BBCodes to allow the use of JavaScript or iframe functions in posts, for example embedding a YouTube or Google Video complete with viewer directly into a post. ### Emoticon An emoticon or *smiley* is a symbol or combination of symbols used to convey emotional content in written or message form. Forums implement a system through which some of the text representations of an emoticons (e.g. `xD`, `:p`) are rendered as a small image. Depending on what part of the world the forum's topic originates (since most forums are international) smilies can be replaced by other forms of similar graphics, an example would be kaoani (e.g. `*(^O^)*`, `(^-^)b`), or even text between special symbols (e.g. :blink:, :idea:). ### Poll Most forums implement an opinion poll system for threads. Most implementations allow for single-choice or multi-choice (sometimes limited to a certain number) when selecting options as well as private or public display of voters. Polls can be set to expire after a certain date or in some cases after a number of days from its creation. Members vote in a poll and a statistic is displayed graphically. ### RSS and ATOM RSS and ATOM feeds allow a minimalistic means of subscribing to the forum. Common implementations allow RSS feeds to list only the last few threads updated for the forum index and the last posts in a thread. ### Other features An *ignore list* allows members to hide posts of other members that they do not want to see or have a problem with. In most implementations, they are referred to as *foe list* or *ignore list*. The posts are usually not hidden, but minimized with only a small bar indicating a post from the user on the *ignore list* is there. Almost all Internet forums include a *member list*, which allows display of all forum members, with an integrated search feature. Some forums will not list members with 0 posts, even if they have activated their accounts. Many forums allow users to give themselves an *avatar*. An avatar is an image that appears beside all of a user's posts, in order to make the user more recognizable. The user may upload the image to the forum database or may provide a link to an image on a separate website. Each forum has limits on the height, width, and data size of avatars that may be used; if the user tries to use an avatar that is too big, it may be scaled down or rejected. Similarly, most forums allow users to define a *signature* (sometimes called a *sig*), which is a block of text, possibly with BBCode, which appears at the bottom of all of the user's posts. There is a character limit on signatures, though it may be so high that it is rarely hit. Often the forum's moderators impose manual rules on signatures to prevent them from being obnoxious (for example, being extremely long or having flashing images), and issue warnings or bans to users who break these rules. Like avatars, signatures may improve the recognizability of a poster. They may also allow the user to attach information to all of their posts, such as proclaiming support for a cause, noting facts about themselves, or quoting humorous things that have previously been said on the forum. Common on forums, a *subscription* is a form of automated notification integrated into the software of most forums. It usually notifies either by email or on the site when the member returns. The option to subscribe is available for every thread while logged in. Subscriptions work with *read marking*, namely the property of *unread*, which is given to the content never served to the user by the software. Recent development in some popular implementations of forum software has brought *social network features and functionality*. Such features include personal galleries, pages as well as a social network like chat systems. Most forum software is now fully customizable with "hacks" or "modifications" readily available to customize a person's forum to theirs and their members' needs. Often forums use "cookies", or information about the user's behavior on the site sent to a user's browser and used upon re-entry into the site. This is done to facilitate automatic login and to show a user whether a thread or forum has received new posts since his or her last visit. These may be disabled or cleared at any time. Rules and policies ------------------ Forums are governed by a set of individuals, collectively referred to as *staff*, made up of *administrators* and *moderators*, which are responsible for the forums' conception, technical maintenance, and policies (creation and enforcing). Most forums have a list of rules detailing the wishes, aim, and guidelines of the forums' creators. There is usually also a FAQ section containing basic information for new members and people not yet familiar with the use and principles of a forum (generally tailored for specific forum software). Rules on forums usually apply to the entire user body and often have preset exceptions, most commonly designating a section as an exception. For example, in an IT forum any discussion regarding anything but computer programming languages may be against the rules, with the exception of a *general chat* section. Forum rules are maintained and enforced by the moderation team, but users are allowed to help out via what is known as a report system. Most Western forum platforms automatically provide such a system. It consists of a small function applicable to each post (including one's own). Using it will notify all currently available moderators of its location, and subsequent action or judgment can be carried out immediately, which is particularly desirable in large or very developed boards. Generally, moderators encourage members to also use the *private message* system if they wish to report behavior. Moderators will generally frown upon attempts of moderation by non-moderators, especially when the would-be moderators do not even issue a report. Messages from non-moderators acting as moderators generally declare a post as against the rules or predict punishment. While not harmful, statements that attempt to enforce the rules are discouraged. When rules are broken several steps are commonly taken. First, a warning is usually given; this is commonly in the form of a *private message* but recent development has made it possible for it to be integrated into the software. Subsequent to this, if the act is ignored and warnings do not work, the member is – usually – first exiled from the forum for a number of days. Denying someone access to the site is called a *ban*. Bans can mean the person can no longer log in or even view the site anymore. If the offender, after the warning sentence, repeats the offense, another ban is given, usually this time a longer one. Continuous harassment of the site eventually leads to a permanent ban. In most cases, this means simply that the account is locked. In extreme cases where the offender – after being permanently banned – creates another account and continues to harass the site, administrators will apply an IP address ban or block (this can also be applied at the server level): If the IP address is static, the machine of the offender is prevented from accessing the site. In some extreme circumstances, IP address range bans or country bans can be applied; this is usually for political, licensing, or other reasons. See also: Block (Internet), IP address blocking, and Internet censorship. Offending content is usually deleted. Sometimes if the topic is considered the source of the problem, it is *locked*; often a poster may request a topic expected to draw problems to be locked as well, although the moderators decide whether to grant it. In a *locked thread*, members cannot post anymore. In cases where the topic is considered a breach of rules it – with all of its posts – may be deleted. ### Troll Forum *trolls* are users that repeatedly and deliberately breach the netiquette of an established online community, posting inflammatory, extraneous, or off-topic messages to bait or excite users into responding or to test the forum rules and policies, and with that the patience of the forum staff. Their provocative behavior may potentially start flame wars (see below) or other disturbances. Responding to a troll's provocations is commonly known as 'feeding the troll' and is generally discouraged, as it can encourage their disruptive behavior. ### Sock puppet The term sock puppet refers to multiple pseudonyms in use by the same person on a particular message board or forum. The analogy of a sock puppet is of a puppeteer holding up both hands and supplying dialogue to both puppets simultaneously. A typical use of a sockpuppet account is to agree with or debate another sockpuppet account belonging to the same person, for the purposes of reinforcing the puppeteer's position in an argument. Sock puppets are usually found when an IP address check is done on the accounts in forums. ### Spamming Forum spamming is a breach of netiquette where users repeat the same word or phrase over and over, but differs from multiple posting in that spamming is usually a willful act that sometimes has malicious intent. This is a common trolling technique. It can also be traditional spam, unpaid advertisements that are in breach of the forum's rules. Spammers utilize a number of illicit techniques to post their spam, including the use of botnets. Some forums consider concise, comment-oriented posts spam, for example *Thank you*, *Cool* or *I love it*. ### Double posting One common faux pas on Internet forums is to post the same message twice. Users sometimes post versions of a message that are only slightly different, especially in forums where they are not allowed to edit their earlier posts. Multiple posting instead of editing prior posts can artificially inflate a user's post count. Multiple posting can be unintentional; a user's browser might display an error message even though the post has been transmitted or a user of a slow forum might become impatient and repeatedly hit the submit button. An offline editor may post the same message twice. Multiple posting can also be used as a method of trolling or spreading forum spam. A user may also send the same post to several forums, which is termed crossposting. The term derives from Usenet, where crossposting was an accepted practice but causes problems in web forums, which lack the ability to link such posts so replies in one forum are not visible to people reading the post in other forums. ### Necroposting A necropost is a message that revives (as in necromancy) an arbitrarily old thread, causing it to appear above newer and more active threads. This practice is generally seen as a breach of netiquette on most forums. Because old threads are not usually locked from further posting, necroposting is common for newer users and in cases where the date of previous posts is not apparent. ### Word censor A word censoring system is commonly included in the forum software package. The system will pick up words in the body of the post or some other user-editable forum element (like user titles), and if they partially match a certain keyword (commonly no case sensitivity) they will be censored. The most common censoring is letter replacement with an asterisk character. For example, in the user title, it is deemed inappropriate for users to use words such as "admin", "moderator", "leader" and so on. If the censoring system is implemented, a title such as "forum leader" may be filtered to "forum \*\*\*\*\*\*". Rude or vulgar words are common targets for the censoring system. But such auto-censors can make mistakes, for example censoring "wris**twat**ch" to "wris\*\*\*\*ch" and "S**cunt**horpe" to "S\*\*\*\*horpe." ### Flame wars When a thread—or in some cases, an entire forum—becomes unstable, the result is usually uncontrolled spam in the form of one-line complaints, image macros, or abuse of the report system. When the discussion becomes heated and sides do nothing more than complain and not accept each other's differences in point of view, the discussion degenerates into what is called a *flame war*. To *flame* someone means to go off-topic and attack the person rather than their opinion. Likely candidates for flame wars are usually religion and socio-political topics, or topics that discuss pre-existing rivalries outside the forum (e.g., rivalry between games, console systems, car manufacturers, nationalities, etc.). When a topic that has degenerated into a flame war is considered akin to that of the forum (be it a section or the entire board), spam and flames have a chance of spreading outside the topic and causing trouble, usually in the form of vandalism. Some forums (commonly game forums) have suffered from forum-wide flame wars almost immediately after their conception, because of a pre-existing *flame war element* in the online community. Many forums have created devoted areas strictly for discussion of potential flame war topics that are moderated like normal. ### Registration or anonymity Many Internet forums require registration to post. Registered users of the site are referred to as *members* and are allowed to submit or send electronic messages through the web application. The process of registration involves verification of one's age (typically age 13 and over is required so as to meet COPPA requirements of American forum software) followed by a declaration of the terms of service (other documents may also be present) and a request for agreement to said terms. Subsequently, if all goes well, the candidate is presented with a web form to fill requesting at the very least a username (an alias), password, email and validation of a CAPTCHA code. While simply completing the registration web form is in general enough to generate an account, the status label *Inactive* is commonly provided by default until the registered user confirms the email address given while registering indeed belongs to the user. Until that time, the registered user can log into the new account but may not post, reply, or send private messages in the forum. Sometimes a *referrer system* is implemented. A *referrer* is someone who introduced or otherwise "helped someone" with the decision to join the site (likewise, how a HTTP referrer is the site who linked one to another site). Usually, referrers are other forum members and members are usually rewarded for referrals. The referrer system is also sometimes implemented so that, if a visitor visits the forum through a link such as `referrerid=300`, the user with the id number (in this example, 300) would receive referral credit if the visitor registers. The purpose is commonly just to give credit (sometimes rewards are implied) to those who help the community grow. In areas such as Japan, registration is frequently optional and anonymity is sometimes even encouraged. On these forums, a tripcode system may be used to allow verification of an identity without the need for formal registration. People who regularly read the forum discussions but do not register or do not post are often referred to as "lurkers". Comparison with other web applications -------------------------------------- Electronic mailing lists: The main difference between forums and electronic mailing lists is that mailing lists automatically deliver new messages to the subscriber, while forums require the reader to visit the website and check for new posts. Because members may miss replies in threads they are interested in, many modern forums offer an "e-mail notification" feature, whereby members can choose to be notified of new posts in a thread, and web feeds that allow members to see a summary of the new posts using aggregator software. There are also software products that combine forum and mailing list features, i.e. posting and reading via email as well as the browser depending on the member's choice.[*examples needed*] Newsreader: The main difference between newsgroups and forums is that additional software, a News client, is required to participate in newsgroups whereas using a forum requires no additional software beyond the web browser. Shoutboxes: Unlike Internet forums, most shoutboxes do not require registration, only requiring an email address from the user. Additionally, shoutboxes are not heavily moderated, unlike most message boards. Wiki: Unlike conventional forums, the original wikis allowed all users to edit all content (including each other's messages). This level of content manipulation is reserved for moderators or administrators on most forums. Wikis also allow the creation of other content outside the talk pages. On the other hand, weblogs and generic content management systems tend to be locked down to the point where only a few select users can post blog entries, although many allow other users to comment upon them. The Wiki hosting site known as Wikia has two features in operation, known as the Forum and Message Wall. The forum is used solely for discussion and works through editing, while the message wall works through posted messages more similar to a traditional forum. Chat rooms and instant messaging: Forums differ from chats and instant messaging in that forum participants do not have to be online simultaneously to receive or send messages. Messages posted to a forum are publicly available for some time even if the forum or thread is closed, which is uncommon in chat rooms that maintain frequent activity. One rarity among forums is the ability to create a picture album. Forum participants may upload personal pictures onto the site and add descriptions to the pictures. Pictures may be in the same format as posting threads, and contain the same options such as "Report Post" and "Reply to Post". See also -------- * Comparison of Internet forum software * Godwin's Law * Internet social network * List of Internet forums * Warnock's dilemma * Thread * Process scheduling **Resources** * phpBB (open-source code copyrighted platform) * Open directory project (multi-platform ontology-based open-standard content directory * Active Directory (Microsoft-proprietary single sign-on, access, remote and domain control service) Notes ----- 1. ↑ *read marking* is the process through which a thread, post, or forum that has been viewed is distinguished from those that have not. The function is usually automatic with the addition of controls, like *Mark All* etc. 2. ↑ an account is a space on the site identified by the chosen username through which a member carries out activities and contributes. Examples -------- 1. ↑ Presuming someone is sending a private message and has the ability to send blind carbon copies: If someone fills the *recipient* field with "John" and "Tom", and the *blind carbon copy* field with "Gordon". John will know Tom got the message. Tom knows John got the message. But, both Tom and John have no clue that Gordon got the message as well.

Internet forum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_forum

A **park** is an area of natural, semi-natural or planted space set aside for human enjoyment and recreation or for the protection of wildlife or natural habitats. Urban parks are green spaces set aside for recreation inside towns and cities. National parks and country parks are green spaces used for recreation in the countryside. State parks and provincial parks are administered by sub-national government states and agencies. Parks may consist of grassy areas, rocks, soil and trees, but may also contain buildings and other artifacts such as monuments, fountains or playground structures. Many parks have fields for playing sports such as baseball and football, and paved areas for games such as basketball. Many parks have trails for walking, biking and other activities. Some parks are built adjacent to bodies of water or watercourses and may comprise a beach or boat dock area. Urban parks often have benches for sitting and may contain picnic tables and barbecue grills. The largest parks can be vast natural areas of hundreds of thousands of square kilometers (or square miles), with abundant wildlife and natural features such as mountains and rivers. In many large parks, camping in tents is allowed with a permit. Many natural parks are protected by law, and users may have to follow restrictions (e.g. rules against open fires or bringing in glass bottles). Large national and sub-national parks are typically overseen by a park ranger. Large parks may have areas for canoeing and hiking in the warmer months and, in some northern hemisphere countries, cross-country skiing and snowshoeing in colder months. There are also amusement parks that have live shows, fairground rides, refreshments, and games of chance or skill. History ------- English deer parks were used by the aristocracy in medieval times for game hunting. They had walls or thick hedges around them to keep game animals (e.g., stags) in and people out. It was strictly forbidden for commoners to hunt animals in these deer parks. These game preserves evolved into landscaped parks set around mansions and country houses from the sixteenth century onwards. These may have served as hunting grounds but they also proclaimed the owner's wealth and status. An aesthetic of landscape design began in these stately home parks where the natural landscape was enhanced by landscape architects such as Capability Brown and Humphry Repton. The French formal garden such as designed by André Le Nôtre at Versailles is an earlier and elaborate example. As cities became crowded, private hunting grounds became places for the public. Early opportunities for the creation of urban parks in both Europe and the United States grew out of medieval practice to secure pasture lands within the safe confines of villages and towns. The most famous US example of a city park that evolved from this practice is the Boston Commons in Boston, Massachusetts (1634). With the Industrial revolution parks took on a new meaning as areas set aside to preserve a sense of nature in the cities and towns. Sporting activity came to be a major use for these urban parks. Areas of outstanding natural beauty were also set aside as national parks to prevent them from being spoiled by uncontrolled development. Design ------ Park design is influenced by the intended purpose and audience, as well as by the available land features. A park intended to provide recreation for children may include a playground. A park primarily intended for adults may feature walking paths and decorative landscaping. Specific features, such as riding trails, may be included to support specific activities. The design of a park may determine who is willing to use it. Walkers might feel unsafe on a mixed-use path that is dominated by fast-moving cyclists or horses. Different landscaping and infrastructure may even affect children's rates of park usage according to gender. Redesigns of two parks in Vienna suggested that the creation of multiple semi-enclosed play areas in a park could encourage equal use by boys and girls. Parks are part of the urban infrastructure: for physical activity, for families and communities to gather and socialize, or for a simple respite. Research reveals that people who exercise outdoors in green-space derive greater mental health benefits. Providing activities for all ages, abilities and income levels is important for the physical and mental well-being of the public. Parks can also benefit pollinators, and some parks (such as Saltdean Oval in East Sussex) have been redesigned to accommodate them better. Some organizations, such as the Xerces Society are also promoting this idea. ### Role in city revitalization City parks play a role in improving cities and improving the futures for residents and visitors - for example, Millennium Park in Chicago, Illinois or the Mill River Park and Green way in Stamford, CT. One group that is a strong proponent of parks for cities is The American Society of Landscape Architects. They argue that parks are important to the fabric of the community on an individual scale and broader scales such as entire neighborhoods, city districts or city park systems. ### Design for safety Parks need to feel safe for people to use them. Research shows that perception of safety can be more significant in influencing human behavior than actual crime statistics. If citizens perceive a park as unsafe, they might not make use of it at all. A study done in four cities; Albuquerque, NM, Chapel Hill/Durham, NC, Columbus, OH, and Philadelphia, PA, with 3815 survey participants who lived within a half mile of a park indicated that in addition to safety that park facilities also played a significant role in park utilization and that increasing facilities instead of creating an image of a safe park would increase utilization of the park. There are a number of features that contribute to whether or not a park feels safe. Elements in the physical design of a park, such as an open and welcoming entry, good visibility (sight lines), and appropriate lighting and signage can all make a difference. Regular park maintenance, as well as programming and community involvement, can also contribute to a feeling of safety. While Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) has been widely used in facility design, the use of CPTED in parks has not been. Iqbal and Ceccato performed a study in Stockholm, Sweden to determine if it would be useful to apply to parks. Their study indicated that while CPTED could be useful, due to the nature of a park, increasing the look of safety can also have unintended consequences on the aesthetics of the park. Creating secure areas with bars and locks lower the beauty of the park, as well as the nature of who is in charge of observing the public space and the feeling of being observed. Active and passive recreation areas ----------------------------------- Parks can be divided into active and passive recreation areas. Active recreation is that which has an urban character and requires intensive development. It often involves cooperative or team activity, including playgrounds, ball fields, swimming pools, gymnasiums, and skateparks. Active recreation such as team sports, due to the need to provide substantial space to congregate, typically involves intensive management, maintenance, and high costs. Passive recreation, also called "low intensity recreation" is that which emphasizes the open-space aspect of a park and allows for the preservation of natural habitat. It usually involves a low level of development, such as rustic picnic areas, benches and trails. Many smaller *neighborhood parks* are receiving increased attention and valuation as significant community assets and places of refuge in heavily populated urban areas. Neighborhood groups around the world are joining together to support local parks that have suffered from urban decay and government neglect. Passive recreation typically requires less management which can be provided at lower costs than active recreation. Some open space managers provide trails for physical activity in the form of walking, running, horse riding, mountain biking, snow shoeing, or cross-country skiing; or activities such as observing nature, bird watching, painting, photography, or picnicking. Limiting park or open space use to passive recreation over all or a portion of the park's area eliminates or reduces the burden of managing active recreation facilities and developed infrastructure. Passive recreation amenities require routine upkeep and maintenance to prevent degradation of the environment. Parks owned or operated by government ------------------------------------- ### National parks A national park is a reserve of land, usually, but not always declared and owned by a national government, protected from most human development and pollution. Although this may be so, it is not likely that the government of a specific area owns it, rather the community itself. National parks are a protected area of International Union for Conservation of Nature Category II. This implies that they are wilderness areas, but unlike pure nature reserves, they are established with the expectation of a certain degree of human visitation and supporting infrastructure. While this type of national park had been proposed previously, the United States established the first "public park or pleasuring-ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people", Yellowstone National Park, in 1872, although Yellowstone was not gazetted as a national park. The first officially designated national park was Mackinac Island, gazetted in 1875. Australia's Royal National Park, established in 1879, was the world's second officially established national park. The largest national park in the world is the Northeast Greenland National Park, which was established in 1974 and currently protects 972,001 km2 (375,000 sq mi). ### Sub-national parks In some Federal systems, many parks are managed by the sub-national levels of government. In Brazil, the United States, and some states in Mexico, as well as in the Australian state of Victoria, these are known as state parks, whereas in Argentina, Canada and South Korea, they are known as provincial or territorial parks. In the United States, it is also common for individual counties to run parks, these are known as **county parks**. ### Urban parks A park is an area of open space provided for recreational use, usually owned and maintained by a local government. Parks commonly resemble savannas or open woodlands, the types of landscape that human beings find most relaxing. Grass is typically kept short to discourage insect pests and to allow for the enjoyment of picnics and sporting activities. Trees are chosen for their beauty and to provide shade. Some early parks include the la Alameda de Hércules, in Seville, a promenaded public mall, urban garden and park built in 1574, within the historic center of Seville; the City Park, in Budapest, Hungary, which was property of the Batthyány family and was later made public. An early purpose built public park was Derby Arboretum which was opened in 1840 by Joseph Strutt for the mill workers and people of the city. This was closely followed by Princes Park in the Liverpool suburb of Toxteth, laid out to the designs of Joseph Paxton from 1842 and opened in 1843. The land on which the Princes park was built was purchased by Richard Vaughan Yates, an iron merchant and philanthropist, in 1841 for £50,000. The creation of Princes Park showed great foresight and introduced a number of highly influential ideas. First and foremost was the provision of open space for the benefit of townspeople and local residents within an area that was being rapidly built up. Secondly it took the concept of the designed landscape as a setting for the suburban domicile, an idea pioneered by John Nash at Regent's Park, and re-fashioned it for the provincial town in a most original way. Nash's remodeling of St James's Park from 1827 and the sequence of processional routes he created to link The Mall with Regent's Park completely transformed the appearance of London's West End. With the establishment of Princes Park in 1842, Joseph Paxton did something similar for the benefit of a provincial town, albeit one of international stature by virtue of its flourishing mercantile contingent. Liverpool had a burgeoning presence on the scene of global maritime trade before 1800 and during the Victorian era its wealth rivalled that of London itself. The form and layout of Paxton's ornamental grounds, structured about an informal lake within the confines of a serpentine carriageway, put in place the essential elements of his much imitated design for Birkenhead Park. The latter was commenced in 1843 with the help of public finance and deployed the ideas he pioneered at Princes Park on a more expansive scale. Frederick Law Olmsted visited Birkenhead Park in 1850 and praised its qualities. Indeed, Paxton is widely credited as having been one of the principal influences on Olmsted and Calvert's design for New York's Central Park of 1857. There are around an estimated 27,000 public parks in the United Kingdom, with around 2.6 billion visits to parks each year. Many are of cultural and historical interest, with 300 registered by Historic England as of national importance. Most public parks have been provided and run by local authorities over the past hundred and seventy years, but these authorities have no statutory duty to fund or maintain these public parks. In 2016 the Heritage Lottery Fund’s *State of UK Public Parks* reported that “92 per cent of park managers report their maintenance budgets have reduced in the past three years and 95 per cent expect their funding will continue to reduce”. Another early public park is the Peel Park, Salford, England opened on August 22, 1846. Another possible claimant for status as the world's first public park is Boston Common (Boston, Massachusetts, USA), set aside in 1634, whose first recreational promenade, Tremont Mall, dates from 1728. True park status for the entire common seems to have emerged no later than 1830, when the grazing of cows was ended and renaming the Common as Washington Park was proposed (renaming the bordering Sentry Street to Park Street in 1808 already acknowledged the reality). ### Linear parks A linear park is a park that has a much greater length than width. A typical example of a linear park is a section of a former railway that has been converted into a park called a rail trail or greenway (i.e. the tracks removed, vegetation allowed to grow back). Parks are sometimes made out of oddly shaped areas of land, much like the vacant lots that often become city neighborhood parks. Linked parks may form a greenbelt. ### Country parks In some countries, especially the United Kingdom, *country parks* are areas designated for recreation, and managed by local authorities. They are often located near urban populations, but they provide recreational facilities typical of the countryside rather than the town. ### Military parks In 2021, following the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, a Military Trophy Park was opened in Azerbaijan's capital Baku, showcasing seized military equipment, as well as the helmets and wax mannequins of Armenian troops. The helmets were reported by international media to belong to dead Armenian soldiers. Several international journalists have called the park "barbaric". Armenia strongly condemned it, accusing Baku of "dishonoring the memory of victims of the war, missing persons and prisoners of war and violating the rights and dignity of their families". Armenia's ombudsman called it a "clear manifestation of fascism", saying that it is a "proof of Azerbaijani genocidal policy and state supported Armenophobia". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan stated that such museums are a widely accepted international practice, and the country has a right to commemorate its victory through parades, parks, museums and other means. Azerbaijani authorities [*who?*] claimed that the helmets were left behind by retreating Armenian soldiers. When Azerbaijani historian Dr Altay Goyushov, one of the leaders of liberal democratic opposition, criticised the helmets corridor, he was rebuffed by local journalists and bloggers who justified demonstrating the helmets, one of them going as far as inviting "all who does not feel well looking at them to go and drown in Caspian sea". Private parks ------------- Private parks are owned by individuals or businesses and are used at the discretion of the owner. There are a few types of private parks, and some which once were privately maintained and used have now been made open to the public. *Hunting parks* were originally areas maintained as open space where residences, industry and farming were not allowed, often originally so that nobility might have a place to hunt – see medieval deer park. These were known for instance, as *deer parks* (deer being originally a term meaning any wild animal). Many country houses in Great Britain and Ireland still have parks of this sort, which since the 18th century have often been landscaped for aesthetic effect. They are usually a mixture of open grassland with scattered trees and sections of woodland, and are often enclosed by a high wall. The area immediately around the house is the garden. In some cases this will also feature sweeping lawns and scattered trees; the basic difference between a *country house's park* and its garden is that the park is grazed by animals, but they are excluded from the garden. Other park types ---------------- * Amusement parks have live shows, fairground rides, refreshments, and games of chance/skill. * Dog parks permit dogs to run off-leash. Parks have differing rules regarding whether dogs can be brought into a park: some parks prohibit dogs; some parks allow them with restrictions (e.g., use of a leash). * Forest parks are large areas of attractive country with marked paths and special areas for camping. * Nature park * Parklet * Pocket park * Urban park See also -------- * 10-Minute Walk * Landscape architecture * Public open space * Royal forest * Urban open space

Park

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park

A **telescope** is a device used to observe distant objects by their emission, absorption, or reflection of electromagnetic radiation. Originally meaning only an optical instrument using lenses, curved mirrors, or a combination of both to observe distant objects, the word *telescope* is now defined as wide range of instruments capable of detecting different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, and in some cases other types of detectors. The first known practical telescopes were refracting telescopes with glass lenses and were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 17th century. They were used for both terrestrial applications and astronomy. The reflecting telescope, which uses mirrors to collect and focus light, was invented within a few decades of the first refracting telescope. In the 20th century, many new types of telescopes were invented, including radio telescopes in the 1930s and infrared telescopes in the 1960s. Etymology --------- The word *telescope* was coined in 1611 by the Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani for one of Galileo Galilei's instruments presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei. In the *Starry Messenger*, Galileo had used the Latin term *perspicillum*. The root of the word is from the Ancient Greek τῆλε, romanized *tele* 'far' and σκοπεῖν, *skopein* 'to look or see'; τηλεσκόπος, *teleskopos* 'far-seeing'. History ------- The earliest existing record of a telescope was a 1608 patent submitted to the government in the Netherlands by Middelburg spectacle maker Hans Lipperhey for a refracting telescope. The actual inventor is unknown but word of it spread through Europe. Galileo heard about it and, in 1609, built his own version, and made his telescopic observations of celestial objects. The idea that the objective, or light-gathering element, could be a mirror instead of a lens was being investigated soon after the invention of the refracting telescope. The potential advantages of using parabolic mirrors—reduction of spherical aberration and no chromatic aberration—led to many proposed designs and several attempts to build reflecting telescopes. In 1668, Isaac Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope, of a design which now bears his name, the Newtonian reflector. The invention of the achromatic lens in 1733 partially corrected color aberrations present in the simple lens and enabled the construction of shorter, more functional refracting telescopes. Reflecting telescopes, though not limited by the color problems seen in refractors, were hampered by the use of fast tarnishing speculum metal mirrors employed during the 18th and early 19th century—a problem alleviated by the introduction of silver coated glass mirrors in 1857, and aluminized mirrors in 1932. The maximum physical size limit for refracting telescopes is about 1 meter (39 inches), dictating that the vast majority of large optical researching telescopes built since the turn of the 20th century have been reflectors. The largest reflecting telescopes currently have objectives larger than 10 meters (33 feet), and work is underway on several 30-40m designs. The 20th century also saw the development of telescopes that worked in a wide range of wavelengths from radio to gamma-rays. The first purpose-built radio telescope went into operation in 1937. Since then, a large variety of complex astronomical instruments have been developed. In space -------- Since the atmosphere is opaque for most of the electromagnetic spectrum, only a few bands can be observed from the Earth's surface. These bands are visible – near-infrared and a portion of the radio-wave part of the spectrum. For this reason there are no X-ray or far-infrared ground-based telescopes as these have to be observed from orbit. Even if a wavelength is observable from the ground, it might still be advantageous to place a telescope on a satellite due to issues such as clouds, astronomical seeing and light pollution. The disadvantages of launching a space telescope include cost, size, maintainability and upgradability. By electromagnetic spectrum --------------------------- The name "telescope" covers a wide range of instruments. Most detect electromagnetic radiation, but there are major differences in how astronomers must go about collecting light (electromagnetic radiation) in different frequency bands. As wavelengths become longer, it becomes easier to use antenna technology to interact with electromagnetic radiation (although it is possible to make very tiny antenna). The near-infrared can be collected much like visible light; however, in the far-infrared and submillimetre range, telescopes can operate more like a radio telescope. For example, the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope observes from wavelengths from 3 μm (0.003 mm) to 2000 μm (2 mm), but uses a parabolic aluminum antenna. On the other hand, the Spitzer Space Telescope, observing from about 3 μm (0.003 mm) to 180 μm (0.18 mm) uses a mirror (reflecting optics). Also using reflecting optics, the Hubble Space Telescope with Wide Field Camera 3 can observe in the frequency range from about 0.2 μm (0.0002 mm) to 1.7 μm (0.0017 mm) (from ultra-violet to infrared light). With photons of the shorter wavelengths, with the higher frequencies, glancing-incident optics, rather than fully reflecting optics are used. Telescopes such as TRACE and SOHO use special mirrors to reflect extreme ultraviolet, producing higher resolution and brighter images than are otherwise possible. A larger aperture does not just mean that more light is collected, it also enables a finer angular resolution. Telescopes may also be classified by location: ground telescope, space telescope, or flying telescope. They may also be classified by whether they are operated by professional astronomers or amateur astronomers. A vehicle or permanent campus containing one or more telescopes or other instruments is called an observatory. ### Radio and submilimeter Radio telescopes are directional radio antennas that typically employ a large dish to collect radio waves. The dishes are sometimes constructed of a conductive wire mesh whose openings are smaller than the wavelength being observed. Unlike an optical telescope, which produces a magnified image of the patch of sky being observed, a traditional radio telescope dish contains a single receiver and records a single time-varying signal characteristic of the observed region; this signal may be sampled at various frequencies. In some newer radio telescope designs, a single dish contains an array of several receivers; this is known as a focal-plane array. By collecting and correlating signals simultaneously received by several dishes, high-resolution images can be computed. Such multi-dish arrays are known as astronomical interferometers and the technique is called aperture synthesis. The 'virtual' apertures of these arrays are similar in size to the distance between the telescopes. As of 2005, the record array size is many times the diameter of the Earth – using space-based very-long-baseline-interferometry (VLBI) telescopes such as the Japanese HALCA (Highly Advanced Laboratory for Communications and Astronomy) VSOP (VLBI Space Observatory Program) satellite. Aperture synthesis is now also being applied to optical telescopes using optical interferometers (arrays of optical telescopes) and aperture masking interferometry at single reflecting telescopes. Radio telescopes are also used to collect microwave radiation, which has the advantage of being able to pass through the atmosphere and interstellar gas and dust clouds. Some radio telescopes such as the Allen Telescope Array are used by programs such as SETI and the Arecibo Observatory to search for extraterrestrial life. ### Infrared ### Visible light An optical telescope gathers and focuses light mainly from the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Optical telescopes increase the apparent angular size of distant objects as well as their apparent brightness. For the image to be observed, photographed, studied, and sent to a computer, telescopes work by employing one or more curved optical elements, usually made from glass lenses and/or mirrors, to gather light and other electromagnetic radiation to bring that light or radiation to a focal point. Optical telescopes are used for astronomy and in many non-astronomical instruments, including: *theodolites* (including *transits*), *spotting scopes*, *monoculars*, *binoculars,* *camera lenses*, and *spyglasses*. There are three main optical types: * The refracting telescope which uses lenses to form an image. * The reflecting telescope which uses an arrangement of mirrors to form an image. * The catadioptric telescope which uses mirrors combined with lenses to form an image. A Fresnel imager is a proposed ultra-lightweight design for a space telescope that uses a Fresnel lens to focus light. Beyond these basic optical types there are many sub-types of varying optical design classified by the task they perform such as astrographs, comet seekers and solar telescopes. ### Ultraviolet Most ultraviolet light is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so observations at these wavelengths must be performed from the upper atmosphere or from space. ### X-ray X-rays are much harder to collect and focus than electromagnetic radiation of longer wavelengths. X-ray telescopes can use X-ray optics, such as Wolter telescopes composed of ring-shaped 'glancing' mirrors made of heavy metals that are able to reflect the rays just a few degrees. The mirrors are usually a section of a rotated parabola and a hyperbola, or ellipse. In 1952, Hans Wolter outlined 3 ways a telescope could be built using only this kind of mirror. Examples of space observatories using this type of telescope are the Einstein Observatory, ROSAT, and the Chandra X-ray Observatory. In 2012 the NuSTAR X-ray Telescope was launched which uses Wolter telescope design optics at the end of a long deployable mast to enable photon energies of 79 keV. ### Gamma ray Higher energy X-ray and gamma ray telescopes refrain from focusing completely and use coded aperture masks: the patterns of the shadow the mask creates can be reconstructed to form an image. X-ray and Gamma-ray telescopes are usually installed on high-flying balloons or Earth-orbiting satellites since the Earth's atmosphere is opaque to this part of the electromagnetic spectrum. An example of this type of telescope is the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope which was launched in June 2008. The detection of very high energy gamma rays, with shorter wavelength and higher frequency than regular gamma rays, requires further specialization. An example of this type of observatory is the ground based telescope VERITAS. A discovery in 2012 may allow focusing gamma-ray telescopes. At photon energies greater than 700 keV, the index of refraction starts to increase again. Lists of telescopes ------------------- * List of optical telescopes * List of largest optical reflecting telescopes * List of largest optical refracting telescopes * List of largest optical telescopes historically * List of radio telescopes * List of solar telescopes * List of space observatories * List of telescope parts and construction * List of telescope types See also -------- * Airmass * Amateur telescope making * Angular resolution * ASCOM open standards for computer control of telescopes * Bahtinov mask * Bioptic telescope * Carey mask * Dew shield * Dynameter * f-number * First light * Hartmann mask * Keyhole problem * Microscope * Planetariums * Remote Telescope Markup Language * Robotic telescope * Timeline of telescope technology * Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology Further reading --------------- * Elliott, Robert S. (1966), *Electromagnetics*, McGraw-Hill * King, Henry C. (1979). *The history of the telescope*. H. Spencer Jones. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-23893-8. OCLC 6025190. * Pasachoff, Jay M. (1981). *Contemporary astronomy* (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders College Pub. ISBN 0-03-057861-2. OCLC 7734917. * Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (1996), *Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science*, vol. 1 & 3, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-12410-2 * Sabra, A.I.; Hogendijk, J.P. (2003). *The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives*. MIT Press. pp. 85–118. ISBN 978-0-262-19482-2. * Wade, Nicholas J.; Finger, Stanley (2001), "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective", *Perception*, **30** (10): 1157–1177, doi:10.1068/p3210, PMID 11721819, S2CID 8185797 * Watson, Fred (2007). *Stargazer : the life and times of the telescope*. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74176-392-8. OCLC 173996168.

Telescope

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescope

**Mardin Province** (Turkish: *Mardin ili*; Kurdish: Parêzgeha Mêrdîn; Arabic: محافظة ماردين) is a province in Turkey with a population of 862,757 in 2021. The largest city in the province is Kızıltepe, while the capital Mardin is the second largest city with a population of 129,864. Districts --------- Mardin province is divided into 10 districts (capital district in **bold**): * **Artuklu District** * Dargeçit District * Derik District * Kızıltepe District * Mazıdağı District * Midyat District * Nusaybin District * Ömerli District * Savur District * Yeşilli District Demographics ------------ Mardin Province is a linguistically, ethnically and religiously diverse province. The dominant ethnic groups are Arabs, Assyrians and Kurds of which Kurds constitute a majority. Other minor groups include Armenians, Chechens and Turks, while Jews lived in the area before migrating to Israel around 1948. The Chechens settled in the region during the Russo-Turkish War in 1877/1878. The distinctive Mhallami community also reside in the district. The province is considered part of Turkish Kurdistan. In 1990, it was estimated that Kurds constituted 75% of the population. ### Social relations Social relations between Arabs and Kurds have historically been difficult with hostility, prejudice and stereotypes but have in recent years improved. Arabs with Assyrians did not take part in the Kurdish–Turkish conflict and the position of the two groups have been described as being 'submissive' to the Turkish state, creating distrust between them and the Kurds. Kurds perceived Arabs as spies for the state and local Arabs in Mardin city tended to exclude and dominate local politics in the city. Arabs started losing their grip on Mardin city in the 2010s and the Kurdish BDP won the city in the local elections in 2014. Mardin city had previously been governed by pro-state parties supported by local Arabs. Despite the difficult relations, Arab families have since the 1980s joined the Kurdish cause, and Arab and Assyrian politicians from Mardin are found in Peoples' Democratic Party including Mithat Sancar and Februniye Akyol. ### Language In the first Turkish census in 1927, Kurdish and Arabic were the first language for 60.9% and 28.7% of the population, respectively. Turkish stood as the third largest language at 6.6%. In the 1935 census, Kurdish and Arabic remained the two most spoken languages for 63.8% and 24.9% of the population, respectively. Turkish remained as the third largest language at 6.9%. In the 1945 census, Kurdish stood at 66.4%, Arabic at 24.1% and Turkish at 5.6%. In 1950, the numbers were 66.3%, 23.1% and 7.5% for Kurdish, Arabic and Turkish, respectively. The same numbers were 65.8%, 16.5% and 12.9% in 1955, and 66.4%, 20.9% and 8.6% in 1960. In the last Turkish census in 1965, Kurdish remained the largest language spoken by 71% of the population, while Arabic remained the second largest language at 20% and Turkish stood at 8.9%. A 2018 estimate put the Kurdish language at 70%, Arabic at 30% and Syriac at 1%. ### Religion In the Ottoman yearbook of 1894–1895, Mardin Sanjak had a population of 34,361 and 75.8% adhered to Islam. The largest religious minority was Syriac Orthodox Assyrians who comprised 9.9% of the population, followed by Catholic Armenians at 8.3%, Catholic Assyrians at 3.4%, Protestants at 1.6% and Chaldeans at 0.9%. Muslims comprised 90.5% of the population in 1927, while Christians of various denominations stood at 3.1% and Jews at 0.3%. In 1935, Muslims comprised 91.2% of the population, while Christians remained the second largest minority at 5.3%. The Jewish population declined to 72 individuals from 490 in 1927. In 1945, 92.1% of the population was Muslim, while Christians were 3.8% of the population. The same numbers were 93.2% and 6.8% in 1955. In 1960, Muslims constituted 93.7% and Christians remained at 6.3%. Same numbers were 91.9% and 5.7% in 1965. It was estimated that 25,000 Assyrian members of the Syriac Orthodox Church still lived in the province in 1979. Only 4,000 Assyrians remained in the province in 2020, most having migrated to Europe or Istanbul since the 1980s. ### Economy In Mardin agriculture is an important branch accounting for 70% of the provinces income. Bulgur, lentils or wheat and other grains are produced. In the capital, there are many civil servants, mostly Turks. Close markets for foreign trade are Syria and Iraq. History ------- The first known civilization were the Subarian-Hurrians who were then succeeded in 3000 BCE by the Hurrians. The Elamites gained control around 2230 BCE and were followed by the Babylonians, Hittites, Assyrians, Romans and Byzantines. The local Assyrians/Syriacs, while reduced due to the Assyrian genocide and Kurdish-Turkish conflict, hold on to two of the oldest monasteries in the world, Dayro d-Mor Hananyo (Turkish *Deyrülzafaran*, English *Saffron Monastery*) and Deyrulumur Monastery. The Christian community is concentrated on the Tur Abdin plateau and in the town of Midyat, with a smaller community (approximately 200) in the provincial capital. After the foundation of Turkey, the province has been a target of a Turkification policy, removing most traces of a non-turkish heritage. ### Inspectorate General In 1927 the office of the Inspector general was created, which governed with martial law. The province was included in the First Inspectorate-General (Turkish: *Birinci Umumi Müfettişlik*) over which the Inspector General ruled. The Inspectorate-General span over the provinces of Hakkâri, Siirt, Van, Mardin, Bitlis, Sanlıurfa, Elaziğ and Diyarbakır. The Inspectorate General were dissolved in 1952 during the Government of the Democrat Party. The Mardin province was also included in a wider military zone in 1928, in which the entrance to the zone was forbidden for foreigners until 1965. ### State of Emergency In 1987 the province was included in the OHAL region governed in a state of emergency. In November 1996 the state of emergency regulation was removed. Largest cities -------------- |    Largest cities or towns in Midyat Province (2021) | | --- | | Rank | | Pop. | | 1 | Kızıltepe | 184,124 | | 2 | Mardin | 129,864 | | 3 | Nusaybin | 84,445 | | 4 | Midyat | 83,148 | | 5 | Derik | 20,566 | | 6 | Dargeçit | 14,976 | | 7 | Mazıdağı | 13,117 | | 8 | Yeşilli | 10,846 | | 9 | Gökçe | 10,190 | | 10 | Ortaköy | 10,096 | Gallery ------- * Islamic monuments in Mardin Province * Minaret of the Grand Mosque of Mardin (12th century) and the view of the Mesopotamian plains.Minaret of the Grand Mosque of Mardin (12th century) and the view of the Mesopotamian plains. * Kasimiye Madrasa (14th century)Kasimiye Madrasa (14th century) * Zinciriye Madrasa (14th century)Zinciriye Madrasa (14th century) * View of Savur and the grand mosque in the centerView of Savur and the grand mosque in the center * Abdullatif Mosque (14th century)Abdullatif Mosque (14th century) * Christian monuments in Mardin Province * Mor Gabriel MonasteryMor Gabriel Monastery * Mor Yuhanun ChurchMor Yuhanun Church * Mar Jacob Church in NusaybinMar Jacob Church in Nusaybin * Dayro d-Mor Hananyo monastery Dayro d-Mor Hananyo monastery * Syriac Orthodox Church in MidyatSyriac Orthodox Church in Midyat 37°21′47″N 40°54′31″E / 37.36306°N 40.90861°E / 37.36306; 40.90861

Mardin Province

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mardin_Province

A **rhinoceros** (/raɪˈnɒsərəs/; from Ancient Greek ῥῑνόκερως *(*rhīnókerōs*)* 'nose-horned'; from ῥῑνός *(*rhīnós*)* 'nose', and κέρας *(*kéras*)* 'horn'), commonly abbreviated to **rhino**, is a member of any of the five extant species (or numerous extinct species) of odd-toed ungulates in the family **Rhinocerotidae** (it can also refer to a member of any of the extinct species of the superfamily Rhinocerotoidea). Two of the extant species are native to Africa, and three to South and Southeast Asia. Rhinoceroses are some of the largest remaining megafauna: all weigh at least one tonne in adulthood. They have a herbivorous diet, small brains 400–600 g (14–21 oz) for mammals of their size, one or two horns, and a thick 1.5–5 cm (0.59–1.97 in), protective skin formed from layers of collagen positioned in a lattice structure. They generally eat leafy material, although their ability to ferment food in their hindgut allows them to subsist on more fibrous plant matter when necessary. Unlike other perissodactyls, the two African species of rhinoceros lack teeth at the front of their mouths; they rely instead on their lips to pluck food. Rhinoceroses are killed by poachers for their horns, which are bought and sold on the black market for high prices, leading to most living rhinoceros species being considered endangered. The contemporary market for rhino horn is overwhelmingly driven by China and Vietnam, where it is bought by wealthy consumers to use in traditional Chinese medicine, among other uses. Rhino horns are made of keratin, the same material as hair and fingernails, and there is no good evidence of any health benefits. A market also exists for rhino horn dagger handles in Yemen, which was the major source of demand for rhino horn in the 1970s and 1980s. Taxonomy and naming ------------------- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Rhinocerotidae | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | *Ceratotherium simum* | | | | | *Diceros bicornis* | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | *Dicerorhinus sumatrensis* | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | *Rhinoceros unicornis* | | | | | *Rhinoceros sondaicus* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Cladogram following a phylogenetic study. | The word *rhinoceros* is derived through Latin from the Ancient Greek: ῥῑνόκερως, which is composed of ῥῑνο- (*rhino-*, "nose") and κέρας (*keras*, "horn") with a horn on the nose. The plural in English is *rhinoceros* or *rhinoceroses*. The collective noun for a group of rhinoceroses is *crash* or *herd*. The name has been in use since the 14th century. The family Rhinocerotidae consists of only four extant genera: *Ceratotherium* (white rhinoceros), *Diceros* (black rhinoceros), *Dicerorhinus* (Sumatran rhinoceros), and *Rhinoceros* (Indian and Javan rhinoceros). The living species fall into three categories. The two African species, the white rhinoceros and the black rhinoceros, belong to the tribe Dicerotini, which originated in the middle Miocene, about 14.2 million years ago. The species diverged during the early Pliocene (about 5 million years ago). The main difference between black and white rhinos is the shape of their mouths – white rhinos have broad flat lips for grazing, whereas black rhinos have long pointed lips for eating foliage. There are two living Rhinocerotini species, the Indian rhinoceros and the Javan rhinoceros, which diverged from one another about 10 million years ago. The Sumatran rhinoceros is the only surviving representative of the Dicerorhinini. A subspecific hybrid white rhino (*Ceratotherium s. simum* × *C. s. cottoni*) was bred at the Dvůr Králové Zoo (Zoological Garden Dvur Kralove nad Labem) in the Czech Republic in 1977. Interspecific hybridisation of black and white rhinoceroses has also been confirmed. While the black rhinoceros has 84 chromosomes (diploid number, 2N, per cell), all other rhinoceros species have 82 chromosomes. Chromosomal polymorphism might lead to varying chromosome counts. For instance, in a study there were three northern white rhinoceroses with 81 chromosomes. Species ------- The five extant speciesThe white rhinoceros is actually greyThe black rhinoceros has a beak shaped lip and is similar in color to the white rhinocerosThe Indian rhinoceros has a single hornSmaller in size than the Indian rhinoceros, the Javan rhinoceros also has a single hornThe Sumatran rhinoceros is the smallest of the rhino species ### White There are two subspecies of white rhinoceros: the southern white rhinoceros (*Ceratotherium simum simum*) and the northern white rhinoceros (*Ceratotherium simum cottoni*). As of 2013, the southern subspecies has a wild population of 20,405—making them the most abundant rhino subspecies in the world. The northern subspecies is critically endangered, with all that is known to remain being two captive females. There is no conclusive explanation of the name "white rhinoceros". A popular idea that "white" is a distortion of either the Afrikaans word *wyd* or the Dutch word *wijd* (or its other possible spellings *whyde*, *weit*, etc.,), meaning "wide" and referring to the rhino's square lips, is not supported by linguistic studies. The white rhino has an immense body and large head, a short neck and broad chest. Females weigh 1,600 kg (3,500 lb) and males 2,400 kg (5,300 lb). The head-and-body length is 3.5–4.6 m (11–15 ft) and the shoulder height is 1.8–2 m (5.9–6.6 ft). On its snout it has two horns. The front horn is larger than the other horn and averages 90 cm (35 in) in length and can reach 150 cm (59 in). The white rhinoceros also has a prominent muscular hump that supports its relatively large head. The colour of this animal can range from yellowish brown to slate grey. Most of its body hair is found on the ear fringes and tail bristles, with the rest distributed rather sparsely over the rest of the body. White rhinos have the distinctive flat broad mouth that is used for grazing. ### Black The name "black rhinoceros" (*Diceros bicornis*) was chosen to distinguish this species from the white rhinoceros (*Ceratotherium simum*). This can be confusing, as the two species are not truly distinguishable by color. There are four subspecies of black rhino: South-central (*Diceros bicornis minor*), the most numerous, which once ranged from central Tanzania south through Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique to northern and eastern South Africa; South-western (*Diceros bicornis occidentalis*) which are better adapted to the arid and semi-arid savannas of Namibia, southern Angola, western Botswana and western South Africa; East African (*Diceros bicornis michaeli*), primarily in Tanzania; and West African (*Diceros bicornis longipes*) which was declared extinct in November 2011. The native Tswanan name *keitloa* describes a South African variation of the black rhino in which the posterior horn is equal to or longer than the anterior horn. An adult black rhinoceros stands 1.50–1.75 m (59–69 in) high at the shoulder and is 3.5–3.9 m (11–13 ft) in length. An adult weighs from 850 to 1,600 kg (1,870 to 3,530 lb), exceptionally to 1,800 kg (4,000 lb), with the females being smaller than the males. Two horns on the skull are made of keratin with the larger front horn typically 50 cm long, exceptionally up to 140 cm. Sometimes, a third smaller horn may develop. The black rhino is much smaller than the white rhino, and has a pointed mouth, which it uses to grasp leaves and twigs when feeding. During the latter half of the 20th century, their numbers were severely reduced from an estimated 70,000 in the late 1960s to a record low of 2,410 in 1995. Since then, numbers have been steadily increasing at a continental level with numbers doubling to 4,880 by the end of 2010. As of 2008, the numbers are still 90% lower than three generations ago. ### Indian The Indian rhinoceros, or greater one-horned rhinoceros, (*Rhinoceros unicornis*) has a single horn 20 to 60 cm long. It is nearly as large as the African white rhino. Its thick, silver-brown skin folds into the shoulder, back, and rump, giving it an armored appearance. Its upper legs and shoulders are covered in wart-like bumps, and it has very little body hair. Grown males are larger than females in the wild, weighing from 2,500–3,200 kg (5,500–7,100 lb). Shoulder height is 1.75–2.0 m (5.7–6.6 ft). Females weigh about 1,900 kg (4,200 lb) and are 3–4 m (9.8–13 ft) long. The record-sized specimen was approximately 4,000 kg (8,800 lb). Indian rhinos once inhabited many areas ranging from Pakistan to Myanmar and maybe even parts of China. Because of humans, they now exist in only several protected areas of India (in Assam, West Bengal, and a few pairs in Uttar Pradesh) and Nepal, plus a pair in Lal Suhanra National Park in Pakistan reintroduced there from Nepal. They are confined to the tall grasslands and forests in the foothills of the Himalayas. Two-thirds of the world's Indian rhinoceroses are now confined to the Kaziranga National Park situated in the Golaghat district of Assam, India. ### Javan The Javan rhinoceros (*Rhinoceros sondaicus*) is one of the most endangered large mammals in the world. According to 2015 estimates, only about 60 remain, in Java, Indonesia, all in the wild. It is also the least known rhino species. Like the closely related, and larger, Indian rhinoceros, the Javan rhino has a single horn. Its hairless, hazy gray skin falls into folds into the shoulder, back, and rump, giving it an armored appearance. Its length reaches 3.1–3.2 m (10–10 ft) including the head, and its height 1.5–1.7 m (4 ft 11 in – 5 ft 7 in). Adults are variously reported to weigh 900–1,400 kg or 1,360–2,000 kg. Male horns can reach 26 cm in length, while in females they are knobs or altogether absent. These animals prefer dense lowland rain forest, tall grass and reed beds that are plentiful with large floodplains and mud wallows. Though once widespread throughout Asia, by the 1930s they were nearly hunted to extinction in Nepal, India, Burma, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra for the supposed medical powers of their horns and blood. As of 2015, only 58–61 individuals remain in Ujung Kulon National Park, Java, Indonesia. The last known Javan rhino in Vietnam was reportedly killed for its horn in 2011 by Vietnamese poachers. Now only Java contains the last Javan rhinos. ### Sumatran The Sumatran rhinoceros (*Dicerorhinus sumatrensis*) is the smallest extant rhinoceros species, as well as the one with the most hair. It can be found at very high altitudes in Borneo and Sumatra. Due to habitat loss and poaching, their numbers have declined and it has become the second most threatened rhinoceros. About 275 Sumatran rhinos are believed to remain. There are three subspecies of Sumatran rhinoceros: the Sumatran rhinoceros proper (*Dicerorhinus sumatrensis sumatrensis*), the Bornean rhinoceros (*Dicerorhinus sumatrensis harrissoni*) and the possibly extinct Northern Sumatran rhinoceros (*Dicerorhinus sumatrensis lasiotis*). A mature rhino typically stands about 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in) high at the shoulder, has a length of 2.4–3.2 m (7 ft 10 in – 10 ft 6 in) and weighs around 700 kg (1,500 lb), though the largest individuals have been known to weigh as much as 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb). Like the African species, it has two horns; the larger is the front (25–79 centimetres (9.8–31.1 in)), with the smaller usually less than 10 centimetres (3.9 in) long. Males have much larger horns than the females. Hair can range from dense (the densest hair in young calves) to sparse. The color of these rhinos is reddish brown. The body is short and has stubby legs. The lip is prehensile. Sumatran rhinoceros are on the verge of extinction due to loss of habitat and illegal hunting. Once they were spread across South-east Asia, but now they are confined to several parts of Indonesia and Malaysia due to reproductive isolation. There were 320 *D. sumatrensis* in 1995, which by 2011 have dwindled to 216. It has been found through DNA comparison that the Sumatran rhinoceros is the most ancient extant rhinoceros and related to the extinct Eurasian woolly rhino species, *Coelodonta*. In 1994 Alan Rabinowitz publicly denounced governments, non-governmental organizations, and other institutions for lacking in their attempts to conserve the Sumatran rhinoceros. To conserve it, they would have to relocate them from small forests to breeding programs that could monitor their breeding success. To boost reproduction, the Malaysian and Indonesian governments could also agree to exchange the gametes of the Sumatran and (smaller) Bornean subspecies. The Indonesian and Malaysian governments have also proposed a single management unit for these two ancient subspecies. Plantations for palm oil have taken out the living areas and led to the eradication of the rhino in Sumatra. Evolution --------- Rhinocerotoids diverged from other perissodactyls by the early Eocene. Fossils of *Hyrachyus eximus* found in North America date to this period. This small hornless ancestor resembled a tapir or small horse more than a rhino. Four families, sometimes grouped together as the superfamily Rhinocerotoidea, evolved in the late Eocene, namely the Hyracodontidae, Amynodontidae, Paraceratheriidae and Rhinocerotidae. ### Hyracodontidae Hyracodontidae, also known as "running rhinos", showed adaptations for speed, and would have looked more like horses than modern rhinos. The smallest hyracodontids were dog-sized. Hyracodontids spread across Eurasia from the mid-Eocene to early Oligocene. ### Amynodontidae The Amynodontidae, also known as "aquatic rhinos", dispersed across North America and Eurasia, from the late Eocene to early Oligocene. The amynodontids were hippopotamus-like in their ecology and appearance, inhabiting rivers and lakes, and sharing many of the same adaptations to aquatic life as hippos. ### Paraceratheriidae The Paraceratheriidae, also known as paraceratheres or indricotheres, originated in the Eocene epoch and lived until the early Miocene. The first paraceratheres were only about the size of large dogs, growing progressively larger in the late Eocene and Oligocene. The largest genus of the family was *Paraceratherium*, which was more than twice as heavy as a bull African elephant, and was one of the largest land mammals that ever lived. ### Rhinocerotidae The family of all modern rhinoceroses, the Rhinocerotidae, first appeared in the Late Eocene in Eurasia. The earliest members of Rhinocerotidae were small and numerous; at least 26 genera lived in Eurasia and North America until a wave of extinctions in the middle Oligocene wiped out most of the smaller species. Several independent lineages survived. *Menoceras*, a pig-sized rhinoceros, had two horns side by side. The North American *Teleoceras* had short legs, a barrel chest and lived until about five million years ago. The last rhinos in the Americas became extinct during the Pliocene. Modern rhinos are thought to have begun dispersal from Asia during the Miocene. Alongside the extant species, four additional species of rhinoceros survived into the Last Glacial Period: the woolly rhinoceros (*Coelodonta antiquitatis*), *Elasmotherium sibiricum* and two species of *Stephanorhinus,* Merck's rhinoceros (*Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis*) and the Narrow-nosed rhinoceros (*Stephanorhinus hemitoechus)*. The woolly rhinoceros appeared in China around 1 million years ago and first arrived in Europe around 600,000 years ago. It reappeared 200,000 years ago, alongside the woolly mammoth, and became numerous. *Elasmotherium* was two meters tall, five meters long and weighed around five tons, with a single enormous horn, hypsodont teeth and long legs for running. The latest known well dated bones of *Elasmotherium*in found in the south of Western Siberia (the area that is today Kazakhstan) date as recently as 39,000 years ago. The origin of the two living African rhinos can be traced to the late Miocene (6 mya) species *Ceratotherium neumayri*. The lineages containing the living species diverged by the early Pliocene, when *Diceros praecox*, the likely ancestor of the black rhinoceros, appears in the fossil record. The black and white rhinoceros remain so closely related that they can still mate and successfully produce offspring. Cladogram showing the relationships of recent and Late Pleistocene rhinoceros species (minus *Stephanorhinus hemitoechus)* based on whole nuclear genomes, after Liu et al., 2021: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | Elasmotheriinae | †*Elasmotherium sibiricum* | | | | Rhinocerotinae | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Black rhinoceros (*Diceros bicornis*) | | | | | White Rhinoceros (*Ceratotherium simum*) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Indian rhinoceros (*Rhinoceros unicornis*) | | | | | Javan rhinoceros (*Rhinoceros sondaicus*) | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Sumatran rhinoceros (*Dicerorhinus sumatrensis*) | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | † Woolly rhinoceros (*Coelodonta antiquitatis*) | | | | | † Merck's rhinoceros (*Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis*) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | † denotes extinct taxa * **Family Rhinocerotidae** + †*Teletaceras* + †*Uintaceras* + **Subfamily Rhinocerotinae** - **Tribe Aceratheriini** * †*Aceratherium* lived from 33.9 to 3.4 Ma * †*Acerorhinus* 13.6–7.0 Ma * †*Alicornops* 13.7–5.3 Ma * †*Aphelops* 20.43–5.33 Ma * †*Chilotheridium* 23.0–11.6 Ma * †*Chilotherium* 13.7–3.4 Ma * †*Floridaceras* 20.4–16.3 Ma * †*Hoploaceratherium* 16.9–16.0 Ma * †*Mesaceratherium* * †*Peraceras* 20.6–10.3 Ma * †*Plesiaceratherium* 20.0–11.6 Ma * †*Ronzotherium* 37–23 Ma * †*Shansirhinus* * †*Sinorhinus* * †*Subchilotherium* - **Tribe Teleoceratini** * †*Aprotodon* 28.4–5.330 Ma * †*Brachydiceratherium* * †*Brachypotherium* 20.0–5.33 Ma * †*Diaceratherium* 28.4–16.0 Ma * †*Prosantorhinus* 16.9–7.25 Ma * †*Shennongtherium* * †*Teleoceras* 16.9–4.9 Ma - **Rhinocerotina** Burdigalian–Present * **Tribe Rhinocerotini** 40.4–11.1 Ma–Present + †*Gaindatherium* 11.6–11.1 Ma + **Subtribe Rhinocerotina** 17.5 Ma–Present - †*Nesorhinus* .70 Ma - †*Rusingaceros* 17.5 Ma - *Rhinoceros* – Indian & Javan rhinoceros * **Tribe Dicerorhinini** + †*Pliorhinus* 5-2.5 Ma + †*Coelodonta* – Woolly rhinoceros + *Dicerorhinus* – Sumatran rhinoceros + †*Dihoplus* 11.610–1.810 Ma + †*Lartetotherium* 15.97–8.7 Ma + †*Stephanorhinus* 9.7–0.04 Ma – Merck's rhinoceros & Narrow-nosed rhinoceros * **Tribe Dicerotini** 23.0–Present + *Ceratotherium* – White rhinoceros 7.25–Present + *Diceros* – Black rhinoceros 23.0–Present + †*Paradiceros* 15.97–11.61 Ma * **Rhinocerotinae *incertae sedis*** + †*Protaceratherium* + **Subfamily Elasmotheriinae** - †*Gulfoceras* 23.03–20.43 Ma - †*Victoriaceros* 15 Ma - **Tribe Diceratheriini** * †*Diceratherium* 33.9–11.6 Ma * †*Penetrigonias* * †*Subhyracodon* 38.0–26.3 Ma * †*Trigonias* 37-34 Ma - **Tribe Elasmotheriini** 20.0–0.1 Ma * †*Bugtirhinus* 20.0–16.9 Ma * †*Caementodon* * †*Elasmotherium* – Giant rhinoceros 3.6–0.039 Ma * †*Hispanotherium* synonymized with *Huaqingtherium* 16.0–7.25 Ma * †*Iranotherium* * †*Kenyatherium* * †*Meninatherium* * †*Menoceras* 23.03–16.3 Ma * †*Ningxiatherium* * †*Ougandatherium* 20.0–16.9 Ma * †*Parelasmotherium* * †*Procoelodonta* * †*Sinotherium* 9.0–5.3 Ma Predators, poaching and hunting ------------------------------- Adult rhinoceroses have no real predators in the wild, other than humans. Young rhinos sometimes fall prey to big cats, crocodiles, African wild dogs, and hyenas. Although rhinos are large and aggressive and have a reputation for being resilient, they are very easily poached; they visit water holes daily and can be easily killed while they drink. As of December 2009, poaching increased globally while efforts to protect the rhino are considered increasingly ineffective. The most serious estimate, that only 3% of poachers are successfully countered, is reported of Zimbabwe, while Nepal has largely avoided the crisis. Poachers have become more sophisticated. South African officials have called for urgent action against poaching after poachers killed the last female rhino in the Krugersdorp Game Reserve near Johannesburg. Statistics from South African National Parks show that 333 rhinoceroses were killed in South Africa in 2010, increasing to 668 by 2012, over 1,004 in 2013, and over 1,338 killed in 2015. In some cases rhinos are drugged and their horns removed, while in other instances more than the horn is taken. The Namibian government has supported the practice of rhino trophy hunting as a way to raise money for conservation. Hunting licenses for five Namibian Black rhinos are auctioned annually, with the money going to the government's Game Products Trust Fund. Some conservationists and members of the public oppose or question this practice. Horn use -------- Rhinoceros horns develop from subcutaneous tissues, and are made of keratinous mineralized compartments. The horns root in a germinative layer. Rhinoceros horns are used in traditional medicines in parts of Asia, and for dagger handles in Yemen and Oman. Esmond Bradley Martin has reported on the trade for dagger handles in Yemen. In Europe, it was historically believed that rhino horns could purify water and could detect poisoned liquids, and likely believed to be an aphrodisiac and an antidote to poison. It is a common misconception that rhinoceros horn in powdered form is used as an aphrodisiac or a cure for cancer in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) as *Cornu Rhinoceri Asiatici* (犀角, *xījiǎo*, "rhinoceros horn"); no TCM text in history has ever mentioned such prescriptions. In TCM, rhino horn is sometimes prescribed for fevers and convulsions, a treatment not supported by evidence-based medicine: this treatment has been compared to consuming fingernail clippings in water. In 1993, China signed the CITES treaty and removed rhinoceros horn from the Chinese medicine pharmacopeia, administered by the Ministry of Health. In 2011, the Register of Chinese Herbal Medicine in the United Kingdom issued a formal statement condemning the use of rhinoceros horn. A growing number of TCM educators are also speaking out against the practice, although some TCM practitioners still believe that it is a life-saving medicine. Vietnam reportedly has the biggest number of rhino horn consumers, with their demand driving most of the poaching, which has risen to record levels. The "Vietnam CITES Management Authority" has claimed that Hanoi recently experienced a 77% drop in the usage of rhino horn, but National Geographic has challenged these claims, noticing that there was no rise in the numbers of criminals who were apprehended or prosecuted. South African rhino poaching's main destination market is Vietnam. An average sized horn can bring in as much as a quarter of a million dollars in Vietnam and many rhino range states have stockpiles of rhino horn. Horn trade ---------- International trade in rhinoceros horn has been declared illegal by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since 1977. A proposal by Swaziland to lift the international ban was rejected in October 2016. Domestic sale of rhinoceros horn in South Africa, home of 80% of the remaining rhino population, was banned as of 2009. The ban was overturned in a court case in 2017, and South Africa plans to draft regulations for the sale of rhino horn, possibly including export for "non-commercial purposes". The South African government has proposed that a legal trade of rhino horn be established, arguing that this could reduce poaching and prevent the extinction of this species. In March 2013, some researchers suggested that the only way to reduce poaching would be to establish a regulated trade based on humane and renewable harvesting from live rhinos. The World Wildlife Fund opposes legalization of the horn trade, as it may increase demand, while IFAW released a report by *EcoLarge*, suggesting that more thorough knowledge of economic factors is required to justify the pro-trade option. Conservation ------------ According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, conservation of African rhinoceroses as consumers of large amounts of vegetation is crucial to maintaining the shape of the African landscape and the natural resources of local communities. ### Ways to prevent poaching #### Horn removal To prevent poaching, in certain areas, rhinos have been tranquillized and their horns removed. Armed park rangers, particularly in South Africa, are also working on the front lines to combat poaching, sometimes killing poachers who are caught in the act. A 2012 spike in rhino killings increased concerns about the future of the species.[*clarification needed*] #### Horn poisoning In 2011, the Rhino Rescue Project began a horn-trade control method consisting of infusing the horns of living rhinos with a mixture of a pink dye and an acaricide (to kill ticks) which is safe for rhinos but toxic to humans. The procedure also includes inserting three RFID identification chips and taking DNA samples. Because of the fibrous nature of rhino horn, the pressurized dye infuses the interior of the horn but does not color the surface or affect rhino behavior. Depending on the quantity of horn a person consumes, experts believe the acaricide would cause nausea, stomach-ache, and diarrhea, and possibly convulsions. It would not be fatal—the primary deterrent is the knowledge that the treatment has been applied, communicated by signs posted at the refuges. The original idea grew out of research into the horn as a reservoir for one-time tick treatments, and experts selected an acaricide they think is safe for the rhino, oxpeckers, vultures, and other animals in the preserve's ecosystem. Proponents claim that the dye cannot be removed from the horns, and remains visible on x-ray scanners even when the horn is ground to a fine powder. The UK charity organization Save the Rhino has criticized horn poisoning on moral and practical grounds. The organization questions the assumptions that the infusion technique works as intended, and that even if the poison were effective, whether middlemen in a lucrative, illegal trade would care much about the effect it would have on buyers. Additionally, rhino horn is increasingly purchased for decorative use, rather than for use in traditional medicine. Save the Rhino questions the feasibility of applying the technique to all African rhinos, since workers would have to reapply the acaricide every 4 years. It was also reported that one out of 150 rhinos treated did not survive the anesthesia. #### Artificial substitute for rhinoceros horn Another way to undercut the rhinoceros horn market has been suggested by Matthew Markus of Pembient, a biotechnology firm. He proposes the synthesis of an artificial substitute for rhinoceros horn. To enable authorities to distinguish the bioengineered horn from real rhinoceros horn, the genetic code of the bioengineered horn could be registered, similar to the DNA of living rhinoceros in the RhODIS (Rhino DNA Index System). Initial responses from many conservationists were negative, but a 2016 report from TRAFFIC—which monitors trade in wildlife and animal parts—conceded that it "...would be rash to rule out the possibility that trade in synthetic rhinoceros horn could play a role in future conservation strategies". Historical representations -------------------------- Greek historian and geographer Agatharchides (2nd century BC) mentions the rhinoceros in his book *On the Erythraean Sea*. In Khmer art, the Hindu god Agni is depicted with a rhinoceros as his vahana. Similarly in medieval era Thai literature, Agni also called *Phra Phloeng* is sometimes described as riding a rhinoceros. Albrecht Dürer created a famous woodcut of a rhinoceros in 1515, based on a written description and brief sketch by an unknown artist of an Indian rhinoceros that had arrived in Lisbon earlier that year. He never saw the animal itself, so *Dürer's Rhinoceros* is a somewhat inaccurate depiction. Rhinoceroses are depicted in the Chauvet Cave in France, pictures dated to 10,000–30,000 years ago. There are legends about rhinoceroses stamping out fire in Burma, India, and Malaysia. The mythical rhinoceros has a special name in Malay, *badak api*, wherein *badak* means rhinoceros, and *api* means fire. The animal would come when a fire was lit in the forest and stamp it out. There are no recent confirmations of this phenomenon. This legend was depicted in the film *The Gods Must Be Crazy* (1980), which shows an African rhinoceros putting out two campfires. In 1974 a lavender rhinoceros symbol began to be used as a symbol of the gay community in Boston. Rhinoceroses in artA wine vessel in the form of a bronze rhinoceros with silver inlay, from the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) period of China, sporting a saddle on its back*Dürer's Rhinoceros*, an Albrecht Dürer woodcut from 1515A rhinoceros depicted on a Roman mosaic in Villa Romana del Casale, an archeological site near Piazza Armerina in Sicily, ItalyRhinoceros depicted on a wall of the Chauvet Cave in France, c. 10,000–30,000 years ago.*How the Rhinoceros Got His Skin* from Rudyard Kipling's *Just So Stories* from 1902 See also -------- ### Conservation * Bardiya National Park * Chitwan National Park * International Rhino Foundation * Kaziranga National Park * List of odd-toed ungulates by population * Nicolaas Jan van Strien * Save the Rhino * TRAFFIC ### Individual rhinoceroses * Abada * Clara * List of fictional pachyderms * Rhinoceros of Versailles ### Literature * *Rhinoceros*, 1959 play ### Other * Rhinoceroses in ancient China Further reading --------------- * White Rhinoceros, White Rhinoceros Profile, Facts, Information, Photos, Pictures, Sounds, Habitats, Reports, News – National Geographic * Laufer, Berthold. 1914. "History of the Rhinoceros". In: *Chinese Clay Figures, Part I: Prolegomena on the History of Defence Armour*. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, pp. 73–173. * Cerdeño, Esperanza (1995). "Cladistic Analysis of the Family Rhinocerotidae (Perissodactyla)" (PDF). *Novitates* (3143). ISSN 0003-0082. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2007. * Foose, Thomas J.; van Strien, Nico (1997). *Asian Rhinos – Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan*. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK. ISBN 978-2-8317-0336-7. * Chapman, January (1999). *The Art of Rhinoceros Horn Carving in China*. Christies Books, London. ISBN 0-903432-57-9. * Emslie, R.; Brooks, M. (1999). *African Rhino. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan*. IUCN/SSC African Rhino Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. ISBN 978-2-8317-0502-6. * Hieronymus, Tobin L.; Lawrence M. Witmer; Ryan C. Ridgely (2006). "Structure of White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) Horn Investigated by X-ray Computed Tomography and Histology With Implications for Growth and External Form" (PDF). *Journal of Morphology*. **267** (10): 1172–1176. doi:10.1002/jmor.10465. PMID 16823809. S2CID 15699528. * "White Rhino (Ceratotherum simum)". *Rhinos*. The International Rhino Foundation. Archived from the original on 20 July 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009. * Theresa Seiger (25 December 2019). "Rare black rhino born Christmas Eve at Michigan zoo". *Fox23 News*.

Rhinoceros

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoceros

**Šiprage** (Serbian Cyrillic: Шипраге) is a settlement municipality in the Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republika Srpska entity, Kotor Varoš Municipality. The administrative status of this populated place was changed – from the local community has grown a municipality in the County of Kotor Varoš – in order to ensure in the 1954th back to the level of local community. Name ---- The modern name is derived from noble–bey (Omer-bey) family **Šipraga**. It is unclear whether their ancestors represent autochthonous population or they migrated into the area and acquired spacious property in the valley of the river Vrbanja and its tributaries. According to the oral traditions and cadastre records, their expansion started from Pougarje (slopes of Vlašić Mountain) in the valley of River Ugar. Geography --------- Šiprage is on the Vrbanja river, on its south-eastern upstream line of the Banja Luka (about 60 km) and the Kotor Varoš (30 km) and the Center is part of the local community. Located in the long valley between several mountain ranges: north-east Šipraško Brdo (Šiprage's Hill) with Glavić top, 950 m, south: Jasik (769 m), to the southeast of the complex Šahinovina–Stražbenica (848 m), west: Radohova (top: Kape, 950 m) and the north-west: Borčići (799 m) with Hrastik. The settlement, along with Vrbanja and its tributaries, is about three long and two kilometers wide. It is rich in sources of drinking water, one of which is (along the Crkvenica) used to supply the local aqueduct network. In the place, in Vrbanja confluence there are flowing: Musić potok (stream), Crkvenica and Bakin potok (Grandmother's Creek), on the right side, but Ćorkovac, Zagradinski potok (Creek) and Demićka on the left riverside. Climate ------- In the Šiprage local and around area there is moderate continental climate, with the expressed four seasons: spring, summer, autumn and winter. On the hills around the mountain and subalpine, annual fluctuations in temperature and rainfall are relatively high, but with the long-term stability. Long-term ("historical") climate parametres for Šiprage | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Month** | **Average temperature** (°C) | **Minimal temperature** (°C) | **Maximal temperature** (°C) | **Precipitation / Rainfall** (mm) | | **January** | –1.7 | –4.8 | 1.4 | 59 | | **February** | 0.3 | –3.6 | 4.2 | 63 | | **March** | 4.6 | –0.1 | 9.3 | 59 | | **April** | 9.1 | 3.9 | 14.3 | 74 | | **May** | 13.6 | 8.1 | 19.2 | 90 | | **June** | 17.2 | 11.5 | 22.9 | 99 | | **July** | 18.9 | 12.6 | 25.3 | 81 | | **August** | 18.4 | 11.9 | 24.9 | 76 | | **September** | 14.7 | 8.6 | 20.9 | 71 | | **October** | 9.5 | 4.7 | 14.4 | 79 | | **November** | 4.4 | 1 | 7.8 | 100 | | **December** | 0.1 | –2.7 | 3 | 88 | * The variation in the precipitation between the driest and wettest months is 41 mm. During the year, the average temperatures vary by 20.6 °C. Nature and ecology ------------------ In the Šiprage's Valley and on the surrounding slopes, along with the Vrbanja river and its tributaries, there stretches the surface of arable land, with belts of mixed deciduous and coniferous forests (spruce and abies, white and black pine) and mixed woods of beech and hornbeam. In these ecosystems and mountain meadows there are big and small game (bear, wild boar, wolf, fox, rabbit, hedgehog, badger, marten and weasel, hedgehog, etc.), including Bosnian endemic quarry mammals. Pastures, cutters and a catchment area covering the life of the natural community (biocenosis) of the associated vegetation zones. But upstream from the Obodnik village and all the way to Tomina Luka (Tom's field) in its upper flow, the Vrbanja confluence belongs to the salmonid waters. However, at first the grayling, after huchen too, and now brown trout will gradually fade away. Grayling is completely missing in the 1970s, and the survival of trout endanger numerous natural and anthropogenic factors. It is especially extreme flooding during 2000th. There are the irrational fishing and pollution with sludge and secondary by-products of exploitation of forest resources. Picking a fish stock is trying to compensate for the regular stocking of, which in turn leads to the question of local populations gene pool, because of the autochthonous specificities, even in the source area of the flows of the Vrbanja river and its tributaries. History ------- According to sources, the first settlement in the Vrbanja river valley dates to the Neolithic. This area was then inhabited by the Illyrian tribe of Maezaeis, and in the 4th century BC Celts. From the Roman period there are several sites in Šiprage at the mouth Crkvenica – in Vrbanja river ("at the field of Omer Bey Šipraga," 1891), discovered the remains of an early Christian basilica (3rd - 5th century). Archaeological records confirm the existence of a Roman settlement at this location, while the stećci dates to the 12th century. The original location of stećci was confluence of rivulet Crkvenica and River Vrbanja (at the very rivers' banks). They were cut out and built in the walls of the surrounding buildings (possibly due to the beliefs of their miraculous properties). One of the best preserved stećak is submerged in River Vrbanja, in the immediate proximity of its primary location. In the Middle Ages, Šiprage belonged to the state of Bosnia, part of the province of Donji Kraji ("Lower regions"), and was later occupied by the Ottomans (1519). In 1878 the region became part of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, and in 1918, Yugoslavia. During World War II, Šiprage was a Partisan stronghold, and site of the 12th Division Hospital (in Demić gorge), serving its 5th Corpus. In the area of Šiprage, at the very beginning of the war, there were several local partisan unit forces that were later included in larger formations. On 6 January 1944, the Germans broke through the partisan defence lines on the Raskršće locality between the villages of Stopan and Kerle, and the next day entered (at sunrise, 7 January) the centre of Šiprage, where they stayed until 15 January 1944. The town was bombed and attacked by Germans and Chetniks, including the units of Draža Mihailović. During the „6th Enemy Offensive" in Bosnia, the 12th Division's Mobil Hospital was established for their 5th Corpus (1943/1944); the hospital survived despite multiple Luftwaffe's bombing on nearby Šiprage). As a precaution, the Hospital was relocated to the surrounding villages and further to Korićani. Then it was about 600 injured and patients moved into the village of Stopan and Lozići, then in Palivuk, Čudnić and Kruševo Brdo. After the passage of the Offensive against, for ten days (at 15 January 1944), it was returning again in Šiprage. Later it turned out that even enemy forces did not have precise information about its location. After the War, in 1960, skeletal remains from a grave in the woods were moved to a common Partisan Memorial Cemetery in Šiprage. ### Bosnian War During the Bosnian War (1992–95), Bosnian Serb Police and Army forces destroyed the surrounding Bosniak villages, especially those upstream along the Vrbanja to Kruševo Brdo, as well as Bosniak and Croat villages downstream to Banja Luka, and in the whole of central Bosnia. One of the 18 camps for detained Bosniaks from the Kotor Varoš Municipality was at the Police station (MUP) in Šiprage. After 1996, most of the Bosniak villages were partly restored thanks to the Luxembourgish government and soldiers of the BELUGA battalion within the SFOR-EUFOR Mission. Only mosque in wide area is renewed. During the war, an Orthodox church was built in the centre of the village, on the site of the former "Forestry House" and former seat of the local administration. Population ---------- ### Overview by census | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Year** | 1879. | 1885. | 1895. | 1910 | 1921. | 1931. | 1948. | 1953. | 1961. | 1971. | 1981. | 1991. | 2013. | | **Population** | 64 (1312\*\*) | 277 (1575\*\*) | 88 (1426\*\*) | 159 (760\*\*) | 999 | 5.098\* | 1.774 | 7.764\* | 828 | 822 | 1.183 | 952 | 788 | * 1931. and 1953.: Šiprage Municipality. + Šiprage area | | | --- | | **Šiprage** Total population 2013: **788** | | **Census Year** | **1991.** | **1981.** | **1971.** | | **Bosniaks** | 745 (78.25%) | 711 (60.10%) | 422 (51.33%) | | **Serbs** | 168 (17.64%) | 320 (27.04%) | 370 (45.01%) | | **Croats** | 1 (0.10%) | 6 (0.50%) | 0 | | **Yugoslavians** | 32 (3.36%) | 136 (11.49%) | 21 (2.55%) | | **Other and Unknown** | 6 (0.63%) | 10 (0.84%) | 9 (1.09%) | | **Total** | **952** | **1,183** | **822** | 44°27′58″N 17°33′36″E / 44.466°N 17.560°E / 44.466; 17.560

Šiprage

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0iprage

The European country of Italy has been inhabited by humans since at least 850,000 years ago. Since classical antiquity, ancient Etruscans, various Italic peoples (such as the Latins, Samnites, and Umbri), Celts, *Magna Graecia* colonists, and other ancient peoples have inhabited the Italian Peninsula. In antiquity, Italy was the homeland of the Romans and the metropole of the Roman Empire's provinces. Rome was founded as a kingdom in 753 BC and became a republic in 509 BC, when the Roman monarchy was overthrown in favour of a government of the Senate and the People. The Roman Republic then unified Italy at the expense of the Etruscans, Celts, and Greek colonists of the peninsula. Rome led *Socii*, a confederation of the Italic peoples, and later with the rise of Rome dominated Western Europe, Northern Africa, and the Near East. The Roman Republic saw its fall after the assassination of Julius Caesar. The Roman Empire later dominated Western Europe and the Mediterranean for many centuries, making immeasurable contributions to the development of Western culture, philosophy, science and art. After the fall of Rome in AD 476, Italy was fragmented into numerous city-states and regional polities, a situation that would remain until the complete unification of the country in 1871. The maritime republics, in particular Venice and Genoa, rose to great prosperity through shipping, commerce, and banking, acting as Europe's main port of entry for Asian and Near Eastern imported goods and laying the groundwork for capitalism. Central Italy remained under the Papal States, while Southern Italy remained largely feudal due to a succession of Byzantine, Arab, Norman, Spanish, and Bourbon crowns. The Italian Renaissance spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, and art with the start of the modern era. Italian explorers (including Marco Polo, Christopher Columbus (Italian: *Cristoforo Colombo*), and Amerigo Vespucci) discovered new routes to the Far East and the New World, helping to usher in the Age of Discovery, although the Italian states had no occasions to found colonial empires outside of the Mediterranean Basin. Over the centuries, the Italian peninsula was the birthplace of countless personalities such as Dante Alighieri, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Niccolò Machiavelli, Galileo Galilei and Raphael. By the mid-19th century, the Italian unification by Giuseppe Garibaldi, backed by the Kingdom of Sardinia, led to the establishment of an Italian nation-state. The new Kingdom of Italy, established in 1861, quickly modernized and built a colonial empire, controlling parts of Africa, and countries along the Mediterranean. At the same time, Southern Italy remained rural and poor, originating the Italian diaspora. In World War I, Italy completed the unification by acquiring Trento and Trieste, and gained a permanent seat in the League of Nations's executive council. Italian nationalists considered World War I a *mutilated victory* because Italy did not have all the territories promised by the Treaty of London (1915) and that sentiment led to the rise of the Fascist dictatorship of Benito Mussolini in 1922. The subsequent participation in World War II alongside Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan ended in military defeat, Mussolini's arrest and escape, and the Italian Civil War. Following the liberation of Italy, the fall of the Social Republic, and the killing of Benito Mussolini at the hands of the Resistance, the 1946 Italian constitutional referendum abolished the monarchy and became a republic, reinstated democracy, enjoyed an economic miracle, and founded the European Union (Treaty of Rome), NATO, and the Group of Six (later G7 and G20). It remains a strong economic, cultural, military, and political factor in the 21st century. Prehistory ---------- The arrival of the first hominins was 850,000 years ago at Monte Poggiolo. The presence of the *Homo neanderthalensis* has been demonstrated in archaeological findings near Rome and Verona dating to c. 50,000 years ago (late Pleistocene). Homo sapiens sapiens appeared during the upper Palaeolithic: the earliest sites in Italy dated 48,000 years ago is Riparo Mochi (Italy). In November 2011 tests conducted at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit in England on what were previously thought to be Neanderthal baby teeth, which had been unearthed in 1964 dating from between 43,000 and 45,000 years ago. Remains of the later prehistoric age have been found in Lombardy (stone carvings in Valcamonica) and in Sardinia (nuraghe). The most famous is perhaps that of Ötzi the Iceman, the mummy of a mountain hunter found in the Similaun glacier in South Tyrol, dating to c. 3400–3100 BC (Copper Age). During the Copper Age, Indoeuropean people migrated to Italy. Approximately four waves of population from north to the Alps have been identified. A first Indoeuropean migration occurred around the mid-3rd millennium BC, from a population who imported coppersmithing. The Remedello culture took over the Po Valley. The second wave of immigration occurred in the Bronze Age, from the late 3rd to the early 2nd millennium BC, with tribes identified with the Beaker culture and by the use of bronze smithing, in the Padan Plain, in Tuscany and on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily. In the mid-2nd millennium BC, a third wave arrived, associated with the Apenninian civilization and the Terramare culture which takes its name from the black earth (terremare) residue of settlement mounds, which have long served the fertilizing needs of local farmers. The occupations of the Terramare people as compared with their Neolithic predecessors may be inferred with comparative certainty. They were still hunters, but had domesticated animals; they were fairly skilful metallurgists, casting bronze in moulds of stone and clay, and they were also agriculturists, cultivating beans, the vine, wheat and flax. In the late Bronze Age, from the late 2nd millennium to the early 1st millennium BC, a fourth wave, the Proto-Villanovan culture, related to the Central European Urnfield culture, brought iron-working to the Italian peninsula. Proto-Villanovan culture was part of the central European Urnfield culture system. Similarity has also been noted with the regional groups of Bavaria-Upper Austria and of the middle-Danube. Another hypothesis, however, is that it was a derivation from the previous Terramare culture of the Po Valley. Various authors, such as Marija Gimbutas, associated this culture with the arrival, or the spread, of the proto-Italics into the Italian peninsula. In Sicily, small dolmens dating back to the end of the third millennium BC have recently been found, similar to those found in Spain, Balearic Islands, Sardinia and Apulia. The discoverer of this culture (whom he named in Sicily "Dolmens Culture") associates it with the arrival on the west coast of Sicily of a cultural wave bringing the bell-shaped goblet from the Sardinian coast. ### Nuragic civilization Born in Sardinia and southern Corsica, the Nuraghe civilization lasted from the early Bronze Age (18th century BC) to the 2nd century AD, when the islands were already Romanized. They take their name from the characteristic Nuragic towers, which evolved from the pre-existing megalithic culture, which built dolmens and menhirs. Today more than 7,000 nuraghes dot the Sardinian landscape. No written records of this civilization have been discovered, apart from a few possible short epigraphic documents belonging to the last stages of the Nuragic civilization. The only written information there comes from classical literature of the Greeks and Romans, and may be considered more mythological than historical. The language (or languages) spoken in Sardinia during the Bronze Age is (are) unknown since there are no written records from the period, although recent research suggests that around the 8th century BC, in the Iron Age, the Nuragic populations may have adopted an alphabet similar to that used in Euboea. According to Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, the Paleo-Sardinian language was akin to Proto-Basque and ancient Iberian with faint Indo-European traces, but others believe it was related to Etruscan. Some scholars theorize that there were actually various linguistic areas (two or more) in Nuragic Sardinia, possibly pre-Indo-Europeans and Indo-Europeans. * Monte d'Accoddi, 4th millennium BCE.Monte d'Accoddi, 4th millennium BCE. * Giants of Mont'e PramaGiants of Mont'e Prama * Bronze sculpture of a Nuragic chief from Uta.Bronze sculpture of a Nuragic chief from Uta. Iron Age -------- Italy gradually enters the proto-historical period in the 8th century BC, with the introduction of the Phoenician script and its adaptation in various regional variants. ### Etruscan civilization The Etruscan civilization flourished in central Italy after 800 BC. The origins of the Etruscans are lost in prehistory. The main hypotheses are that they are indigenous, probably stemming from the Villanovan culture. A mitochondrial DNA study of 2013 has suggested that the Etruscans were probably an indigenous population. It is widely accepted that Etruscans spoke a non-Indo-European language. Some inscriptions in a similar language have been found on the Aegean island of Lemnos. Etruscans were a monogamous society that emphasized pairing. The historical Etruscans had achieved a form of state with remnants of chiefdom and tribal forms. The Etruscan religion was an immanent polytheism, in which all visible phenomena were considered to be a manifestation of divine power, and deities continually acted in the world of men and could, by human action or inaction, be dissuaded against or persuaded in favor of human affairs. Etruscan expansion was focused across the Apennines. Some small towns in the 6th century BC have disappeared during this time, ostensibly consumed by greater, more powerful neighbors. However, there exists no doubt that the political structure of the Etruscan culture was similar, albeit more aristocratic, to Magna Graecia in the south. The mining and commerce of metal, especially copper and iron, led to an enrichment of the Etruscans and to the expansion of their influence in the Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean sea. Here their interests collided with those of the Greeks, especially in the 6th century BC, when Phoceans of Italy founded colonies along the coast of France, Catalonia and Corsica. This led the Etruscans to ally themselves with the Carthaginians, whose interests also collided with the Greeks. Around 540 BC, the Battle of Alalia led to a new distribution of power in the western Mediterranean Sea. Although the battle had no clear winner, Carthage managed to expand its sphere of influence at the expense of the Greeks, and Etruria saw itself relegated to the northern Tyrrhenian Sea with full ownership of Corsica. From the first half of the 5th century, the new international political situation meant the beginning of the Etruscan decline after losing their southern provinces. In 480 BC, Etruria's ally Carthage was defeated by a coalition of Magna Graecia cities led by Syracuse. A few years later, in 474 BC, Syracuse's tyrant Hiero defeated the Etruscans at the Battle of Cumae. Etruria's influence over the cities of Latium and Campania weakened, and it was taken over by Romans and Samnites. In the 4th century, Etruria saw a Gallic invasion end its influence over the Po valley and the Adriatic coast. Meanwhile, Rome had started annexing Etruscan cities. This led to the loss of their north provinces. Etruscia was assimilated by Rome around 500 BC. * Necropolis of Banditaccia located in Cerveteri in LazioNecropolis of Banditaccia located in Cerveteri in Lazio * Chimera of ArezzoChimera of Arezzo * Cippus PerusinusCippus Perusinus ### Italic peoples The Italic peoples were an ethnolinguistic group identified by their use of Italic languages, a branch of the Indo-European language family. Among the Italic peoples in the Italian peninsula were the Osci, the Veneti, the Samnites, the Latins and the Umbri. In the region south of the Tiber (*Latium Vetus*), the Latial culture of the Latins emerged, while in the north-east of the peninsula the Este culture of the Veneti appeared. Roughly in the same period, from their core area in central Italy (modern-day Umbria and Sabina region), the Osco-Umbrians began to emigrate in various waves, through the process of Ver sacrum, the ritualized extension of colonies, in southern Latium, Molise and the whole southern half of the peninsula, replacing the previous tribes, such as the Opici and the Oenotrians. This corresponds with the emergence of the Terni culture, which had strong similarities with the Celtic cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène. The Umbrian necropolis of Terni, which dates back to the 10th century BCE, was identical in every aspect to the Celtic necropolis of the Golasecca culture. Before and during the period of the arrival of the Greek and Phoenician immigrants, the island of Sicily was already inhabited by native Italics, which are divided into 3 major groups, the Elymians in the west, the Sicani in the centre, and the Sicels in the east. The Sicels gave Sicily the name it has held since antiquity. Among the populations who inhabited northern Italy in the Iron Age, one of the most prominent were the Ligures. It is generally believed that around 2000 BC, they occupied a large area of the Italian peninsula, including much of north-western Italy and all of northern Tuscany (the part that lies north of the Arno river). Since many scholars consider the language of this ancient population to be Pre-Indo-European, they are often not classified as Italics. By the mid-first millennium BCE, the Latins of Rome were growing in power and influence. After the Latins had liberated themselves from Etruscan rule they acquired a dominant position among the Italic tribes. Frequent conflict between various Italic tribes followed. The best documented of these are the wars between the Latins and the Samnites. The Latins eventually succeeded in unifying the Italic elements in the country. Many non-Latin Italic tribes adopted Latin culture and acquired Roman citizenship. In the early first century BCE, several Italic tribes, in particular the Marsi and the Samnites, rebelled against Roman rule. This conflict is called the Social War. After Roman victory was secured, all peoples in Italy, except for the Celts of the Po Valley, were granted Roman citizenship. In the subsequent centuries, Italic tribes adopted Latin language and culture in a process known as Romanization. ### Magna Graecia In the eighth and seventh centuries BC, for various reasons, including demographic crisis (famine, overcrowding, etc.), the search for new commercial outlets and ports, and expulsion from their homeland, Greeks began to settle in Southern Italy (Cerchiai, pp. 14–18). Also during this period, Greek colonies were established in places as widely separated as the eastern coast of the Black Sea, Eastern Libya and Massalia (Marseille) in Gaul. They included settlements in Sicily and the southern part of the Italian peninsula. The Romans called the area of Sicily and the foot of Italy Magna Graecia (Latin, "Great Greece"), since it was densely inhabited by the Greeks. The ancient geographers differed on whether the term included Sicily or merely Apulia, Campania and Calabria—Strabo being the most prominent advocate of the wider definitions. With this colonization, Greek culture was exported to Italy, in its dialects of the Ancient Greek language, its religious rites and its traditions of the independent *polis*. An original Hellenic civilization soon developed, later interacting with the native Italic and Latin civilisations. The most important cultural transplant was the Chalcidean/Cumaean variety of the Greek alphabet, which was adopted by the Etruscans; the Old Italic alphabet subsequently evolved into the Latin alphabet, which became the most widely used alphabet in the world. Many of the new Hellenic cities became very rich and powerful, like *Neapolis* (Νεάπολις, Naples, "New City"), *Syracuse*, *Acragas*, and *Sybaris* (Σύβαρις). Other cities in Magna Graecia included *Tarentum* (Τάρας), *Epizephyrian Locri* (Λοκροί Ἐπιζεφύριοι), *Rhegium* (Ῥήγιον), *Croton* (Κρότων), *Thurii* (Θούριοι), *Elea* (Ἐλέα), *Nola* (Νῶλα), *Ancona* (Ἀγκών), *Syessa* (Σύεσσα), *Bari* (Βάριον), and others. After Pyrrhus of Epirus failed in his attempt to stop the spread of Roman hegemony in 282 BC, the south fell under Roman domination and remained in such a position well into the barbarian invasions (the Gladiator War is a notable suspension of imperial control). It was held by the Byzantine Empire after the fall of Rome in the West and even the Lombards failed to consolidate it, though the centre of the south was theirs from Zotto's conquest in the final quarter of the 6th century. Roman period ------------ ### Roman Kingdom Little is certain about the history of the Roman Kingdom, as nearly no written records from that time survive, and the histories about it that were written during the Republic and Empire are largely based on legends. However, the history of the Roman Kingdom began with the city's founding, traditionally dated to 753 BC with settlements around the Palatine Hill along the river Tiber in Central Italy, and ended with the overthrow of the kings and the establishment of the Republic in about 509 BC. The site of Rome had a ford where the Tiber could be crossed. The Palatine Hill and the hills surrounding it presented easily defensible positions in the wide fertile plain surrounding them. All of these features contributed to the success of the city. The traditional account of Roman history, which has come down to us through Livy, Plutarch, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and others, is that in Rome's first centuries, it was ruled by a succession of seven kings. The traditional chronology, as codified by Varro, assigns 243 years for their reigns, an average of almost 35 years, which, since the work of Barthold Georg Niebuhr, has been generally discounted by modern scholarship. The Gauls destroyed much of Rome's historical records when they sacked the city after the Battle of the Allia in 390 BC (Varronian, according to Polybius the battle occurred in 387/6) and what was left was eventually lost to time or theft. With no contemporary records of the kingdom existing, all accounts of the kings must be carefully questioned. According to the founding myth of Rome, the city was founded on 21 April 753 BC by twin brothers Romulus and Remus, who descended from the Trojan prince Aeneas and who were grandsons of the Latin King, Numitor of Alba Longa. ### Roman Republic According to tradition and later writers such as Livy, the Roman Republic was established around 509 BC, when the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed by Lucius Junius Brutus, and a system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established. A constitution set a series of checks and balances, and a separation of powers. The most important magistrates were the two consuls, who together exercised executive authority as *imperium*, or military command. The consuls had to work with the senate, which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or patricians, but grew in size and power. In the 4th century BC, the Republic came under attack by the Gauls, who initially prevailed and sacked Rome. The Romans then took up arms and drove the Gauls back, led by Camillus. The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans. The last threat to Roman hegemony in Italy came when Tarentum, a major Greek colony, enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus in 281 BC, but this effort failed as well. In the 3rd century BC, Rome had to face a new and formidable opponent: the powerful Phoenician city-state of Carthage. In the three Punic Wars, Carthage was eventually destroyed and Rome gained control over Hispania, Sicily and North Africa. After defeating the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires in the 2nd century BC, the Romans became the dominant people of the Mediterranean Sea. The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms provoked a fusion between Roman and Greek cultures and the Roman elite, once rural, became a luxurious and cosmopolitan one. By this time Rome was a consolidated empire – in the military view – and had no major enemies. The one open sore was Spain (Hispania). Roman armies occupied Spain in the early 2nd century BC but encountered stiff resistance from that time down to the age of Augustus. The Celtiberian stronghold of Numantia became the centre of Spanish resistance to Rome in the 140s and 130s BC. Numantia fell and was completely razed to the ground in 133 BC. In 105 BC, the Celtiberians still retained enough of their native vigour and ferocity to drive the Cimbri and Teutones from northern Spain, though these had crushed Roman arms in southern Gaul, inflicting 80,000 casualties on the Roman army which opposed them. The conquest of Hispania was completed in 19 BC—but at a heavy cost and severe losses. Towards the end of the 2nd century BC, a huge migration of Germanic tribes took place, led by the Cimbri and the Teutones. These tribes overwhelmed the peoples with whom they came into contact and posed a real threat to Italy itself. At the Battle of Aquae Sextiae and the Battle of Vercellae the Germans were virtually annihilated, which ended the threat. In these two battles the Teutones and Ambrones are said to have lost 290,000 men (200,000 killed and 90,000 captured); and the Cimbri 220,000 men (160,000 killed, and 60,000 captured). In the mid-1st century BC, the Republic faced a period of political crisis and social unrest. Into this turbulent scenario emerged the figure of Julius Caesar. Caesar reconciled the two more powerful men in Rome: Marcus Licinius Crassus, his sponsor, and Crassus' rival, Pompey. The First Triumvirate ("three men"), had satisfied the interests of these three men: Crassus, the richest man in Rome, became richer; Pompey exerted more influence in the Senate; and Caesar held consulship and military command in Gaul. In 53 BC, the Triumvirate disintegrated at Crassus' death. Crassus had acted as mediator between Caesar and Pompey, and, without him, the two generals began to fight for power. After being victorious in the Gallic Wars and earning respect and praise from the legions, Caesar was a clear menace to Pompey, that tried to legally remove Caesar's legions. To avoid this, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River and invaded Rome in 49 BC, rapidly defeating Pompey. With his sole preeminence over Rome, Caesar gradually accumulated many offices, eventually being granted a dictatorship for perpetuity. He was murdered in 44 BC, in the Ides of March by the *Liberatores*. Caesar's assassination caused political and social turmoil in Rome; without the dictator's leadership, the city was ruled by his friend and colleague, Mark Antony. Octavian (Caesar's adopted son), along with general Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Caesar's best friend, established the Second Triumvirate. Lepidus was forced to retire in 36 BC after betraying Octavian in Sicily. Antony settled in Egypt with his lover, Cleopatra VII. Mark Antony's affair with Cleopatra was seen as an act of treason since she was the queen of a foreign power and Antony was adopting an extravagant and Hellenistic lifestyle that was considered inappropriate for a Roman statesman. Following Antony's Donations of Alexandria, which gave to Cleopatra the title of "Queen of Kings", and to their children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories, the war between Octavian and Mark Antony broke out. Octavian annihilated Egyptian forces in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Mark Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide, leaving Octavianus the sole ruler of the Republic. After the Battle of Actium, the period of major naval battles was over and the Romans possessed unchallenged naval supremacy in the North Sea, Atlantic coasts, Mediterranean, Red Sea, and the Black Sea until the emergence of new naval threats in the form of the Franks and the Saxons in the North Sea, and in the form of Borani, Herules and Goths in the Black Sea. ### Roman Empire In 27 BC, Octavian was the sole Roman leader. His leadership brought the zenith of the Roman civilization, which lasted for four decades. In that year, he took the name *Augustus*. That event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of the Roman Empire. Officially, the government was republican, but Augustus assumed absolute powers. The Senate granted Octavian a unique grade of Proconsular *imperium*, which gave him authority over all Proconsuls (military governors). The unruly provinces at the borders, where the vast majority of the legions were stationed, were under the control of Augustus. These provinces were classified as imperial provinces. The peaceful senatorial provinces were under the control of the Senate. The Roman legions, which had reached an unprecedented number (around 50) because of the civil wars, were reduced to 28. As provinces were being established throughout the Mediterranean, Roman Italy maintained a special status which made it *Domina Provinciarum* ("ruler of the provinces", the latter being all the remaining territories outside Italy), and - especially in relation to the first centuries of imperial stability - *Rectrix Mundi* ("governor of the world") and *Omnium Terrarum Parens* ("parent of all lands"). Such a status meant that, within Italy in times of peace, Roman magistrates exercised the *Imperium domi* (police power) as an alternative to the *Imperium militiae* (military power). Italy's inhabitants had Latin Rights as well as religious and financial privileges. Under Augustus's rule, Roman literature grew steadily in the Golden Age of Latin Literature. Poets like Vergil, Horace, Ovid and Rufus developed rich literature, and were close friends of Augustus. Along with Maecenas, he stimulated patriotic poems, as Vergil's epic *Aeneid* and also historiographical works, like those of Livy. The works of this literary age lasted through Roman times, and are classics. Augustus also continued the shifts on the calendar promoted by Caesar, and the month of August is named after him. Augustus' enlightened rule resulted in a 200 years long peaceful and thriving era for the Empire, known as *Pax Romana*. Despite its military strength, the Empire made few efforts to expand its already vast extent; the most notable being the conquest of Britain, begun by emperor Claudius (47), and emperor Trajan's conquest of Dacia (101–102, 105–106). In the 1st and 2nd centuries, Roman legions were also employed in intermittent warfare with the Germanic tribes to the north and the Parthian Empire to the east. Meanwhile, armed insurrections (e.g. the Hebraic insurrection in Judea) (70) and brief civil wars (e.g. in 68 AD the year of the four emperors) demanded the legions' attention on several occasions. The seventy years of Jewish–Roman wars in the second half of the 1st century and the first half of the 2nd century were exceptional in their duration and violence. An estimated 1,356,460 Jews were killed as a result of the First Jewish Revolt; the Second Jewish Revolt (115–117) led to the death of more than 200,000 Jews; and the Third Jewish Revolt (132–136) resulted in the death of 580,000 Jewish soldiers. The Jewish people never recovered until the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. After the death of Emperor Theodosius I (395), the Empire was divided into an Eastern and a Western Roman Empire. The Western part faced increasing economic and political crises and frequent barbarian invasions, so the capital was moved from Mediolanum to Ravenna. In 476, the last Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus was deposed by Odoacer; for a few years, Italy stayed united under the rule of Odoacer, only to be overthrown by the Ostrogoths, who in turn were overthrown by Roman emperor Justinian. Not long after the Lombards invaded the peninsula, and Italy did not reunite under a single ruler until thirteen centuries later. Middle Ages ----------- Odoacer's rule came to an end when the Ostrogoths, under the leadership of Theodoric, conquered Italy. Decades later, the armies of Eastern Emperor Justinian entered Italy with the goal of re-establishing imperial Roman rule, which led to the Gothic War that devastated the whole country with famine and epidemics. This ultimately allowed another Germanic tribe, the Lombards, to take control over vast regions of Italy. In 751 the Lombards seized Ravenna, ending Byzantine rule in northern Italy. Facing a new Lombard offensive, the Papacy appealed to the Franks for aid. In 756 Frankish forces defeated the Lombards and gave the Papacy legal authority over much of central Italy, thus establishing the Papal States. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the Holy Roman Empire by the Pope in Saint Peter's Basilica. After the death of Charlemagne (814), the new empire soon disintegrated under his weak successors. There was a power vacuum in Italy as a result of this. This coincided with the rise of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa and the Middle East. In the South, there were attacks from the Umayyad Caliphate and the Abbasid Caliphate. In the North, there was a rising power of communes. In 852, the Saracens took Bari and founded an emirate there. Islamic rule over Sicily was effective from 902, and the complete rule of the island lasted from 965 until 1061. The turn of the millennium brought about a period of renewed autonomy in Italian history. In the 11th century, trade slowly recovered as the cities started to grow again. The Papacy regained its authority and undertook a long struggle against the Holy Roman Empire. The Investiture controversy, a conflict over two radically different views of whether secular authorities such as kings, counts, or dukes, had any legitimate role in appointments to ecclesiastical offices such as bishoprics, was finally resolved by the Concordat of Worms in 1122, although problems continued in many areas of Europe until the end of the medieval era. In the north, a Lombard League of communes launched a successful effort to win autonomy from the Holy Roman Empire, defeating Emperor Frederick Barbarossa at the Battle of Legnano in 1176. In the south, the Normans occupied the Lombard and Byzantine possessions, ending the six-century-old presence of both powers in the peninsula. The few independent city-states were also subdued. During the same period, the Normans also ended Muslim rule in Sicily. In 1130, Roger II of Sicily began his rule of the Norman Kingdom of Sicily. Roger II was the first King of Sicily and had succeeded in uniting all the Norman conquests in Southern Italy into one kingdom with a strong centralized government. In 1155, Emperor Manuel Komnenos attempted to regain Southern Italy from the Normans, but the attempt failed and in 1158 the Byzantines left Italy. The Norman Kingdom of Sicily lasted until 1194 when Sicily was claimed by the German Hohenstaufen Dynasty. The Kingdom of Sicily would last under various dynasties until the 19th century. Between the 12th and 13th centuries, Italy developed a peculiar political pattern, significantly different from feudal Europe north of the Alps. As no dominant powers emerged as they did in other parts of Europe, the oligarchic city-state became the prevalent form of government. Keeping both direct Church control and Imperial power at arm's length, the many independent city-states prospered through commerce, based on early capitalist principles ultimately creating the conditions for the artistic and intellectual changes produced by the Renaissance. Italian towns had appeared to have exited from Feudalism so that their society was based on merchants and commerce. Even northern cities and states were also notable for their merchant republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Compared to feudal and absolute monarchies, the Italian independent communes and merchant republics enjoyed relative political freedom that boosted scientific and artistic advancement. During this period, many Italian cities developed republican forms of government, such as the republics of Florence, Lucca, Genoa, Venice and Siena. During the 13th and 14th centuries these cities grew to become major financial and commercial centres at European level. Thanks to their favourable position between East and West, Italian cities such as Venice became international trading and banking hubs and intellectual crossroads. Milan, Florence and Venice, as well as several other Italian city-states, played a crucial innovative role in financial development, devising the main instruments and practices of banking and the emergence of new forms of social and economic organization. During the same period, Italy saw the rise of the Maritime Republics: Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Amalfi, Ragusa, Ancona, Gaeta and the little Noli. From the 10th to the 13th centuries these cities built fleets of ships both for their own protection and to support extensive trade networks across the Mediterranean, leading to an essential role in the Crusades. The maritime republics, especially Venice and Genoa, soon became Europe's main gateways to trade with the East, establishing colonies as far as the Black Sea and often controlling most of the trade with the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic Mediterranean world. The county of Savoy expanded its territory into the peninsula in the late Middle Ages, while Florence developed into a highly organized commercial and financial city-state, becoming for many centuries the European capital of silk, wool, banking and jewellery. * Italian Lombard kingdom (781–1014).Italian Lombard kingdom (781–1014). * Emirate of Sicily (831–1072).Emirate of Sicily (831–1072). * Trade routes and colonies of the Genoese (red) and Venetian (green) empiresTrade routes and colonies of the Genoese (red) and Venetian (green) empires Renaissance ----------- Italy was the main centre of the Renaissance, whose flourishing of the arts, architecture, literature, science, historiography, and political theory influenced all of Europe. By the late Middle Ages, central and southern Italy, once the heartland of the Roman Empire and Magna Graecia respectively, was far poorer than the north. Rome was a city largely in ruins, and the Papal States were a loosely administered region with little law and order. Partly because of this, the Papacy had relocated to Avignon in France. Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia had for some time been under foreign domination. The Italian trade routes that covered the Mediterranean and beyond were major conduits of culture and knowledge. The city-states of Italy expanded greatly during this period and grew in power to become de facto fully independent of the Holy Roman Empire. The Black Death in 1348 inflicted a terrible blow to Italy, killing perhaps one-third of the population. The recovery from the demographic and economic disaster led to a resurgence of cities, trade and economy which greatly stimulated the successive phase of the Humanism and Renaissance (15th–16th centuries) when Italy again returned to be the centre of Western civilization, strongly influencing the other European countries with Courts like Este in Ferrara and Medici in Florence. The Renaissance was so called because it was a "rebirth" not only of economy and urbanization but also of arts and science. It has been argued that this cultural rebirth was fuelled by massive rediscoveries of ancient texts that had been forgotten for centuries by Western civilization, hidden in monastic libraries or in the Islamic world, as well as the translations of Greek and Arabic texts into Latin. The migration west into Italy of intellectuals fleeing the crumbling Eastern Roman Empire at this time also played a significant part. The Italian Renaissance began in Tuscany, centred in the city of Florence. It then spread south, having an especially significant impact on Rome, which was largely rebuilt by the Renaissance popes. The Italian Renaissance peaked in the 16th century. The Renaissance ideals first spread from Florence to the neighbouring states of Tuscany such as Siena and Lucca. Tuscan architecture and painting soon became a model for all the city-states of northern and central Italy, as the Tuscan variety of the Italian language came to predominate throughout the region, especially in literature. The Italian Renaissance was remarkable in economic development. Venice and Genoa were the trade pioneers, first as maritime republics and then as regional states, followed by Milan, Florence, and the rest of northern Italy. Reasons for their early development are for example the relative military safety of Venetian lagoons, the high population density and the institutional structure which inspired entrepreneurs. The Republic of Venice was the first real international financial center, which slowly emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century. Tradeable bonds as a commonly used type of security, were invented by the Italian city-states (such as Venice and Genoa) of the late medieval and early Renaissance periods. ### Literature, philosophy, and science Accounts of Renaissance literature usually begin with Petrarch (best known for the elegantly polished vernacular sonnet sequence of *Il Canzoniere* and for the book collecting that he initiated) and his friend and contemporary Giovanni Boccaccio (author of The Decameron). Famous vernacular poets of the 15th century include the Renaissance epic authors Luigi Pulci (*Morgante*), Matteo Maria Boiardo (*Orlando Innamorato*), and Ludovico Ariosto (*Orlando Furioso*). Renaissance scholars such as Niccolò de' Niccoli and Poggio Bracciolini scoured the libraries in search of works by such classical authors as Plato, Cicero and Vitruvius. The works of ancient Greek and Hellenistic writers (such as Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, and Ptolemy) and Muslim scientists were imported into the Christian world, providing new intellectual material for European scholars. 15th-century writers such as the poet Poliziano and the Platonist philosopher Marsilio Ficino made extensive translations from both Latin and Greek. Other Greek scholars of the period were two monks from the monastery of Seminara in Calabria. They were Barlaam of Seminara and his disciple Leonzio Pilato of Seminara. Barlaam was a master in Greek and was the initial teacher to Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio of the language. Leonzio Pilato made an almost word-for-word translation of Homer's works into Latin for Giovanni Boccaccio. In the early 16th century, Baldassare Castiglione with *The Book of the Courtier* laid out his vision of the ideal gentleman and lady, while Niccolò Machiavelli in *The Prince*, laid down the foundation of modern philosophy, especially modern political philosophy, in which the effective truth is taken to be more important than any abstract ideal. It was also in direct conflict with the dominant Catholic and scholastic doctrines of the time concerning how to consider politics and ethics. ### Architecture, sculpture, and painting Italian Renaissance painting exercised a dominant influence on subsequent European painting (see Western painting) for centuries afterwards, with artists such as Giotto di Bondone, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Michelangelo, Raphael, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, and Titian. The same is true for architecture, as practiced by Brunelleschi, Leone Alberti, Andrea Palladio, and Bramante. Their works include Florence Cathedral, St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, and the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini. Finally, the Aldine Press, founded by the printer Aldo Manuzio, active in Venice, developed Italic type and the small, relatively portable and inexpensive printed book that could be carried in one's pocket, as well as being the first to publish editions of books in ancient Greek. Yet cultural contributions notwithstanding, some present-day historians also see the era as one of the beginnings of economic regression for Italy (due to the opening up of the Atlantic trade routes and repeated foreign invasions) and of little progress in experimental science, which made great leaps forward among Protestant culture in the 17th century. ### Age of Discovery The fall of Constantinople led to the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy, fueling the rediscovery of Greco-Roman Humanism. Humanist rulers such as Federico da Montefeltro and Pope Pius II worked to establish ideal cities where *man is the measure of all things*, and therefore founded Urbino and Pienza respectively. Pico della Mirandola wrote the *Oration on the Dignity of Man*, considered the manifesto of Renaissance Humanism, in which he stressed the importance of free will in human beings. The humanist historian Leonardo Bruni was the first to divide human history into three periods: Antiquity, Middle Ages and Modernity. The second consequence of the Fall of Constantinople was the beginning of the Age of Discovery. Italian explorers and navigators from the dominant maritime republics, eager to find an alternative route to the Indies in order to bypass the Ottoman Empire, offered their services to monarchs of Atlantic countries and played a key role in ushering the Age of Discovery and the European colonization of the Americas. The most notable among them were: Christopher Columbus (Italian: *Cristoforo Colombo*), colonizer in the name of Spain, who is credited with discovering the New World and the opening of the Americas for conquest and settlement by Europeans; John Cabot (Italian: *Giovanni Caboto*), sailing for England, who was the first European to set foot in "New Found Land" and explore parts of the North American continent in 1497; Amerigo Vespucci, sailing for Portugal, who first demonstrated in about 1501 that the New World (in particular Brazil) was not Asia as initially conjectured, but a fourth continent previously unknown to people of the Old World (America is named after him); and Giovanni da Verrazzano, at the service of France, renowned as the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and New Brunswick in 1524. ### Incessant warfare In the 14th century, Northern Italy and upper-central Italy were divided into a number of warring city-states, the most powerful being Milan, Florence, Pisa, Siena, Genoa, Ferrara, Mantua, Verona and Venice. High Medieval Northern Italy was further divided by the long-running battle for supremacy between the forces of the Papacy and of the Holy Roman Empire. Each city aligned itself with one faction or the other, yet was divided internally between the two warring parties, Guelfs and Ghibellines. Warfare between the states was common, and invasion from outside Italy was confined to intermittent sorties of Holy Roman Emperors. Renaissance politics developed from this background. Since the 13th century, as armies became primarily composed of mercenaries, prosperous city-states could field considerable forces, despite their low populations. In the course of the 15th century, the most powerful city-states annexed their smaller neighbours. Florence took Pisa in 1406, Venice captured Padua and Verona, while the Duchy of Milan annexed a number of nearby areas including Pavia and Parma. The first part of the Renaissance saw almost constant warfare on land and sea as the city-states vied for preeminence. On land, these wars were primarily fought by armies of mercenaries known as *condottieri*, bands of soldiers drawn from around Europe, but especially Germany and Switzerland, led largely by Italian captains. The mercenaries were not willing to risk their lives unduly, and war became one largely of sieges and manoeuvring, occasioning few pitched battles. It was also in the interest of mercenaries on both sides to prolong any conflict, to continue their employment. Mercenaries were also a constant threat to their employers; if not paid, they often turned on their patron. If it became obvious that a state was entirely dependent on mercenaries, the temptation was great for the mercenaries to take over the running of it themselves—this occurred on a number of occasions. At sea, Italian city-states sent many fleets out to do battle. The main contenders were Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, but after a long conflict, the Genoese succeeded in reducing Pisa. Venice proved to be a more powerful adversary, and with the decline of Genoese power during the 15th century Venice became pre-eminent on the seas. In response to threats from the landward side, from the early 15th century Venice developed an increased interest in controlling the *terrafirma* as the Venetian Renaissance opened. On land, decades of fighting saw Florence, Milan and Venice emerge as the dominant players, and these three powers finally set aside their differences and agreed to the Peace of Lodi in 1454, which saw relative calm brought to the region for the first time in centuries. This peace would hold for the next forty years, and Venice's unquestioned hegemony over the sea also led to unprecedented peace for much of the rest of the 15th century. In the beginning of the 15th century, adventurers and traders such as Niccolò Da Conti (1395–1469) travelled as far as Southeast Asia and back, bringing fresh knowledge on the state of the world, presaging further European voyages of exploration in the years to come. ### Italian Wars The foreign invasions of Italy known as the Italian Wars began with the 1494 invasion by France that wreaked widespread devastation on Northern Italy and ended the independence of many of the city-states. Originally arising from dynastic disputes over the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples, the wars rapidly became a general struggle for power and territory among their various participants, marked with an increasing number of alliances, counter-alliances, and betrayals. The French were routed by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Battle of Pavia (1525) and again in the War of the League of Cognac (1526–30). Eventually, after years of inconclusive fighting, with the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559) France renounced all its claims in Italy thus inaugurating a long Habsburg hegemony over the Peninsula. Much of Venice's hinterland (but not the city itself) was devastated by the Turks in 1499 and again invaded and plundered by the League of Cambrai in 1509. In 1528, most of the towns of Apulia and Abbruzzi had been sacked. Worst of all was the 6 May 1527 Sack of Rome by mutinous German mercenaries that all but ended the role of the Papacy as the largest patron of Renaissance art and architecture. The long Siege of Florence (1529–1530) brought the destruction of its suburbs, the ruin of its export business and the confiscation of its citizens' wealth. Italy's urban population fell in half, ransoms paid to the invaders and emergency taxes drained the finances. The wool and silk industries of Lombardy collapsed when their looms were wrecked by invaders. The defensive tactic of scorched earth only slightly delayed the invaders, and made the recovery much longer and more painful. From the Counter-Reformation to Napoleon ---------------------------------------- The history of Italy following the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis was characterized by foreign domination. The North was under indirect rule of the Austrian Habsburgs in their positions as Holy Roman Emperors, and the south was under direct rule of the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs. Following the European wars of successions of the 1700s, the south passed to a cadet branch of Spanish Bourbons and the north was under control of the Austrian House of Habsburg-Lorraine. During the Napoleonic era, Italy was invaded by France and divided into a number of sister republics (later in the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy and the French Empire). The Congress of Vienna (1814) restored the situation of the late 18th century, which was however quickly overturned by the incipient movement of Italian unification. The Italian economy declined during the 1600s and 1700s, as the peninsula was excluded from the rising Atlantic slave trade. After 1600 Italy experienced an economic catastrophe. In 1600 Northern and Central Italy comprised one of the most advanced industrial areas of Europe. There was an exceptionally high standard of living. By 1870 Italy was an economically backward and depressed area; its industrial structure had almost collapsed, its population was too high for its resources, its economy had become primarily agricultural. Wars, political fractionalization, limited fiscal capacity and the shift of world trade to north-western Europe and the Americas were key factors. ### 17th century The 17th century was a tumultuous period in Italian history, marked by deep political and social changes. These included the increase of Papal power in the peninsula and the influence of Roman Catholic Church at the peak of the Counter Reformation, the Catholic reaction against the Protestant Reformation. Despite important artistic and scientific achievements, such as the discoveries of Galileo in the field of astronomy and physics and the flourishing of the Baroque style in architecture and painting, Italy experienced overall economic decline. Effectively, in spite of Italy having given birth to some great explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci and Giovanni da Verrazzano, the discovery of the New World undermined the importance of Venice and other Italian ports as commercial hubs by shifting Europe's center of gravity westward towards the Atlantic. In addition, Spain's involvement in the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), financed in part by taxes on its Italian possessions, heavily drained Italian commerce and agriculture; so, as Spain declined, it dragged its Italian domains down with it, spreading conflicts and revolts (such as the Neapolitan 1647 tax-related "Revolt of Masaniello"). The Black Death returned to haunt Italy throughout the century. The plague of 1630 that ravaged northern Italy, notably Milan and Venice, claimed possibly one million lives, or about 25% of the population. The plague of 1656 killed up to 43% of the population of the Kingdom of Naples. Historians believe the dramatic reduction in Italian cities population (and, thus, in economic activity) contributed to Italy's downfall as a major commercial and political centre. By one estimate, while in 1500 the GDP of Italy was 106% of the French GDP, by 1700 it was only 75% of it. ### 18th century The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) was triggered by the death without issue of the last Habsburg king of Spain, Charles II, who fixed the entire Spanish inheritance on Philip, Duke of Anjou, the second grandson of King Louis XIV of France. In face of the threat of a French hegemony over much of Europe, a Grand Alliance between Austria, England, the Dutch Republic and other minor powers (within which the Duchy of Savoy) was signed in The Hague. The Alliance successfully fought and defeated the Franco-Spanish "Party of the Two Crowns", and the subsequent Treaty of Utrecht and Rastatt pass control of much of Italy (Milan, Naples and Sardinia) from Spain to Austria, while Sicily was ceded to the Duchy of Savoy. However, Spain attempted again to retake territories in Italy and to claim the French throne in the War of the Quadruple Alliance (1718–1720), but was again defeated. As a result of the Treaty of The Hague, Spain agreed to abandon its Italian claims, while Duke Victor Amadeus II of Savoy agreed to exchange Sicily with Austria, for the island of Sardinia, after which he was known as the King of Sardinia. The Spaniards regained Naples and Sicily following the Battle of Bitonto in 1738. ### Age of Napoleon At the end of the 18th century, Italy was almost in the same political conditions as in the 16th century; the main differences were that Austria had replaced Spain as the dominant foreign power after the War of Spanish Succession (though the War of the Polish Succession resulted in the re-installment of the Spanish in the south, as the House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies), and that the dukes of Savoy (a mountainous region between Italy and France) had become kings of Sardinia by increasing their Italian possessions, which now included Sardinia and the north-western region of Piedmont. This situation was shaken in 1796, when the French Army of Italy under Napoleon invaded Italy, with the aims of forcing the First Coalition to abandon Sardinia (still in the hands of the Coalition Kingdom of Sardinia) and forcing Austria to withdraw from Italy. The first battles came on 9 April, between the French and the Piedmontese, and within only two weeks Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia was forced to sign an armistice. On 15 May the French general then entered Milan, where he was welcomed as a liberator. Subsequently, beating off Austrian counterattacks and continuing to advance, he arrived in the Veneto in 1797. Here occurred the Veronese Easters, an act of rebellion against French oppression, that tied down Napoleon for about a week. Napoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution in 1797–99. He consolidated old units and split up Austria's holdings. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. Napoleon's Cisalpine Republic was centered on Milan. Genoa the city became a republic while its hinterland became the Ligurian Republic. The Roman Republic was formed out of the papal holdings while the pope himself was sent to France. The Neapolitan Republic was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months before the enemy forces of the Coalition recaptured it. In 1805, he formed the Kingdom of Italy, with himself as king and his stepson as viceroy. In addition, France turned the Netherlands into the Batavian Republic, and Switzerland into the Helvetic Republic. All these new countries were satellites of France, and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France. In 1805, after the French victory over the Third Coalition and the Peace of Pressburg, Napoleon recovered Veneto and Dalmatia, annexing them to the Italian Republic and renaming it the Kingdom of Italy. Also that year a second satellite state, the Ligurian Republic (successor to the old Republic of Genoa), was pressured into merging with France. In 1806, he conquered the Kingdom of Naples and granted it to his brother and then (from 1808) to Joachim Murat, along with marrying his sisters Elisa and Paolina off to the princes of Massa-Carrara and Guastalla. In 1808, he also annexed Marche and Tuscany to the Kingdom of Italy. In 1809, Bonaparte occupied Rome, for contrasts with the pope, who had excommunicated him, and to maintain his own state efficiently, exiling the Pope first to Savona and then to France. After Russia, the other states of Europe re-allied themselves and defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig, after which his Italian allied states, with Murat first among them, abandoned him to ally with Austria. Defeated at Paris on 6 April 1814, Napoleon was compelled to renounce his throne and sent into exile on Elba. The resulting Congress of Vienna (1814) restored a situation close to that of 1795, dividing Italy between Austria (in the north-east and Lombardy), the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (in the south and in Sicily), and Tuscany, the Papal States and other minor states in the centre. However, old republics such as Venice and Genoa were not recreated, Venice went to Austria, and Genoa went to the Kingdom of Sardinia. On Napoleon's escape and return to France (the Hundred Days), he regained Murat's support, but Murat proved unable to convince the Italians to fight for Napoleon with his Proclamation of Rimini and was beaten and killed. The Italian kingdoms thus fell, and Italy's Restoration period began, with many pre-Napoleonic sovereigns returned to their thrones. Piedmont, Genoa and Nice came to be united, as did Sardinia (which went on to create the State of Savoy), while Lombardy, Veneto, Istria and Dalmatia were re-annexed to Austria. The dukedoms of Parma and Modena re-formed, and the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples returned to the Bourbons. The political and social events in the restoration period of Italy (1815–1835) led to popular uprisings throughout the peninsula and greatly shaped what would become the Italian Wars of Independence. All this led to a new Kingdom of Italy and Italian unification. Frederick Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution: For nearly two decades the Italians had the excellent codes of law, a fair system of taxation, a better economic situation, and more religious and intellectual toleration than they had known for centuries. ... Everywhere old physical, economic, and intellectual barriers had been thrown down and the Italians had begun to be aware of a common nationality. During the Napoleonic era, in 1797, the first official adoption of the Italian tricolour as a national flag by a sovereign Italian state, the Cispadane Republic, a Napoleonic sister republic of Revolutionary France, took place, on the basis of the events following the French Revolution (1789–1799) which, among its ideals, advocated the national self-determination. This event is celebrated by the Tricolour Day. The Italian national colours appeared for the first time on a tricolour cockade in 1789, anticipating by seven years the first green, white and red Italian military war flag, which was adopted by the Lombard Legion in 1796. Unification (1814–1861) ----------------------- The *Risorgimento* was the political and social process that unified different states of the Italian peninsula into the single nation of Italy. It is difficult to pin down exact dates for the beginning and end of Italian reunification, but most scholars agree that it began with the end of Napoleonic rule and the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and approximately ended with the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, though the last "città irredente" did not join the Kingdom of Italy until the Italian victory in World War I. As Napoleon's reign began to fail, other national monarchs he had installed tried to keep their thrones by feeding those nationalistic sentiments, setting the stage for the revolutions to come. Among these monarchs was the viceroy of Italy, Eugène de Beauharnais, who tried to get Austrian approval for his succession to the Kingdom of Italy, and Joachim Murat, who called for Italian patriots' help for the unification of Italy under his rule. Following the defeat of Napoleonic France, the Congress of Vienna (1815) was convened to redraw the European continent. In Italy, the Congress restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments, either directly ruled or strongly influenced by the prevailing European powers, particularly Austria. In 1820, Spaniards successfully revolted over disputes about their Constitution, which influenced the development of a similar movement in Italy. Inspired by the Spaniards (who, in 1812, had created their constitution), a regiment in the army of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, commanded by Guglielmo Pepe, a *Carbonaro* (member of the secret republican organization), mutinied, conquering the peninsular part of Two Sicilies. The king, Ferdinand I, agreed to enact a new constitution. The revolutionaries, though, failed to court popular support and fell to Austrian troops of the Holy Alliance. Ferdinand abolished the constitution and began systematically persecuting known revolutionaries. Many supporters of revolution in Sicily, including the scholar Michele Amari, were forced into exile during the decades that followed. The leader of the 1821 revolutionary movement in Piedmont was Santorre di Santarosa, who wanted to remove the Austrians and unify Italy under the House of Savoy. The Piedmont revolt started in Alessandria, where troops adopted the green, white, and red *tricolore* of the Cisalpine Republic. The king's regent, prince Charles Albert, acting while the king Charles Felix was away, approved a new constitution to appease the revolutionaries, but when the king returned he disavowed the constitution and requested assistance from the Holy Alliance. Di Santarosa's troops were defeated, and the would-be Piedmontese revolutionary fled to Paris. At the time, the struggle for Italian unification was perceived to be waged primarily against the Austrian Empire and the Habsburgs, since they directly controlled the predominantly Italian-speaking northeastern part of present-day Italy and were the single most powerful force against unification. The Austrian Empire vigorously repressed nationalist sentiment growing on the Italian peninsula, as well as in the other parts of Habsburg domains. Austrian Chancellor Franz Metternich, an influential diplomat at the Congress of Vienna, stated that the word *Italy* was nothing more than "a geographic expression." Artistic and literary sentiment also turned towards nationalism; and perhaps the most famous of proto-nationalist works was Alessandro Manzoni's *I Promessi Sposi* (The Betrothed). Some read this novel as a thinly veiled allegorical critique of Austrian rule. The novel was published in 1827 and extensively revised in the following years. The 1840 version of *I Promessi Sposi* used a standardized version of the Tuscan dialect, a conscious effort by the author to provide a language and force people to learn it. Those in favour of unification also faced opposition from the Holy See, particularly after failed attempts to broker a confederation with the Papal States, which would have left the Papacy with some measure of autonomy over the region. The pope at the time, Pius IX, feared that giving up power in the region could mean the persecution of Italian Catholics. Even among those who wanted to see the peninsula unified into one country, different groups could not agree on what form a unified state would take. Vincenzo Gioberti, a Piedmontese priest, had suggested a confederation of Italian states under the rulership of the Pope. His book, *Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians*, was published in 1843 and created a link between the Papacy and the Risorgimento. Many leading revolutionaries wanted a republic, but eventually, it was a king and his chief minister who had the power to unite the Italian states as a monarchy. One of the most influential revolutionary groups was the Carbonari (charcoal burners), a secret organization formed in southern Italy early in the 19th century. Inspired by the principles of the French Revolution, its members were mainly drawn from the middle class and intellectuals. After the Congress of Vienna divided the Italian peninsula among the European powers, the *Carbonari* movement spread into the Papal States, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Modena and the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. The revolutionaries were so feared that the reigning authorities passed an ordinance condemning to death anyone who attended a Carbonari meeting. The society, however, continued to exist and was at the root of many of the political disturbances in Italy from 1820 until after unification. The *Carbonari* condemned Napoleon III to death for failing to unite Italy, and the group almost succeeded in assassinating him in 1858. Many leaders of the unification movement were at one time members of this organization. (Note: Napoleon III, as a young man, fought on the side of the 'Carbonari'.) In this context, in 1847, the first public performance of the song *Il Canto degli Italiani*, the Italian national anthem since 1946, took place. *Il Canto degli Italiani*, written by Goffredo Mameli set to music by Michele Novaro, is also known as the *Inno di Mameli*, after the author of the lyrics, or *Fratelli d'Italia*, from its opening line. Two prominent radical figures in the unification movement were Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi. The more conservative constitutional monarchic figures included the Count of Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II, who would later become the first king of a united Italy. Mazzini's activity in revolutionary movements caused him to be imprisoned soon after he joined. While in prison, he concluded that Italy could – and therefore should – be unified and formulated his program for establishing a free, independent, and republican nation with Rome as its capital. After Mazzini's release in 1831, he went to Marseille, where he organized a new political society called *La Giovine Italia* (Young Italy). The new society, whose motto was "God and the People," sought the unification of Italy. The creation of the Kingdom of Italy was the result of concerted efforts by Italian nationalists and monarchists loyal to the House of Savoy to establish a united kingdom encompassing the entire Italian Peninsula. The Kingdom of Sardinia industrialized from 1830 onward. A constitution, the Statuto Albertino was enacted in the year of revolutions, 1848, under liberal pressure. Under the same pressure, the First Italian War of Independence was declared on Austria. After initial success, the war took a turn for the worse and the Kingdom of Sardinia lost. Garibaldi, a native of Nice (then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia), participated in an uprising in Piedmont in 1834, was sentenced to death, and escaped to South America. He spent fourteen years there, taking part in several wars, and returned to Italy in 1848. After the Revolutions of 1848, the apparent leader of the Italian unification movement was Italian nationalist Giuseppe Garibaldi. He was popular amongst southern Italians. Garibaldi led the Italian republican drive for unification in southern Italy, but the northern Italian monarchy of the House of Savoy in the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia whose government was led by Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, also had the ambition of establishing a united Italian state. Although the kingdom had no physical connection to Rome (deemed the natural capital of Italy), the kingdom had successfully challenged Austria in the Second Italian War of Independence, liberating Lombardy–Venetia from Austrian rule. On the basis of the Plombières Agreement, the Kingdom of Sardinia ceded Savoy and Nice to France, an event that caused the Niçard exodus, that was the emigration of a quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy. The kingdom also had established important alliances which helped it improve the possibility of Italian unification, such as Britain and France in the Crimean War. Giuseppe Garibaldi was elected in 1871 in Nice at the National Assembly where he tried to promote the annexation of his hometown to the newborn Italian unitary state, but he was prevented from speaking. Because of this denial, between 1871 and 1872 there were riots in Nice, promoted by the Garibaldini and called "Niçard Vespers", which demanded the annexation of the city and its area to Italy. Fifteen Nice people who participated in the rebellion were tried and sentenced. ### Southern question and Italian diaspora The transition was not smooth for the south (the "Mezzogiorno"). The path to unification and modernization created a divide between Northern and Southern Italy. People condemned the South for being "backwards" and barbaric, when in truth, compared to Northern Italy, "where there was backwardness, the lag, never excessive, was always more or less compensated by other elements". Of course, there had to be some basis for singling out the South like Italy did. The entire region south of Naples was afflicted with numerous deep economic and social liabilities. However, many of the South's political problems and its reputation of being "passive" or lazy (politically speaking) was due to the new government (that was born out of Italy's want for development) that alienated the South and prevented the people of the South from any say in important matters. However, on the other hand, transportation was difficult, soil fertility was low with extensive erosion, deforestation was severe, many businesses could stay open only because of high protective tariffs, large estates were often poorly managed, most peasants had only very small plots, and there was chronic unemployment and high crime rates. Cavour decided the basic problem was poor government, and believed that could be remedied by strict application of the Piedmontese legal system. The main result was an upsurge in brigandage, which turned into a bloody civil war that lasted almost ten years. The insurrection reached its peak mainly in Basilicata and northern Apulia, headed by the brigands Carmine Crocco and Michele Caruso. With the end of the southern riots, there was a heavy outflow of millions of peasants in the Italian diaspora, especially to the United States and South America. Others relocated to the northern industrial cities such as Genoa, Milan and Turin, and sent money home. The first Italian diaspora began around 1880, two decades after the Unification of Italy, and ended in the 1920s to the early 1940s with the rise of Fascist Italy. Poverty was the main reason for emigration, specifically the lack of land as *mezzadria* sharecropping flourished in Italy, especially in the South, and property became subdivided over generations. Especially in Southern Italy, conditions were harsh. Until the 1860s to 1950s, most of Italy was a rural society with many small towns and cities and almost no modern industry in which land management practices, especially in the South and the Northeast, did not easily convince farmers to stay on the land and to work the soil. Another factor was related to the overpopulation of Southern Italy as a result of the improvements in socioeconomic conditions after Unification. That created a demographic boom and forced the new generations to emigrate en masse in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, mostly to the Americas. The new migration of capital created millions of unskilled jobs around the world and was responsible for the simultaneous mass migration of Italians searching for "work and bread" (Italian: *pane e lavoro*, pronounced [ˈpaːne e llaˈvoːro]). The Unification of Italy broke down the feudal land system, which had survived in the south since the Middle Ages, especially where land had been the inalienable property of aristocrats, religious bodies or the king. The breakdown of feudalism, however, and redistribution of land did not necessarily lead to small farmers in the south winding up with land of their own or land they could work and make profit from. Many remained landless, and plots grew smaller and smaller and so less and less productive, as land was subdivided amongst heirs. Between 1860 and World War I, 9 million Italians left permanently of a total of 16 million who emigrated, most travelling to North or South America. The numbers may have even been higher; 14 million from 1876 to 1914, according to another study. Annual emigration averaged almost 220,000 in the period 1876 to 1900, and almost 650,000 from 1901 through 1915. Prior to 1900 the majority of Italian immigrants were from northern and central Italy. Two-thirds of the migrants who left Italy between 1870 and 1914 were men with traditional skills. Peasants were half of all migrants before 1896. The bond of the emigrants with their mother country continued to be very strong even after their departure. Many Italian emigrants made donations to the construction of the Altare della Patria (1885–1935), a part of the monument dedicated to King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, and in memory of that, the inscription of the plaque on the two burning braziers perpetually at the Altare della Patria next to the tomb of the Italian Unknown Soldier, reads "Gli italiani all'estero alla Madre Patria" ("Italians abroad to the Motherland"). The allegorical meaning of the flames that burn perpetually is linked to their symbolism, which is centuries old, since it has its origins in classical antiquity, especially in the cult of the dead. A fire that burns eternally symbolizes that the memory, in this case of the sacrifice of the Unknown Soldier and the bond of the country of origin, is perpetually alive in Italians, even in those who are far from their country, and will never fade. Liberal period (1861–1922) -------------------------- Victor Emmanuel II and Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, leading figures in the Italian unification, became respectively the 1st king and 1st Prime Minister of unified Italy Italy became a nation-state belatedly on 17 March 1861, when most of the states of the peninsula were united under king Victor Emmanuel II of the House of Savoy, which ruled over Piedmont. The architects of Italian unification were Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, the Chief Minister of Victor Emmanuel, and Giuseppe Garibaldi, a general and national hero. In 1866, Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck offered Victor Emmanuel II an alliance with the Kingdom of Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War. In exchange Prussia would allow Italy to annex Austrian-controlled Venice. King Emmanuel agreed to the alliance and the Third Italian War of Independence began. The victory against Austria allowed Italy to annex Venice. The one major obstacle to Italian unity remained Rome. In 1870, France started the Franco-Prussian War and brought home its soldiers in Rome, where they had kept the pope in power. Italy marched in to take over the Papal State. Italian unification was completed, and the capital was moved from Florence to Rome. Some of the states that had been targeted for unification (*terre irredente*), Trentino-Alto Adige and Julian March, did not join the Kingdom of Italy until 1918 after Italy defeated Austria-Hungary in the First World War. For this reason, historians sometimes describe the unification period as continuing past 1871, including activities during the late 19th century and the First World War (1915–1918), and reaching completion only with the Armistice of Villa Giusti on 4 November 1918. This more expansive definition of the unification period is the one presented at the Central Museum of the Risorgimento at the Altare della Patria in Rome. In Northern Italy, industrialisation and modernisation began in the last part of the 19th century. The south, at the same time, was overpopulated, forcing millions of people to search for a better life abroad. It is estimated that around one million Italian people moved to other European countries such as France, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium and Luxembourg, and to the Americas. Parliamentary democracy developed considerably in the 19th century. The Sardinian Statuto Albertino of 1848, extended to the whole Kingdom of Italy in 1861, provided for basic freedoms, but the electoral laws excluded the non-propertied and uneducated classes from voting. Italy's political arena was sharply divided between broad camps of left and right which created frequent deadlock and attempts to preserve governments, which led to instances such as conservative Prime Minister Marco Minghetti enacting economic reforms to appease the opposition such as the nationalization of railways. In 1876, Minghetti lost power and was replaced by the Democrat Agostino Depretis, who began a period of political dominance in the 1880s, but continued attempts to appease the opposition to hold power. ### Depretis Depretis began his term as Prime Minister by initiating an experimental political idea called *Trasformismo* (transformism). The theory of *Trasformismo* was that a cabinet should select a variety of moderates and capable politicians from a non-partisan perspective. In practice, *trasformismo* was authoritarian and corrupt, Depretis pressured districts to vote for his candidates if they wished to gain favourable concessions from Depretis when in power. The results of the 1876 election resulted in only four representatives from the right being elected, allowing the government to be dominated by Depretis. Despotic and corrupt actions are believed to be the key means in which Depretis managed to keep support in southern Italy. Depretis put through authoritarian measures, such as banning public meetings, placing "dangerous" individuals in internal exile on remote penal islands across Italy, and adopting militarist policies. Depretis enacted controversial legislation for the time, such as abolishing arrest for debt, making elementary education free and compulsory while ending compulsory religious teaching in elementary schools. The first government of Depretis collapsed after his dismissal of his Interior Minister, and ended with his resignation in 1877. The second government of Depretis started in 1881. Depretis' goals included widening suffrage in 1882 and increasing the tax intake from Italians by expanding the minimum requirements of who could pay taxes and the creation of a new electoral system called which resulted in large numbers of inexperienced deputies in the Italian parliament. In 1887, Depretis was finally pushed out of office after years of political decline. ### Crispi Francesco Crispi (1818–1901) was Prime Minister for a total of six years, from 1887 until 1891 and again from 1893 until 1896. Historian R.J.B. Bosworth says of his foreign policy that Crispi: > Pursued policies whose openly aggressive character would not be equaled until the days of the Fascist regime. Crispi increased military expenditure, talked cheerfully of a European conflagration, and alarmed his German or British friends with his suggestions of preventative attacks on his enemies. His policies were ruinous, both for Italy's trade with France, and, more humiliatingly, for colonial ambitions in East Africa. Crispi's lust for territory there was thwarted when on 1 March 1896, the armies of Ethiopian Emperor Menelik routed Italian forces at Adowa, ... In what has been defined as an unparalleled disaster for a modern army. Crispi, whose private life (he was perhaps a trigamist) and personal finances...were objects of perennial scandal, went into dishonorable retirement. > > Crispi had been in the Depretis cabinet minister and was once a Garibaldi republican. Crispi's major concerns before during 1887–91 was protecting Italy from Austria-Hungary. Crispi worked to build Italy as a great world power through increased military expenditures, advocation of expansionism, and trying to win Germany's favor even by joining the Triple Alliance which included both Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882 which remained officially intact until 1915. While helping Italy develop strategically, he continued *trasformismo* and was authoritarian, once suggesting the use of martial law to ban opposition parties. Despite being authoritarian, Crispi put through liberal policies such as the Public Health Act of 1888 and establishing tribunals for redress against abuses by the government. The overwhelming attention paid to foreign policy alienated the agricultural community which needed help. Both radical and conservative forces in the Italian parliament demanded that the government investigate how to improve agriculture in Italy. The investigation which started in 1877 and was released eight years later, showed that agriculture was not improving, that landowners were swallowing up revenue from their lands and contributing almost nothing to the development of the land. There was aggravation by lower class Italians to the break-up of communal lands which benefited only landlords. Most of the workers on the agricultural lands were not peasants but short-term labourers who at best were employed for one year. Peasants without stable income were forced to live off meager food supplies, disease was spreading rapidly, plagues were reported, including a major cholera epidemic which killed at least 55,000 people. The Italian government could not deal with the situation effectively due to the mass overspending of the Depretis government that left Italy in huge debt. Italy also suffered economically because of overproduction of grapes for their vineyards in the 1870s and 1880s when France's vineyard industry was suffering from vine disease caused by insects. Italy during that time prospered as the largest exporter of wine in Europe but following the recovery of France in 1888, southern Italy was overproducing and had to split in two which caused greater unemployment and bankruptcies. ### Giolitti From 1901 to 1914, Italian history and politics was dominated by Giovanni Giolitti. He first confronted the wave of widespread discontent that Crispi's policy had provoked with the increase in prices. And it is with this first confrontation with the social partners that the wave of novelty that Giolitti brought to the political landscape between the 19th and 20th centuries was highlighted. No more authoritarian repression, but acceptance of protests and therefore of strikes, as long as they are neither violent nor political, with the (successful) aim of bringing the socialists in the political life of the country. Giolitti's most important interventions were social and labor legislation, universal male suffrage, the nationalization of the railways and insurance companies the reduction of state debt, the development of infrastructure and industry. In foreign policy, there was a movement away from Germany and Austria Hungary and toward the Triple Entente of France, Great Britain and Russia. Starting from the last two decades of the 19th century, Italy developed its own colonial Empire. It took control of Somalia. Its attempt to occupy Ethiopia failed in the First Italo–Ethiopian War of 1895–1896. In 1911, Giolitti's government sent forces to occupy Libya and declared war on the Ottoman Empire which held Libya. Italy soon conquered and annexed Libya (then divided in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica) and the Dodecanese Islands after the Italo-Turkish War. Nationalists advocated Italy's domination of the Mediterranean Sea by occupying Greece as well as the Adriatic coastal region of Dalmatia but no attempts were made. In June 1914 the left became repulsed by the government after the killing of three anti-militarist demonstrators. Many elements of the left protested against this and the Italian Socialist Party declared a general strike in Italy. The protests that ensued became known as "Red Week", as leftists rioted and various acts of civil disobedience occurred in major cities and small towns such as seizing railway stations, cutting telephone wires and burning tax-registers. However, only two days later the strike was officially called off, though the civil strife continued. ### World War I and failure of the liberal state Italy entered into the First World War in 1915 with the aim of completing national unity: for this reason, the Italian intervention in the First World War is also considered the Fourth Italian War of Independence, in a historiographical perspective that identifies in the latter the conclusion of the unification of Italy, whose military actions began during the revolutions of 1848 with the First Italian War of Independence. The First World War (1914–1918) was an unexpected development that forced the decision whether to honor the alliance with Germany and Austria. For six months Italy remained neutral, as the Triple Alliance was only for defensive purposes. Italy took the initiative in entering the war in spring 1915, despite strong popular and elite sentiment in favor of neutrality. Italy was a large, poor country whose political system was chaotic, its finances were heavily strained, and its army was very poorly prepared. The Triple Alliance meant little either to Italians or Austrians – Vienna had declared war on Serbia without consulting Rome. Two men, Prime Minister Antonio Salandra and Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino made all the decisions, as was typical in Italian foreign policy. They operated in secret, enlisting the king later on, but keeping military and political leaders entirely in the dark. They negotiated with both sides for the best deal, and got one from the Entente, which was quite willing to promise large slices of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, including the Tyrol and Trieste, as well as making Albania a protectorate. Russia vetoed giving Italy Dalmatia. Britain was willing to pay subsidies and loans to get 36 million Italians as new allies who threatened the southern flank of Austria. When the Treaty of London was announced in May 1915, there was an uproar from antiwar elements. Salandra resigned but no one could form a majority against him, and he returned to office. Most politicians, and indeed most Italians opposed the war, including most Catholics. Reports from around Italy showed the people feared war, and cared little about territorial gains. Rural folk saw war is a disaster, like drought, famine or plague. Businessmen were generally opposed, fearing heavy-handed government controls and taxes, and loss of foreign markets. Reversing the decision seemed impossible, for the Triple Alliance did not want Italy back, and the king's throne was at risk. Pro-war supporters mobbed the streets with tens of thousands of shouting by nationalists, Futurists, anti-clericals, and angry young men. Benito Mussolini, an important Socialist Party editor took a leadership role, but he was expelled from the Party and only a minority followed him. Apart from Russia this was the only far left party in Europe that opposed the war. The fervor for war represented a bitterly hostile reaction against politics as usual, and the failures, frustrations, and stupidities of the ruling class. Italy entered the war with an army of 875,000 men, but the army was poorly led and lacked heavy artillery and machine guns, their war supplies having been largely depleted in the war of 1911–12 against Turkey. Italy proved unable to prosecute the war effectively, as fighting raged for three years on a very narrow front along the Isonzo River, where the Austrians held the high ground. In 1916, Italy declared war on Germany, which provided significant aid to the Austrians. Some 650,000 Italian soldiers died and 950,000 were wounded, while the economy required large-scale Allied funding to survive. Before the war the government had ignored labor issues, but now it had to intervene to mobilize war production. With the main working-class Socialist party reluctant to support the war effort, strikes were frequent and cooperation was minimal, especially in the Socialist strongholds of Piedmont and Lombardy. The government imposed high wage scales, as well as collective bargaining and insurance schemes. Many large firms expanded dramatically. The workforce at Ansaldo grew from 6,000 to 110,000 as it manufactures 10,900 artillery pieces, 3,800 warplanes, 95 warships and 10 million artillery shells. At Fiat the workforce grew from 4,000 to 40,000. Inflation doubled the cost of living. Industrial wages kept pace but not wages for farm workers. Discontent was high in rural areas since so many men were taken for service, industrial jobs were unavailable, wages grew slowly and inflation was just as bad. The Italian victory, which was announced by the *Bollettino della Vittoria* and the *Bollettino della Vittoria Navale*, marked the end of the war on the Italian Front, secured the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and was chiefly instrumental in ending the First World War less than two weeks later. More than 651,000 Italian soldiers died on the battlefields of World War I. The Italian civilian deaths, estimated on the basis of pre-war demographic statistics, were estimated at 589,000 due to malnutrition and food shortages. As the war came to an end, Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando met with British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of France Georges Clemenceau and United States President Woodrow Wilson in Versailles to discuss how the borders of Europe should be redefined to help avoid a future European war. The talks provided little territorial gain to Italy because, during the peace talks, Wilson promised freedom to all European nationalities to form their nation-states. As a result, the Treaty of Versailles did not assign Dalmatia and Albania to Italy as had been promised in the Treaty of London. Furthermore, the British and French decided to divide the German overseas colonies into their mandates, with Italy receiving none of them. Italy also gained no territory from the breakup of the Ottoman Empire, despite a proposal being issued to Italy by the United Kingdom and France during the war, only to see these nations carve up the Ottoman Empire between themselves (also exploiting the forces of the Arab Revolt). Despite this, Orlando agreed to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which caused uproar against his government. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) and the Treaty of Rapallo (1920) allowed the annexation of Trentino Alto-Adige, Julian March, Istria, Kvarner as well as the Dalmatian city of Zara. Furious over the peace settlement, the Italian nationalist poet Gabriele D'Annunzio led disaffected war veterans and nationalists to form the Free State of Fiume in September 1919. His popularity among nationalists led him to be called *Il Duce* ("The Leader"), and he used black-shirted paramilitary in his assault on Fiume. The leadership title of *Duce* and the blackshirt paramilitary uniform would later be adopted by the Fascist movement of Benito Mussolini. The demand for the Italian annexation of Fiume spread to all sides of the political spectrum, including Mussolini's Fascists. D'Annunzio's stirring speeches drew Croat nationalists to his side and also kept contact with the Irish Republican Army and Egyptian nationalists. The subsequent Treaty of Rome (1924) led to the annexation of the city of Fiume to Italy. Italy did not receive other territories promised by the Treaty of London (1915), such as Dalmatia, so this outcome was denounced as a *mutilated victory*. The rhetoric of *mutilated victory* was adopted by Benito Mussolini and led to the rise of Italian fascism, becoming a key point in the propaganda of Fascist Italy. Historians regard *mutilated victory* as a "political myth", used by fascists to fuel Italian imperialism and obscure the successes of liberal Italy in the aftermath of World War I. Italy also gained a permanent seat in the League of Nations's executive council. Fascist regime, World War II, and Civil War (1922–1946) ------------------------------------------------------- ### Rise of Fascism into power In 1914, Benito Mussolini was forced out of the Italian Socialist Party after calling for Italian intervention in the war against Austria-Hungary. Before World War I, Mussolini had opposed military conscription, protested against Italy's occupation of Libya and was the editor of the Socialist Party's official newspaper, *Avanti!*, but over time he simply called for revolution without mentioning class struggle. In 1914, Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies to create his newspaper, *Il Popolo d'Italia*, which at first attempted to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war. The Allied Powers, eager to draw Italy to the war, helped finance the newspaper. Later, after the war, this publication would become the official newspaper of the Fascist movement. During the war, Mussolini served in the Army and was wounded once. Following the end of the war and the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, Mussolini created the *Fasci di Combattimento* or Combat League. It was originally dominated by patriotic socialist and syndicalist veterans who opposed the pacifist policies of the Italian Socialist Party. This early Fascist movement had a platform more inclined to the left, promising social revolution, proportional representation in elections, women's suffrage (partly realized in 1925) and dividing rural private property held by estates. They also differed from later Fascism by opposing censorship, militarism and dictatorship. Mussolini claimed that "we are libertarians above all, loving liberty for everyone, even for our enemies" and said that freedom of thought and speech were among the "highest expressions of human civilization." On 15 April 1919, the Fascists made their debut in political violence when a group of members from the *Fasci di Combattimento* attacked the offices of *Avanti!*. At the same time, the so-called *Biennio Rosso* (red biennium) took place in the two years following the first world war in a context of economic crisis, high unemployment and political instability. The 1919–20 period was characterized by mass strikes, worker manifestations as well as self-management experiments through land and factory occupations. In Turin and Milan, workers councils were formed and many factory occupations took place under the leadership of anarcho-syndicalists. The agitations also extended to the agricultural areas of the Padan plain and were accompanied by peasant strikes, rural unrests and guerilla conflicts between left-wing and right-wing militias. Thenceforth, the Fasci di Combattimento (forerunner of the National Fascist Party, 1921) of Benito Mussolini successfully exploited the claims of Italian nationalists and the quest for order and normalization of the middle class. In 1920, old Prime Minister Giolitti was reappointed in a desperate attempt to solve Italy's deadlock, but his cabinet was weak and threatened by a growing socialist opposition. Giolitti believed that the Fascists could be toned down and used to protect the monarchy from the socialists. In the 1921 elections, the Fascists did not make large gains, but Giolitti's government failed to gather a large enough coalition to govern and offered the Fascists placements in his government. The Fascists rejected Giolitti's offers and joined with socialists in bringing down his government. In October 1922, Mussolini took advantage of a general strike to announce his demands to the Italian government to give the Fascist Party political power or face a coup. With no immediate response, a group of 30,000 Fascists began a long trek across Italy to Rome (the March on Rome), claiming that Fascists were intending to restore law and order. The Fascists demanded Prime Minister Luigi Facta's resignation and that Mussolini be named to the post. Although the Italian Army was far better armed than the Fascist militias, the liberal system and King Victor Emmanuel III were facing a deeper political crisis. The King was forced to choose which of the two rival movements in Italy would form the government: Mussolini's Fascists, or the marxist Italian Socialist Party. He selected the Fascists. Upon taking power, Mussolini formed a coalition with nationalists and liberals. In 1923, Mussolini's coalition passed the electoral Acerbo Law, which assigned two thirds of the seats to the party that achieved at least 25% of the vote. The Fascist Party used violence and intimidation to achieve the threshold in the 1924 election, thus obtaining control of Parliament. Socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti was assassinated after calling for a nullification of the vote because of the irregularities. The parliament opposition, mainly comprising the Italian Socialist Party, Italian Liberal Party, Italian People's Party and Italian Communist Party, responded to Matteotti's assassination with the Aventine Secession. Over the next four years, Mussolini eliminated nearly all checks and balances on his power. On 24 December 1925, he passed a law that declared he was responsible to the king alone, making him the sole person able to determine Parliament's agenda. Local governments were dissolved, and appointed officials (called "Podestà") replaced elected mayors and councils. In 1928, all political parties were banned, and parliamentary elections were replaced by plebiscites in which the Grand Council of Fascism nominated a single list of 400 candidates. Christopher Duggan, using private diaries and letters, and secret police files, argues that Mussolini enjoyed a strong, wide base of popular support among ordinary people across Italy. Mussolini elicited emotional responses unique in modern Italian history, and kept his popularity despite the military reverses after 1940. Duggan argues that his regime exploited Mussolini's appeal and forged a cult of personality that served as the model that was emulated by dictators of other fascist regimes of the 1930s. In summary, historian Stanley G. Payne says that Fascism in Italy was: A primarily political dictatorship. The Fascist Party itself had become almost completely bureaucratized and subservient to, not dominant over, the state itself. Big business, industry, and finance retained extensive autonomy, particularly in the early years. The armed forces also enjoyed considerable autonomy. ... The Fascist militia was placed under military control. The judicial system was left largely intact and relatively autonomous as well. The police continued to be directed by state officials and were not taken over by party leaders, nor was a major new police elite created. There was never any question of bringing the Church under overall subservience. Sizable sectors of Italian cultural life retained extensive autonomy, and no major state propaganda-and-culture ministry existed. The Mussolini regime was neither especially sanguinary nor particularly repressive. ### End of the Roman question The Lateran Treaty was one component of the Lateran Pacts of 1929, agreements between the Kingdom of Italy under King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy and the Holy See under Pope Pius XI to settle the long-standing Roman Question. The treaty and associated pacts were named after the Lateran Palace where they were signed on 11 February 1929, and the Italian parliament ratified them on 7 June 1929. The treaty recognized Vatican City as an independent state under the sovereignty of the Holy See. The Italian government also agreed to give the Roman Catholic Church financial compensation for the loss of the Papal States. In 1948, the Lateran Treaty was recognized in the Constitution of Italy as regulating the relations between the state and the Catholic Church. The treaty was significantly revised in 1984, ending the status of Catholicism as the sole state religion. During the unification of Italy in the mid-19th century, the Papal States resisted incorporation into the new nation, even as all the other Italian countries, except for San Marino, joined it; Camillo Cavour's dream of proclaiming the Kingdom of Italy from the steps of St. Peter's Basilica did not come to pass. The nascent Kingdom of Italy invaded and occupied Romagna (the eastern portion of the Papal States) in 1860, leaving only Latium in the pope's domains. Latium, including Rome itself, was occupied and annexed in 1870. For the following sixty years, relations between the Papacy and the Italian government were hostile, and the status of the pope became known as the "Roman Question". ### Foreign politics Lee identifies three major themes in Mussolini's foreign-policy. The first was a continuation of the foreign-policy objectives of the preceding Liberal regime. Liberal Italy had allied itself with Germany and Austria, and had great ambitions in the Balkans and North Africa. Ever since it had been badly defeated in Ethiopia in 1896, there was a strong demand for seizing that country. Second was a profound disillusionment after the heavy losses of the First World War. The small territorial gains from Austria were not enough to compensate for the war's terrible costs; other countries especially Poland and Yugoslavia received much more and Italy felt cheated. Third was Mussolini's promise to restore the pride and glory of the old Roman Empire. Italian Fascism is based upon Italian nationalism and in particular seeks to complete what it considers as the incomplete project of *Risorgimento* by incorporating *Italia Irredenta* (unredeemed Italy) into the state of Italy. To the east of Italy, the Fascists claimed that Dalmatia was a land of Italian culture whose Italians, including those of Italianized South Slavic descent, had been driven out of Dalmatia and into exile in Italy, and supported the return of Italians of Dalmatian heritage. Mussolini identified Dalmatia as having strong Italian cultural roots for centuries, similarly to Istria, via the Roman Empire and the Republic of Venice. To the south of Italy, the Fascists claimed Malta, which belonged to the United Kingdom, and Corfu, which instead belonged to Greece, to the north claimed Italian Switzerland, while to the west claimed Corsica, Nice and Savoy, which belonged to France. The Fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the island's *italianità*. The Fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic and linguistic grounds. Mussolini promised to bring Italy back as a great power in Europe, building a "New Roman Empire" and holding power over the Mediterranean Sea. In propaganda, Fascists used the ancient Roman motto "*Mare Nostrum*" (Latin for "Our Sea") to describe the Mediterranean. For this reason the Fascist regime engaged in interventionist foreign policy in Europe. In 1923, the Greek island of Corfu was briefly occupied by Italy, after the assassination of General Tellini in Greek territory. In 1925, Albania came under heavy Italian influence as a result of the Tirana Treaties, which also gave Italy a stronger position in the Balkans. Relations with France were mixed. The Fascist regime planned to regain Italian-populated areas of France. With the rise of Nazism, it became more concerned of the potential threat of Germany to Italy. Due to concerns of German expansionism, Italy joined the Stresa Front with France and the United Kingdom, which existed from 1935 to 1936. The Fascist regime held negative relations with Yugoslavia, as it continued to claim Dalmatia. During the Spanish Civil War between the socialist Republicans and Nationalists led by Francisco Franco, Italy sent arms and over 60,000 troops to aid the Nationalist faction. This secured Italy's naval access to Spanish ports and increased Italian influence in the Mediterranean. The Italian Navy committed 91 warships and submarines and sank 72,800 tons of Republican and neutral shipping. In addition, the Nationalist Spanish Navy sank 48 Republican and 44 foreign merchant ships, for a total of 240,000 tons, and captured 202 Republican and 23 foreign merchant ships, for a total of 330,000 tons. During all the 1930s, Italy strongly pursued a policy of naval rearmament; by 1940, the Regia Marina was the fourth largest navy in the world. Mussolini and Adolf Hitler first met in June 1934, as the issue of Austrian independence was in crisis. Mussolini sought to ensure that Nazi Germany would not become hegemonic in Europe. To do this, he opposed German plans to annex Austria after the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, and promised the Austrians military support if Germany were to interfere. Public appearances and propaganda constantly portrayed the closeness of Mussolini and Hitler and the similarities between Italian Fascism and German National Socialism. While both ideologies had significant similarities, the two factions were suspicious of each other, and both leaders were in competition for world influence. In 1935 Mussolini decided to invade Ethiopia; 2,313 Italians and 275,000 Ethiopians died. The Second Italo-Ethiopian War resulted in the international isolation of Italy, as France and Britain quickly abandoned their trust of Mussolini. The only nation to back Italy's aggression was Nazi Germany. After being condemned by the League of Nations, Italy decided to leave the League on 11 December 1937 and Mussolini denounced the League as a mere "tottering temple". At this point, Mussolini had little choice but to join Hitler in international politics, thus he reluctantly abandoned its support of Austrian independence. Hitler proceeded with the *Anschluss*, the annexation of Austria, in 1938. Mussolini later supported German claims on Sudetenland, a province of Czechoslovakia inhabited mostly by Germans, at the Munich Conference. In 1938, under influence of Hitler, Mussolini supported the adoption of anti-semitic racial laws in Italy. After Germany annexed Czechoslovakia in March 1939, Mussolini decided to occupy Albania to because he feared being seen as a second-rate member of the Axis. On 7 April 1939, Italy invaded Albania and made it an Italian protectorate. As war approached in 1939, the Fascist regime stepped up an aggressive press campaign against France claiming that Italian people were suffering in France. This was important to the alliance as both regimes mutually had claims on France, Germany on German-populated Alsace-Lorraine and Italy on the mixed Italian and French populated Nice and Corsica. In May 1939, a formal alliance with Germany was signed, known as the Pact of Steel. Mussolini felt obliged to sign the pact in spite of his own concerns that Italy could not fight a war in the near future. This obligation grew from his promises to Italians that he would build an empire for them and from his personal desire to not allow Hitler to become the dominant leader in Europe. Mussolini was repulsed by the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreement where Germany and the Soviet Union agreed to partition the Second Polish Republic into German and Soviet zones for an impending invasion. The Fascist government saw this as a betrayal of the Anti-Comintern Pact, but decided to remain officially silent. ### World War II and fall of Fascism When Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 beginning World War II, Mussolini chose to stay non-belligerent, although he declared his support for Hitler. In drawing out war plans, Mussolini and the Fascist regime decided that Italy would aim to annex large portions of Africa and the Middle East to be included in its colonial empire. Hesitance remained from the King and military commander Pietro Badoglio who warned Mussolini that Italy had too few tanks, armoured vehicles, and aircraft available to be able to carry out a long-term war and Badoglio told Mussolini "It is suicide" for Italy to get involved in the European conflict. Mussolini and the Fascist regime took the advice to a degree and waited as France was invaded by Germany in June 1940 (Battle of France) before deciding to get involved. As France's defeat was obviously inevitable, Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940, fulfilling its obligations towards the Pact of Steel. Mussolini hoped to quickly capture Savoy, Nice, Corsica, and the African colonies of Tunisia and Algeria from the French, but Germany signed an armistice (22 June: Second Armistice at Compiègne) with Marshal Philippe Pétain establishing Vichy France, that retained control over southern France and colonies. This decision angered the Fascist regime. In summer 1940, Mussolini ordered the bombing of Mandatory Palestine and the conquest of British Somaliland. In September, he ordered the invasion of Egypt; despite initial success, Italian forces were soon driven back by the British (see Operation Compass). Hitler had to intervene with the sending of the Afrika Korps of General Erwin Rommel, that was the mainstay in the North African campaign. On 28 October, Mussolini launched an attack on Greece without consulting Hitler, who was informed of the invasion Greco-Italian War by reading about it in the morning newspaper and was furious. Mussolini tried to calm his ally by stating that he would be in Athens in two weeks time invasion of Greece. However, the Royal Air force prevented the Italian invasion and allowed the Greeks to push the Italians back to Albania. Hitler came to Mussolini's aid by attacking the Greeks through the Balkans. Balkans Campaign which had as result the dissolution of Yugoslavia and Greece's defeat. On that occasion, Italy gained south Slovenia, Dalmatia, Montenegro and established the puppet states of Croatia and Hellenic State. By 1942, it was faltering as its economy failed to adapt to the conditions of war and Italian cities were being heavily bombed by the Allies. Also, despite Rommel's advances, the campaign in North Africa began to fail in late 1942. The complete collapse came after the decisive defeat at El Alamein. By 1943, Italy was losing on every front. By January of the same year, half of the Italian forces fighting in the Soviet Union had been destroyed, the African campaign had failed, the Balkans remained unstable, and Italians wanted an end to the war. In July 1943, the Allies invaded Sicily in an effort to knock Italy out of the war and establish a foothold in Europe. On 25 July, Mussolini was ousted by the Great Council of Fascism and arrested by order of King Victor Emmanuel III, who appointed General Pietro Badoglio as new Prime Minister. Badoglio stripped away the final elements of Fascist rule by banning the National Fascist Party, then signed an armistice with the Allied armed forces. Donald Detwiler notes that "Italy's entrance into the war showed very early that her military strength was only a hollow shell. Italy's military failures against France, Greece, Yugoslavia and in the African Theatres of war shook Italy's new prestige mightily." Historians have long debated why Italy's military and its Fascist regime were so remarkably ineffective at an activity – war – that was central to their identity. MacGregor Knox says the explanation, "was first and foremost a failure of Italy's military culture and military institutions." Norman Polmar and Thomas B. Allen argue that "the Regia Aeronautica failed to perform effectively in modern conflict. Although the Italian Air Force had been in action in the conquest of Ethiopia and the Spanish Civil War, it was totally unprepared for combat...in June 1940. At the time Italy had about 2,500 military aircraft in service. Only 11,000 more were produced during the next three years, far fewer than any of the other major belligerents." James Sadkovich gives the most charitable interpretation of Italian failures, blaming inferior equipment, overextension, and inter-service rivalries. Its forces had "more than their share of handicaps." About Italian troops in El Alamein, Italian Defence ministry chief of staff Luigi Binelli Mantelli said: "The spirit of service and cohesion are fundamental elements for the operational capacity of the armed forces ... The (Folgore) Paratroopers have always shown this. El Alamein was a battle that was lost with great honour, facing up to overwhelmingly superior firepower with poor weapons but with great spirit and capacity to resist and to hold up high the honour of Italy". British historian John Bierman said that the Italian tank regiment "fought with great audacity, just as the Ariete artillery regiment did". According to American historian John W. Gordon, the British special forces were so impressed by the methods and tactics of the Italian desert corps "that they actually copied them". German General Erwin Rommel praised the Italians on several occasions, describing their as "extraordinary, courageous, disciplined, but badly commanded and equipped." Writing about the fighting at the First Battle of El Alamein, he stated: "The Italians were willing, unselfish and good comrades in the frontline. There can be no disputing that the achievement of all the Italian units, especially the motorised elements, far outstripped any action of the Italian Army for 100 years. Many Italian generals and officers earned our respect as men as well as soldiers". During the Second Battle of El Alamein the 7th Bersaglieri Regiment exhibited a strong regimental spirit in the fight for Hill 28 that impressed Rommel to comment positively. On a plaque dedicated to the Bersaglieri that fought at Mersa Matruh and Alamein, Rommel wrote: "The German soldier has impressed the world; the Italian Bersagliere has impressed the German soldier." ### Civil War, Allied advance, and Liberation Although other European countries such as Norway, the Netherlands, and France also had partisan movements and collaborationist governments with Nazi Germany, armed confrontation between compatriots was most intense in Italy, making the Italian case unique. In 1965, the definition of "civil war" was used for the first time by fascist politician and historian Giorgio Pisanò in his books, while Claudio Pavone's book *Una guerra civile. Saggio storico sulla moralità della Resistenza* (*A Civil War. Historical Essay On the Morality Of the Resistance*), published in 1991, led to the term "Italian Civil War" being used more frequently by Italian and international historiography. Soon after being ousted, Mussolini was rescued by a German commando in Operation Eiche ("Oak"). The Germans brought Mussolini to northern Italy where he set up a Fascist puppet state, the Italian Social Republic (RSI). Meanwhile, the Allies advanced in southern Italy. In September 1943, Naples rose against the occupying German forces. The Allies organized some royalist Italian troops into the Italian Co-Belligerent Army, while other troops continued to fight alongside Nazi Germany in the *Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano*, the National Republican Army. A large Italian resistance movement started a long guerrilla war against the German and Fascist forces, while clashes between the Fascist RSI Army and the Royalist Italian Co-Belligerent Army were rare. The Germans, often helped by Fascists, committed several atrocities against Italian civilians in occupied zones, such as the Ardeatine massacre and the Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre. The Kingdom of Italy declared war on Nazi Germany on 13 October 1943; tensions between the Axis Powers and the Italian military were rising following the failure to defend Sicily, with New York Times correspondent Milton Bracker noting that "Italian hatred of the Germans unquestionably grew as the fighting spirit waned, and episodes between German and Italian soldiers and civilians before and after the armistice have shown pretty clearly a complete and incontrovertible end of all sympathy between the former Axis partners." On 16 October, the Rastenburg Protocol was signed with Nazi Germany. In accordance with this protocol, the RSI was allowed to raise division-sized military formations. This allowed Graziani to raise four RSI divisions totalling 52,000 men. In July 1944, the first of these divisions completed training and was sent to the front. Recruiting military forces was difficult for the RSI, as most of the Italian army had been interned by German forces in 1943, many Italians had been conscripted into forced labour in Germany and few wanted to fight on Nazi Germany's side after 8 September 1943. The RSI became so desperate for soldiers that it granted convicts freedom if they would join the army and the sentence of death was imposed on anyone who opposed being conscripted. Autonomous military forces in the RSI also fought against the Allies including the notorious *Decima Flottiglia MAS* under command of Prince Junio Valerio Borghese. Borghese held no allegiance to Mussolini and even suggested that he would take him prisoner if he could. On 4 June 1944, the German occupation of Rome came to an end as the Allies advanced. As the Allies advanced north, they encountered increasingly difficult terrain, as mountains offered excellent defensive positions to Axis forces. The final Allied victory over the Axis in Italy did not come until the spring offensive of 1945, after Allied troops had breached the Gothic Line, leading to the surrender of German and Fascist forces in Italy on 2 May shortly before Germany finally surrendered ending World War II in Europe on 8 May. It is estimated that between September 1943 and April 1945, some 60,000 Allied and 50,000 German soldiers died in Italy. During World War II, Italian war crimes included extrajudicial killings and ethnic cleansing by the deportation of about 25,000 people, mainly Jews, Croats, and Slovenians, to the Italian concentration camps, such as Rab, Gonars, Monigo, Renicci di Anghiari and elsewhere. Yugoslav Partisans perpetrated their own crimes against the local ethnic Italian population (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) during and after the war, including the foibe massacres. In Italy and Yugoslavia, unlike in Germany, few war crimes were prosecuted. On 25 April 1945 the National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy proclaimed a general insurrection in all the territories still occupied by the Nazi-fascists, indicating to all the partisan forces active in Northern Italy that were part of the Volunteer Corps of Freedom to attack the fascist and German garrisons by imposing the surrender, days before the arrival of the Allied troops; at the same time, the National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy personally issued legislative decrees, assuming power "in the name of the Italian people and as a delegate of the Italian Government", establishing among other things the death sentence for all fascist hierarchs, "Surrender or die!" was the rallying call of the partisans that day and those immediately following. Today the event is commemorated in Italy every 25 April by the Liberation Day, National Day introduced on 22 April 1946, which celebrates the liberation of the country from fascism. Mussolini was captured on 27 April 1945, by communist Italian partisans near the Swiss border as he tried to escape Italy. On the next day, he was executed for high treason, as sentenced in absentia by a tribunal of the CLN. Afterwards, the bodies of Mussolini, his mistress, and about fifteen other Fascists were taken to Milan where they were displayed to the public. Days later on 2 May 1945, the German forces in Italy surrendered. The government of Badoglio had remained in being for some nine months. On 9 June 1944, he was replaced as Prime Minister by the 70-year-old anti-fascist leader Ivanoe Bonomi. In June 1945 Bonomi was in turn replaced by Ferruccio Parri, who in turn gave way to Alcide de Gasperi on 4 December 1945. Finally, De Gasperi supervised the transition to a Republic following the abdication of Vittorio Emanuele III on 9 May 1946, the one-month-long reign of his son Umberto II ("King of May") and the Constitutional Referendum that abolished the monarchy; De Gasperi briefly became acting Head of State as well as Prime Minister on 18 June 1946, but ceded the former role to Provisional President Enrico de Nicola ten days later. ### Anti-fascism against Mussolini's regime In Italy, Mussolini's Fascist regime used the term *anti-fascist* to describe its opponents. Mussolini's secret police was officially known as the Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism. During the 1920s in the Kingdom of Italy, anti-fascists, many of them from the labor movement, fought against the violent Blackshirts and against the rise of the fascist leader Benito Mussolini. After the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) signed a pacification pact with Mussolini and his Fasces of Combat on 3 August 1921, and trade unions adopted a legalist and pacified strategy, members of the workers' movement who disagreed with this strategy formed *Arditi del Popolo*. The Italian General Confederation of Labour (CGL) and the PSI refused to officially recognize the anti-fascist militia and maintained a non-violent, legalist strategy, while the Communist Party of Italy (PCd'I) ordered its members to quit the organization. The PCd'I organized some militant groups, but their actions were relatively minor. The Italian anarchist Severino Di Giovanni, who exiled himself to Argentina following the 1922 March on Rome, organized several bombings against the Italian fascist community. The Italian liberal anti-fascist Benedetto Croce wrote his *Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals*, which was published in 1925.[*page needed*] Other notable Italian liberal anti-fascists around that time were Piero Gobetti and Carlo Rosselli. Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana (English: Italian Anti-Fascist Concentration), officially known as Concentrazione d'Azione Antifascista (Anti-Fascist Action Concentration), was an Italian coalition of Anti-Fascist groups which existed from 1927 to 1934. Founded in Nérac, France, by expatriate Italians, the CAI was an alliance of non-communist anti-fascist forces (republican, socialist, nationalist) trying to promote and to coordinate expatriate actions to fight fascism in Italy; they published a propaganda paper entitled *La Libertà*. Giustizia e Libertà (English: Justice and Freedom) was an Italian anti-fascist resistance movement, active from 1929 to 1945. The movement was cofounded by Carlo Rosselli, Ferruccio Parri, who later became Prime Minister of Italy, and Sandro Pertini, who became President of Italy, were among the movement's leaders. The movement's members held various political beliefs but shared a belief in active, effective opposition to fascism, compared to the older Italian anti-fascist parties. *Giustizia e Libertà* also made the international community aware of the realities of fascism in Italy, thanks to the work of Gaetano Salvemini. Many Italian anti-fascists participated in the Spanish Civil War with the hope of setting an example of armed resistance to Franco's dictatorship against Mussolini's regime; hence their motto: "Today in Spain, tomorrow in Italy". Between 1920 and 1943, several anti-fascist movements were active among the Slovenes and Croats in the territories annexed to Italy after World War I, known as the Julian March. The most influential was the militant insurgent organization TIGR, which carried out numerous sabotages, as well as attacks on representatives of the Fascist Party and the military. Most of the underground structure of the organization was discovered and dismantled by the Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism (OVRA) in 1940 and 1941, and after June 1941 most of its former activists joined the Slovene Partisans. During World War II, many members of the Italian resistance left their homes and went to live in the mountains, fighting against Italian fascists and German Nazi soldiers during the Italian Civil War. Many cities in Italy, including Turin, Naples and Milan, were freed by anti-fascist uprisings. Republican era (1946–present) ----------------------------- ### Birth of the Republic Much like Japan and Germany, the aftermath of World War II left Italy with a destroyed economy, a divided society, and anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of the Fascist regime for the previous twenty years. These frustrations contributed to a revival of the Italian republican movement. Following Victor Emmanuel III's abdication, his son, the new king Umberto II, was pressured by the threat of another civil war to call a Constitutional Referendum to decide whether Italy should remain a monarchy or become a republic. On 2 June 1946, the republican side won 54% of the vote and Italy officially became a republic. All male members of the House of Savoy were barred from entering Italy, a ban which was only repealed in 2002. Under the Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947, Istria, Kvarner, most of the Julian March as well as the Dalmatian city of Zara was annexed by Yugoslavia causing the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus, which led to the emigration of between 230,000 and 350,000 local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians), the others being ethnic Slovenians, ethnic Croatians, and ethnic Istro-Romanians, choosing to maintain Italian citizenship. Later, the Free Territory of Trieste was divided between the two states. Italy also lost all of its colonial possessions, formally ending the Italian Empire. In 1950, Italian Somaliland was made a United Nations Trust Territory under Italian administration until 1 July 1960. The Italian border that applies today has existed since 1975, when Trieste was formally re-annexed to Italy. The General Elections of 1946, held at the same time as the Constitutional Referendum, elected 556 members of a Constituent Assembly, of which 207 were Christian Democrats, 115 Socialists and 104 Communists. A new constitution was approved, setting up a parliamentary democracy. In 1947, under American pressure, the communists were expelled from the government. The Italian general election, 1948 saw a landslide victory for Christian Democrats, that dominated the system for the following forty years. #### Marshall Plan aid from the United States Italy joined the Marshall Plan (ERP) and NATO. By 1950, the economy had largely stabilized and started booming. In 1957, Italy was a founding member of the European Economic Community, which later transformed into the European Union (EU). The Marshall Plan's long-term legacy was to help modernize Italy's economy. How Italian society built mechanisms to adapt, translate, resist, and domesticate this challenge had a lasting effect on the nation's development over the subsequent decades. After Fascism's failure, the United States offered a vision of modernization that was unprecedented in its power, internationalism, and invitation to emulation. However Stalinism was a powerful political force. The ERP was one of the main ways that this modernization was operationalized. The old prevailing vision of the country's industrial prospects had been rooted in traditional ideas of craftsmanship, frugality and thrift, which stood in contrast to the dynamism seen in automobiles and fashion, anxious to leave behind the protectionism of the Fascist era and take advantage of the opportunities offered by rapidly expanding world trade. By 1953, industrial production had doubled compared with 1938 and the annual rate of productivity increase was 6.4%, twice the British rate. At Fiat, automobile production per employee quadrupled between 1948 and 1955, the fruit of an intense, Marshall Plan-aided application of American technology (as well as much more intense discipline on the factory-floor). Vittorio Valletta, Fiat's general manager, helped by trade barriers that blocked French and German cars, focused on technological innovations as well as an aggressive export strategy. He successfully bet on serving the more dynamic foreign markets from modern plants built with the help of Marshall Plan funds. From this export base he later sold into a growing domestic market, where Fiat was without serious competition. Fiat managed to remain at the cutting edge of car manufacturing technology, enabling it to expand production, foreign sales, and profits. ### Economic miracle In the 1950s and 1960s the country enjoyed prolonged economic boom, which was accompanied by a dramatic rise in the standard of living of ordinary Italians. The so-called Italian economic miracle lasted almost uninterruptedly until the "Hot Autumn's" massive strikes and social unrest of 1969–70, that combined with the later 1973 oil crisis, gradually cooled the economy, that has never returned to its heady post-war growth rates. It has been calculated that the Italian economy experienced an average rate of growth of GDP of 5.8% per year between 1951 and 1963, and 5.0% per year between 1964 and 1973. Italian rates of growth were second only, but very close, to the German rates, in Europe, and among the OEEC countries only Japan had been doing better. Between 1955 and 1971, around 9 million people are estimated to have been involved in inter-regional migrations in Italy, uprooting entire communities. Emigration was especially directed to the factories of the so-called "industrial triangle", a region encompassed between the major manufacturing centres of Milan and Turin and the seaport of Genoa. The needs of a modernizing economy demanded new transport and energy infrastructures. Thousands of kilometres of railways and highways were completed in record times to connect the main urban areas, while dams and power plants were built all over Italy, often without regard for geological and environmental conditions. Strong urban growth led to uncontrolled urban sprawl. The natural environment was constantly under threat by wild industrial expansion, leading to ecological disasters like the Vajont Dam inundation and the Seveso chemical accident. The boom had also a huge impact on Italian society and culture. The pervasive influence of mass media and consumerism on society has often been fiercely criticized by intellectuals like Pier Paolo Pasolini and film directors like Dino Risi, Vittorio De Sica and Ettore Scola, that stigmatized selfishness and immorality that characterized miracle's years. ### Years of Lead During the 1970s, Italy saw an unexpected escalation of political violence. From 1969 to 1980, repeated neofascist outrages were launched such as the Piazza Fontana bombing in 1969. Red Brigades and many other groups decided on armed attacks as a revolutionary strategy. They carried out urban riots, as in Rome and Bologna in 1977. Known as the Years of Lead, this period was characterised by widespread social conflicts and terrorist acts carried out by extra-parliamentary movements. The assassination of the leader of the Christian Democracy (DC), Aldo Moro, led to the end of a "historic compromise" between the DC and the Communist Party (PCI). In the 1980s, for the first time, two governments were managed by a Republican (Giovanni Spadolini 1981–82) and a Socialist (Bettino Craxi 1983–87) rather than by a Christian Democrat. At the end of the Lead years, the PCI gradually increased their votes thanks to Enrico Berlinguer. The Socialist Party (PSI), led by Bettino Craxi, became more and more critical of the Communists and of the Soviet Union; Craxi himself pushed in favour of US President Ronald Reagan's positioning of Pershing II missiles in Italy. ### Second Republic (1992–present) Italy faced several terror attacks between 1992 and 1993, perpetrated by the Sicilian Mafia as a consequence of several life sentences pronounced during the "Maxi Trial", and of the new anti-mafia measures launched by the government. In 1992, two major dynamite attacks killed the judges Giovanni Falcone (23 May in the Capaci bombing) and Paolo Borsellino (19 July in the Via D'Amelio bombing). One year later (May–July 1993), tourist spots were attacked, such as the Via dei Georgofili in Florence, Via Palestro in Milan, and the Piazza San Giovanni in Laterano and Via San Teodoro in Rome, leaving 10 dead and 93 injured and causing severe damage to cultural heritage such as the Uffizi Gallery. The Catholic Church openly condemned the Mafia, and two churches were bombed and an anti-Mafia priest shot dead in Rome. From 1992 to 1997, Italy faced significant challenges as voters disenchanted with political paralysis, massive government debt, extensive corruption, and organised crime's considerable influence collectively called the political system Tangentopoli. As Tangentopoli was under a set of judicial investigations by the name of Mani pulite (Italian for "clean hands"), voters demanded political, economic, and ethical reforms. The Tangentopoli scandals involved all major parties, but especially those in the government coalition: between 1992-94 the DC underwent a severe crisis and was dissolved, splitting up into several pieces, among whom the Italian People's Party and the Christian Democratic Center. The PSI (along with other minor governing parties) completely dissolved. The 1994 general election also swept media magnate Silvio Berlusconi (Leader of "Pole of Freedoms" coalition) into office as Prime Minister. Berlusconi, however, was forced to step down in December 1994 when his Lega Nord partners withdrew support. The Berlusconi government was succeeded by a technical government headed by Prime Minister Lamberto Dini, which left office in early-1996. At the 1996 general election, Romano Prodi led a centre-left coalition to victory. Prodi's first government became the third-longest to stay in power before he narrowly lost a vote of confidence, by three votes, in October 1998. A new government was formed by Democrats of the Left leader and former Communist Massimo D'Alema, but in April 2000, following poor performance by his coalition in regional elections, D'Alema resigned. The succeeding centre-left government, including most of the same parties, was headed by Giuliano Amato (social-democratic), who previously served as Prime Minister from 1992 to 1993 and again from April 2000 until June 2001. That same year, a centre-right coalition formed the government and Silvio Berlusconi was able to regain power and keep it for a complete five-year mandate; becoming the longest-serving government in post-war Italy. Berlusconi participated in the US-led multinational coalition in Iraq. Romano Prodi, Prime Minister from 1996 to 1998 and from 2006 to 2008, and long-time leader of the centre-left coalitionSilvio Berlusconi, Prime Minister from 1994 to 1995, from 2001 to 2006 and from 2008 to 2011, and long-time leader of the centre-right coalition The 2006 general election returned Prodi to government, leading an all-encompassing centre-left coalition of 11 parties (The Union). Prodi won with only a narrow majority in the Senate, also due to the new proportional electoral law introduced by Berlusconi and Calderoli in 2005. In the first year of his government, Prodi followed a cautious policy of economic liberalisation and reduction of public debt. His government, in loss of popularity, was anyway sacked by the end of support from centrist MPs led by Clemente Mastella. Berlusconi won the 2008 general election, with the People of Freedom party (fusion of his previous Forza Italia party and of Fini's National Alliance) against Walter Veltroni of the Democratic Party. Italy was among the countries hit hardest by the Great Recession of 2008–09 and the subsequent European debt crisis. The national economy shrunk by 6.76% during the whole period, totalling seven quarters of recession. In 2010, Berlusconi's party saw the splintering of Gianfranco Fini's new faction, which formed a parliamentary group and voted against him in a no-confidence vote on 14 December 2010. Berlusconi's government was able to avoid no-confidence thanks to support from sparse MPs, but has lost a consistent majority in the lower Chamber. In November 2011, the Italian bond yield was 6.74 per cent for 10-year bonds, nearing a 7% level where Italy is thought to lose access to financial markets. On 12 November 2011, Berlusconi eventually resigned, and the famous economist Mario Monti was sworn in as Prime Minister at the head of a technocratic government. As a shock therapy to avoid the debt crisis and kick-start economic growth, Monti's national unity government launched a massive programme of austerity measures; that reduced the deficit but precipitated the country in a double-dip recession in 2012 and 2013, receiving criticism from numerous economists. On 24 and 25 February 2013, a general election was held; a centre-left coalition led Pier Luigi Bersani, Leader of the Democratic Party, won a slight majority in the Chamber of Deputies but did not control the Senate. The election was characterised by the surprise success of the anti-establishment Five Star Movement, founded by former comedian Beppe Grillo, which came second with 25.5% of votes. On 24 April, President Napolitano gave to the Vice-Secretary of the Democratic Party, Enrico Letta, the task of forming a government, having determined that Bersani could not form a government. Letta formed a short-lived grand coalition government, supported also by The People of Freedom of Silvio Berlusconi and Civic Choice of Mario Monti. Letta's cabinet lasted until 22 February 2014 (for a total of 300 days), as the government fell apart after the Democratic Party retired its support of Letta in favour of Matteo Renzi, the 39-year-old mayor of Florence and nicknamed "*Il Rottamatore*" (The scrapper), who formed a new government with the support of some centrist parties. The Cabinet was the youngest government of Italy up to date, with an average age of 47 years and the first in which the number of female ministers was equal to the number of male ministers. The government implemented numerous reforms, including changes to the electoral system, a relaxation of labour and employment laws with the intention of boosting economic growth, a thorough reformation of the public administration and the introduction of same-sex civil unions. However, Renzi resigned after losing a constitutional referendum in December 2016, and was succeeded by Paolo Gentiloni. The centre-left Cabinets were plagued by the aftermath of the European debt crisis and the European migrant crisis, which fuelled support for populist and right-wing parties. The 2018 general election resulted in a hung parliament once again, which led to an unlikely populist government between the anti-establishment Five Star Movement and Salvini's Lega, led by Giuseppe Conte. However, after only fourteen months, the League withdrew its support to Conte, who subsequently allied with the Democratic Party and other smaller left-wing parties to form a new Cabinet. In 2020, Italy was severely hit by the COVID-19 pandemic. From March to May 2020, Conte's government imposed a national lockdown as a measure to limit the spread of COVID-19. The measures, despite being widely approved by public opinion, were also described as the largest suppression of constitutional rights in the history of the republic. With more than 100,000 confirmed fatalities, Italy was one of the countries with the highest total number of deaths in the worldwide coronavirus pandemic. The pandemic caused also a severe economic disruption, which resulted in Italy being one of the most affected countries. In February 2021, these extraordinary circumstances brought to the formation of a national coalition government led by former President of the European Central Bank Mario Draghi. On 13 February 2021, he was sworn in as Prime Minister. The Draghi cabinet had support across the broad political spectrum. In January 2022, President Sergio Mattarella was re-elected to serve a second consecutive seven-year term. On 21 July 2022, following a government crisis which ended with FI, League and the M5S deciding to withdraw their support to the government, Prime Minister Draghi resigned. President Sergio Mattarella consequently dissolved the Parliament and called a snap election, which resulted in the centre-right coalition gaining an absolute majority of seats. On 22 October 2022, Giorgia Meloni was sworn in as Italy's first female prime minister. Her Brothers of Italy party formed a right-wing government with the far-right League and centre-right of ex-prime minister Silvio Berlusconi's party. See also -------- * Duchy of Urbino * Genetic history of Italy * History of Capri * History of Naples * History of Rome * History of Sardinia * History of Sicily * History of the Republic of Venice * History of Trentino * History of Tuscany * History of Verona * Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia * List of consorts of Montferrat * List of consorts of Naples * List of consorts of Savoy * List of consorts of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies * List of consorts of Tuscany * List of Italian queens * List of Italian inventions and discoveries * List of kings of the Lombards * List of Milanese consorts * List of Modenese consorts * List of monarchs of Naples * List of monarchs of Sardinia * List of monarchs of Sicily * List of monarchs of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies * List of Parmese consorts * List of presidents of Italy * List of prime ministers of Italy * List of queens of the Lombards * List of Roman and Byzantine Empresses * List of rulers of Tuscany * List of Sardinian consorts * List of Sicilian consorts * List of State Archives of Italy * List of viceroys of Naples * List of viceroys of Sicily * Milan * Military history of Italy * Politics of Italy Further reading --------------- ### Surveys * Coppa, Frank J. ed. *Dictionary of Modern Italian History* (1985) * Di Scala, Spencer M. *Italy: From Revolution to Republic, 1700 to the Present.* (1998) 436pp online edition * Domenico, Roy. *The Regions of Italy: A Reference Guide to History and Culture* (2002) online edition * Duggan, Christopher. *The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796* (2008) excerpt and text search * Hearder, Henry, and D. P. Waley; *A Short History of Italy: From Classical Times to the Present Day* (1963) online edition * Holmes, George. *The Oxford Illustrated History of Italy* (2001) excerpt and text search * Killinger; Charles L. *The History of Italy* (2002) online edition * Smith, Denis Mack. *Modern Italy: A Political History* (1997) * Smith, Denis Mack (1983). *Mussolini: A Biography*. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0394716589. ### Geography and environment * Armiero, Marco, and Marcus Hall, eds. *Nature and History in Modern Italy* (Ecology and History Series) (Ohio University Press, 2010) 295 pp. ISBN 978-0-8214-1916-8 online review * Arnone Sipari, Lorenzo, ed. *Scritti scelti di Erminio Sipari sul Parco Nazionale d'Abruzzo (1922–1933)* (Nature and Parks series) (Trento, 2011) 349 pp. ISBN 978-88-97372-05-9 * Delano-Smith, Catherine. *Western Mediterranean Europe: A Historical Geography of Italy, Spain, and Southern France Since the Neolithic* (1980) ### Ancient * Cary, M. and H. H. Scullard. *A History of Rome: Down to the Reign of Constantine* (3rd ed. 1996), 690pp * Forsythe, Gary. *A Critical History of Early Rome* (2005) 400pp * Grant, Michael. *History of Rome* (1997) * Heather, Peter. *The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians* (2006) 572pp * Scullard, H. H. *A History of the Roman World 753–146 BC* (5th ed. 2002), 596pp * Zuppardo, Emanuele and Piccolo, Salvatore (Günther Hölbl preface). *Terra Mater: Sulle Sponde del Gela greco*, Gela, Betania (2005), 175pp ### Medieval * Abulafia, David. *Italy in the Central Middle Ages: 1000–1300* (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2004) excerpt and text search * Bullough, Donald A. *Italy and Her Invaders* (1968) * Herlihy, David, Robert S. Lopez, and Vsevolod Slessarev, eds., *Economy, Society and Government in Medieval Italy* (1969) * Hyde, J. K. *Society and Politics in Medieval Italy* (1973) * La Rocca, Cristina. *Italy in the Early Middle Ages: 476–1000* (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2002) excerpt and text search * Smith, Denis Mack. *Medieval Sicily, 800–1713* (1968) * Tobacco, Giovanni. *The Struggle for Power in Medieval Italy: Structures of Political Power* (1989) * Wickham, Chris. *Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society, 400–1000* (1981) ### Renaissance * Hale, John Rigby (1981). *A concise encyclopaedia of the Italian Renaissance*. London: Thames & Hudson. OCLC 636355191.. * Kohl, Benjamin G. and Allison Andrews Smith, eds. *Major Problems in the History of the Italian Renaissance* (1995). * Najemy, John M. *Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300–1550* (The Short Oxford History of Italy) (2005) excerpt and text search * White, John. *Art and Architecture in Italy, 1250–1400* (1993) ### Early modern * Cochrane, Eric. *Italy, 1530–1630* (1988) online edition * Carpanetto, Dino, and Giuseppe Ricuperati. *Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685–1789* (1987) online edition * Marino, John A. *Early Modern Italy: 1550–1796* (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2002) excerpt and text search * Roberts, J.M. "Italy, 1793–1830" in C.W. Crawley, ed. *The New Cambridge Modern History: IX. War and Peace in an age of upheaval 1793–1830* (Cambridge University Press, 1965) pp 439–461. online * Venturi, Franco. *Italy and the Enlightenment* (1972) * Woolf, Stuart. *A History of Italy, 1700–1860* (1988) ### Risorgimento * Beales. D.. and E. Biagini, *The Risorgimento and the Unification of Italy* (2002) * Clark, Martin. *The Italian Risorgimento* (Routledge, 2014) * Collier, Martin, *Italian Unification, 1820–71* (Heinemann, 2003); textbook, 156 pages * Davis, John A., ed. (2000). *Italy in the nineteenth century: 1796–1900*. London: Oxford University Press. * Farmer, Alan. "How was Italy Unified?", *History Review* 54, March 2006 * Hearder, Harry. *Italy in the Age of the Risorgimento 1790–1870* (1983) excerpt * Holt, Edgar. *The Making of Italy 1815–1870,* (1971). * Laven, David. *Restoration and Risorgimento: Italy 1796–1870* (2012) * Pearce, Robert, and Andrina Stiles. *Access to History: The Unification of Italy 1789–1896* (4th rf., Hodder Education, 2015), textbook. excerpt * Riall, Lucy. *Risorgimento: The History of Italy from Napoleon to Nation State* (2009) * Riall, Lucy. *The Italian Risorgimento: State, Society, and National Unification* (Routledge, 1994) online * Riall, Lucy. *Garibaldi: Invention of a hero* (Yale UP, 2008). * Riall, Lucy (1998). "Hero, saint or revolutionary? Nineteenth-century politics and the cult of Garibaldi". *Modern Italy*. **3** (2): 191–204. doi:10.1080/13532949808454803. S2CID 143746713. * Ridley, Jasper. *Garibaldi* (1974), a standard biography. * Smith, Denis Mack. *Cavour* (1985) * Smith, Denis Mack. *Victor Emanuel, Cavour, and the Risorgimento* (Oxford UP, 1971) * Stiles, A. *The Unification of Italy 1815–70* (2nd edition, 2001) * Thayer, William Roscoe (1911). *The Life and Times of Cavour vol 1*. old interpretations but useful on details; vol 1 goes to 1859; volume 2 online covers 1859–62 ### Since 1860 * Alexander, J. *The hunchback's tailor: Giovanni Giolitti and liberal Italy from the challenge of mass politics to the rise of fascism, 1882-1922* (Greenwood, 2001). * Bosworth, Richard J. B. (2005). *Mussolini's Italy*. * Burgwyn, H. James. *Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918-1940* (Greenwood, 1997), * Cannistraro, Philip V. ed. *Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy* (1982) * Chabod, Federico. *Italian Foreign Policy: The Statecraft of the Founders, 1870-1896* (Princeton UP, 2014). * Clark, Martin. *Modern Italy: 1871–1982* (1984, 3rd edn 2008) * Clodfelter, M. (2017). *Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015* (4th ed.). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. ISBN 978-0786474707. * De Grand, Alexander. *Giovanni Giolitti and Liberal Italy from the Challenge of Mass Politics to the Rise of Fascism, 1882–1922* (2001) * De Grand, Alexander. *Italian Fascism: Its Origins and Development* (1989) * *Encyclopædia Britannica* (12th ed. 1922) comprises the 11th edition plus three new volumes 30-31-32 that cover events 1911–1922 with very thorough coverage of the war as well as every country and colony. Included also in 13th edition (1926) partly online + full text of vol 30 ABBE to ENGLISH HISTORY online free * Gilmour, David.*The Pursuit of Italy: A History of a Land, Its Regions, and Their Peoples* (2011). excerpt * Ginsborg, Paul. *A History of Contemporary Italy, 1943–1988* (2003). excerpt and text search * Lyttelton, Adrian. *Liberal and Fascist Italy: 1900–1945* (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2002) excerpt and text search * McCarthy, Patrick ed. *Italy since 1945* (2000). * Overy, Richard. *The road to war* (4th ed. 1999, ISBN 978-0-14-028530-7), covers 1930s; pp 191–244. * Smith, D. Mack (1997). *Modern Italy: A Political History*. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-10895-6. * Toniolo, Gianni. *An Economic History of Liberal Italy, 1850–1918* (1990) * Toniolo, Gianni, ed. *The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy since Unification* (Oxford University Press, 2013) 785 pp. online review; another online review * Williams, Isobel. *Allies and Italians under Occupation: Sicily and Southern Italy, 1943–45* (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). xiv + 308 pp. online review * Zamagni, Vera. *The Economic History of Italy, 1860–1990* (1993) 413 pp. ISBN 0-19-828773-9. ### Historiography * Azzi, Stephen Corrado (11 February 2009). "The Historiography of Fascist Foreign Policy". *Historical Journal*. **36** (1): 187–203. doi:10.1017/s0018246x00016174. JSTOR 2639522. S2CID 159720673. * Bernhard, Patrick (2014). "Renarrating Italian Fascism: New Directions in the Historiography of a European Dictatorship". *Contemporary European History*. **23** (1): 151–163. doi:10.1017/s0960777313000556. S2CID 145319131. * Boardman, Jonathan. *Umbria: A Cultural History* (Signal Books; 2012). Charts a complex history of literature, religion, art, migration, and industry. * Dipper, Christof (2015). "Italian Contemporary Historiography. A Snapshot". *Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte*. **63** (3): 351. doi:10.1515/vfzg-2015-0021. S2CID 147390477. * Ferrari, Paolo (2015). "The memory and historiography of the First World War in Italy". *Comillas Journal of International Relations*. **2** (2): 117–126. doi:10.14422/cir.i02.y2015.009. * Foot, John. *Italy's Divided Memory* (Palgrave Macmillan; 262 pages; 2010). Describes regional, political, and other divisions in Italian public memory of history. * Musi, Aurelio (2013). "Modern Italy in French, English and American historiography". *Nuova Rivista Storica*. **97** (3): 909–952. * Pasquino, Gianfranco. "Political History in Italy," *Journal of Policy History* (2009) 21#3 pp 282–97, on 20th century historians; covers Italian politics after World War II, and works of Silvio Lanaro, Aurelio Lepre, and Nicola Tranfaglia. Also discusses rise of the Italian Communist party, the role of the Christian Democrats in Italian society, and the development of the Italian parliamentary Republic. summary * Ramm, Agatha (1972). "The Risorgimento in Sicily: Recent Literature". *English Historical Review*. **87** (345): 795–811. doi:10.1093/ehr/lxxxvii.cccxlv.795. JSTOR 562204. * Rao, Anna Maria. "Napoleonic Italy: Old and New Trends in Historiography." in Ute Planert, ed., *Napoleon's Empire* (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016). pp 84–97.

History of Italy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Italy

The **Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons**, commonly known as the **Non-Proliferation Treaty** or **NPT**, is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament. Between 1965 and 1968, the treaty was negotiated by the Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament, a United Nations-sponsored organization based in Geneva, Switzerland. Opened for signature in 1968, the treaty entered into force in 1970. As required by the text, after twenty-five years, NPT Parties met in May 1995 and agreed to extend the treaty indefinitely. More countries are parties to the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement, a testament to the treaty's significance. As of August 2016, 191 states have become parties to the treaty, though North Korea, which acceded in 1985 but never came into compliance, announced its withdrawal from the NPT in 2003, following detonation of nuclear devices in violation of core obligations. Four UN member states have never accepted the NPT, three of which possess or are thought to possess nuclear weapons: India, Israel, and Pakistan. In addition, South Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined. The treaty defines nuclear-weapon states as those that have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before 1 January 1967; these are the United States (1945), Russia (1949), the United Kingdom (1952), France (1960), and China (1964). Four other states are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, and North Korea have openly tested and declared that they possess nuclear weapons, while Israel is deliberately ambiguous regarding its nuclear weapons status. The NPT is often seen to be based on a central bargain: > the NPT non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons and the NPT nuclear-weapon states in exchange agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear disarmament aimed at the ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals. > > The treaty is reviewed every five years in meetings called Review Conferences. Even though the treaty was originally conceived with a limited duration of 25 years, the signing parties decided, by consensus, to unconditionally extend the treaty indefinitely during the Review Conference in New York City on 11 May 1995, in the culmination of U.S. government efforts led by Ambassador Thomas Graham Jr. At the time the NPT was proposed, there were predictions of 25–30 nuclear weapon states within 20 years. Instead, over forty years later, five states are not parties to the NPT, and they include the only four additional states believed to possess nuclear weapons. Several additional measures have been adopted to strengthen the NPT and the broader nuclear nonproliferation regime and make it difficult for states to acquire the capability to produce nuclear weapons, including the export controls of the Nuclear Suppliers Group and the enhanced verification measures of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Additional Protocol. Critics argue that the NPT cannot stop the proliferation of nuclear weapons or the motivation to acquire them. They express disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads in their combined stockpile. Several high-ranking officials within the United Nations have said that they can do little to stop states using nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons. Treaty structure ---------------- The NPT consists of a preamble and eleven articles. Although the concept of "pillars" is not expressed anywhere in the NPT, the treaty is nevertheless sometimes interpreted as a *three-pillar* system, with an implicit balance among them: 1. *non-proliferation*, 2. *disarmament*, and 3. *the right to peacefully use nuclear technology*. These pillars are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. An effective nonproliferation regime whose members comply with their obligations provides an essential foundation for progress on disarmament and makes possible greater cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. With the right to access the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology comes the responsibility of nonproliferation. Progress on disarmament reinforces efforts to strengthen the nonproliferation regime and to enforce compliance with obligations, thereby also facilitating peaceful nuclear cooperation. The "pillars" concept has been questioned by some who believe that the NPT is, as its name suggests, principally about nonproliferation, and who worry that "three pillars" language misleadingly implies that the three elements have equivalent importance. ### First pillar: Non-proliferation Under Article I of the NPT, nuclear-weapon states pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices to any recipient or in any way assist, encourage or induce any non-nuclear-weapon state in the manufacture or acquisition of a nuclear weapon. Under Article II of the NPT, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge not to acquire or exercise control over nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not to seek or receive assistance in the manufacture of such devices. Under Article III of the Treaty, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge to accept IAEA safeguards to verify that their nuclear activities serve only peaceful purposes. Five states are recognized by NPT as nuclear weapon states (NWS): China (signed 1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union (1968; obligations and rights now assumed by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom (1968), and the United States (1968), which also happen to be the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. These five NWS agree not to transfer "nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices" and "not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce" a non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I). NNWS parties to the NPT agree not to "receive", "manufacture", or "acquire" nuclear weapons or to "seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons" (Article II). NNWS parties also agree to accept safeguards by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify that they are not diverting nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices (Article III). The five NWS parties have made undertakings not to use their nuclear weapons against a non-NWS party except in response to a nuclear attack, or a conventional attack in alliance with a Nuclear Weapons State. However, these undertakings have not been incorporated formally into the treaty, and the exact details have varied over time. The U.S. also had nuclear warheads targeted at North Korea, a non-NWS, from 1959 until 1991. The previous United Kingdom Secretary of State for Defence, Geoff Hoon, has also explicitly invoked the possibility of the use of the country's nuclear weapons in response to a non-conventional attack by "rogue states". In January 2006, President Jacques Chirac of France indicated that an incident of state-sponsored terrorism on France could trigger a small-scale nuclear retaliation aimed at destroying the "rogue state's" power centers. ### Second pillar: Disarmament Under Article VI of the NPT, all Parties undertake to pursue good-faith negotiations on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race, to nuclear disarmament, and to general and complete disarmament. Article VI of the NPT represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon states. The NPT's preamble contains language affirming the desire of treaty signatories to ease international tension and strengthen international trust so as to create someday the conditions for a halt to the production of nuclear weapons, and treaty on general and complete disarmament that liquidates, in particular, nuclear weapons and their delivery vehicles from national arsenals. The wording of the NPT's Article VI arguably imposes only a vague obligation on all NPT signatories to move in the general direction of nuclear and total disarmament, saying, "Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament." Under this interpretation, Article VI does not strictly require all signatories to actually conclude a disarmament treaty. Rather, it only requires them "to negotiate in good faith". On the other hand, some governments, especially non-nuclear-weapon states belonging to the Non-Aligned Movement, have interpreted Article VI's language as being anything but vague. In their view, Article VI constitutes a formal and specific obligation on the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, and argue that these states have failed to meet their obligation. The International Court of Justice (ICJ), in its advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, issued 8 July 1996, unanimously interprets the text of Article VI as implying that > There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control. > > The ICJ opinion notes that this obligation involves all NPT parties (not just the nuclear weapon states) and does not suggest a specific time frame for nuclear disarmament. Critics of the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) sometimes argue that what they view as the failure of the NPT-recognized nuclear weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, especially in the post–Cold War era, has angered some non-nuclear-weapon NPT signatories of the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear-weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals. Other observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament. No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers—which has led to the elimination of thousands of weapons and delivery systems—could eventually make the possession of nuclear weapons more attractive by increasing the perceived strategic value of a small arsenal. As one U.S. official and NPT expert warned in 2007, "logic suggests that as the number of nuclear weapons decreases, the 'marginal utility' of a nuclear weapon as an instrument of military power increases. At the extreme, which it is precisely disarmament's hope to create, the strategic utility of even one or two nuclear weapons would be huge." ### Third pillar: Peaceful use of nuclear energy NPT Article IV acknowledges the right of all Parties to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and to benefit from international cooperation in this area, in conformity with their nonproliferation obligations. Article IV also encourages such cooperation. This so-called third pillar provides for the transfer of nuclear technology and materials to NPT Parties for peaceful purposes in the development of civilian nuclear energy programs in those countries, subject to IAEA safeguards to demonstrate that their nuclear programs are not being used for the development of nuclear weapons. As the commercially popular light water reactor nuclear power station uses enriched uranium fuel, it follows that states must be able either to enrich uranium or purchase it on an international market. Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, has called the spread of enrichment and reprocessing capabilities the "Achilles' heel" of the nuclear nonproliferation regime. As of 2007, 13 states have an enrichment capability. During the 1960s and 1970s many states, almost 60, were supplied with research reactors fuelled by weapon grade highly enriched uranium (HEU) through the United States Atoms for Peace program and a similar Soviet Union program. In the 1980s a program to convert HEU research reactors to use low enriched fuel was started in the United States due to proliferation concerns. However 26 states possessed more than 1 kg of civilian HEU in 2015, and as of 2016 the stocks of HEU for civilian research were 60 tonnes, with 74 research reactors still using HEU. Because the availability of fissile material has long been considered the principal obstacle to, and "pacing element" for, a country's nuclear weapons development effort, it was declared a major emphasis of U.S. policy in 2004 to prevent the further spread of uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing (a.k.a. "ENR") technology. Countries possessing ENR capabilities, it is feared, have what is in effect the option of using this capability to produce fissile material for weapons use on demand, thus giving them what has been termed a "virtual" nuclear weapons program. The degree to which NPT members have a "right" to ENR technology notwithstanding its potentially grave proliferation implications, therefore, is at the cutting edge of policy and legal debates surrounding the meaning of Article IV and its relation to Articles I, II, and III of the treaty. Countries that have become Parties to the NPT as non-nuclear-weapon States have a strong record of not building nuclear weapons, although some tried and one eventually left the NPT and acquired nuclear weapons. Iraq was found by the IAEA to have violated its safeguards obligations and subject to punitive sanctions by the UN Security Council. North Korea never came into compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement and was cited repeatedly for these violations, and later withdrew from the NPT and tested multiple nuclear devices. Iran was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards obligations in an unusual non-consensus decision because it "failed in a number of instances over an extended period of time" to report aspects of its enrichment program. In 1991, Romania reported previously undeclared nuclear activities by the former regime and the IAEA reported this non-compliance to the Security Council for information only. Libya pursued a clandestine nuclear weapons program before abandoning it in December 2003. The IAEA reported Syria's safeguards non-compliance to the UN Security Council, which did not take action. In some regions, the fact that all neighbors are verifiably free of nuclear weapons reduces any pressure individual states might feel to build those weapons themselves, even if neighbors are known to have peaceful nuclear energy programs that might otherwise be suspicious. In this, the treaty works as designed. In 2004, Mohamed ElBaradei said that by some estimates thirty-five to forty states could have the knowledge to develop nuclear weapons. Key articles ------------ *Article I*: Each nuclear-weapons state (NWS) undertakes not to transfer, to any recipient, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, and not to assist any non-nuclear weapon state to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices. *Article II*: Each non-NWS party undertakes not to receive, from any source, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices; not to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices; and not to receive any assistance in their manufacture. *Article III*: Each non-NWS party undertakes to conclude an agreement with the IAEA for the application of its safeguards to all nuclear material in all of the state's peaceful nuclear activities and to prevent diversion of such material to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. *Article IV*: 1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be interpreted as affecting the inalienable right of all the Parties to the Treaty to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination and in conformity with Articles I and II of this Treaty. 2. All the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological information for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do so shall also co-operate in contributing alone or together with other States or international organizations to the further development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the territories of non-nuclear-weapon States Party to the Treaty, with due consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world. *Article VI*: Each party "undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a Treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control". *Article IX*: "For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967." *Article X*: Establishes the right to withdraw from the Treaty giving 3 months' notice. It also establishes the duration of the Treaty (25 years before 1995 Extension Initiative). History ------- The impetus behind the NPT was concern for the safety of a world with many nuclear weapon states. It was recognized that the Cold War deterrent relationship between just the United States and the Soviet Union was fragile. Having more nuclear-weapon states would reduce security for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accidents, unauthorized use of weapons, escalation in tensions, and nuclear conflict. Moreover, since the use of nuclear weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, it has been apparent that the development of nuclear capabilities by States could enable them to divert technology and materials for weapons purposes. Thus, the problem of preventing such diversions became a central issue in discussions on peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Initial efforts, which began in 1946, to create an international system enabling all States to have access to nuclear technology under appropriate safeguards, were terminated in 1949 without the achievement of this objective, due to serious political differences between the major Powers. By then, both the United States and the former Soviet Union had tested nuclear weapons, and were beginning to build their stockpiles. In December 1953, US President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in his "Atoms for Peace" proposal, presented to the eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly, urged that an international organization be established to disseminate peaceful nuclear technology, while guarding against development of weapons capabilities in additional countries. His proposal resulted in 1957 in the establishment of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which was charged with the dual responsibility for promotion and control of nuclear technology. IAEA technical activities began in 1958. An interim safeguards system for small nuclear reactors, put in place in 1961, was replaced in 1964 by a system covering larger installations and, over the following years, was expanded to include additional nuclear facilities. In recent years, efforts to strengthen the effectiveness and improve the efficiency of the IAEA safeguards system culminated in the approval of the Model Additional Protocol by the IAEA Board of Governors in May 1997. Within the framework of the United Nations, the principle of nuclear non-proliferation was addressed in negotiations as early as 1957. The NPT process was launched by Frank Aiken, Irish Minister for External Affairs, in 1958. The NPT gained significant momentum in the early 1960s. The structure of a treaty to uphold nuclear non-proliferation as a norm of international behaviour had become clear by the mid-1960s, and by 1968 final agreement had been reached on a Treaty that would prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons, enable cooperation for the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament. It was opened for signature in 1968, with Finland the first State to sign. Accession became nearly universal after the end of the Cold War and of South African apartheid. In 1992, The People's Republic of China and France acceded to the NPT, the last of the five nuclear powers recognized by the treaty to do so. The treaty provided, in article X, for a conference to be convened 25 years after its entry into force to decide whether the treaty should continue in force indefinitely, or be extended for an additional fixed period or periods. Accordingly, at the NPT Review and Extension Conference in May 1995, state parties to the treaty agreed—without a vote—on the treaty's indefinite extension, and decided that review conferences should continue to be held every five years. After Brazil acceded to the NPT in 1998, the only remaining non-nuclear-weapon state which had not signed was Cuba, which joined the NPT (and the Treaty of Tlatelolco NWFZ) in 2002. Several NPT states parties have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons programs. South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons program, but has since renounced it and acceded to the treaty in 1991 after destroying its small nuclear arsenal; after this, the remaining African countries signed the treaty. The former Soviet Republics where nuclear weapons had been based, namely Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, transferred those weapons to Russia and joined the NPT by 1994 following the signature of the Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances. Successor states from the Breakup of Yugoslavia and Dissolution of Czechoslovakia also joined the treaty soon after their independence. Montenegro and East Timor were the last countries to accede to the treaty on their independence in 2006 and 2003; the only other country to accede in the 21st century was Cuba in 2002. The three Micronesian countries in Compact of Free Association with the USA joined the NPT in 1995, along with Vanuatu. Major South American countries Argentina, Chile, and Brazil joined in 1995 and 1998. Arabian Peninsula countries included Saudi Arabia and Bahrain in 1988, Qatar and Kuwait in 1989, UAE in 1995, and Oman in 1997. The European states of Monaco and Andorra joined in 1995–6. Also acceding in the 1990s were Myanmar in 1992 and Guyana in 1993. ### United States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing At the time the treaty was being negotiated, NATO had in place secret nuclear weapons sharing agreements whereby the United States provided nuclear weapons to be deployed by, and stored in, other NATO states. Some argue this is an act of proliferation violating Articles I and II of the treaty. A counter-argument is that the U.S. controlled the weapons in storage within the NATO states, and that no transfer of the weapons or control over them was intended "unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the treaty would no longer be controlling", so there is no breach of the NPT. These agreements were disclosed to a few of the states, including the Soviet Union, negotiating the treaty, but most of the states that signed the NPT in 1968 would not have known about these agreements and interpretations at that time. As of 2005, it is estimated that the United States still provides about 180 tactical B61 nuclear bombs for use by Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Turkey under these NATO agreements. Many states, and the Non-Aligned Movement, now argue this violates Articles I and II of the treaty, and are applying diplomatic pressure to terminate these agreements. They point out that the pilots and other staff of the "non-nuclear" NATO states practice handling and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs, and non-U.S. warplanes have been adapted to deliver U.S. nuclear bombs which must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its "nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political". U.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons—not least by persuading West Germany not to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with the Warsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self-defense. (Until that point of all-out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain in U.S. hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route. (West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met.) ### Preparations for Russia's weapon deployment in Belarus On 27 February 2022, shortly after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, a referendum was staged in Belarus to remove a constitutional prohibition on basing nuclear weapons on its territory. On 25 June 2022, President of Belarus Lukashenko met Russian President Putin to discuss the deployment of Russian short-range nuclear-capable missiles on the territory of Belarus. The transfer of nuclear warheads would require a further decision, possibly after a number of years, and could be tied to future NATO decisions. In Belarus, Russia plans to deploy nuclear-capable Iskander-M missile systems. Both conventional and nuclear versions of the missile would be provided under the plans. Additionally, Putin said that he would facilitate the modifications necessary for Belarusian Su-25 bombers to carry nuclear missiles. On 14 June 2023, president Lukashenka said that Russia had started moving tactical nuclear weapons into Belarus’s territory. The Russian president had said the weapons were moved "as a deterrence measure” against threats to Russian statehood, and would not be controlled by Belaru. NATO saw no evidence in a change in Russia's nuclear position, while Ukrainian intelligence said that not a single warhead had yet been transferred. In February 2022, Belarus adopted a referendum that amended its constitution to repeal the prohibition on deployment of nuclear weapons in Belarus. Non-parties ----------- Four states—India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan—have never signed the treaty. India and Pakistan have publicly disclosed their nuclear weapon programs, and Israel has a long-standing policy of deliberate ambiguity with regards to its nuclear program (see List of states with nuclear weapons). ### India India has detonated nuclear devices, first in 1974 and again in 1998. It is estimated to have enough fissile material for more than 150 warheads and was among the few countries to have a no first use policy, a pledge not to use nuclear weapons unless first attacked by an adversary using nuclear weapons, however India's former NSA Shivshankar Menon signaled a significant shift from "no first use" to "no first use against non-nuclear weapon states" in a speech on the occasion of Golden Jubilee celebrations of the National Defence College in New Delhi on 21 October 2010, a doctrine Menon said reflected India's "strategic culture, with its emphasis on minimal deterrence". India argues that the NPT creates a club of "nuclear haves" and a larger group of "nuclear have-nots" by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid. India's then External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee said during a visit to Tokyo in 2007: "If India did not sign the NPT, it is not because of its lack of commitment for non-proliferation, but because we consider NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognize the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment." Although there have been unofficial discussions on creating a South Asian nuclear weapons free zone, including India and Pakistan, this is considered to be highly unlikely for the foreseeable future. In early March 2006, India and the United States finalized an agreement, in the face of criticism in both countries, to restart cooperation on civilian nuclear technology. Under the deal India has committed to classify 14 of its 22 nuclear power plants as being for civilian use and to place them under IAEA safeguards. Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of the IAEA, welcomed the deal by calling India "an important partner in the non-proliferation regime." In December 2006, United States Congress approved the United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act, endorsing a deal that was forged during Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's visit to the United States in July 2005 and cemented during President Bush's visit to India earlier in 2006. The legislation allows for the transfer of civilian nuclear material to India. Despite its status outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, nuclear cooperation with India was permitted on the basis of its clean non-proliferation record, and India's need for energy fueled by its rapid industrialization and a billion-plus population. On 1 August 2008, the IAEA approved the India Safeguards Agreement and on 6 September 2008, India was granted the waiver at the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) meeting held in Vienna, Austria. The consensus was arrived after overcoming misgivings expressed by Austria, Ireland and New Zealand and is an unprecedented step in giving exemption to a country, which has not signed the NPT and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). While India could commence nuclear trade with other willing countries. The U.S. Congress approved this agreement and President Bush signed it on 8 October 2008. When China announced expanded nuclear cooperation with Pakistan in 2010, proponents of arms control denounced both the deals, claiming that they weakened the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT. As of January 2011[update], Australia, a top three uranium producer and home to world's largest known reserves, had continued its refusal to export Uranium to India despite diplomatic pressure from India. In November 2011, Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard announced a desire to allow exports to India, a policy change which was authorized by her party's national conference in December. The following month, Gillard overturned Australia's long-standing ban on exporting uranium to India. She further said, "We should take a decision in the national interest, a decision about strengthening our strategic partnership with India in this the Asian century," and said that any agreement to sell uranium to India would include strict safeguards to ensure it would only be used for civilian purposes, and not end up in nuclear weapons. On 5 September 2014 Tony Abbott, Gillard's successor as Australian Prime Minister, sealed a civil nuclear deal to sell uranium to India. "We signed a nuclear cooperation agreement because Australia trusts India to do the right thing in this area, as it has been doing in other areas," Abbott told reporters after he and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi signed a pact to sell uranium for peaceful power generation. ### Pakistan In May 1998, following India's nuclear tests earlier that month, Pakistan conducted two sets of nuclear tests, the Chagai-I and Chagai-II. Although there is little confirmed information in public, as of 2015, Pakistan was estimated to have as many as 120 warheads. According to analyses of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and the Stimson Center, Pakistan has enough fissile material for 350 warheads. Pakistani officials argue that the NPT is discriminatory. When asked at a briefing in 2015 whether Islamabad would sign the NPT if Washington requested it, Foreign Secretary Aizaz Ahmad Chaudhry was quoted as responding "It is a discriminatory treaty. Pakistan has the right to defend itself, so Pakistan will not sign the NPT. Why should we?" Until 2010, Pakistan had always maintained the position that it would sign the NPT if India did so. In 2010, Pakistan abandoned this historic position and stated that it would join the NPT only as a recognized nuclear-weapon state. The NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Pakistan, with very narrow exceptions, since it does not have full-scope IAEA safeguards (i.e. safeguards on all its nuclear activities). Pakistan has sought to reach an agreement similar to that with India, but these efforts have been rebuffed by the United States and other NSG members, on the grounds that Pakistan's track record as a nuclear proliferator makes it impossible for it to have any sort of nuclear deal in the near future. By 2010, China reportedly signed a civil nuclear agreement with Pakistan, using the justification that the deal was "peaceful". The British government criticized this, on the grounds that 'the time is not yet right for a civil nuclear deal with Pakistan'. China did not seek formal approval from the nuclear suppliers group, and claimed instead that its cooperation with Pakistan was "grandfathered" when China joined the NSG, a claim that was disputed by other NSG members. Pakistan applied for membership on 19 May 2016, supported by Turkey and China However, many NSG members opposed Pakistan's membership bid due to its track record, including the illicit procurement network of Pakistani scientist A.Q. Khan, which aided the nuclear programs of Iran, Libya and North Korea. Pakistani officials reiterated the request in August 2016. ### Israel Israel has a long-standing policy of deliberate ambiguity with regards to its nuclear program (see List of countries with nuclear weapons). Israel has been developing nuclear technology at its Dimona site in the Negev since 1958, and some nonproliferation analysts estimate that Israel may have stockpiled between 100 and 200 warheads using reprocessed plutonium. The position on the NPT is explained in terms of "Israeli exceptionality", a term coined by Professor Gerald M. Steinberg, in reference to the perception that the country's small size, overall vulnerability, as well as the history of deep hostility and large-scale attacks by neighboring states, require a deterrent capability. The Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny possession of nuclear weapons, although this is now regarded as an open secret after Israeli junior nuclear technician Mordechai Vanunu—subsequently arrested and sentenced for treason by Israel—published evidence about the program to the British *Sunday Times* in 1986. On September 18, 2009, the General Conference of the International Atomic Energy Agency called on Israel to open its nuclear facilities to IAEA inspection and adhere to the non-proliferation treaty as part of a resolution on "Israeli nuclear capabilities", which passed by a narrow margin of 49–45 with 16 abstentions. The chief Israeli delegate stated that "Israel will not co-operate in any matter with this resolution." However, similar resolutions were defeated in 2010, 2013, 2014, and 2015. As with Pakistan, the NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Israel. Other States ------------ ### North Korea North Korea acceded to the treaty on 12 December 1985 in order to obtain assistance from the Soviet Union in the construction of four light-water reactors, but was ruled be in noncompliance with its IAEA safeguards agreement after a series of inspections in 1992-93 which determined that North Korean had not fully declared its history of reprocessing spent fuel at the Yongbyon nuclear facility. North Korea responded by announcing its intent to withdraw from the treaty on 12 March 1993, and President Bill Clinton responded by announcing sanctions and considering military action. The crisis ended with the Agreed Framework negotiated by former US President Jimmy Carter in which North Korea agreed to an IAEA-monitored freeze of plutonium production facilities and construction of new reactors in exchange for two light-water reactors and heavy fuel oil shipments through the US-led Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization consortium. North Korea also abandoned its withdrawal from the NPT. During the late 1990s and the early 2000s critics of the agreement, as well as Clinton's successor George W. Bush, expressed skepticism on North Korean compliance to the Agreed Framework. During 2002 negotiations US Assistant Secretary of State James A. Kelly accused North Korea of a secret highly enriched uranium program; North Korean First Vice Foreign Minister Kang Sok-ju and Vice Foreign Minister Kim Kye-gwan responded by denying the allegations but asserting that North Korea had a right to nuclear weapons. The U.S. subsequently halted fuel oil shipments to North Korea in December 2002 and the DPRK government again gave notice of withdrawal from NPT on 10 January 2003. The withdrawal became effective 10 April 2003 making North Korea the first state ever to withdraw from the treaty. In April 2003, North Korea agreed to the multilateral six-party talks to find a diplomatic solution to the issue hosted by China and including the United States, South Korea, Russia, and Japan. North Korea initially demanded resumption of fuel shipments, while the United States demanded the "complete, verifiable, and irreversible dismantlement" of the North Korean nuclear program. On 10 February 2005, North Korea publicly declared that it possessed nuclear weapons and pulled out of the six-party talks. "We had already taken the resolute action of pulling out of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and have manufactured nuclear arms for self-defence to cope with the Bush administration's evermore undisguised policy to isolate and stifle the DPRK [Democratic People's Republic of Korea]," a North Korean Foreign Ministry statement said regarding the issue. Six-party talks resumed in July 2005. On 19 September 2005, North Korea announced that it would agree to a preliminary accord. Under the accord, North Korea would scrap all of its existing nuclear weapons and nuclear production facilities, rejoin the NPT, and readmit IAEA inspectors. The difficult issue of the supply of light water reactors to replace North Korea's indigenous nuclear power plant program, as per the 1994 Agreed Framework, was left to be resolved in future discussions. On the next day North Korea reiterated its known view that until it is supplied with a light water reactor it will not dismantle its nuclear arsenal or rejoin the NPT. The six-party talks eventually collapsed before a final agreement could be negotiated after the U.S. State Department sanctioned Banco Delta Asia under Section 311 of the Patriot Act for money-laundering involving North Korean accounts. On 2 October 2006, the North Korean foreign minister announced that his country was planning to conduct a nuclear test "in the future", although it did not state when. On Monday, 9 October 2006 at 01:35:28 (UTC) the United States Geological Survey detected a magnitude 4.3 seismic event 70 km (43 mi) north of Kimchaek, North Korea indicating a nuclear test. The North Korean government announced shortly afterward that they had completed a successful underground test of a nuclear fission device. After United Nations Security Council Resolution 1718 imposed sanctions on North Korea, the six-party talks resumed. In February 2007 the parties agreed to the Initial Actions for the Implementation for the Joint Statement in which North Korea would dismantle its nuclear weapons programs, including the Yongbyon reactor, in exchange for the return of frozen funds at Banco Delta Asia and foreign energy assistance. However, the agreement failed due to verification problems and North Korea fully withdrew from the six-party talks in 2009 after the other members condemned the 2009 North Korean missile tests, expelling all US and IAEA inspectors from the country. The UN responded by adopting United Nations Security Council Resolution 1874 expanding the sanctions regime. In 2007, reports from Washington suggested that the 2002 CIA reports stating that North Korea was developing an enriched uranium weapons program, which led to North Korea leaving the NPT, had overstated or misread the intelligence. On the other hand, even apart from these press allegations, there remains some information in the public record indicating the existence of a uranium effort. Quite apart from the fact that North Korean First Vice Minister Kang Sok-ju at one point admitted the existence of a uranium enrichment program, Pakistan's then-President Musharraf revealed that the A.Q. Khan proliferation network had provided North Korea with a number of gas centrifuges designed for uranium enrichment. Additionally, press reports have cited U.S. officials to the effect that evidence obtained in dismantling Libya's WMD programs points toward North Korea as the source for Libya's uranium hexafluoride (UF6)—which, if true, would mean that North Korea has a uranium conversion facility for producing feedstock for centrifuge enrichment. North Korea formally announced the existence of a uranium enrichment program in September 2009. In 2011, after rising tensions over the North Korean nuclear program, the ROKS *Cheonan* sinking, and the bombardment of Yeonpyeong, North Korea began to express interest in returning to the six-party talks. Bilateral negotiations between North Korea and the United States after the death of Kim Jong-il led to the 29 February 2012 "Leap Day Agreement" in which North Korea would agree to allow IAEA inspections and resume the six-party talks. However, these diplomatic gains were quickly undercut by launching the Unha-3 rocket, leading the United States to suspend food aid. North Korea conducted further nuclear tests in 2013, January 2016, September 2016, and 2017, and announced that it was developing miniaturized warheads and intercontinental ballistic missiles. It also claimed that it had successfully thermonuclear weapons in the January 2016 and 2017 tests. The North Korean nuclear weapons development led to the 2017–2018 North Korea crisis which nearly led to war, with both North Korean Supreme Leader Kim Jong-un and US President Donald Trump threatening military action. The crisis was averted after a series of meetings between Kim Jong-un, US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, and South Korean President Moon Jae-in finally culminating with the 2018 North Korea–United States Singapore Summit between Trump and Kim, the first face-to-face meeting between the US and North Korean heads of state. The IAEA has called for North Korea to rejoin it and the NPT since 2013. ### Iran Iran is a party to the NPT since 1970 but was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement, and the status of its nuclear program remains in dispute. In November 2003 IAEA Director General Mohamed ElBaradei reported that Iran had repeatedly and over an extended period failed to meet its safeguards obligations under the NPT with respect to: * reporting of nuclear material imported to Iran; * reporting of the subsequent processing and use of imported nuclear material; * declaring of facilities and other locations where nuclear material had been stored and processed. After about two years of EU3-led diplomatic efforts and Iran temporarily suspending its enrichment program, the IAEA Board of Governors, acting under Article XII.C of the IAEA Statute, found in a rare non-consensus decision with 12 abstentions that these failures constituted non-compliance with the IAEA safeguards agreement. This was reported to the UN Security Council in 2006, after which the Security Council passed a resolution demanding that Iran suspend its enrichment. Instead, Iran resumed its enrichment program. The IAEA has been able to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran, and is continuing its work on verifying the absence of undeclared activities. In February 2008, the IAEA also reported that it was working to address "alleged studies" of weaponization, based on documents provided by certain Member States, which those states claimed originated from Iran. Iran rejected the allegations as "baseless" and the documents as "fabrications". In June 2009, the IAEA reported that Iran had not "cooperated with the Agency in connection with the remaining issues ... which need to be clarified to exclude the possibility of military dimensions to Iran's nuclear program." The United States concluded that Iran violated its Article III NPT safeguards obligations, and further argued based on circumstantial evidence that Iran's enrichment program was for weapons purposes and therefore violated Iran's Article II nonproliferation obligations. The November 2007 US National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) later concluded that Iran had halted an active nuclear weapons program in the fall of 2003 and that it had remained halted as of mid-2007. The NIE's "Key Judgments", however, also made clear that what Iran had actually stopped in 2003 was only "nuclear weapon design and weaponization work and covert uranium conversion-related and uranium enrichment-related work"-namely, those aspects of Iran's nuclear weapons effort that had not by that point already been leaked to the press and become the subject of IAEA investigations. Since Iran's uranium enrichment program at Natanz—and its continuing work on a heavy water reactor at Arak that would be ideal for plutonium production—began secretly years before in conjunction with the very weaponization work the NIE discussed and for the purpose of developing nuclear weapons, many observers find Iran's continued development of fissile material production capabilities distinctly worrying. Particularly because fissile material availability has long been understood to be the principal obstacle to nuclear weapons development and the primary "pacing element" for a weapons program, the fact that Iran has reportedly suspended weaponization work may not mean very much. As The Bush Administration's Director of National Intelligence (DNI) Mike McConnell put it in 2008, the aspects of its work that Iran allegedly suspended were thus "probably the least significant part of the program." Iran stated it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the NPT, and further says that it had "constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency". Iran also stated that its enrichment program has been part of its civilian nuclear energy program, which is allowed under Article IV of the NPT. The Non-Aligned Movement has welcomed the continuing cooperation of Iran with the IAEA and reaffirmed Iran's right to the peaceful uses of nuclear technology. Early during his tenure as United Nations Secretary General, between 2007 and 2016, Ban Ki-moon welcomed the continued dialogue between Iran and the IAEA. He urged a peaceful resolution of the issue. In April 2010, during the signing of the U.S.-Russia New START Treaty, President Obama said that the United States, Russia, and other nations were demanding that Iran face consequences for failing to fulfill its obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, saying "We will not tolerate actions that flout the NPT, risk an arms race in a vital region, and threaten the credibility of the international community and our collective security." In 2015, Iran negotiated a nuclear deal with the P5+1, a group of countries that consisted of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) plus Germany. On 14 July 2015, the P5+1 and Iran concluded the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, lifting sanctions on Iran in exchange for constraints and on Iran's nuclear activities and increased verification by the IAEA. On 8 May 2018, President Donald Trump withdrew the United States from the JCPOA and reimposed sanctions on Iran. ### South Africa South Africa is the only country that developed nuclear weapons by itself and later dismantled them—unlike the former Soviet states Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, which inherited nuclear weapons from the former USSR and also acceded to the NPT as non-nuclear weapon states. During the days of apartheid, the South African government developed a deep fear of both a black uprising and the threat of communism. This led to the development of a secret nuclear weapons program as an ultimate deterrent. South Africa has a large supply of uranium, which is mined in the country's gold mines. The government built a nuclear research facility at Pelindaba near Pretoria where uranium was enriched to fuel grade for the Koeberg Nuclear Power Station as well as weapon grade for bomb production. In 1991, after international pressure and when a change of government was imminent, South African Ambassador to the United States Harry Schwarz signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In 1993, the then president Frederik Willem de Klerk openly admitted that the country had developed a limited nuclear weapon capability. These weapons were subsequently dismantled before South Africa acceded to the NPT and opened itself up to IAEA inspection. In 1994, the IAEA completed its work and declared that the country had fully dismantled its nuclear weapons program. ### Libya Libya had signed (in 1968) and ratified (in 1975) the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and was subject to IAEA nuclear safeguards inspections, but undertook a secret nuclear weapons development program in violation of its NPT obligations, using material and technology provided by the A.Q. Khan proliferation network—including actual nuclear weapons designs allegedly originating in China. Libya began secret negotiations with the United States and the United Kingdom in March 2003 over potentially eliminating its WMD programs. In October 2003, Libya was embarrassed by the interdiction of a shipment of Pakistani-designed centrifuge parts sent from Malaysia, also as part of A. Q. Khan's proliferation ring. In December 2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to eliminate all its WMD programs, and permitted U.S. and British teams (as well as IAEA inspectors) into the country to assist this process and verify its completion. The nuclear weapons designs, gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment, and other equipment—including prototypes for improved SCUD ballistic missiles—were removed from Libya by the United States. (Libyan chemical weapons stocks and chemical bombs were also destroyed on site with international verification, with Libya joining the Chemical Weapons Convention.) Libya's non-compliance with its IAEA safeguards was reported to the U.N. Security Council, but with no action taken, as Libya's return to compliance with safeguards and Article II of the NPT was welcomed. In 2011, the Libyan government of Muammar al-Gaddafi was overthrown in the Libyan Civil War with the assistance of a military intervention by NATO forces acting under the auspices of UN Security Council Resolution 1973. Gaddafi's downfall 8 years after the disarmament of Libya, in which Gaddafi agreed to eliminate Libya's nuclear weapons program, has been repeatedly cited by North Korea, which views Gaddafi's fate as a "cautionary tale" that influences North Korea's decision to maintain and intensify its nuclear weapons program and arsenal despite pressure to denuclearize. ### Syria Syria is a state party to the NPT since 1969 and has a limited civil nuclear program. Before the advent of the Syrian Civil War it was known to operate only one small Chinese-built research reactor, SRR-1. Despite being a proponent of a Weapons of Mass Destruction Free Zone in the Middle East the country was accused of pursuing a military nuclear program with a reported nuclear facility in a desert Deir ez-Zor Governorate. The reactor's components had likely been designed and manufactured in North Korea, with the reactor's striking similarity in shape and size to the North Korean Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. That information alarmed Israeli military and intelligence to such a degree that the idea of a targeted airstrike was conceived. It resulted in Operation Orchard, that took place on 6 September 2007 and saw as many as eight Israeli Air Force aircraft taking part. The Israeli government is said to have bounced the idea of the operation off of the US Bush administration, although the latter declined to participate. The nuclear reactor was destroyed in the attack, which also killed about ten North Korean workers. The attack did not cause an international outcry or any serious Syrian retaliatory moves as both parties tried to keep it secret: Despite a half-century state of war declared by surrounding states, Israel did not want publicity as regards its breach of the ceasefire, while Syria was not willing to acknowledge its clandestine nuclear program. ### Ukraine Ukraine is a party to the NPT since 1994. Under the terms of the Budapest Memorandum of 1994, Ukraine relinquished its arsenal of nuclear weapons with its sovereignty and borders agreed by the signatories, Ukraine, UK, United States and Russia. Following the invasion of Ukraine by Russia in 2014 and 2022, John Paull, an environmental scientist from the University of Tasmania, questioned the wisdom of the relinquishment of Ukraine's nuclear weapons in exchange for what he considered an empty assurances of national integrity. Leaving the treaty ------------------ Article X allows a state to leave the treaty if "extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country", giving three months' (ninety days') notice. The state is required to give reasons for leaving the NPT in this notice. NATO states argue that when there is a state of "general war" the treaty no longer applies, effectively allowing the states involved to leave the treaty with no notice. This is a necessary argument to support the NATO nuclear weapons sharing policy. NATO's argument is based on the phrase "the consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war" in the treaty preamble, inserted at the behest of U.S. diplomats, arguing that the treaty would at that point have failed to fulfill its function of prohibiting a general war and thus no longer be binding. See United States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing above. North Korea has also caused an uproar by its use of this provision of the treaty. Article X.1 only requires a state to give three months' notice in total, and does not provide for other states to question a state's interpretation of "supreme interests of its country". In 1993, North Korea gave notice to withdraw from the NPT. However, after 89 days, North Korea reached agreement with the United States to freeze its nuclear program under the Agreed Framework and "suspended" its withdrawal notice. In October 2002, the United States accused North Korea of violating the Agreed Framework by pursuing a secret uranium enrichment program, and suspended shipments of heavy fuel oil under that agreement. In response, North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors, disabled IAEA equipment, and, on 10 January 2003, announced that it was ending the suspension of its previous NPT withdrawal notification. North Korea said that only one more day's notice was sufficient for withdrawal from the NPT, as it had given 89 days before. The IAEA Board of Governors rejected this interpretation. Most countries held that a new three-months withdrawal notice was required, and some questioned whether North Korea's notification met the "extraordinary events" and "supreme interests" requirements of the treaty. The Joint Statement of 19 September 2005 at the end of the Fourth Round of the Six-Party Talks called for North Korea to "return" to the NPT, implicitly acknowledging that it had withdrawn. Recent and coming events ------------------------ The main outcome of the 2000 Conference was the adoption by consensus of a comprehensive Final Document, which included among other things "practical steps for the systematic and progressive efforts" to implement the disarmament provisions of the NPT, commonly referred to as the Thirteen Steps. On 18 July 2005, US President George W. Bush met Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and declared that he would work to change US law and international rules to permit trade in US civilian nuclear technology with India. At the time, British columnist George Monbiot argued that the U.S.-India nuclear deal, in combination with US attempts to deny Iran (an NPT signatory) civilian nuclear fuel-making technology, might destroy the NPT regime. In the first half of 2010, it was strongly believed that China had signed a civilian nuclear deal with Pakistan claiming that the deal was "peaceful". Arms control advocates criticised the reported China-Pakistan deal as they did in case of U.S.-India deal claiming that both the deals violate the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT. Some reports asserted that the deal was a strategic move by China to balance US influence in South-Asia. According to a report published by U.S. Department of Defense in 2001, China had provided Pakistan with nuclear materials and has given critical technological assistance in the construction of Pakistan's nuclear weapons development facilities, in violation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, of which China even then was a signatory. At the Seventh Review Conference in May 2005, there were stark differences between the United States, which wanted the conference to focus on non-proliferation, especially on its allegations against Iran, and most other countries, who emphasized the lack of serious nuclear disarmament by the nuclear powers. The non-aligned countries reiterated their position emphasizing the need for nuclear disarmament. The 2010 Review Conference was held in May 2010 in New York City, and adopted a final document that included a summary by the Review Conference President, Ambassador Libran Capactulan of the Philippines, and an Action Plan that was adopted by consensus. The 2010 conference was generally considered a success because it reached consensus where the previous Review Conference in 2005 ended in disarray, a fact that many attributed to the U.S. President Barack Obama's commitment to nuclear nonproliferation and disarmament. Some have warned that this success raised unrealistically high expectations that could lead to failure at the next Review Conference in 2015. The "Global Summit on Nuclear Security" took place 12–13 April 2010. The summit was proposed by President Obama in Prague and was intended to strengthen the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in conjunction with the Proliferation Security Initiative and the Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism. Forty seven states and three international organizations took part in the summit, which issued a communiqué and a work plan. For further information see 2010 Nuclear Security Summit. In a major policy speech at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin on 19 June 2013, Obama outlined plans to further reduce the number of warheads in the U.S. nuclear arsenal. According to *Foreign Policy*, Obama proposed a "one-third reduction in strategic nuclear warheads—on top of the cuts already required by the New START treaty—bringing the number of deployed warheads to about 1,000". Obama is seeking to "negotiate these reductions with Russia to continue to move beyond Cold War nuclear postures," according to briefing documents provided to *Foreign Policy*. In the same speech, Obama emphasized his administration's efforts to isolate any nuclear weapons capabilities emanating from Iran and North Korea. He also called for a renewed bipartisan effort in the United States Congress to ratify the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty and called on countries to negotiate a new treaty to end the production of fissile material for nuclear weapons. On 24 April 2014, it was announced that the nation of the Marshall Islands has brought suit in The Hague against the United States, the former Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea and Israel seeking to have the disarmament provisions of the NNPT enforced. The 2015 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) was held at the United Nations in New York from 27 April to 22 May 2015 and presided over by Ambassador Taous Feroukhi of Algeria. The Treaty, particularly article VIII, paragraph 3, envisages a review of the operation of the Treaty every five years, a provision which was reaffirmed by the States parties at the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference and the 2000 NPT Review Conference. At the 2015 NPT Review Conference, States parties examined the implementation of the Treaty's provisions since 2010. Despite intensive consultations, the Conference was not able to reach agreement on the substantive part of the draft Final Document. The Tenth Review Conference convened 1–26 August 2022, after a two-year postponement due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and concluded without adopting a final document. Contentious negotiations came close to consensus on a text, but ultimately Russia blocked consensus over issues related to the war in Ukraine, including references to the safety of the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant in the draft text. On June 23, 2023 The US Department of State issued a statement that the United States hosted the meeting on June 13-14 in Cairo among the five nuclear weapons states, describing it as "an ongoing exchange in the context of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)." Criticism and responses ----------------------- Over the years the NPT has come to be seen by many Third World states as "a conspiracy of the nuclear 'haves' to keep the nuclear 'have-nots' in their place". This argument has roots in Article VI of the treaty which "obligates the nuclear weapons states to liquidate their nuclear stockpiles and pursue complete disarmament. The non-nuclear states see no signs of this happening". Some argue that the NWS have not fully complied with their disarmament obligations under Article VI of the NPT. Some countries such as India have criticized the NPT, because it "discriminated against states not possessing nuclear weapons on 1 January 1967," while Iran and numerous Arab states have criticized Israel for not signing the NPT. There has been disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads (as of February 2021) among them. As noted above, the International Court of Justice, in its advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, stated that "there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control". Some critics of the nuclear-weapons states contend that they have failed to comply with Article VI by failing to make disarmament the driving force in national planning and policy with respect to nuclear weapons, even while they ask other states to plan for their security without nuclear weapons. The United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that, since the end of the Cold War, it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons, and eliminated over 80% of its deployed strategic warheads and 90% of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the process eliminating whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons. U.S. officials have also pointed out the ongoing U.S. work to dismantle nuclear warheads. By the time accelerated dismantlement efforts ordered by President George W. Bush were completed, the U.S. arsenal was less than a quarter of its size at the end of the Cold War, and smaller than it had been at any point since the Eisenhower administration, well before the drafting of the NPT. The United States has also purchased many thousands of weapons' worth of uranium formerly in Soviet nuclear weapons for conversion into reactor fuel. As a consequence of this latter effort, it has been estimated that the equivalent of one lightbulb in every ten in the United States is powered by nuclear fuel removed from warheads previously targeted at the United States and its allies during the Cold War. The U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation agreed that nonproliferation and disarmament are linked, noting that they can be mutually reinforcing but also that growing proliferation risks create an environment that makes disarmament more difficult. The United Kingdom, France and Russia likewise defend their nuclear disarmament records, and the five NPT NWS issued a joint statement in 2008 reaffirming their Article VI disarmament commitments. According to Thomas Reed and Danny Stillman, the "NPT has one giant loophole": Article IV gives each non-nuclear weapon state the "inalienable right" to pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power. A "number of high-ranking officials, even within the United Nations, have argued that they can do little to stop states using nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons". A 2009 United Nations report said that: > The revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in nuclear weapons. > > > According to critics, those states which possess nuclear weapons, but are not authorized to do so under the NPT, have not paid a significant price for their pursuit of weapons capabilities. Also, the NPT has been explicitly weakened by a number of bilateral deals made by NPT signatories, notably the United States. Based on concerns over the slow pace of nuclear disarmament and the continued reliance on nuclear weapons in military and security concepts, doctrines and policies, the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons was adopted in July 2017 and was subsequently opened for signature on 20 September 2017. Entering into force on January 22, 2021, it prohibits each state party from the development, testing, production, stockpiling, stationing, transfer, use and threat of use of nuclear weapons, as well as assistance to those activities. It reaffirms in its preamble the vital role of the full and effective implementation of the NPT. See also -------- * 13 steps (an important section in the Final Document of the 2000 Review Conference of the Treaty) * Chemical Weapons Convention * Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) * Humanitarian Initiative * Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism (GICNT) * Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) * New Agenda Coalition (NAC) * Non-Proliferation and Disarmament Initiative (NPDI) * Nuclear armament * Nuclear warfare * Nuclear-weapon-free zone + Multi-country zones - African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Pelindaba) - Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone (Treaty of Semei) - South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Rarotonga) - Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Bangkok) - Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (Treaty of Tlatelolco) + Other UN-recognized zones - Mongolian Nuclear-Weapons-Free Zone - Outer Space Treaty - Seabed Arms Control Treaty * Nuclear Terrorism * Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) * Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) * Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT) * Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (also known as the Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty) * Weapon of Mass Destruction (WMD) * Zangger Committee * List of states with nuclear weapons * List of weapons of mass destruction treaties

Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons

**Worcestershire** (/ˈwʊstərʃər/ () *WUSS-tər-shər*, /-ʃɪər/ *-⁠sheer*; written abbreviation: **Worcs**) is a county in the West Midlands of England. The area that is now Worcestershire was absorbed into the unified Kingdom of England in 927, at which time it was constituted as a county (see History of Worcestershire). Over the centuries the county borders have been modified, but it was not until 1844 that substantial changes were made. Worcestershire was abolished as part of local government reforms in 1974, with its northern area becoming part of the West Midlands and the rest part of the county of Hereford and Worcester. In 1998 the county of Hereford and Worcester was abolished and Worcestershire was reconstituted, again without the West Midlands area. Location -------- The county borders Herefordshire to the west, Shropshire to the north-west, Staffordshire only just to the north, West Midlands to the north and north-east, Warwickshire to the east and Gloucestershire to the south. The western border with Herefordshire includes a stretch along the top of the Malvern Hills. At the southern border with Gloucestershire, Worcestershire meets the northern edge of the Cotswolds. Two major rivers flow through the county: the Severn and the Avon. History ------- The geographical area now known as Worcestershire was first populated at least 700,000 years ago. The area became predominantly agricultural in the Bronze Age, leading to population growth and more evidence of settlement. By the Iron Age, hill forts dominated the landscape. Settlement of these swiftly ended with the Roman occupation of Britain. The Roman period saw establishment of the villa system in the Cotswolds and Vale of Evesham. Droitwich (Salinae) was probably the most important settlement in the county in this period, due to its product of salt. There is also evidence for Roman settlement and industrial activity around Worcester and King's Norton. ### Anglo-Saxon Worcestershire The area which became Worcestershire formed the heartland of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the Hwicce. It was absorbed by the Kingdom of Mercia during the 7th century and became part of the unified Kingdom of England in 927. Worcestershire was established as an administrative and defensive unit in the early tenth century. Its purpose was to take into account and defend the estates within the northern area of the historic See of Worcester, held by the Episcopus Hwicciorum and Worcester Priory, along with the Abbots of Pershore, Westminster and Evesham. The shires and its sub-divisions known as hundreds, formed a framework for administering the resources of each burhs' outlying estates. It was a separate ealdormanship briefly in the 10th century before forming part of the Earldom of Mercia in the 11th century. The last known Anglo-Saxon Sheriff of Worcestershire was Cyneweard of Laughern. ### Norman Conquest During the Middle Ages, much of the county's economy was based on the wool trade. Many areas of its dense forests, such as Feckenham Forest, Horewell Forest and Malvern Chase, were royal hunting grounds subject to forest law. After the Norman conquest of England; the Domesday Book noted in 1086 that in seven of the twelve hundreds covering Worcestershire, the Crown had no authority. The Crown's authority was replaced by the Bishop of Worcester and the Abbots at Pershore, Westminster and Evesham. William the Conqueror gave to his allies and friends manors and parishes captured from the Anglo-Saxons. Despite the Norman Conquest, the rest of the county was still held by the Abbeys of Pershore and Evesham, the Bishop of Worcester and Priory. The first Norman Sheriff Urse d'Abetot, built the castle of Worcester and seized much church land, some of which became part of the Crown's hundreds in Worcestershire. and was in dispute with the Bishop of Worcester over the rights of the sheriff. Bishop Wulfstan was the last Anglo-Saxon bishop in England, and remained in post until his death in 1095. Under his tenure Worcester Cathedral began major reconstruction, and he opposed political interventions against William and the Normans. He was later made a saint. ### High Medieval During Henry III's disputes and wars with his Barons, in 1263 Worcester's Jewish residents were attacked by a baronial force led by Robert Earl Ferrers and Henry de Montfort. Most were killed. The massacre in Worcester was part of a wider campaign by the De Montforts and their allies in the run-up to the Second Barons' War, aimed at undermining Henry III. Worcestershire was the site of the Battle of Evesham in which Simon de Montfort was killed on 4 August 1265. A few years later, in 1275, the Jews that were still living in Worcester were forced to move to Hereford, as they were expelled from all towns under the jurisdiction of the queen mother. ### Civil War In 1642, the Battle of Powick Bridge was the first major skirmish of the English Civil War. The county suffered from being on the Royalist front line, as it was subject to heavy taxation and the pressing of men into the Royalist army, which also reduced its productive capacity. The northern part of the county, which was already a centre of iron production, was important for military supplies. Parliamentarian raids and Royalist requisitioning both placed a great strain on the county. There were tensions from the participation of prominent Catholic recusants in the military and civilian organisation of the county. Combined with the opposition to requisitioning from both sides, bands of Clubmen formed to keep the war away from their localities. The Battle of Worcester in 1651 effectively ended the third civil war. There was little enthusiasm or local participation in the mostly Scottish Royalist army, whose defeat was widely welcomed. Nevertheless, Parliamentarian forces ransacked the city of Worcester, causing heavy damage, looting and destruction of property. Around 10,000 mostly Scottish prisoners were sent into forced labour in the New World or fen drainage schemes. The small bands of Scots that fled into Worcestershire's countryside were attacked by local forces and killed. ### Nineteenth century In the 19th century, Worcester was a centre for the manufacture of gloves; the town of Kidderminster became a centre for carpet manufacture, and Redditch specialised in the manufacture of needles, springs and hooks. Droitwich Spa, situated on large deposits of salt, was a centre of salt production from Roman times, with one of the principal Roman roads running through the town. These old industries have since declined, to be replaced by other, more varied light industry. The county is also home to the world's oldest continually published newspaper, the *Berrow's Journal*, established in 1690. Malvern was one of the centres of the 19th-century rise in English spa towns due to Malvern water being believed to be very pure, containing "nothing at all". Demographics ------------ The 2011 census found the population of Worcestershire to be 566,169, an increase of 4.4% from the 2001 population of 542,107. ### Ethnicity Though the total number of people in every ethnic group increased between 2001 and 2011, the White British share of Worcestershire's population decreased from 95.5% to 92.4%, as did the share of White ethnic groups as whole, which went from 97.5% to 95.7%. Worcestershire is still much more ethnically homogeneous than the national average. In 2011, 79.8% of the population of England identified as White British; much lower than Worcestershire's figure of 92.4%. | Ethnic group | 2001population | 2001% | 2011population | 2011% | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | White: British | 517,747 | 95.5 | 522,922 | 92.4 | | White: Irish | 4,163 | 0.8 | 3,480 | 0.6 | | White: Irish Traveller/Gypsy | | | 1,165 | 0.2 | | White: Other | 6,869 | 1.27 | 14,491 | 2.6 | | **White: Total** | **528,779** | **97.5** | **542,058** | **95.7** | | Asian or Asian British: Indian | 1,640 | 0.3 | 3,634 | 0.6 | | Asian or Asian British: Pakistani | 2,917 | 0.5 | 4,984 | 0.9 | | Asian or Asian British: Bangladeshi | 970 | 0.2 | 1,316 | 0.2 | | Asian or Asian British: Chinese | 1,106 | 0.2 | 1,601 | 0.3 | | Asian or Asian British: Asian Other | 455 | 0.1 | 2,206 | 0.4 | | **Asian or Asian British: Total** | **7,088** | **1.3** | **13,741** | **2.4** | | Black or Black British: Caribbean | 1,153 | 0.2 | 1,275 | 0.2 | | Black or Black British: African | 332 | 0.1 | 767 | 0.1 | | Black or Black British: Other | 153 | 0.03 | 330 | 0.1 | | **Black or Black British: Total** | **1,638** | **0.3** | **2,372** | **0.4** | | Mixed: White and Caribbean | 1,704 | 0.3 | 3,150 | 0.6 | | Mixed: White and African | 221 | 0.04 | 592 | 0.1 | | Mixed: White and Asian Other | 1,099 | 0.2 | 2,053 | 0.4 | | Mixed: Other Mixed | 771 | 0.1 | 1,250 | 0.2 | | **British Mixed: Total** | **3,795** | **0.7** | **7,045** | **1.2** | | Other: Arab | | | 236 | 0.04 | | Other: Any other ethnic group | 807 | 0.1 | 717 | 0.1 | | **Other: Total** | **807** | **0.1** | **953** | **0.2** | | **Total** | **542,107** | **100** | **566,169** | **100** | Local government ---------------- Local government in Worcestershire has changed several times since the middle of the 19th century. ### 1844–1911 Worcestershire contained numerous exclaves, which were areas of land cut off from the main geographical area of Worcestershire and completely surrounded by the nearby counties of Warwickshire, Staffordshire, Gloucestershire, Herefordshire and Oxfordshire. The most notable islands were Dudley, Evenlode, Blockley and the area around Shipston-on-Stour. Herefordshire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire and Shropshire had their own exclaves within the main part of Worcestershire at Rochford, Broome, Clent, Tardebigge (Tutnall and Cobley) and Halesowen respectively. Tardebigge's history outside the county is even more colourful, changing hands from Worcestershire to Staffordshire and Warwickshire, before returning to Worcestershire at differing times over the centuries. The southern boundary of the county was also complex, with parish boundaries penetrating deep into Gloucestershire and vice versa. Worcestershire County Council came into existence following the Local Government Act 1888 and covered the historic traditional county, except for two designated county boroughs at Dudley and Worcester. Birmingham's continuous expansion has been a major cause of Worcestershire's fluid boundary changes and associated housing issues. The district of Balsall Heath, which had originally constituted the most northerly part of the parish of King's Norton, was the first area of the county to be added to the County Borough of Birmingham, on 1 October 1891. This was followed by Quinton Urban District, which was ceded to Birmingham in November 1909, and then by the Rural District of Yardley and the greater part of the Urban District of King's Norton and Northfield, which were absorbed into Birmingham under the Greater Birmingham Scheme on 9 November 1911. Thus these areas were transferred from Worcestershire to Warwickshire. Dudley's historical status within the Diocese of Worcester and through its aristocratic links ensured that the exclave was governed on a largely autonomous basis. Worcester was designated a county corporate, and thus became separate from the rest of Worcestershire. ### 1926 boundary changes In 1926, Dudley County Borough council purchased several square miles of land to the north of the town centre, mostly in Sedgley (Staffordshire), including Dudley Castle. This was to build the Priory Estate, a large new council estate on which construction began in 1929. The boundaries of Worcestershire were altered to include all of the proposed new housing estate in Dudley. ### 1966–1974 During the Local Government reorganisation of April 1966, Dudley expanded beyond its historical boundaries and took in the bulk of Sedgley, Brierley Hill and the south of Coseley as well as a small section of Amblecote. The Local Government Act redefined its status and the County Borough of Dudley became part of Staffordshire, the county of which all of these areas had been part. At the same time, Worcestershire gained a new county borough named Warley, which was an amalgamation of Oldbury Urban District, Rowley Regis Urban District, the County Borough of Smethwick and parts of Dudley and Tipton. During this reorganisation, the area of the administrative county grew only where Stourbridge took in the majority of Amblecote Urban District from Staffordshire and the designation of Redditch in 1964 as a New Town. This in turn saw expansion into the area in and around the villages of Ipsley and Matchborough in Warwickshire. The Redditch New Town designation coincided with a considerable programme of social and private house building in Droitwich, Worcester, Bromsgrove, Kidderminster and along the Birmingham boundary at Frankley, Rubery and Rednal. Frankley parish was later split into two: New Frankley and the area around Bartley Reservoir transferred from Bromsgrove District to Birmingham in April 1995; but the small village of Frankley remained in Worcestershire and became a new civil parish under the same name. ### 1974–1998 From 1974, the central and southern parts of the county were amalgamated with Herefordshire and with Worcester County Borough to form a single non-metropolitan county of Hereford and Worcester. The County Boroughs of Dudley and Warley, along with Stourbridge and Halesowen, were incorporated into the new West Midlands Metropolitan county. The West Midlands County Council existed for only a few years before abolition in April 1986, although the West Midlands still exists as a ceremonial county. ### 1998–present In the 1990s UK local government reform, the county of Hereford & Worcester was abolished, and the non-metropolitan county or shire county of Worcestershire regained its historic border with Herefordshire. The recreated County of Worcestershire came into existence on 1 April 1998 as an administrative and ceremonial county, although this excluded the Black Country towns of Dudley, Halesowen, Oldbury and Stourbridge (which remained part of the West Midlands). Worcestershire County Council was reformed, although some services are shared with the newly formed Herefordshire Council, including waste management and the youth offending service. The former Hereford and Worcester districts of Redditch, Worcester, Bromsgrove, Wychavon and Wyre Forest were retained with little or no change. However the Leominster and Malvern Hills districts straddled the historic border, so a new Malvern Hills district was constituted which straddled the pre-April 1974 county boundary to the west, south-west and north-west. The remaining parts of the former Hereford and Worcester district of Leominster, returned to Herefordshire. ### Summary of main changes These settlements were historically part of the county as noted above, that now fall under the counties of Warwickshire and West Midlands. | | | | --- | --- | | Warwickshire | * Shipston-on-Stour | | West Midlands (County) | * Birmingham (*certain areas only, such as Bournville, Quinton and Yardley*) * Dudley * Halesowen * Lye * Netherton * Oldbury * Rowley Regis (1966-74, *including Blackheath and Cradley Heath*) * Smethwick (1966-74) * Stourbridge * Tividale (1966-74) | | Physical geography ------------------ The Malvern Hills, which run from the south of the county into Herefordshire, are made up mainly of volcanic igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks, some of which date from more than 1,200 million years ago. They are designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). The Worcestershire Beacon, which at 425 metres (1,394 ft) is the highest point in the county, lies in this range. The rest of the county consists of undulating hills and farmland stretching either side of the Severn valley. The Severn is the United Kingdom's longest river and flows through Bewdley, Stourport-on-Severn and Worcester. The River Avon flows through the Worcestershire town on Evesham and joins the Severn at Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire. Several coniferous and deciduous woodlands are located in the north of the county. The Vale of Evesham runs through the south of the county and to its south are the Cotswolds AONB. ### Green belt Worcestershire contains a broad expanse of green belt area, widening to over 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) in places. It is part of the larger belt surrounding the West Midlands county, and first drawn up from the 1950s. All of the county's districts other than Malvern Hills contain some portion of the belt. Sport ----- The largest and most successful football club in the county is Kidderminster Harriers. Founded in 1877 as a running club and doubling as a rugby club from 1880, the football club was founded in 1886. In 1987, the club won the FA Trophy for the first time, and seven years later reached the fifth round of the FA Cup, also winning the GM Vauxhall Conference title in 1994 but being denied Football League status as their Aggborough Stadium did not meet capacity requirements. However, when the club next won the Conference title six years later, their stadium had been upgraded and promotion was granted, giving the county its first (and thus far only) Football League members. However, the club's Football League membership was short-lived, as Harriers were relegated back to the Conference in 2005 after just five years in the Football League, and have yet to reclaim their status. The county is also represented by Alvechurch, Bromsgrove Sporting and Redditch United of the Southern Premier League, and Worcester City of the Midland Football League. The county is home to Worcestershire County Cricket Club, traditionally the first stop on any touring national side's schedule in England. Formed officially in 1865, the Club initially played in Boughton Park, before moving to its current New Road ground, which today can host 5,500 spectators, in 1895. The club has won five County Championships in its history, most recently in 1989. Worcester Rugby Football Club, the Worcester Warriors, are the county's largest and most successful Rugby Union team, having been promoted to the Premiership in 2004. The Warriors were relegated to the RFU Championship in 2010 but rebounded back to the Premiership in 2011. Worcester Warriors play at the Sixways Stadium on the outskirts of Worcester, holding over 12,000 spectators, thus making it the largest stadium in the county. Sixways has hosted the final of the LV Cup on three occasions. Culture ------- The village of Broadheath, about 6.2 miles (10 km) northwest of the city of Worcester, is the birthplace of the composer Edward Elgar. It is claimed that the county was the inspiration for the Shire, a region of J. R. R. Tolkien's fictional Middle-earth, described in *The Hobbit* and *The Lord of the Rings*. Tolkien was thought to have named Bilbo Baggins' house "Bag End" after his Aunt Jane's Worcestershire farm. Tolkien wrote of Worcestershire, "Any corner of that county (however fair or squalid) is in an indefinable way 'home' to me, as no other part of the world is." Worcestershire is one of the three counties associated with the Border Morris style of English folk dancing. Worcestershire Monkey is a popular Border Morris dance; although normally performed as a group of eight, it is sometimes danced *en masse* with multiple Border Morris sides performing the dance together. Worcestershire appeared as one of the main settings in the DreamWorks Animation animated film *Shrek the Third*. The director Chris Miller said they chose Worcestershire because it is always being mispronounced. "It just made us laugh. Plus we love the sauce, it's hugely popular in the States." The film make multiple references to the real Worcestershire in the film, even commenting on the famous Worcestershire Sauce. The post-punk gothic band And Also the Trees hails from Worcestershire. Media ----- Masts at the Droitwich transmitting stationThe Worcester offices of BBC Hereford & Worcester Worcestershire has a long history in radio broadcasting. The county is home to the Droitwich Transmitting Station near Wychbold, currently broadcasting BBC Radio 5 Live and commercial radio services - Absolute Radio and TalkSport on Medium Wave/AM and BBC Radio 4 on Long Wave. The site is the location of the British Broadcasting Corporation's most powerful long-wave transmitter, which during World War II, coded messages read during normal programme broadcasts, were received by the French Resistance. Lying close to the county's north western border is the Woofferton Transmitting Station, which was used during the Cold War to broadcast the Voice of America's Short Wave transmissions into the Eastern Bloc countries of Europe. These sets of transmitters are still in use today. In 1939, the BBC bought the historic Wood Norton site near Evesham, and equipped the premises with a dozen temporary studios. These were to be used in the event of an evacuation of the BBC's operations in London and other urban areas. By 1940; Wood Norton was one of the largest broadcasting centres in Europe with an average output of 1,300 radio programmes a week. The BBC monitoring service were also based at Wood Norton, where linguists, many of them foreign nationals, were hired to listen in to broadcasts from Europe until they were relocated to Caversham Park in early 1943. The move was made to release space at Wood Norton so that it could become the BBC's main broadcasting centre, should London have to be evacuated because of the threat from Nazi Germany's V-weapons. The site was also prepared for use during the Cold War, as an emergency broadcast centre. The site is still in use for the BBC's engineering and technical training. ### Local and regional radio BBC Hereford & Worcester and Free Radio (formerly Wyvern) broadcast to both Herefordshire and Worcestershire on analogue and digital radio platforms, whilst Greatest Hits Radio Herefordshire and Worcestershire (formerly known as Signal 107) broadcasts to Kidderminster, Stourport-on-Severn, Bewdley and Droitwich. A community radio station - Radio Wyvern, is licensed to serve the Worcester area. Meanwhile, Capital Mid-Counties (formerly known as Touch FM), Sunshine Radio and Like Radio, broadcast to the county on VHF/FM and/or DAB Digital Radio. Historically; West Midlands-based radio stations such as BBC Radio WM, BRMB and Beacon Radio have considered parts of Worcestershire as their broadcast areas. However Wyvern, Beacon, BRMB along with Mercia are now known collectively as 'Free Radio' and under the same Bauer Radio ownership. Other regional stations, such as Heart West Midlands and Smooth West Midlands also cover the county. In 2007 the Office of Communications (Ofcom) awarded a DAB Digital Radio multiplex licence for Herefordshire & Worcestershire to MuxCo Ltd. MuxCo proposed new stations and a digital radio platform for Wyvern FM, Sunshine Radio and BBC Hereford & Worcester, who were initially licensed to broadcast on VHF/FM and/or AM. MuxCo eventually launched in December 2013 following changes in legislation through the Digital Economy Act 2010, and utilises existing transmitter locations at Great Malvern, Ridge Hill and Bromsgrove. The multiplex continues to uses the same transmission sites, albeit with an additional transmitter at Kidderminster and broadcasts a combination of local and national services. In 2008, MXR, who owned and operated the West Midlands regional DAB multiplex licence, improved coverage of DAB Digital Radio across other parts of the county to include Worcester and Malvern. This regional multiplex closed on 27 August 2013, partially replaced by CE Digital's Birmingham DAB Multiplex, who opened new transmitters at Lickey Hills and Headless Cross. Ofcom has earmarked two potential 'Small Scale DAB' digital radio multiplexes within Worcestershire - one at Worcester, and the other within Bromsgrove, Kidderminster and Redditch. The legal framework for the potential new multiplexes come under 'The Small-Scale Radio Multiplex and Community Digital Radio Order 2019'. Economy ------- This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Worcestershire at current basic prices published (pp. 240–253) by *Office for National Statistics* with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. | Year | Regional Gross Value Added | Agriculture | Industry | Services | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1995 | **5,047** | 225 | 1,623 | 3,200 | | 2000 | **6,679** | 159 | 2,002 | 4,518 | | 2003 | **7,514** | 182 | 1,952 | 5,380 | ### Industry and agriculture Fruit farming and the cultivation of hops were traditional agricultural activities in much of the county. During the latter half of the 20th century, this has largely declined with the exception southern area of the county around the Vale of Evesham, where orchards are still worked on a commercial scale. Worcester City's coat of arms includes three black pears, representing a now rare local pear variety, the Worcester Black Pear. The county's coat of arms follows this theme, having a pear tree with black pears. The apple variety known as Worcester Pearmain originates from Worcestershire, and the Pershore plum comes from the small Worcestershire town of that name, and is widely grown in that area. Worcestershire is also famous for a number of its non-agricultural products. The original Worcestershire sauce, a savoury condiment made by Lea and Perrins, is made in Worcester, and the now-closed Royal Porcelain works was based in the city. The town of Malvern is the home of the Morgan traditional sports car. Education --------- Worcestershire has a comprehensive school system with over thirty-five independent schools including the RGS Worcester, The King's School, Worcester, Malvern St James and Malvern College. State schools in Worcester, the Wyre Forest District, and the Malvern Hills District are two-tier primary schools and secondary schools whilst Redditch and Bromsgrove have a three-tier system of first, middle and high schools. Several schools in the county provide Sixth-form education including two in the city of Worcester. Several vocational colleges provide GCSE and A-level courses and adult education, such as South Worcestershire College, and an agricultural campus of Warwickshire College in Pershore. There is also the University of Worcester, which is located in the city itself and is home to the National Pollen and Aerobiology Research Unit and five other national research centres. Towns and villages ------------------ The county town and only city is Worcester. The other major settlements are Kidderminster, Bromsgrove and Redditch. There are also several market towns: Malvern, Bewdley, Evesham, Droitwich Spa, Pershore, Tenbury Wells, Stourport-on-Severn and Upton-upon-Severn. The village of Hartlebury housed the Bishop of Worcester from the 13th century until 2007. Places of interest ------------------ | | | --- | | **Key** | | | Abbey/Priory/Cathedral | | Accessible open space | Accessible open space | | | Amusement/Theme Park | | | Castle | | Country Park | Country Park | | | English Heritage | | | Forestry Commission | | Heritage railway | Heritage railway | | Historic house | Historic House | | Places of Worship | Places of Worship | | Museum (free)Museum | Museum (free/not free) | | National Trust | National Trust | | | Theatre | | | Zoo | * Almonry Museum - Evesham * Avoncroft Museum of Historic Buildings * Bewdley – riverside historic Tudor town * Broadway – a picturesque Cotswold village * Croome Court * Elgar Birthplace Museum * Evesham Bell Tower * Forge Mill Needle Museum at Redditch, the only remaining working needle mill in the world. * Great Malvern Priory * Greyfriars' House and Garden * Hanbury Hall * Hartlebury Castle * Harvington Hall * Kemerton Court * Malvern Hills – Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty * Middle Littleton Tithe Barn – a restored 13th-century tithe barn * Morgan Cars – visitors centre and museum * Pershore Abbey * River Severn at Worcester and Bewdley, River Avon at Pershore or Evesham * River Teme and valley * Severn Valley Railway at Kidderminster. * Tenbury Wells with its unique Pump Rooms. * The Commandery * The Fleece Inn – an ancient public house, now owned by the National Trust * The Hive, Worcester – the new University and public library (opened in 2012) * Wadborough * Walton Hill and the Clent Hills * West Midlands Safari Park near Bewdley. * Witley Court at Great Witley – a burnt-out shell of a large English stately home, famous for its gigantic fountain, now restored to working order. Currently run by English Heritage. * Worcester and Birmingham Canal * Worcester Cathedral * Worcestershire County Museum * Worcester City Art Gallery & Museum * Worcester Porcelain Museum Local groups ------------ * Worcestershire Wildlife Trust * 29th Regiment of Foot * West Midland Bird Club See also -------- * Custos Rotulorum of Worcestershire - List of Keepers of the Rolls * Healthcare in Worcestershire * High Sheriff of Worcestershire * Lord Lieutenant of Worcestershire * Worcestershire (UK Parliament constituency) - Historical list of MPs for Worcestershire constituency 52°12′N 2°10′W / 52.200°N 2.167°W / 52.200; -2.167

Worcestershire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcestershire

**Paella** (/paɪˈɛlə/, /pɑːˈeɪjə/, *py-EL-ə*, *pah-AY-yə*, Valencian: [paˈeʎa], Spanish: [paˈeʝa]) is a rice dish originally from the Valencian Community. *Paella* is regarded as one of the community's identifying symbols. It is one of the best-known dishes in Spanish cuisine. The dish takes its name from the wide, shallow traditional pan used to cook the dish on an open fire, *paella* being the word for a frying pan in Valencian/Catalan language. As a dish, it may have ancient roots, but in its modern form, it is traced back to the mid-19th century, in the rural area around the Albufera lagoon adjacent to the city of Valencia, on the Mediterranean coast of Spain. ***Paella valenciana*** is the traditional paella of the Valencia region, believed to be the original recipe, and consists of round-grain rice, *bajoqueta* and *tavella* (varieties of green beans), rabbit, chicken, sometimes duck, and *garrofó* (a variety of lima or butter bean), cooked in olive oil and chicken broth. The dish is sometimes seasoned with whole rosemary branches. Traditionally, the yellow color comes from saffron, but turmeric and *Calendula* can be used as substitutes. Artichoke hearts and stems may be used as seasonal ingredients. Most paella cooks use bomba rice, but Valencians tend to use a cultivar known as *senia*. ***Paella de marisco*** (seafood *paella*) replaces meat with seafood and omits beans and green vegetables, while ***paella mixta*** (mixed *paella*) combines meat from livestock, seafood, vegetables, and sometimes beans, with the traditional rice. Other popular local variations of *paella* are cooked throughout the Mediterranean area, the rest of Spain, and internationally. History ------- ### Possible origins Moors in Muslim Spain began rice cultivation around the 10th century. Consequently, eastern Iberian Peninsula locals often made casseroles of rice, fish, and spices for family gatherings and religious feasts, thus establishing the custom of eating rice in Spain. This led to rice becoming a staple by the 15th century. Afterward, it became customary for cooks to combine rice with vegetables, beans, and dry cod, providing an acceptable meal for Lent. Along Spain's Mediterranean coast, rice was predominantly eaten with fish. Spanish food historian Lourdes March notes that the dish "symbolizes the union and heritage of two important cultures, the Roman, which gives us the utensil and the Arab which brought us the basic food of humanity for centuries: rice." ### Naming, etymology and *paellera* *Paella* is a Valencian word that means frying pan, from which the dish gets its name. Valencian speakers use the word *paella* for all pans, including the traditional shallow pan used for cooking the homonym dish. The pan is made of polished or coated steel with two side handles. In many regions of Spain and other Spanish-speaking countries, the term *paellera* may be used for the traditional pan, while *paella* is reserved for the rice dish prepared in it. Both *paella* and *paellera* are correct terms for the pan. According to the etymologist Joan Coromines, the Catalan word *paella* derives from the Old French word *paelle* for frying pan, which in turn comes from the Latin word *patella* for pan; he thinks that otherwise the word should be *padella*, as inter-vowel -d- dropping is not typical of Old Catalan. The word *paella* is also related to *paila* used in many Latin American countries. *Paila* in Latin American Spanish refers to a variety of cookware resembling metal and clay pans, which are also used for both cooking and serving. The Latin root *patella* from which *paella* derives is also akin to the modern French *poêle*, the Italian *padella*, and the Old Spanish *padilla*. Some claim that the word *paella* comes from the Arabic بَقَايَا, pronounced *baqaayya*, meaning "leftovers." This claim is based on the 8th-century custom in which Moorish kings' servants would take home the rice, chicken, and vegetables their employers left at the end of the meal. It has been said, however, that a problem with this etymology is that the word *paella* is not attested until six centuries after Moorish Valencia was conquered by James I. ### *Paella valenciana* Originally, paella made in Valencia was a lunchtime meal for farmers and farm laborers. Workers would gather what was available to them around the rice fields. This often included tomatoes, onions, and snails. Rabbit or duck was a common addition, or chicken less often. On special occasions, 18th century Valencians used *calderos* to cook the rice in the open air of their orchards near lake Albufera. Water vole meat was one of the main ingredients of early paellas, along with eel and butter beans. Novelist Vicente Blasco Ibáñez described the Valencia custom of eating water voles in *Cañas y Barro* (1902), a realistic novel about life among the fishermen and peasants near lake Albufera. Living standards rose with the sociological changes of the late 19th century in Spain, giving rise to gatherings and outings in the countryside. This led to a change in paella's ingredients, as well, using instead rabbit, chicken, duck, and sometimes snails. The dish became so popular that in 1840, a local Spanish newspaper first used the word *paella* to refer to the recipe rather than the pan. The most widely used, complete ingredient list of this era was: short-grain white rice, chicken, rabbit, snails (optional), duck (optional), butter beans, great northern beans, runner beans, artichoke (a substitute for runner beans in the winter), tomatoes, fresh rosemary, sweet paprika, saffron, garlic (optional), salt, olive oil, and water. Poorer Valencians sometimes used only snails for meat. Many Valencians insist that no more than these ingredients should go into making modern *paella valenciana*, and, in particular, that fish and shellfish are "absolutely out of the question." Another important rule, according to Valencians, is that fresh rosemary should not be added to *paella valenciana* made with rosemary-eating snails. ### Seafood and mixed *paella* On the Mediterranean coast, Valencian fishermen used seafood instead of meat and beans to make paella. In this recipe, the seafood is served in the shell. Later, Spaniards living outside of Valencia combined seafood with meat from land animals, and mixed *paella* was born. This *paella* is sometimes called *preparación barroca* (baroque preparation) due to the variety of ingredients and its final presentation. During the 20th century, paella's popularity spread past Spain's borders. As other cultures set out to make paella, the dish invariably acquired regional influences. Consequently, *paella* recipes went from being relatively simple to including a wide variety of seafood, meat, sausage (including chorizo), vegetables and many different seasonings. However, the most globally popular recipe is seafood paella. Throughout non-Valencia Spain, mixed *paella* is relatively easy to find. Some restaurants in Spain and abroad that serve this mixed version refer to it as *Paella valenciana*. However, Valencians insist that only the original two Valencia recipes are authentic and view all others as inferior, not genuine, or even grotesque. Other recipes that have similar preparations are *arròs a banda* and *arròs del senyoret*. Basic cooking methods --------------------- According to tradition in Valencia, *paella* is cooked over an open fire, fueled by orange and pine branches and pine cones. This produces an aromatic smoke which infuses the *paella*. Also, dining guests traditionally eat directly out of the pan instead of serving in plates. Some recipes call for *paella* to be covered and left to settle for five to ten minutes after cooking. After cooking *paella*, a layer of roasted rice may be at the bottom of the pan, called *socarrat* in Valencià. The layer develops on its own if the *paella* is cooked over a burner or open fire. This is traditionally considered positive (as long as it is not scorched), and Valencia natives enjoy eating it. ### *Paella valenciana* This recipe is standardized because Valencia originals consider it traditional and very much part of their culture. Rice in *paella valenciana* is never braised in oil, as pilaf, though the *paella* made further southwest of Valencia often is. * Heat oil in a *paella*. * Sauté meat after seasoning with salt. * Add green vegetables and sauté until soft. * Add garlic (optional), grated tomatoes, beans, and sauté. * Add paprika and sauté. * Add water, saffron (or food coloring), snails (optional), and rosemary. * Boil to make broth and allow it to reduce by half. * Remove the rosemary once the flavour has been infused or it starts to fall apart. * Add rice and simmer until rice is cooked. Some people enjoy garnishing their served plate with freshly squeezed lemon. ### *Paella de marisco* (Seafood *paella*) Recipes for this dish vary somewhat, even in Valencia. The recipe below is based on the two sources cited here. * Make a seafood broth from shrimp heads, onions, garlic, and bay leaves. * Heat oil in a *paella*. * Add mussels. Cook until they open, and then remove. * Sauté Norway lobster and whole, deep-water rose shrimp. Then remove both the lobster and shrimp. * Add chopped cuttlefish and sauté. * Add shrimp tails and sauté. * Add garlic and sauté. * Add grated tomato and sauté. * Add rice and braise in sofrito. * Add paprika and sauté. * Add seafood broth and then saffron (or food coloring). * Add salt to taste. * Add the deep-water rose shrimp, mussels, and Norway lobster that were set aside. * Simmer until rice is cooked. ### *Paella mixta* (Mixed *paella*) There are countless mixed *paella* recipes. The following method is common to most of these. Seasoning depends greatly on individual preferences and regional influences. However, salt, saffron, and garlic are almost always included. * Make a broth from seafood, chicken, onions, garlic, bell peppers, and bay leaf. * Heat oil in a *paella*. * Sear red bell pepper strips and set aside. * Sear crustaceans and set aside. * Season meat lightly with salt and sauté meat until golden brown. * Add onions, garlic, and bell peppers. Sauté until vegetables are tender. * Add grated tomatoes and sauté. * Add dry seasonings except for salt. * Add rice. * Braise rice until covered with sofrito. * Add broth. * Add salt to taste. * Add saffron (or food coloring) and mix well. * Simmer until rice is almost cooked. * Replace crustaceans. * Continue simmering until rice and crustaceans are finished cooking. * Garnish with seared red bell pepper strips. Variants -------- ### Philippines *Arroz a la valenciana* (Spanish) or *Arroz à valenciana* (Portuguese) is considered as a part of Philippine cuisine. It is considered as the Philippine version of paella. The Philippine version uses glutinous rice; otherwise, the ingredients are the same. In the Philippines, *arroz a la valenciana* refers to chicken, and *longganisa* (*chorizo*) versions. In popular culture ------------------ ### Competitions and records It has become a custom at mass gatherings in the Valencia region (festivals, political campaigns, protests, etc.) to prepare enormous paellas, sometimes to win a place in the *Guinness World Records* book. Chefs use gargantuan *paelleras* for these events. Valencia restaurateur Juan Galbis claims to have made the world's largest *paella* with help from a team of workers on 2 October 2001. This *paella* fed about 110,000 people, according to Galbis' former website. Galbis says this *paella* was even larger than his earlier world-record *paella* made on 8 March 1992, which fed about 100,000 people. Galbis' record-breaking 1992 *paella* is listed in *Guinness World Records*. ### Controversial representations Some non-Spanish chefs include chorizo in their paellas and other ingredients, which Valencia people believe do not belong in *paella* of any type. The alternative name proposed for these dishes, although pejorative, is *arroz con cosas* ('rice with things'). Famous cases are Jamie Oliver's *paella* recipe (which included chorizo) and Gordon Ramsay's. The author Josep Pla once noted: > "The abuses committed in the name of Paella Valenciana are excessive – an absolute scandal." > > — Josep Pla, Catalan Cuisine, Revised Edition: Vivid Flavors From Spain's Mediterranean Coast However, in an article for *El País*, Spanish food writer Ana Vega 'Biscayenne', citing historical references, showed that traditional Valencian paella did indeed include chorizo, exclaiming, "Ah Jamie, we'll have to invite you to the Falles." ### Emoji In 2015, an emoji for *paella* was proposed to Unicode. The emoji was approved for Unicode 9.0 as `U+1F958 "SHALLOW PAN OF FOOD"` in June 2016. Although it is generally rendered as paella, Samsung has rendered the symbol as a Korean hot pot. Related dishes -------------- Traditional Valencian cuisine offers recipes similar to *paella valenciana* and *paella de marisco* such as *arròs negre*, *arròs al forn*, *arròs a banda* and *arròs amb fesols i naps* since rice is the base of much of the local cuisine. Fideuà is a Valencian pasta noodle dish variation cooked similarly in a *paella*. It may be served with allioli sauce. Other related dishes: * Arroz del Senyoret – A seafood paella typical from Alicante, in which the seafood comes all peeled, so it is easier to eat. The name *Senyoret* translates as "little lord". * Arroz a la valenciana – Latin American and Filipino adaptation of the Valencian style of cooking rice, uses annatto instead of saffron * Arroz con gandules – Latin American (Caribbean) adaptation * Arroz con pollo – Latin American adaptation with chicken * Bringhe – pre-colonial Filipino dish derived from biryani dishes but merged with *paella* during the colonial period. Uses glutinous rice, turmeric, and uniquely, coconut milk. * Jambalaya – Louisiana dish influenced by *paella* and the French **jambalaia** from Provence * Locrio – Dominican descendant of paella. * Paelya – Filipino adaptation of *paella* that distinctively use glutinous rice, also uses annatto, turmeric, or safflower. Also spelled "*paella*", but pronounced without [ʎ]. See also -------- * Arroz a la valenciana * Biryani * Jambalaya * List of rice dishes * Mediterranean cuisine * Paelya * Pilaf * Risotto * Spanish rice * Valencian cuisine Further reading --------------- * March, Lourdes (1985). *El Libro De La Paella Y De Los Arroces*. Madrid: Alianza. ISBN 8420601012. * Ríos, Alicia and Lourdes March (1992). *The Heritage of Spanish Cooking*. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-679-41628-5.

Paella

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paella

A **luge** /luːʒ/ is a small one- or two-person sled on which one sleds supine (face-up) and feet-first. A luger begins seated, propelling themselves initially from handles on either side of the start ramp, then steers by using the calf muscles to flex the sled's runners or by exerting opposite shoulder pressure to the pod. Racing sleds weigh 21–25 kg (46–55 lb) for singles and 25–30 kg (55–66 lb) for doubles. Luge is also the name of an Olympic sport that employs that sled and technique. It is not to be confused with skeleton bob, which is also a single person tray-like sled in the Bobsleigh family, and the name of the sport that uses that sled, but which is designed for a running start, steering by shoulders and feet, and to be laid on face down and head first. While skeleton and bobsleigh are part of one international federation and sport, luge is organised separately by the International Luge Federation, FIL. Lugers can reach speeds of over 140 km/h (87 mph), and is the fastest of the three 'sliding' sports. Austrian Manuel Pfister reached a top speed of 154 km/h (96 mph) on a track in Whistler, Canada, prior to the 2010 Winter Olympics. Lugers compete against a timer in one of the most precisely timed sports in the world—to one thousandth of a second on artificial tracks. The first recorded use of the term "luge" dates to 1905 and derives from the Savoy/Swiss dialect of the French word *luge*, meaning "small coasting sled". History ------- The very practical use of sleds is ancient and widespread. The first recorded sled races took place in Norway sometime during the 15th century. The sport of luge, like the skeleton and the bobsleigh, originated in the health-spa town of St Moritz, Switzerland, in the mid-to-late 19th century, through the endeavours of hotel entrepreneur Caspar Badrutt. Badrutt successfully sold the idea of winter resorting, as well as rooms with food, drink, and activities. His more adventurous English guests began adapting delivery boys' sleds for recreation, which led to collisions with pedestrians as they sped down the lanes and alleys of the village. The first organized meeting of the sport took place in 1883 in Switzerland. In 1913, the Internationale Schlittensportverband or International Sled Sports Federation was founded in Dresden, Germany. This body governed the sport until 1935, when it was incorporated in the Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing (FIBT, International Bobsleigh and Tobogganing Federation). After it had been decided that luge would replace the sport of skeleton at the Olympic Games, the first World Championships in the sport were held in 1955 in Oslo (Norway). In 1957, the Fédération Internationale de Luge de Course (FIL, International Luge Federation) was founded. Luge events were first included in the Olympic Winter Games in 1964. Americans were slow to adopt the sport of luge. The first luge run in North America was built at Lolo Hot Springs, Montana, in 1965. Although the United States competed in every Olympic luge event from 1964 through 1976, it was not until 1979 that the United States Luge Association was founded. The first artificial American track was completed in that year for use in the 1980 XIII Winter Olympic Games at Lake Placid, New York. Since that time the United States luge program has greatly improved. A second artificial track was constructed near Park City, Utah, for the 2002 XIX Olympic Winter Games at Salt Lake City. Caitlin Nash and Natalie Corless, both of Canada, became the first all-female team to compete in a Senior World Cup doubles race in luge in 2019. Artificial tracks ----------------- Artificial luge tracks have specially designed and constructed banked curves plus walled-in straights. Most tracks are artificially refrigerated, but artificial tracks without artificial cooling also exist (for example, in St. Moritz). Tracks tend to be very smooth. The athletes ride in a flat, aerodynamic position on the sled, keeping their heads low to minimize air resistance. They steer the sled mainly with their calves by applying pressure on the runners—right calf to turn left, left calf to turn right. It takes a precise mix of shifting body weight, applying pressure with calves and rolling the shoulders. There are also handles for minor adjustments. A successful luger maintains complete concentration and relaxation on the sled while travelling at high speeds. Fastest times result from following the perfect "line" down the track. Any slight error, such as brushing against the wall, costs time. Track conditions are also important. Softer ice tends to slow speeds, while harder ice tends to lead to faster times. Lugers race at speeds averaging 120–145 km/h (75–90 mph) around high banked curves while experiencing a centripetal acceleration of up to 5g. Men's Singles have their start locations near where the bobsled and skeleton competitors start at most tracks, while both the Doubles and Women's Singles competition have their starthouse located farther down the track. Artificial track luge is the fastest and most agile sledding sport. Natural track luge ------------------ Natural tracks are adapted from existing mountain roads and paths. Artificially banked curves are not permitted. The track's surface should be horizontal. They are naturally iced. Tracks can get rough from the braking and steering action. Athletes use a steering rein, put out their hands and use their legs in order to drive around the tight corners. Braking is often required in front of curves and is accomplished by the use of spikes built on the bottom of the shoes. Tracks have a slope of not more than 15%. Most of the tracks are situated in Austria and Italy, with others in Germany, Poland, Russia, Slovenia, Switzerland, Croatia, Liechtenstein, France, Turkey, Sweden, Norway, Romania, Slovakia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States. The Upper Peninsula Luge Club in Negaunee, Michigan, is the only natural luge track in the United States. The over 800 meter (half-mile) track features 10 full corners along its 88-meter (289 ft) vertical drop. Canada has tracks in Camrose, Hinton Luge, Alberta, Calgary and Ontario Luge Club. The track in Naseby, New Zealand is the only one in the southern hemisphere. The track is 360 meters long, and is open to the public through winter. World championships have been held since 1979 while European championships have been held since 1970. In season 2015/16 FIL started with the Junior Worldcup. Events ------ There are five luge disciplines. * Men's singles * Men’s doubles * Women's singles * Women’s doubles (debuts in 2026) * Team relay These are further broken into several age classes - multiple youth and junior classes that cover the range of age 7–20, and general class (ages 21 and older). Older competitors may enjoy the sport in masters (age 30–50), and senior masters (age 51+) classes. In a team relay competition, one man, one woman, and a doubles pair form a team. A touchpad at the bottom of the run is touched by a competitor signaling a teammate at the top of the run to start. Rules and procedures for races are very precise: * A drawing is held to determine start order for the race. Athletes are assigned a number which is displayed on a bib. For most races, all categories race 2 runs. During the Olympic Games the Men's and Women's singles races are held over 4 runs. Conversely, Men's doubles is 2 runs. The cumulative time of all runs is used to determine finish order. In all three events, the start order after the first run is determined by the outcome of the previous run, with the last-place slider sliding first, the next-to-last place slider sliding second, and so forth, with the leader of the previous run sliding last. * Physical measurements of the sled are taken, and the temperature of the sled's steel blades is checked and may not be more than 5 °C (9 °F) above that of a previously established control temperature. Additionally, for artificial track races, the athlete must first be weighed. This is to determine whether the athlete is entitled to carry extra weight on their body while sliding. Men may use additional weight amounting to 75% of the difference between body weight and a base weight of 90 kilograms (200 lb). Women may use additional weight amounting to 50% of the difference between body weight and a base weight of 70 kilograms (150 lb). Doubles athletes may use additional weight amounting to 50% of the difference between body weight and a base weight of 90 kilograms (200 lb). Additional weight is not allowed if the body weight of the front person and back person together exceeds 180 kilograms (400 lb). If one of the partners weighs more than 90 kilograms (200 lb), the weight exceeding the 90 kilograms (200 lb) mark is added to the lighter partner. If there should still be a difference between the partner's weight and the 90 kilograms (200 lb) mark, the difference can be compensated according to an official weight table. Between runs, athletes are randomly selected for additional weight checks. Before each run, the sled (with the athlete, for artificial track races) is weighed at the start ramp. * Once an athlete is on their sled, they are audibly notified that the track is clear. At this point, a tone sounds and the athlete has thirty seconds to begin their run. A run becomes official when an athlete and their sled, in contact with one another, crosses the finish line. If an athlete and sled are not within contact of one another, the athlete is disqualified from further competition. Disqualifications may also take place for any violation of rules and regulations. Certain disqualifications may be appealed. Training -------- The sport of luge requires an athlete to balance mental and physical fitness. Physically, a luger must have strong neck, upper body, abdominal, and thigh muscles. Athletes also use wind tunnels to train. Strength training is essential to withstand the extreme G-forces of tight turns at high speeds. Since lugers have very little protection other than a visor and helmet, they must be able to endure the physical pounding administered by the track when mistakes are made. Risks ----- As with many extreme sports, luging has risks. Though most injuries involve bumps, bruises, broken bones and concussions, fatalities do occasionally occur. Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili suffered a fatal crash during his final practice run for the 2010 Winter Olympics on the Whistler Sliding Centre in Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. Hours later, the International Luge Federation concluded that the accident was caused by a steering error and not a track error; nevertheless, changes to the track were made before the re-opening. Kumaritashvili was the fourth athlete to die while in preparation for a Winter Olympics competition, following speed skier Nicolas Bochatay, aged 27, who died while preparing for the Albertville 1992 games; and British luger Kazimierz Kay-Skrzypecki and skier Ross Milne, aged 19, who both died in the run-up to the Innsbruck 1964 games. Governing body -------------- The sport of luge is governed by the Fédération International de Luge de Course (FIL, International Luge Federation). The FIL is based in Salzburg, Austria, and includes 53 member nations. It has traditionally had a dominant number of German-speaking representatives. The following persons have been president of the FIL: * Bert Isatitsch, Austria (1957–1994) * Josef Fendt, Germany (1994–2020) * Einars Fogelis, Latvia (2020–present) Olympic medal table ------------------- ### Men's singles up to: 2022 | Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Germany | 11 | 7 | 7 | 25 | | 2 |  Italy | 3 | 2 | 4 | 9 | | 3 |  Austria | 2 | 3 | 2 | 7 | | 4 |  Russia | 0 | 3 | 2 | 5 | | 5 |  United States | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | | 6 |  Latvia | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | | Totals (6 entries) | 16 | 16 | 16 | 48 | ### Doubles up to: 2022 | Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Germany | 12 | 5 | 7 | 24 | | 2 |  Austria | 3 | 4 | 3 | 10 | | 3 |  Italy | 2 | 2 | 3 | 7 | | 4 |  United States | 0 | 2 | 2 | 4 | | 5 |  Latvia | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | | 6 |  Russia | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | | Totals (6 entries) | 17 | 15 | 16 | 48 | ### Women's singles up to: 2022 | Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Germany | 12 | 14 | 9 | 35 | | 2 |  Italy | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | | 3 |  Austria | 1 | 2 | 3 | 6 | | 4 |  Russia | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | | 5 |  Canada | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | |  United States | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | | Totals (6 entries) | 16 | 16 | 16 | 48 | ### Team relay up to: 2022 | Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Germany | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | | 2 |  Austria | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | | 3 |  Canada | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | |  Russia | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | | 5 |  Latvia | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | | Totals (5 entries) | 3 | 3 | 3 | 9 | ### Total Olympic Medals up to: 2022 | Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Germany | 38 | 26 | 23 | 87 | | 2 |  Italy | 7 | 4 | 7 | 18 | | 3 |  Austria | 6 | 10 | 9 | 25 | | 4 |  Russia | 1 | 5 | 4 | 10 | | 5 |  United States | 0 | 3 | 3 | 6 | | 6 |  Latvia | 0 | 1 | 4 | 5 | | 7 |  Canada | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | | Totals (7 entries) | 52 | 50 | 51 | 153 | * **^[a]** including East Germany and West Germany * **^[b]** including Soviet Union and Russian Olympic Committee Fatal accidents --------------- | Competitor | Year | Track | Race | Event | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | United Kingdom Kazimierz Kay-Skrzypeski | 1964 | Austria Innsbruck | Training run | 1964 Winter Olympics | | Poland Stanisław Paczka | 1969 | Germany Königssee | First run | FIL World Luge Championships 1969 | | Georgia (country) Nodar Kumaritashvili | 2010 | Canada Whistler | Training run | 2010 Winter Olympics | See also -------- * World Luge Championships * World Luge Natural Track Championships * List of Luge World Cup champions * European Luge Championships * European Luge Natural Track Championships * Bobsleigh * Skeleton * Toboggan * Street luge

Luge

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luge

**Major general** is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. The disappearance of the "sergeant" in the title explains the apparent confusion of a lieutenant general outranking a major general, whereas a major outranks a lieutenant. In the English speaking countries, when appointed to a field command, a major general is typically in command of a division consisting of around 6,000 to 25,000 troops (several regiments or brigades). It is a rank that is subordinate to the rank of lieutenant general and senior to the rank of brigadier or brigadier general. In the Commonwealth, major general is equivalent to the navy rank of rear admiral. In air forces with a separate rank structure (Commonwealth), major general is equivalent to air vice-marshal. In some countries including much of Eastern Europe, major general is the lowest of the general officer ranks, with no brigadier general rank. These countries may be used as the rank of brigade commanders. Countries --------- ### Major general ranks by country #### Australia #### Brunei In the sultanate of Brunei, the rank of Major general (Malay: *Mejar jeneral*) is used by the Royal Brunei Land Forces and the Royal Brunei Air Force. The rank is held by the Commander of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces. #### Canada In the Canadian Armed Forces, the rank of major-general (MGen) (French: *major-général*) is both a Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force rank equivalent to the Royal Canadian Navy's rank of rear-admiral. A major-general is a general officer, the equivalent of a naval flag officer. The major-general rank is senior to the ranks of brigadier-general and commodore, and junior to lieutenant-general and vice-admiral. Prior to 1968, the Air Force used the rank of air vice-marshal, instead. The rank insignia for a major-general in the Royal Canadian Air Force is a wide braid under a single narrow braid on the cuff, as well as two silver maple leaves beneath crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by St. Edward's Crown. In the Canadian Army, the rank insignia is a wide braid on the cuff, as well as two gold maple leaves beneath crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by St. Edward's Crown. It is worn on the shoulder straps of the service dress tunic, and on slip-ons on other uniforms. On the visor of the service cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Major-generals are initially addressed as 'general' and name, as are all general officers; thereafter by subordinates as 'sir' or 'ma'am' as applicable in English (French: *mon général*). Major-generals are normally entitled to staff cars. #### India #### New Zealand In the New Zealand Army, major-general is the rank held by the chief of army (formerly the chief of general staff). The more senior rank of lieutenant-general is reserved for when an army officer holds the position of chief of defence force, who commands all New Zealand's armed forces. This position is subject to rotation between the heads of the New Zealand Air Force, New Zealand Army, and New Zealand Navy. #### Pakistan Major general in the Pakistan Army is equivalent to rear admiral in the Pakistan Navy and air vice marshal in the Pakistan Air Force. It is the lowest of the general officer ranks, ranking between brigadier and lieutenant general. #### Portugal The rank of major-general was reintroduced in the Portuguese Army, Portuguese Air Force, and Portuguese National Republican Guard in 1999, replacing the former rank of brigadier in the role of brigade commander. As a rank, it had previously been used in the Army only for a brief period (from 1862 to 1864). It is equivalent to the rank of *contra-almirante* (rear-admiral) in the Portuguese Navy. In 2015, the rank of major-general was moved up one level, with the role of brigade commander being assumed by the below rank of brigadier-general. In most of the 19th and first half of the 20th century, major-general was not used as a rank in the Portuguese military, but as an appointment title conferred to the general officer that acted as the military head of a service branch. The roles of Major-General of the Navy (*Major-General da Armada*) and Major-General of the Army (*Major-General do Exército*) became extinct in 1950, with their roles being unified in the then created Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces. #### Russia In the Russian Army, the rank 'major general' is known as Russian: генера́л-майо́р, romanized: *generál-mayór*. It is equivalent to a British brigadier or an American brigadier general. #### Sri Lanka #### Turkey The Turkish Army and Air Force refer to the rank as *tümgeneral*. The Turkish Navy equivalent is *tümamiral*. The name is derived from *tümen*, the Turkish word for a military division (*tümen* itself is an older Turkish word meaning 10,000). Thus, linguistically, it is similar to the French equivalent for a major general, French: *général de division*. #### United Kingdom #### United States In the United States, the rank of major general exists in the United States Air Force, United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and United States Space Force. ### *Generalmajor* ***Generalmajor*** is the Germanic variant of major general, used in a number of Central and Northern European countries, including Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Norway, and Sweden. Insignia -------- ### Army * Gjeneral major(Albanian Land Force)*Gjeneral major* (Albanian Land Force) * Général major(Arabic: لواء, romanized: Liwa)(Algerian Land Forces)*Général major* (Arabic: لواء, romanized: *Liwa*) (Algerian Land Forces) * գեներալ-մայորGeneral-mayor(Armenian Ground Forces)գեներալ-մայոր *General-mayor* (Armenian Ground Forces) * Major general(Australian Army)Major general (Australian Army) * Generalmajor(Austrian Land Forces)*Generalmajor* (Austrian Land Forces) * General-mayor(Azerbaijani Land Forces)*General-mayor* (Azerbaijani Land Forces) * Major general(Barbados Regiment)Major general (Barbados Regiment) * Major general(Bengali: মেজর জেনারেল, romanized: Mējara jēnārēla)(Bangladesh Army)Major general (Bengali: মেজর জেনারেল, romanized: *Mējara jēnārēla*) (Bangladesh Army) * Ґенэрал-маёрG̀jeneral-major(Belarusian Ground Forces)Ґенэрал-маёр *G̀jeneral-major* (Belarusian Ground Forces) * Generaal-majoor(Général-major)(Belgian Land Component)*Generaal-majoor* (*Général-major*) (Belgian Land Component) * Major general(Belize Defence Force)Major general (Belize Defence Force) * Major general(Dzongkha: གུང་ བློན་ འོག མ །)(Royal Bhutan Army)Major general (Dzongkha: གུང་ བློན་ འོག མ །) (Royal Bhutan Army) * General major(Bosnian Ground Forces)*General major* (Bosnian Ground Forces) * Major general(Botswana Ground Force)Major general (Botswana Ground Force) * Mejar jeneral(Royal Brunei Land Forces)*Mejar jeneral* (Royal Brunei Land Forces) * Генерал-майорGeneral-mayor(Bulgarian Land Forces)Генерал-майор *General-mayor* (Bulgarian Land Forces) * Général-major(Kirundi: Jenerai majoro)(Burundi Army)*Général-major* (Kirundi: *Jenerai majoro*) (Burundi Army) * Major-general(French: Major-général)(Canadian Army)Major-general (French: *Major-général*) (Canadian Army) * Major-general(Cape Verdean National Guard)*Major-general* (Cape Verdean National Guard) * Brigadier general(Colombian National Army)*Brigadier general* (Colombian National Army) * Général-major(Land Forces of the DR Congo)*Général-major* (Land Forces of the DR Congo) * General bojnik(Croatian Army)*General bojnik* (Croatian Army) * Generálmajor(Czech Land Forces)*Generálmajor* (Czech Land Forces) * Generalmajor(Royal Danish Army)*Generalmajor* (Royal Danish Army) * Mayor general(Dominican Army)*Mayor general* (Dominican Army) * Major general(Eritrean Army)Major general (Eritrean Army) * Kindralmajor(Estonian Land Forces)*Kindralmajor* (Estonian Land Forces) * Major general(Eswatini Army)Major general (Eswatini Army) * ሜጄር ጄኔራልMējēri jēnērali(Ethiopian Ground Forces)ሜጄር ጄኔራል *Mējēri jēnērali* (Ethiopian Ground Forces) * Major general(Fiji Infantry Regiment)Major general (Fiji Infantry Regiment) * Kenraalimajuri(Swedish: Generalmajor)(Finnish Army)*Kenraalimajuri* (Swedish: *Generalmajor*) (Finnish Army) * Major general(Gambian National Army)Major general (Gambian National Army) * გენერალ-მაიორიGeneral-maiori(Georgian Land Forces)გენერალ-მაიორი *General-maiori* (Georgian Land Forces) * Generalmajor(German Army)*Generalmajor* (German Army) * Major general(Ghana Army)Major general (Ghana Army) * Major-general(Army of Guinea-Bissau)*Major-general* (Army of Guinea-Bissau) * Major general(Guyana Army)Major general (Guyana Army) * Major general(Hindi: मेजर - जनरल, romanized: mejar - janaral)(Indian Army)Major general (Hindi: मेजर - जनरल, romanized: *mejar - janaral*) (Indian Army) * Mayor jenderal(Indonesian Army)*Mayor jenderal* (Indonesian Army) * Major-general(Irish: Maor-ghinearál)(Irish Army)Major-general (Irish: *Maor-ghinearál*) (Irish Army) * Major general(Jamaican Army)Major general (Jamaican Army) * Генерал-майорGeneral-mayor(Kazakh Ground Forces)Генерал-майор *General-mayor* (Kazakh Ground Forces) * Major general(Kenya Army)Major general (Kenya Army) * Gjeneral major(Kosovo Security Force)*Gjeneral major* (Kosovo Security Force) * Генерал-майорGeneral-mayor(Kyrgyz Army)Генерал-майор *General-mayor* (Kyrgyz Army) * Ģenerālmajors(Latvian Land Forces)*Ģenerālmajors* (Latvian Land Forces) * Generolas majoras(Lithuanian Land Forces)*Generolas majoras* (Lithuanian Land Forces) * Major general(Lesotho Army)Major general (Lesotho Army) * Major general(Liberian Ground Forces)Major general (Liberian Ground Forces) * Major general(Malawi Army)Major general (Malawi Army) * Mejar jeneral(Malaysian Army)*Mejar jeneral* (Malaysian Army) * Major general(Dhivehi: ބްރިގޭޑިއަރ ޖެނެރަލް)(Maldivian Marine Corps)Major general (Dhivehi: ބްރިގޭޑިއަރ ޖެނެރަލް) (Maldivian Marine Corps) * Хошууч генералKhoshuuch gyenyeral(Mongolian Ground Force)Хошууч генерал *Khoshuuch gyenyeral* (Mongolian Ground Force) * General major(Montenegrin Ground Army)*General major* (Montenegrin Ground Army) * Major-general(Mozambican Army)*Major-general* (Mozambican Army) * Major general(Namibian Army)Major general (Namibian Army) * Generaal-majoor(Royal Netherlands Army)*Generaal-majoor* (Royal Netherlands Army) * Major-general(New Zealand Army)Major-general (New Zealand Army) * Mayor general(Nicaraguan Army)*Mayor general* (Nicaraguan Army) * Major general(Nigerian Army)Major general (Nigerian Army) * Генерал мајорGeneral major(North Macedonian Ground Forces)Генерал мајор *General major* (North Macedonian Ground Forces) * Generalmajor(Norwegian Army)*Generalmajor* (Norwegian Army) * میجر جنرلMajor general(Pakistan Army)میجر جنرل *Major general* (Pakistan Army) * Major general(Papua New Guinea Land Element)Major general (Papua New Guinea Land Element) * Major general(Philippine Army)Major general (Philippine Army) * Major-general(Portuguese Army)*Major-general* (Portuguese Army) * General-maior(Romanian Land Forces)*General-maior* (Romanian Land Forces) * Генера́л-майо́рGenerál-mayór(Russian Ground Forces)Генера́л-майо́р *Generál-mayór* (Russian Ground Forces) * Major general(Rwandan Land Forces)Major general (Rwandan Land Forces) * Генерал-МајорGeneral-major(Serbian Army)Генерал-Мајор *General-major* (Serbian Army) * Major general(Sierra Leone Army)Major general (Sierra Leone Army) * Major general(Singapore Army)Major general (Singapore Army) * Generálmajor(Slovak Ground Forces)*Generálmajor* (Slovak Ground Forces) * Generalmajor(Slovenian Ground Force)*Generalmajor* (Slovenian Ground Force) * Major general(Somali: Sareeye Gaas)(Somali National Army)Major general (Somali: *Sareeye Gaas*) (Somali National Army) * Major general(South African Army)Major general (South African Army) * Major general(Sri Lanka Army)Major general (Sri Lanka Army) * Generalmajor(Swedish Army)*Generalmajor* (Swedish Army) * Генерал-майорGeneral-mayor(Tajik Ground Forces)Генерал-майор *General-mayor* (Tajik Ground Forces) * Meja jenerali(Tanzanian Army)*Meja jenerali* (Tanzanian Army) * Major-general(Timor-Leste Army)*Major-general* (Timor-Leste Army) * Major general(Trinidad and Tobago Regiment)Major general (Trinidad and Tobago Regiment) * Tümgeneral (Turkish Land Forces)Tümgeneral (Turkish Land Forces) * General-maýor(Turkmen Ground Forces)*General-maýor* (Turkmen Ground Forces) * Major general(Ugandan Land Forces)Major general (Ugandan Land Forces) * Генерал-майорHeneral-maior(Ukrainian Ground Forces)Генерал-майор *Heneral-maior* (Ukrainian Ground Forces) * Major-general(British Army)Major-general (British Army) * Major general(United States Army)Major general (United States Army) * Mayor general(National Army of Uruguay)*Mayor general* (National Army of Uruguay) * General-mayor(Uzbek Ground Forces)*General-mayor* (Uzbek Ground Forces) * Mayor general(Venezuelan Army)*Mayor general* (Venezuelan Army) * Major general(Zambian Army)Major general (Zambian Army) * Major general(Zimbabwe National Army)Major general (Zimbabwe National Army) See also -------- * Comparative military ranks * "Major General's Song" * Military unit References ---------- ### Sources * Boatner, Mark M., III. *The Civil War Dictionary.* New York: David McKay, 1959. ISBN 0-679-50013-8. * Bowden, Scotty & Tarbox, Charlie. *Armies on the Danube 1809.* Arlington, TX: Empire Games Press, 1980. OCLC 6649795. * Foote, Shelby. *The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 2*. New York: Random House, 1986. ISBN 0-394-74621-X.

Major general

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_general

**Fear** is an intensely unpleasant emotion in response to perceiving or recognizing a danger or threat. Fear causes physiological changes that may produce behavioral reactions such as mounting an aggressive response or fleeing the threat. Fear in human beings may occur in response to a certain stimulus occurring in the present, or in anticipation or expectation of a future threat perceived as a risk to oneself. The fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat (also known as the fight-or-flight response), which in extreme cases of fear (horror and terror) can be a freeze response. In humans and other animals, fear is modulated by the process of cognition and learning. Thus, fear is judged as rational and appropriate, or irrational and inappropriate. An irrational fear is called a phobia. Fear is closely related to the emotion anxiety, which occurs as the result of threats that are perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable. The fear response serves survival by engendering appropriate behavioral responses, so it has been preserved throughout evolution. Sociological and organizational research also suggests that individuals' fears are not solely dependent on their nature but are also shaped by their social relations and culture, which guide their understanding of when and how much fear to feel.[*page needed*] Fear is sometimes incorrectly considered the opposite of courage. For the reason that courage is a willingness to face adversity, fear is an example of a condition that makes the exercise of courage possible. Physiological signs ------------------- Many physiological changes in the body are associated with fear, summarized as the fight-or-flight response. An innate response for coping with danger, it works by accelerating the breathing rate (hyperventilation), heart rate, vasoconstriction of the peripheral blood vessels leading to blood pooling, increasing muscle tension including the muscles attached to each hair follicle to contract and causing "goosebumps", or more clinically, piloerection (making a cold person warmer or a frightened animal look more impressive), sweating, increased blood glucose (hyperglycemia), increased serum calcium, increase in white blood cells called neutrophilic leukocytes, alertness leading to sleep disturbance and "butterflies in the stomach" (dyspepsia). This primitive mechanism may help an organism survive by either running away or fighting the danger. With the series of physiological changes, the consciousness realizes an emotion of fear. There is observable physical reactions to individuals who experience fear. An individual might experience a feeling of dizziness, lightheaded, like they are being choked, sweating, shortness of breath, vomiting or nausea, numbness or shaking and any other like symptoms. This bodily reactions informs the individual that they are a afraid and should proceed to remove or get away from the stimulus that is causing that fear. Causes ------ An influential categorization of stimuli causing fear was proposed by psychologist Jeffrey Alan Gray; namely, intensity, novelty, special evolutionary dangers, stimuli arising during social interaction, and conditioned stimuli. Another categorization was proposed by Archer, who, besides conditioned fear stimuli, categorized fear-evoking (as well as aggression-evoking) stimuli into three groups; namely, pain, novelty, and frustration, although he also described “looming,” which refers to an object rapidly moving towards the visual sensors of a subject, and can be categorized as “intensity.” Russell described a more functional categorization of fear-evoking stimuli, in which for instance novelty is a variable affecting more than one category: 1) Predator stimuli (including movement, suddenness, proximity, but also learned and innate predator stimuli); 2) Physical environmental dangers (including intensity and heights); 3) Stimuli associated with increased risk of predation and other dangers (including novelty, openness, illumination, and being alone); 4) Stimuli stemming from conspecifics (including novelty, movement, and spacing behavior); 5) Species-predictable fear stimuli and experience (special evolutionary dangers); and 6) Fear stimuli that are not species predictable (conditioned fear stimuli). ### Nature Although many fears are learned, the capacity to fear is part of human nature. Many studies have found that certain fears (e.g. animals, heights) are much more common than others (e.g. flowers, clouds). These fears are also easier to induce in the laboratory. This phenomenon is known as preparedness. Because early humans that were quick to fear dangerous situations were more likely to survive and reproduce; preparedness is theorized to be a genetic effect that is the result of natural selection. From an evolutionary psychology perspective, different fears may be different adaptations that have been useful in our evolutionary past. They may have developed during different time periods. Some fears, such as fear of heights, may be common to all mammals and developed during the mesozoic period. Other fears, such as fear of snakes, may be common to all simians and developed during the cenozoic time period (the still-ongoing geological era encompassing the last 66 million of history). Still others, such as fear of mice and insects, may be unique to humans and developed during the paleolithic and neolithic time periods (when mice and insects become important carriers of infectious diseases and harmful for crops and stored foods). ### Conditioning Nonhuman animals and humans innovate specific fears as a result of learning. This has been studied in psychology as fear conditioning, beginning with John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment in 1920, which was inspired after observing a child with an irrational fear of dogs. In this study, an 11-month-old boy was conditioned to fear a white rat in the laboratory. The fear became generalized to include other white, furry objects, such as a rabbit, dog, and even a Santa Claus mask with white cotton balls in the beard. Fear can be learned by experiencing or watching a frightening traumatic accident. For example, if a child falls into a well and struggles to get out, he or she may develop a fear of wells, heights (acrophobia), enclosed spaces (claustrophobia), or water (aquaphobia). There are studies looking at areas of the brain that are affected in relation to fear. When looking at these areas (such as the amygdala), it was proposed that a person learns to fear regardless of whether they themselves have experienced trauma, or if they have observed the fear in others. In a study completed by Andreas Olsson, Katherine I. Nearing and Elizabeth A. Phelps, the amygdala were affected both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in a fear-provoking situation. This suggests that fear can develop in both conditions, not just simply from personal history. Fear is affected by cultural and historical context. For example, in the early 20th century, many Americans feared polio, a disease that can lead to paralysis. There are consistent cross-cultural differences in how people respond to fear. Display rules affect how likely people are to express the facial expression of fear and other emotions. Fear of victimization is a function of perceived risk and seriousness. Common triggers --------------- ### Phobias According to surveys, some of the most common fears are of demons and ghosts, the existence of evil powers, cockroaches, spiders, snakes, heights, water, enclosed spaces, tunnels, bridges, needles, social rejection, failure, examinations, and public speaking. ### Uncertainty Fear of the unknown or **irrational fear** is caused by negative thinking (worry) which arises from anxiety accompanied by a subjective sense of apprehension or dread. Irrational fear shares a common neural pathway with other fears, a pathway that engages the nervous system to mobilize bodily resources in the face of danger or threat. Many people are scared of the "unknown". The irrational fear can branch out to many areas such as the hereafter, the next ten years or even tomorrow. Chronic irrational fear has deleterious effects since the elicitor stimulus is commonly absent or perceived from delusions. Such fear can create comorbidity with the anxiety disorder umbrella. Being scared may cause people to experience anticipatory fear of what may lie ahead rather than planning and evaluating for the same. For example, "continuation of scholarly education" is perceived by many educators as a risk that may cause them fear and stress, and they would rather teach things they've been taught than go and do research. The ambiguity of situations that tend to be uncertain and unpredictable can cause anxiety in addition to other psychological and physical problems in some populations; especially those who engage it constantly, for example, in war-ridden places or in places of conflict, terrorism, abuse, etc. Poor parenting that instills fear can also debilitate a child's psyche development or personality. For example, parents tell their children not to talk to strangers in order to protect them. In school, they would be motivated to not show fear in talking with strangers, but to be assertive and also aware of the risks and the environment in which it takes place. Ambiguous and mixed messages like this can affect their self-esteem and self-confidence. Researchers say talking to strangers isn't something to be thwarted but allowed in a parent's presence if required. Developing a sense of equanimity to handle various situations is often advocated as an antidote to irrational fear and as an essential skill by a number of ancient philosophies. Fear of the unknown (FOTU) "may be a, or possibly the, fundamental fear" from early times when there were many threats to life. ### American top tens In a 2005 Gallup Poll (U.S.), a national sample of about 1000 adolescents (aged 13 to 17) were asked what they feared the most as an open-ended question. The American adolescents reported perceiving their top ten fears as follows: terrorist attacks, spiders, death, failure, war, criminal or gang violence, being alone, the future, and nuclear war. In an estimate of what Americans fear the most, book author Bill Tancer analyzed the most frequent online queries that involved the phrase, "fear of..." following the assumption that people tend to seek information on the issues that concern them the most. His top ten list of fears published 2008 consisted of flying, heights, clowns, intimacy, death, rejection, people, snakes, failure, and driving. Behavior -------- Although fear behavior varies from species to species, it is often divided into two main categories; namely, avoidance/flight and immobility. To these, different researchers have added different categories, such as threat display and attack, protective responses (including startle and looming responses), defensive burying, and social responses (including alarm vocalizations and submission). Finally, immobility is often divided into freezing and tonic immobility. The decision as to which particular fear behavior to perform is determined by the level of fear as well as the specific context, such as environmental characteristics (escape route present, distance to refuge), the presence of a discrete and localized threat, the distance between threat and subject, threat characteristics (speed, size, directness of approach), the characteristics of the subject under threat (size, physical condition, speed, degree of crypsis, protective morphological structures), social conditions (group size), and the amount of experience with the type of the threat. Mechanism --------- Often laboratory studies with rats are conducted to examine the acquisition and extinction of conditioned fear responses. In 2004, researchers conditioned rats (*Rattus norvegicus*) to fear a certain stimulus, through electric shock. The researchers were able to then cause an extinction of this conditioned fear, to a point that no medications or drugs were able to further aid in the extinction process. The rats showed signs of avoidance learning, not fear, but simply avoiding the area that brought pain to the test rats. The avoidance learning of rats is seen as a conditioned response, and therefore the behavior can be unconditioned, as supported by the earlier research. Species-specific defense reactions (SSDRs) or avoidance learning in nature is the specific tendency to avoid certain threats or stimuli, it is how animals survive in the wild. Humans and animals both share these species-specific defense reactions, such as the flight-or-fight, which also include pseudo-aggression, fake or intimidating aggression and freeze response to threats, which is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. These SSDRs are learned very quickly through social interactions between others of the same species, other species, and interaction with the environment. These acquired sets of reactions or responses are not easily forgotten. The animal that survives is the animal that already knows what to fear and how to avoid this threat. An example in humans is the reaction to the sight of a snake, many jump backwards before cognitively realizing what they are jumping away from, and in some cases, it is a stick rather than a snake. As with many functions of the brain, there are various regions of the brain involved in deciphering fear in humans and other nonhuman species. The amygdala communicates both directions between the prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, the sensory cortex, the hippocampus, thalamus, septum, and the brainstem. The amygdala plays an important role in SSDR, such as the ventral amygdalofugal, which is essential for associative learning, and SSDRs are learned through interaction with the environment and others of the same species. An emotional response is created only after the signals have been relayed between the different regions of the brain, and activating the sympathetic nervous systems; which controls the flight, fight, freeze, fright, and faint response. Often a damaged amygdala can cause impairment in the recognition of fear (like the human case of patient S.M.). This impairment can cause different species to lack the sensation of fear, and often can become overly confident, confronting larger peers, or walking up to predatory creatures. Robert C. Bolles (1970), a researcher at University of Washington, wanted to understand species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning among animals, but found that the theories of avoidance learning and the tools that were used to measure this tendency were out of touch with the natural world. He theorized the species-specific defense reaction (SSDR). There are three forms of SSDRs: flight, fight (pseudo-aggression), or freeze. Even domesticated animals have SSDRs, and in those moments it is seen that animals revert to atavistic standards and become "wild" again. Dr. Bolles states that responses are often dependent on the reinforcement of a safety signal, and not the aversive conditioned stimuli. This safety signal can be a source of feedback or even stimulus change. Intrinsic feedback or information coming from within, muscle twitches, increased heart rate, are seen to be more important in SSDRs than extrinsic feedback, stimuli that comes from the external environment. Dr. Bolles found that most creatures have some intrinsic set of fears, to help assure survival of the species. Rats will run away from any shocking event, and pigeons will flap their wings harder when threatened. The wing flapping in pigeons and the scattered running of rats are considered species-specific defense reactions or behaviors. Bolles believed that SSDRs are conditioned through Pavlovian conditioning, and not operant conditioning; SSDRs arise from the association between the environmental stimuli and adverse events. Michael S. Fanselow conducted an experiment, to test some specific defense reactions, he observed that rats in two different shock situations responded differently, based on instinct or defensive topography, rather than contextual information. Species-specific defense responses are created out of fear, and are essential for survival. Rats that lack the gene stathmin show no avoidance learning, or a lack of fear, and will often walk directly up to cats and be eaten. Animals use these SSDRs to continue living, to help increase their chance of fitness, by surviving long enough to procreate. Humans and animals alike have created fear to know what should be avoided, and this fear can be learned through association with others in the community, or learned through personal experience with a creature, species, or situations that should be avoided. SSDRs are an evolutionary adaptation that has been seen in many species throughout the world including rats, chimpanzees, prairie dogs, and even humans, an adaptation created to help individual creatures survive in a hostile world. Fear learning changes across the lifetime due to natural developmental changes in the brain. This includes changes in the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala. The visual exploration of an emotional face does not follow a fixed pattern but modulated by the emotional content of the face. Scheller et al. found that participants paid more attention to the eyes when recognising fearful or neutral faces, while the mouth was fixated on when happy faces are presented, irrespective of task demands and spatial locations of face stimuli. These findings were replicated when fearful eyes are presented and when canonical face configurations are distorted for fearful, neutral and happy expressions. ### Neurocircuitry in mammals * The thalamus collects sensory data from the senses * Sensory cortex receives data from the thalamus and interprets it * Sensory cortex organizes information for dissemination to the hypothalamus (fight or flight), amygdalae (fear), hippocampus (memory) The brain structures that are the center of most neurobiological events associated with fear are the two amygdalae, located behind the pituitary gland. Each amygdala is part of a circuitry of fear learning. They are essential for proper adaptation to stress and specific modulation of emotional learning memory. In the presence of a threatening stimulus, the amygdalae generate the secretion of hormones that influence fear and aggression. Once a response to the stimulus in the form of fear or aggression commences, the amygdalae may elicit the release of hormones into the body to put the person into a state of alertness, in which they are ready to move, run, fight, etc. This defensive response is generally referred to in physiology as the fight-or-flight response regulated by the hypothalamus, part of the limbic system. Once the person is in safe mode, meaning that there are no longer any potential threats surrounding them, the amygdalae will send this information to the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) where it is stored for similar future situations, which is known as memory consolidation. Some of the hormones involved during the state of fight-or-flight include epinephrine, which regulates heart rate and metabolism as well as dilating blood vessels and air passages, norepinephrine increasing heart rate, blood flow to skeletal muscles and the release of glucose from energy stores, and cortisol which increases blood sugar, increases circulating neutrophilic leukocytes, calcium amongst other things. After a situation which incites fear occurs, the amygdalae and hippocampus record the event through synaptic plasticity. The stimulation to the hippocampus will cause the individual to remember many details surrounding the situation. Plasticity and memory formation in the amygdala are generated by activation of the neurons in the region. Experimental data supports the notion that synaptic plasticity of the neurons leading to the lateral amygdalae occurs with fear conditioning. In some cases, this forms permanent fear responses such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or a phobia. MRI and fMRI scans have shown that the amygdalae in individuals diagnosed with such disorders including bipolar or panic disorder are larger and wired for a higher level of fear. Pathogens can suppress amygdala activity. Rats infected with the toxoplasmosis parasite become less fearful of cats, sometimes even seeking out their urine-marked areas. This behavior often leads to them being eaten by cats. The parasite then reproduces within the body of the cat. There is evidence that the parasite concentrates itself in the amygdala of infected rats. In a separate experiment, rats with lesions in the amygdala did not express fear or anxiety towards unwanted stimuli. These rats pulled on levers supplying food that sometimes sent out electrical shocks. While they learned to avoid pressing on them, they did not distance themselves from these shock-inducing levers. Several brain structures other than the amygdalae have also been observed to be activated when individuals are presented with fearful vs. neutral faces, namely the occipitocerebellar regions including the fusiform gyrus and the inferior parietal / superior temporal gyri. Fearful eyes, brows and mouth seem to separately reproduce these brain responses. Scientists from Zurich studies show that the hormone oxytocin related to stress and sex reduces activity in your brain fear center. #### Pheromones and contagion In threatening situations, insects, aquatic organisms, birds, reptiles, and mammals emit odorant substances, initially called alarm substances, which are chemical signals now called alarm pheromones. This is to defend themselves and at the same time to inform members of the same species of danger and leads to observable behavior change like freezing, defensive behavior, or dispersion depending on circumstances and species. For example, stressed rats release odorant cues that cause other rats to move away from the source of the signal. After the discovery of pheromones in 1959, alarm pheromones were first described in 1968 in ants and earthworms, and four years later also found in mammals, both mice and rats. Over the next two decades, identification and characterization of these pheromones proceeded in all manner of insects and sea animals, including fish, but it was not until 1990 that more insight into mammalian alarm pheromones was gleaned. In 1985, a link between odors released by stressed rats and pain perception was discovered: unstressed rats exposed to these odors developed opioid-mediated analgesia. In 1997, researchers found that bees became less responsive to pain after they had been stimulated with isoamyl acetate, a chemical smelling of banana, and a component of bee alarm pheromone. The experiment also showed that the bees' fear-induced pain tolerance was mediated by an endorphin. By using the forced swimming test in rats as a model of fear-induction, the first mammalian "alarm substance" was found. In 1991, this "alarm substance" was shown to fulfill criteria for pheromones: well-defined behavioral effect, species specificity, minimal influence of experience and control for nonspecific arousal. Rat activity testing with the alarm pheromone, and their preference/avoidance for odors from cylinders containing the pheromone, showed that the pheromone had very low volatility. In 1993 a connection between alarm chemosignals in mice and their immune response was found. Pheromone production in mice was found to be associated with or mediated by the pituitary gland in 1994. In 2004, it was demonstrated that rats' alarm pheromones had different effects on the "recipient" rat (the rat perceiving the pheromone) depending which body region they were released from: Pheromone production from the face modified behavior in the recipient rat, e.g. caused sniffing or movement, whereas pheromone secreted from the rat's anal area induced autonomic nervous system stress responses, like an increase in core body temperature. Further experiments showed that when a rat perceived alarm pheromones, it increased its defensive and risk assessment behavior, and its acoustic startle reflex was enhanced. It was not until 2011 that a link between severe pain, neuroinflammation and alarm pheromones release in rats was found: real time RT-PCR analysis of rat brain tissues indicated that shocking the footpad of a rat increased its production of proinflammatory cytokines in deep brain structures, namely of IL-1β, heteronuclear Corticotropin-releasing hormone and c-fos mRNA expressions in both the paraventricular nucleus and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and it increased stress hormone levels in plasma (corticosterone). The neurocircuit for how rats perceive alarm pheromones was shown to be related to the hypothalamus, brainstem, and amygdalae, all of which are evolutionary ancient structures deep inside or in the case of the brainstem underneath the brain away from the cortex, and involved in the fight-or-flight response, as is the case in humans. Alarm pheromone-induced anxiety in rats has been used to evaluate the degree to which anxiolytics can alleviate anxiety in humans. For this, the change in the acoustic startle reflex of rats with alarm pheromone-induced anxiety (i.e. reduction of defensiveness) has been measured. Pretreatment of rats with one of five anxiolytics used in clinical medicine was able to reduce their anxiety: namely midazolam, phenelzine (a nonselective monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitor), propranolol, a nonselective beta blocker, clonidine, an alpha 2 adrenergic agonist or CP-154,526, a corticotropin-releasing hormone antagonist. Faulty development of odor discrimination impairs the perception of pheromones and pheromone-related behavior, like aggressive behavior and mating in male rats: The enzyme Mitogen-activated protein kinase 7 (MAPK7) has been implicated in regulating the development of the olfactory bulb and odor discrimination and it is highly expressed in developing rat brains, but absent in most regions of adult rat brains. Conditional deletion of the MAPK7gene in mouse neural stem cells impairs several pheromone-mediated behaviors, including aggression and mating in male mice. These behavior impairments were not caused by a reduction in the level of testosterone, by physical immobility, by heightened fear or anxiety or by depression. Using mouse urine as a natural pheromone-containing solution, it has been shown that the impairment was associated with defective detection of related pheromones, and with changes in their inborn preference for pheromones related to sexual and reproductive activities. Lastly, alleviation of an acute fear response because a friendly peer (or in biological language: an affiliative conspecific) tends and befriends is called "social buffering". The term is in analogy to the 1985 "buffering" hypothesis in psychology, where social support has been proven to mitigate the negative health effects of alarm pheromone mediated distress. The role of a "social pheromone" is suggested by the recent discovery that olfactory signals are responsible in mediating the "social buffering" in male rats. "Social buffering" was also observed to mitigate the conditioned fear responses of honeybees. A bee colony exposed to an environment of high threat of predation did not show increased aggression and aggressive-like gene expression patterns in individual bees, but decreased aggression. That the bees did not simply habituate to threats is suggested by the fact that the disturbed colonies also decreased their foraging. Biologists have proposed in 2012 that fear pheromones evolved as molecules of "keystone significance", a term coined in analogy to keystone species. Pheromones may determine species compositions and affect rates of energy and material exchange in an ecological community. Thus pheromones generate structure in a food web and play critical roles in maintaining natural systems. #### Humans Evidence of chemosensory alarm signals in humans has emerged slowly: Although alarm pheromones have not been physically isolated and their chemical structures have not been identified in humans so far, there is evidence for their presence. Androstadienone, for example, a steroidal, endogenous odorant, is a pheromone candidate found in human sweat, axillary hair and plasma. The closely related compound androstenone is involved in communicating dominance, aggression or competition; sex hormone influences on androstenone perception in humans showed a high testosterone level related to heightened androstenone sensitivity in men, a high testosterone level related to unhappiness in response to androstenone in men, and a high estradiol level related to disliking of androstenone in women. A German study from 2006 showed when anxiety-induced versus exercise-induced human sweat from a dozen people was pooled and offered to seven study participants, of five able to olfactorily distinguish exercise-induced sweat from room air, three could also distinguish exercise-induced sweat from anxiety induced sweat. The acoustic startle reflex response to a sound when sensing anxiety sweat was larger than when sensing exercise-induced sweat, as measured by electromyography analysis of the orbital muscle, which is responsible for the eyeblink component. This showed for the first time that fear chemosignals can modulate the startle reflex in humans without emotional mediation; fear chemosignals primed the recipient's "defensive behavior" prior to the subjects' conscious attention on the acoustic startle reflex level. In analogy to the social buffering of rats and honeybees in response to chemosignals, induction of empathy by "smelling anxiety" of another person has been found in humans. A study from 2013 provided brain imaging evidence that human responses to fear chemosignals may be gender-specific. Researchers collected alarm-induced sweat and exercise-induced sweat from donors extracted it, pooled it and presented it to 16 unrelated people undergoing functional brain MRI. While stress-induced sweat from males produced a comparably strong emotional response in both females and males, stress-induced sweat from females produced markedly stronger arousal in women than in men. Statistical tests pinpointed this gender-specificity to the right amygdala and strongest in the superficial nuclei. Since no significant differences were found in the olfactory bulb, the response to female fear-induced signals is likely based on processing the meaning, i.e. on the emotional level, rather than the strength of chemosensory cues from each gender, i.e. the perceptual level. An approach-avoidance task was set up where volunteers seeing either an angry or a happy cartoon face on a computer screen pushed away or pulled toward them a joystick as fast as possible. Volunteers smelling androstadienone, masked with clove oil scent responded faster, especially to angry faces than those smelling clove oil only, which was interpreted as androstadienone-related activation of the fear system. A potential mechanism of action is, that androstadienone alters the "emotional face processing". Androstadienone is known to influence the activity of the fusiform gyrus which is relevant for face recognition. ### Cognitive-consistency theory Cognitive-consistency theories assume that "when two or more simultaneously active cognitive structures are logically inconsistent, arousal is increased, which activates processes with the expected consequence of increasing consistency and decreasing arousal." In this context, it has been proposed that fear behavior is caused by an inconsistency between a preferred, or expected, situation and the actually perceived situation, and functions to remove the inconsistent stimulus from the perceptual field, for instance by fleeing or hiding, thereby resolving the inconsistency. This approach puts fear in a broader perspective, also involving aggression and curiosity. When the inconsistency between perception and expectancy is small, learning as a result of curiosity reduces inconsistency by updating expectancy to match perception. If the inconsistency is larger, fear or aggressive behavior may be employed to alter the perception in order to make it match expectancy, depending on the size of the inconsistency as well as the specific context. Aggressive behavior is assumed to alter perception by forcefully manipulating it into matching the expected situation, while in some cases thwarted escape may also trigger aggressive behavior in an attempt to remove the thwarting stimulus. Research -------- In order to improve our understanding of the neural and behavioral mechanisms of adaptive and maladaptive fear, investigators use a variety of translational animal models. These models are particularly important for research that would be too invasive for human studies. Rodents such as mice and rats are common animal models, but other species are used. Certain aspects of fear research still requires more research such as sex, gender, and age differences. ### Models These animal models include, but are not limited to, fear conditioning, predator-based psychosocial stress, single prolonged stress, chronic stress models, inescapable foot/tail shocks, immobilization or restraint, and stress enhanced fear learning. While the stress and fear paradigms differ between the models, they tend to involve aspects such as acquisition, generalization, extinction, cognitive regulation, and reconsolidation. #### Pavlovian Fear conditioning, also known as Pavlovian or classical conditioning, is a process of learning that involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditional stimulus (US). A neutral stimulus is something like a bell, tone, or room that doesn't illicit a response normally where a US is a stimulus that results in a natural or unconditioned response (UR) - in Pavlov's famous experiment the neutral stimulus is a bell and the US would be food with the dog's salvation being the UR. Pairing the neutral stimulus and the US results in the UR occurring not only with the US but also the neutral stimulus. When this occurs the neutral stimulus is referred to as the conditional stimulus (CS) and the response the conditional response (CR). In the fear conditioning model of Pavlovian conditioning the US is an aversive stimulus such as a shock, tone, or unpleasant odor. #### Predator-based psychosocial stress Predator-based psychosocial stress (PPS) involves a more naturalistic approach to fear learning. Predators such as a cat, a snake, or urine from a fox or cat are used along with other stressors such as immobilization or restraint in order to generate instinctual fear responses. #### Chronic stress models Chronic stress models include chronic variable stress, chronic social defeat, and chronic mild stress. These models are often used to study how long-term or prolonged stress/pain can alter fear learning and disorders. #### Single prolonged stress Single prolonged stress (SPS) is a fear model that is often used to study PTSD. It's paradigm involves multiple stressors such as immobilization, a force swim, and exposure to ether delivered concurrently to the subject. This is used to study non-naturalistic, uncontrollable situations that can cause a maladaptive fear responses that is seen in a lot of anxiety and traumatic based disorders. #### Stress enhanced fear learning Stress enhanced fear learning (SEFL) like SPS is often used to study the maladaptive fear learning involved in PTSD and other traumatic based disorders. SEFL involves a single extreme stressor such as a large number of footshocks simulating a single traumatic stressor that somehow enhances and alters future fear learning. Management ---------- ### Pharmaceutical A drug treatment for fear conditioning and phobias via the amygdalae is the use of glucocorticoids. In one study, glucocorticoid receptors in the central nuclei of the amygdalae were disrupted in order to better understand the mechanisms of fear and fear conditioning. The glucocorticoid receptors were inhibited using lentiviral vectors containing Cre-recombinase injected into mice. Results showed that disruption of the glucocorticoid receptors prevented conditioned fear behavior. The mice were subjected to auditory cues which caused them to freeze normally. A reduction of freezing was observed in the mice that had inhibited glucocorticoid receptors. ### Psychological Cognitive behavioral therapy has been successful in helping people overcome their fear. Because fear is more complex than just forgetting or deleting memories, an active and successful approach involves people repeatedly confronting their fears. By confronting their fears in a safe manner a person can suppress the "fear-triggering memories" or stimuli. Exposure therapy has known to have helped up to 90% of people with specific phobias to significantly decrease their fear over time. Another psychological treatment is systematic desensitization, which is a type of behavior therapy used to completely remove the fear or produce a disgusted response to this fear and replace it. The replacement that occurs will be relaxation and will occur through conditioning. Through conditioning treatments, muscle tensioning will lessen and deep breathing techniques will aid in de-tensioning. ### Literary and religious There are other methods for treating or coping with one's fear, such as writing down rational thoughts regarding fears. Journal entries are a healthy method of expressing one's fears without compromising safety or causing uncertainty. Another suggestion is a fear ladder. To create a fear ladder, one must write down all of their fears and score them on a scale of one to ten. Next, the person addresses their phobia, starting with the lowest number. Religion can help some individuals cope with fear. Incapability ------------ People who have damage to their amygdalae, which can be caused by a rare genetic disease known as Urbach–Wiethe disease, are unable to experience fear. The disease destroys both amygdalae in late childhood. Since the discovery of the disease, there have only been 400 recorded cases. A lack of fear can allow someone to get into a dangerous situation they otherwise would have avoided. Society and culture ------------------- ### Death The fear of the end of life and its existence is, in other words, the fear of death. Historically, attempts were made to reduce this fear by performing rituals which have helped collect the cultural ideas that we now have in the present. These rituals also helped preserve the cultural ideas. The results and methods of human existence had been changing at the same time that social formation was changing. When people are faced with their own thoughts of death, they either accept that they are dying or will die because they have lived a full life or they will experience fear. A theory was developed in response to this, which is called the terror management theory. The theory states that a person's cultural worldviews (religion, values, etc.) will mitigate the terror associated with the fear of death through avoidance. To help manage their terror, they find solace in their death-denying beliefs, such as their religion. Another way people cope with their death related fears is pushing any thoughts of death into the future or by avoiding these thoughts all together through distractions. Although there are methods for one coping with the terror associated with their fear of death, not everyone suffers from these same uncertainties. People who believe they have lived life to the "fullest" typically do not fear death. Death anxiety is multidimensional; it covers "fears related to one's own death, the death of others, fear of the unknown after death, fear of obliteration, and fear of the dying process, which includes fear of a slow death and a painful death". The Yale philosopher Shelly Kagan examined fear of death in a 2007 Yale open course by examining the following questions: Is fear of death a reasonable appropriate response? What conditions are required and what are appropriate conditions for feeling fear of death? What is meant by fear, and how much fear is appropriate? According to Kagan for fear in general to make sense, three conditions should be met: 1. the object of fear needs to be "something bad" 2. there needs to be a non-negligible chance that the bad state of affairs will happen 3. there needs to be some uncertainty about the bad state of affairs The amount of fear should be appropriate to the size of "the bad". If the three conditions are not met, fear is an inappropriate emotion. He argues, that death does not meet the first two criteria, even if death is a "deprivation of good things" and even if one believes in a painful afterlife. Because death is certain, it also does not meet the third criterion, but he grants that the unpredictability of when one dies *may* be cause to a sense of fear. In a 2003 study of 167 women and 121 men, aged 65–87, low self-efficacy predicted fear of the unknown after death and fear of dying for women and men better than demographics, social support, and physical health. Fear of death was measured by a "Multidimensional Fear of Death Scale" which included the 8 subscales Fear of Dying, Fear of the Dead, Fear of Being Destroyed, Fear for Significant Others, Fear of the Unknown, Fear of Conscious Death, Fear for the Body After Death, and Fear of Premature Death. In hierarchical multiple regression analysis, the most potent predictors of death fears were low "spiritual health efficacy", defined as beliefs relating to one's perceived ability to generate spiritually based faith and inner strength, and low "instrumental efficacy", defined as beliefs relating to one's perceived ability to manage activities of daily living. Psychologists have tested the hypotheses that fear of death motivates religious commitment, and that assurances about an afterlife alleviate the fear, with equivocal results. Religiosity can be related to fear of death when the afterlife is portrayed as time of punishment. "Intrinsic religiosity", as opposed to mere "formal religious involvement", has been found to be negatively correlated with death anxiety. In a 1976 study of people of various Christian denominations, those who were most firm in their faith, who attended religious services weekly, were the least afraid of dying. The survey found a negative correlation between fear of death and "religious concern". In a 2006 study of white, Christian men and women the hypothesis was tested that traditional, church-centered religiousness and de-institutionalized spiritual seeking are ways of approaching fear of death in old age. Both religiousness and spirituality were related to positive psychosocial functioning, but only church-centered religiousness protected subjects against the fear of death. ### Religion From a theological perspective, the word *fear* encompasses more than simple fear. Robert B. Strimple says that fear includes the "... convergence of awe, reverence, adoration...". Some translations of the Bible, such as the New International Version, sometimes replace the word *fear* with *reverence*. Fear in religion can be seen throughout the years, including in the Crusades. Pope Urban II allowed for Christian mercenary troops to be sent on a mission in order to recover the Holy Lands from the Muslims. The message was misinterpreted and as a result, innocent people were slaughtered. Although the Crusades were meant to stay between the Muslims and the Christians, the hate spread onto the Jewish culture. Jewish people who feared for their lives gave in to the forced conversion of Christianity because they believed this would secure their safety. Other Jewish people feared betraying their God by conceding to a conversion, and instead, secured their own fate, which was death. ### Manipulation Fear may be politically and culturally manipulated to persuade citizenry of ideas which would otherwise be widely rejected or dissuade citizenry from ideas which would otherwise be widely supported. In contexts of disasters, nation-states manage the fear not only to provide their citizens with an explanation about the event or blaming some minorities, but also to adjust their previous beliefs. Fear can alter how a person thinks or reacts to situations because fear has the power to inhibit one's rational way of thinking. As a result, people who do not experience fear, are able to use fear as a tool to manipulate others. People who are experiencing fear, seek preservation through safety and can be manipulated by a person who is there to provide that safety that is being sought after. "When we're afraid, a manipulator can talk us out of the truth we see right in front of us. Words become more real than reality" By this, a manipulator is able to use our fear to manipulate us out the truth and instead make us believe and trust in their truth. Politicians are notorious for using fear to manipulate the people into supporting their policies. ### Fiction and mythology Fear is found and reflected in mythology and folklore as well as in works of fiction such as novels and films. Works of dystopian and (post)apocalyptic fiction convey the fears and anxieties of societies. The fear of the world's end is about as old as civilization itself. In a 1967 study, Frank Kermode suggests that the failure of religious prophecies led to a shift in how society apprehends this ancient mode. Scientific and critical thought supplanting religious and mythical thought as well as a public emancipation may be the cause of eschatology becoming replaced by more realistic scenarios. Such might constructively provoke discussion and steps to be taken to prevent depicted catastrophes. *The Story of the Youth Who Went Forth to Learn What Fear Was* is a German fairy tale dealing with the topic of not knowing fear. Many stories also include characters who fear the antagonist of the plot. One important characteristic of historical and mythical heroes across cultures is to be fearless in the face of big and often lethal enemies. ### Athletics In the world of athletics, fear is often used as a means of motivation to not fail. This situation involves using fear in a way that increases the chances of a positive outcome. In this case, the fear that is being created is initially a cognitive state to the receiver. This initial state is what generates the first response of the athlete, this response generates a possibility of fight or flight reaction by the athlete (receiver), which in turn will increase or decrease the possibility of success or failure in the certain situation for the athlete. The amount of time that the athlete has to determine this decision is small but it is still enough time for the receiver to make a determination through cognition. Even though the decision is made quickly, the decision is determined through past events that have been experienced by the athlete. The results of these past events will determine how the athlete will make his cognitive decision in the split second that he or she has. Fear of failure as described above has been studied frequently in the field of sport psychology. Many scholars have tried to determine how often fear of failure is triggered within athletes, as well as what personalities of athletes most often choose to use this type of motivation. Studies have also been conducted to determine the success rate of this method of motivation. Murray's Exploration in Personal (1938) was one of the first studies that actually identified fear of failure as an actual motive to avoid failure or to achieve success. His studies suggested that inavoidance, the need to avoid failure, was found in many college-aged men during the time of his research in 1938. This was a monumental finding in the field of psychology because it allowed other researchers to better clarify how fear of failure can actually be a determinant of creating achievement goals as well as how it could be used in the actual act of achievement. In the context of sport, a model was created by R.S. Lazarus in 1991 that uses the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion. > It holds that Fear of Failure results when beliefs or cognitive schemas about aversive consequences of failing are activated by situations in which failure is possible. These belief systems predispose the individual to make appraisals of threat and experience the state anxiety that is associated with Fear of Failure in evaluative situations. > > Another study was done in 2001 by Conroy, Poczwardowski, and Henschen that created five aversive consequences of failing that have been repeated over time. The five categories include (a) experiencing shame and embarrassment, (b) devaluing one's self-estimate, (c) having an uncertain future, (d) important others losing interest, (e) upsetting important others. These five categories can help one infer the possibility of an individual to associate failure with one of these threat categories, which will lead them to experiencing fear of failure. In summary, the two studies that were done above created a more precise definition of fear of failure, which is "a dispositional tendency to experience apprehension and anxiety in evaluative situations because individuals have learned that failure is associated with aversive consequences". See also -------- * Appeal to fear * Culture of fear * Ecology of fear * Hysteria * Nightmare * Night terror * Ontogenetic parade * Panic attack * Paranoia * Phobophobia * Psychological trauma * Social anxiety disorder * Social anxiety * Voodoo death * Anger Further reading --------------- * Bourke J (2005). *Fear: A Cultural History*. Virago. ISBN 978-1-59376-113-4. * Robin C (2004). *Fear: The History of a Political Idea*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515702-4. * Gardner D (2008). *Risk: The Science and Politics of Fear*. Random House, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7710-3299-8. * Plamper J (2012). *Fear: Across the Disciplines*. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0-8229-6220-5. * Wedgwood H (1855). "English Etymologies (Afraid, Affray, Fray)". *Transactions of the Philological Society* (8). * "Fear: A poem". External links --------------

Fear

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear

A **molecular cloud**, sometimes called a **stellar nursery** (if star formation is occurring within), is a type of interstellar cloud, the density and size of which permit absorption nebulae, the formation of molecules (most commonly molecular hydrogen, H2), and the formation of H II regions. This is in contrast to other areas of the interstellar medium that contain predominantly ionized gas. Molecular hydrogen is difficult to detect by infrared and radio observations, so the molecule most often used to determine the presence of H2 is carbon monoxide (CO). The ratio between CO luminosity and H2 mass is thought to be constant, although there are reasons to doubt this assumption in observations of some other galaxies. Within molecular clouds are regions with higher density, where much dust and many gas cores reside, called clumps. These clumps are the beginning of star formation if gravitational forces are sufficient to cause the dust and gas to collapse. History ------- The form of molecular clouds by interstellar dust and hydrogen gas traces its links to the formation of the Solar System, approximately 4.6 billion years ago.[*dubious – discuss*] Occurrence ---------- Within the Milky Way, molecular gas clouds account for less than one percent of the volume of the interstellar medium (ISM), yet it is also the densest part of the medium, comprising roughly half of the total gas mass interior to the Sun's galactic orbit. The bulk of the molecular gas is contained in a ring between 3.5 and 7.5 kiloparsecs (11,000 and 24,000 light-years) from the center of the Milky Way (the Sun is about 8.5 kiloparsecs from the center). Large scale CO maps of the galaxy show that the position of this gas correlates with the spiral arms of the galaxy. That molecular gas occurs predominantly in the spiral arms suggests that molecular clouds must form and dissociate on a timescale shorter than 10 million years—the time it takes for material to pass through the arm region. Vertically to the plane of the galaxy, the molecular gas inhabits the narrow midplane of the galactic disc with a characteristic scale height, *Z*, of approximately 50 to 75 parsecs, much thinner than the warm atomic (*Z* from 130 to 400 parsecs) and warm ionized (*Z* around 1000 parsecs) gaseous components of the ISM. The exception to the ionized-gas distribution are H II regions, which are bubbles of hot ionized gas created in molecular clouds by the intense radiation given off by young massive stars and as such they have approximately the same vertical distribution as the molecular gas. This distribution of molecular gas is averaged out over large distances; however, the small scale distribution of the gas is highly irregular with most of it concentrated in discrete clouds and cloud complexes. Types of molecular cloud ------------------------ ### Giant molecular clouds A vast assemblage of molecular gas that has more than 10 thousand times the mass of the Sun is called a **giant molecular cloud** (**GMC**). GMCs are around 15 to 600 light-years (5 to 200 parsecs) in diameter, with typical masses of 10 thousand to 10 million solar masses. Whereas the average density in the solar vicinity is one particle per cubic centimetre, the average density of a GMC is a hundred to a thousand times as great. Although the Sun is much denser than a GMC, the volume of a GMC is so great that it contains much more mass than the Sun. The substructure of a GMC is a complex pattern of filaments, sheets, bubbles, and irregular clumps. Filaments are truly ubiquitous in the molecular cloud. Dense molecular filaments will fragment into gravitationally bound cores, most of which will evolve into stars. Continuous accretion of gas, geometrical bending, and magnetic fields may control the detailed fragmentation manner of the filaments. In supercritical filaments observations have revealed quasi-periodic chains of dense cores with spacing of 0.15 parsec comparable to the filament inner width. The densest parts of the filaments and clumps are called "molecular cores", while the densest molecular cores are called "dense molecular cores" and have densities in excess of 104 to 106 particles per cubic centimetre. Observationally, typical molecular cores are traced with CO and dense molecular cores are traced with ammonia. The concentration of dust within molecular cores is normally sufficient to block light from background stars so that they appear in silhouette as dark nebulae. GMCs are so large that "local" ones can cover a significant fraction of a constellation; thus they are often referred to by the name of that constellation, e.g. the Orion molecular cloud (OMC) or the Taurus molecular cloud (TMC). These local GMCs are arrayed in a ring in the neighborhood of the Sun coinciding with the Gould Belt. The most massive collection of molecular clouds in the galaxy forms an asymmetrical ring about the galactic center at a radius of 120 parsecs; the largest component of this ring is the Sagittarius B2 complex. The Sagittarius region is chemically rich and is often used as an exemplar by astronomers searching for new molecules in interstellar space. ### Small molecular clouds Isolated gravitationally-bound small molecular clouds with masses less than a few hundred times that of the Sun are called Bok globules. The densest parts of small molecular clouds are equivalent to the molecular cores found in GMCs and are often included in the same studies. ### High-latitude diffuse molecular clouds In 1984 IRAS[*clarification needed*] identified a new type of diffuse molecular cloud. These were diffuse filamentary clouds that are visible at high galactic latitudes. These clouds have a typical density of 30 particles per cubic centimetre. Processes --------- ### Star formation The formation of stars occurs exclusively within molecular clouds. This is a natural consequence of their low temperatures and high densities, because the gravitational force acting to collapse the cloud must exceed the internal pressures that are acting "outward" to prevent a collapse. There is observed evidence that the large, star-forming clouds are confined to a large degree by their own gravity (like stars, planets, and galaxies) rather than by external pressure. The evidence comes from the fact that the "turbulent" velocities inferred from CO linewidth scale in the same manner as the orbital velocity (a virial relation). ### Physics The physics of molecular clouds is poorly understood and much debated. Their internal motions are governed by turbulence in a cold, magnetized gas, for which the turbulent motions are highly supersonic but comparable to the speeds of magnetic disturbances. This state is thought to lose energy rapidly, requiring either an overall collapse or a steady reinjection of energy. At the same time, the clouds are known to be disrupted by some process—most likely the effects of massive stars—before a significant fraction of their mass has become stars. Molecular clouds, and especially GMCs, are often the home of astronomical masers. List of molecular cloud complexes --------------------------------- * Great Rift + Serpens-Aquila Rift * Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex * Corona Australis molecular cloud * Musca–Chamaeleonis molecular cloud * Vela Molecular Ridge * Orion molecular cloud complex * Taurus molecular cloud * Perseus molecular cloud See also -------- * Accretion (astrophysics) * Astrochemistry * Atomic and molecular astrophysics * Cosmic dust * Cosmochemistry * Evaporating gaseous globule * Formation and evolution of the Solar System * Interstellar ice * List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules * Nebula * Orion molecular cloud complex * Perseus molecular cloud

Molecular cloud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_cloud

**Bangkok**, officially known in Thai as **Krung Thep Maha Nakhon** and colloquially as **Krung Thep**, is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies 1,568.7 square kilometres (605.7 sq mi) in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estimated population of 10.539 million as of 2020, 15.3 percent of the country's population. Over 14 million people (22.2 percent) lived within the surrounding Bangkok Metropolitan Region at the 2010 census, making Bangkok an extreme primate city, dwarfing Thailand's other urban centres in both size and importance to the national economy. Bangkok traces its roots to a small trading post during the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 15th century, which eventually grew and became the site of two capital cities, Thonburi in 1768 and Rattanakosin in 1782. Bangkok was at the heart of the modernization of Siam, later renamed Thailand, during the late-19th century, as the country faced pressures from the West. The city was at the centre of Thailand's political struggles throughout the 20th century, as the country abolished absolute monarchy, adopted constitutional rule, and underwent numerous coups and several uprisings. The city, incorporated as a special administrative area under the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration in 1972, grew rapidly during the 1960s through the 1980s and now exerts a significant impact on Thailand's politics, economy, education, media and modern society. The Asian investment boom in the 1980s and 1990s led many multinational corporations to locate their regional headquarters in Bangkok. The city is now a regional force in finance, business and pop culture. It is an international hub for transport and health care, and has emerged as a centre for the arts, fashion, and entertainment. The city is known for its street life and cultural landmarks, as well as its red-light districts. The Grand Palace and Buddhist temples including Wat Arun and Wat Pho stand in contrast with other tourist attractions such as the nightlife scenes of Khaosan Road and Patpong. Bangkok is among the world's top tourist destinations, and has been named the world's most visited city consistently in several international rankings. Bangkok's rapid growth coupled with little urban planning has resulted in a haphazard cityscape and inadequate infrastructure. Despite an extensive expressway network, an inadequate road network and substantial private car usage have led to chronic and crippling traffic congestion, which caused severe air pollution in the 1990s. The city has since turned to public transport in an attempt to solve the problem, operating eight urban rail lines and building other public transit, but congestion still remains a prevalent issue. History ------- The history of Bangkok dates at least back to the early 15th century, to when it was a village on the west bank of the Chao Phraya River, under the rule of Ayutthaya. Because of its strategic location near the mouth of the river, the town gradually increased in importance. Bangkok initially served as a customs outpost with forts on both sides of the river, and was the site of a siege in 1688 in which the French were expelled from Siam. After the fall of Ayutthaya to the Burmese in 1767, the newly crowned King Taksin established his capital at the town, which became the base of the Thonburi Kingdom. In 1782, King Phutthayotfa Chulalok (Rama I) succeeded Taksin, moved the capital to the eastern bank's Rattanakosin Island, thus founding the Rattanakosin Kingdom. The City Pillar was erected on 21 April 1782, which is regarded as the date of foundation of Bangkok as the capital. Bangkok's economy gradually expanded through international trade, first with China, then with Western merchants returning in the early-to-mid 19th century. As the capital, Bangkok was the centre of Siam's modernization as it faced pressure from Western powers in the late-19th century. The reigns of Kings Mongkut (Rama IV, r. 1851–68) and Chulalongkorn (Rama V, r. 1868–1910) saw the introduction of the steam engine, printing press, rail transport and utilities infrastructure in the city, as well as formal education and healthcare. Bangkok became the centre stage for power struggles between the military and political elite as the country abolished absolute monarchy in 1932. As Thailand allied with Japan in World War II, Bangkok was subjected to Allied bombing, but rapidly grew in the post-war period as a result of US aid and government-sponsored investment. Bangkok's role as a US military R&R destination boosted its tourism industry as well as firmly establishing it as a sex tourism destination. Disproportionate urban development led to increasing income inequalities and migration from rural areas into Bangkok; its population surged from 1.8 million to 3 million in the 1960s. Following the US withdrawal from Vietnam in 1973, Japanese businesses took over as leaders in investment, and the expansion of export-oriented manufacturing led to growth of the financial market in Bangkok. Rapid growth of the city continued through the 1980s and early 1990s, until it was stalled by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. By then, many public and social issues had emerged, among them the strain on infrastructure reflected in the city's notorious traffic jams. Bangkok's role as the nation's political stage continues to be seen in strings of popular protests, from the student uprisings in 1973 and 1976, anti-military demonstrations in 1992, and frequent street protests since 2006, including those by groups opposing and supporting former prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra from 2006 to 2013, and a renewed student-led movement in 2020. Administration of the city was first formalized by King Chulalongkorn in 1906, with the establishment of Monthon Krung Thep Phra Maha Nakhon (มณฑลกรุงเทพพระมหานคร) as a national subdivision. In 1915, the *monthon* was split into several provinces, the administrative boundaries of which have since further changed. The city in its current form was created in 1972 with the formation of the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA), following the merger of Phra Nakhon province on the eastern bank of the Chao Phraya and Thonburi province on the west during the previous year. Name ---- The origin of the name *Bangkok* (บางกอก, pronounced in Thai as [bāːŋ kɔ̀ːk] ()) is unclear. *Bang* บาง is a Thai word meaning 'a village on a stream', and the name might have been derived from *Bang Ko* (บางเกาะ), *ko* เกาะ meaning 'island', stemming from the city's watery landscape. Another theory suggests that it is shortened from *Bang Makok* (บางมะกอก), *makok* มะกอก being the name of *Elaeocarpus hygrophilus*, a plant bearing olive-like fruit. This is supported by the former name of Wat Arun, a historic temple in the area, that used to be called *Wat Makok*. Officially, the town was known as *Thonburi Si Mahasamut* (ธนบุรีศรีมหาสมุทร, from Pali and Sanskrit, literally 'city of treasures gracing the ocean') or *Thonburi*, according to the *Ayutthaya Chronicles*. *Bangkok* was likely a colloquial name, albeit one widely adopted by foreign visitors, who continued to use it to refer to the city even after the new capital's establishment. When King Rama I established his new capital on the river's eastern bank, the city inherited Ayutthaya's ceremonial name, of which there were many variants, including *Krung Thep Thawarawadi Si Ayutthaya* (กรุงเทพทวารวดีศรีอยุธยา) and *Krung Thep Maha Nakhon Si Ayutthaya* (กรุงเทพมหานครศรีอยุธยา). Edmund Roberts, visiting the city as envoy of the United States in 1833, noted that the city, since becoming capital, was known as *Sia-Yut'hia*, and this is the name used in international treaties of the period. Today, the city is known in Thai as *Krung Thep Maha Nakhon* (กรุงเทพมหานคร) or simply *Krung Thep* (กรุงเทพฯ), a shortening of the ceremonial name which came into use during the reign of King Mongkut. The full name reads as follows: Full ceremonial name --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* > Krungthepmahanakhon Amonrattanakosin Mahintharayutthaya Mahadilokphop Noppharatratchathaniburirom Udomratchaniwetmahasathan Amonphimanawatansathit Sakkathattiyawitsanukamprasit > กรุงเทพมหานคร อมรรัตนโกสินทร์ มหินทรายุธยา มหาดิลกภพ นพรัตนราชธานีบูรีรมย์ อุดมราชนิเวศน์มหาสถาน อมรพิมานอวตารสถิต สักกะทัตติยวิษณุกรรมประสิทธิ์ > > The name, composed of Pali and Sanskrit root words, translates as: > City of angels, great city of immortals, magnificent city of the nine gems, seat of the king, city of royal palaces, home of gods incarnate, erected by Vishvakarman at Indra's behest. > > The name is listed in *Guinness World Records* as the world's longest place name, at 168 letters. Many Thais who recall the full name do so because of its use in the 1989 song "Krung Thep Maha Nakhon" by Thai rock band Asanee–Wasan, the lyrics of which consist entirely of the city's full name, repeated throughout the song. The city is now officially known in Thai by a shortened form of the full ceremonial name, *Krung Thep Maha Nakhon*, which is colloquially further shortened to *Krung Thep* (city of gods). *Krung*, กรุง is a Thai word of Mon–Khmer origin, meaning 'capital, king',[*verification needed*] while *thep*, เทพ is from Pali/Sanskrit, meaning 'deity' or 'god' and corresponding to *deva*. Government ---------- The city of Bangkok is locally governed by the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA). Although its boundaries are at the provincial (*changwat*) level, unlike the other 76 provinces Bangkok is a special administrative area whose governor is directly elected to serve a four-year term. The governor, together with four appointed deputies, form the executive body, who implement policies through the BMA civil service headed by the Permanent Secretary for the BMA. In separate elections, each district elects one or more city councillors, who form the Bangkok Metropolitan Council. The council is the BMA's legislative body, and has power over municipal ordinances and the city's budget. The latest gubernatorial election took place on 22 May 2022 after an extended lapse following the 2014 Thai coup d'état, and was won by Chadchart Sittipunt. Bangkok is divided into fifty districts (*khet*, equivalent to *amphoe* in the other provinces), which are further subdivided into 180 sub-districts (*khwaeng*, equivalent to *tambon*). Each district is managed by a district director appointed by the governor. District councils, elected to four-year terms, serve as advisory bodies to their respective district directors. The BMA is divided into sixteen departments, each overseeing different aspects of the administration's responsibilities. Most of these responsibilities concern the city's infrastructure, and include city planning, building control, transportation, drainage, waste management and city beautification, as well as education, medical and rescue services. Many of these services are provided jointly with other agencies. The BMA has the authority to implement local ordinances, although civil law enforcement falls under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Police Bureau. The seal of the city shows Hindu god Indra riding in the clouds on Airavata, a divine white elephant known in Thai as Erawan. In his hand Indra holds his weapon, the *vajra*. The seal is based on a painting done by Prince Naris. The tree symbol of Bangkok is *Ficus benjamina*. The official city slogan, adopted in 2012, reads: > As built by deities, the administrative centre, dazzling palaces and temples, the capital of Thailand > กรุงเทพฯ ดุจเทพสร้าง เมืองศูนย์กลางการปกครอง วัดวังงามเรืองรอง เมืองหลวงของประเทศไทย > > As the capital of Thailand, Bangkok is the seat of all branches of the national government. The Government House, Parliament House and Supreme, Administrative and Constitutional Courts are all in the city. Bangkok is the site of the Grand Palace and Dusit Palace, respectively the official and *de facto* residence of the king. Most government ministries also have headquarters and offices in the capital. Geography --------- Bangkok covers an area of 1,568.7 square kilometres (605.7 sq mi), ranking 69th among the other 76 provinces of Thailand. Of this, about 700 square kilometres (270 sq mi) form the built-up urban area. It is ranked 73rd in the world in terms of land area. The city's urban sprawl reaches into parts of the six other provinces that it borders, namely, in clockwise order from northwest: Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, Chachoengsao, Samut Prakan, Samut Sakhon, and Nakhon Pathom. With the exception of Chachoengsao, these provinces, together with Bangkok, form the greater Bangkok Metropolitan Region. ### Topography Bangkok is situated in the Chao Phraya River delta in Thailand's central plain. The river meanders through the city in a southerly direction, emptying into the Gulf of Thailand approximately 25 kilometres (16 mi) south of city centre. The area is flat and low-lying, with an average elevation of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) above sea level. Most of the area was originally swampland, which was gradually drained and irrigated for agriculture by the construction of canals (*khlong*) which took place from the 16th to 19th centuries. The course of the river as it flows through Bangkok has been modified by the construction of several shortcut canals. The city's waterway network served as the primary means of transport until the late 19th century, when modern roads began to be built. Up until then, most people lived near or on the water, leading the city to be known during the 19th century as the "Venice of the East". Many of these canals have since been filled in or paved over, but others still criss-cross the city, serving as major drainage channels and transport routes. Most canals are now badly polluted, although the BMA has committed to the treatment and cleaning up of several canals. The geology of the Bangkok area is characterized by a top layer of soft marine clay, known as "Bangkok clay", averaging 15 metres (49 ft) in thickness, which overlies an aquifer system consisting of eight known units. This feature has contributed to the effects of subsidence caused by extensive groundwater pumping. First recognized in the 1970s, subsidence soon became a critical issue, reaching a rate of 120 millimetres (4.7 in) per year in 1981. Ground water management and mitigation measures have since lessened the severity of the situation, and the rate of subsidence decreased to 10 to 30 millimetres (0.39 to 1.18 in) per year in the early 2000s, though parts of the city are now 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) below sea level. Subsidence has resulted in increased flood risk, as Bangkok is already prone to flooding due to its low elevation and an inadequate drainage infrastructure, often compounded by blockage from rubbish pollution (especially plastic waste). The city now relies on flood barriers and augmenting drainage from canals by pumping and building drain tunnels, but parts of Bangkok and its suburbs are still regularly inundated. Heavy downpours resulting in urban runoff overwhelming drainage systems, and runoff discharge from upstream areas, are major triggering factors. Severe flooding affecting much of the city occurred in 1995 and 2011. In 2011, most of Bangkok's northern, eastern and western districts were flooded, in some places for over two months. Bangkok's coastal location makes it particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels due to global warming and climate change. A study by the OECD has estimated that 5.138 million people in Bangkok may be exposed to coastal flooding by 2070, the seventh highest figure among the world's port cities. There are fears that the city may be submerged by 2030. A study published in October 2019 in *Nature Communications* corrected earlier models of coastal elevations and concluded that up to 12 million Thais—mostly in the greater Bangkok metropolitan area—face the prospect of annual flooding events. This is compounded by coastal erosion, which is an issue in the gulf coastal area, a small length of which lies within Bangkok's Bang Khun Thian District. Tidal flat ecosystems existed on the coast, however, many have been reclaimed for agriculture, aquaculture, and salt works. There are no mountains in Bangkok. The closest mountain range is the Khao Khiao Massif, about 40 km (25 mi) southeast of the city. Phu Khao Thong, the only hill in the metropolitan area, originated with a very large chedi that King Rama III (1787–1851) built at Wat Saket. The chedi collapsed during construction because the soft soil could not support its weight. Over the next few decades, the abandoned mud-and-brick structure acquired the shape of a natural hill and became overgrown with weeds. The locals called it *phu khao* (ภูเขา), as if it were a natural feature. In the 1940s, enclosing concrete walls were added to stop the hill from eroding. ### Climate Like most of Thailand, Bangkok has a tropical savanna climate (Aw) under the Köppen climate classification and is under the influence of the South Asian monsoon system. The city experiences three seasons: hot, rainy, and cool, although temperatures are fairly hot year-round, ranging from an average low of 22.0 °C (71.6 °F) in December to an average high of 35.4 °C (95.7 °F) in April. The rainy season begins with the arrival of the southwest monsoon around mid-May. September is the wettest month, with an average rainfall of 334.3 millimetres (13.16 in). The rainy season lasts until October, when the dry and cool northeast monsoon takes over until February. The hot season is generally dry, but also sees occasional summer storms. The surface magnitude of Bangkok's urban heat island has been measured at 2.5 °C (4.5 °F) during the day and 8.0 °C (14 °F) at night. The highest recorded temperature of Bangkok metropolis was 41.0 °C (105.8 °F) in May 2023, and the lowest recorded temperature was 9.9 °C (49.8 °F) in January 1955. The Climate Impact Group at NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies projected severe weather impacts on Bangkok caused by climate change. It found that Bangkok in 1960 had 193 days at or above 32 °C. In 2018, Bangkok can expect 276 days at or above 32 °C. The group forecasts a rise by 2100 to, on average, 297 to 344 days at or above 32 °C. | Climate data for Bangkok Metropolis (1981–2010) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 37.6(99.7) | 38.8(101.8) | 40.1(104.2) | 40.0(104.0) | 41.0(105.8) | 38.8(101.8) | 38.4(101.1) | 38.2(100.8) | 37.4(99.3) | 37.9(100.2) | 38.8(101.8) | 37.1(98.8) | 41.0(105.8) | | Average high °C (°F) | 32.5(90.5) | 33.3(91.9) | 34.3(93.7) | 35.4(95.7) | 34.4(93.9) | 33.6(92.5) | 33.2(91.8) | 32.9(91.2) | 32.8(91.0) | 32.6(90.7) | 32.4(90.3) | 31.7(89.1) | 33.3(91.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 27.0(80.6) | 28.3(82.9) | 29.5(85.1) | 30.5(86.9) | 29.9(85.8) | 29.5(85.1) | 29.0(84.2) | 28.8(83.8) | 28.3(82.9) | 28.1(82.6) | 27.8(82.0) | 26.5(79.7) | 28.6(83.5) | | Average low °C (°F) | 22.6(72.7) | 24.4(75.9) | 25.9(78.6) | 26.9(80.4) | 26.3(79.3) | 26.1(79.0) | 25.7(78.3) | 25.5(77.9) | 25.0(77.0) | 24.8(76.6) | 23.9(75.0) | 22.0(71.6) | 24.9(76.8) | | Record low °C (°F) | 9.9(49.8) | 14.9(58.8) | 15.7(60.3) | 19.9(67.8) | 21.1(70.0) | 21.1(70.0) | 21.9(71.4) | 21.2(70.2) | 21.3(70.3) | 18.3(64.9) | 14.2(57.6) | 10.5(50.9) | 9.9(49.8) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 13.3(0.52) | 20.0(0.79) | 42.1(1.66) | 91.4(3.60) | 247.7(9.75) | 157.1(6.19) | 175.1(6.89) | 219.3(8.63) | 334.3(13.16) | 292.1(11.50) | 49.5(1.95) | 6.3(0.25) | 1,648.2(64.89) | | Average rainy days | 1.8 | 2.4 | 3.6 | 6.6 | 16.4 | 16.3 | 17.4 | 19.6 | 21.2 | 17.7 | 5.8 | 1.1 | 129.9 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 68 | 72 | 72 | 72 | 75 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 79 | 78 | 70 | 66 | 73 | | Average dew point °C (°F) | 20(68) | 23(73) | 24(75) | 25(77) | 25(77) | 25(77) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 25(77) | 24(75) | 22(72) | 20(68) | 23(74) | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 272.5 | 249.9 | 269.0 | 256.7 | 216.4 | 178.0 | 171.8 | 160.3 | 154.9 | 198.1 | 234.2 | 262.0 | 2,623.8 | | Percent possible sunshine | 78 | 75 | 73 | 68 | 55 | 45 | 43 | 42 | 43 | 56 | 71 | 76 | 60 | | Average ultraviolet index | 10 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 11 | 10 | 9 | 11 | | Source 1: Thai Meteorological Department (temperature and rainfall; Feb–May record highs, 1951–2022; Nov–Feb record lows, 1951–2021); Royal Irrigation Department (humidity); May 2023 high temperature record | | Source 2: Weather Atlas (UV), Time and Date (dewpoints, 2005-2015), NOAA (sun, 1961–1990), Meteo Climat (record), Ogimet.com | ### Districts Bangkok's fifty districts serve as administrative subdivisions under the authority of the BMA. Thirty-five of these districts lie to the east of the Chao Phraya, while fifteen are on the western bank, known as the Thonburi side of the city. The fifty districts, arranged by district code, are: 1. Phra Nakhon district 2. Dusit district 3. Nong Chok district 4. Bang Rak district 5. Bang Khen district 6. Bang Kapi district 7. Pathum Wan district 8. Pom Prap Sattru Phai district 9. Phra Khanong district 10. Min Buri district 11. Lat Krabang district 12. Yan Nawa district 13. Samphanthawong district 14. Phaya Thai district 15. Thon Buri district 16. Bangkok Yai district 17. Huai Khwang district 18. Khlong San district 19. Taling Chan district 20. Bangkok Noi district 21. Bang Khun Thian district 22. Phasi Charoen district 23. Nong Khaem district 24. Rat Burana district 25. Bang Phlat district 26. Din Daeng district 27. Bueng Kum district 28. Sathon district 29. Bang Sue district 30. Chatuchak district 31. Bang Kho Laem district 32. Prawet district 33. Khlong Toei district 34. Suan Luang district 35. Chom Thong district 36. Don Mueang district 37. Ratchathewi district 38. Lat Phrao district 39. Watthana district 40. Bang Khae district 41. Lak Si district 42. Sai Mai district 43. Khan Na Yao district 44. Saphan Sung district 45. Wang Thonglang district 46. Khlong Sam Wa district 47. Bang Na district 48. Thawi Watthana district 49. Thung Khru district 50. Bang Bon district ### Cityscape Bangkok's districts often do not accurately represent the functional divisions of its neighbourhoods or land usage. Although urban planning policies date back to the commission of the "Litchfield Plan" in 1960, which set out strategies for land use, transportation and general infrastructure improvements, zoning regulations were not fully implemented until 1992. As a result, the city grew organically throughout the period of its rapid expansion, both horizontally as ribbon developments extended along newly built roads, and vertically, with increasing numbers of high rises and skyscrapers being built in commercial areas. The city has grown from its original centre along the river into a sprawling metropolis surrounded by swaths of suburban residential development extending north and south into neighbouring provinces. The highly populated and growing cities of Nonthaburi, Pak Kret, Rangsit and Samut Prakan are effectively now suburbs of Bangkok. Nevertheless, large agricultural areas remain within the city proper at its eastern and western fringes, and a small number of forest area is found within the city limits: 3,887 rai (6.2 km2; 2.4 sq mi), amounting to 0.4 percent of city area. Land use in the city consists of 23 percent residential use, 24 percent agriculture, and 30 percent used for commerce, industry, and government. The BMA's City Planning Department (CPD) is responsible for planning and shaping further development. It published master plan updates in 1999 and 2006, and a third revision is undergoing public hearings in 2012. Bangkok's historic centre remains the Rattanakosin Island in Phra Nakhon District. It is the site of the Grand Palace and the City Pillar Shrine, primary symbols of the city's founding, as well as important Buddhist temples. Phra Nakhon, along with the neighbouring Pom Prap Sattru Phai and Samphanthawong Districts, formed what was the city proper in the late 19th century. Many traditional neighbourhoods and markets are found here, including the Chinese settlement of Sampheng. The city was expanded toward Dusit District in the early 19th century, following King Chulalongkorn's relocation of the royal household to the new Dusit Palace. The buildings of the palace, including the neoclassical Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall, as well as the Royal Plaza and Ratchadamnoen Avenue which leads to it from the Grand Palace, reflect the heavy influence of European architecture at the time. Major government offices line the avenue, as does the Democracy Monument. The area is the site of the country's seat of power as well as the city's most popular tourist landmarks. In contrast with the low-rise historic areas, the business district on Si Lom and Sathon Roads in Bang Rak and Sathon Districts teems with skyscrapers. It is the site of many of the country's major corporate headquarters, but also of some of the city's red-light districts. The Siam and Ratchaprasong areas in Pathum Wan are home to some of the largest shopping malls in Southeast Asia. Numerous retail outlets and hotels also stretch along Sukhumvit Road leading southeast through Watthana and Khlong Toei Districts. More office towers line the streets branching off Sukhumvit, especially Asok Montri, while upmarket housing is found in many of its *soi*s ('alley' or 'lane'). Bangkok lacks a single distinct central business district. Instead, the areas of Siam and Ratchaprasong serve as a "central shopping district" containing many of the bigger malls and commercial areas in the city, as well as Siam Station, the only transfer point between the city's two elevated train lines. The Victory Monument in Ratchathewi District is among its most important road junctions, serving over 100 bus lines as well as an elevated train station. From the monument, Phahonyothin and Ratchawithi / Din Daeng Roads respectively run north and east linking to major residential areas. Most of the high-density development areas are within the 113-square-kilometre (44 sq mi) area encircled by the Ratchadaphisek inner ring road. Ratchadaphisek is lined with businesses and retail outlets, and office buildings also cluster around Ratchayothin Intersection in Chatuchak District to the north. Farther from the city centre, most areas are primarily mid- or low-density residential. The Thonburi side of the city is less developed, with fewer high rises. With the exception of a few secondary urban centres, Thonburi, in the same manner as the outlying eastern districts, consists mostly of residential and rural areas. While most of Bangkok's streets are fronted by vernacular shophouses, the largely unrestricted building euphoria of the 1980s has transformed the city into an urban area of skyscrapers and high rises of contrasting and clashing styles. There are 581 skyscrapers over 90 metres (300 feet) tall in the city. Bangkok was ranked as the world's eighth tallest city in 2016. As a result of persistent economic disparity, many slums have emerged in the city. In 2000 there were over one million people living in about 800 informal settlements. Some settlements are squatted such as the large slums in Khlong Toei District. In total there were 125 squatted areas. An expansive cityscape with several skyscrapers in the foreground, a park in the centre, and a large group of buildings across the parkSkyscrapers of Ratchadamri and Sukhumvit at night, viewed across Lumphini Park from the Si Lom – Sathon business district ### Parks and green zones Bangkok has several parks, although these amount to a per capita total park area of only 1.82 square metres (19.6 sq ft) in the city proper. Total green space for the entire city is moderate, at 11.8 square metres (127 sq ft) per person. In the more densely built-up areas of the city these numbers are as low as 1.73 and 0.72 square metres (18.6 and 7.8 sq ft) per person. More recent numbers claim that there is 3.3 square metres (36 sq ft) of green space per person, compared to an average of 39 square metres (420 sq ft) in other cities across Asia. In Europe, London has 33.4 m2 of green space per head. Bangkokians thus have 10 times less green space than is standard in the region's urban areas. Green belt areas include about 700 square kilometres (270 sq mi) of rice paddies and orchards on the eastern and western edges of the city, although their primary purpose is to serve as flood detention basins rather than to limit urban expansion. Bang Kachao, a 20-square-kilometre (7.7 sq mi) conservation area on an oxbow of the Chao Phraya, lies just across the southern riverbank districts, in Samut Prakan province. A master development plan has been proposed to increase total park area to 4 square metres (43 sq ft) per person. Bangkok's largest parks include the centrally located Lumphini Park near the Si Lom–Sathon business district with an area of 57.6 hectares (142 acres), the 80-hectare (200-acre) Suanluang Rama IX in the east of the city, and the Chatuchak–Queen Sirikit–Wachirabenchathat park complex in northern Bangkok, which has a combined area of 92 hectares (230 acres). More parks are expected to be created through the Green Bangkok 2030 project, which aims to leave the city with 10 square metres (110 sq ft) of green space per person, including 30% of the city having tree cover. Demography ---------- Historical census populations| Year | Pop. | | --- | --- | | 1919 | 437,294 | | 1929 | 713,384 | | 1937 | 890,453 | | 1947 | 1,178,881 | | 1960 | 2,136,435 | | 1970 | 3,077,361 | | 1980 | 4,697,071 | | 1990 | 5,882,411 | | 2000 | 6,355,144 | | 2010 | 8,305,218 | | Source: National Statistical Office (1919–2000, 2010) | The city of Bangkok has a population of 8,305,218 according to the 2010 census, or 12.6 percent of the national population, while 2020 estimates place the figure at 10.539 million (15.3 percent). Roughly half are internal migrants from other Thai provinces; population registry statistics recorded 5,676,648 residents belonging to 2,959,524 households in 2018. Much of Bangkok's daytime population commutes from surrounding provinces in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region, the total population of which is 14,626,225 (2010 census). Bangkok is a cosmopolitan city; the census showed that it is home to 567,120 expatriates from Asian countries (including 71,024 Chinese and 63,069 Japanese nationals), 88,177 from Europe, 32,241 from the Americas, 5,856 from Oceania and 5,758 from Africa. Migrants from neighbouring countries include 216,528 Burmese, 72,934 Cambodians and 52,498 Lao. In 2018, numbers show that there are 370,000 international migrants registered with the Department of Employment, more than half of them migrants from Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar. Following its establishment as capital city in 1782, Bangkok grew only slightly throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries. British diplomat John Crawfurd, visiting in 1822, estimated its population at no more than 50,000. As a result of Western medicine brought by missionaries as well as increased immigration from both within Siam and overseas, Bangkok's population gradually increased as the city modernized in the late 19th century. This growth became even more pronounced in the 1930s, following the discovery of antibiotics. Although family planning and birth control were introduced in the 1960s, the lowered birth rate was more than offset by increased migration from the provinces as economic expansion accelerated. Only in the 1990s have Bangkok's population growth rates decreased, following the national rate. Thailand had long since become highly centralized around the capital. In 1980, Bangkok's population was fifty-one times that of Hat Yai and Songkhla, the second-largest urban centre at the time, making it the world's most prominent primate city. The majority of Bangkok's population identify as Thai, although details on the city's ethnic make-up are unavailable, as the national census does not document race. Bangkok's cultural pluralism dates back to the early days of its founding: several ethnic communities were formed by immigrants and forced settlers including the Khmer, northern Thai, Lao, Vietnamese, Mon and Malay. Most prominent were the Chinese, who played major roles in the city's trade and became the majority of Bangkok's population—estimates include up to three-fourths in 1828 and almost half in the 1950s. Chinese immigration was restricted from the 1930s and effectively ceased after the Chinese Revolution in 1949. Their prominence subsequently declined as younger generations of Thai Chinese integrated and adopted a Thai identity. Bangkok is still nevertheless home to a large Chinese community, with the greatest concentration in Yaowarat, Bangkok's Chinatown. Religion in Bangkok   Buddhism (92.54%)  Islam (4.6%)  Christianity (1.89%)  Hinduism (0.27%)  Sikhism (0.08%)  Confucianism (0.08%)  Not Religious and Unknown (0.2%)  Other (0.29%) The majority (93 percent) of the city's population is Buddhist, according to the 2010 census. Other religions include Islam (4.6 percent), Christianity (1.9 percent), Hinduism (0.3 percent), Sikhism (0.1 percent) and Confucianism (0.1 percent). Apart from Yaowarat, Bangkok also has several other distinct ethnic neighbourhoods. The Indian community is centred in Phahurat, where the Gurdwara Siri Guru Singh Sabha, founded in 1933, is located. Ban Khrua on Saen Saep Canal is home to descendants of the Cham who settled in the late 18th century. Although the Portuguese who settled during the Thonburi period have ceased to exist as a distinct community, their past is reflected in Santa Cruz Church, on the west bank of the river. Likewise, Assumption Cathedral on Charoen Krung Road is among many European-style buildings in the Old Farang Quarter, where European diplomats and merchants lived in the late 19th to early 20th centuries. Nearby, the Haroon Mosque is the centre of a Muslim community. Newer expatriate communities exist along Sukhumvit Road, including the Japanese community near Soi Phrom Phong and Soi Thong Lo, and the Arab and North African neighbourhood along Soi Nana. Sukhumvit Plaza, a mall on Soi Sukhumvit 12, is popularly known as Korea Town. Economy ------- Bangkok is the economic centre of Thailand, and the heart of the country's investment and development. In 2010, the city had an economic output of 3.142 trillion baht (US$98.34 billion), contributing 29.1 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP). This amounted to a per-capita GDP value of 456,911 baht ($14,301), almost three times the national average of 160,556 baht ($5,025). The Bangkok Metropolitan Region had a combined output of 4.773 trillion baht ($149.39 billion), or 44.2 percent of GDP. Bangkok's economy ranked as the sixth among Asian cities in terms of per-capita GDP, after Singapore, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Osaka–Kobe and Seoul, as of 2010.[*needs update*] Wholesale and retail trade is the largest sector in the city's economy, contributing 24 percent of Bangkok's gross provincial product. It is followed by manufacturing (14.3 percent); real estate, renting and business activities (12.4 percent); transport and communications (11.6 percent); and financial intermediation (11.1 percent). Bangkok alone accounts for 48.4 percent of Thailand's service sector, which in turn constitutes 49 percent of GDP. When the Bangkok Metropolitan Region is considered, manufacturing is the most significant contributor at 28.2 percent of the gross regional product, reflecting the density of industry in the Bangkok's neighbouring provinces. The automotive industry based around Greater Bangkok is the largest production hub in Southeast Asia. Tourism is also a significant contributor to Bangkok's economy, generating 427.5 billion baht ($13.38 billion) in revenue in 2010. The Stock Exchange of Thailand (SET) is on Ratchadaphisek Road in inner Bangkok. The SET, together with the Market for Alternative Investment (MAI) has 648 listed companies as of the end of 2011, with a combined market capitalization of 8.485 trillion baht ($267.64 billion). Due to the large amount of foreign representation, Thailand has for several years been a mainstay of the Southeast Asian economy and a centre of Asian business. The Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranks Bangkok as an "Alpha -" world city, and it is ranked 59th in Z/Yen's *Global Financial Centres Index 11*. Bangkok is home to the headquarters of all of Thailand's major commercial banks and financial institutions, as well as the country's largest companies. Many multinational corporations base their regional headquarters in Bangkok due to the lower cost of labour and operations relative to other major Asian business centres. Seventeen Thai companies are listed on the Forbes 2000, all of which are based in the capital, including PTT, the only Fortune Global 500 company in Thailand. Income inequality is a major issue in Bangkok, especially between relatively unskilled lower-income immigrants from rural provinces and neighbouring countries, and middle-class professionals and business elites. Although absolute poverty rates are low—only 0.64 percent of Bangkok's registered residents were living under the poverty line in 2010, compared to a national average of 7.75 percent—economic disparity is still substantial. The city has a Gini coefficient of 0.48, indicating a high level of inequality. Tourism ------- Bangkok is one of the world's top tourist destinations. Of 162 cities worldwide, MasterCard ranked Bangkok as the top destination city by international visitor arrivals in its *Global Destination Cities Index 2018*, ahead of London, with just over 20 million overnight visitors in 2017. This was a repeat of its 2017 ranking (for 2016). Euromonitor International ranked Bangkok fourth in its Top City Destinations Ranking for 2016. Bangkok was also named "World's Best City" by *Travel + Leisure* magazine's survey of its readers for four consecutive years, from 2010 to 2013. As the main gateway through which visitors arrive in Thailand, Bangkok is visited by the majority of international tourists to the country. Domestic tourism is also prominent. The Department of Tourism recorded 26,861,095 Thai and 11,361,808 foreign visitors to Bangkok in 2010. Lodgings were made by 15,031,244 guests, who occupied 49.9 percent of the city's 86,687 hotel rooms. Bangkok also topped the list as the world's most popular tourist destinations in 2017 rankings. Bangkok's multi-faceted sights, attractions and city life appeal to diverse groups of tourists. Royal palaces and temples as well as several museums constitute its major historical and cultural tourist attractions. Shopping and dining experiences offer a wide range of choices and prices. The city is also famous for its dynamic nightlife. Although Bangkok's sex tourism scene is well known to foreigners, it is usually not openly acknowledged by locals or the government. Among Bangkok's well-known sights are the Grand Palace and major Buddhist temples, including Wat Phra Kaew, Wat Pho, and Wat Arun. The Giant Swing and Erawan Shrine demonstrate Hinduism's deep-rooted influence in Thai culture. Vimanmek Mansion in Dusit Palace is famous as the world's largest teak building, while the Jim Thompson House provides an example of traditional Thai architecture. Other major museums include the Bangkok National Museum and the Royal Barge National Museum. Cruises and boat trips on the Chao Phraya and the canals of Thonburi offer views of some of the city's traditional architecture and ways of life on the waterfront. Shopping venues, many of which are popular with both tourists and locals, range from the shopping centres and department stores concentrated in Siam and Ratchaprasong to the sprawling Chatuchak Weekend Market. Taling Chan Floating Market is among the few such markets in Bangkok. Yaowarat is known for its shops as well as street-side food stalls and restaurants, which are also found throughout the city. Khao San Road has long been famous as a destination for backpacker tourism, with its budget accommodation, shops and bars attracting visitors from all over the world. Bangkok has a reputation overseas as a major destination in the sex industry. Although prostitution is technically illegal and is rarely openly discussed in Thailand, it commonly takes place among massage parlours, saunas and hourly hotels, serving foreign tourists as well as locals. Bangkok has acquired the nickname "Sin City of Asia" for its level of sex tourism. Issues often encountered by foreign tourists include scams, overcharging and dual pricing. In a survey of 616 tourists visiting Thailand, 7.79 percent reported encountering a scam, the most common of which was the gem scam, in which tourists are tricked into buying overpriced jewellery. Among Bangkok's well-known sights* Grand PalaceGrand Palace * The Giant SwingThe Giant Swing * Wat ArunWat Arun Culture ------- The culture of Bangkok reflects its position as Thailand's centre of wealth and modernisation. The city has long been the portal of entry of Western concepts and material goods, which have been adopted and blended with Thai values to various degrees by its residents. This is most evident in the lifestyles of the expanding middle class. Conspicuous consumption serves as a display of economic and social status, and shopping centres are popular weekend hangouts. Ownership of electronics and consumer products such as mobile phones is ubiquitous. This has been accompanied by a degree of secularism, as religion's role in everyday life has rather diminished. Although such trends have spread to other urban centres, and, to a degree, the countryside, Bangkok remains at the forefront of social change. A distinct feature of Bangkok is the ubiquity of street vendors selling goods ranging from food items to clothing and accessories. It has been estimated that the city may have over 100,000 hawkers. While the BMA has authorised the practice in 287 sites, the majority of activity in another 407 sites takes place illegally. Although they take up pavement space and block pedestrian traffic, many of the city's residents depend on these vendors for their meals, and the BMA's efforts to curb their numbers have largely been unsuccessful. In 2015, however, the BMA, with support from the National Council for Peace and Order (Thailand's ruling military junta), began cracking down on street vendors in a bid to reclaim public space. Many famous market neighbourhoods were affected, including Khlong Thom, Saphan Lek, and the flower market at Pak Khlong Talat. Nearly 15,000 vendors were evicted from 39 public areas in 2016. While some applauded the efforts to focus on pedestrian rights, others have expressed concern that gentrification would lead to the loss of the city's character and adverse changes to people's way of life. ### Festivals and events The residents of Bangkok celebrate many of Thailand's annual festivals. During Songkran on 13–15 April, traditional rituals as well as water fights take place throughout the city. Loi Krathong, usually in November, is accompanied by the Golden Mount Fair. New Year celebrations take place at many venues, the most prominent being the plaza in front of CentralWorld. Observances related to the royal family are held primarily in Bangkok. Wreaths are laid at King Chulalongkorn's equestrian statue in the Royal Plaza on 23 October, which is King Chulalongkorn Memorial Day. The present king's and queen's birthdays, respectively on 5 December and 12 August, are marked as Thailand's national Father's Day and national Mother's Day. These national holidays are celebrated by royal audiences on the day's eve, in which the king or queen gives a speech, and public gatherings on the day of the observance. The king's birthday is also marked by the Royal Guards' parade. Sanam Luang is the site of the Thai Kite, Sport and Music Festival, usually held in March, and the Royal Ploughing Ceremony which takes place in May. The Red Cross Fair at the beginning of April is held at Suan Amporn and the Royal Plaza, and features numerous booths offering goods, games and exhibits. The Chinese New Year (January–February) and Vegetarian Festival (September–October) are celebrated widely by the Chinese community, especially in Yaowarat. Bangkok was designated as the World Book Capital for the year 2013 by UNESCO. Bangkok's first Thai International Gay Pride Festival took place on October 31, 1999. Pride Parades have also been held in Bangkok, with the first official parade held in 2022 under the name "Bangkok Naruemit Pride Parade". Pride Parades were announced to be a part of Bangkok's "12 monthly festivals" in 2022. ### Media Bangkok is the centre of Thailand's media industry. All national newspapers, broadcast media and major publishers are based in the capital. Its 21 national newspapers had a combined daily circulation of about two million in 2002. These include the mass-oriented *Thai Rath*, *Khao Sod* and *Daily News*, the first of which currently prints a million copies per day, as well as the less sensational *Matichon* and *Krungthep Thurakij*. The *Bangkok Post* and *The Nation* are the two national English language dailies. Foreign publications including *The Asian Wall Street Journal*, *Financial Times*, *The Straits Times* and the *Yomiuri Shimbun* also have operations in Bangkok. The large majority of Thailand's more than 200 magazines are published in the capital, and include news magazines as well as lifestyle, entertainment, gossip and fashion-related publications. Bangkok is also the hub of Thailand's broadcast television. All six national terrestrial channels, Channels 3, 5 and 7, Modernine, NBT and Thai PBS, have headquarters and main studios in the capital. GMM Grammy is Thailand's largest mass-media conglomerate is also headquartered in Bangkok as well. With the exception of local news segments broadcast by the NBT, all programming is done in Bangkok and repeated throughout the provinces. However, this centralised model is weakening with the rise of cable television, which has many local providers. There are numerous cable and satellite channels based in Bangkok. TrueVisions is the major subscription television provider in Bangkok and Thailand, and it also carries international programming. Bangkok was home to 40 of Thailand's 311 FM radio stations and 38 of its 212 AM stations in 2002. Broadcast media reform stipulated by the 1997 Constitution has been progressing slowly, although many community radio stations have emerged in the city. Likewise, Bangkok has dominated the Thai film industry since its inception. Although film settings normally feature locations throughout the country, the city is home to all major film studios in Thailand such as GDH 559 (GMM Grammy's film production subsidiary), Sahamongkol Film International and Five Star Production. Bangkok has dozens of cinemas and multiplexes, and the city hosts two major film festivals annually, the Bangkok International Film Festival and the World Film Festival of Bangkok. ### Art Traditional Thai art, long developed within religious and royal contexts, continues to be sponsored by various government agencies in Bangkok, including the Department of Fine Arts' Office of Traditional Arts. The SUPPORT Foundation in Chitralada Palace sponsors traditional and folk handicrafts. Various communities throughout the city still practice their traditional crafts, including the production of *khon* masks, alms bowls, and classical musical instruments. The National Gallery hosts permanent collection of traditional and modern art, with temporary contemporary exhibits. Bangkok's contemporary art scene has slowly grown from relative obscurity into the public sphere over the past two decades. Private galleries gradually emerged to provide exposure for new artists, including the Patravadi Theatre and H Gallery. The centrally located Bangkok Art and Culture Centre, opened in 2008 following a fifteen-year lobbying campaign, is now the largest public exhibition space in the city. There are also many other art galleries and museums, including the privately owned Museum of Contemporary Art. The city's performing arts scene features traditional theatre and dance as well as Western-style plays. *Khon* and other traditional dances are regularly performed at the National Theatre and Salachalermkrung Royal Theatre, while the Thailand Cultural Centre is a newer multi-purpose venue which also hosts musicals, orchestras and other events. Numerous venues regularly feature a variety of performances throughout the city. Sport ----- As is the national trend, association football and Muay Thai dominate Bangkok's spectator sport scene. Muangthong United, Bangkok United, BG Pathum United, Port and Police Tero are major Thai League clubs based in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region, while the Rajadamnern and Lumpini stadiums are the main kickboxing venues. While sepak takraw can be seen played in open spaces throughout the city, football and other modern sports are now the norm. Western sports introduced during the reign of King Chulalongkorn were originally only available to the privileged, and such status is still associated with certain sports. Golf is popular among the upwardly mobile, and there are several courses in Bangkok. Horse racing, highly popular at the mid-20th century, still takes place at the Royal Bangkok Sports Club. There are many public sporting facilities located throughout Bangkok. The two main centres are the National Stadium complex, which dates to 1938, and the newer Hua Mak Sports Complex, which was built for the 1998 Asian Games. Bangkok had also hosted the games in 1966, 1970 and 1978; the most of any city. The city was the host of the inaugural Southeast Asian Games in 1959, the 2007 Summer Universiade and the 2012 FIFA Futsal World Cup. Transport --------- Although Bangkok's canals historically served as a major mode of transport, they have long since been surpassed in importance by land traffic. Charoen Krung Road, the first to be built by Western techniques, was completed in 1864. Since then, the road network has vastly expanded to accommodate the sprawling city. A complex elevated expressway network and Don Mueang Tollway helps bring traffic into and out of the city centre, but Bangkok's rapid growth has put a large strain on infrastructure, and traffic jams have plagued the city since the 1990s. Although rail transport was introduced in 1893 and trams served the city from 1888 to 1968, it was only in 1999 that Bangkok's first rapid transit system began operation. Older public transport systems include an extensive bus network and boat services which still operate on the Chao Phraya and two canals. Taxis appear in the form of cars, motorcycles, and "*tuk-tuk*" auto rickshaws. Bangkok is connected to the rest of the country through the national highway and rail networks, as well as by domestic flights to and from the city's two international airports. Its centuries-old maritime transport of goods is still conducted through Khlong Toei Port. The BMA is largely responsible for overseeing the construction and maintenance of the road network and transport systems through its Public Works Department and Traffic and Transportation Department. However, many separate government agencies are also in charge of the individual systems, and much of transport-related policy planning and funding is contributed to by the national government. ### Roads Road-based transport is the primary mode of travel in Bangkok. Due to the city's organic development, its streets do not follow an organized grid structure. Forty-eight major roads link the different areas of the city, branching into smaller streets and lanes (*soi*) which serve local neighbourhoods. Eleven bridges over the Chao Phraya link the two sides of the city, while several expressway and motorway routes bring traffic into and out of the city centre and link with nearby provinces. The first expressway in Bangkok is Chaloem Maha Nakhon Expressway, which opened 1981. Bangkok's rapid growth in the 1980s resulted in sharp increases in vehicle ownership and traffic demand, which have since continued—in 2006 there were 3,943,211 in-use vehicles in Bangkok, of which 37.6 percent were private cars and 32.9 percent were motorcycles. These increases, in the face of limited carrying capacity, caused severe traffic congestion evident by the early 1990s. The extent of the problem is such that the Thai Traffic Police has a unit of officers trained in basic midwifery in order to assist deliveries which do not reach hospital in time. While Bangkok's limited road surface area (8 percent, compared to 20–30 percent in most Western cities) is often cited as a major cause of its traffic jams, other factors, including high vehicle ownership rate relative to income level, inadequate public transport systems, and lack of transportation demand management, also play a role. Efforts to alleviate the problem have included the construction of intersection bypasses and an extensive system of elevated highways, as well as the creation of several new rapid transit systems. The city's overall traffic conditions, however, remain poor. Traffic has been the main source of air pollution in Bangkok, which reached serious levels in the 1990s. But efforts to improve air quality by improving fuel quality and enforcing emission standards, among others, had visibly ameliorated the problem by the 2000s. Atmospheric particulate matter levels dropped from 81 micrograms per cubic metre in 1997 to 43 in 2007. However, increasing vehicle numbers and a lack of continued pollution-control efforts threatens a reversal of the past success. In January–February 2018, weather conditions caused bouts of haze to cover the city, with particulate matter under 2.5 micrometres (PM2.5) rising to unhealthy levels for several days on end. Although the BMA has created thirty signed bicycle routes along several roads totalling 230 kilometres (140 mi), cycling is still largely impractical, especially in the city centre. Most of these bicycle lanes share the pavement with pedestrians. Poor surface maintenance, encroachment by hawkers and street vendors, and a hostile environment for cyclists and pedestrians, make cycling and walking unpopular methods of getting around in Bangkok. ### Buses and taxis Bangkok has an extensive bus network providing local transit services within the Greater Bangkok area. The Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA) operates a monopoly on bus services, with substantial concessions granted to private operators. Buses, minibus vans, and song thaeo operate on a total of 470 routes throughout the region. A separate bus rapid transit system owned by the BMA has been in operation since 2010. Known simply as the BRT, the system currently consists of a single line running from the business district at Sathon to Ratchaphruek on the western side of the city. The Transport Co., Ltd. is the BMTA's long-distance counterpart, with services to all provinces operating out of Bangkok. Taxis are ubiquitous in Bangkok, and are a popular form of transport. As of August 2012[update], there are 106,050 cars, 58,276 motorcycles and 8,996 tuk-tuk motorized tricycles cumulatively registered for use as taxis. Meters have been required for car taxis since 1992, while tuk-tuk fares are usually negotiated. Motorcycle taxis operate from regulated ranks, with either fixed or negotiable fares, and are usually employed for relatively short journeys. Despite their popularity, taxis have gained a bad reputation for often refusing passengers when the requested route is not to the driver's convenience. Motorcycle taxis were previously unregulated, and subject to extortion by organized crime gangs. Since 2003, registration has been required for motorcycle taxi ranks, and drivers now wear distinctive numbered vests designating their district of registration and where they are allowed to accept passengers. Several ride hailing super-apps operate within the city, including Grab (offering car and motorbike options), and AirAsia in 2022. The Estonian company Bolt launched airport transfer and ride hailing services in 2020. Ride sharing startup MuvMi launched in 2018, and operates an electric tuk-tuk service in 9 areas across the city. ### Rail systems Bangkok is the location of Krung Thep Aphiwat Central Terminal, the new main terminus of the national rail network operated by the State Railway of Thailand (SRT). The older terminus, Bangkok (Hua Lamphong) Railway Station, which was the main station for Bangkok for over a century, remains in use. The SRT operates long-distance intercity services from Krung Thep Aphiwat, while commuter trains running to and from the outskirts of the city during the rush hour continue to operate at Bangkok (Hua Lamphong). Bangkok is served by four rapid transit systems: the BTS Skytrain, the MRT, the SRT Red Lines, and the elevated Airport Rail Link. Although proposals for the development of rapid transit in Bangkok had been made since 1975, it was only in 1999 that the BTS finally began operation. The BTS consists of two lines, Sukhumvit and Silom, with 59 stations along 68.25 kilometres (42.41 mi). The MRT opened for use in July 2004, and currently consists of two lines, the Blue Line and Purple Line with 53 stations along 70.6 kilometres (43.9 mi). The Airport Rail Link, opened in August 2010, connects the city centre to Suvarnabhumi Airport to the east. Its eight stations span a distance of 28.6 kilometres (17.8 mi). The SRT Red Lines (Commuter) opened in 2021, and consists of two lines, The SRT Dark Red Line and SRT Light Red Line with currently 14 stations along 41 kilometres (25 mi). Although initial passenger numbers were low and their service area was limited to the inner city until the 2016 opening of the Purple Line, which serves the Nonthaburi area, these systems have become indispensable to many commuters. The BTS reported an average of 600,000 daily trips in 2012, while the MRT had 240,000 passenger trips per day. As of September 2020[update], construction work is ongoing to extend the city-wide transit system's reach, including the construction of the Light Red grade-separated commuter rail line. The entire Mass Rapid Transit Master Plan in Bangkok Metropolitan Region consists of eight main lines and four feeder lines totaling 508 kilometres (316 mi) to be completed by 2029. In addition to rapid transit and heavy rail lines, there have been proposals for several monorail systems. ### Water transport Although much diminished from its past prominence, water-based transport still plays an important role in Bangkok and the immediate upstream and downstream provinces. Several water buses serve commuters daily. The Chao Phraya Express Boat serves thirty-four stops along the river, carrying an average of 35,586 passengers per day in 2010, while the smaller Khlong Saen Saep boat service serves twenty-seven stops on Saen Saep Canal with 57,557 daily passengers. Khlong Phasi Charoen boat service serves twenty stops on the Phasi Charoen Canal. Long-tail boats operate on fifteen regular routes on the Chao Phraya, and passenger ferries at thirty-two river crossings served an average of 136,927 daily passengers in 2010. Bangkok Port, popularly known by its location as Khlong Toei Port, was Thailand's main international port from its opening in 1947 until it was superseded by the deep-sea Laem Chabang Port in 1991. It is primarily a cargo port, though its inland location limits access to ships of 12,000 deadweight tonnes or less. The port handled 11,936,855 tonnes (13,158,130 tons) of cargo in the first eight months of the 2010 fiscal year, about 22 percent the total of the country's international ports. ### Airports Bangkok is one of Asia's busiest air transport hubs. Two commercial airports serve the city, the older Don Mueang International Airport and the newer Suvarnabhumi Airport. Suvarnabhumi, which replaced Don Mueang as Bangkok's main airport after its opening in 2006, served 52,808,013 passengers in 2015, making it the world's 20th busiest airport by passenger volume. This volume exceeded its designed capacity of 45 million passengers. Don Mueang reopened for domestic flights in 2007, and resumed international service focusing on low-cost carriers in October 2012. Suvarnabhumi is undergoing expansion to increase its capacity to 60 million passengers by 2019 and 90 million by 2021. Health and education -------------------- ### Education Bangkok has long been the centre of modern education in Thailand. The first schools in the country were established here in the later 19th century, and there are now 1,351 schools in the city. The city is home to the country's five oldest universities, Chulalongkorn, Thammasat, Kasetsart, Mahidol and Silpakorn, founded between 1917 and 1943. The city has since continued its dominance, especially in higher education; the majority of the country's universities, both public and private, are located in Bangkok or the Metropolitan Region. Chulalongkorn and Mahidol are the only Thai universities to appear in the top 500 of the *QS World University Rankings*. King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, also located in Bangkok, is the only Thai university in the top 400 of the 2012–13 *Times Higher Education World University Rankings*. Over the past few decades the general trend of pursuing a university degree has prompted the founding of new universities to meet the needs of Thai students. Bangkok became not only a place where immigrants and provincial Thais go for job opportunities, but also for a chance to receive a university degree. Ramkhamhaeng University emerged in 1971 as Thailand's first open university; it now has the highest enrolment in the country. The demand for higher education has led to the founding of many other universities and colleges, both public and private. While many universities have been established in major provinces, the Greater Bangkok region remains home to the greater majority of institutions, and the city's tertiary education scene remains over-populated with non-Bangkokians. The situation is not limited to higher education, either. In the 1960s, 60 to 70 percent of 10- to 19-year-olds who were in school had migrated to Bangkok for secondary education. This was due to both a lack of secondary schools in the provinces and perceived higher standards of education in the capital. Although this discrepancy has since largely abated, tens of thousands of students still compete for places in Bangkok's leading schools. Education has long been a prime factor in the centralization of Bangkok and will play a vital role in the government's efforts to decentralize the country. ### Healthcare Much of Thailand's medical resources are disproportionately concentrated in the capital. In 2000, Bangkok had 39.6 percent of the country's doctors and a physician-to-population ratio of 1:794, compared to a median of 1:5,667 among all provinces. The city is home to 42 public hospitals, five of which are university hospitals, as well as 98 private hospitals and 4,063 registered clinics.[*dead link*] The BMA operates nine public hospitals through its Medical Service Department, and its Health Department provides primary care through sixty-eight community health centres. Thailand's universal healthcare system is implemented through public hospitals and health centres as well as participating private providers. Research-oriented medical school affiliates such as Siriraj, King Chulalongkorn Memorial and Ramathibodi Hospitals are among the largest in the country, and act as tertiary care centres, receiving referrals from distant parts of the country. Lately, especially in the private sector, there has been much growth in medical tourism, with hospitals such as Bumrungrad and Bangkok Hospital, among others, providing services specifically catering to foreigners. An estimated 200,000 medical tourists visited Thailand in 2011, making Bangkok the most popular global destination for medical tourism. Crime and safety ---------------- Bangkok has a relatively moderate crime rate when compared to urban counterparts around the world. Traffic accidents are a major hazard while natural disasters are rare. Intermittent episodes of political unrest and occasional terrorist attacks have resulted in losses of life. Although the crime threat in Bangkok is relatively low, non-confrontational crimes of opportunity such as pick-pocketing, purse-snatching, and credit card fraud occur with frequency. Bangkok's growth since the 1960s has been followed by increasing crime rates partly driven by urbanisation, migration, unemployment and poverty. By the late 1980s, Bangkok's crime rates were about four times that of the rest of the country. The police have long been preoccupied with street crimes ranging from housebreaking to assault and murder. The 1990s saw the emergence of vehicle theft and organized crime, particularly by foreign gangs. Drug trafficking, especially that of *ya ba* methamphetamine pills, is also chronic. According to police statistics, the most common complaint received by the Metropolitan Police Bureau in 2010 was housebreaking, with 12,347 cases. This was followed by 5,504 cases of motorcycle thefts, 3,694 cases of assault and 2,836 cases of embezzlement. Serious offences included 183 murders, 81 gang robberies, 265 robberies, 1 kidnapping and 9 arson cases. Offences against the state were by far more common, and included 54,068 drug-related cases, 17,239 cases involving prostitution and 8,634 related to gambling. The Thailand Crime Victim Survey conducted by the Office of Justice Affairs of the Ministry of Justice found that 2.7 percent of surveyed households reported a member being victim of a crime in 2007. Of these, 96.1 percent were crimes against property, 2.6 percent were crimes against life and body, and 1.4 percent were information-related crimes. Political demonstrations and protests are common in Bangkok. The historic uprisings of 1973, 1976 and 1992 are infamously known for the deaths from military suppression. Most events since then have been peaceful, but the series of major protests since 2006 have often turned violent. Demonstrations during March–May 2010 ended in a crackdown in which 92 were killed, including armed and unarmed protesters, security forces, civilians and journalists. Terrorist incidents have also occurred in Bangkok, most notably the bombing in 2015 at the Erawan shrine, which killed 20, and also a series of bombings on the 2006–07 New Year's Eve. Traffic accidents are a major hazard in Bangkok. There were 37,985 accidents in the city in 2010, resulting in 16,602 injuries and 456 deaths as well as 426.42 million baht in damages. However, the rate of fatal accidents is much lower than in the rest of Thailand. While accidents in Bangkok amounted to 50.9 percent of the entire country, only 6.2 percent of fatalities occurred in the city. Another serious public health hazard comes from Bangkok's stray dogs. Up to 300,000 strays are estimated to roam the city's streets, and dog bites are among the most common injuries treated in the emergency departments of the city's hospitals. Rabies is prevalent among the dog population, and treatment for bites pose a heavy public burden. ### Calls to move the capital Bangkok is faced with multiple problems—including congestion, and especially subsidence and flooding—which have raised the issue of moving the nation's capital elsewhere. The idea is not new: during World War II Prime Minister Plaek Phibunsongkhram planned unsuccessfully to relocate the capital to Phetchabun. In the 2000s, the Thaksin Shinawatra administration assigned the Office of the National Economic and Social Development Council (NESDC) to formulate a plan to move the capital to Nakhon Nayok province. The 2011 floods revived the idea of moving government functions from Bangkok. In 2017, the military government assigned NESDC to study the possibility of moving government offices from Bangkok to Chachoengsao province in the east. International relations ----------------------- The city's formal international relations are managed by the International Affairs Division of the BMA. Its missions include partnering with other major cities through sister city or friendship agreements, participation and membership in international organizations, and pursuing cooperative activities with the many foreign diplomatic missions based in the city. ### International participation Bangkok is a member of several international organizations and regional city government networks, including the Asian Network of Major Cities 21, the Japan-led Asian-Pacific City Summit, the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, the ESCAP-sponsored Regional Network of Local Authorities for Management of Human Settlements in Asia and Pacific (CITYNET), Japan's Council of Local Authorities for International Relations, the World Association of the Major Metropolises and Local Governments for Sustainability, among others. With its location at the heart of mainland Southeast Asia and as one of Asia's hubs of transportation, Bangkok is home to many international and regional organizations. Among others, Bangkok is the seat of the Secretariat of the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), as well as the Asia-Pacific regional offices of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the International Organization for Migration (IOM), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the UN High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), and the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF). ### City partnerships Bangkok has made sister city or friendship agreements with: * Aichi Prefecture, Japan (2012) * Ankara, Turkey (2012) * Astana, Kazakhstan (2004) * Beijing, China (1993) * Brisbane, Australia (1997) * Budapest, Hungary (1997) * Busan, South Korea (2011) * Chaozhou, China (2005) * Chengdu, China (2017) * Chongqing, China (2011) * Daegu, South Korea (2017) * Dalian, China (2016) * Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan (2006) * Guangzhou, China (2009) * Hanoi, Vietnam (2004) * Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (2015) * Huế, Vietnam (2016) * Jakarta, Indonesia (2002) * Lausanne, Switzerland (2009) * Lisbon, Portugal (2016) * Manila, Philippines (1997) * Moscow, Russia (1997) * Penang Island, Malaysia (2012) * Porto, Portugal (2016) * Phnom Penh, Cambodia (2013) * Saint Petersburg, Russia (1997) * Seoul, South Korea (2006) * Shandong, China (2013) * Shanghai, China (2012) * Shenzhen, China (2015) * Tehran, Iran (2012) * Tianjin, China (2012) * Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia (2017) * Vientiane, Laos (2004) * Washington, D.C., United States (1962, 2002) * Wuhan, China (2013) See also -------- * Outline of Bangkok * Thai people * World's largest cities Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. ↑ British English: /bæŋˈkɒk/, American English: /ˈbæŋkɒk/ 2. ↑ กรุงเทพมหานคร, pronounced [krūŋ tʰêːp mahǎː nákʰɔ̄ːn] (), where the phrase "Maha Nakhon" literally translates to "large (or great) city" 3. ↑ 4. ↑ Two plants are known in Thai by the name *makok*: *E. hygrophilus* (*makok nam*, 'water *makok*') and *Spondias pinnata* (*makok pa*, 'jungle *makok*'). The species that grew in the area was likely *makok nam*. 5. ↑ While this ceremonial name is generally believed, based on writings by the Somdet Phra Wannarat (Kaeo), to have originally been given by King Rama I and later modified by King Mongkut, it did not come into use until the latter reign. 6. ↑ This ceremonial name uses two ancient Indian languages, Pāli and Sanskrit, prefaced with the only one Thai word, *Krung*, which means 'capital'. According to the romanisation of these languages, it can actually be written as *Krung-dēva mahā nagara amara ratanakosindra mah indr āyudhyā mahā tilaka bhava nava ratana rāja dhānī purī ramya uttama rājanivēsana mah āsthāna amara vimāna avatāra sthitya shakrasdattiya viṣṇu karma prasiddhi*. 7. ↑ In contrast to the 169-letter-long transcription provided above in this article, the form recorded in the Guinness World Records is missing the first letter "h" in *Amonphimanawatansathit*, resulting in a word 168 letters long. 8. ↑ The BMA gives an elevation figure of 2.31 metres (7 ft 7 in). 9. ↑ The population registry does not account for most internal migration, thus its figures will underestimate the city's actual population. 10. ↑ Thai ethnicity is rather a question of cultural identity than of genetic origin. Many people in Bangkok who self-identify as Thai have at least some Chinese ancestry. 11. ↑ An introductory publication by the BMA gives a figure of 80 percent Thai, 10 percent Chinese and 10 percent other, although this is likely a rough estimate. 12. ↑ By one recent estimate, at least 60 percent of the city's residents are of Chinese descent. 13. ↑ A 1993 study found dog bites to constitute 5.3 percent of injuries seen at Siriraj Hospital's emergency department. References ---------- ### General and cited references * Baker, Chris; Phongpaichit, Pasuk (2005). *A History of Thailand*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-01647-6. * Hamilton, Annette (2000). "Wonderful, Terrible: Everyday Life in Bangkok". In Bridge, Gary; Vatson, Sophie (eds.). *A Companion to the City*. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 460–471. ISBN 978-0-631-23578-1. * Naudin, Thierry, ed. (2010). *The State of Asian Cities 2010/11* (PDF). United Nations Human Settlements Programme. ISBN 978-92-1-132274-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 January 2013. Retrieved 25 September 2012. * Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) (August 2012). *Gross Regional and Provincial Product chain volume measures 1995–2010 edition*. Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board. Archived from the original (ZIP/PDF) on 4 February 2013. Retrieved 25 September 2012. * Thavisin, Nathanon; Semson, Pongsak; Padhanarath, Kriengpol, eds. (2006). *Your Key to Bangkok*. Bangkok: International Affairs Division, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration. ISBN 978-974-9565-72-8. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013. * Traffic and Transportation Department (2011). *สถิติจราจร ปี 2553 (Traffic statistics, 2010)* (PDF). Traffic and Transportation Department, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 19 September 2018. Further reading --------------- * Cornwel-Smith, Philip (2020). *Very Bangkok; In the City of the Senses* (Book review). Bangkok: River Books. ISBN 978-616-451-043-2. Retrieved 21 February 2020. * Ünaldi, Serhat (May 2016). *Working Towards the Monarchy; The Politics of Space in Downtown Bangkok* (Hardcover ed.). University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-5572-7. Retrieved 31 May 2019. * Van Beek, Steve (2018). *News from the 90s; Bangkok 1890–1899*. Bangkok: ปิยวีร์ รื่นจินดา. ISBN 978-616-93171-0-4. Retrieved 24 November 2018.

Bangkok

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok

**Pristina** (UK: /ˈpriːʃtɪnə, prɪʃˈtiːnə/, US: /ˈprɪʃtɪnɑː/) is the capital and largest city of Kosovo. It is the administrative center of the eponymous municipality and district. In antiquity, the area of Pristina was part of the Dardanian kingdom. The heritage of the classical era is represented by the settlement of Ulpiana, which was considered as one of the most influential Roman cities in the Balkan Peninsula. After the Roman Empire was divided into a western and an eastern half, the area remained within the Byzantine Empire between the 5th and 9th centuries. In the middle of the 9th century, it was ceded to the First Bulgarian Empire, before falling again under Byzantine occupation in the early 11th century and then in the late 11th century to the Second Bulgarian Empire. Pristina seems to have been a small village before the late 15th century. It is first recorded in 1342 as a village during the era of John VI Kantakouzenos and about a century later in 1455 at the beginning of the Ottoman era it had a small population of 300 households. In the following century, Pristina became an important mining and trading center due to its strategic position near the rich mining town of Novo Brdo. The city was known for its trade fairs and items, such as goatskin and goat hair as well as gunpowder. The first mosque in Pristina was built in the late 14th century while under Serbian rule. Pristina is the capital and the economic, financial, political and trade center of Kosovo, due to its location in the center of the country. It is the seat of power of the Government of Kosovo, the residences for work of the President and Prime Minister of Kosovo, and the Parliament of Kosovo. Pristina is also the most important transportation junction of Kosovo for air, rail, and roads. Pristina International Airport is the largest airport of the country and among the largest in the region. A range of expressways and motorways, such as the R 6 and R 7, radiate out the city and connect it to Albania and North Macedonia. Etymology --------- The origin of the name of the city is unknown. Eric P. Hamp connected the word with an Indo-European derivative *\*pṛ-tu-* (ford) + *\*stein* (cognate to English *stone*) which in Proto-Albanian, spoken in the region before the reign of Roman Emperor Trajan (1st-2nd century CE) produced *Pristina*. Thus the name in the pre-Slavic migrations era would mean in the local Albanian variety "ford-stone" (cf. Stanford). Ernst Eichler suggests a connection with the Emperor **Pri**mus Ju**stin**i**a**nus ("Justinian the First") who is thought to have built the town of Pristina. He speculates that the toponym Pristina is a composition of his name. Marko Snoj proposes the derivation from a Slavic form \**Prišьčь*, a possessive adjective from the personal name \**Prišьkъ*, and the derivational suffix *-ina* 'belonging to X and his kin'. The name is most likely a patronymic of the personal name \**Prišь*. According to Aleksandar Loma, Snoj's etymology would presuppose a rare and relatively late word formation process. According to Loma, the name of the city could be derived from the Proto-Slavic dialectal word \**pryščina*, meaning "spring (of water)". The inhabitants of this city call themselves *Prishtinali* in local Gheg Albanian or *Prištevci* (Приштевци) in the local Serbian dialect. History ------- ### Early development The area of Pristina has been inhabited since the Neolithic era by Early European Farmers after 7,000 BCE in the Balkans: Starčevo followed by its successors Vinča, Baden and lastly Bubanj-Hum. The earliest recognized references were discovered in Gračanica, Matiçan and Ulpiana. By the early Iron Age, the distinctly Dardanian local variant of the Illyrian Glasinac-Mati culture appears in Kosovo with a particular spread in hilltop settlements. In the area of Pristina, a hilltop settlement appears since the 8th century BCE at an altitude of 685m near the village Teneshdoll, ~16km to the north of the Pristina city center. Pottery finds suggests that the area may have been in use since the Bronze Age. The settlement seems to have maintained long-distance trade contacts as the finding of a skyphos vessel from Aegean Greece suggests. During the 4th century BC, a Dardanian Kingdom was established in the region. Following the Roman conquest of Illyria in 168 BC, Romans colonized and founded several cities in the region. Ulpiana was an important Roman city on the Balkan Peninsula and in the 2nd century BC it was declared a municipium. Ulpiana suffered tremendous damage from an earthquake in 518 AD. After the Roman Empire was divided into a western and an eastern half, the area remained within the Byzantine Empire for the following centuries. Emperor Justinian I rebuilt the city in great splendor and renamed it "Justiniana Secunda", although with the arrival of Slavs in the 6th century, the settlement again fell into disrepair. In the middle of the 9th century, it was ceded to the First Bulgarian Empire. ### 11th to 16th centuries In the early 11th century, Pristina fell under Byzantine rule and the area was included into a province called Bulgaria. Between the late 11th and middle of the 13th century it was ceded several times to the Second Bulgarian Empire. In 1315, the nearby Gračanica monastery was founded by King Stefan Milutin. Stefan Dušan used a location in the area of Pristina as his court before moving eventually to the vicinity of Skopje as he moved his rule southwards. The first historical record mentioning Pristina by its name dates back to 1342 when the Byzantine Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos, on visit to Stefan Dušan at his royal court, described Pristina as a 'village'. During the time of the Kingdom of Serbia in the early 14th century, the main route between the Western Balkans and Constantinople ran through Pristina. Following the Battle of Kosovo, Pristina fell within the realms of the Serbian Despotate under Prince Stefan Lazarević. A bitter feud between Lazarević and Đurađ Branković developed and led to open conflict, with Pristina being the scene of heavy fighting in 1409 and 1410. At the turn of the 15th century during the time of the Serbian Despotate, Pristina was a major trading post for silver, with many traders hailing from the Republic of Ragusa. Between the end of the 14th and the middle of the 15th century, Ottoman rule was gradually imposed in the town. In the course of the 14th and 15th centuries, Pristina began to develop as a mining and trading center thanks to its proximity to the rich mining town of Novo Brdo, and due to its position of the Balkan trade routes. The old town stretching out between the Vellusha and Prishtevka rivers which are both covered over today, became an important crafts and trade center. Pristina was famous for its annual trade fairs (*Panair*) and its goat hide and goat hair articles. Around 50 different crafts were practiced from tanning to leather dying, belt making and silk weaving, as well as crafts related to the military – armorers, smiths, and saddle makers. As early as 1485, Pristina artisans also started producing gunpowder. Trade was thriving and there was a growing colony of Ragusan traders (from modern day Dubrovnik) providing the link between Pristina's craftsmen and the outside world. In 1455 Pristina had a significant Muslim Albanian population. The settlement at the time had about 300 households. About 3/4 were Christian and 1/4 Muslim. In the 15th century the toponym *Arnaut* was recorded in the town, which indicates an Albanian presence. The first mosque was constructed in the late 14th century while under Serbian rule. The 1487 defter recorded 412 Christian and 94 Muslim households in Pristina, which at the time was administratively part of the Sanjak of Vučitrn. In the early Ottoman era, Islam was an urban phenomenon and only spread slowly with increasing urbanization. The travel writer Evliya Çelebi, visiting Pristina in the 1660s was impressed with its fine gardens and vineyards. In those years, Pristina was part of the Vıçıtırın Sanjak and its 2,000 families enjoyed the peace and stability of the Ottoman era. Economic life was controlled by the guild system (*esnafs*) with the tanners' and bakers' guild controlling prices, limiting unfair competition and acting as banks for their members. Religious life was dominated by religious charitable organizations often building mosques or fountains and providing charity to the poor. ### 17th to 20th centuries During the Austro-Turkish War in the late 17th century, Pristina citizens under the leadership of the Catholic Albanian priest Pjetër Bogdani pledged loyalty to the Austrian army and supplied troops. He contributed a force of 6,000 Albanian soldiers to the Austrian army which had arrived in Pristina. Under Austrian occupation, The Fatih Mosque (*Mbretit Mosque*) was briefly converted to a Jesuit church. Following the Austrian defeat in January 1690, Pristina's inhabitants were left at the mercy of Ottoman and Tatar troops who took revenge against the local population as punishment for their co-operation with the Austrians. A French officer traveling to Pristina noted soon afterwards that "Pristina looked impressive from a distance but close up it is a mass of muddy streets and houses made of earth". The year 1874 marked a turning point. That year the railway between Salonika and Mitrovica started operations and the seat of the vilayet of Prizren was relocated to Pristina. This privileged position as capital of the Ottoman vilayet lasted only for a short while. from January until August 1912, Pristina was liberated from Ottoman rule by Albanian rebel forces led by Hasan Prishtina. However, The Kingdom of Serbia opposed the plan for a Greater Albania, preferring a partition of the European territory of the Ottoman Empire among the four Balkan allies. On October 22, 1912, Serb forces took Pristina. However, Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the first Balkan War, occupied Kosovo in 1915 and took Pristina under Bulgarian occupation. During the Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars, Pristina suffered many atrocities; the Serbian army entered Pristina on 22 October. Albanian and Turkish households were looted and destroyed, and women and children were killed. A Danish journalist based in Skopje reported that the Serbian campaign in Pristina "had taken on the character of a horrific massacring of the Albanian population". An estimated 5,000 people in Pristina were murder in the early days of the Serbian occupation. The events have been interpreted as an early attempt to change the region's demographics. Serbian settlers were brought into the city, and Serbian Prime Minister Nikola Pašić bought 1,214 acres (491 ha) of land. Pristinans who wore a *plis* were targeted by the Serbian army; those who wore the Turkish fez were safe, and the price of a fez rose steeply. In late October 1918, the 11th French colonial division took over Pristina and returned Pristina back to what then became the 'First Yugoslavia' on the 1st of December 1918. In September 1920, the decree of the colonization of the new southern lands' facilitated the takeover by Serb colonists of large Ottoman estates in Pristina and land seized from Albanians. The interwar period saw the first exodus of Albanian and Turkish speaking population. From 1929 to 1941, Priština was part of the Vardar Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. On 17 April 1941, Yugoslavia surrendered unconditionally to axis forces. On 29 June, Benito Mussolini proclaimed a greater Albania, with most of Kosovo under Italian occupation united with Albania. There ensued mass killings of Serbs, in particular colonists, and an exodus of tens of thousands of Serbs. After the capitulation of Italy, Nazi Germany took control of the city. In May 1944, 281 local Jews were arrested by units of the 21st *Waffen* Mountain Division of the SS *Skanderbeg* (1st Albanian), which was made up mostly of Muslim Albanians. The Jews were later deported to Germany, where many were killed. The few surviving Jewish families in Pristina eventually left for Israel in 1949. As a result of World War II and forced migration, Pristina's population dropped to 9,631 inhabitants. The communist decision to make Pristina the capital of Kosovo in 1947 ushered a period of rapid development and outright destruction. The Yugoslav communist slogan at the time was **uništi stari graditi novi** (destroy the old, build the new). In a misguided effort to modernize the town, communists set out to destroy the Ottoman bazaar and large parts of the historic center, including mosques, catholic churches and Ottoman houses. A second agreement signed between Yugoslavia and Turkey in 1953 led to the exodus of several hundreds more Albanian families from Pristina. They left behind their homes, properties and businesses. However, this policy changed under the new constitution ratified in 1974. Few of the Ottoman town houses survived the communists' modernization drive, with the exception of those that were nationalized like today's Emin Gjiku Museum or the building of the Institute for the Protection of Monuments. As capital city and seat of the government, Pristina creamed off a large share of Yugoslav development funds channeled into Kosovo. As a result, the city's population and its economy changed rapidly. In 1966, Pristina had few paved roads, the old town houses had running water and cholera was still a problem. Prizren continued to be the largest town in Kosovo. Massive investments in state institutions like the newly founded University of Pristina, the construction of new high-rise socialist apartment blocks and a new industrial zone on the outskirts of Pristina attracted large number of internal migrants. This ended a long period when the institution had been run as an outpost of Belgrade University and gave a major boost to Albanian-language education and culture in Kosovo. The Albanians were also allowed to use the Albanian flag. Within a decade, Pristina nearly doubled its population from about 69,514 in 1971 to 109,208 in 1981. This golden age of externally financed rapid growth was cut short by Yugoslavia's economic collapse and the 1981 student revolts. Pristina, like the rest of Kosovo slid into a deepening economic and social crisis. The year 1989 saw the revocation of Kosovo's autonomy under Milošević, the rise of Serb nationalism and mass dismissal of ethnic Albanians. #### Kosovo War Following the reduction of Kosovo's autonomy by former Serbian President Slobodan Milošević in 1989, a harshly repressive regime was imposed throughout Kosovo by the Yugoslav government with Albanians largely being purged from state industries and institutions. The LDK's[*clarification needed*] role meant, that when the Kosovo Liberation Army began to attack Serbian and Yugoslav forces from 1996 onwards, Pristina remained largely calm until the outbreak of the Kosovo War in March 1999. Pristina was spared large scale destruction compared to towns like Gjakova or Peja that suffered heavily at the hands of Serbian forces. For their strategic importance, however, a number of military targets were hit in Pristina during NATO's aerial campaign, including the post office, police headquarters and army barracks, today's Adem Jashari garrison on the road to Kosovo Polje. Widespread violence broke out in Pristina. Serbian and Yugoslav forces shelled several districts and, in conjunction with paramilitaries, conducted large-scale expulsions of ethnic Albanians accompanied by widespread looting and destruction of Albanian properties. Many of those expelled were directed onto trains apparently brought to Pristina's main station for the express purpose of deporting them to the border of North Macedonia, where they were forced into exile. The majority Albanian population fled Pristina in large numbers to escape Serb policy and paramilitary units. The first NATO troops to enter the city in early June 1999 were Norwegian special forces from FSK Forsvarets Spesialkommando and soldiers from the British Special Air Service 22 S.A.S, although to NATO's diplomatic embarrassment Russian troops arrived first at the airport. Apartments were occupied illegally and the Roma quarters behind the city park was torched. Several strategic targets in Pristina were attacked by NATO during the war, but serious physical damage appears to have largely been restricted to a few specific neighbourhoods shelled by Yugoslav security forces. At the end of the war the Serbs became victims of violence committed by Kosovo Albanian extremists. On numerous occasions Serbs were killed by mobs of Kosovo Albanian extremists for merely speaking Serbian in public or being identified as a Serb. Violence reached its pinnacle in 2004 when Kosovo Albanian extremists were moving from apartment block to apartment block attacking and ransacking the residences of remaining Serbs. A majority of the city's 45,000 Serb inhabitants fled from Kosovo and today only several dozen remain in the city. As a capital city and seat of the UN administration (UNMIK), Pristina has benefited greatly from a high concentration of international staff with disposable income and international organizations with sizable budgets. The injection of reconstruction funds from donors, international organizations and the Albanian diaspora has fueled an unrivaled, yet short-lived, economic boom. A plethora of new cafes, restaurants and private businesses opened to cater for new (and international) demand with the beginning of a new era for Pristina. ### 21st century Pristina International Airport's new terminal opened for operations in October 2013, which was built in response to a growing demand for air travel in Kosovo. In November of the same year, the R7 motorway as part of the Albania-Kosovo motorway, linking Pristina and the Albanian city of Durrës on the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast, was completed. Another extensive development for the city has been the completion of the R6 motorway in 2019, connecting Pristina to the Macedonian city of Skopje. Geography --------- Pristina is situated on a alluvial plain in the regions of Llap and Kosovo across the Goljak Hills in central and eastern Kosovo. Bodies of water in Pristina Municipality include the lakes of Gračanica and Batlava as well as the rivers of Llapi, Prishtevka and Vellusha. The park of Germia lies in the east of Pristina and extends in the north of the villages of Llukar and Kolovica to the south at Badovac. Pristina is one of the urban areas with the most severe water shortages in Kosovo. Its population have to cope with daily water curbs due to the lack of rain and snowfall, which has left Pristina's water supplies in a dreadful condition. The water supply comes from the two main reservoirs of Batlava and Gračanica. However, there are many problems with the water supply that comes from these two reservoirs which supply 92% of Pristina's population. As such, the authorities have increased their efforts to remedy the situation and to make sure that such crises do not hit the city again. ### Climate According to the Köppen climate classification, Pristina falls under the periphery of the Oceanic climate (Cfb) zone with an average annual temperature of 10.6 °C (51.1 °F). The warmest month in Pristina is August with an average temperature rising to 21.8 °C (71.2 °F), while the coldest month is January with an average temperature falling to −0.6 °C (30.9 °F). Pristina has a moderate climate with an average of 2909.69 hours of sunshine annually. July is the sunniest month of the year with an average of about 11.5 hours of sunshine a day and by contrast, the average hours of sunshine are less than 4.5 hours per day in January. | | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 15.8(60.4) | 20.2(68.4) | 26.0(78.8) | 29.0(84.2) | 32.3(90.1) | 36.3(97.3) | 39.2(102.6) | 36.8(98.2) | 34.4(93.9) | 29.3(84.7) | 22.0(71.6) | 15.6(60.1) | 39.2(102.6) | | Average high °C (°F) | 2.4(36.3) | 5.5(41.9) | 10.5(50.9) | 15.7(60.3) | 20.7(69.3) | 23.9(75.0) | 26.4(79.5) | 26.7(80.1) | 23.1(73.6) | 17.1(62.8) | 10.1(50.2) | 4.1(39.4) | 15.5(59.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −1.3(29.7) | 1.1(34.0) | 5.0(41.0) | 9.9(49.8) | 14.7(58.5) | 17.8(64.0) | 19.7(67.5) | 19.5(67.1) | 15.9(60.6) | 10.6(51.1) | 5.1(41.2) | 0.4(32.7) | 9.8(49.6) | | Average low °C (°F) | −4.9(23.2) | −2.8(27.0) | 0.2(32.4) | 4.2(39.6) | 8.5(47.3) | 11.4(52.5) | 12.5(54.5) | 12.3(54.1) | 9.4(48.9) | 5.0(41.0) | 0.9(33.6) | −3.1(26.4) | 4.4(39.9) | | Record low °C (°F) | −27.2(−17.0) | −24.5(−12.1) | −14.2(6.4) | −5.3(22.5) | −1.8(28.8) | 0.5(32.9) | 3.9(39.0) | 4.4(39.9) | −4.0(24.8) | −8.0(17.6) | −17.6(0.3) | −20.6(−5.1) | −27.2(−17.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 38.9(1.53) | 36.1(1.42) | 38.8(1.53) | 48.8(1.92) | 68.2(2.69) | 60.3(2.37) | 51.6(2.03) | 44.0(1.73) | 42.1(1.66) | 45.4(1.79) | 68.2(2.69) | 55.5(2.19) | 597.9(23.54) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 13.6 | 12.3 | 11.4 | 12.1 | 12.8 | 11.9 | 8.3 | 7.9 | 7.5 | 8.6 | 12.3 | 14.5 | 133.2 | | Average snowy days | 10.2 | 8.3 | 6.2 | 1.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 3.4 | 8.1 | 38.2 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 83 | 77 | 70 | 65 | 67 | 67 | 63 | 62 | 68 | 74 | 80 | 83 | 71 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 70.8 | 96.0 | 143.0 | 184.0 | 227.9 | 246.3 | 299.3 | 289.6 | 225.8 | 173.5 | 96.9 | 70.2 | 2,123.3 | | Source: Republic Hydrometeorological Service of Serbia | Politics -------- Pristina is the capital city of Kosovo and plays an instrumental role in shaping the political and economic life of the country. It is the location of the Parliament of Kosovo headquartered at the Mother Teresa Square and the official residence and workplace of the President and Prime Minister of Kosovo. Pristina is also home to Kosovo's Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and Appeal Court as well as the Basic Court of Pristina. Pristina is a municipality governed by a mayor–council system with the mayor of Pristina and the members of the Pristina Municipal Council responsible for the administration of Pristina Municipality. The municipality is encompassed in Pristina District and consists of 43 adjacent settlements with Pristina as its seat. The mayor of Pristina is elected by the people to act as the chief executive officer of Pristina Municipality. The Pristina Municipal Council is the legislative arm of the municipality and is also a democratically elected institution, comprising 51 councillors since the latest municipal election. Economy ------- Pristina constitutes the heart of the economy of Kosovo and of vital importance to the country's stability. The tertiary sector is the most important for the economy of the city and employs more than 75% of work force of Pristina. 20% of the working population makes up the secondary sector followed by the primary sector with only 5%. Pristina is the primary tourist destination in Kosovo as well as the main air gateway to the country. It is known as a university center of students from neighbouring countries as Albania, North Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia. In 2012, Tourism in Pristina attracted around 100,000 foreign visitors. which represents 74.2%. Most foreign tourists come from Albania, Turkey, Germany, United States, Slovenia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, with the number of visitors from elsewhere growing every year. The city has a large number of luxury hotels, modern restaurants, bars, pubs and very large nightclubs. Coffee bars are a representative icon of Pristina and they can be found almost everywhere. The largest hotels of the city are the Swiss Diamond and the Grand Hotel Prishtina situated in the heart of the city. Other major hotels present in Pristina include the Emerald Hotel, Sirius Hotel and Hotel Garden. Some of the most visited sights near the city include the Batlava Lake and Marble Cave, which are also among the most visited places in country. Pristina has played a very important role during the World War II, being a shelter for Jews, whose cemeteries now can be visited. Infrastructure -------------- ### Transport Pristina constitutes the economic and financial heart of Kosovo, in part due to its high population, modern infrastructure and geographical location in the center of the country. Following the independence of Kosovo, the city has undergone significant improvements and developments vastly modernising and expanding the economy, infrastructure and most notably transportation by air, rail and road. Pristina is the most important and frequent road junction of Kosovo as all of the major expressways and motorways passes through the city limits. Most of the motorways of Kosovo are largely completed and partially under construction or under planning process. Immediately after completion, Pristina will provide direct access to Skopje through the R6 motorway. The R7 motorway significantly connects Durrës with Prishtina and will have near future a direct connection to the Pan-European corridor X. Pristina International Airport serves as the premier gateway to the country and carries almost 2 million passengers per year with connections to many destinations around different countries and cities of Europe with the most frequent routes to Austria, Germany, Switzerland as well as to Slovenia, Turkey and the United Kingdom. Pristina is the transport hub of road, rail and air in Kosovo. The city's buses, trains and planes together all serve to maintain a high level of connectivity between Pristina many different districts and beyond. Analysis from the Traffic Police have shown that, of 240,000 cars registered in Kosovo, around 100,000 (41%) are from the region of Pristina. The Pristina railway station is located near the city center. Pristina effectively has two train stations. Pristina railway station lies west of the center, while Fushë Kosovë railway station is Kosovo's railway hub. Pristina is serviced by a train that travels through Pristina to Skopje daily. The station is located in the industrial section of Pristina. ### Education Pristina is the center of education in the country and home to many public and private primary and secondary schools, colleges, academies and universities, located in different areas across the city. The University of Pristina is the largest and oldest university of the city and was established in the 20th century. Finance, arts, journalism, medicine, dentistry, pharmaceuticals, veterinary programs, and engineering are among the most popular fields for foreigners to undertake in the city. This brings a many of young students from other cities and countries to Pristina. It is known for its many educational institutions such as University of Pristina, University of Pristina Faculty of Arts and the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Kosovo. Among the first schools known in the city were those opened during the Ottoman period. Albanians were allowed to attend these schools, most of which were religious, with only few of them being secular. The city has numerous libraries, many of which contain vast collections of historic and cultural documents. The most important library in terms of historic document collections is the National Library of Kosovo. Demography ---------- | Population history of Pristina Municipality | | --- | | Year | 1948 | 1953 | 1961 | 1971 | 1981 | 1991 | 2011 | 2021 | | Pop. | 44,089 | 51,457 | 69,810 | 105,273 | 148,656 | 199,654 | 198,897 | 218,782 | | ±% p.a. | —     | +3.14% | +3.89% | +4.19% | +3.51% | +2.99% | −0.02% | +0.96% | | Source: | According to the Kosovo Agency of Statistics (KAS) estimate from the 2011 census, there were 198,897 people residing in Pristina Municipality, representing the most populous city and municipality of Kosovo. The urban population of Pristina Municipality was approximately 160,000, while the rural population was around 37,000. With a population density of 380,3 people per square kilometre, Pristina is the third most densely populated municipality of Kosovo. In terms of ethnicity, Pristina Municipality was 97.77% Albanian, 1.08% Turkish, 0.28% Ashkali, 0.22% Serbian, 0.2% Bosniak, 0.1% Gorani and 0.03% Romani. By language, 98.09% spoke Albanian as a first language. Other spoken languages in Pristina Municipality were Turkish (1.04%), Serbian (0.25%) and Romani (0.03%). By religion, there were 193,474 (97.27%) Muslims, 1,170 (0.59%) Roman Catholics, 480 (0.24%) Orthodox, 344 (0.17%) of other religions and 660 (0.33%) irreligious. Kosovo is a secular state with no state religion. The freedom of belief, conscience and religion is explicitly guaranteed in the Constitution of Kosovo. Islam and Christianity are the most widely practiced religions among the people of Pristina. The remaining 1.9% of the population reported having no religion, or another religion, or did not provide an adequate answer. Pristina has centres of worship for a multitude of faiths for its population. The Cathedral of Pristina is perhaps the largest cathedral in Kosovo and is named in honour of the Albanian Roman Catholic nun and missionary, Mother Teresa. Some of the mosques of Pristina, among others the Imperial Mosque and Çarshi Mosque, are centuries old and were built during the Middle Ages by the Ottomans. Great MosqueCathedral of Saint Mother TeresaBazaar MosqueChrist the Saviour Church Culture ------- As the capital city of the Republic of Kosovo, it is the center of cultural and artistic development of all Albanians that live in Kosovo. Pristina is home to the largest cultural institutions of the country, such as the National Theatre of Kosovo, National Archaeology, Ethnography and Natural science Museum, National Art Gallery and the Ethnological Museum. The National Library of Kosovo has than 1.8 million books, periodicals, maps, atlases, microfilms and other library materials. There are many foreign cultural institutions in Pristina, including the Albanian Albanological Institute, the French Alliance Française, the British Council, and the German Goethe-Institut and Friedrich Ebert Foundation. The Information Office of the Council of Europe was also established in Pristina. The Clock Tower served as a means of informing the town in order to let people know when to pray as well as the traders closing their shops. **(left)** The Ethnological Museum. **(right)** Of 426 protected historical monuments in Kosovo, 21 are in Pristina. A large number of these monuments date back to the Byzantine and Ottoman periods. Starting in 1945, the Yugoslav authorities began constructing a modern Pristina with the idea of "destroy the old, build the new". This modernization led to major changes in the structure of the buildings, their function and their surrounding environment. However, numerous types of monuments have been preserved, including four mosques, a restored orthodox church, an Ottoman bath, a public fountain, a clock tower, several traditional houses as well as European-influenced architecture buildings such as Kosovo Museum. These symbolize the historical and cultural character of Pristina as it was developed throughout centuries in the spirit of conquering empires (Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian). The *Hivzi Sylejmani* library was founded 70 years ago and it is one of the largest libraries regarding the number of books in its inventory which is nearly 100.000. All of those books are in service for the library's registered readers.[*failed verification*] The *Mbretëresha e Dardanisë* *(Queen of Dardania)* or *Hyjnesha ne Fron* *(The Goddess on the Throne)* is an artifact that was found during some excavations in 1955 in the area of Ulpiana, a suburb of Pristina. It dates back to 3500 BC in the Neolithic Era and it is made of clay. In Pristina there is also "Hamami i Qytetit"(The City Bath) and the house of Emin Gjika which has been transformed to the Ethnographic Museum. Pristina also has its municipal archive which was established in the 1950s and holds all the records of the city, municipality and the region. ### Media Media in Pristina include some of the most important newspapers, largest publishing houses and most prolific television studios of Kosovo. Pristina is the largest communications center of media in Kosovo. Almost all of the major media organizations in Kosovo are based in Pristina. The television industry developed in Pristina and is a significant employer in the city's economy. The four major broadcast networks, RTK, RTV21, KTV and KLAN KOSOVA are all headquartered in Pristina. Radio Television of Kosovo (RTK) is the only public broadcaster both in Pristina and in all of Kosovo as well, who continues to be financed directly by the state. All of the daily newspapers in Pristina have a readership throughout Kosovo. An important event which affected the development of the media, is that in University of Pristina since 2005 is established the Journalism Faculty within the Faculty of Philology in which are registered a large number of youth people. ### Music Albanian music is considered to be very rich in genres and their development. But before talking about genre development, a key point that has to be mentioned is without doubt the rich folklore of Kosovo most of which unfortunately has not been digitalized and saved in archives. The importance of folklore is reflected in two main keys, it is considered a treasure" of cultural heritage of our country and it helps to enlighten the Albanian history of that time, and the importance of that is of a high level especially when mentioning the circumstances of our territory in that time. Folklore has also served as inspiration and influence in many fields including music composition in the next generations One of the most notable and very first composers, Rexho Mulliqi in whose work, folklore inspiration and influence is very present. When highlighting the music creativity and its starts in Kosovo and the relation between it and the music creativity in Albania even though they have had their development in different circumstances, it is proved that they share some characteristics in a very natural way. This fact shows that they belong to one "Cultural Tree". Some of few international music artists of Albanian heritage were born and raised in the city including Rita Ora, Dua Lipa and Era Istrefi. ### Theater The city of Pristina hosts only three active theatres such as the National Theater, Oda and Dodona Theatre placed in center of Pristina. They offers live performances every week. The National Theatre is placed in the middle downtown of the city, near the main government building and was founded in 1946. ODA Theatre is situated in the Youth Center Building and Dodona Theatre is found in Vellusha district, which is near Ibrahim Rugova Square. The National Theater of Kosovo is the highest-ranked theater institution in the country and has the largest number of productions. The theater is the only public theater in Kosovo and therefore it is financed by Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sport. This theater has produced more than 400 premieres which have been watched by more than 3 million spectators. ### Festivals The Prishtina International Film Festival screens prominent international cinema productions in the Balkan region and beyond, and draws attention to the Kosovar film industry. It was created after the 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence. After its independence in 2008, Kosovo looked for ways to promote its cultural and artistic image. One of major festivals include the Chopin Piano Fest Pristina that was established for the first time on the occasion of the 200th birth anniversary of Frédéric Chopin in 2010 by the Kosovo Chopin Association. The festival is becoming a traditional piano festival held in spring every year. It is considered to be a national treasure. In its 5 years of formation it has offered interpretations by both world-famous pianists such as Peter Donohoe, Janina Fialkowska, Kosovo-Albanian musicians of international renown like Ardita Statovci, Alberta Troni and local talents. The Festival strives to promote the art of interpretation, the proper value of music and the technicalities that accompany it. The Festival has served as inspiration for the formation of other music festivals like Remusica and Kamerfest. The DAM Festival Pristina is one of the most prominent cultural events taking place in the capital. It is an annual music festival which gathers young and talented national and international musicians from all over the world. This festival works on enriching the Kosovar cultural scene with the collision of the traditional and the contemporary. The festival was founded by musician Dardan Selimaj. ### Sports Pristina is the center of sport in Kosovo, where activity is organized across amateur and professional levels, sport organizations and clubs, regulated by the Kosovo Olympic Committee and the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sport. Sport is organized in units called Municipal Leagues. There are seven Municipal Leagues in Pristina. The Football Municipal consists of 18 clubs, the Basketball Municipal 5 clubs, the Handball Municipal 2 clubs, Table Tennis and Chess 6 clubs each, the Karate Municipal 15 and the Tennis Municipal 2 clubs. Football is the most popular sport in the city. It is represented by FC Prishtina, which plays their home games in the Fadil Vokrri Stadium. Basketball has been also one of the most popular sports in Pristina and is represented by KB Prishtina. It is the most successful basketball club in Kosovo and is part of the Balkan League. Joining it in the Superleague is another team from Pristina, RTV 21. Streetball is a traditionally organized sport and cultural event at the Germia Park since 2000. Apart from indoor basketball success, Che Bar team has been crowned the champion of the national championship in 2013. This victory coincided with Streetball Kosovo's acceptance in FIBA. Handball is also very popular. Pristina's representatives are recognized internationally and play international matches. International relations ----------------------- Pristina is a founding member of the Union of Albanian Municipalities in the Region. Pristina is twinned with: * Ankara, Turkey * Bursa, Turkey * Des Moines, United States of America * Namur, Belgium Pristina also has a partnership agreement with Zagreb. See also -------- * List of people from Pristina Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. ↑ Albanian: *Prishtinë*, pronounced [pɾiʃˈti:nə], definite Albanian form: *Prishtina*, pronounced [pɾiʃˈti:na] (); Serbian: Приштина/ *Priština* 2. ↑ Preserved in the Kajkavian surname Prišek, in the Old Polish personal name Parzyszek, and in the Polish surname Pryszczyk 3. ↑ Preserved as a surname in Sorbian Priš, and Polish Przybysz, a hypocoristic of the Slavic personal name Pribyslavъ 4. ↑ Also attested in the Moravian dialects of Czech, derived from the verb \*pryskati, meaning "to splash" or "to spray" (prskati in modern Serbian) 5. ↑ Citations regarding the twin or sister cities of Pristina:

Pristina

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pristina

**Marcus Aurelius Antoninus** (born **Sextus Varius Avitus Bassianus**, c. 204 – 11/12 March 222), better known by his nicknames "**Elagabalus**" (/ˌɛləˈɡæbələs/, *EL-ə-GAB-ə-ləs*) and **Heliogabalus** (/ˌhiːliə-, -lioʊ-/ *HEE-lee-ə-, -⁠lee-oh-*), was Roman emperor from 218 to 222, while he was still a teenager. His short reign was conspicuous for sex scandals and religious controversy. A close relative to the Severan dynasty, he came from a prominent Arab family in Emesa (Homs), Syria, where since his early youth he served as head priest of the sun god Elagabal. After the death of his cousin, the emperor Caracalla, Elagabalus was raised to the principate at 14 years of age in an army revolt instigated by his grandmother Julia Maesa against Caracalla's short-lived successor, Macrinus. He only posthumously became known by the Latinised name of his god. Later historians suggest Elagabalus showed a disregard for Roman religious traditions and sexual taboos. He replaced the traditional head of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter, with the deity Elagabal, of whom he had been high priest. He forced leading members of Rome's government to participate in religious rites celebrating this deity, presiding over them in person. He married four women, including a Vestal Virgin, in addition to lavishing favours on male courtiers thought to have been his lovers. He was also reported to have prostituted himself. His behavior estranged the Praetorian Guard, the Senate and the common people alike. Amidst growing opposition, at just 18 years of age he was assassinated and replaced by his cousin Severus Alexander in March 222. The assassination plot against Elagabalus was devised by Julia Maesa and carried out by disaffected members of the Praetorian Guard. Elagabalus developed a reputation among his contemporaries for extreme eccentricity, decadence, zealotry and sexual promiscuity. This tradition has persisted; among writers of the early modern age he suffered one of the worst reputations among Roman emperors. Edward Gibbon, notably, wrote that Elagabalus "abandoned himself to the grossest pleasures with ungoverned fury". According to Barthold Georg Niebuhr, "the name Elagabalus is branded in history above all others" because of his "unspeakably disgusting life". An example of a modern historian's assessment is Adrian Goldsworthy's: "Elagabalus was not a tyrant, but he was an incompetent, probably the least able emperor Rome had ever had." Despite near-universal condemnation of his reign, some scholars write warmly about his religious innovations, including the 6th-century Byzantine chronicler John Malalas, as well as Warwick Ball, a modern historian who described him as "a tragic enigma lost behind centuries of prejudice". Family and priesthood --------------------- An *Antoninianus* coin of Julia Maesa, inscribed: iulia maesa aug·A sculpture of Julia Soaemias Elagabalus was born in 203 or 204, to Sextus Varius Marcellus and Julia Soaemias Bassiana, who had probably married around the year 200 (and no later than 204). Elagabalus's full birth name was probably (Sextus) Varius Avitus Bassianus, the last name being apparently a cognomen of the Emesene dynasty. Marcellus was an equestrian, later elevated to a senatorial position. Julia Soaemias was a cousin of the emperor Caracalla, and there were rumors (which Soaemias later publicly supported) that Elagabalus was Caracalla's child. Marcellus's tombstone attests that Elagabalus had at least one brother, about whom nothing is known. Elagabalus's grandmother, Julia Maesa, was the widow of the consul Julius Avitus Alexianus, the sister of Julia Domna, and the sister-in-law of the emperor Septimius Severus. Other relatives included Elagabalus's aunt Julia Avita Mamaea and uncle Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus and their son Severus Alexander. Elagabalus's family held hereditary rights to the priesthood of the sun god Elagabal, of whom Elagabalus was the high priest at Emesa (modern Homs) in Roman Syria as part of the Arab Emesene dynasty. The deity's Latin name, "Elagabalus", is a Latinized version of the Arabic إِلٰهُ الْجَبَلِ *Ilāh al-Jabal*, from *ilāh* ("god") and *jabal* ("mountain"), meaning "God of the Mountain", the Emesene manifestation of Ba'al. Initially venerated at Emesa, the deity's cult spread to other parts of the Roman Empire in the second century; a dedication has been found as far away as Woerden (in the Netherlands), near the Roman *limes*. The god was later imported to Rome and assimilated with the sun god known as Sol Indiges in the era of the Roman Republic and as Sol Invictus during the late third century. In Greek, the sun god is Helios, hence Elagabal was later known as "Heliogabalus", a hybrid of "Helios" and "Elagabalus". Rise to power ------------- Herodian writes that when the emperor Macrinus came to power, he suppressed the threat to his reign from the family of his assassinated predecessor, Caracalla, by exiling them—Julia Maesa, her two daughters, and her eldest grandson Elagabalus—to their estate at Emesa in Syria. Almost upon arrival in Syria, Maesa began a plot with her advisor and Elagabalus's tutor, Gannys, to overthrow Macrinus and elevate the fourteen-year-old Elagabalus to the imperial throne. Maesa spread a rumor, which Soaemias publicly supported, that Elagabalus was the illegitimate child of Caracalla and so deserved the loyalty of Roman soldiers and senators who had sworn allegiance to Caracalla. The soldiers of the Third Legion *Gallica* at Raphana, who had enjoyed greater privileges under Caracalla and resented Macrinus (and may have been impressed or bribed by Maesa's wealth), supported this claim. At sunrise on 16 May 218, Elagabalus was declared emperor by Publius Valerius Comazon, commander of the legion. To strengthen his legitimacy, Elagabalus adopted the same name Caracalla bore as emperor, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Cassius Dio states that some officers tried to keep the soldiers loyal to Macrinus, but they were unsuccessful. Praetorian prefect Ulpius Julianus responded by attacking the Third Legion, most likely on Macrinus's orders (though one account says he acted on his own before Macrinus knew of the rebellion). Herodian suggests Macrinus underestimated the threat, considering the rebellion inconsequential. During the fighting, Julianus's soldiers killed their officers and joined Elagabalus's forces. Macrinus asked the Roman Senate to denounce Elagabalus as "the False Antoninus", and they complied, declaring war on Elagabalus and his family. Macrinus made his son Diadumenian co-emperor, and attempted to secure the loyalty of the Second Legion with large cash payments. During a banquet to celebrate this at Apamea, however, a messenger presented Macrinus with the severed head of his defeated prefect Julianus. Macrinus therefore retreated to Antioch, after which the Second Legion shifted its loyalties to Elagabalus. Elagabalus's legionaries, commanded by Gannys, defeated Macrinus and Diadumenian and their Praetorian Guard at the Battle of Antioch on 8 June 218, prevailing when Macrinus's troops broke ranks after he fled the battlefield. Macrinus made for Italy, but was intercepted near Chalcedon and executed in Cappadocia, while Diadumenian was captured at Zeugma and executed. That month, Elagabalus wrote to the Senate, assuming the imperial titles without waiting for senatorial approval, which violated tradition but was a common practice among third-century emperors. Letters of reconciliation were dispatched to Rome extending amnesty to the Senate and recognizing its laws, while also condemning the administration of Macrinus and his son. The senators responded by acknowledging Elagabalus as emperor and accepting his claim to be the son of Caracalla. Elagabalus was made consul for the year 218 in the middle of June. Caracalla and Julia Domna were both deified by the Senate, both Julia Maesa and Julia Soaemias were elevated to the rank of Augustae, and the memory of Macrinus was expunged by the Senate. (Elagabalus's imperial artifacts assert that he succeeded Caracalla directly.) Comazon was appointed commander of the Praetorian Guard. Elagabalus was named *Pater Patriae* by the Senate before 13 July 218. On 14 July, Elagabalus was inducted into the colleges of all the Roman priesthoods, including the College of Pontiffs, of which he was named *pontifex maximus*. Emperor (218–222) ----------------- ### Journey to Rome and political appointments Elagabalus stayed for a time at Antioch, apparently to quell various mutinies. Dio outlines several, which historian Fergus Millar places prior to the winter of 218–219. These included one by Gellius Maximus, who commanded the Fourth Legion and was executed, and one by Verus, who commanded the Third Legion *Gallica*, which was disbanded once the revolt was put down. Next, according to Herodian, Elagabalus and his entourage spent the winter of 218–219 in Bithynia at Nicomedia, and then traveled through Thrace and Moesia to Italy in the first half of 219, the year of Elagabalus's second consulship. Herodian says that Elagabalus had a painting of himself sent ahead to Rome to be hung over a statue of the goddess Victoria in the Senate House so people would not be surprised by his Eastern garb, but it is unclear if such a painting actually existed, and Dio does not mention it. If the painting was indeed hung over Victoria, it put senators in the position of seeming to make offerings to Elagabalus when they made offerings to Victoria. On his way to Rome, Elagabalus and his allies executed several prominent supporters of Macrinus, such as Syrian governor Fabius Agrippinus and former Thracian governor C. Claudius Attalus Paterculianus. Arriving at the imperial capital in August or September 219, Elagabalus staged an *adventus*, a ceremonial entrance to the city. In Rome, his offer of amnesty for the Roman upper class was largely honored, though the jurist Ulpian was exiled. Elagabalus made Comazon praetorian prefect, and later consul (220) and prefect of the city (three times, 220–222), which Dio regarded as a violation of Roman norms. Elagabalus himself held a consulship for the third year in a row in 220. Herodian and the *Augustan History* say that Elagabalus alienated many by giving powerful positions to other allies. He developed the imperial palace at Horti Spei Veteris with the inclusion of the nearby land inherited from his father Sextus Varius Marcellus. Elagabalus made it his favourite retreat and designed it (as for Nero's Domus Aurea project) as a vast suburban villa divided into various building and landscape nuclei with the Amphitheatrum Castrense which he built and the Circus Varianus hippodrome fired by his unbridled passion for circuses and his habit of driving chariots inside the villa. He raced chariots under the family name of Varius. Dio states that Elagabalus wanted to marry a charioteer named Hierocles and to declare him *caesar*, just as (Dio says) he had previously wanted to marry Gannys and name him *caesar*. The athlete Aurelius Zoticus is said by Dio to have been Elagabalus's lover and *cubicularius* (a non-administrative role), while the *Augustan History* says Zoticus was a husband to Elagabalus and held greater political influence. Elagabalus's relationships to his mother Julia Soaemias and grandmother Julia Maesa were strong at first; they were influential supporters from the beginning, and Macrinus declared war on them as well as Elagabalus. Accordingly, they became the first women allowed into the Senate, and both received senatorial titles: Soaemias the established title of *Clarissima,* and Maesa the more unorthodox *Mater Castrorum et Senatus* ("Mother of the army camp and of the Senate"). They exercised influence over the young emperor throughout his reign, and are found on many coins and inscriptions, a rare honor for Roman women. Under Elagabalus, the gradual devaluation of Roman *aurei* and *denarii* continued (with the silver purity of the *denarius* dropping from 58% to 46.5%), though *antoniniani* had a higher metal content than under Caracalla. ### Religious controversy Since the reign of Septimius Severus, sun worship had increased throughout the Empire. At the end of 220, Elagabalus instated Elagabal as the chief deity of the Roman pantheon, possibly on the date of the winter solstice. In his official titulature, Elagabalus was then entitled in Latin: *sacerdos amplissimus dei invicti Soli Elagabali, pontifex maximus*, lit. 'highest priest of the unconquered god, the Sun Elgabal, supreme pontiff'. That a foreign god should be honored above Jupiter, with Elagabalus himself as chief priest, shocked many Romans. As a token of respect for Roman religion, however, Elagabalus joined either Astarte, Minerva, Urania, or some combination of the three to Elagabal as consort. A union between Elagabal and a traditional goddess would have served to strengthen ties between the new religion and the imperial cult. There may have been an effort to introduce Elagabal, Urania, and Athena as the new Capitoline Triad of Rome—replacing Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. He aroused further discontent when he married the Vestal Virgin Aquilia Severa, Vesta's high priestess, claiming the marriage would produce "godlike children". This was a flagrant breach of Roman law and tradition, which held that any Vestal found to have engaged in sexual intercourse was to be buried alive. A lavish temple called the Elagabalium was built on the east face of the Palatine Hill to house Elagabal, who was represented by a black conical meteorite from Emesa. This was a *baetylus*. Herodian wrote "this stone is worshipped as though it were sent from heaven; on it there are some small projecting pieces and markings that are pointed out, which the people would like to believe are a rough picture of the sun, because this is how they see them". Dio writes that in order to increase his piety as high priest of Elagabal atop a new Roman pantheon, Elagabalus had himself circumcised and swore to abstain from swine. He forced senators to watch while he danced circling the altar of Elagabal to the accompaniment of drums and cymbals. Each summer solstice he held a festival dedicated to the god, which became popular with the masses because of the free food distributed on these occasions. During this festival, Elagabalus placed the black stone on a chariot adorned with gold and jewels, which he paraded through the city: > A six horse chariot carried the divinity, the horses huge and flawlessly white, with expensive gold fittings and rich ornaments. No one held the reins, and no one rode in the chariot; the vehicle was escorted as if the god himself were the charioteer. Elagabalus ran backward in front of the chariot, facing the god and holding the horses' reins. He made the whole journey in this reverse fashion, looking up into the face of his god. > > The most sacred relics from the Roman religion were transferred from their respective shrines to the Elagabalium, including the emblem of the Great Mother, the fire of Vesta, the Shields of the Salii, and the Palladium, so that no other god could be worshipped except in association with Elagabal. Although his native cult was widely ridiculed by contemporaries, sun-worship was popular among the soldiers and would be promoted by several later emperors. ### Marriages, sexual orientation and gender identity The question of Elagabalus's sexual orientation and gender identity is confused, owing to salacious and unreliable sources. Cassius Dio states that Elagabalus was married five times (twice to the same woman). His first wife was Julia Cornelia Paula, whom he married prior to 29 August 219; between then and 28 August 220, he divorced Paula, took the Vestal Virgin Julia Aquilia Severa as his second wife, divorced her, and took a third wife, who Herodian says was Annia Aurelia Faustina, a descendant of Marcus Aurelius and the widow of a man Elagabalus had recently had executed, Pomponius Bassus. In the last year of his reign, Elagabalus divorced Annia Faustina and remarried Aquilia Severa. Dio states that another "husband of this woman [Elagabalus] was Hierocles", an ex-slave and chariot driver from Caria. The *Augustan History* claims that Elagabalus also married a man named Zoticus, an athlete from Smyrna, while Dio says only that Zoticus was his cubicularius. Dio says that Elagabalus prostituted himself in taverns and brothels. Dio says Elagabalus delighted in being called Hierocles's mistress, wife, and queen. The emperor reportedly wore makeup and wigs, preferred to be called a lady and not a lord, and supposedly offered vast sums to any physician who could provide him with a vagina. For this reason, the emperor is seen by some writers as an early transgender figure and one of the first on record as seeking sex reassignment surgery. Such claims are especially common on the internet. ### Fall from power Elagabalus stoked the animus of Roman elites and the Praetorian Guard through his perceptibly foreign conduct and his religious provocations. When Elagabalus's grandmother Julia Maesa perceived that popular support for the emperor was waning, she decided that he and his mother, who had encouraged his religious practices, had to be replaced. As alternatives, she turned to her other daughter, Julia Avita Mamaea, and her daughter's son, the fifteen-year-old Severus Alexander. Prevailing on Elagabalus, she arranged that he appoint his cousin Alexander as his heir and that the boy be given the title of *caesar*. Alexander was elevated to *caesar* in June 221, possibly on 26 June. Elagabalus and Alexander were each named *consul designatus* for the following year, probably on 1 July. Elagabalus took up his fourth consulship for the year of 222. Alexander shared the consulship with the emperor that year. However, Elagabalus reconsidered this arrangement when he began to suspect that the Praetorian Guard preferred his cousin to himself. Elagabalus ordered various attempts on Alexander's life, after failing to obtain approval from the Senate for stripping Alexander of his shared title. According to Dio, Elagabalus invented the rumor that Alexander was near death, in order to see how the Praetorians would react. A riot ensued, and the Guard demanded to see Elagabalus and Alexander in the Praetorian camp. #### Assassination The emperor complied and on 11 or 12 March 222 he publicly presented his cousin along with his own mother, Julia Soaemias. On their arrival the soldiers started cheering Alexander while ignoring Elagabalus, who ordered the summary arrest and execution of anyone who had taken part in this display of insubordination. In response, members of the Praetorian Guard attacked Elagabalus and his mother: > He made an attempt to flee, and would have got away somewhere by being placed in a chest had he not been discovered and slain, at the age of eighteen. His mother, who embraced him and clung tightly to him, perished with him; their heads were cut off and their bodies, after being stripped naked, were first dragged all over the city, and then the mother's body was cast aside somewhere or other, while his was thrown into the Tiber. > > Following his assassination, many associates of Elagabalus were killed or deposed. His lover Hierocles was executed. His religious edicts were reversed and the stone of Elagabal was sent back to Emesa. Women were again barred from attending meetings of the Senate. The practice of *damnatio memoriae*—erasing from the public record a disgraced personage formerly of note—was systematically applied in his case. Several images, including an over-life-size statue of him as Hercules now in Naples, were re-carved with the face of Alexander Severus. Sources ------- ### Cassius Dio The historian Cassius Dio, who lived from the second half of the second century until sometime after 229, wrote a contemporary account of Elagabalus. Born into a patrician family, Dio spent the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under emperor Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus, and then he served as suffect consul around 205, and as proconsul in Africa and Pannonia. Dio's *Roman History* spans nearly a millennium, from the arrival of Aeneas in Italy until the year 229. His contemporaneous account of Elagabalus's reign is generally considered more reliable than the *Augustan History* or other accounts for this general time period, though by his own admission Dio spent the greater part of the relevant period outside of Rome and had to rely on second-hand information. Furthermore, the political climate in the aftermath of Elagabalus's reign, as well as Dio's own position within the government of Severus Alexander, who held him in high esteem and made him consul again, likely influenced the truth of this part of his history for the worse. Dio regularly refers to Elagabalus as Sardanapalus, partly to distinguish him from his divine namesake, but chiefly to do his part in maintaining the *damnatio memoriae* and to associate him with another autocrat notorious for a dissolute life. Historian Clare Rowan calls Dio's account a mixture of reliable information and "literary exaggeration", noting that Elagabalus's marriages and time as consul are confirmed by numismatic and epigraphic records. In other instances, Dio's account is inaccurate, as when he says Elagabalus appointed entirely unqualified officials and that Comazon had no military experience before being named to head the Praetorian Guard, when in fact Comazon had commanded the Third Legion. Dio also gives different accounts in different places of when and by whom Diadumenian (whose forces Elagabalus fought) was given imperial names and titles. ### Herodian Another contemporary of Elagabalus was Herodian, a minor Roman civil servant who lived from c. 170 until 240. His work, *History of the Roman Empire since Marcus Aurelius*, commonly abbreviated as *Roman History*, is an eyewitness account of the reign of Commodus until the beginning of the reign of Gordian III. His work largely overlaps with Dio's own *Roman History*, and the texts, written independently of each other, agree more often than not about Elagabalus and his short but eventful reign. Arrizabalaga writes that Herodian is in most ways "less detailed and punctilious than Dio", and he is deemed less reliable by many modern scholars, though Rowan considers his account of Elagabalus's reign more reliable than Dio's and Herodian's lack of literary and scholarly pretensions are considered to make him less biased than senatorial historians. He is considered an important source for the religious reforms which took place during the reign of Elagabalus, which have been confirmed by numismatic and archaeological evidence. ### *Augustan History* The source of many stories of Elagabalus's depravity is the *Augustan History* (*Historia Augusta*), which includes controversial claims. It is most likely that the *Historia Augusta* was written towards the end of the fourth century, during the reign of emperor Theodosius I. The account of Elagabalus in the *Augustan History* is of uncertain historical merit. Sections 13 to 17, relating to the fall of Elagabalus, are less controversial among historians. The author of the most scandalous stories in the *Augustan History* concedes that "both these matters and some others which pass belief were, I think, invented by people who wanted to depreciate Heliogabalus to win favour with Alexander". ### Modern historians For readers of the modern age, *The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire* by Edward Gibbon (1737–1794) further cemented the scandalous reputation of Elagabalus. Gibbon not only accepted and expressed outrage at the allegations of the ancient historians, but he might have added some details of his own; for example, he is the first historian known to claim that Gannys was a eunuch. Gibbon wrote: > To confound the order of the season and climate, to sport with the passions and prejudices of his subjects, and to subvert every law of nature and decency, were in the number of his most delicious amusements. A long train of concubines, and a rapid succession of wives, among whom was a vestal virgin, ravished by force from her sacred asylum, were insufficient to satisfy the impotence of his passions. The master of the Roman world affected to copy the manners and dress of the female sex, preferring the distaff to the sceptre, and dishonored the principal dignities of the empire by distributing them among his numerous lovers; one of whom was publicly invested with the title and authority of the emperor's, or, as he more properly styled himself, the empress's husband. It may seem probable, the vices and follies of Elagabalus have been adorned by fancy, and blackened by prejudice. Yet, confining ourselves to the public scenes displayed before the Roman people, and attested by grave and contemporary historians, their inexpressible infamy surpasses that of any other age or country. > > The 20th-century anthropologist James George Frazer (author of *The Golden Bough*) took seriously the monotheistic aspirations of the emperor, but also ridiculed him: "The dainty priest of the Sun [was] the most abandoned reprobate who ever sat upon a throne ... It was the intention of this eminently religious but crack-brained despot to supersede the worship of all the gods, not only at Rome but throughout the world, by the single worship of Elagabalus or the Sun." The first book-length biography was *The Amazing Emperor Heliogabalus* (1911) by J. Stuart Hay, "a serious and systematic study" more sympathetic than that of previous historians, which nonetheless stressed the exoticism of Elagabalus, calling his reign one of "enormous wealth and excessive prodigality, luxury and aestheticism, carried to their ultimate extreme, and sensuality in all the refinements of its Eastern habit". Some recent historians paint a more favourable picture of the emperor's rule. Martijn Icks, in *Images of Elagabalus* (2008; republished as *The Crimes of Elagabalus* in 2011 and 2012), doubts the reliability of the ancient sources and argues that it was the emperor's unorthodox religious policies that alienated the power elite of Rome, to the point that his grandmother saw fit to eliminate him and replace him with his cousin. He described ancient stories pertaining to the emperor as "part of a long tradition of 'character assassination' in ancient historiography and biography". Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y Prado, in *The Emperor Elagabalus: Fact or Fiction?* (2008), is also critical of the ancient historians and speculates that neither religion nor sexuality played a role in the fall of the young emperor. Prado instead suggests Elagabalus was the loser in a power struggle within the imperial family, that the loyalty of the Praetorian Guards was up for sale, and that Julia Maesa had the resources to outmaneuver and outbribe her grandson. In this version of events, once Elagabalus, his mother, and his immediate circle had been murdered, a campaign of character assassination began, resulting in a grotesque caricature that has persisted to the present day. Other historians, including Icks, criticized Prado for being overly skeptical of primary sources. Warwick Ball, in his book *Rome in the East*, writes an apologetic account of the emperor, arguing that descriptions of his religious rites were exaggerated and should be dismissed as propaganda, similar to how pagan descriptions of Christian rites have since been dismissed. Ball describes the emperor's ritual processions as sound political and religious policy, arguing that syncretism of eastern and western deities deserves praise rather than ridicule. Ultimately, he paints Elagabalus as a child forced to become emperor who, as expected of the high-priest of a cult, continued his rituals even after becoming emperor. Ball justified Elagabalus's executions of prominent Roman figures who criticized his religious activities in the same way. Finally, Ball asserts Elagabalus's eventual victory in the sense that his deity would be welcomed by Rome in its Sol Invictus form 50 years later. Ball claims that Sol Invictus came to influence the monotheist Christian beliefs of Constantine, asserting that this influence remains in Christianity to this day. Cultural references ------------------- Despite the attempted *damnatio memoriae*, stories about Elagabalus survived and figured in many works of art and literature. In Spanish, his name became a word for "glutton", *heliogábalo*. Due to the ancient stories about him, he often appears in literature and other creative media as a decadent figure (becoming something of an anti-hero in the Decadent movement of the late 19th century, and inspiring many famous works of art, especially by Decadents) and the epitome of a young, amoral aesthete. The most notable of these works include: ### Fiction * *L'Agonie* (1888) by Jean Lombard, which was the inspiration for Louis Couperus's *De berg van licht* (*The Mountain of Light*) in 1905–06; * *Héliogabale ou l'Anarchiste couronné* (*Heliogabalus or The Anarchist Crowned*) by Antonin Artaud (1934), depicting the life of Elagabalus and combining essay, biography, and fiction; * Historical novels *Family Favourites* (1960) by Alfred Duggan and *Child of the Sun* (1966) by Kyle Onstott and Lance Horner, in the former of which an ordinary Roman soldier witnesses the reign; and * Victor Pelevin's *Sol Invictus*, which depicts Elagabalus as a key unrecognized spiritual figure. ### Plays * *Heliogabalus: A Buffoonery in Three Acts* (1920) by H. L. Mencken and George Jean Nathan * *Heliogabalus: A Love Story* (2002) by Sky Gilbert ### Dance * *Héliogabale*, a modern dance choreographed by Maurice Béjart * *The Legends*, a dance performed by Sebastian Droste as Heliogabalus, as part of the *Dances of Vice, Horror and Ecstasy* performance staged by Droste and Anita Berber in 1923 ### Music * *Eliogabalo* (1667), an opera by Venetian Baroque composer Francesco Cavalli * Is mentioned (as Heliogabalus) in the "Major-General's Song" (1879) from Gilbert and Sullivan's *The Pirates of Penzance*. "I quote in elegiacs all the crimes of Heliogabalus". * *Heliogabale* (1910), an opera by French composer Déodat de Séverac * *Artaud* (1973), an album released by Argentine band Pescado Rabioso, particularly the track "Cantata de Puentes Amarillos", was heavily influenced by Antonin Artaud's book, *Héliogabale ou l'Anarchiste couronn*é, as well as the life of Heliogabalus. * *Eliogabalus* (1990), title of both the second album and second song by the experimental rock band Devil Doll (Slovenian band) * *Heliogabalus imperator* (*Emperor Heliogabalus*) (1972), an orchestral work by the German composer Hans Werner Henze * *Six Litanies for Heliogabalus* (2007), an album by American musician John Zorn * *The Pale Emperor* (2015), an album by American musician Marilyn Manson, was inspired by the life of Heliogabalus and more specifically Antonin Artaud's book ### Paintings * *Heliogabalus, High Priest of the Sun* (1866), by the Pre-Raphaelite Simeon Solomon * One of the most notorious incidents laid to his account, an extravagant dinner party in which guests were smothered under a mass of "violets and other flowers" dropped from above, is immortalized in the 19th-century painting *The Roses of Heliogabalus* (1888), by the Anglo-Dutch academician Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema. * *Antonin Artaud Heliogabalus* (2010–11), by Anselm Kiefer ### Poetry * *Algabal* (1892–1919), a collection of poems by Stefan George * In "He 'Digesteth Harde Yron'" American poet Marianne Moore describes a banquet at which Elagabalus served six hundred ostrich brains, a detail she found in George Jennison's book *Animals for Show and Pleasure in Ancient Rome*. ### Television * In CBBC's adaptation of *Horrible Histories*, Elagabalus is portrayed by Mathew Baynton as a laddish teenager with a cruel sense of humour. Severan dynasty family tree --------------------------- | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | Septimius Macer | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Gaius Claudius Septimius Aper | | | | | Fulvius Pius | | | | Lucius Septimius Severus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Publius Septimius Aper | | | Gaius Septimius Aper | | | Fulvia Pia | | Publius Septimius Geta | | | Septimia Polla | | | | Julius Bassianus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Septimius | | Publius Septimius Geta | | Septimia Octavilla | | Paccia Marciana (1) | | Septimius Severus(r. 193–211) | | | | Julia Domna (2) | | | Julia Maesa | | Gaius Julius Avitus Alexianus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Gaius Septimius Severus Aper | | | | | | | | Fulvia Plautilla | | Caracalla(r. 197–217) | | Geta(r. 209–211) | | Julia Soaemias | | Sextus Varius Marcellus | | Julia Avita Mamaea | | Unknown (2) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Julia Cornelia Paula (1) | | Aquilia Severa (2 and 4) | | Elagabalus(r. 218–222) | | Annia Faustina (3) | | Sallustia Orbiana | | Severus Alexander(r. 222–235) | | | | | | | | | | --- * (1) = 1st spouse * (2) = 2nd spouse * (3) = 3rd spouse * (4) = 4th spouse * Dark green indicates an emperor of the Severan dynasty **Notes:** Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. 1. ↑ Birley, Anthony R. (1999). *Septimius Severus: The African Emperor*. London: Routledge. p. i. 2. ↑ Burrell, Barbara (2004). *Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors*. p. 216. 3. ↑ Burrell, Barbara (2004). *Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors*. p. 247. 4. ↑ Icks, Martijn (2011). *The Crimes of Elagabalus: The Life and Legacy of Rome's Decadent Boy Emperor*. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. p. 57–58. ISBN 978-1-84885-362-1. 5. 1 2 Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). *The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire*. pp. 45–47. **Bibliography:*** Birley, Anthony R. (1999). *Septimius Severus: The African Emperor*. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415165911. * Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). *The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire*. London: Murray. OCLC 993285639. | Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. ↑ The first known instance is in the Chronograph of 354, in the list of emperors in the section titled *Chronica Urbis Romae*, where he is called "Antoninus Elagaballus". 2. ↑ For a detailed discussion of his nomenclature, see de Arrizabalaga y Prado (2010, p. 231) Bibliography ------------ ### Primary sources * Lucius Cassius Dio (1927) [c. 230]. *Roman History*. Books 79–80 (Loeb Classical Library ed.). Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann. Archived from the original on 4 April 2021. Retrieved 14 November 2020. * Herodian (1961) [c. 240]. *Roman History*. Book 5. Translated by Edward C. Echols. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 24 August 2019. Published on Livius.org in 2007 * *Historia Augusta*, The Life of Elagabalus Part 1 Archived 4 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine and 2 Archived 4 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Latin text with English translation. ### Secondary material * Arrizabalaga y Prado, Leonardo de (2010). *The Emperor Elagabulus: Fact or Fiction?*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89555-2. * Arrizabalaga y Prado, Leonardo de. "Pseudo-Eunuchs in the Court of Elagabalus: The Riddle of Gannys, Eutychianus, and Comazon" Archived 4 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine, *Collected Papers in Honour of the Ninety-Fifth Anniversary of Ueno Gakuen*, Tokyo, 1999, pp. 117–141. * Arrizabalaga y Prado, Leonardo de. "Varian Studies: a Definition of the Subject", opening address to the Varian Symposium, Trinity College, Cambridge, 30–31 July 2005. * Ball, Warwick (2000). *Rome in the East*. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-11376-2. * Ball, Warwick (2016). *Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire*. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-71777-9. * Birley, Anthony R. (2002). *Septimius Severus: The African Emperor*. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-13416-4. OCLC 1062302222. * Bowman, Alan; Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter, eds. (2005). *The Cambridge Ancient History*. Vol. 12. The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337 (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. * Burns, Jasper (2006). *Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars*. Abingdon-on-Thames: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-134-13184-6. * Campanile, Domitilla; Carlà-Uhink, Filippo; Facella, Margherita, eds. (2017). *TransAntiquity: Cross-Dressing and Transgender Dynamics in the Ancient World*. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-37737-5. * de Arrizabalaga y Prado, Leonardo (2010). *The Emperor Elagabalus: Fact Or Fiction?*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89555-2. * Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). *How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower*. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15560-0. * Grant, Michael (1996). *The Severans: The Changed Roman Empire*. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-12772-1. * Halsberghe, Gaston H. (1972). *The Cult of Sol Invictus*. Leiden: Brill. * Hay, J. Stuart (1911). *The Amazing Emperor Heliogabalus*. London: MacMillan. p. 124. Archived from the original on 2 February 2008. Retrieved 3 May 2008. Additional copy. Introduction by J. B. Bury. * Icks, Martijn (2011). *The Crimes of Elagabalus: The Life and Legacy of Rome's Decadent Boy Emperor*. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-362-1. * Kienast, Dietmar (2017) [1990]. "Elgabal". *Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie* (in German). Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8. * Kienast, Dietmar. "Heliogabalus, a Monster on the Roman Throne: The Literary Construction of a 'Bad' Emperor," in Ineke Sluiter and Ralph M. Rosen (eds), *Kakos: Badness and Anti-value in Classical Antiquity* (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2008) (Mnemosyne: Supplements. History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity, 307. * Kienast, Dietmar. "Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y Prado: *The Emperor Elagabalus*" Archived 5 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine. * Kienast, Dietmar. "The 'Vices and Follies' of Elagabalus in Modern Historical Research", paper delivered at the Varian Symposium, Trinity College, Cambridge, 30–31 July 2005. * Meckler, Michael L., "Elagabalus", *De Imperatoribus Romanis*, archived from the original on 15 May 2008, retrieved 21 November 2004, 26 August 1997. * Millar, Fergus (1993). *The Roman Near East, 31 B.C. – A.D. 337*. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-77885-6. * Niebuh, B.G. (1844). *The History Of Rome*. Translated by Julius Charles Hare; Connop Thirlwall. London: Taylor and Walter. * Southern, Pat (2003). *The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine*. Abingdon-on-Thames: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-134-55380-8. * Potter, David Stone (2004). *The Roman Empire at Bay: Ad 180–395*. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-10057-1. * Rowan, Clare (2012). *Under Divine Auspices*. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02012-2. * Scott, Andrew G. (2018). *Emperors and Usurpers: An Historical Commentary on Cassius Dio's Roman History*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-01-90-87960-0. * Sidebottom, Harry (2022). *The mad emperor : Heliogabalus and the decadence of Rome*. London. ISBN 978-0861542536. * Sorek, Susan (2012). *Ancient Historians: A Student Handbook*. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4411-1135-7. * Syme, Ronald (1971). *Emperors and biography: studies in the 'Historia Augusta'*. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814357-4. * Varian Symposium Acta and links for a conference held at Trinity College, Cambridge, 30–31 July 2005. * Varner, Eric R. (2004). *Monumenta Graeca et Romana: Mutilation and transformation: damnatio memoriae and Roman imperial portraiture*. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-13577-2. * Zanghellini, Aleardo (2015). *The Sexual Constitution of Political Authority*. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-06706-0. #### Images * Wildwinds coin archive: Elagabalus Archived 17 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Large archive of ancient Roman and provincial coins bearing the image of Elagabalus. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. * Coinarchives coin archive: Elagabalus Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Large archive of ancient Roman and provincial coins issued under Elagabalus, including coins of family members. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. | | | --- | | Elagabalus **Severan dynasty****Born:** c. 204 **Died:** 11 March 222 | | Regnal titles | | Preceded byMacrinus | **Roman emperor** 218–222 | Succeeded bySeverus Alexander | | Political offices | | Preceded byMacrinusM. Oclatinius Adventus | **Roman consul** 218–220*with M. Oclatinius Adventus,Q. Tineius Sacerdos, P. Valerius Comazon* | Succeeded byG. Vettius Gratus Sabinianus, M. Flavius Vitellius Seleucus | | Preceded byG. Vettius Gratus Sabinianus, M. Flavius Vitellius Seleucus | **Roman consul** 222*with M. Aurelius Alexander Caesar* | Succeeded byMarius Maximus,L. Roscius Aelianus Paculus Salvius Julianus |

Elagabalus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elagabalus

The commune of **Agen** (French: [aʒɛ̃], locally [aˈʒɛŋ]; Occitan: [aˈdʒen]) is the prefecture of the Lot-et-Garonne department in Nouvelle-Aquitaine, southwestern France. It lies on the river Garonne 135 kilometres (84 miles) southeast of Bordeaux. Geography --------- The city of Agen lies in the southwestern department of Lot-et-Garonne in the Aquitaine region. The city centre lies on the east bank of the river Garonne, the Canal de Garonne flows through the city, approximately halfway between Bordeaux 132 km (82 mi) and Toulouse 107 km (66 mi). ### Climate Agen features an oceanic climate (Cfb), in the Köppen climate classification. Winters are mild and feature cool to cold temperatures while summers are mild and warm. Rainfall is spread equally throughout the year; however, most sunshine hours are from March–September. | Climate data for Agen, France (altitude 59 m, 1981–2010 averages, extremes 1941–present) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 20.1(68.2) | 22.3(72.1) | 26.3(79.3) | 30.2(86.4) | 34.0(93.2) | 39.3(102.7) | 40.6(105.1) | 41.0(105.8) | 36.7(98.1) | 32.0(89.6) | 25.4(77.7) | 21.6(70.9) | 41.0(105.8) | | Average high °C (°F) | 9.2(48.6) | 11.3(52.3) | 15.0(59.0) | 17.5(63.5) | 21.5(70.7) | 25.0(77.0) | 27.6(81.7) | 27.6(81.7) | 24.5(76.1) | 19.6(67.3) | 13.2(55.8) | 9.5(49.1) | 18.5(65.3) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.6(42.1) | 6.8(44.2) | 9.7(49.5) | 12.0(53.6) | 15.9(60.6) | 19.3(66.7) | 21.5(70.7) | 21.5(70.7) | 18.4(65.1) | 14.7(58.5) | 9.3(48.7) | 6.1(43.0) | 13.4(56.1) | | Average low °C (°F) | 2.1(35.8) | 2.4(36.3) | 4.4(39.9) | 6.6(43.9) | 10.3(50.5) | 13.6(56.5) | 15.4(59.7) | 15.3(59.5) | 12.3(54.1) | 9.7(49.5) | 5.4(41.7) | 2.8(37.0) | 8.4(47.1) | | Record low °C (°F) | −17.4(0.7) | −21.9(−7.4) | −10.5(13.1) | −3.9(25.0) | −1.6(29.1) | 2.5(36.5) | 5.9(42.6) | 4.7(40.5) | 1.0(33.8) | −5.0(23.0) | −8.8(16.2) | −12.1(10.2) | −21.9(−7.4) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 55.1(2.17) | 52.1(2.05) | 49.8(1.96) | 67.6(2.66) | 76.1(3.00) | 58.4(2.30) | 51.3(2.02) | 55.0(2.17) | 59.3(2.33) | 64.3(2.53) | 63.4(2.50) | 59.8(2.35) | 712.2(28.04) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 9.9 | 8.3 | 9.0 | 10.8 | 10.6 | 8.1 | 6.3 | 7.1 | 7.9 | 9.5 | 10.0 | 9.8 | 107.1 | | Average snowy days | 1.3 | 1.2 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 1.1 | 4.8 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 89 | 85 | 79 | 77 | 77 | 75 | 73 | 76 | 79 | 86 | 90 | 91 | 81.4 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 77.5 | 110.1 | 172.6 | 182.3 | 213.6 | 232.1 | 255.4 | 242.3 | 204.9 | 138.2 | 84.0 | 69.4 | 1,982.4 | | Source 1: Météo France | | Source 2: Infoclimat.fr (humidity and snowy days, 1961–1990) | Toponymy -------- From Occitan *Agen* (1197), itself from Latin *Aginnum* (3rd century *Itinéraire d'Antonin*), from a Celtic root *agin-* meaning "rock or height". Population ---------- Historical population| | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1793 | 19,639 | —     | | 1800 | 9,876 | −9.35% | | 1806 | 10,850 | +1.58% | | 1821 | 11,659 | +0.48% | | 1831 | 12,631 | +0.80% | | 1836 | 13,399 | +1.19% | | 1841 | 14,987 | +2.27% | | 1846 | 15,517 | +0.70% | | 1851 | 16,027 | +0.65% | | 1856 | 17,667 | +1.97% | | 1861 | 17,263 | −0.46% | | 1866 | 18,222 | +1.09% | | 1872 | 18,887 | +0.60% | | 1876 | 19,503 | +0.81% | | 1881 | 20,485 | +0.99% | | 1886 | 22,055 | +1.49% | | 1891 | 23,234 | +1.05% | | 1896 | 22,730 | −0.44% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1901 | 22,482 | −0.22% | | 1906 | 23,141 | +0.58% | | 1911 | 23,294 | +0.13% | | 1921 | 23,391 | +0.04% | | 1926 | 23,530 | +0.12% | | 1931 | 24,939 | +1.17% | | 1936 | 27,152 | +1.71% | | 1946 | 33,397 | +2.09% | | 1954 | 32,593 | −0.30% | | 1962 | 32,800 | +0.08% | | 1968 | 34,949 | +1.06% | | 1975 | 34,039 | −0.38% | | 1982 | 31,593 | −1.06% | | 1990 | 30,553 | −0.42% | | 1999 | 30,170 | −0.14% | | 2007 | 33,863 | +1.45% | | 2012 | 33,730 | −0.08% | | 2017 | 33,576 | −0.09% | | | | | Source: EHESS and INSEE (1968-2017) | Economy ------- The town has a higher level of unemployment than the national average. Major employers include the pharmaceutical factory UPSA. Sights ------ The old centre of town contains a number of medieval buildings. The twelfth century Agen Cathedral, dedicated to Saint Caprasius, is one of the few large churches in France with a double nave, a regional trait also found in the Church of the Jacobins in nearby Toulouse. The Saint Hilaire church, dedicated to the theme of the Holy Trinity which the Saint in question did a lot to defend, is notable for its unusual statues in front of the Church – Moses on the right, and St Peter on the left. The art museum, the Musée des Beaux Arts [fr], contains artefacts, furniture and sculptures from prehistoric times onwards. The art gallery contains several hundred works, including several by Goya, and others by Bonnard and Seurat. The collection also contains a large number of works by artists who lived locally. The museum is made up of twenty or so rooms. The Canal des Deux Mers, which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic, crosses the river Garonne at Agen via the town's famous canal bridge. Colour photography pioneer -------------------------- Louis Arthur Ducos du Hauron (1837 – 1920), a pioneer of colour photography lived and worked in Agen. He developed practical processes for colour photography on the three-colour principle, using both additive and subtractive methods. In 1868 he patented his ideas (French Patent No. 83061) and in 1869 he published them in *Les couleurs en photographie, solution du problème*. The most widely reproduced of his surviving colour photographs is the *View of Agen*, an 1877 landscape, printed by the subtractive assembly method which he pioneered. Several different photographs of the view from his attic window, one dated 1874, also survive. Entertainment ------------- The municipal theatre "Théâtre Ducourneau" presents theatre, and occasionally classical concerts. The smaller "Théâtre du jour" has a resident theatre company presenting a variety of recent or older plays (Shakespeare, Beckett, as well as lesser known playwrights). There are two cinemas, one a commercial multiscreened affair, the other an arts cinema run by a voluntary organization. The latter organizes film festivals every year. Sport ----- Rugby is extremely popular in the town, and the local team, SU Agen, is enthusiastically supported. The town also serves as the base for the Team Lot-et-Garonne cycling team. Transport --------- The Gare d'Agen connects Agen with Toulouse and Bordeaux as well as Périgueux. It is around an hour from Toulouse and around an hour from Bordeaux. The TGV train to Paris takes three hours and thirteen minutes with a stop in Bordeaux. Agen is connected, by the A62 autoroute, to both Toulouse and Bordeaux. The Agen Airport is serviced by Airlinair service to Paris Orly 6 days a week. It is also used for business and leisure flying. Agen stands on the *voie verte* cycle path between the Mediterranean and close to Bordeaux. Diocese ------- Agen is the seat of a Roman Catholic diocese that comprises the Département of Lot and Garonne. It is a suffragan of the archdiocese of Bordeaux. Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Agen is twinned with: * United States Corpus Christi, United States * Germany Dinslaken, Germany * United States Galena, Illinois, United States * United Kingdom Llanelli, Wales, United Kingdom * Spain Toledo, Spain * Russia Tuapse, Russia Notable people -------------- As place of birth * Saint Caprasius of Agen, a Christian martyr and saint of the 4th. century * Phoebadius of Agen (died ca. 392) a Catholic bishop of the fourth century. * Bernard Palissy (ca.1510–1590), potter, he may have been born in Saintes. * Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540–1609), Calvinist religious leader and scholar. * Pierre Dupuy (1582–1651), writer and scholar. * Francés de Corteta (1586-1667), nobleman and poet * Joseph Barsalou (1600–1660), apothecary and physician. * Godefroi, Comte d'Estrades (1607–1686), diplomatist and Marshal of France. * Bernard Germain de Lacépède (1756–1825), naturalist and active freemason. * Jean Hilaire Asté (1775–1840), professor of music and instrument-maker, inventied the ophicleide * Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent (1780–1846), naturalist and politician. * Jacques Jasmin (1798–1864), Provençal poet. * Victor Rabu (1834–1907), architect, built many churches in Montevideo, Uruguay * Joseph Chaumié (1849–1919), politician * Les Lalanne, artists and sculptors *François-Xavier Lalanne* (1927–2008) and *Claude Lalanne* (1924–2019). * Michel Serres (born 1930), philosopher and author * Jacques Sadoul (born 1934), novelist, book editor and non-fiction author * Jean Cruguet (born 1939), jockey who won the U.S. Triple Crown of thoroughbred racing * Alain Aspect (born 1947), physicist and Nobel Prize in Physics winner in 2022 * Francis Cabrel (born 1953), singer-songwriter and guitarist * Bernard Campan (born 1958), actor, film director and writer * Emmanuel Flipo (born 1958), artist * Bernard Andrieu (born 1959, philosopher and historian * Béatrice Uria-Monzon (born 1963), mezzo-soprano. * Stéphane Rideau (born 1976), actor * Fabien Barcella (born 1983), former rugby union player with 20 caps for France * Aymeric Laporte (born 1994), footballer with 20 caps for Spain * Brice Dulin, (born 1990), rugby union player with 36 caps for France. As residence * Julius Caesar Scaliger In 1525 he became physician to Antonio della Rovera, bishop of Agen, and remained until his death in 1558. * Nostradamus lived in Agen from 1531 until at least 1534. He was married to a local woman with whom he had two children. Miscellaneous ------------- Agen is the "capital of the prune", a local product consumed as a sweet, either stuffed with prune purée or in pastries, or as a dessert, e.g., prunes soaked in Armagnac, a type of brandy. On the last weekend of August, a prune festival comprises rock concerts, circus performances and prune tastings. Jewish presence --------------- The first Jews settled in the town in the twelfth century AD. They were expelled from the town in 1306. A number of Jews returned to the town in 1315, and a "Rue des Juifs" is documented ever since this period. In 1968, about 600 Jews lived in the town, though most of them had emigrated from North Africa. A Jewish synagogue still exists in the town. See also -------- * SU Agen Lot-et-Garonne, a French rugby union club based in Agen * Agenais, or *Agenois*, a former province of France * *Tulipa agenensis*, a red tulip named after a wild colony growing near the town

Agen

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agen

**Ashoka** (/əˈʃoʊkə/, IAST: **Aśoka**; also *Asoka*; c. 304 – 232 BCE), popularly known as **Ashoka the Great**, and also referred to as **Chakraravartin Samrat Ashoka**, was the third Mauryan Emperor of Magadha in the Indian subcontinent during c. 268 to 232 BCE. His empire covered a large part of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from present-day Afghanistan in the west to present-day Bangladesh in the east, with its capital at Pataliputra. A patron of Buddhism, he is credited with playing an important role in the spread of Buddhism across ancient Asia. Ashoka's edicts state that during his eighth regnal year (c. 260 BCE), he conquered Kalinga after a brutal war. Ashoka subsequently devoted himself to the propagation of "dhamma" or righteous conduct, the major theme of the edicts. Ashoka's edicts suggest that a few years after the Kalinga War, he was gradually drawn towards Buddhism. The Buddhist legends credit Ashoka with establishing a large number of stupas, patronising the Third Buddhist council, supporting Buddhist missionaries, making generous donations to the sangha, and even persecuting non-Buddhists. Ashoka's existence as a historical emperor had almost been forgotten, but since the decipherment of sources written in Brahmi script in the 19th century, Ashoka holds a reputation as one of the greatest Indian emperors. The emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka. Ashoka's wheel, the Ashoka Chakra is adopted at the centre of the National Flag of India. Sources of information ---------------------- Information about Ashoka comes from his inscriptions; other inscriptions that mention him or are possibly from his reign; and ancient literature, especially Buddhist texts. These sources often contradict each other, although various historians have attempted to correlate their testimony. So, for example, while Ashoka is often attributed with building many hospitals during his time, there is no clear evidence that any hospitals existed in ancient India during the 3rd century BC or that Ashoka was responsible for commissioning the construction of any. **Inscriptions** Ashoka's inscriptions are the earliest self-representations of imperial power in the Indian subcontinent. However, these inscriptions are focused mainly on the topic of *dhamma*, and provide little information regarding other aspects of the Maurya state or society. Even on the topic of *dhamma*, the content of these inscriptions cannot be taken at face value. In the words of American academic John S. Strong, it is sometimes helpful to think of Ashoka's messages as propaganda by a politician whose aim is to present a favourable image of himself and his administration, rather than record historical facts. A small number of other inscriptions also provide some information about Ashoka. For example, he finds a mention in the 2nd century Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman. An inscription discovered at Sirkap mentions a lost word beginning with "Priy", which is theorised to be Ashoka's title "Priyadarshi", although this is not certain. Some other inscriptions, such as the Sohgaura copper plate inscription, have been tentatively dated to Ashoka's period by some scholars, although others contest this. **Buddhist legends** Much of the information about Ashoka comes from Buddhist legends, which present him as a great, ideal king. These legends appear in texts that are not contemporary to Ashoka and were composed by Buddhist authors, who used various stories to illustrate the impact of their faith on Ashoka. This makes it necessary to exercise caution while relying on them for historical information. Among modern scholars, opinions range from downright dismissal of these legends as mythological to acceptance of all historical portions that seem plausible. The Buddhist legends about Ashoka exist in several languages, including Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan, Chinese, Burmese, Sinhala, Thai, Lao, and Khotanese. All these legends can be traced to two primary traditions: * the North Indian tradition preserved in the Sanskrit-language texts such as *Divyavadana* (including its constituent *Ashokavadana*); and Chinese sources such as *A-yü wang chuan* and *A-yü wang ching*. * the Sri Lankan tradition preserved in Pali-lanuage texts, such as *Dipavamsa*, *Mahavamsa*, *Vamsatthapakasini* (a commentary on *Mahavamsa*), Buddhaghosha's commentary on the Vinaya, and *Samanta-pasadika*. There are several significant differences between the two traditions. For example, the Sri Lankan tradition emphasizes Ashoka's role in convening the Third Buddhist council, and his dispatch of several missionaries to distant regions, including his son Mahinda to Sri Lanka. However, the North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events. It describes other events not found in the Sri Lankan tradition, such as a story about another son named Kunala. Even while narrating the common stories, the two traditions diverge in several ways. For example, both *Ashokavadana* and *Mahavamsa* mention that Ashoka's queen Tishyarakshita had the Bodhi Tree destroyed. In *Ashokavadana*, the queen manages to have the tree healed after she realises her mistake. In the *Mahavamsa*, she permanently destroys the tree, but only after a branch of the tree has been transplanted in Sri Lanka. In another story, both the texts describe Ashoka's unsuccessful attempts to collect a relic of Gautama Buddha from Ramagrama. In *Ashokavadana*, he fails to do so because he cannot match the devotion of the Nagas who hold the relic; however, in the *Mahavamsa*, he fails to do so because the Buddha had destined the relic to be enshrined by King Dutthagamani of Sri Lanka. Using such stories, the *Mahavamsa* glorifies Sri Lanka as the new preserve of Buddhism. **Other sources** Numismatic, sculptural, and archaeological evidence supplements research on Ashoka. Ashoka's name appears in the lists of Mauryan kings in the various Puranas. However, these texts do not provide further details about him, as their Brahmanical authors were not patronised by the Mauryans. Other texts, such as the *Arthashastra* and *Indica of Megasthenes*, which provide general information about the Maurya period, can also be used to make inferences about Ashoka's reign. However, the *Arthashastra* is a normative text that focuses on an ideal rather than a historical state, and its dating to the Mauryan period is a subject of debate. The *Indica* is a lost work, and only parts of it survive in the form of paraphrases in later writings. The 12th-century text *Rajatarangini* mentions a Kashmiri king Ashoka of Gonandiya dynasty who built several stupas: some scholars, such as Aurel Stein, have identified this king with the Maurya king Ashoka; others, such as Ananda W. P. Guruge dismiss this identification as inaccurate. **Alternative interpretation of the epigraphic evidence** The Edicts and their declared authorsEdicts in the name of Piyadasi or *Devanampiya* Piyadasi ("King Piyadasi"): : Major Rock Edicts : Major Pillar EdictsEdicts in the name of Ashoka or just "*Devanampiya*" ("King"), or both together: : Minor Rock Edicts : Minor Pillar EdictsThe different areas covered by the two types of inscriptions, and their different content in respect to Buddhism, may point to different rulers. For some scholars, such as Christopher I. Beckwith, Ashoka, whose name only appears in the Minor Rock Edicts, is not the same as king Piyadasi, or *Devanampiya* Piyadasi (i.e. "Beloved of the Gods Piyadasi", "Beloved of the Gods" being a fairly widespread title for "King"), who is named as the author of the Major Pillar Edicts and the Major Rock Edicts. Beckwith suggests that Piyadasi was living in the 3rd century BCE, was probably the son of Chandragupta Maurya known to the Greeks as Amitrochates, and only advocated for piety ("Dharma") in his Major Pillar Edicts and Major Rock Edicts, without ever mentioning Buddhism, the Buddha, or the Samgha (the single notable exception is the 7th Edict of the Major Pillar Edicts which does mention the Samgha, but is a considered a later fake by Beckwith). Also, the geographical spread of his inscription shows that Piyadasi ruled a vast Empire, contiguous with the Seleucid Empire in the West. On the contrary, for Beckwith, Ashoka was a later king of the 1st–2nd century CE, whose name only appears explicitly in the Minor Rock Edicts and allusively in the Minor Pillar Edicts, and who does mention the Buddha and the Samgha, explicitly promoting Buddhism. The name "Priyadarsi" does occur in two of the minor edicts (Gujarra and Bairat), but Beckwith again considers them as later fabrications. The minor inscriptions cover a very different and much smaller geographical area, clustering in Central India. According to Beckwith, the inscriptions of this later Ashoka were typical of the later forms of "normative Buddhism", which are well attested from inscriptions and Gandhari manuscripts dated to the turn of the millennium, and around the time of the Kushan Empire. The quality of the inscriptions of this Ashoka is significantly lower than the quality of the inscriptions of the earlier Piyadasi. Names and titles ---------------- Names and titles of Ashoka"Devānampiyasa Asoka", in the Maski Edict of Ashoka.The name "Asoka" (𑀅𑀲𑁄𑀓 *A-so-ka*) in the Maski Minor Rock Edict.Ashoka's title "Devanaṃpiyena Piyadasi" (𑀤𑁂𑀯𑀸𑀦𑀁𑀧𑀺𑀬𑁂𑀦 𑀧𑀺𑀬𑀤𑀲𑀺) in the Lumbini Minor Pillar Edict. The name "A-shoka" literally means "without sorrow". According to an *Ashokavadana* legend, his mother gave him this name because his birth removed her sorrows. The name Priyadasi is associated with Ashoka in the 3rd–4th century CE *Dipavamsa*. The term literally means "he who regards amiably", or "of gracious mien" (Sanskrit: Priya-darshi). It may have been a regnal name adopted by Ashoka. A version of this name is used for Ashoka in Greek-language inscriptions: βασιλεὺς Πιοδασσης ("Basileus Piodassēs"). Ashoka's inscriptions mention his title *Devanampiya* (Sanskrit: *Devanampriya*, "Beloved of the Gods"). The identification of Devanampiya and Ashoka as the same person is established by the Maski and Gujarra inscriptions, which use both these terms for the king. The title was adopted by other kings, including the contemporary king Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura and Ashoka's descendant Dasharatha Maurya. The title 'Mahasammat' is received in the context of directing the Mahamatras in the Buddhist text Nikaya. Also the other two other titles are 'Murdhabhishikta' and 'Janapadasthamaviryaprapt' which are often used titles for Ashoka. Date ---- The exact date of Ashoka's birth is not certain, as the extant contemporary Indian texts did not record such details. It is known that he lived in the 3rd century BCE, as his inscriptions mention several contemporary rulers whose dates are known with more certainty, such as Antiochus II Theos, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, Antigonus II Gonatas, Magas of Cyrene, and Alexander (of Epirus or Corinth). Thus, Ashoka must have been born sometime in the late 4th century BCE or early 3rd century BCE (c. 304 BCE), Pataliputra at the time of AshokaRuins of pillared hall at Kumrahar site at Pataliputra.The Pataliputra capital, 4th–3rd c. BCE.Ashoka was probably born in the city of Pataliputra. Remains of the city from around that time have been found through excavations in central areas of the modern city of Patna. Ancestry -------- Ashoka's own inscriptions are fairly detailed but make no mention of his ancestors. Other sources, such as the Puranas and the *Mahavamsa* state that his father was the Mauryan emperor Bindusara, and his grandfather was Chandragupta – the founder of the Empire. The *Ashokavadana* also names his father as Bindusara, but traces his ancestry to Buddha's contemporary king Bimbisara, through Ajatashatru, Udayin, Munda, Kakavarnin, Sahalin, Tulakuchi, Mahamandala, Prasenajit, and Nanda. The 16th century Tibetan monk Taranatha, whose account is a distorted version of the earlier traditions, describes Ashoka as the illegitimate son of king Nemita of Champarana from the daughter of a merchant. *Ashokavadana* states that Ashoka's mother was the daughter of a Brahmin from Champa, and was prophesied to marry a king. Accordingly, her father took her to Pataliputra, where she was inducted into Bindusara's harem, and ultimately, became his chief queen. The *Ashokavadana* does not mention her by name, although other legends provide different names for her. For example, the *Asokavadanamala* calls her Subhadrangi. The *Vamsatthapakasini* or *Mahavamsa-tika*, a commentary on *Mahavamsa*, calls her "Dharma" ("Dhamma" in Pali), and states that she belonged to the Moriya Kshatriya clan. A *Divyavadana* legend calls her Janapada-kalyani; according to scholar Ananda W. P. Guruge, this is not a name, but an epithet. According to the 2nd-century historian Appian, Chandragupta entered into a marital alliance with the Greek ruler Seleucus I Nicator, which has led to speculation that either Chandragupta or his son Bindusara married a Greek princess. However, there is no evidence that Ashoka's mother or grandmother was Greek, and most historians have dismissed the idea. As a prince ----------- Ashoka's own inscriptions do not describe his early life, and much of the information on this topic comes from apocryphal legends written hundreds of years after him. While these legends include obviously fictitious details such as narratives of Ashoka's past lives, they have some plausible historical information about Ashoka's period. According to the *Ashokavadana*, Bindusara disliked Ashoka because of his rough skin. One day, Bindusara asked the ascetic Pingala-vatsajiva to determine which of his sons was worthy of being his successor. He asked all the princes to assemble at the Garden of the Golden Pavilion on the ascetic's advice. Ashoka was reluctant to go because his father disliked him, but his mother convinced him to do so. When minister Radhagupta saw Ashoka leaving the capital for the Garden, he offered to provide the prince with a royal elephant for the travel. At the Garden, Pingala-vatsajiva examined the princes and realised that Ashoka would be the next king. To avoid annoying Bindusara, the ascetic refused to name the successor. Instead, he said that one who had the best mount, seat, drink, vessel and food would be the next king; each time, Ashoka declared that he met the criterion. Later, he told Ashoka's mother that her son would be the next king, and on her advice, left the kingdom to avoid Bindusara's wrath. While legends suggest that Bindusara disliked Ashoka's ugly appearance, they also state that Bindusara gave him important responsibilities, such as suppressing a revolt in Takshashila (according to north Indian tradition) and governing Ujjain (according to Sri Lankan tradition). This suggests that Bindusara was impressed by the other qualities of the prince. Another possibility is that he sent Ashoka to distant regions to keep him away from the imperial capital. ### Rebellion at Taxila According to the *Ashokavadana*, Bindusara dispatched prince Ashoka to suppress a rebellion in the city of Takshashila (present-day Bhir Mound in Pakistan). This episode is not mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition, which instead states that Bindusara sent Ashoka to govern Ujjain. Two other Buddhist texts – *Ashoka-sutra* and *Kunala-sutra* – state that Bindusara appointed Ashoka as a viceroy in Gandhara (where Takshashila was located), not Ujjain. The *Ashokavadana* states that Bindusara provided Ashoka with a fourfold-army (comprising cavalry, elephants, chariots and infantry) but refused to provide any weapons for this army. Ashoka declared that weapons would appear before him if he was worthy of being a king, and then, the deities emerged from the earth and provided weapons to the army. When Ashoka reached Takshashila, the citizens welcomed him and told him that their rebellion was only against the evil ministers, not the king. Sometime later, Ashoka was similarly welcomed in the Khasa territory and the gods declared that he would go on to conquer the whole earth. Takshashila was a prosperous and geopolitically influential city, and historical evidence proves that by Ashoka's time, it was well-connected to the Mauryan capital Pataliputra by the *Uttarapatha* trade route. However, no extant contemporary source mentions the Takshashila rebellion, and none of Ashoka's records states that he ever visited the city. That said, the historicity of the legend about Ashoka's involvement in the Takshashila rebellion may be corroborated by an Aramaic-language inscription discovered at Sirkap near Taxila. The inscription includes a name that begins with the letters "prydr", and most scholars restore it as "Priyadarshi", which was the title of Ashoka. Another evidence of Ashoka's connection to the city may be the name of the Dharmarajika Stupa near Taxila; the name suggests that it was built by Ashoka ("Dharma-raja"). The story about the deities miraculously bringing weapons to Ashoka may be the text's way of deifying Ashoka; or indicating that Bindusara – who disliked Ashoka – wanted him to fail in Takshashila. ### Governor of Ujjain According to the *Mahavamsa*, Bindusara appointed Ashoka as the viceroy of present-day Ujjain (Ujjeni), which was an important administrative and commercial centre in the Avanti province of central India. This tradition is corroborated by the Saru Maru inscription discovered in central India; this inscription states that he visited the place as a prince. Ashoka's own rock edict mentions the presence of a prince viceroy at Ujjain during his reign, which further supports the tradition that he himself served as a viceroy at Ujjain. Pataliputra was connected to Ujjain by multiple routes in Ashoka's time, and on the way, Ashoka entourage may have encamped at Rupnath, where his inscription has been found. According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka visited Vidisha, where he fell in love with a beautiful woman on his way to Ujjain. According to the *Dipamvamsa* and *Mahamvamsa*, the woman was Devi – the daughter of a merchant. According to the *Mahabodhi-vamsa*, she was Vidisha-Mahadevi and belonged to the Shakya clan of Gautama Buddha. The Buddhist chroniclers may have fabricated the Shakya connection to connect Ashoka's family to Buddha. The Buddhist texts allude to her being a Buddhist in her later years but do not describe her conversion to Buddhism. Therefore, it is likely that she was already a Buddhist when she met Ashoka. The *Mahavamsa* states that Devi gave birth to Ashoka's son Mahinda in Ujjain, and two years later, to a daughter named Sanghamitta. According to the *Mahavamsa*, Ashoka's son Mahinda was ordained at the age of 20 years, during the sixth year of Ashoka's reign. That means Mahinda must have been 14 years old when Ashoka ascended the throne. Even if Mahinda was born when Ashoka was as young as 20 years old, Ashoka must have ascended the throne at 34 years, which means he must have served as a viceroy for several years. Ascension to the throne ----------------------- Legends suggest that Ashoka was not the crown prince, and his ascension on the throne was disputed. *Ashokavadana* states that Bindusara's eldest son Susima once slapped a bald minister on his head in jest. The minister worried that after ascending the throne, Susima may jokingly hurt him with a sword. Therefore, he instigated five hundred ministers to support Ashoka's claim to the throne when the time came, noting that Ashoka was predicted to become a *chakravartin* (universal ruler). Sometime later, Takshashila rebelled again, and Bindusara dispatched Susima to curb the rebellion. Shortly after, Bindusara fell ill and was expected to die soon. Susima was still in Takshashila, having been unsuccessful in suppressing the rebellion. Bindusara recalled him to the capital and asked Ashoka to march to Takshashila. However, the ministers told him that Ashoka was ill and suggested that he temporarily install Ashoka on the throne until Susmia's return from Takshashila. When Bindusara refused to do so, Ashoka declared that if the throne were rightfully his, the gods would crown him as the next king. At that instance, the gods did so, Bindusara died, and Ashoka's authority extended to the entire world, including the Yaksha territory located above the earth and the Naga territory located below the earth. When Susima returned to the capital, Ashoka's newly appointed prime minister Radhagupta tricked him into a pit of charcoal. Susima died a painful death, and his general Bhadrayudha became a Buddhist monk. The *Mahavamsa* states that when Bindusara fell sick, Ashoka returned to Pataliputra from Ujjain and gained control of the capital. After his father's death, Ashoka had his eldest brother killed and ascended the throne. The text also states that Ashoka killed ninety-nine of his half-brothers, including Sumana. The *Dipavamsa* states that he killed a hundred of his brothers and was crowned four years later. The *Vamsatthapakasini* adds that an Ajivika ascetic had predicted this massacre based on the interpretation of a dream of Ashoka's mother. According to these accounts, only Ashoka's uterine brother Tissa was spared. Other sources name the surviving brother Vitashoka, Vigatashoka, Sudatta (So-ta-to in *A-yi-uang-chuan*), or Sugatra (Siu-ka-tu-lu in *Fen-pie-kung-te-hun*). The figures such as 99 and 100 are exaggerated and seem to be a way of stating that Ashoka killed several of his brothers. Taranatha states that Ashoka, who was an illegitimate son of his predecessor, killed six legitimate princes to ascend the throne. It is possible that Ashoka was not the rightful heir to the throne and killed a brother (or brothers) to acquire the throne. However, the Buddhist sources have exaggerated the story, which attempts to portray him as evil before his conversion to Buddhism. Ashoka's Rock Edict No. 5 mentions officers whose duties include supervising the welfare of "the families of his brothers, sisters, and other relatives". This suggests that more than one of his brothers survived his ascension. However, some scholars oppose this suggestion, arguing that the inscription talks only about the *families* of his brothers, not the brothers themselves. ### Date of ascension According to the Sri Lankan texts *Mahavamsa* and the *Dipavamsa*, Ashoka ascended the throne 218 years after the death of Gautama Buddha and ruled for 37 years. The date of the Buddha's death is itself a matter of debate, and the North Indian tradition states that Ashoka ruled a hundred years after the Buddha's death, which has led to further debates about the date. Assuming that the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, and assuming that the Buddha died in 483 BCE – a date proposed by several scholars – Ashoka must have ascended the throne in 265 BCE. The Puranas state that Ashoka's father Bindusara reigned for 25 years, not 28 years as specified in the Sri Lankan tradition. If this is true, Ashoka's ascension can be dated three years earlier, to 268 BCE. Alternatively, if the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, but if we assume that the Buddha died in 486 BCE (a date supported by the Cantonese Dotted Record), Ashoka's ascension can be dated to 268 BCE. The *Mahavamsa* states that Ashoka consecrated himself as the king four years after becoming a sovereign. This interregnum can be explained assuming that he fought a war of succession with other sons of Bindusara during these four years. The *Ashokavadana* contains a story about Ashoka's minister Yashas hiding the sun with his hand. Professor P. H. L. Eggermont theorised that this story was a reference to a partial solar eclipse that was seen in northern India on 4 May 249 BCE. According to the *Ashokavadana*, Ashoka went on a pilgrimage to various Buddhist sites sometime after this eclipse. Ashoka's Rummindei pillar inscription states that he visited Lumbini during his 21st regnal year. Assuming this visit was a part of the pilgrimage described in the text, and assuming that Ashoka visited Lumbini around 1–2 years after the solar eclipse, the ascension date of 268–269 BCE seems more likely. However, this theory is not universally accepted. For example, according to John S. Strong, the event described in the *Ashokavadana* has nothing to do with chronology, and Eggermont's interpretation grossly ignores the literary and religious context of the legend. Reign before Buddhist influence ------------------------------- Both Sri Lankan and North Indian traditions assert that Ashoka was a violent person before Buddhism. Taranatha also states that Ashoka was initially called "Kamashoka" because he spent many years in pleasurable pursuits (*kama*); he was then called "Chandashoka" ("Ashoka the fierce") because he spent some years performing evil deeds; and finally, he came to be known as Dhammashoka ("Ashoka the righteous") after his conversion to Buddhism. The *Ashokavadana* also calls him "Chandashoka", and describes several of his cruel acts: * The ministers who had helped him ascend the throne started treating him with contempt after his ascension. To test their loyalty, Ashoka gave them the absurd order of cutting down every flower-and fruit-bearing tree. When they failed to carry out this order, Ashoka personally cut off the heads of 500 ministers. * One day, during a stroll at a park, Ashoka and his concubines came across a beautiful Ashoka tree. The sight put him in an amorous mood, but the women did not enjoy caressing his rough skin. Sometime later, when Ashoka fell asleep, the resentful women chopped the flowers and the branches of his namesake tree. After Ashoka woke up, he burnt 500 of his concubines to death as punishment. * Alarmed by the king's involvement in such massacres, prime minister Radha-Gupta proposed hiring an executioner to carry out future mass killings to leave the king unsullied. Girika, a Magadha village boy who boasted that he could execute the whole of Jambudvipa, was hired for the purpose. He came to be known as Chandagirika ("Girika the fierce"), and on his request, Ashoka built a jail in Pataliputra. Called Ashoka's Hell, the jail looked pleasant from the outside, but inside it, Girika brutally tortured the prisoners. The 5th-century Chinese traveller Faxian states that Ashoka personally visited the underworld to study torture methods there and then invented his methods. The 7th-century traveller Xuanzang claims to have seen a pillar marking the site of Ashoka's "Hell". The *Mahavamsa* also briefly alludes to Ashoka's cruelty, stating that Ashoka was earlier called Chandashoka because of his evil deeds but came to be called Dharmashoka because of his pious acts after his conversion to Buddhism. However, unlike the north Indian tradition, the Sri Lankan texts do not mention any specific evil deeds performed by Ashoka, except his killing of 99 of his brothers. Such descriptions of Ashoka as an evil person before his conversion to Buddhism appear to be a fabrication of the Buddhist authors, who attempted to present the change that Buddhism brought to him as a miracle. In an attempt to dramatise this change, such legends exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion. Kalinga war and conversion to Buddhism -------------------------------------- Ashoka's inscriptions mention that he conquered the Kalinga region during his 8th regnal year: the destruction caused during the war made him repent violence, and in the subsequent years, he was drawn towards Buddhism. Edict 13 of the Edicts of Ashoka Rock Inscriptions expresses the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga: > Directly, after the Kalingas had been annexed, began His Sacred Majesty's zealous protection of the Law of Piety, his love of that Law, and his inculcation of that Law. Thence arises the remorse of His Sacred Majesty for having conquered the Kalingas because the conquest of a country previously unconquered involves the slaughter, death, and carrying away captive of the people. That is a matter of profound sorrow and regret to His Sacred Majesty. > > On the other hand, the Sri Lankan tradition suggests that Ashoka was already a devoted Buddhist by his 8th regnal year, converted to Buddhism during his 4th regnal year, and constructed 84,000 viharas during his 5th–7th regnal years. The Buddhist legends make no mention of the Kalinga campaign. Based on Sri Lankan tradition, some scholars, such as Eggermont, believe Ashoka converted to Buddhism *before* the Kalinga war. Critics of this theory argue that if Ashoka were already a Buddhist, he would not have waged the violent Kalinga War. Eggermont explains this anomaly by theorising that Ashoka had his own interpretation of the "Middle Way". Some earlier writers believed that Ashoka *dramatically* converted to Buddhism after seeing the suffering caused by the war since his Major Rock Edict 13 states that he became closer to the dhamma after the annexation of Kalinga. However, even if Ashoka converted to Buddhism *after* the war, epigraphic evidence suggests that his conversion was a *gradual* process rather than a dramatic event. For example, in a Minor Rock Edict issued during his 13th regnal year (five years after the Kalinga campaign), he states that he had been an *upasaka* (lay Buddhist) for more than two and a half years, but did not make much progress; in the past year, he was drawn closer to the sangha and became a more ardent follower. ### The Kalinga War According to Ashoka's Major Rock Edict 13, he conquered Kalinga 8 years after ascending to the throne. The edict states that during his conquest of Kalinga, 100,000 men and animals were killed in action; many times that number "perished"; and 150,000 men and animals were carried away from Kalinga as captives. Ashoka states that the repentance of these sufferings caused him to devote himself to the practice and propagation of dharma. He proclaims that he now considered the slaughter, death and deportation caused during the conquest of a country painful and deplorable; and that he considered the suffering caused to the religious people and householders even more deplorable. This edict has been inscribed at several places, including Erragudi, Girnar, Kalsi, Maneshra, Shahbazgarhi and Kandahar. However, it is omitted in Ashoka's inscriptions found in the Kalinga region, where the Rock Edicts 13 and 14 have been replaced by two separate edicts that make no mention of Ashoka's remorse. It is possible that Ashoka did not consider it politically appropriate to make such a confession to the people of Kalinga. Another possibility is the Kalinga war and its consequences, as described in Ashoka's rock edicts, are "more imaginary than real". This description is meant to impress those far removed from the scene, thus unable to verify its accuracy. Ancient sources do not mention any other military activity of Ashoka, although the 16th-century writer Taranatha claims that Ashoka conquered the entire Jambudvipa. ### First contact with Buddhism Different sources give different accounts of Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism. According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka's father, Bindusara, was a devotee of Brahmanism, and his mother Dharma was a devotee of Ajivikas. The *Samantapasadika* states that Ashoka followed non-Buddhist sects during the first three years of his reign. The Sri Lankan texts add that Ashoka was not happy with the behaviour of the Brahmins who received his alms daily. His courtiers produced some Ajivika and Nigantha teachers before him, but these also failed to impress him. The *Dipavamsa* states that Ashoka invited several non-Buddhist religious leaders to his palace and bestowed great gifts upon them in the hope that they would answer a question posed by the king. The text does not state what the question was but mentions that none of the invitees were able to answer it. One day, Ashoka saw a young Buddhist monk called Nigrodha (or Nyagrodha), who was looking for alms on a road in Pataliputra. He was the king's nephew, although the king was not aware of this: he was a posthumous son of Ashoka's eldest brother Sumana, whom Ashoka had killed during the conflict for the throne. Ashoka was impressed by Nigrodha's tranquil and fearless appearance, and asked him to teach him his faith. In response, Nigrodha offered him a sermon on appamada (earnestness). Impressed by the sermon, Ashoka offered Nigrodha 400,000 silver coins and 8 daily portions of rice. The king became a Buddhist upasaka, and started visiting the Kukkutarama shrine at Pataliputra. At the temple, he met the Buddhist monk Moggaliputta Tissa, and became more devoted to the Buddhist faith. The veracity of this story is not certain. This legend about Ashoka's search for a worthy teacher may be aimed at explaining why Ashoka did not adopt Jainism, another major contemporary faith that advocates non-violence and compassion. The legend suggests that Ashoka was not attracted to Buddhism because he was looking for such a faith, rather, for a competent spiritual teacher. The Sri Lankan tradition adds that during his sixth regnal year, Ashoka's son Mahinda became a Buddhist monk, and his daughter became a Buddhist nun. A story in *Divyavadana* attributes Ashoka's conversion to the Buddhist monk Samudra, who was an ex-merchant from Shravasti. According to this account, Samudra was imprisoned in Ashoka's "Hell", but saved himself using his miraculous powers. When Ashoka heard about this, he visited the monk, and was further impressed by a series of miracles performed by the monk. He then became a Buddhist. A story in the *Ashokavadana* states that Samudra was a merchant's son, and was a 12-year-old boy when he met Ashoka; this account seems to be influenced by the Nigrodha story. The A-yu-wang-chuan states that a 7-year-old Buddhist converted Ashoka. Another story claims that the young boy ate 500 Brahmanas who were harassing Ashoka for being interested in Buddhism; these Brahmanas later miraculously turned into Buddhist bhikkus at the Kukkutarama monastery, which Ashoka visited. Several Buddhist establishments existed in various parts of India by the time of Ashoka's ascension. It is not clear which branch of the Buddhist sangha influenced him, but the one at his capital Pataliputra is a good candidate. Another good candidate is the one at Mahabodhi: the Major Rock Edict 8 records his visit to the Bodhi Tree – the place of Buddha's enlightenment at Mahabodhi – after his tenth regnal year, and the minor rock edict issued during his 13th regnal year suggests that he had become a Buddhist around the same time. Reign after Buddhist influence ------------------------------ ### Construction of Stupas and Temples Both *Mahavamsa* and *Ashokavadana* state that Ashoka constructed 84,000 stupas or viharas. According to the *Mahavamsa*, this activity took place during his fifth–seventh regnal years. The *Ashokavadana* states that Ashoka collected seven out of the eight relics of Gautama Buddha, and had their portions kept in 84,000 boxes made of gold, silver, cat's eye, and crystal. He ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas throughout the earth, in towns that had a population of 100,000 or more. He told Elder Yashas, a monk at the Kukkutarama monastery, that he wanted these stupas to be completed on the same day. Yashas stated that he would signal the completion time by eclipsing the sun with his hand. When he did so, the 84,000 stupas were completed at once. The *Mahavamsa* states that Ashoka ordered construction of 84,000 viharas (monasteries) rather than the stupas to house the relics. Like *Ashokavadana*, the *Mahavamsa* describes Ashoka's collection of the relics, but does not mention this episode in the context of the construction activities. It states that Ashoka decided to construct the 84,000 viharas when Moggaliputta Tissa told him that there were 84,000 sections of the Buddha's Dhamma. Ashoka himself began the construction of the Ashokarama vihara, and ordered subordinate kings to build the other viharas. Ashokarama was completed by the miraculous power of Thera Indagutta, and the news about the completion of the 84,000 viharas arrived from various cities on the same day. The construction of following stupas and viharas is credited to Ashoka: * Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India * Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India * Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar, India * Barabar Caves, Bihar, India * Nalanda Mahavihara (some portions like Sariputta Stupa), Bihar, India * Taxila University (some portions like Dharmarajika Stupa and Kunala Stupa), Taxila, Pakistan * Bhir Mound (*reconstructed*), Taxila, Pakistan * Bharhut stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India * Deorkothar Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India * Butkara Stupa, Swat, Pakistan * Sannati Stupa, Karnataka, India * Mir Rukun Stupa, Nawabshah, Pakistan ### Propagation of Dhamma Ashoka's rock edicts suggest that during his eighth–ninth regnal years, he made a pilgrimage to the Bodhi Tree, started propagating dhamma, and performed social welfare activities. The welfare activities included establishment of medical treatment facilities for humans and animals; plantation of medicinal herbs; and digging of wells and plantation of trees along the roads. These activities were conducted in the neighbouring kingdoms, including those of the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, Tamraparni, the Greek kingdom of Antiyoka. The edicts also state that during his tenth–eleventh regnal years, Ashoka became closer to the Buddhist sangha, and went on a tour of the empire that lasted for at least 256 days. By his 12th regnal year, Ashoka had started inscribing edicts to propagate dhamma, having ordered his officers (*rajjukas* and *pradesikas*) to tour their jurisdictions every five years for inspection and for preaching *dhamma*. By the next year, he had set up the post of the *dharma-mahamatra*. During his 14th regnal year, he commissioned the enlargement of the stupa of Buddha Kanakamuni. ### Third Buddhist Council The Sri Lankan tradition presents a greater role for Ashoka in the Buddhist community. In this tradition, Ashoka starts feeding monks on a large scale. His lavish patronage to the state patronage leads to many fake monks joining the sangha. The true Buddhist monks refuse to co-operate with these fake monks, and therefore, no uposatha ceremony is held for seven years. The king attempts to eradicate the fake monks, but during this attempt, an over-zealous minister ends up killing some real monks. The king then invites the elder monk Moggaliputta-Tissa, to help him expel non-Buddhists from the monastery founded by him at Pataliputra. 60,000 monks (bhikkhus) convicted of being heretical are de-frocked in the ensuing process. The uposatha ceremony is then held, and Tissa subsequently organises the Third Buddhist council, during the 17th regnal year of Ashoka. Tissa compiles *Kathavatthu*, a text that reaffirms Theravadin orthodoxy on several points. The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events, which has led to doubts about the historicity of the Third Buddhist council. Richard Gombrich argues that the non-corroboration of this story by inscriptional evidence cannot be used to dismiss it as completely unhistorical, as several of Ashoka's inscriptions may have been lost. Gombrich also argues that Asohka's inscriptions prove that he was interested in maintaining the "unanimity and purity" of the Sangha. For example, in his Minor Rock Edict 3, Ashoka recommends the members of the Sangha to study certain texts (most of which remain unidentified). Similarly, in an inscription found at Sanchi, Sarnath, and Kosam, Ashoka mandates that the dissident members of the sangha should be expelled, and expresses his desire to the Sangha remain united and flourish. The 8th century Buddhist pilgrim Yijing records another story about Ashoka's involvement in the Buddhist sangha. According to this story, the earlier king Bimbisara, who was a contemporary of the Gautama Buddha, once saw 18 fragments of a cloth and a stick in a dream. The Buddha interpreted the dream to mean that his philosophy would be divided into 18 schools after his death, and predicted that a king called Ashoka would unite these schools over a hundred years later. ### Buddhist missions In the Sri Lankan tradition, Moggaliputta-Tissa – who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the "border areas" in c. 250 BCE. This tradition does not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. Each mission comprises five monks, and is headed by an elder. To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son Mahinda, accompanied by four other Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala. Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the following missionaries: * Mahinda to Sri Lanka * Majjhantika to Kashmir and Gandhara * Mahadeva to Mahisa-mandala (possibly modern Mysore region) * Rakkhita to Vanavasa * Dhammarakkhita the Greek to Aparantaka (western India) * Maha-dhamma-rakkhita to Maharashtra * Maharakkhita to the Greek country * Majjhima to the Himalayas * Soṇa and Uttara to Suvaṇṇabhūmi (possibly Lower Burma and Thailand) The tradition adds that during his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter Sanghamitta went to Sri Lanka to establish an order of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her. The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events. Ashoka's own inscriptions also appear to omit any mention of these events, recording only one of his activities during this period: in his 19th regnal year, he donated the Khalatika Cave to ascetics to provide them a shelter during the rainy season. Ashoka's Pillar Edicts suggest that during the next year, he made pilgrimage to Lumbini – the place of Buddha's birth, and to the stupa of the Buddha Kanakamuni. The Rock Edict XIII states that Ashoka's won a "dhamma victory" by sending messengers to five kings and several other kingdoms. Whether these missions correspond to the Buddhist missions recorded in the Buddhist chronicles is debated. Indologist Etienne Lamotte argues that the "dhamma" missionaries mentioned in Ashoka's inscriptions were probably not Buddhist monks, as this "dhamma" was not same as "Buddhism". Moreover, the lists of destinations of the missions and the dates of the missions mentioned in the inscriptions do not tally the ones mentioned in the Buddhist legends. Other scholars, such as Erich Frauwallner and Richard Gombrich, believe that the missions mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition are historical. According to these scholars, a part of this story is corroborated by archaeological evidence: the *Vinaya Nidana* mentions names of five monks, who are said to have gone to the Himalayan region; three of these names have been found inscribed on relic caskets found at Bhilsa (near Vidisha). These caskets have been dated to the early 2nd century BCE, and the inscription states that the monks are of the Himalayan school. The missions may have set out from Vidisha in central India, as the caskets were discovered there, and as Mahinda is said to have stayed there for a month before setting out for Sri Lanka. According to Gombrich, the mission may have included representatives of other religions, and thus, Lamotte's objection about "dhamma" is not valid. The Buddhist chroniclers may have decided not to mention these non-Buddhists, so as not to sideline Buddhism. Frauwallner and Gombrich also believe that Ashoka was directly responsible for the missions, since only a resourceful ruler could have sponsored such activities. The Sri Lankan chronicles, which belong to the Theravada school, exaggerate the role of the Theravadin monk Moggaliputta-Tissa in order to glorify their sect. Some historians argue that Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal patronage. However, epigraphic evidence suggests that the spread of Buddhism in north-western India and Deccan region was less because of Ashoka's missions, and more because of merchants, traders, landowners and the artisan guilds who supported Buddhist establishments. ### Violence after conversion According to the *Ashokavadana*, Ashoka resorted to violence even after converting to Buddhism. For example: * He slowly tortured Chandagirika to death in the "hell" prison. * He ordered a massacre of 18,000 heretics for a misdeed of one. * He launched a pogrom against the Jains, announcing a bounty on the head of any heretic; this resulted in the beheading of his own brother – Vitashoka. According to the *Ashokavadana*, a non-Buddhist in Pundravardhana drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of the Nirgrantha leader Jnatiputra. The term nirgrantha ("free from bonds") was originally used for a pre-Jaina ascetic order, but later came to be used for Jaina monks. "Jnatiputra" is identified with Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. The legend states that on complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka issued an order to arrest the non-Buddhist artist, and subsequently, another order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order. Sometime later, another Nirgrantha follower in Pataliputra drew a similar picture. Ashoka burnt him and his entire family alive in their house. He also announced an award of one dinara (gold coin) to anyone who brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic. According to *Ashokavadana*, as a result of this order, his own brother was mistaken for a heretic and killed by a cowherd. Ashoka realised his mistake, and withdrew the order. For several reasons, scholars say, these stories of persecutions of rival sects by Ashoka appear to be clear fabrications arising out of sectarian propaganda. Family ------ ### Queens Various sources mention five consorts of Ashoka: Devi (or Vedisa-Mahadevi-Shakyakumari), Karuvaki, Asandhimitra (Pali: Asandhimitta), Padmavati, and Tishyarakshita (Pali: Tissarakkha). Karuvaki is the only queen of Ashoka known from his own inscriptions: she is mentioned in an edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad. The inscription names her as the mother of prince Tivara, and orders the royal officers (mahamattas) to record her religious and charitable donations. According to one theory, Tishyarakshita was the regnal name of Kaurvaki. According to the *Mahavamsa*, Ashoka's chief queen was Asandhimitta, who died four years before him. It states that she was born as Ashoka's queen because in a previous life, she directed a pratyekabuddha to a honey merchant (who was later reborn as Ashoka). Some later texts also state that she additionally gave the pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her. These texts include the *Dasavatthuppakarana*, the so-called Cambodian or Extended *Mahavamsa* (possibly from 9th–10th centuries), and the *Trai Bhumi Katha* (15th century). These texts narrate another story: one day, Ashoka mocked Asandhamitta was enjoying a tasty piece of sugarcane without having earned it through her karma. Asandhamitta replied that all her enjoyments resulted from merit resulting from her own karma. Ashoka then challenged her to prove this by procuring 60,000 robes as an offering for monks. At night, the guardian gods informed her about her past gift to the pratyekabuddha, and next day, she was able to miraculously procure the 60,000 robes. An impressed Ashoka makes her his favourite queen, and even offers to make her a sovereign ruler. Asandhamitta refuses the offer, but still invokes the jealousy of Ashoka's 16,000 other women. Ashoka proves her superiority by having 16,000 identical cakes baked with his royal seal hidden in only one of them. Each wife is asked to choose a cake, and only Asandhamitta gets the one with the royal seal. The *Trai Bhumi Katha* claims that it was Asandhamitta who encouraged her husband to become a Buddhist, and to construct 84,000 stupas and 84,000 viharas. According to *Mahavamsa*, after Asandhamitta's death, Tissarakkha became the chief queen. The Ashokavadana does not mention Asandhamitta at all, but does mention Tissarakkha as Tishyarakshita. The *Divyavadana* mentions another queen called Padmavati, who was the mother of the crown-prince Kunala. As mentioned above, according to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka fell in love with Devi (or Vidisha-Mahadevi), as a prince in central India. After Ashoka's ascension to the throne, Devi chose to remain at Vidisha than move to the royal capital Pataliputra. According to the *Mahavmsa*, Ashoka's chief queen was Asandhamitta, not Devi: the text does not talk of any connection between the two women, so it is unlikely that Asandhamitta was another name for Devi. The Sri Lankan tradition uses the word *samvasa* to describe the relationship between Ashoka and Devi, which modern scholars variously interpret as sexual relations outside marriage, or co-habitation as a married couple. Those who argue that Ashoka did not marry Devi argue that their theory is corroborated by the fact that Devi did not become Ashoka's chief queen in Pataliputra after his ascension. The *Dipavamsa* refers to two children of Ashoka and Devi – Mahinda and Sanghamitta. ### Sons Tivara, the son of Ashoka and Karuvaki, is the only of Ashoka's sons to be mentioned by name in the inscriptions. According to North Indian tradition, Ashoka had a son named Kunala. Kunala had a son named Samprati. The Sri Lankan tradition mentions a son called Mahinda, who was sent to Sri Lanka as a Buddhist missionary; this son is not mentioned at all in the North Indian tradition. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang states that Mahinda was Ashoka's younger brother (Vitashoka or Vigatashoka) rather than his illegitimate son. The *Divyavadana* mentions the crown-prince Kunala alias Dharmavivardhana, who was a son of queen Padmavati. According to Faxian, Dharmavivardhana was appointed as the governor of Gandhara. The *Rajatarangini* mentions Jalauka as a son of Ashoka. ### Daughters According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka had a daughter named Sanghamitta, who became a Buddhist nun. A section of historians, such as Romila Thapar, doubt the historicity of Sanghamitta, based on the following points: * The name "Sanghamitta", which literally means the friend of the Buddhist Order (sangha), is unusual, and the story of her going to Ceylon so that the Ceylonese queen could be ordained appears to be an exaggeration. * The *Mahavamsa* states that she married Ashoka's nephew Agnibrahma, and the couple had a son named Sumana. The contemporary laws regarding exogamy would have forbidden such a marriage between first cousins. * According to the *Mahavamsa*, she was 18 years old when she was ordained as a nun. The narrative suggests that she was married two years earlier, and that her husband as well as her child were ordained. It is unlikely that she would have been allowed to become a nun with such a young child. Another source mentions that Ashoka had a daughter named Charumati, who married a kshatriya named Devapala. ### Brothers According to the *Ashokavadana*, Ashoka had an elder half-brother named Susima. * According to Sri Lankan tradition, this brother was Tissa, who initially lived a luxurious life, without worrying about the world. To teach him a lesson, Ashoka put him on the throne for a few days, then accused him of being an usurper, and sentenced him to die after seven days. During these seven days, Tissa realised that the Buddhist monks gave up pleasure because they were aware of the eventual death. He then left the palace, and became an *arhat*. * The Theragatha commentary calls this brother Vitashoka. According to this legend, one day, Vitashoka saw a grey hair on his head, and realised that he had become old. He then retired to a monastery, and became an arhat. * Faxian calls the younger brother Mahendra, and states that Ashoka shamed him for his immoral behaviour. The brother than retired to a dark cave, where he meditated, and became an arhat. Ashoka invited him to return to the family, but he preferred to live alone on a hill. So, Ashoka had a hill built for him within Pataliputra. * The Ashoka-vadana states that Ashoka's brother was mistaken for a Nirgrantha, and killed during a massacre of the Nirgranthas ordered by Ashoka. Imperial extent --------------- Ashoka's empire stretched from Afghanistan to Bengal to southern India. Several modern maps depict it as covering nearly all of the Indian subcontinent, except the southern tip.Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund believe that Ashoka's empire did not include large parts of India, which were controlled by autonomous tribes. The extent of the territory controlled by Ashoka's predecessors is not certain, but it is possible that the empire of his grandfather Chandragupta extended across northern India from the western coast (Arabian Sea) to the eastern coast (Bay of Bengal), covering nearly two-thirds of the Indian subcontinent. Bindusara and Ashoka seem to have extended the empire southwards. The distribution of Ashoka's inscriptions suggests that his empire included almost the entire Indian subcontinent, except its southernmost parts. The Rock Edicts 2 and 13 suggest that these southernmost parts were controlled by the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Keralaputras, and the Satiyaputras. In the north-west, Ashoka's kingdom extended up to Kandahar, to the east of the Seleucid Empire ruled by Antiochus II. The capital of Ashoka's empire was Pataliputra in the Magadha region. Religion and philosophy ----------------------- ### Relationship with Buddhism The Buddhist legends state that Ashoka converted to Buddhism, although this has been debated by a section of scholars. The Minor Rock Edict 1 leaves no doubt that Ashoka was a follower of Buddhism. In this edict, he calls himself an upasaka (a lay follower of Buddhism) and a *sakya* (i.e. Buddhist, after Gautama Buddha's title *Shakya-Muni*). This and several other edicts are evidence of his Buddhist affiliation: * In his Minor Rock Edict 1, Ashoka adds that he did not make much progress for a year after becoming an *upasaka*, but then, he "went to" the Sangha, and made more progress. It is not certain what "going to" the Sangha means – the Buddhist tradition that he lived with monks may be an exaggeration, but it clearly means that Ashoka was drawn closer to Buddhism. * In his Minor Rock Edict 3, he calls himself an *upasaka*, and records his faith in the Buddha and the Sangha. * In the Major Rock Edict 8, he records his visit to Sambodhi (the sacred Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya), ten years after his coronation. * In the Lumbini (Rumminidei) inscription, he records his visit to the Buddha's birthplace, and declares his reverence for the Buddha and the sangha. * In the Nigalisagar inscription, he records his doubling in size of a stupa dedicated to a former Buddha, and his visit to the site for worship. * Some of his inscriptions reflect his interest in maintaining the Buddhist sangha (see #Purification of sangha below). * The Saru Maru inscription states that Ashoka dispatched the message while travelling to Upunita-vihara in Manema-desha. Although the identity of the destination is not certain, it was obviously a Buddhist monastery (vihara). ### Other religions A legend in the Buddhist text *Vamsatthapakasini* states that an Ajivika ascetic invited to interpret a dream of Ashoka's mother had predicted that he would patronise Buddhism and destroy 96 heretical sects. However, such assertions are directly contradicted by Ashoka's own inscriptions. Ashoka's edicts, such as the Rock Edicts 6, 7, and 12, emphasise tolerance of all sects. Similarly, in his Rock Edict 12, Ashoka honours people of all faiths. In his inscriptions, Ashoka dedicates caves to non-Buddhist ascetics, and repeatedly states that both Brahmins and shramanas deserved respect. He also tells people "not to denigrate other sects, but to inform themselves about them". In fact, there is no evidence that Buddhism was a state religion under Ashoka. None of Ashoka's extant edicts record his direct donations to the Buddhists. One inscription records donations by his queen Karuvaki, while the emperor is known to have donated the Barabar Caves to the Ajivikas. There are some indirect references to his donations to Buddhists. For example, the Nigalisagar Pillar inscription records his enlargement of the Konakamana stupa. Similarly, the Lumbini (Rumminidei) inscription states that he exempted the village of Buddha's birth from the land tax, and reduced the revenue tax to one-eighth. Ashoka appointed the *dhamma-mahamatta* officers, whose duties included the welfare of various religious sects, including the Buddhist sangha, Brahmins, Ajivikas, and Nirgranthas. The Rock Edicts 8 and 12, and the Pillar Edict 7, mandate donations to all religious sects. Ashoka's Minor Rock Edict 1 contains the phrase "*amissā devā*". According to one interpretation, the term "*amissā*" derives from the word "*amṛṣa*" ("false"), and thus, the phrase is a reference to Ashoka's belief in "true" and "false" gods. However, it is more likely that the term derives from the word "*amiśra*" ("not mingled"), and the phrase refers to celestial beings who did not mingle with humans. The inscription claims that the righteousness generated by adoption of dhamma by the humans attracted even the celestial gods who did not mingle with humans. ### Dharma Ashoka's various inscriptions suggest that he devoted himself to the propagation of "Dharma" (Pali: Dhamma), a term that refers to the teachings of Gautama Buddha in the Buddhist circles. However, Ashoka's own inscriptions do not mention Buddhist doctrines such as the Four Noble Truths or Nirvana. The word "Dharma" has various connotations in the Indian religions, and can be generally translated as "law, duty, or righteousness". In the Kandahar inscriptions of Ashoka, the word "Dharma" has been translated as eusebeia (Greek) and qsyt (Aramaic), which further suggests that his "Dharma" meant something more generic than Buddhism. The inscriptions suggest that for Ashoka, Dharma meant "a moral polity of active social concern, religious tolerance, ecological awareness, the observance of common ethical precepts, and the renunciation of war." For example: * Abolition of the death penalty (Pillar Edict IV) * Plantation of banyan trees and mango groves, and construction of resthouses and wells, every 800 metres (1⁄2 mile) along the roads. (Pillar Edict 7). * Restriction on killing of animals in the royal kitchen (Rock Edict 1); the number of animals killed was limited to two peacocks and a deer daily, and in future, even these animals were not to be killed. * Provision of medical facilities for humans and animals (Rock Edict 2). * Encouragement of obedience to parents, "generosity toward priests and ascetics, and frugality in spending" (Rock Edict 3). * He "commissions officers to work for the welfare and happiness of the poor and aged" (Rock Edict 5) * Promotion of "the welfare of all beings so as to pay off his debt to living creatures and to work for their happiness in this world and the next." (Rock Edict 6) Modern scholars have variously understood this *dhamma* as a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a "sort of universal religion", or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it has also been interpreted as an *essentially political* ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse empire. Ashoka instituted a new category of officers called the *dhamma-mahamattas*, who were tasked with the welfare of the aged, the infirm, the women and children, and various religious sects. They were also sent on diplomatic missions to the Hellenistic kingdoms of west Asia, in order to propagate the dhamma. Historically, the image of Ashoka in the global Buddhist circles was based on legends (such as those mentioned in the *Ashokavadana*) rather than his rock edicts. This was because the Brahmi script in which these edicts were written was forgotten soon and remained undeciphered until its study by James Prinsep in the 19th century. The writings of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims such as Faxian and Xuanzang suggest that Ashoka's inscriptions mark the important sites associated with Gautama Buddha. These writers attribute Buddhism-related content to Ashoka's edicts, but this content does not match with the actual text of the inscriptions as determined by modern scholars after the decipherment of the Brahmi script. It is likely that the script was forgotten by the time of Faxian, who probably relied on local guides; these guides may have made up some Buddhism-related interpretations to gratify him, or may have themselves relied on faulty translations based on oral traditions. Xuanzang may have encountered a similar situation, or may have taken the supposed content of the inscriptions from Faxian's writings. This theory is corroborated by the fact that some Brahmin scholars are known to have similarly come up with a fanciful interpretation of Ashoka pillar inscriptions, when requested to decipher them by the 14th century Muslim king Firuz Shah Tughlaq. According to Shams-i Siraj's *Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi*, after the king had these pillar transported from Topra and Mirat to Delhi as war trophies, these Brahmins told him that the inscriptions prophesied that nobody would be able to remove the pillars except a king named Firuz. Moreover, by this time, there were local traditions that attributed the erection of these pillars to the legendary hero Bhima. According to scholars such as Richard Gombrich, Ashoka's dharma shows Buddhist influence. For example, the Kalinga Separate Edict I seems to be inspired by Buddha's *Advice to Sigala* and his other sermons. #### Animal welfare Ashoka's rock edicts declare that injuring living things is not good, and no animal should be slaughtered for sacrifice. However, he did not prohibit common cattle slaughter or beef eating. He imposed a ban on killing of "all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible", and of specific animal species including several birds, certain types of fish and bulls among others. He also banned killing of female goats, sheep and pigs that were nursing their young; as well as their young up to the age of six months. He also banned killing of all fish and castration of animals during certain periods such as Chaturmasa and Uposatha. Ashoka also abolished the royal hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the royal residence. Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays, the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as "one of the very few instances in world history of a government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents". Foreign relations ----------------- It is well known that Ashoka sent *dütas* or emissaries to convey messages or letters, written or oral (rather both), to various people. The VIth Rock Edict about "oral orders" reveals this. It was later confirmed that it was not unusual to add oral messages to written ones, and the content of Ashoka's messages can be inferred likewise from the XIIIth Rock Edict: They were meant to spread his *dhammavijaya,* which he considered the highest victory and which he wished to propagate everywhere (including far beyond India). There is obvious and undeniable trace of cultural contact through the adoption of the Kharosthi script, and the idea of installing inscriptions might have travelled with this script, as Achaemenid influence is seen in some of the formulations used by Ashoka in his inscriptions. This indicates to us that Ashoka was indeed in contact with other cultures, and was an active part in mingling and spreading new cultural ideas beyond his own immediate walls. ### Hellenistic world In his rock edicts, Ashoka states that he had encouraged the transmission of Buddhism to the Hellenistic kingdoms to the west and that the Greeks in his dominion were converts to Buddhism and recipients of his envoys: > Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest. And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni. > > Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamktis, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. Even where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys have not been, these people too, having heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances and instructions in Dhamma given by Beloved-of-the-Gods, are following it and will continue to do so. > > — Edicts of Ashoka, Rock Edict (S. Dhammika) It is possible, but not certain, that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the Hellenistic royal orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, given the presence of ambassadors of Hellenistic kings in India (as well as the *dütas* sent by Ashoka himself). Dionysius is reported to have been such a Greek ambassador at the court of Ashoka, sent by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who himself is mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka. Some Hellenistic philosophers, such as Hegesias of Cyrene, who probably lived under the rule of King Magas, one of the supposed recipients of Buddhist emissaries from Asoka, are sometimes thought to have been influenced by Buddhist teachings. The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in spreading Buddhism (the *Mahavamsa*, XII). Some Greeks (Yavana) may have played an administrative role in the territories ruled by Ashoka. The Girnar inscription of Rudradaman records that during the rule of Ashoka, a Yavana Governor was in charge in the area of Girnar, Gujarat, mentioning his role in the construction of a water reservoir. It is thought that Ashoka's palace at Patna was modelled after the Achaemenid palace of Persepolis. Legends about past lives ------------------------ Buddhist legends mention stories about Ashoka's past lives. According to a *Mahavamsa* story, Ashoka, Nigrodha and Devnampiya Tissa were brothers in a previous life. In that life, a pratyekabuddha was looking for honey to cure another, sick pratyekabuddha. A woman directed him to a honey shop owned by the three brothers. Ashoka generously donated honey to the pratyekabuddha, and wished to become the sovereign ruler of Jambudvipa for this act of merit. The woman wished to become his queen, and was reborn as Ashoka's wife Asandhamitta. Later Pali texts credit her with an additional act of merit: she gifted the pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her. These texts include the *Dasavatthuppakarana*, the so-called Cambodian or Extended *Mahavamsa* (possibly from 9th–10th centuries), and the *Trai Bhumi Katha* (15th century). According to an *Ashokavadana* story, Ashoka was born as Jaya in a prominent family of Rajagriha. When he was a little boy, he gave the Gautama Buddha dirt imagining it to be food. The Buddha approved of the donation, and Jaya declared that he would become a king by this act of merit. The text also state that Jaya's companion Vijaya was reborn as Ashoka's prime-minister Radhagupta. In the later life, the Buddhist monk Upagupta tells Ashoka that his rough skin was caused by the impure gift of dirt in the previous life. Some later texts repeat this story, without mentioning the negative implications of gifting dirt; these texts include Kumaralata's *Kalpana-manditika*, Aryashura's *Jataka-mala*, and the *Maha-karma-vibhaga*. The Chinese writer Pao Ch'eng's *Shih chia ju lai ying hua lu* asserts that an insignificant act like gifting dirt could not have been meritorious enough to cause Ashoka's future greatness. Instead, the text claims that in another past life, Ashoka commissioned a large number of Buddha statues as a king, and this act of merit caused him to become a great emperor in the next life. The 14th century Pali-language fairy tale *Dasavatthuppakarana* (possibly from c. 14th century) combines the stories about the merchant's gift of honey, and the boy's gift of dirt. It narrates a slightly different version of the *Mahavamsa* story, stating that it took place before the birth of the Gautama Buddha. It then states that the merchant was reborn as the boy who gifted dirt to the Buddha; however, in this case, the Buddha his attendant to Ānanda to create plaster from the dirt, which is used repair cracks in the monastery walls. Last years ---------- ### Tissarakkha as the queen Ashoka's last dated inscription - the Pillar Edict 4 is from his 26th regnal year. The only source of information about Ashoka's later years are the Buddhist legends. The Sri Lankan tradition states that Ashoka's queen Asandhamitta died during his 29th regnal year, and in his 32nd regnal year, his wife Tissarakkha was given the title of queen. Both *Mahavamsa* and *Ashokavadana* state that Ashoka extended favours and attention to the Bodhi Tree, and a jealous Tissarakkha mistook "Bodhi" to be a mistress of Ashoka. She then used black magic to make the tree wither. According to the *Ashokavadana*, she hired a sorceress to do the job, and when Ashoka explained that "Bodhi" was the name of a tree, she had the sorceress heal the tree. According to the *Mahavamsa*, she completely destroyed the tree, during Ashoka's 34th regnal year. The *Ashokavadana* states that Tissarakkha (called "Tishyarakshita" here) made sexual advances towards Ashoka's son Kunala, but Kunala rejected her. Subsequently, Ashoka granted Tissarakkha kingship for seven days, and during this period, she tortured and blinded Kunala. Ashoka then threatened to "tear out her eyes, rip open her body with sharp rakes, impale her alive on a spit, cut off her nose with a saw, cut out her tongue with a razor." Kunala regained his eyesight miraculously, and pleaded for mercy for the queen, but Ashoka had her executed anyway. Kshemendra's *Avadana-kalpa-lata* also narrates this legend, but seeks to improve Ashoka's image by stating that he forgave the queen after Kunala regained his eyesight. ### Death According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka died during his 37th regnal year, which suggests that he died around 232 BCE. According to the *Ashokavadana*, the emperor fell severely ill during his last days. He started using state funds to make donations to the Buddhist sangha, prompting his ministers to deny him access to the state treasury. Ashoka then started donating his personal possessions, but was similarly restricted from doing so. On his deathbed, his only possession was the half of a myrobalan fruit, which he offered to the sangha as his final donation. Such legends encourage generous donations to the *sangha* and highlight the role of the kingship in supporting the Buddhist faith. Legend states that during his cremation, his body burned for seven days and nights. Legacy ------ In *The Outline of History* (1920), H. G. Wells wrote, "Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star." ### Architecture Besides the various stupas attributed to Ashoka, the pillars erected by him survive at various places in the Indian subcontinent. Ashoka is often credited with the beginning of stone architecture in India, possibly following the introduction of stone-building techniques by the Greeks after Alexander the Great. Before Ashoka's time, buildings were probably built in non-permanent material, such as wood, bamboo or thatch. Ashoka may have rebuilt his palace in Pataliputra by replacing wooden material by stone, and may also have used the help of foreign craftmen. Ashoka also innovated by using the permanent qualities of stone for his written edicts, as well as his pillars with Buddhist symbolism. * The Ashokan pillar at Lumbini, Nepal, Buddha's birthplace The Ashokan pillar at Lumbini, Nepal, Buddha's birthplace * The Diamond throne at the Mahabodhi Temple, attributed to Ashoka The Diamond throne at the Mahabodhi Temple, attributed to Ashoka * Front frieze of the Diamond throne Front frieze of the Diamond throne * Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum * Rampurva bull capital, detail of the abacus, with two "flame palmettes" framing a lotus surrounded by small rosette flowers.Rampurva bull capital, detail of the abacus, with two "flame palmettes" framing a lotus surrounded by small rosette flowers. ### Symbols Symbols of AshokaAshoka's pillar capital of Sarnath. This sculpture has been adopted as the National Emblem of India.Ashoka Chakra, *"the wheel of Righteousness" (Dharma in Sanskrit or Dhamma in Pali)"*, has been adopted in the National Flag of India. Ashokan capitals were highly realistic and used a characteristic polished finish, Mauryan polish, giving a shiny appearance to the stone surface. Lion Capital of Ashoka, the capital of one of the pillars erected by Ashoka features a carving of a spoked wheel, known as the Ashoka Chakra. This wheel represents the wheel of Dhamma set in motion by the Gautama Buddha, and appears on the flag of modern India. This capital also features sculptures of lions, which appear on the seal of India. ### Inscriptions The edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, issued during his reign. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout modern-day Pakistan and India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history, offering more information about Ashoka's proselytism, moral precepts, religious precepts, and his notions of social and animal welfare. Before Ashoka, the royal communications appear to have been written on perishable materials such as palm leaves, birch barks, cotton cloth, and possibly wooden boards. While Ashoka's administration would have continued to use these materials, Ashoka also had his messages inscribed on rock edicts. Ashoka probably got the idea of putting up these inscriptions from the neighbouring Achaemenid empire. It is likely that Ashoka's messages were also inscribed on more perishable materials, such as wood, and sent to various parts of the empire. None of these records survive now. Scholars are still attempting to analyse both the expressed and implied political ideas of the Edicts (particularly in regard to imperial vision), and make inferences pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems and political realities of a "virtually subcontinental, and culturally and economically highly variegated, 3rd century BCE Indian empire. Nonetheless, it remains clear that Ashoka's Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of royal inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent, and therefore prove to be a very important innovation in royal practices." Most of Ashoka's inscriptions are written in a mixture of various Prakrit dialects, in the Brahmi script. Several of Ashoka's inscriptions appear to have been set up near towns, on important routes, and at places of religious significance. Many of the inscriptions have been discovered in hills, rock shelters, and places of local significance. Various theories have been put forward about why Ashoka or his officials chose such places, including that they were centres of megalithic cultures, were regarded as sacred spots in Ashoka's time, or that their physical grandeur may be symbolic of spiritual dominance. Ashoka's inscriptions have not been found at major cities of the Maurya empire, such as Pataliputra, Vidisha, Ujjayini, and Taxila. It is possible that many of these inscriptions are lost; the 7th century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang refers to some of Ashoka's pillar edicts, which have not been discovered by modern researchers. It appears that Ashoka dispatched every message to his provincial governors, who in turn, relayed it to various officials in their territory. For example, the Minor Rock Edict 1 appears in several versions at multiple places: all the versions state that Ashoka issued the proclamation while on a tour, having spent 256 days on tour. The number 256 indicates that the message was dispatched simultaneously to various places. Three versions of a message, found at edicts in the neighbouring places in Karnataka (Brahmagiri, Siddapura, and Jatinga-Rameshwara), were sent from the southern province's capital Suvarnagiri to various places. All three versions contain the same message, preceded by an initial greeting from the *arya-putra* (presumably Ashoka's son and the provincial governor) and the *mahamatras* (officials) in Suvarnagiri. ### Coinage The caduceus appears as a symbol of the punch-marked coins of the Maurya Empire in India, in the 3rd–2nd century BCE. Numismatic research suggests that this symbol was the symbol of king Ashoka, his personal "Mudra". This symbol was not used on the pre-Mauryan punch-marked coins, but only on coins of the Maurya period, together with the three arched-hill symbol, the "peacock on the hill", the triskelis and the Taxila mark. * Caduceus symbol on a Maurya-era punch-marked coin Caduceus symbol on a Maurya-era punch-marked coin * A punch-marked coin attributed to Ashoka A punch-marked coin attributed to Ashoka * A Maurya-era silver coin of 1 karshapana, possibly from Ashoka's period, workshop of Mathura. Obverse: Symbols including a sun and an animal Reverse: Symbol Dimensions: 13.92 x 11.75 mm Weight: 3.4 g. A Maurya-era silver coin of 1 karshapana, possibly from Ashoka's period, workshop of Mathura. **Obverse:** Symbols including a sun and an animal **Reverse:** Symbol **Dimensions:** 13.92 x 11.75 mm **Weight:** 3.4 g. Modern scholarship ------------------ ### Rediscovery Ashoka had almost been forgotten, but in the 19th century James Prinsep contributed in the revelation of historical sources. After deciphering the Brahmi script, Prinsep had originally identified the "Priyadasi" of the inscriptions he found with the King of Ceylon Devanampiya Tissa. However, in 1837, George Turnour discovered an important Sri Lankan manuscript (Dipavamsa, or "Island Chronicle" ) associating Piyadasi with Ashoka: > "Two hundred and eighteen years after the beatitude of the Buddha, was the inauguration of Piyadassi, .... who, the grandson of Chandragupta, and the son of Bindusara, was at the time Governor of Ujjayani." > > — Dipavamsa. Since then, the association of "Devanampriya Priyadarsin" with Ashoka was confirmed through various inscriptions, and especially confirmed in the Minor Rock Edict inscription discovered in Maski, directly associating Ashoka with his regnal title Devanampriya ("Beloved-of-the-Gods"): > > [A proclamation] of Devanampriya Asoka. > > Two and a half years [and somewhat more] (have passed) since I am a Buddha-Sakya. > > [A year and] somewhat more (has passed) [since] I have visited the Samgha and have shown zeal. > > Those gods who formerly had been unmingled (with men) in Jambudvipa, have how become mingled (with them). > > This object can be reached even by a lowly (person) who is devoted to morality. > > One must not think thus, – (viz.) that only an exalted (person) may reach this. > > Both the lowly and the exalted must be told : "If you act thus, this matter (will be) prosperous and of long duration, and will thus progress to one and a half. > > > — Maski Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka. Another important historian was British archaeologist John Hubert Marshall, who was director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India. His main interests were Sanchi and Sarnath, in addition to Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir Alexander Cunningham, a British archaeologist and army engineer, and often known as the father of the Archaeological Survey of India, unveiled heritage sites like the Bharhut Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple. Mortimer Wheeler, a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the Taxila. ### Perceptions and historiography The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion from the Vedic religion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. Romila Thappar writes about Ashoka that "We need to see him both as a statesman in the context of inheriting and sustaining an empire in a particular historical period, and as a person with a strong commitment to changing society through what might be called the propagation of social ethics." The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions of his time: Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism, and his edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes members of all the religions would accept. For example, Amartya Sen writes, "The Indian Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE presented many political inscriptions in favor of tolerance and individual freedom, both as a part of state policy and in the relation of different people to each other". However, the edicts alone strongly *indicate* that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles rituals, and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, many edicts are expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an "upasaka", and in another he demonstrates a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, but did not do so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word "dhamma" to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. However, he used the word more in the spirit than as a strict code of conduct. Romila Thappar writes, "His dhamma did not derive from divine inspiration, even if its observance promised heaven. It was more in keeping with the ethic conditioned by the logic of given situations. His logic of Dhamma was intended to influence the conduct of categories of people, in relation to each other. Especially where they involved unequal relationships." Finally, he promotes ideals that correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated discourse. Much of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from the several inscriptions that he had carved on pillars and rocks throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate and loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses his people as his "children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good. ### Impact of pacifism After Ashoka's death, the Maurya dynasty declined rapidly. The various Puranas provide different details about Ashoka's successors, but all agree that they had relatively short reigns. The empire seems to have weakened, fragmented, and suffered an invasion from the Bactrian Greeks. Some historians, such as H. C. Raychaudhuri, have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire. Others, such as Romila Thapar, have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated". In art, film and literature --------------------------- * *Ashoka the Great* is a fictional biography of the emperor, which was originally written in Dutch in the form of a trilogy by Wytze Keuning in 1937-1947. * Jaishankar Prasad composed *Ashoka ki Chinta* (*Ashoka's Anxiety*), a poem that portrays Ashoka's feelings during the war on Kalinga. * *Ashoka*, a 1922 Indian silent historical film about the emperor produced by Madan Theatres. * *The Nine Unknown*, a 1923 novel by Talbot Mundy about the "Nine Unknown Men", a fictional secret society founded by Ashoka. * *Samrat Ashok*, a 1928 Indian silent film by Bhagwati Prasad Mishra. * *Ashok Kumar* is a 1941 Indian Tamil-language film directed by Raja Chandrasekhar. The film stars V. Nagayya as Ashoka. * *Samrat Ashok* is a 1947 Indian Hindi-language film by K.B. Lall. * *Uttar-Priyadarshi* (The Final Beatitude), a verse-play written by poet Agyeya depicting his redemption, was adapted to stage in 1996 by theatre director, Ratan Thiyam and has since been performed in many parts of the world. * In 1973, Amar Chitra Katha released a graphic novel based on the life of Ashoka. * In Piers Anthony's series of space opera novels, the main character mentions Ashoka as a model for administrators to strive for. * *Samrat Ashok* is a 1992 Indian Telugu-language film about the emperor by N. T. Rama Rao with Rao also playing the titular role. * *Aśoka* is a 2001 epic Indian historical drama film directed and co-written by Santosh Sivan. The film stars Shah Rukh Khan as Ashoka. * In 2002, Mason Jennings released the song "Emperor Ashoka" on his Living in the Moment EP. It is based on the life of Ashoka. * In 2013, Christopher C. Doyle released his debut novel, *The Mahabharata Secret*, in which he wrote about Ashoka hiding a dangerous secret for the well-being of India. * 2014's *The Emperor's Riddles*, a fiction mystery thriller novel by Satyarth Nayak, traces the evolution of Ashoka and his esoteric legend of the Nine Unknown Men. * In 2015, *Chakravartin Ashoka Samrat*, a television serial by Ashok Banker, based on the life of Ashoka, began airing on Colors TV where Siddharth Nigam played the role of Ashoka. * *Bharatvarsh* is an Indian television historical documentary series, hosted by actor-director Anupam Kher on Hindi news channel ABP News. The series stars Aham Sharma as Ashoka. See also -------- * Akbar * List of people known as the Great ### Bibliography * Allen, Charles (2012). *Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor*. Hachette. ISBN 978-1-408-70388-5. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 13 July 2018. * Bentley, Jerry (1993). *Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times*. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195076400. * Fitzgerald, James L., ed. (2004). *The Mahabharata*. Vol. 7. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-25250-7. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 16 August 2019. * Gombrich, Richard (1995). "Aśoka – The Great Upāsaka". In Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.). *King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies*. Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 978-955-24-0065-0. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2019. * Guruge, Ananda W. P. (1993). *Aśoka, the Righteous: A Definitive Biography*. Central Cultural Fund. ISBN 978-955-9226-00-0. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2019. * Guruge, Ananda W. P. (1995). "Emperor Aśoka and Buddhism: Unresolved Discrepancies between Buddhist Tradition & Aśokan Inscriptions". In Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.). *King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies*. Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 978-955-24-0065-0. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2019. * Guruge, Ananda W. P. (1995). "Emperor Aśoka's Place in History: A Review of Prevalent Opinions". In Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.). *King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies*. Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 978-955-24-0065-0. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2019. * Kosmin, Paul J. (2014), *The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire*, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-72882-0, archived from the original on 8 May 2021, retrieved 24 September 2018 * Lahiri, Nayanjot (2015). *Ashoka in Ancient India*. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674057777. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 16 August 2019. * Mookerji, Radhakumud (1962). *Aśoka* (3rd revised ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0582-8. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 16 August 2019. * Singh, Upinder (2017). *Political Violence in Ancient India*. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-97527-9. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2018. * Singh, Upinder (2008). *A history of ancient and early medieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century*. New Delhi: Pearson Education. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 16 August 2019. * Singh, Upinder (2012). "Governing the State and the Self: Political Philosophy and Practice in the Edicts of Aśoka". *South Asian Studies*. University of Delhi. **28** (2): 131–145. doi:10.1080/02666030.2012.725581. S2CID 143362618. * Strong, John S. (1995). "Images of Aśoka: Some Indian and Sri Lankan Legends and their Development". In Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.). *King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies*. Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 978-955-24-0065-0. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2019. * Strong, John S. (1989). *The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna*. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0616-0. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 15 November 2015. * Thapar, Romila (1995). "Aśoka and Buddhism as Reflected in the Aśokan Edicts". In Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.). *King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies*. Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 978-955-24-0065-0. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2019. * Thapar, Romila (1961). *Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas*. Oxford University Press. OCLC 736554. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2019. * Thapar, Romila (2015) [First published 1961]. *Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas* (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198077244. OCLC 964509329. Further reading --------------- * Harry Falk (2006). *Aśokan Sites and Artefacts: A Source-book with Bibliography*. Von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-3712-0. * Patrick Olivelle; Janice Leoshko; Himanshu Prabha Ray (2012). *Reimagining Asoka: Memory and History*. Oxford University Press India. ISBN 978-0-19-807800-5. * E. Hultzsch (1925). *Inscriptions of Asoka: New Edition*. Government of India. * Rongxi, Li (1993). *The Biographical Scripture of King Aśoka: Translated from the Chinese of Saṃghapāla* (PDF). Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. ISBN 978-0-9625618-4-9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. * Nikam, N. A.; McKeon, Richard (1959). *The Edicts of Aśoka*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. * James Merry MacPhail (1918). *Asoka*. London: Oxford University Press. | Edicts of Ashoka(Ruled 269–232 BCE) | | --- | | Regnal yearsof Ashoka | Type of Edict(and location of the inscriptions) | Geographical location | | Year 8 | *End of the Kalinga War and conversion to the "Dharma"* | Ashoka is located in South AsiaBahapur**Bahapur**Gujarra**Gujarra**Saru Maru**Saru Maru**Udegolam**Udegolam**Nittur**Nittur**Maski**Maski**SiddapurSiddapurBrahmagiri**Brahmagiri**Jatinga**Jatinga**Pakilgundu**Pakilgundu**Rajula Mandagiri**Rajula Mandagiri**Yerragudi**Yerragudi**Sasaram**Sasaram**Rupnath**Rupnath**Bairat**Bairat**Bhabru**Bhabru**Ahraura**Ahraura**Barabar**Barabar**Taxila(Aramaic)**Taxila****(Aramaic)**Laghman(Aramaic)**Laghman****(Aramaic)**MaskiPalkigunduGavimathJatinga/Rameshwara**Maski****Palkigundu****Gavimath****Jatinga/Rameshwara**Rajula/MandagiriBrahmagiriUdegolamSiddapurNittur**Rajula/Mandagiri****Brahmagiri****Udegolam****Siddapur****Nittur**AhrauraSasaram**Ahraura****Sasaram**Kandahar(Greek and Aramaic)Kandahar(Greek and Aramaic)KandaharKandaharYerragudiYerragudiGirnarGirnarDhauliDhauliKhalsiKhalsiSoparaSoparaJaugadaJaugadaShahbazgarhiShahbazgarhiMansehraMansehraSannatiSannatiSarnathSarnathSanchiSanchiLumbiniNigali SagarLumbiniNigali SagarNigali SagarNigali SagarNandangarhNandangarhKosambiKosambiTopraTopraMeerutMeerutArarajArarajAraraj,RampurvaAraraj,RampurvaRampurvaRampurvaAi Khanoum(Greek city)*Ai Khanoum*(Greek city)Pataliputra*Pataliputra*Ujjain*Ujjain*class=notpageimage| Location of the Minor Rock Edicts (Edicts 1, 2 & 3) Other inscriptions often classified as Minor Rock Edicts. Location of the Major Rock Edicts. Location of the Minor Pillar Edicts. Original location of the Major Pillar Edicts. *Capital cities* | | Year 10 | **Minor Rock Edicts** | **Related events:**Visit to the Bodhi tree in Bodh GayaConstruction of the Mahabodhi Temple and Diamond throne in Bodh GayaPredication throughout India.Dissenssions in the SanghaThird Buddhist CouncilIn Indian language: Sohgaura inscriptionErection of the Pillars of Ashoka | | Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription(in Greek and Aramaic, Kandahar) | | Minor Rock Edicts in Aramaic:Laghman Inscription, Taxila inscription | | Year 11 and later | Minor Rock Edicts (n°1, n°2 and n°3)(Panguraria, Maski, Palkigundu and Gavimath, Bahapur/Srinivaspuri, Bairat, Ahraura, Gujarra, Sasaram, Rajula Mandagiri, Yerragudi, Udegolam, Nittur, Brahmagiri, Siddapur, Jatinga-Rameshwara) | | Year 12 and later | **Barabar Caves inscriptions** | **Major Rock Edicts** | | **Minor Pillar Edicts** | Major Rock Edicts in Greek: Edicts n°12-13 (Kandahar)Major Rock Edicts in Indian language:Edicts No.1 ~ No.14(in Kharoshthi script: Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra Edicts(in Brahmi script: Kalsi, Girnar, Sopara, Sannati, Yerragudi, Delhi Edicts)Major Rock Edicts 1–10, 14, Separate Edicts 1&2:(Dhauli, Jaugada) | | Schism Edict, Queen's Edict(Sarnath Sanchi Allahabad)Lumbini inscription, Nigali Sagar inscription | | Year 26, 27and later | **Major Pillar Edicts** | | In Indian language:Major Pillar Edicts No.1 ~ No.7(Allahabad pillar Delhi-Meerut Delhi-Topra Rampurva Lauria Nandangarh Lauriya-Araraj Amaravati) Derived inscriptions in Aramaic, on rock: Kandahar, Edict No.7 and Pul-i-Darunteh, Edict No.5 or No.7 | | 1. 1 2 3 Yailenko,Les maximes delphiques d'Aï Khanoum et la formation de la doctrine du dhamma d'Asoka, 1990, p. 243 Archived 12 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine. 2. ↑ Inscriptions of Asoka de D.C. Sircar p. 30 Archived 19 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine 3. 1 2 Handbuch der Orientalistik de Kurt A. Behrendt p. 39 Archived 9 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine |

Ashoka

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashoka

**Nihilism** (/ˈnaɪ(h)ɪlɪzəm, ˈniː-/; from Latin **nihil** 'nothing') is a philosophy, or family of views within philosophy, that rejects generally accepted or fundamental aspects of human existence, such as knowledge, morality, or meaning. The term was popularized by Ivan Turgenev, and more specifically by his character Bazarov in the novel *Fathers and Sons*. There have been different nihilist positions, including that human values are baseless, that life is meaningless, that knowledge is impossible, or that some set of entities does not exist or is meaningless or pointless. Scholars of nihilism may regard it as merely a label that has been applied to various separate philosophies, or as a distinct historical concept arising out of nominalism, skepticism, and philosophical pessimism, as well as possibly out of Christianity itself. Contemporary understanding of the idea stems largely from the Nietzschean 'crisis of nihilism', from which derive the two central concepts: the destruction of higher values and the opposition to the affirmation of life. Earlier forms of nihilism, however, may be more selective in negating specific hegemonies of social, moral, political and aesthetic thought. The term is sometimes used in association with *anomie* to explain the general mood of despair at a perceived pointlessness of existence or arbitrariness of human principles and social institutions. Nihilism has also been described as conspicuous in or constitutive of certain historical periods. For example, Jean Baudrillard and others have characterized postmodernity as a nihilistic epoch or mode of thought. Likewise, some theologians and religious figures have stated that postmodernity and many aspects of modernity represent nihilism by a negation of religious principles. Nihilism has, however, been widely ascribed to both religious and irreligious viewpoints. In popular use, the term commonly refers to forms of existential nihilism, according to which life is without intrinsic value, meaning, or purpose. Other prominent positions within nihilism include the rejection of all normative and ethical views (§ Moral nihilism), the rejection of all social and political institutions (§ Political nihilism), the stance that no knowledge can or does exist (§ Epistemological nihilism), and a number of metaphysical positions, which assert that non-abstract objects do not exist (§ Metaphysical nihilism), that composite objects do not exist (§ Mereological nihilism), or even that life itself does not exist. Etymology, terminology and definition ------------------------------------- The etymological origin of *nihilism* is the Latin root word *nihil*, meaning 'nothing', which is similarly found in the related terms *annihilate*, meaning 'to bring to nothing', and *nihility*, meaning 'nothingness'. The term *nihilism* emerged in several places in Europe during the 18th century, notably in the German form *Nihilismus*, though was also in use during the Middle Ages to denote certain forms of heresy. The concept itself first took shape within Russian and German philosophy, which respectively represented the two major currents of discourse on nihilism prior to the 20th century. The term likely entered English from either the German *Nihilismus*, Late Latin *nihilismus*, or French *nihilisme*. Early examples of the term's use are found in German publications. In 1733, German writer Friedrich Leberecht Goetz used it as a literary term in combination with *noism* (German: *Neinismus*). In the period surrounding the French Revolution, the term was also a pejorative for certain value-destructive trends of modernity, namely the negation of Christianity and European tradition in general. Nihilism first entered philosophical study within a discourse surrounding Kantian and post-Kantian philosophies, notably appearing in the writings of Swiss esotericist Jacob Hermann Obereit in 1787 and German philosopher Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi in 1799. As early as 1824, the term began to take on a social connotation with German journalist Joseph von Görres attributing it to a negation of existing social and political institutions. The Russian form of the word, *nigilizm* (Russian: нигилизм), entered publication in 1829 when Nikolai Nadezhdin used it synonymously with skepticism. In Russian journalism the word continued to have significant social connotations. From the time of Jacobi, the term almost fell completely out of use throughout Europe until it was revived by Russian author Ivan Turgenev, who brought the word into popular use with his 1862 novel *Fathers and Sons*, leading many scholars to believe he coined the term. The nihilist characters of the novel define themselves as those who "deny *everything*", who do "not take any principle on faith, whatever reverence that principle may be enshrined in", and who regard "at the present time, negation is the most useful of all". Despite Turgenev's own anti-nihilistic leanings, many of his readers likewise took up the name of *nihilist*, thus ascribing the Russian nihilist movement its name. *Nihilism* was further discussed by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, who used the term to describe the Western world's disintegration of traditional morality. For Nietzsche, nihilism applied to both the modern trends of value-destruction expressed in the 'death of God', as well as what he saw as the life-denying morality of Christianity. Under Nietzsche's profound influence, the term was then further treated within French philosophy and continental philosophy more broadly, while the influence of nihilism in Russia arguably continued well into the Soviet era. Religious scholars such as Altizer have stated that nihilism must necessarily be understood in relation to religion, and that the study of core elements of its character requires fundamentally theological consideration. History ------- ### Buddhism The concept of nihilism was discussed by the Buddha (563 B.C. to 483 B.C.), as recorded in the Theravada and Mahayana *Tripiṭaka*. The *Tripiṭaka*, originally written in Pali, refers to nihilism as *natthikavāda* and the nihilist view as *micchādiṭṭhi*. Various *sutras* within it describe a multiplicity of views held by different sects of ascetics while the Buddha was alive, some of which were viewed by him to be morally nihilistic. In the "Doctrine of Nihilism" in the *Apannaka Sutta*, the Buddha describes moral nihilists as holding the following views: * The act of giving produces no beneficial results; * Good and bad actions produce no results; * After death, beings are not reborn into the present world or into another world; * There is no one in the world who, through direct knowledge, can confirm that beings are reborn into this world or into another world. The Buddha further states that those who hold these views will fail to see the virtue in good mental, verbal, and bodily conduct and the corresponding dangers in misconduct, and will therefore tend towards the latter. #### Nirvana and nihilism The culmination of the path that the Buddha taught was *nirvana*, "a place of nothingness…nonpossession and…non-attachment…[which is] the total end of death and decay." Ajahn Amaro, an ordained Buddhist monk of more than 40 years, observes that in English *nothingness* can sound like nihilism. However, the word could be emphasized in a different way, so that it becomes *no-thingness*, indicating that nirvana is not a thing you can find, but rather a state where you experience the reality of non-grasping. In the *Alagaddupama Sutta*, the Buddha describes how some individuals feared his teaching because they believe that their *self* would be destroyed if they followed it. He describes this as an anxiety caused by the false belief in an unchanging, everlasting *self*. All things are subject to change and taking any impermanent phenomena to be a *self* causes suffering. Nonetheless, his critics called him a nihilist who teaches the annihilation and extermination of an existing being. The Buddha's response was that he only teaches the cessation of suffering. When an individual has given up craving and the conceit of 'I am' their mind is liberated, they no longer come into any state of 'being' and are no longer born again. The *Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta* records a conversation between the Buddha and an individual named Vaccha that further elaborates on this. In the sutta, Vaccha asks the Buddha to confirm one of the following, with respect to the existence of the Buddha after death: * After death a Buddha reappears somewhere else; * After death a Buddha does not reappear; * After death a Buddha both does and does not reappear; * After death a Buddha neither does nor does not reappear. To all four questions, the Buddha answers that the terms "reappears somewhere else," "does not reappear," "both does and does not reappear," and "neither does nor does not reappear," do not apply. When Vaccha expresses puzzlement, the Buddha asks Vaccha a counter question to the effect of: if a fire were to go out and someone were to ask you whether the fire went north, south, east or west, how would you reply? Vaccha replies that the question does not apply and that an extinguished fire can only be classified as 'out'. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu elaborates on the classification problem around the words 'reappear,' etc. with respect to the Buddha and Nirvana by stating that a "Person who has attained the goal [nirvana] is thus indescribable because [they have] abandoned all things by which [they] could be described." The Suttas themselves describe the liberated mind as 'untraceable' or as 'consciousness without feature', making no distinction between the mind of a liberated being that is alive and the mind of one that is no longer alive. Despite the Buddha's explanations to the contrary, Buddhist practitioners may, at times, still approach Buddhism in a nihilistic manner. Ajahn Amaro illustrates this by retelling the story of a Buddhist monk, Ajahn Sumedho, who in his early years took a nihilistic approach to Nirvana. A distinct feature of Nirvana in Buddhism is that an individual attaining it is no longer subject to rebirth. Ajahn Sumedho, during a conversation with his teacher Ajahn Chah, comments that he is "Determined above all things to fully realize Nirvana in this lifetime…deeply weary of the human condition and…[is] determined not to be born again." To this, Ajahn Chah replies: "What about the rest of us, Sumedho? Don't you care about those who'll be left behind?" Ajahn Amaro comments that Ajahn Chah could detect that his student had a nihilistic aversion to life rather than true detachment. ### Jacobi The term *nihilism* was first introduced to philosophy by Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743–1819), who used the term to characterize rationalism, and in particular the Spinoza's determinism and the Aufklärung, in order to carry out a *reductio ad absurdum* according to which all rationalism (philosophy as criticism) reduces to nihilism—and thus it should be avoided and replaced with a return to some type of faith and revelation. Bret W. Davis writes, for example: > The first philosophical development of the idea of nihilism is generally ascribed to Friedrich Jacobi, who in a famous letter criticized Fichte's idealism as falling into nihilism. According to Jacobi, Fichte's absolutization of the ego (the 'absolute I' that posits the 'not-I') is an inflation of subjectivity that denies the absolute transcendence of God. > > A related but oppositional concept is *fideism*, which sees reason as hostile and inferior to faith. ### Kierkegaard Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) posited an early form of nihilism, which he referred to as *leveling*. He saw leveling as the process of suppressing individuality to a point where an individual's uniqueness becomes non-existent and nothing meaningful in one's existence can be affirmed: > Levelling at its maximum is like the stillness of death, where one can hear one's own heartbeat, a stillness like death, into which nothing can penetrate, in which everything sinks, powerless. One person can head a rebellion, but one person cannot head this levelling process, for that would make him a leader and he would avoid being levelled. Each individual can in his little circle participate in this levelling, but it is an abstract process, and levelling is abstraction conquering individuality. > > — *The Present Age*, translated by Alexander Dru. Foreword by Walter Kaufmann, 1962, pp. 51–53. Kierkegaard, an advocate of a philosophy of life, generally argued against levelling and its nihilistic consequences, although he believed it would be "genuinely educative to live in the age of levelling [because] people will be forced to face the judgement of [levelling] alone." George Cotkin asserts Kierkegaard was against "the standardization and levelling of belief, both spiritual and political, in the nineteenth century," and that Kierkegaard "opposed tendencies in mass culture to reduce the individual to a cipher of conformity and deference to the dominant opinion." In his day, tabloids (like the Danish magazine *Corsaren*) and apostate Christianity were instruments of levelling and contributed to the "reflective apathetic age" of 19th-century Europe. Kierkegaard argues that individuals who can overcome the levelling process are stronger for it, and that it represents a step in the right direction towards "becoming a true self." As we must overcome levelling, Hubert Dreyfus and Jane Rubin argue that Kierkegaard's interest, "in an increasingly nihilistic age, is in *how* we can recover the sense that our lives are meaningful." ### Russian nihilism From the period 1860–1917, Russian nihilism was both a nascent form of nihilist philosophy and broad cultural movement which overlapped with certain revolutionary tendencies of the era, for which it was often wrongly characterized as a form of political terrorism. Russian nihilism centered on the dissolution of existing values and ideals, incorporating theories of hard determinism, atheism, materialism, positivism, and rational egoism, while rejecting metaphysics, sentimentalism, and aestheticism. Leading philosophers of this school of thought included Nikolay Chernyshevsky and Dmitry Pisarev. The intellectual origins of the Russian nihilist movement can be traced back to 1855 and perhaps earlier, where it was principally a philosophy of extreme moral and epistemological skepticism. However, it was not until 1862 that the name *nihilism* was first popularized, when Ivan Turgenev used the term in his celebrated novel *Fathers and Sons* to describe the disillusionment of the younger generation towards both the progressives and traditionalists that came before them, as well as its manifestation in the view that negation and value-destruction were most necessary to the present conditions. The movement very soon adopted the name, despite the novel's initial harsh reception among both the conservatives and younger generation. Though philosophically both nihilistic and skeptical, Russian nihilism did not unilaterally negate ethics and knowledge as may be assumed, nor did it espouse meaninglessness unequivocally. Even so, contemporary scholarship has challenged the equating of Russian nihilism with mere skepticism, instead identifying it as a fundamentally Promethean movement. As passionate advocates of negation, the nihilists sought to liberate the Promethean might of the Russian people which they saw embodied in a class of prototypal individuals, or *new types* in their own words. These individuals, according to Pisarev, in freeing themselves from all authority become exempt from moral authority as well, and are distinguished above the *rabble* or common masses. Later interpretations of nihilism were heavily influenced by works of anti-nihilistic literature, such as those of Fyodor Dostoevsky, which arose in response to Russian nihilism. "In contrast to the corrupted nihilists [of the real world], who tried to numb their nihilistic sensitivity and forget themselves through self-indulgence, Dostoevsky's figures voluntarily leap into nihilism and try to be themselves within its boundaries.", writes contemporary scholar Nishitani. "The nihility expressed in *'if there is no God, everything is permitted'*, or *'après moi, le déluge'*, provides a principle whose sincerity they try to live out to the end. They search for and experiment with ways for the self to justify itself after God has disappeared." ### Nietzsche Nihilism is often associated with the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, who provided a detailed diagnosis of nihilism as a widespread phenomenon of Western culture. Though the notion appears frequently throughout Nietzsche's work, he uses the term in a variety of ways, with different meanings and connotations. With regard to Nietzsche's development of thought, it has been noted in research that although he dealt with "nihilistic" themes from 1869 onwards ("pessimism, with nirvana and with nothingness and non-being"), a conceptual use of nihilism occurred for the first time in handwritten notes in the middle of 1880 (*KSA* 9.127-128). This was the time of a then popular scientific work that reconstructed the so-called "Russian nihilism" on the basis of Russian newspaper reports on nihilistic incidents (N. Karlowitsch: Die Entwicklung des Nihilismus. Berlin 1880). This collection of material, published in three editions, was not only known to a broad German readership, but its influence on Nietzsche can also be proven. Karen L. Carr describes Nietzsche's characterization of nihilism as "a condition of tension, as a disproportion between what we want to value (or need) and how the world appears to operate." When we find out that the world does not possess the objective value or meaning that we want it to have or have long since believed it to have, we find ourselves in a crisis. Nietzsche asserts that with the decline of Christianity and the rise of physiological decadence,[*clarification needed*] nihilism is in fact characteristic of the modern age, though he implies that the rise of nihilism is still incomplete and that it has yet to be overcome. Though the problem of nihilism becomes especially explicit in Nietzsche's notebooks (published posthumously), it is mentioned repeatedly in his published works and is closely connected to many of the problems mentioned there. Nietzsche characterized *nihilism* as emptying the world and especially human existence of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, or essential value. This observation stems in part from Nietzsche's perspectivism, or his notion that "knowledge" is always by someone of some thing: it is always bound by perspective, and it is never mere fact. Rather, there are interpretations through which we understand the world and give it meaning. Interpreting is something we can not go without; in fact, it is a condition of subjectivity. One way of interpreting the world is through morality, as one of the fundamental ways that people make sense of the world, especially in regard to their own thoughts and actions. Nietzsche distinguishes a morality that is strong or healthy, meaning that the person in question is aware that he constructs it himself, from weak morality, where the interpretation is projected on to something external. Nietzsche discusses Christianity, one of the major topics in his work, at length in the context of the problem of nihilism in his notebooks, in a chapter entitled "European Nihilism." Here he states that the Christian moral doctrine provides people with intrinsic value, belief in God (which justifies the evil in the world) and a basis for objective knowledge. In this sense, in constructing a world where objective knowledge is possible, Christianity is an antidote against a primal form of nihilism, against the despair of meaninglessness. However, it is exactly the element of truthfulness in Christian doctrine that is its undoing: in its drive towards truth, Christianity eventually finds itself to be a construct, which leads to its own dissolution. It is therefore that Nietzsche states that we have outgrown Christianity "not because we lived too far from it, rather because we lived too close." As such, the self-dissolution of Christianity constitutes yet another form of nihilism. Because Christianity was an interpretation that posited itself as *the* interpretation, Nietzsche states that this dissolution leads beyond skepticism to a distrust of *all* meaning. Stanley Rosen identifies Nietzsche's concept of nihilism with a situation of meaninglessness, in which "everything is permitted." According to him, the loss of higher metaphysical values that exist in contrast to the base reality of the world, or merely human ideas, gives rise to the idea that all human ideas are therefore valueless. Rejecting idealism thus results in nihilism, because only similarly transcendent ideals live up to the previous standards that the nihilist still implicitly holds. The inability for Christianity to serve as a source of valuating the world is reflected in Nietzsche's famous aphorism of the madman in *The Gay Science*. The death of God, in particular the statement that "we killed him", is similar to the *self*-dissolution of Christian doctrine: due to the advances of the sciences, which for Nietzsche show that man is the product of evolution, that Earth has no special place among the stars and that history is not progressive, the Christian notion of God can no longer serve as a basis for a morality. One such reaction to the loss of meaning is what Nietzsche calls *passive nihilism*, which he recognizes in the pessimistic philosophy of Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer's doctrine, which Nietzsche also refers to as Western Buddhism, advocates separating oneself from will and desires in order to reduce suffering. Nietzsche characterizes this attitude as a "will to nothingness", whereby life turns away from itself, as there is nothing of value to be found in the world. This mowing away of all value in the world is characteristic of the nihilist, although in this, the nihilist appears inconsistent: this "will to nothingness" is still a form of valuation or willing. He describes this as "an inconsistency on the part of the nihilists": > A nihilist is a man who judges of the world as it is that it ought *not* to be, and of the world as it ought to be that it does not exist. According to this view, our existence (action, suffering, willing, feeling) has no meaning: the pathos of 'in vain' is the nihilists' pathos – at the same time, as pathos, an inconsistency on the part of the nihilists. > > — Friedrich Nietzsche, KSA 12:9 [60], *The Will to Power,* Section 585, Translated by Walter Kaufmann. Nietzsche's relation to the problem of nihilism is a complex one. He approaches the problem of nihilism as deeply personal, stating that this predicament of the modern world is a problem that has "become conscious" in him. According to Nietzsche, it is only when nihilism is *overcome* that a culture can have a true foundation upon which to thrive. He wished to hasten its coming only so that he could also hasten its ultimate departure. He states that there is at least the possibility of another type of nihilist in the wake of Christianity's self-dissolution, one that does *not* stop after the destruction of all value and meaning and succumb to the following nothingness. This alternate, 'active' nihilism on the other hand destroys to level the field for constructing something new. This form of nihilism is characterized by Nietzsche as "a sign of strength," a willful destruction of the old values to wipe the slate clean and lay down one's own beliefs and interpretations, contrary to the passive nihilism that resigns itself with the decomposition of the old values. This willful destruction of values and the overcoming of the condition of nihilism by the constructing of new meaning, this active nihilism, could be related to what Nietzsche elsewhere calls a *free spirit* or the *Übermensch* from *Thus Spoke Zarathustra* and *The Antichrist*, the model of the strong individual who posits his own values and lives his life as if it were his own work of art. It may be questioned, though, whether "active nihilism" is indeed the correct term for this stance, and some question whether Nietzsche takes the problems nihilism poses seriously enough. #### Heideggerian interpretation of Nietzsche Martin Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzsche influenced many postmodern thinkers who investigated the problem of nihilism as put forward by Nietzsche. Only recently has Heidegger's influence on Nietzschean nihilism research faded. As early as the 1930s, Heidegger was giving lectures on Nietzsche's thought. Given the importance of Nietzsche's contribution to the topic of nihilism, Heidegger's influential interpretation of Nietzsche is important for the historical development of the term *nihilism*. Heidegger's method of researching and teaching Nietzsche is explicitly his own. He does not specifically try to present Nietzsche *as* Nietzsche. He rather tries to incorporate Nietzsche's thoughts into his own philosophical system of Being, Time and *Dasein*. In his *Nihilism as Determined by the History of Being* (1944–46), Heidegger tries to understand Nietzsche's nihilism as trying to achieve a victory through the devaluation of the, until then, highest values. The principle of this devaluation is, according to Heidegger, the will to power. The will to power is also the principle of every earlier *valuation* of values. How does this devaluation occur and why is this nihilistic? One of Heidegger's main critiques on philosophy is that philosophy, and more specifically metaphysics, has forgotten to discriminate between investigating the notion of *a* being (*seiende*) and *Being* (*Sein*). According to Heidegger, the history of Western thought can be seen as the history of metaphysics. Moreover, because metaphysics has forgotten to ask about the notion of Being (what Heidegger calls *Seinsvergessenheit*), it is a history about the destruction of Being. That is why Heidegger calls metaphysics nihilistic. This makes Nietzsche's metaphysics not a victory over nihilism, but a perfection of it. Heidegger, in his interpretation of Nietzsche, has been inspired by Ernst Jünger. Many references to Jünger can be found in Heidegger's lectures on Nietzsche. For example, in a letter to the rector of Freiburg University of November 4, 1945, Heidegger, inspired by Jünger, tries to explain the notion of "God is dead" as the "reality of the Will to Power." Heidegger also praises Jünger for defending Nietzsche against a too biological or anthropological reading during the Nazi era. Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzsche influenced a number of important postmodernist thinkers. Gianni Vattimo points at a back-and-forth movement in European thought, between Nietzsche and Heidegger. During the 1960s, a Nietzschean 'renaissance' began, culminating in the work of Mazzino Montinari and Giorgio Colli. They began work on a new and complete edition of Nietzsche's collected works, making Nietzsche more accessible for scholarly research. Vattimo explains that with this new edition of Colli and Montinari, a critical reception of Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzsche began to take shape. Like other contemporary French and Italian philosophers, Vattimo does not want, or only partially wants, to rely on Heidegger for understanding Nietzsche. On the other hand, Vattimo judges Heidegger's intentions authentic enough to keep pursuing them. Philosophers who Vattimo exemplifies as a part of this back and forth movement are French philosophers Deleuze, Foucault and Derrida. Italian philosophers of this same movement are Cacciari, Severino and himself. Jürgen Habermas, Jean-François Lyotard and Richard Rorty are also philosophers who are influenced by Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzsche. #### Deleuzean interpretation of Nietzsche Gilles Deleuze's interpretation of Nietzsche's concept of nihilism is different - in some sense diametrically opposed - to the usual definition (as outlined in the rest of this article). Nihilism is one of the main topics of Deleuze's early book *Nietzsche and Philosophy* (1962). There, Deleuze repeatedly interprets Nietzsche's nihilism as "the enterprise of denying life and depreciating existence". Nihilism thus defined is therefore not the denial of higher values, or the denial of meaning, but rather the depreciation of life in the name of such higher values or meaning. Deleuze therefore (with, he claims, Nietzsche) says that Christianity and Platonism, and with them the whole of metaphysics, are intrinsically Nihilist. ### Postmodernism Postmodern and poststructuralist thought has questioned the very grounds on which Western cultures have based their 'truths': absolute knowledge and meaning, a 'decentralization' of authorship, the accumulation of positive knowledge, historical progress, and certain ideals and practices of humanism and the Enlightenment. #### Derrida Jacques Derrida, whose deconstruction is perhaps most commonly labeled nihilistic, did not himself make the nihilistic move that others have claimed. Derridean deconstructionists argue that this approach rather frees texts, individuals or organizations from a restrictive truth, and that deconstruction opens up the possibility of other ways of being. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, for example, uses deconstruction to create an ethics of opening up Western scholarship to the voice of the subaltern and to philosophies outside of the canon of western texts. Derrida himself built a philosophy based upon a 'responsibility to the other'. Deconstruction can thus be seen not as a denial of truth, but as a denial of our ability to know truth. That is to say, it makes an epistemological claim, compared to nihilism's ontological claim. #### Lyotard Lyotard argues that, rather than relying on an objective truth or method to prove their claims, philosophers legitimize their truths by reference to a story about the world that can not be separated from the age and system the stories belong to—referred to by Lyotard as *meta-narratives.* He then goes on to define the postmodern condition as characterized by a rejection both of these meta-narratives and of the process of legitimation by meta-narratives. This concept of the instability of truth and meaning leads in the direction of nihilism, though Lyotard stops short of embracing the latter. > In lieu of meta-narratives we have created new language-games in order to legitimize our claims which rely on changing relationships and mutable truths, none of which is privileged over the other to speak to ultimate truth. > > #### Baudrillard Postmodern theorist Jean Baudrillard wrote briefly of nihilism from the postmodern viewpoint in *Simulacra and Simulation*. He stuck mainly to topics of interpretations of the real world over the simulations of which the real world is composed. The uses of meaning were an important subject in Baudrillard's discussion of nihilism: > The apocalypse is finished, today it is the precession of the neutral, of forms of the neutral and of indifference ... all that remains, is the fascination for desertlike and indifferent forms, for the very operation of the system that annihilates us. Now, fascination (in contrast to seduction, which was attached to appearances, and to dialectical reason, which was attached to meaning) is a nihilistic passion par excellence, it is the passion proper to the mode of disappearance. We are fascinated by all forms of disappearance, of our disappearance. Melancholic and fascinated, such is our general situation in an era of involuntary transparency. > > — Jean Baudrillard, *Simulacra and Simulation,* "On Nihilism," trans. 1995.[*page needed*] Positions --------- From the 20th century, nihilism has encompassed a range of positions within various fields of philosophy. Each of these, as the *Encyclopædia Britannica* states, "denied the existence of genuine moral truths or values, rejected the possibility of knowledge or communication, and asserted the ultimate meaninglessness or purposelessness of life or of the universe." * **Cosmic nihilism** is the position that reality or the cosmos is either wholly or significantly unintelligible and that it provides no foundation for human aims and principles. Particularly, it may regard the cosmos as distinctly hostile or indifferent to humanity. It is often related to both epistemological and existential nihilism, as well as cosmicism. * **Epistemological nihilism** is a form of philosophical skepticism according to which knowledge does not exist, or, if it does exist, it is unattainable for human beings. It should not be confused with epistemological fallibilism, according to which all knowledge is uncertain. * **Existential nihilism** is the position that life has no intrinsic meaning or value. With respect to the universe, existential nihilism posits that a single human or even the entire human species is insignificant, without purpose, and unlikely to change in the totality of existence. The meaninglessness of life is largely explored in the philosophical school of existentialism, where one can create their own subjective meaning or purpose. In popular use, "nihilism" now most commonly refers to forms of existential nihilism. * **Metaphysical nihilism** is the position that concrete objects and physical constructs might not exist in the possible world, or that, even if there exist possible worlds that contain some concrete objects, there is at least one that contains only abstract objects. + **Extreme metaphysical nihilism**, also sometimes called **ontological nihilism**, is the position that nothing actually exists at all. The *American Heritage Medical Dictionary* defines one form of nihilism as "An extreme form of skepticism that denies all existence." A similar skepticism concerning the concrete world can be found in solipsism. However, despite the fact that both views deny the certainty of objects' true existence, the nihilist would deny the existence of self, whereas the solipsist would affirm it. Both of these positions are considered forms of anti-realism. + **Mereological nihilism**, also called **compositional nihilism**, is the metaphysical position that objects with proper parts do not exist. This position applies to objects in space, and also to objects existing in time, which are posited to have no temporal parts. Rather, only basic building blocks without parts exist, and thus the world we see and experience, full of objects with parts, is a product of human misperception (i.e., if we could see clearly, we would not perceive compositive objects). This interpretation of existence must be based on resolution: The resolution with which humans see and perceive the "improper parts" of the world is not an objective fact of reality, but is rather an implicit trait that can only be qualitatively explored and expressed. Therefore, there is no arguable way to surmise or measure the validity of mereological nihilism. For example, an ant can get lost on a large cylindrical object because the circumference of the object is so large with respect to the ant that the ant effectively feels as though the object has no curvature. Thus, the resolution with which the ant views the world it exists "within" is an important determining factor in how the ant experiences this "within the world" feeling. * **Moral nihilism**, also called **ethical nihilism**, is the meta-ethical position that no morality or ethics exists whatsoever; therefore, no action is ever morally preferable to any other. Moral nihilism is distinct from both moral relativism and expressivism in that it does not acknowledge socially constructed values as personal or cultural moralities. It may also differ from other moral positions within nihilism that, rather than argue there is no morality, hold that if it does exist, it is a human construction and thus artificial, wherein any and all meaning is relative for different possible outcomes. An alternative scholarly perspective is that moral nihilism is a morality in itself. Cooper writes, "In the widest sense of the word 'morality', moral nihilism is a morality." * **Passive and active nihilism**, the former of which is also equated to philosophical pessimism, refer to two approaches to nihilist thought; passive nihilism sees nihility as an end in itself, whereas active nihilism attempts to surpass it. For Nietzsche, passive nihilism further encapsulates the "will to nothing" and the modern condition of resignation or unawareness towards the dissolution of higher values brought about by the 19th century. * **Political nihilism** is the position holding no political goals whatsoever, except for the complete destruction of all existing political institutions—along with the principles, values, and social institutions that uphold them. Though often related to anarchism, it may differ in that it presents no method of social organisation after a negation of the current political structure has taken place. An analysis of political nihilism is further presented by Leo Strauss. * **Therapeutic nihilism**, also called **medical nihilism**, is the position that the effectiveness of medical intervention is dubious or without merit. Dealing with the philosophy of science as it relates to the contextualized demarcation of medical research, Jacob Stegenga applies Bayes' theorem to medical research and argues for the premise that "Even when presented with evidence for a hypothesis regarding the effectiveness of a medical intervention, we ought to have low confidence in that hypothesis." In culture, the arts, and media ------------------------------- ### Dada The term *Dada* was first used by Richard Huelsenbeck and Tristan Tzara in 1916. The movement, which lasted from approximately 1916 to 1923, arose during World War I, an event that influenced the artists. The Dada Movement began in the old town of Zürich, Switzerland—known as the "Niederdorf" or "Niederdörfli"—in the Café Voltaire. The Dadaists claimed that Dada was not an art movement, but an anti-art movement, sometimes using found objects in a manner similar to found poetry. This tendency toward devaluation of art has led many[*who?*] to claim that Dada was an essentially nihilistic movement. Given that Dada created its own means for interpreting its products, it is difficult to classify alongside most other contemporary art expressions. Due to perceived ambiguity, it has been classified as a nihilistic *modus vivendi*. ### Literature The term "nihilism" was actually popularized in 1862 by Ivan Turgenev in his novel *Fathers and Sons*, whose hero, Bazarov, was a nihilist and recruited several followers to the philosophy. He found his nihilistic ways challenged upon falling in love. Anton Chekhov portrayed nihilism when writing *Three Sisters*. The phrase "what does it matter" or variants of this are often spoken by several characters in response to events; the significance of some of these events suggests a subscription to nihilism by said characters as a type of coping strategy. The philosophical ideas of the French author, the Marquis de Sade, are often noted as early examples of nihilistic principles. ### Media The frequently self-destructive and amoral tendencies of a nihilistic worldview can be seen in many of today's mediums, including movies and TV shows. Patrick Bateman in Bret Easton Ellis's 1991 novel *American Psycho* and 2000 film adaptation, displays both moral and existential nihilism. Throughout the film, Bateman does not shy away from murder or torture to accomplish his goals. As he realizes the evil in his deeds he tries to confess and take on the punishment for his acts of crime. Phil Connors in the 1993 comedy film *Groundhog Day* develops existential nihilistic tendencies near the middle of the film. As he lives the same day an unspoken countless number of times he slips into a depression and attempts to commit suicide in a variety of different ways. He will also resort to kidnapping Punxsutawney Phil, the groundhog to which he credits his looping days, and drives off a cliff, killing both of them. Vincent, the main antagonist of the 2004 film *Collateral*, believes that life has no meaning because that human nature is intrinsically evil, and that deep down, people care only about themselves. In the 2022 film *Everything Everywhere All at Once*, the lead antagonist, Jobu Tupaki, comes to an existential nihilistic conclusion that the infinite chaos of the multiverse means that there is no reason to continue to exist. She manifests her nihilism by creating a black hole-like "everything bagel" in which she will destroy herself and the rest of the multiverse. Her mother Evelyn is briefly persuaded by her logic but then refutes it in favor of a more positive outlook based on the value of human relationships and choice. See also -------- * Absurdism * Acosmism * Agnosticism * Anatta * Anti-anti-art * Anti-humanism * Antinatalism * Apatheism * Apathy * Cynicism (philosophy) * Dysteleology * Existentialism * Eliminative materialism * Fatalism * Hedonism * Historical nihilism * U. G. Krishnamurti * Legal nihilism * Misanthropy * Misotheism * National nihilism * Paradox of nihilism * Philosophical pessimism * Postmodernism * Post-structuralism * Radical skepticism * Rational egoism * Russian nihilist movement * Solipsism * *Tao Te Ching* * Trivialism General and cited sources ------------------------- ### Primary texts * Brassier, Ray (2007) *Nihil Unbound: Enlightenment and Extinction*, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. * Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich, *Jacobi an Fichte* (1799/1816), German Text (1799/1816), Appendix with Jacobi's and Fichte's complementary Texts, critical Apparatus, Commentary, and Italian Translation, Istituto Italiano per gli Studi Filosofici, Naples 2011, ISBN 978-88-905957-5-2. * Heidegger, Martin (1982), *Nietzsche, Vols. I-IV*, trans. F.A. Capuzzi, San Francisco: Harper & Row. * Kierkegaard, Søren (1998/1854), *The Moment and Late Writings: Kierkegaard's Writings, Vol. 23*, ed. and trans. Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong, Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-03226-9. * Kierkegaard, Søren (1978/1846), *The Two Ages : Kierkegaard's Writings, Vol 14*, ed. and trans. Howard V. Hong, and Edna H. Hong, Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07226-5. * Kierkegaard, Søren (1995/1850), *Works of Love : Kierkegaard's Writings, Vol 16*, ed. and trans. Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong, Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-03792-9. * Nietzsche, Friedrich (2005/1886), *Beyond Good and Evil*, trans. Helen Zimmern. * Nietzsche, Friedrich (1974/1887), *The Gay Science*, trans. Walter Kaufman, Vintage, ISBN 0-394-71985-9. * Nietzsche, Friedrich (1980), *Sämtliche Werken. Kritische Studienausgabe*, ed. C. Colli and M. Montinari, Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-007680-2. * Nietzsche, Friedrich (2008/1885), *Thus Spake Zarathustra*, trans. Thomas Common. * Tartaglia, James (2016), *Philosophy in a Meaningless Life: A System of Nihilism, Consciousness and Reality*, London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ### Secondary texts * Arena, Leonardo Vittorio (1997), *Del nonsense: tra Oriente e Occidente*, Urbino: Quattroventi. * Arena, Leonardo Vittorio (2012), *Nonsense as the Meaning*, ebook. * Arena, Leonardo Vittorio (2015), *On Nudity. An Introduction to Nonsense*, Mimesis International. * Barnett, Christopher (2011), *Kierkegaard, pietism and holiness*, Ashgate Publishing. * Carr, Karen (1992), *The Banalisation of Nihilism*, State University of New York Press. * Cattarini, L. S. (2018), *Beyond Sartre and Sterility: Surviving Existentialism* (Montreal: contact argobookshop.ca) * Cunningham, Conor (2002), *Genealogy of Nihilism: Philosophies of Nothing & the Difference of Theology*, New York, NY: Routledge. * Dent, G., Wallace, M., & Dia Center for the Arts. (1992). "Black popular culture" (Discussions in contemporary culture ; no. 8). Seattle: Bay Press. * Dod, Elmar (2013), *Der unheimlichste Gast. Die Philosophie des Nihilismus.* Marburg: Tectum 2013. * Dreyfus, Hubert L. (2004), *Kierkegaard on the Internet: Anonymity vs. Commitment in the Present Age*. Retrieved at December 1, 2009. * Fraser, John (2001), "Nihilism, Modernisn and Value", retrieved at December 2, 2009. * Galimberti, Umberto (2008), *L'ospite inquietante. Il nichilismo e i giovani*, Milano: Feltrinelli. ISBN 9788807171437. * Gillespie, Michael Allen (1996), *Nihilism Before Nietzsche*, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. * Giovanni, George di (2008), "Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi", *The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy*, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Retrieved on December 1, 2009. * Harper, Douglas, "Nihilism", in: *Online Etymology Dictionary*, retrieved at December 2, 2009. * Harries, Karsten (2010), *Between nihilism and faith: a commentary on Either/or*, Walter de Gruyter Press. * Hibbs, Thomas S. (2000), *Shows About Nothing: Nihilism in Popular Culture from The Exorcist to Seinfeld*, Dallas, TX: Spence Publishing Company. * Kopić, Mario (2001), *S Nietzscheom o Europi*, Zagreb: Jesenski i Turk. * Korab-Karpowicz, W. J. (2005), "Martin Heidegger (1889—1976)", in: *Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy*, retrieved at December 2, 2009. * Kuhn, Elisabeth (1992), *Friedrich Nietzsches Philosophie des europäischen Nihilismus*, Walter de Gruyter. * Irti, Natalino (2004), *Nichilismo giuridico*, Laterza, Roma-Bari. * Löwith, Karl (1995), *Martin Heidegger and European Nihilism*, New York, NY: Columbia UP. * Marmysz, John (2003), *Laughing at Nothing: Humor as a Response to Nihilism*, Albany, NY: SUNY Press. * Müller-Lauter, Wolfgang (2000), *Heidegger und Nietzsche. Nietzsche-Interpretationen III*, Berlin-New York. * Parvez Manzoor, S. (2003), "Modernity and Nihilism. Secular History and Loss of Meaning", retrieved at December 2, 2009. * Rose, Eugene Fr. Seraphim (1995), *Nihilism, The Root of the Revolution of the Modern Age*, Forestville, CA: Fr. Seraphim Rose Foundation. * Rosen, Stanley (2000), *Nihilism: A Philosophical Essay*, South Bend, Indiana: St. Augustine's Press (2nd Edition). * Severino, Emanuele (1982), *Essenza del nichilismo*, Milano: Adelphi. ISBN 9788845904899. * Slocombe, Will (2006), *Nihilism and the Sublime Postmodern: The (Hi)Story of a Difficult Relationship*, New York, NY: Routledge. * Tigani, Francesco (2010), *Rappresentare Medea. Dal mito al nichilismo*, Roma: Aracne. ISBN 978-88-548-3256-5. * Tigani, Francesco (2014), *Lo spettro del nulla e il corpo del nichilismo*, in *La nave di Teseo. Saggi sull'Essere, il mito e il potere*, Napoli: Guida. ISBN 9788868660499. * Villet, Charles (2009), *Towards Ethical Nihilism: The Possibility of Nietzschean Hope*, Saarbrücken: Verlag Dr. Müller. * Williams, Peter S. (2005), *I Wish I Could Believe in Meaning: A Response to Nihilism*, Damaris Publishing.

Nihilism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihilism

A **scorched-earth policy** is a military strategy that aims to destroy anything that might be useful to the enemy. Any assets that could be used by the enemy may be targeted, which usually includes obvious weapons, transport vehicles, communication sites, and industrial resources. However, anything useful to the advancing enemy may be targeted, including food stores and agricultural areas, water sources, and even the local people themselves, though the latter group of targets has been banned under the 1977 Geneva Conventions. The practice can be carried out by the military in enemy territory or in its own home territory while it is being invaded. It may overlap with, but is not the same as, punitive destruction of the enemy's resources, which is usually done as part of political strategy, rather than operational strategy. Notable historic examples of scorched-earth tactics include the failed Napoleonic invasion of Russia, William Tecumseh Sherman's March to the Sea during the American Civil War, Kit Carson's subjugation of the American Navajo Indians, Lord Kitchener's advance against the Boers, and the setting on fire of 605 to 732 oil wells by retreating Iraqi military forces during the Gulf War. Also notable were the Russian army's strategies during the failed Swedish invasion of Russia, the failed Napoleonic invasion of Russia, the initial Soviet retreat commanded by Joseph Stalin during the German Army's invasion during the Second World War, and Nazi Germany's retreat on the Eastern Front. The concept of scorched-earth defense is sometimes applied figuratively to the business world in which a firm facing a takeover attempts to make itself less valuable by selling off its assets. Ancient warfare --------------- ### Scythian The Scythians used scorched-earth methods against the Persian Achaemenid Empire, led by King Darius the Great, during his European Scythian campaign. The Scythians, who were nomadic herders, evaded the Persian invaders and retreated into the depths of the steppes after they had destroyed food supplies and poisoned wells. ### Armenian The Greek general Xenophon recorded in his *Anabasis* that the Armenians, as they withdrew, burned their crops and food supplies before the Ten Thousand could advance. ### Roman The system of punitive destruction of property and subjugation of people when accompanying a military campaign was known as *vastatio*. Two of the first uses of scorched earth recorded happened in the Gallic Wars. The first was used when the Celtic Helvetii were forced to evacuate their homes in Southern Germany and Switzerland because of incursions of unfriendly Germanic tribes: to add incentive to the march, the Helvetii destroyed everything they could not bring. After the Helvetii were defeated by combined Roman and Gallic forces, the Helvetii were forced to rebuild themselves on the plains they themselves had destroyed. The second case shows actual military value: during the Great Gallic War the Gauls under Vercingetorix planned to lure the Roman armies into Gaul and then trap and obliterate them. They thus ravaged the countryside of what are now the Benelux countries and France. This caused immense problems for the Romans, but the Roman military triumphs over the Gallic alliance showed that the ravaging alone was not to be enough to save Gaul from subjugation by Rome. During the Second Punic War in 218–202 BCE, both Carthaginians and Romans used the method selectively during Hannibal's invasion of Italy. After the Roman defeat at Lake Trasimene, Quintus Fabius Maximus instructed those living in the path of the invading Carthaginians to burn their houses and grain. After the end of the Third Punic War in 146 BCE, the Roman Senate also elected to use this method to permanently destroy the Carthaginian capital city, Carthage (near modern-day Tunis). The buildings were torn down, their stones scattered so not even rubble remained, and the fields were burned. However, the story that they salted the earth is apocryphal. In the year CE 363, the Emperor Julian's invasion of Persia was turned back by a scorched-earth policy: > The extensive region that lies between the River Tigris and the mountains of Media ...was in a very improved state of cultivation. Julian might expect, that a conqueror, who possessed the two forcible instruments of persuasion, steel and gold, would easily procure a plentiful subsistence from the fears or avarice of the natives. But, on the approach of the Romans, the rich and smiling prospect was instantly blasted. Wherever they moved ... the cattle was driven away; the grass and ripe corn were consumed with fire; and, as soon as the flames had subsided which interrupted the march of Julian, he beheld the melancholy face of a smoking and naked desert. This desperate but effectual method of defence can only be executed by the enthusiasm of a people who prefer their independence to their property; or by the rigor of an arbitrary government, which consults the public safety without submitting to their inclinations the liberty of choice. > > Post-classical warfare ---------------------- ### Late antiquity and early medieval period in Europe The British monk Gildas wrote in his 6th-century treatise "On the Ruin of Britain" on an earlier invasion: "For the fire of vengeance ... spread from sea to sea ... and did not cease, until, destroying the neighbouring towns and lands, it reached the other side of the island". During the First Fitna (656–661), Muawiyah I sent Busr ibn Abi Artat to a campaign in the Hejaz and Yemen to ravage territory loyal to Muawiyah's opponent Ali ibn Abi Talib. According to Tabari, 30,000 civilians are estimated to have been killed during that campaign of the civil war. Muawiyah also sent Sufyan ibn Awf to Iraq to burn the crops and homes of Ali's supporters. During the great Viking invasion of England that was opposed by Alfred the Great and various other Saxon and Welsh rulers, the Viking chieftain Hastein marched his men to Chester in late summer 893 to occupy the ruined Roman fortress there. The refortified fortress would have made an excellent base for raiding northern Mercia, but the Mercians are recorded as having taken the drastic measure of destroying all crops and livestock in the surrounding countryside to starve the Vikings out.[*self-published source?*] They left Chester next year and marched into Wales. #### Harrying of the North In the Harrying of the North, William the Conqueror's solution to stop a rebellion in 1069 was the brutal conquest and subjugation of northern England. William's men burnt whole villages from the Humber to Tees and slaughtered the inhabitants. Food stores and livestock were destroyed so that anyone surviving the initial massacre would soon succumb to starvation over the winter. The destruction is depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry. The survivors were reduced to cannibalism, with one report stating that the skulls of the dead were cracked open so that their brains could be eaten. Between 100,000 and 150,000 perished, and the area took centuries to recover from the damage. The mass death shows the world how destructive the scorched earth tactic can be. ### India During 1019 and 1022 AD the Chandela Kingdom was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni. The Chandellas adopted a scorched earth policy. Mahmud, afraid of penetrating too far into the interior, had each time to retreat without much gain and ultimately established a friendly relationship with the Chandellas. ### Medieval Europe During the Hundred Years' War, both the English and the French conducted chevauchée raids over the enemy territory to damage its infrastructure. Robert the Bruce counselled using those methods to hold off the forces of Edward I of England, who were Scotland, according to an anonymous 14th-century poem: > in strait places gar keep all store, > > And byrnen ye plainland them before, > > That they shall pass away in haist > > What that they find na thing but waist. > > ... This is the counsel and intent > > Of gud King Robert's testiment. > > In 1336, the defenders of Pilėnai, Lithuania, set their castle on fire and committed mass suicide to make the attacking Teutonic Order have only a Pyrrhic victory. The strategy was widely used in Wallachia and Moldavia, now mostly in Romania and Moldova. Prince Mircea the Elder used it against the Ottoman Empire in 1395, and Stephen the Great did the same as the Ottoman Army advanced in 1475 and 1476. A slighting is the deliberate destruction, whether partial or complete, of a fortification without opposition. Sometimes, such as during the Wars of Scottish Independence and the English Civil War, it was done to render the structure unusable as a fortress. In England, adulterine (unauthorised) castles would usually be slighted if captured by a king. During the Wars of Scottish Independence, Robert the Bruce adopted a strategy of slighting Scottish castles to prevent them from being occupied by the invading English. A strategy of slighting castles in Palestine was also adopted by the Mamlukes during their wars with the Crusaders. Early modern era ---------------- Further use of scorched-earth policies in war was seen during the 16th century in Ireland, where it was used by English commanders such as Walter Devereux and Richard Bingham. The Desmond Rebellions were a famous case in Ireland. Much of the province of Munster was laid waste. The poet Edmund Spenser left an account of it: > In those late wars in Munster; for not withstanding that the same was a most rich and plentiful country, full of corn and cattle, that you would have thought they could have been able to stand long, yet ere one year and a half they were brought to such wretchedness, as that any stony heart would have rued the same. Out of every corner of the wood and glens they came creeping forth upon their hands, for their legs could not bear them; they looked Anatomies [of] death, they spoke like ghosts, crying out of their graves; they did eat of the carrions, happy where they could find them, yea, and one another soon after, in so much as the very carcasses they spared not to scrape out of their graves; and if they found a plot of water-cresses or shamrocks, there they flocked as to a feast for the time, yet not able long to continue therewithal; that in a short space there were none almost left, and a most populous and plentiful country suddenly left void of man or beast. > > In 1630, Field-Marshal General Torquato Conti was in command of the Holy Roman Empire's forces during the Thirty Years' War. Forced to retreat from the advancing Swedish army of King Gustavus Adolphus, Conti ordered his troops to burn houses, destroy villages and cause as much harm generally to property and people as possible. His actions were remembered thus: > To revenge himself upon the Duke of Pomerania, the imperial general permitted his troops, upon his retreat, to exercise every barbarity on the unfortunate inhabitants of Pomerania, who had already suffered but too severely from his avarice. On pretence of cutting off the resources of the Swedes, the whole country was laid waste and plundered; and often, when the Imperialists were unable any longer to maintain a place, it was laid in ashes, in order to leave the enemy nothing but ruins. > > During the Great Northern War, Russian Emperor Peter the Great's forces used scorched-earth tactics to hold back Swedish King Charles XII's campaign towards Moscow. ### Wallachian-Ottoman Wars In 1462, a massive Ottoman army, led by Sultan Mehmed II, marched into Wallachia. Vlad the Impaler retreated to Transylvania. During his departure, he conducted scorched-earth tactics to ward off Mehmed's approach. When the Ottoman forces approached Tirgoviste, they encountered over 20,000 people impaled by the forces of Vlad the Impaler, creating a "forest" of dead or dying bodies on stakes. The atrocious, gut-wrenching sight caused Mehmed to withdraw from battle and send instead Radu, Vlad's brother, to fight Vlad the Impaler. ### Great Siege of Malta In early 1565, Grandmaster Jean Parisot de Valette ordered the harvesting of all the crops in Malta, including unripened grain, to deprive the Ottomans of any local food supplies since spies had warned of an imminent Ottoman attack. Furthermore, the Knights poisoned all of the wells with bitter herbs and dead animals. The Ottomans arrived on 18 May, and the Great Siege of Malta began. The Ottomans managed to capture one fort but were eventually defeated by the Knights, the Maltese militia and a Spanish relief force. ### Nine Years' War In 1688, France attacked the German Electoral Palatinate. The German states responded by forming an alliance and assembling a sizeable armed force to push the French out of Germany. The French had not prepared for such an eventuality. Realising that the war in Germany was not going to end quickly and that the war would not be a brief and decisive parade of French glory, Louis XIV and War Minister Marquis de Louvois resolved upon a scorched-earth policy in the Palatinate, Baden and Württemberg. The French were intent on denying enemy troops local resources and on preventing the Germans from invading France. By 20 December 1688, Louvois had selected all the cities, towns, villages and châteaux intended for destruction. On 2 March 1689, the Count of Tessé torched Heidelberg, and on 8 March, Montclar levelled Mannheim. Oppenheim and Worms were finally destroyed on 31 May, followed by Speyer on 1 June, and Bingen on 4 June. In all, French troops burnt over 20 substantial towns as well as numerous villages. ### Mughal-Maratha Wars In the Maratha Empire, Shivaji Maharaj had introduced scorched-earth tactics, known as *Ganimi Kava*. His forces looted traders and businessmen from Aurangzeb's Mughal Empire and burnt down his cities, but they were strictly ordered not to rape or hurt the innocent civilians and not to cause any sort of disrespect to any of the religious institutes. Shivaji's son, Sambhaji Maharaj, was detested throughout the Mughal Empire for his scorched-earth tactics until he and his men were captured by Muqarrab Khan and his Mughal Army contingent of 25,000. On 11 March 1689, a panel of Mughal qadis indicted and sentenced Sambhaji to death on accusations of casual torture, arson, looting and massacres but most prominently for giving shelter to Sultan Muhammad Akbar, the fourth son of Aurangzeb, who had sought Sambhaji's aid in winning the Mughal throne from the emperor, his father. Sambhaji was particularly condemned for the three days of ravaging committed after the Battle of Burhanpur. 19th century ------------ ### Napoleonic Wars During the third Napoleonic invasion of Portugal in 1810, the Portuguese population retreated towards Lisbon and was ordered to destroy all the food supplies the French might capture as well as forage and shelter in a wide belt across the country. (Although effective food-preserving techniques had recently been invented, they were still not fit for military use because a suitably-rugged container had not yet been invented.) The command was obeyed as a result of French plundering and general ill-treatment of civilians in the previous invasions. The civilians would rather destroy anything that had to be left behind, rather than leave it to the French. After the Battle of Bussaco, André Masséna's army marched on to Coimbra, where much of the city's old university and library were vandalised. Houses and furniture were destroyed, and the few civilians who did not seek refuge farther south were murdered. While there were instances of similar behavior by British soldiers, since Portugal was their ally, such crimes were generally investigated and those found punished. Coimbra's sack made the populace even more determined to leave nothing, and when the French armies reached the Lines of Torres Vedras on the way to Lisbon, French soldiers reported that the country "seemed to empty ahead of them". When Massená reached the city of Viseu, he wanted to replenish his armies' dwindling food supplies, but none of the inhabitants remained, and all there was to eat were grapes and lemons that if eaten in large quantities would be better laxatives than sources of calories. Low morale, hunger, disease and indiscipline greatly weakened the French army and compelled the forces to retreat the next spring. That method was later recommended to Russia when Napoleon made his move. In 1812, Emperor Alexander I was able to render Napoleon's invasion of Russia useless by using a scorched-earth retreat policy, similar to that of Portugal. As Russians withdrew from the advancing French army, they burned the countryside (and allegedly Moscow) over which they passed, leaving nothing of value for the pursuing French army. Encountering only desolate and useless land Napoleon's Grande Armée was prevented from using its usual doctrine of living off the lands that it conquered. Pushing relentlessly on despite dwindling numbers, the Grand Army met with disaster as the invasion progressed. Napoleon's army arrived in a virtually-abandoned Moscow, which was a tattered starving shell of its former self, largely because of scorched-earth tactics by the retreating Russians. Having conquered essentially nothing, Napoleon's troops retreated, but the scorched-earth policy came into effect again because even though some large supply dumps had been established on the advance, the route between them had both been scorched and marched over once already. Thus, the French army starved as it marched along the resource-depleted invasion route. ### South American War of Independence In August 1812, Argentine General Manuel Belgrano led the Jujuy Exodus, a massive forced displacement of people from what is now Jujuy and Salta Provinces to the south. The Jujuy Exodus was conducted by the patriot forces of the Army of the North, which was battling a Royalist army. Belgrano, faced with the prospect of total defeat and territorial loss, ordered all people to pack their necessities, including food and furniture, and to follow him in carriages or on foot together with whatever cattle and beasts of burden that could endure the journey. The rest (houses, crops, food stocks and any objects made of iron) was to be burned to deprive the Royalists of resources. The strict scorched-earth policy made him ask on 29 July 1812 the people of Jujuy to "show their heroism" and to join the march of the army under his command "if, as you assure, you want to be free". The punishment for ignoring the order was execution, with the destruction of the defector's properties. Belgrano labored to win the support of the populace and later reported that most of the people had willingly followed him without the need for force. The exodus started on 23 August and gathered people from Jujuy and Salta. People travelled south about 250 km and finally arrived at the banks of the Pasaje River, in Tucumán Province in the early hours of 29 August. They applied a scorched-earth policy and so the Spaniards advanced into a wasteland. Belgrano's army destroyed everything that could provide shelter or be useful to the Royalists. ### Greek War of Independence In 1827, Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt led an Ottoman-Egyptian combined force in a campaign to crush Greek revolutionaries in the Peloponnese. In response to Greek guerrilla attacks on his forces in the Peloponnese, Ibrahim launched a scorched earth campaign that threatened the population with starvation and deported many civilians into slavery in Egypt. He also allegedly planned to bring in Arab settlers to replace the Greek population. The fires of burning villages and fields were clearly visible from Allied ships standing offshore. A British landing party reported that the population of Messinia was close to mass starvation. Ibrahim's scorched-earth policy caused much outrage in Europe, which was one factor for the Great Powers (United Kingdom, the Kingdom of France and the Russian Empire) decisively intervening against him in the Battle of Navarino. ### Philippine–American War The Philippine–American War often included scorched-earth campaigns in the countryside. Entire villages were burned and destroyed, with torture (*water cure*) and the concentration of civilians into "protected zones." Many civilian casualties were caused by disease and famine. In the hunt for guerrilla leader Emilio Aguinaldo, American troops also poisoned water wells to try to force out the Filipino rebels. ### American Civil War In the American Civil War, Union forces under Philip Sheridan and William Tecumseh Sherman used the policy widely. General Sherman used that policy during his March to the Sea. Sherman's tactics were an attempt to destroy the enemy's will and logistics by burning or destroying crops or other resources that might be used for the Confederate force. Later generations of American war leaders would use similar total war tactics in World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Iraq War, and the Afghanistan War, largely through the use of air power. Another event, in response to William Quantrill's raid on Lawrence, Kansas and the many civilian casualties, including the killing of 180 men, Brigadier General Thomas Ewing Jr., Sherman's brother-in-law, issued US Army General Order No. 11 (1863) to order the near-total evacuation of three-and-a-half counties in western Missouri, south of Kansas City, which were subsequently looted and burned by US Army troops. Under Sherman's overall direction, General Philip Sheridan followed that policy in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia and then in the Indian Wars of the Great Plains. When General Ulysses Grant's forces broke through the defenses of Richmond, Virginia, Confederate President Jefferson Davis ordered the destruction of Richmond's militarily-significant supplies. The resulting conflagration destroyed many buildings, most of which were commercial, as well as Confederate warships docked on the James River. Civilians in panic were forced to escape the fires that had been started. ### Native American Wars During the wars with Native American tribes of the American West, Kit Carson, under James Henry Carleton's direction, instituted a scorched-earth policy, burning Navajo fields and homes and stealing or killing their livestock. He was aided by other Indian tribes with long-standing enmity toward the Navajos, chiefly the Ute tribe. The Navajo were forced to surrender because of the destruction of their livestock and food supplies. In the spring of 1864, 8000 Navajo men, women, and children were forced to march 300 miles to Fort Sumner, New Mexico. Navajos call it "The Long Walk." Many died along the way or during their four years of internment. A military expedition, led by Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie, was sent to the Texas Panhandle and the Oklahoma Territory Panhandle in 1874 to remove the Indians to reservations in Oklahoma. The Mackenzie expedition captured about 1,200 of the Indians' horses, drove them into Tule Canyon, and shot all of them. Denied their main source of livelihood and demoralized, the Comanche and the Kiowa abandoned the area (see Palo Duro Canyon). ### Second Boer War During the Second Boer War (1899–1902), British forces applied a scorched-earth policy in the occupied Boer republics under the direction of General Lord Kitchener. Numerous Boers, refusing to accept military defeat, adopted guerrilla warfare despite the capture of both of their capital cities. As a result, under Lord Kitchener's command British forces initiated a policy of the destruction of the farms and the homes of civilians in the republics to prevent the Boers who were still fighting from obtaining food and supplies. Boer noncombatants inhabiting the republics (mostly women and children) were interned in concentration camps to prevent them from supplying guerillas still in the field. The existence of the concentration camps was exposed by English activist Emily Hobhouse, who toured the camps and began petitioning the British government to change its policy. In an attempt to counter Hobhouse's activism, the British government commissioned the Fawcett Commission, but it confirmed Hobhouse's findings. The British government then claimed that it perceived the concentration camps to be humanitarian measure and were established to care for displaced noncombatants until the war's end, in response to mounting criticism of the camps in Britain. A number of factors, including outbreaks of infectious diseases, a lack of planning and supplies for the camps, and overcrowding led to numerous internees dying in the camps. A decade after the war, historian P. L. A. Goldman estimated that 27,927 Boers died in the concentration camps, 26,251 women and children (of whom more than 22,000 were under the age of 16) and 1,676 men over the age of 16, with 1,421 being above the age of 16. ### New Zealand Wars In 1868, the Tūhoe, who had sheltered the Māori leader Te Kooti, were thus subjected to a scorched-earth policy in which their crops and buildings were destroyed and the people of fighting age were captured. 20th century ------------ ### World War I On the Eastern Front of World War I, the Imperial Russian Army created a zone of destruction by using a massive scorched-earth strategy during their retreat from the Imperial German Army in the summer and the autumn of 1915. The Russian troops, retreating along a front of more than 600 miles, destroyed anything that might be of use to their enemy, including crops, houses, railways and entire cities. They also forcibly removed huge numbers of people. In pushing the Russian troops back into Russia's interior, the German army gained a large area of territory from the Russian Empire that is now Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia and Lithuania. In late 1916 the British army set fire to the Romanian oil fields in order to prevent the central powers from capturing them. 800 million litres of oil were burned. On the Western Front on 24 February 1917, the German army made a strategic scorched-earth withdrawal (Operation Alberich) from the Somme battlefield to the prepared fortifications of the Hindenburg Line to shorten the line that had to be occupied. Since a scorched-earth campaign requires a war of movement, the Western Front provided little opportunity for the policy as the war was mostly a stalemate and was fought mostly in the same concentrated area for its entire duration. ### Greco-Turkish War (1919–22) During the Greco-Turkish War (1919–22), the retreating Greek Army carried out a scorched-earth policy while it was fleeing from Anatolia in the final phase of the war. The historian Sydney Nettleton Fisher wrote, "The Greek army in retreat pursued a burned-earth policy and committed every known outrage against defenceless Turkish villagers in its path". Norman Naimark noted that "the Greek retreat was even more devastating for the local population than the occupation". ### Second Sino-Japanese War During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Imperial Japanese Army had a scorched-earth policy, known as "Three Alls Policy", which caused immense environmental and infrastructure damage to be recorded. It contributed to the complete destruction of entire villages and partial destruction of entire cities. The Chinese National Revolutionary Army destroyed dams and levees in an attempt to flood the land to slow down the advancement of Japanese soldiers, which further added to the environmental impact and resulted in the 1938 Yellow River flood. In the 1938 Changsha fire, the city of Changsha was put on fire by the Kuomintang to prevent any wealth from falling into enemy hands. ### World War II At the start of the Winter War in 1939, the Finns used the tactic in the vicinity of the border in order to deprive the invading Soviet Red Army's provisions and shelter for the forthcoming cold winter. In some cases, fighting took place in areas that were familiar to the Finnish soldiers who were fighting it. There were accounts of soldiers burning down their very own homes and parishes. One of the burned parishes was Suomussalmi. When Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, many district governments took the initiative to begin a partial scorched-earth policy to deny the invaders access to electrical, telecommunications, rail, and industrial resources. Parts of the telegraph network were destroyed, some rail and road bridges were blown up, most electrical generators were sabotaged through the removal of key components, and many mineshafts were collapsed. The process was repeated later in the war by the German forces of Army Group North and Erich von Manstein's Army Group Don, which stole crops, destroyed farms, and razed cities and smaller settlements during several military operations. The rationale for the policy was that it would slow pursuing Soviet forces by forcing them to save their own civilians, but in Manstein's postwar memoirs, the policy was justified as to have prevented the Soviets from stealing food and shelter from their own civilians. The best-known victims of the German scorched-earth policy were the people of the historic city of Novgorod, which was razed during the winter of 1944 to cover Army Group North's retreat from Leningrad. Near the end of the summer of 1944, Finland, which had made a separate peace with the Allies, was required to evict the German forces, which had been fighting against the Soviets alongside Finnish troops in northern Finland. The Finnish forces, under the leadership of General Hjalmar Siilasvuo, struck aggressively in late September 1944 by making a landfall at Tornio. That accelerated the German retreat, and by November 1944, the Germans had left most of northern Finland. The German forces, forced to retreat because of an overall strategic situation, covered their retreat towards Norway by devastating large areas of northern Finland by using a scorched-earth strategy. More than a third of the area's dwellings were destroyed, and the provincial capital Rovaniemi was burned to the ground. All but two bridges in Lapland Province were blown up, and all roads were mined. In northern Norway, which was also being invaded by Soviet forces in pursuit of the retreating Wehrmacht in 1944, the Germans also undertook a scorched-earth policy of destroying every building that could offer shelter and thus interposing a belt of "scorched earth" between themselves and the allies. In 1945, Adolf Hitler ordered his minister of armaments, Albert Speer, to carry out a nationwide scorched-earth policy, in what became known as the Nero Decree. Speer, who was looking to the future, actively resisted the order, just as he had earlier refused Hitler's command to destroy French industry when the Wehrmacht was being driven out of France. Speer managed to continue doing so even after Hitler became aware of his actions. During the Second World War, the railroad plough was used during retreats in Germany, Czechoslovakia and other countries to deny enemy use of railways by partially destroying them. ### Malayan Emergency Britain was the first nation to employ herbicides and defoliants (chiefly Agent Orange) to destroy the crops and the bushes of Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA) insurgents in Malaya during the Malayan Emergency. The intent was to prevent MNLA insurgents from utilizing rice fields to resupply their rations and using them as a cover to ambush passing convoys of Commonwealth troops. ### Goa War In response to India's invasion of Portuguese Goa in December 1961 during the annexation of Portuguese India, orders delivered from Portuguese President Américo Tomás called for a scorched-earth policy for Goa to be destroyed before its surrender to India. However, despite his orders from Lisbon, Governor General Manuel António Vassalo e Silva took stock of the superiority of the Indian troops and of his forces' supplies of food and ammunition and took the decision to surrender. He later described his orders to destroy Goa as "a useless sacrifice" (*um sacrifício inútil*)". ### Vietnam War The United States used Agent Orange as a part of its herbicidal warfare program Operation Ranch Hand to destroy crops and foliage to expose possible enemy hideouts during the Vietnam War. Agent Blue was used on rice fields to deny food to the Viet Cong. ### Persian Gulf War During the 1990 Persian Gulf War, when Iraqi forces were driven out of Kuwait, they set more than 600 Kuwaiti oil wells on fire. That was done as part of a scorched-earth policy during the retreat from Kuwait in 1991 after Iraqi forces had been driven out by Coalition military forces. The fires were started in January and February 1991, and the last one was extinguished by November 1991. ### Central America Efraín Ríos Montt used the policy in Guatemala's highlands in 1981 and 1982, but it had been used under the previous president, Fernando Romeo Lucas García. Upon entering office, Ríos Montt implemented a new counterinsurgency strategy that called for the use of scorched earth to combat the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity rebels. Plan Victoria 82 was more commonly known by the nickname of the rural pacification elements of the strategy, *Fusiles y Frijoles* (Bullets and Beans). Ríos Montt's policies resulted in the death of thousands, most of them indigenous Mayans. ### Bandung Sea of Fire The Indonesian military used the method during Indonesian National Revolution when the British forces in Bandung gave an ultimatum for Indonesian fighters to leave the city. In response, the southern part of Bandung was deliberately burned down in an act of defiance as they left the city on 24 March 1946. This event is known as the Bandung Sea of Fire (*Bandung Lautan Api*). The Indonesian military and pro-Indonesia militias also used the method in the 1999 East Timorese crisis. The Timor-Leste scorched-earth campaign was around the time of East Timor's referendum for independence in 1999. ### Yugoslav Wars The method was used during the Yugoslav Wars, such as against the Serbs in Krajina by the Croatian Army, and by Serbian paramilitary groups. 21st century ------------ ### Darfur War The government of Sudan used scorched earth as a military strategy in Darfur War. ### Sri Lankan Civil War During the 2009 Sri Lankan Civil War, the United Nations Regional Information Centre accused the government of Sri Lanka of using scorched-earth tactics. ### Libyan Civil War During the 2011 Libyan Civil War, forces loyal to Moammar Gadhafi planted a large number of landmines within the petroleum port of Brega to prevent advancing rebel forces from utilizing the port facilities. Libyan rebel forces practiced scorched-earth policies when they completely demolished and refused to rebuild critical infrastructure[*example needed*] in towns and cities that had been loyal to Gadhafi such as Sirte and Tawargha. ### Myanmar civil war In March 2023, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights condemned the Burmese military's use of a scorched earth strategy, which has killed thousands of civilians, displaced 1.3 million people and destroyed 39,000 houses throughout the country since the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état, as the military has denied humanitarian access to survivors, razed entire villages, and used indiscriminate airstrikes and artillery shelling. ### Russo-Ukrainian War During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Russia has used scorched-earth tactics. See also -------- * Area bombing + Aerial bombing of cities * Area denial * *Bellum se ipsum alet*, the strategy of relying on occupied territories for resources * *Burmah Oil Co. v Lord Advocate* * Carthaginian peace * Chevauchée * Early thermal weapons * Ecocide * Environmental impact of war * Fabian strategy * Harrying of the North * Lam chau (doctrine) * Railroad plough * Salted bomb * Salting the earth * Sherman's neckties * Total war * Well poisoning

Scorched earth

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorched_earth

**Accounting**, also known as **accountancy**, is the measurement, processing, and communication of financial and non-financial information about economic entities such as businesses and corporations. Accounting, which has been called the "language of business", measures the results of an organization's economic activities and conveys this information to a variety of stakeholders, including investors, creditors, management, and regulators. Practitioners of accounting are known as accountants. The terms "accounting" and "financial reporting" are often used as synonyms. Accounting can be divided into several fields including financial accounting, management accounting, tax accounting and cost accounting. Financial accounting focuses on the reporting of an organization's financial information, including the preparation of financial statements, to the external users of the information, such as investors, regulators and suppliers. Management accounting focuses on the measurement, analysis and reporting of information for internal use by management. The recording of financial transactions, so that summaries of the financials may be presented in financial reports, is known as bookkeeping, of which double-entry bookkeeping is the most common system. Accounting information systems are designed to support accounting functions and related activities. Accounting has existed in various forms and levels of sophistication throughout human history. The double-entry accounting system in use today was developed in medieval Europe, particularly in Venice, and is usually attributed to the Italian mathematician and Franciscan friar Luca Pacioli. Today, accounting is facilitated by accounting organizations such as standard-setters, accounting firms and professional bodies. Financial statements are usually audited by accounting firms, and are prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). GAAP is set by various standard-setting organizations such as the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) in the United States and the Financial Reporting Council in the United Kingdom. As of 2012, "all major economies" have plans to converge towards or adopt the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). History ------- Accounting is thousands of years old and can be traced to ancient civilizations. The early development of accounting dates back to ancient Mesopotamia, and is closely related to developments in writing, counting and money; there is also evidence of early forms of bookkeeping in ancient Iran, and early auditing systems by the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. By the time of Emperor Augustus, the Roman government had access to detailed financial information. Double-entry bookkeeping was pioneered in the Jewish community of the early-medieval Middle East and was further refined in medieval Europe. With the development of joint-stock companies, accounting split into financial accounting and management accounting. The first published work on a double-entry bookkeeping system was the *Summa de arithmetica*, published in Italy in 1494 by Luca Pacioli (the "Father of Accounting"). Accounting began to transition into an organized profession in the nineteenth century, with local professional bodies in England merging to form the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales in 1880. Etymology --------- Both the words accounting and accountancy were in use in Great Britain by the mid-1800s, and are derived from the words *accompting* and *accountantship* used in the 18th century. In Middle English (used roughly between the 12th and the late 15th century) the verb "to account" had the form *accounten*, which was derived from the Old French word *aconter*, which is in turn related to the Vulgar Latin word *computare*, meaning "to reckon". The base of *computare* is *putare*, which "variously meant to prune, to purify, to correct an account, hence, to count or calculate, as well as to think". The word "accountant" is derived from the French word *compter*, which is also derived from the Italian and Latin word *computare*. The word was formerly written in English as "accomptant", but in process of time the word, which was always pronounced by dropping the "p", became gradually changed both in pronunciation and in orthography to its present form. ### Terminology **Accounting** has variously been defined as the keeping or preparation of the financial records of transactions of the firm, the analysis, verification and reporting of such records and "the principles and procedures of accounting"; it also refers to the job of being an accountant. **Accountancy** refers to the occupation or profession of an accountant, particularly in British English. Topics ------ Accounting has several subfields or subject areas, including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing, taxation and accounting information systems. ### Financial accounting Financial accounting focuses on the reporting of an organization's financial information to external users of the information, such as investors, potential investors and creditors. It calculates and records business transactions and prepares financial statements for the external users in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). GAAP, in turn, arises from the wide agreement between accounting theory and practice, and change over time to meet the needs of decision-makers. Financial accounting produces past-oriented reports—for example financial statements are often published six to ten months after the end of the accounting period—on an annual or quarterly basis, generally about the organization as a whole. ### Management accounting Management accounting focuses on the measurement, analysis and reporting of information that can help managers in making decisions to fulfill the goals of an organization. In management accounting, internal measures and reports are based on cost-benefit analysis, and are not required to follow the generally accepted accounting principle (GAAP). In 2014 CIMA created the Global Management Accounting Principles (GMAPs). The result of research from across 20 countries in five continents, the principles aim to guide best practice in the discipline. Management accounting produces past-oriented reports with time spans that vary widely, but it also encompasses future-oriented reports such as budgets. Management accounting reports often include financial and non financial information, and may, for example, focus on specific products and departments. ### Auditing Auditing is the verification of assertions made by others regarding a payoff, and in the context of accounting it is the "unbiased examination and evaluation of the financial statements of an organization". Audit is a professional service that is systematic and conventional. An audit of financial statements aims to express or disclaim an independent opinion on the financial statements. The auditor expresses an independent opinion on the fairness with which the financial statements presents the financial position, results of operations, and cash flows of an entity, in accordance with the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) and "in all material respects". An auditor is also required to identify circumstances in which the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) have not been consistently observed. ### Information systems An accounting information system is a part of an organization's information system used for processing accounting data. Many corporations use artificial intelligence-based information systems. The banking and finance industry uses AI in fraud detection. The retail industry uses AI for customer services. AI is also used in the cybersecurity industry. It involves computer hardware and software systems using statistics and modeling. Many accounting practices have been simplified with the help of accounting computer-based software. An enterprise resource planning (ERP) system is commonly used for a large organisation and it provides a comprehensive, centralized, integrated source of information that companies can use to manage all major business processes, from purchasing to manufacturing to human resources. These systems can be cloud based and available on demand via application or browser, or available as software installed on specific computers or local servers, often referred to as on-premise. ### Tax accounting Tax accounting in the United States concentrates on the preparation, analysis and presentation of tax payments and tax returns. The U.S. tax system requires the use of specialised accounting principles for tax purposes which can differ from the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) for financial reporting. U.S. tax law covers four basic forms of business ownership: sole proprietorship, partnership, corporation, and limited liability company. Corporate and personal income are taxed at different rates, both varying according to income levels and including varying marginal rates (taxed on each additional dollar of income) and average rates (set as a percentage of overall income). ### Forensic accounting Forensic accounting is a specialty practice area of accounting that describes engagements that result from actual or anticipated disputes or litigation. "Forensic" means "suitable for use in a court of law", and it is to that standard and potential outcome that forensic accountants generally have to work. ### Political campaign accounting Political campaign accounting deals with the development and implementation of financial systems and the accounting of financial transactions in compliance with laws governing political campaign operations. This branch of accounting was first formally introduced in the March 1976 issue of *The Journal of Accountancy*. Organizations ------------- ### Professional bodies Professional accounting bodies include the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) and the other 179 members of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), including Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (ICAS), Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan (ICAP), CPA Australia, Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) and Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW). Some countries have a single professional accounting body and, in some other countries, professional bodies for subfields of the accounting professions also exist, for example the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA) in the UK and Institute of management accountants in the United States. Many of these professional bodies offer education and training including qualification and administration for various accounting designations, such as certified public accountant (AICPA) and chartered accountant. ### Firms Depending on its size, a company may be legally required to have their financial statements audited by a qualified auditor, and audits are usually carried out by accounting firms. Accounting firms grew in the United States and Europe in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, and through several mergers there were large international accounting firms by the mid-twentieth century. Further large mergers in the late twentieth century led to the dominance of the auditing market by the "Big Five" accounting firms: Arthur Andersen, Deloitte, Ernst & Young, KPMG and PricewaterhouseCoopers. The demise of Arthur Andersen following the Enron scandal reduced the Big Five to the Big Four. ### Standard-setters Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) are accounting standards issued by national regulatory bodies. In addition, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) issues the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) implemented by 147 countries. Standards for international audit and assurance, ethics, education, and public sector accounting are all set by independent standard settings boards supported by IFAC. The International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board sets international standards for auditing, assurance, and quality control; the International Ethics Standards Board for Accountants (IESBA) sets the internationally appropriate principles-based *Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants*; the International Accounting Education Standards Board (IAESB) sets professional accounting education standards; and International Public Sector Accounting Standards Board (IPSASB) sets accrual-based international public sector accounting standards. Organizations in individual countries may issue accounting standards unique to the countries. For example, in Australia, the Australian Accounting Standards Board manages the issuance of the accounting standards in line with IFRS. In the United States the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) issues the Statements of Financial Accounting Standards, which form the basis of US GAAP, and in the United Kingdom the Financial Reporting Council (FRC) sets accounting standards. However, as of 2012 "all major economies" have plans to converge towards or adopt the IFRS. Education, training and qualifications -------------------------------------- ### Degrees At least a bachelor's degree in accounting or a related field is required for most accountant and auditor job positions, and some employers prefer applicants with a master's degree. A degree in accounting may also be required for, or may be used to fulfill the requirements for, membership to professional accounting bodies. For example, the education during an accounting degree can be used to fulfill the American Institute of CPA's (AICPA) 150 semester hour requirement, and associate membership with the Certified Public Accountants Association of the UK is available after gaining a degree in finance or accounting. A doctorate is required in order to pursue a career in accounting academia, for example, to work as a university professor in accounting. The Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) and the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) are the most popular degrees. The PhD is the most common degree for those wishing to pursue a career in academia, while DBA programs generally focus on equipping business executives for business or public careers requiring research skills and qualifications. ### Professional qualifications Professional accounting qualifications include the Chartered Accountant designations and other qualifications including certificates and diplomas. In Scotland, chartered accountants of ICAS undergo Continuous Professional Development and abide by the ICAS code of ethics. In England and Wales, chartered accountants of the ICAEW undergo annual training, and are bound by the ICAEW's code of ethics and subject to its disciplinary procedures. In the United States, the requirements for joining the AICPA as a Certified Public Accountant are set by the Board of Accountancy of each state, and members agree to abide by the AICPA's Code of Professional Conduct and Bylaws. The ACCA is the largest global accountancy body with over 320,000 members, and the organisation provides an 'IFRS stream' and a 'UK stream'. Students must pass a total of 14 exams, which are arranged across three levels. Research -------- Accounting research is research in the effects of economic events on the process of accounting, the effects of reported information on economic events, and the roles of accounting in organizations and society. It encompasses a broad range of research areas including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing and taxation. Accounting research is carried out both by academic researchers and practicing accountants. Methodologies in academic accounting research include archival research, which examines "objective data collected from repositories"; experimental research, which examines data "the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects"; analytical research, which is "based on the act of formally modeling theories or substantiating ideas in mathematical terms"; interpretive research, which emphasizes the role of language, interpretation and understanding in accounting practice, "highlighting the symbolic structures and taken-for-granted themes which pattern the world in distinct ways"; critical research, which emphasizes the role of power and conflict in accounting practice; case studies; computer simulation; and field research. Empirical studies document that leading accounting journals publish in total fewer research articles than comparable journals in economics and other business disciplines, and consequently, accounting scholars are relatively less successful in academic publishing than their business school peers. Due to different publication rates between accounting and other business disciplines, a recent study based on academic author rankings concludes that the competitive value of a single publication in a top-ranked journal is highest in accounting and lowest in marketing. Scandals -------- The year 2001 witnessed a series of financial information frauds involving Enron, auditing firm Arthur Andersen, the telecommunications company WorldCom, Qwest and Sunbeam, among other well-known corporations. These problems highlighted the need to review the effectiveness of accounting standards, auditing regulations and corporate governance principles. In some cases, management manipulated the figures shown in financial reports to indicate a better economic performance. In others, tax and regulatory incentives encouraged over-leveraging of companies and decisions to bear extraordinary and unjustified risk. The Enron scandal deeply influenced the development of new regulations to improve the reliability of financial reporting, and increased public awareness about the importance of having accounting standards that show the financial reality of companies and the objectivity and independence of auditing firms. In addition to being the largest bankruptcy reorganization in American history, the Enron scandal undoubtedly is the biggest audit failure causing the dissolution of Arthur Andersen, which at the time was one of the five largest accounting firms in the world. After a series of revelations involving irregular accounting procedures conducted throughout the 1990s, Enron filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in December 2001. One consequence of these events was the passage of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act in the United States in 2002, as a result of the first admissions of fraudulent behavior made by Enron. The act significantly raises criminal penalties for securities fraud, for destroying, altering or fabricating records in federal investigations or any scheme or attempt to defraud shareholders. Fraud and error --------------- Accounting fraud is an intentional misstatement or omission in the accounting records by management or employees which involves the use of deception. It is a criminal act and a breach of civil tort. It may involve collusion with third parties. An accounting error is an unintentional misstatement or omission in the accounting records, for example misinterpretation of facts, mistakes in processing data, or oversights leading to incorrect estimates. Acts leading to accounting errors are not criminal but may breach civil law, for example, the tort of negligence. The primary responsibility for the prevention and detection of fraud and errors rests with the entity's management. See also -------- * Accounting information system * Accounting records

Accounting

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting

**Capitalism** is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price systems, private property, property rights recognition, voluntary exchange, and wage labor. In a market economy, decision-making and investments are determined by owners of wealth, property, or ability to maneuver capital or production ability in capital and financial markets—whereas prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and services markets. Economists, historians, political economists, and sociologists have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include *laissez-faire* or free-market capitalism, anarcho-capitalism, state capitalism and welfare capitalism. Different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition and state-sanctioned social policies. The degree of competition in markets and the role of intervention and regulation as well as the scope of state ownership vary across different models of capitalism. The extent to which different markets are free and the rules defining private property are matters of politics and policy. Most of the existing capitalist economies are mixed economies that combine elements of free markets with state intervention and in some cases economic planning. Market economies have existed under many forms of government and in many different times, places and cultures. Modern industrial capitalist societies developed in Western Europe in a process that led to the Industrial Revolution. Economic growth is a characteristic tendency of capitalist economies. Etymology --------- | | | --- | | Other terms sometimes used for capitalism: * Capitalist mode of production * Economic liberalism * Free enterprise[*page needed*] * Free enterprise economy * Free market[*page needed*] * Free market economy * *Laissez-faire* * Market economy * Profits system[*page needed*] * Self-regulating market[*page needed*] | The term "capitalist", meaning an owner of capital, appears earlier than the term "capitalism" and dates to the mid-17th century. "Capitalism" is derived from *capital*, which evolved from *capitale*, a late Latin word based on *caput*, meaning "head"—which is also the origin of "chattel" and "cattle" in the sense of movable property (only much later to refer only to livestock). *Capitale* emerged in the 12th to 13th centuries to refer to funds, stock of merchandise, sum of money or money carrying interest. By 1283, it was used in the sense of the capital assets of a trading firm and was often interchanged with other words—wealth, money, funds, goods, assets, property and so on. The *Hollantse (German: *holländische*) Mercurius* uses "capitalists" in 1633 and 1654 to refer to owners of capital. In French, Étienne Clavier referred to *capitalistes* in 1788, four years before its first recorded English usage by Arthur Young in his work *Travels in France* (1792). In his *Principles of Political Economy and Taxation* (1817), David Ricardo referred to "the capitalist" many times. English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge used "capitalist" in his work *Table Talk* (1823). Pierre-Joseph Proudhon used the term in his first work, *What is Property?* (1840), to refer to the owners of capital. Benjamin Disraeli used the term in his 1845 work *Sybil*. The initial use of the term "capitalism" in its modern sense is attributed to Louis Blanc in 1850 ("What I call 'capitalism' that is to say the appropriation of capital by some to the exclusion of others") and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in 1861 ("Economic and social regime in which capital, the source of income, does not generally belong to those who make it work through their labor"). Karl Marx frequently referred to the "capital" and to the "capitalist mode of production" in *Das Kapital* (1867). Marx did not use the form *capitalism* but instead used capital, *capitalist* and *capitalist mode of production*, which appear frequently. Due to the word being coined by socialist critics of capitalism, economist and historian Robert Hessen stated that the term "capitalism" itself is a term of disparagement and a misnomer for economic individualism. Bernard Harcourt agrees with the statement that the term is a misnomer, adding that it misleadingly suggests that there is such as a thing as "capital" that inherently functions in certain ways and is governed by stable economic laws of its own. In the English language, the term "capitalism" first appears, according to the *Oxford English Dictionary* (OED), in 1854, in the novel *The Newcomes* by novelist William Makepeace Thackeray, where the word meant "having ownership of capital". Also according to the OED, Carl Adolph Douai, a German American socialist and abolitionist, used the term "private capitalism" in 1863. History ------- Capitalism, in its modern form, can be traced to the emergence of agrarian capitalism and mercantilism in the early Renaissance, in city-states like Florence. Capital has existed incipiently on a small scale for centuries in the form of merchant, renting and lending activities and occasionally as small-scale industry with some wage labor. Simple commodity exchange and consequently simple commodity production, which is the initial basis for the growth of capital from trade, have a very long history. During the Islamic Golden Age, Arabs promulgated capitalist economic policies such as free trade and banking. Their use of Indo-Arabic numerals facilitated bookkeeping. These innovations migrated to Europe through trade partners in cities such as Venice and Pisa. Italian mathematicians traveled the Mediterranean talking to Arab traders and returned to popularize the use of Indo-Arabic numerals in Europe. ### Agrarianism The economic foundations of the feudal agricultural system began to shift substantially in 16th-century England as the manorial system had broken down and land began to become concentrated in the hands of fewer landlords with increasingly large estates. Instead of a serf-based system of labor, workers were increasingly employed as part of a broader and expanding money-based economy. The system put pressure on both landlords and tenants to increase the productivity of agriculture to make profit; the weakened coercive power of the aristocracy to extract peasant surpluses encouraged them to try better methods, and the tenants also had incentive to improve their methods in order to flourish in a competitive labor market. Terms of rent for land were becoming subject to economic market forces rather than to the previous stagnant system of custom and feudal obligation. ### Mercantilism The economic doctrine prevailing from the 16th to the 18th centuries is commonly called mercantilism. This period, the Age of Discovery, was associated with the geographic exploration of foreign lands by merchant traders, especially from England and the Low Countries. Mercantilism was a system of trade for profit, although commodities were still largely produced by non-capitalist methods. Most scholars consider the era of merchant capitalism and mercantilism as the origin of modern capitalism, although Karl Polanyi argued that the hallmark of capitalism is the establishment of generalized markets for what he called the "fictitious commodities", i.e. land, labor and money. Accordingly, he argued that "not until 1834 was a competitive labor market established in England, hence industrial capitalism as a social system cannot be said to have existed before that date". England began a large-scale and integrative approach to mercantilism during the Elizabethan Era (1558–1603). A systematic and coherent explanation of balance of trade was made public through Thomas Mun's argument *England's Treasure by Forraign Trade, or the Balance of our Forraign Trade is The Rule of Our Treasure.* It was written in the 1620s and published in 1664. European merchants, backed by state controls, subsidies and monopolies, made most of their profits by buying and selling goods. In the words of Francis Bacon, the purpose of mercantilism was "the opening and well-balancing of trade; the cherishing of manufacturers; the banishing of idleness; the repressing of waste and excess by sumptuary laws; the improvement and husbanding of the soil; the regulation of prices...". After the period of the proto-industrialization, the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, after massive contributions from the Mughal Bengal, inaugurated an expansive era of commerce and trade. These companies were characterized by their colonial and expansionary powers given to them by nation-states. During this era, merchants, who had traded under the previous stage of mercantilism, invested capital in the East India Companies and other colonies, seeking a return on investment. ### Industrial Revolution In the mid-18th century a group of economic theorists, led by David Hume (1711–1776) and Adam Smith (1723–1790), challenged fundamental mercantilist doctrines—such as the belief that the world's wealth remained constant and that a state could only increase its wealth at the expense of another state. During the Industrial Revolution, industrialists replaced merchants as a dominant factor in the capitalist system and effected the decline of the traditional handicraft skills of artisans, guilds and journeymen. Industrial capitalism marked the development of the factory system of manufacturing, characterized by a complex division of labor between and within work process and the routine of work tasks; and eventually established the domination of the capitalist mode of production. Industrial Britain eventually abandoned the protectionist policy formerly prescribed by mercantilism. In the 19th century, Richard Cobden (1804–1865) and John Bright (1811–1889), who based their beliefs on the Manchester School, initiated a movement to lower tariffs. In the 1840s Britain adopted a less protectionist policy, with the 1846 repeal of the Corn Laws and the 1849 repeal of the Navigation Acts. Britain reduced tariffs and quotas, in line with David Ricardo's advocacy of free trade. ### Modernity Broader processes of globalization carried capitalism across the world. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, a series of loosely connected market systems had come together as a relatively integrated global system, in turn intensifying processes of economic and other globalization. Late in the 20th century, capitalism overcame a challenge by centrally-planned economies and is now the encompassing system worldwide,[*need quotation to verify*] with the mixed economy as its dominant form in the industrialized Western world. Industrialization allowed cheap production of household items using economies of scale, while rapid population growth created sustained demand for commodities. The imperialism of the 18th-century decisively shaped globalization in this period.[*when?*] After the First and Second Opium Wars (1839–1860) and the completion[*when?*] of the British conquest of India, vast populations of Asia became ready consumers of European exports. Also in this period, Europeans colonized areas of sub-Saharan Africa and the Pacific islands. The conquest of new parts of the globe, notably sub-Saharan Africa, by Europeans yielded valuable natural resources such as rubber, diamonds and coal and helped fuel trade and investment between the European imperial powers, their colonies and the United States: > The inhabitant of London could order by telephone, sipping his morning tea, the various products of the whole earth, and reasonably expect their early delivery upon his doorstep. Militarism and imperialism of racial and cultural rivalries were little more than the amusements of his daily newspaper. What an extraordinary episode in the economic progress of man was that age which came to an end in August 1914.[**non sequitur**] > > In this period,[*when?*] the global financial system was mainly tied to the gold standard. The United Kingdom first formally adopted this standard in 1821. Soon to follow were Canada in 1853, Newfoundland in 1865, the United States and Germany (*de jure*) in 1873. New technologies, such as the telegraph, the transatlantic cable, the radiotelephone, the steamship and railways allowed goods and information to move around the world to an unprecedented degree. Contemporary capitalist societies developed in the West from 1950 to the present and this type of system continues to expand throughout different regions of the world—relevant examples started in the United States after the 1950s, France after the 1960s, Spain after the 1970s, Poland after 2015, and others. At this stage capitalist markets are considered[*by whom?*] developed and are characterized by developed private and public markets for equity and debt, a high standard of living (as characterized by the World Bank and the IMF), large institutional investors and a well-funded banking system. A significant managerial class has emerged[*when?*] and decides on a significant proportion of investments and other decisions. A different future than that envisioned by Marx has started to emerge—explored and described by Anthony Crosland in the United Kingdom in his 1956 book *The Future of Socialism* and by John Kenneth Galbraith in North America in his 1958 book *The Affluent Society*, 90 years after Marx's research on the state of capitalism in 1867. The postwar boom ended in the late 1960s and early 1970s and the economic situation grew worse with the rise of stagflation. Monetarism, a modification of Keynesianism that is more compatible with *laissez-faire* analyses, gained increasing prominence in the capitalist world, especially under the years in office of Ronald Reagan in the United States (1981–1989) and of Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom (1979–1990). Public and political interest began shifting away from the so-called collectivist concerns of Keynes's managed capitalism to a focus on individual choice, called "remarketized capitalism". The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union allowed for capitalism to become a truly global system in a way not seen since before World War I. The development of the neoliberal global economy would have been impossible without the fall of communism. Harvard Kennedy School economist Dani Rodrik distinguishes between three historical variants of capitalism: * Capitalism 1.0 during the 19th century entailed largely unregulated markets with a minimal role for the state (aside from national defense, and protecting property rights) * Capitalism 2.0 during the post-World War II years entailed Keynesianism, a substantial role for the state in regulating markets, and strong welfare states * Capitalism 2.1 entailed a combination of unregulated markets, globalization, and various national obligations by states #### Relationship to democracy The relationship between democracy and capitalism is a contentious area in theory and in popular political movements. The extension of adult-male suffrage in 19th-century Britain occurred along with the development of industrial capitalism and representative democracy became widespread at the same time as capitalism, leading capitalists to posit a causal or mutual relationship between them. However, according to some authors in the 20th-century, capitalism also accompanied a variety of political formations quite distinct from liberal democracies, including fascist regimes, absolute monarchies and single-party states. Democratic peace theory asserts that democracies seldom fight other democracies, but critics[*who?*] of that theory suggest that this may be because of political similarity or stability rather than because they are "democratic" or "capitalist". Moderate critics argue that though economic growth under capitalism has led to democracy in the past, it may not do so in the future as authoritarian régimes have been able to manage economic growth using some of capitalism's competitive principles without making concessions to greater political freedom. Political scientists Torben Iversen and David Soskice see democracy and capitalism as mutually supportive. Robert Dahl argued in *On Democracy* that capitalism was beneficial for democracy because economic growth and a large middle class were good for democracy. He also argued that a market economy provided a substitute for government control of the economy, which reduces the risks of tyranny and authoritarianism. In his book *The Road to Serfdom* (1944), Friedrich Hayek (1899–1992) asserted that the free-market understanding of economic freedom as present in capitalism is a requisite of political freedom. He argued that the market mechanism is the only way of deciding what to produce and how to distribute the items without using coercion. Milton Friedman and Ronald Reagan also promoted this view. Friedman claimed that centralized economic operations are always accompanied by political repression. In his view, transactions in a market economy are voluntary and that the wide diversity that voluntary activity permits is a fundamental threat to repressive political leaders and greatly diminishes their power to coerce. Some of Friedman's views were shared by John Maynard Keynes, who believed that capitalism was vital for freedom to survive and thrive. Freedom House, an American think-tank that conducts international research on, and advocates for, democracy, political freedom and human rights, has argued that "there is a high and statistically significant correlation between the level of political freedom as measured by Freedom House and economic freedom as measured by the Wall Street Journal/Heritage Foundation survey". In *Capital in the Twenty-First Century* (2013), Thomas Piketty of the Paris School of Economics asserted that inequality is the inevitable consequence of economic growth in a capitalist economy and the resulting concentration of wealth can destabilize democratic societies and undermine the ideals of social justice upon which they are built. States with capitalistic economic systems have thrived under political regimes deemed to be authoritarian or oppressive. Singapore has a successful open market economy as a result of its competitive, business-friendly climate and robust rule of law. Nonetheless, it often comes under fire for its style of government which, though democratic and consistently one of the least corrupt, operates largely under a one-party rule. Furthermore, it does not vigorously defend freedom of expression as evidenced by its government-regulated press, and its penchant for upholding laws protecting ethnic and religious harmony, judicial dignity and personal reputation. The private (capitalist) sector in the People's Republic of China has grown exponentially and thrived since its inception, despite having an authoritarian government. Augusto Pinochet's rule in Chile led to economic growth and high levels of inequality by using authoritarian means to create a safe environment for investment and capitalism. Similarly, Suharto's authoritarian reign and extirpation of the Communist Party of Indonesia allowed for the expansion of capitalism in Indonesia. The term "capitalism" in its modern sense is often attributed to Karl Marx. In his *Das Kapital*, Marx analyzed the "capitalist mode of production" using a method of understanding today known as Marxism. However, Marx himself rarely used the term "capitalism" while it was used twice in the more political interpretations of his work, primarily authored by his collaborator Friedrich Engels. In the 20th century, defenders of the capitalist system often replaced the term "capitalism" with phrases such as free enterprise and private enterprise and replaced "capitalist" with rentier and investor in reaction to the negative connotations associated with capitalism. Characteristics --------------- In general, capitalism as an economic system and mode of production can be summarized by the following: * Capital accumulation: production for profit and accumulation as the implicit purpose of all or most of production, constriction or elimination of production formerly carried out on a common social or private household basis. * Commodity production: production for exchange on a market; to maximize exchange-value instead of use-value. * Private ownership of the means of production: * High levels of wage labor. * The investment of money to make a profit. * The use of the price mechanism to allocate resources between competing uses. * Economically efficient use of the factors of production and raw materials due to maximization of value added in the production process. * Freedom of capitalists to act in their self-interest in managing their business and investments. * Capital suppliance by "the single owner of a firm, or by shareholders in the case of a joint-stock company." ### Market In free market and *laissez-faire* forms of capitalism, markets are used most extensively with minimal or no regulation over the pricing mechanism. In mixed economies, which are almost universal today, markets continue to play a dominant role, but they are regulated to some extent by the state in order to correct market failures, promote social welfare, conserve natural resources, fund defense and public safety or other rationale. In state capitalist systems, markets are relied upon the least, with the state relying heavily on state-owned enterprises or indirect economic planning to accumulate capital. Competition arises when more than one producer is trying to sell the same or similar products to the same buyers. Adherents of the capitalist theory believe that competition leads to innovation and more affordable prices. Monopolies or cartels can develop, especially if there is no competition. A monopoly occurs when a firm has exclusivity over a market. Hence, the firm can engage in rent seeking behaviors such as limiting output and raising prices because it has no fear of competition. Governments have implemented legislation for the purpose of preventing the creation of monopolies and cartels. In 1890, the Sherman Antitrust Act became the first legislation passed by the United States Congress to limit monopolies. ### Wage labor Wage labor, usually referred to as paid work, paid employment, or paid labor, refers to the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer in which the worker sells their labor power under a formal or informal employment contract. These transactions usually occur in a labor market where wages or salaries are market-determined. In exchange for the money paid as wages (usual for short-term work-contracts) or salaries (in permanent employment contracts), the work product generally becomes the undifferentiated property of the employer. A wage laborer is a person whose primary means of income is from the selling of their labor in this way. ### Profit motive The profit motive, in the theory of capitalism, is the desire to earn income in the form of profit. Stated differently, the reason for a business's existence is to turn a profit. The profit motive functions according to rational choice theory, or the theory that individuals tend to pursue what is in their own best interests. Accordingly, businesses seek to benefit themselves and/or their shareholders by maximizing profit. In capitalist theoretics, the profit motive is said to ensure that resources are being allocated efficiently. For instance, Austrian economist Henry Hazlitt explains: "If there is no profit in making an article, it is a sign that the labor and capital devoted to its production are misdirected: the value of the resources that must be used up in making the article is greater than the value of the article itself". ### Private property The relationship between the state, its formal mechanisms, and capitalist societies has been debated in many fields of social and political theory, with active discussion since the 19th century. Hernando de Soto is a contemporary Peruvian economist who has argued that an important characteristic of capitalism is the functioning state protection of property rights in a formal property system where ownership and transactions are clearly recorded. According to de Soto, this is the process by which physical assets are transformed into capital, which in turn may be used in many more ways and much more efficiently in the market economy. A number of Marxian economists have argued that the Enclosure Acts in England and similar legislation elsewhere were an integral part of capitalist primitive accumulation and that specific legal frameworks of private land ownership have been integral to the development of capitalism. Private property rights are not absolute, as in many countries the state has the power to seize private property, typically for public use, under the powers of eminent domain. ### Market competition In capitalist economics, market competition is the rivalry among sellers trying to achieve such goals as increasing profits, market share and sales volume by varying the elements of the marketing mix: price, product, distribution and promotion. Merriam-Webster defines competition in business as "the effort of two or more parties acting independently to secure the business of a third party by offering the most favourable terms". It was described by Adam Smith in *The Wealth of Nations* (1776) and later economists as allocating productive resources to their most highly valued uses and encouraging efficiency. Smith and other classical economists before Antoine Augustine Cournot were referring to price and non-price rivalry among producers to sell their goods on best terms by bidding of buyers, not necessarily to a large number of sellers nor to a market in final equilibrium. Competition is widespread throughout the market process. It is a condition where "buyers tend to compete with other buyers, and sellers tend to compete with other sellers". In offering goods for exchange, buyers competitively bid to purchase specific quantities of specific goods which are available, or might be available if sellers were to choose to offer such goods. Similarly, sellers bid against other sellers in offering goods on the market, competing for the attention and exchange resources of buyers. Competition results from scarcity, as it is not possible to satisfy all conceivable human wants, and occurs as people try to meet the criteria being used to determine allocation. In the works of Adam Smith, the idea of capitalism is made possible through competition which creates growth. Although capitalism has not entered mainstream economics at the time of Smith, it is vital to the construction of his ideal society. One of the foundational blocks of capitalism is competition. Smith believed that a prosperous society is one where "everyone should be free to enter and leave the market and change trades as often as he pleases." He believed that the freedom to act in one's self-interest is essential for the success of a capitalist society. The fear arises[*weasel words*] that if all participants focus on their own goals, society's well-being will be water under the bridge. Smith maintains that despite the concerns of intellectuals, "global trends will hardly be altered if they refrain from pursuing their personal ends." He insisted that the actions of a few participants cannot alter the course of society. Instead, Smith maintained that they should focus on personal progress instead and that this will result in overall growth to the whole. Competition between participants, "who are all endeavoring to justle one another out of employment, obliges every man to endeavor to execute his work" through competition towards growth. ### Economic growth Economic growth is a characteristic tendency of capitalist economies. ### As a mode of production The capitalist mode of production refers to the systems of organising production and distribution within capitalist societies. Private money-making in various forms (renting, banking, merchant trade, production for profit and so on) preceded the development of the capitalist mode of production as such. The term capitalist mode of production is defined by private ownership of the means of production, extraction of surplus value by the owning class for the purpose of capital accumulation, wage-based labor and, at least as far as commodities are concerned, being market-based. Capitalism in the form of money-making activity has existed in the shape of merchants and money-lenders who acted as intermediaries between consumers and producers engaging in simple commodity production (hence the reference to "merchant capitalism") since the beginnings of civilisation. What is specific about the "capitalist mode of production" is that most of the inputs and outputs of production are supplied through the market (i.e. they are commodities) and essentially all production is in this mode. By contrast, in flourishing feudalism most or all of the factors of production, including labor, are owned by the feudal ruling class outright and the products may also be consumed without a market of any kind, it is production for use within the feudal social unit and for limited trade. This has the important consequence that, under capitalism, the whole organisation of the production process is reshaped and re-organised to conform with economic rationality as bounded by capitalism, which is expressed in price relationships between inputs and outputs (wages, non-labor factor costs, sales and profits) rather than the larger rational context faced by society overall—that is, the whole process is organised and re-shaped in order to conform to "commercial logic". Essentially, capital accumulation comes to define economic rationality in capitalist production. A society, region or nation is capitalist if the predominant source of incomes and products being distributed is capitalist activity, but even so this does not yet mean necessarily that the capitalist mode of production is dominant in that society. Mixed economies rely on the nation they are in to provide some goods or services, while the free market produces and maintains the rest. ### Role of government Government agencies regulate the standards of service in many industries, such as airlines and broadcasting, as well as financing a wide range of programs. In addition, the government regulates the flow of capital and uses financial tools such as the interest rate to control such factors as inflation and unemployment. Supply and demand ----------------- In capitalist economic structures, supply and demand is an economic model of price determination in a market. It postulates that in a perfectly competitive market, the unit price for a particular good will vary until it settles at a point where the quantity demanded by consumers (at the current price) will equal the quantity supplied by producers (at the current price), resulting in an economic equilibrium for price and quantity. The "basic laws" of supply and demand, as described by David Besanko and Ronald Braeutigam, are the following four: 1. If demand increases (demand curve shifts to the right) and supply remains unchanged, then a shortage occurs, leading to a higher equilibrium price. 2. If demand decreases (demand curve shifts to the left) and supply remains unchanged, then a surplus occurs, leading to a lower equilibrium price. 3. If demand remains unchanged and supply increases (supply curve shifts to the right), then a surplus occurs, leading to a lower equilibrium price. 4. If demand remains unchanged and supply decreases (supply curve shifts to the left), then a shortage occurs, leading to a higher equilibrium price. ### Supply schedule A supply schedule is a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied. ### Demand schedule A demand schedule, depicted graphically as the demand curve, represents the amount of some goods that buyers are willing and able to purchase at various prices, assuming all determinants of demand other than the price of the good in question, such as income, tastes and preferences, the price of substitute goods and the price of complementary goods, remain the same. According to the law of demand, the demand curve is almost always represented as downward-sloping, meaning that as price decreases, consumers will buy more of the good. Just like the supply curves reflect marginal cost curves, demand curves are determined by marginal utility curves. ### Equilibrium In the context of supply and demand, economic equilibrium refers to a state where economic forces such as supply and demand are balanced and in the absence of external influences the (equilibrium) values of economic variables will not change. For example, in the standard text-book model of perfect competition equilibrium occurs at the point at which quantity demanded and quantity supplied are equal. Market equilibrium, in this case, refers to a condition where a market price is established through competition such that the amount of goods or services sought by buyers is equal to the amount of goods or services produced by sellers. This price is often called the competitive price or market clearing price, and will tend not to change unless demand or supply changes. ### Partial equilibrium Partial equilibrium, as the name suggests, takes into consideration only a part of the market to attain equilibrium. Jain proposes (attributed to George Stigler): "A partial equilibrium is one which is based on only a restricted range of data, a standard example is price of a single product, the prices of all other products being held fixed during the analysis". ### History According to Hamid S. Hosseini, the "power of supply and demand" was discussed to some extent by several early Muslim scholars, such as fourteenth-century Mamluk scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, who wrote: "If desire for goods increases while its availability decreases, its price rises. On the other hand, if availability of the good increases and the desire for it decreases, the price comes down". John Locke's 1691 work *Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money* includes an early and clear description of supply and demand and their relationship. In this description, demand is rent: "The price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyer and sellers" and "that which regulates the price... [of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent". David Ricardo titled one chapter of his 1817 work *Principles of Political Economy and Taxation* "On the Influence of Demand and Supply on Price". In *Principles of Political Economy and Taxation*, Ricardo more rigorously laid down the idea of the assumptions that were used to build his ideas of supply and demand. In his 1870 essay "On the Graphical Representation of Supply and Demand", Fleeming Jenkin in the course of "introduc[ing] the diagrammatic method into the English economic literature" published the first drawing of supply and demand curves therein, including comparative statics from a shift of supply or demand and application to the labor market. The model was further developed and popularized by Alfred Marshall in the 1890 textbook *Principles of Economics*. Types ----- There are many variants of capitalism in existence that differ according to country and region. They vary in their institutional makeup and by their economic policies. The common features among all the different forms of capitalism is that they are predominantly based on the private ownership of the means of production and the production of goods and services for profit; the market-based allocation of resources; and the accumulation of capital. They include advanced capitalism, corporate capitalism, finance capitalism, free-market capitalism, mercantilism, social capitalism, state capitalism and welfare capitalism. Other theoretical variants of capitalism include anarcho-capitalism, community capitalism, humanistic capitalism, neo-capitalism, state monopoly capitalism, and technocapitalism. ### Advanced Advanced capitalism is the situation that pertains to a society in which the capitalist model has been integrated and developed deeply and extensively for a prolonged period. Various writers identify Antonio Gramsci as an influential early theorist of advanced capitalism, even if he did not use the term himself. In his writings, Gramsci sought to explain how capitalism had adapted to avoid the revolutionary overthrow that had seemed inevitable in the 19th century. At the heart of his explanation was the decline of raw coercion as a tool of class power, replaced by use of civil society institutions to manipulate public ideology in the capitalists' favour. Jürgen Habermas has been a major contributor to the analysis of advanced-capitalistic societies. Habermas observed four general features that characterise advanced capitalism: 1. Concentration of industrial activity in a few large firms. 2. Constant reliance on the state to stabilise the economic system. 3. A formally democratic government that legitimises the activities of the state and dissipates opposition to the system. 4. The use of nominal wage increases to pacify the most restless segments of the work force. ### Corporate Corporate capitalism is a free or mixed-market capitalist economy characterized by the dominance of hierarchical, bureaucratic corporations. ### Finance Finance capitalism is the subordination of processes of production to the accumulation of money profits in a financial system. In their critique of capitalism, Marxism and Leninism both emphasise the role of finance capital as the determining and ruling-class interest in capitalist society, particularly in the latter stages. Rudolf Hilferding is credited with first bringing the term finance capitalism into prominence through *Finance Capital*, his 1910 study of the links between German trusts, banks and monopolies—a study subsumed by Vladimir Lenin into *Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism* (1917), his analysis of the imperialist relations of the great world powers. Lenin concluded that the banks at that time operated as "the chief nerve centres of the whole capitalist system of national economy". For the Comintern (founded in 1919), the phrase "dictatorship of finance capitalism" became a regular one. Fernand Braudel would later point to two earlier periods when finance capitalism had emerged in human history—with the Genoese in the 16th century and with the Dutch in the 17th and 18th centuries—although at those points it developed from commercial capitalism.[*need quotation to verify*] Giovanni Arrighi extended Braudel's analysis to suggest that a predominance of finance capitalism is a recurring, long-term phenomenon, whenever a previous phase of commercial/industrial capitalist expansion reaches a plateau. ### Free-market A capitalist free-market economy is an economic system where prices for goods and services are set entirely by the forces of supply and demand and are expected, by its adherents, to reach their point of equilibrium without intervention by government policy. It typically entails support for highly competitive markets and private ownership of the means of production. *Laissez-faire* capitalism is a more extensive form of this free-market economy, but one in which the role of the state is limited to protecting property rights. In anarcho-capitalist theory, property rights are protected by private firms and market-generated law. According to anarcho-capitalists, this entails property rights without statutory law through market-generated tort, contract and property law, and self-sustaining private industry. Fernand Braudel argued that free market exchange and capitalism are to some degree opposed; free market exchange involves transparent public transactions and a large number of equal competitors, while capitalism involves a small number of participants using their capital to control the market via private transactions, control of information, and limitation of competition. ### Mercantile Mercantilism is a nationalist form of early capitalism that came into existence approximately in the late 16th century. It is characterized by the intertwining of national business interests with state-interest and imperialism. Consequently, the state apparatus is used to advance national business interests abroad. An example of this is colonists living in America who were only allowed to trade with and purchase goods from their respective mother countries (e.g. Britain, France and Portugal). Mercantilism was driven by the belief that the wealth of a nation is increased through a positive balance of trade with other nations—it corresponds to the phase of capitalist development sometimes called the primitive accumulation of capital. ### Social A social market economy is a free-market or mixed-market capitalist system, sometimes classified as a coordinated market economy, where government intervention in price formation is kept to a minimum, but the state provides significant services in areas such as social security, health care, unemployment benefits and the recognition of labor rights through national collective bargaining arrangements. This model is prominent in Western and Northern European countries as well as Japan, albeit in slightly different configurations. The vast majority of enterprises are privately owned in this economic model. Rhine capitalism is the contemporary model of capitalism and adaptation of the social market model that exists in continental Western Europe today. ### State State capitalism is a capitalist market economy dominated by state-owned enterprises, where the state enterprises are organized as commercial, profit-seeking businesses. The designation has been used broadly throughout the 20th century to designate a number of different economic forms, ranging from state-ownership in market economies to the command economies of the former Eastern Bloc. According to Aldo Musacchio, a professor at Harvard Business School, state capitalism is a system in which governments, whether democratic or autocratic, exercise a widespread influence on the economy either through direct ownership or various subsidies. Musacchio notes a number of differences between today's state capitalism and its predecessors. In his opinion, gone are the days when governments appointed bureaucrats to run companies: the world's largest state-owned enterprises are now traded on the public markets and kept in good health by large institutional investors. Contemporary state capitalism is associated with the East Asian model of capitalism, dirigisme and the economy of Norway. Alternatively, Merriam-Webster defines state capitalism as "an economic system in which private capitalism is modified by a varying degree of government ownership and control". In *Socialism: Utopian and Scientific*, Friedrich Engels argued that state-owned enterprises would characterize the final stage of capitalism, consisting of ownership and management of large-scale production and communication by the bourgeois state. In his writings, Vladimir Lenin characterized the economy of Soviet Russia as state capitalist, believing state capitalism to be an early step toward the development of socialism. Some economists and left-wing academics including Richard D. Wolff and Noam Chomsky, as well as many Marxist philosophers and revolutionaries such as Raya Dunayevskaya and C.L.R. James, argue that the economies of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc represented a form of state capitalism because their internal organization within enterprises and the system of wage labor remained intact. The term is not used by Austrian School economists to describe state ownership of the means of production. The economist Ludwig von Mises argued that the designation of state capitalism was a new label for the old labels of state socialism and planned economy and differed only in non-essentials from these earlier designations. ### Welfare Welfare capitalism is capitalism that includes social welfare policies. Today, welfare capitalism is most often associated with the models of capitalism found in Central Mainland and Northern Europe such as the Nordic model, social market economy and Rhine capitalism. In some cases, welfare capitalism exists within a mixed economy, but welfare states can and do exist independently of policies common to mixed economies such as state interventionism and extensive regulation. A mixed economy is a largely market-based capitalist economy consisting of both private and public ownership of the means of production and economic interventionism through macroeconomic policies intended to correct market failures, reduce unemployment and keep inflation low. The degree of intervention in markets varies among different countries. Some mixed economies such as France under dirigisme also featured a degree of indirect economic planning over a largely capitalist-based economy. Most modern capitalist economies are defined as mixed economies to some degree, however French economist Thomas Piketty state that capitalist economies might shift to a much more *laissez-faire* approach in the near future. ### Eco-capitalism Eco-capitalism, also known as "environmental capitalism" or (sometimes) "green capitalism", is the view that capital exists in nature as "natural capital" (ecosystems that have ecological yield) on which all wealth depends. Therefore, governments should use market-based policy-instruments (such as a carbon tax) to resolve environmental problems. The term "Blue Greens" is often applied to those who espouse eco-capitalism. Eco-capitalism can be thought of as the right-wing equivalent to Red Greens.[*need quotation to verify*] ### Sustainable capitalism Sustainable capitalism is a conceptual form of capitalism based upon sustainable practices that seek to preserve humanity and the planet, while reducing externalities and bearing a resemblance of capitalist economic policy. A capitalistic economy must expand to survive and find new markets to support this expansion. Capitalist systems are often destructive to the environment as well as certain individuals without access to proper representation. However, sustainability provides quite the opposite; it implies not only a continuation, but a replenishing of resources. Sustainability is often thought of to be related to environmentalism, and sustainable capitalism applies sustainable principles to economic governance and social aspects of capitalism as well. The importance of sustainable capitalism has been more recently recognized, but the concept is not new. Changes to the current economic model would have heavy social environmental and economic implications and require the efforts of individuals, as well as compliance of local, state and federal governments. Controversy surrounds the concept as it requires an increase in sustainable practices and a marked decrease in current consumptive behaviors. This is a concept of capitalism described in Al Gore and David Blood's manifesto for the Generation Investment Management to describe a long-term political, economic and social structure which would mitigate current threats to the planet and society. According to their manifesto, sustainable capitalism would integrate the environmental, social and governance (ESG) aspects into risk assessment in attempt to limit externalities. Most of the ideas they list are related to economic changes, and social aspects, but strikingly few are explicitly related to any environmental policy change. Capital accumulation -------------------- The accumulation of capital is the process of "making money", or growing an initial sum of money through investment in production. Capitalism is based on the accumulation of capital, whereby financial capital is invested in order to make a profit and then reinvested into further production in a continuous process of accumulation. In Marxian economic theory, this dynamic is called the law of value. Capital accumulation forms the basis of capitalism, where economic activity is structured around the accumulation of capital, defined as investment in order to realize a financial profit. In this context, "capital" is defined as money or a financial asset invested for the purpose of making more money (whether in the form of profit, rent, interest, royalties, capital gain or some other kind of return). In mainstream economics, accounting and Marxian economics, capital accumulation is often equated with investment of profit income or savings, especially in real capital goods. The concentration and centralisation of capital are two of the results of such accumulation. In modern macroeconomics and econometrics, the phrase "capital formation" is often used in preference to "accumulation", though the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) refers nowadays to "accumulation". The term "accumulation" is occasionally used in national accounts. Wage labor ---------- Wage labor refers to the sale of labor under a formal or informal employment contract to an employer. These transactions usually occur in a labor market where wages are market determined. In Marxist economics, these owners of the means of production and suppliers of capital are generally called capitalists. The description of the role of the capitalist has shifted, first referring to a useless intermediary between producers, then to an employer of producers, and finally to the owners of the means of production. Labor includes all physical and mental human resources, including entrepreneurial capacity and management skills, which are required to produce products and services. Production is the act of making goods or services by applying labor power. Criticism --------- Criticism of capitalism comes from various political and philosophical approaches, including anarchist, socialist, religious and nationalist viewpoints. Of those who oppose it or want to modify it, some believe that capitalism should be removed through revolution while others believe that it should be changed slowly through political reforms. Prominent critiques of capitalism allege that it is inherently exploitative, alienating, unstable, unsustainable, and economically inefficient—and that it creates massive economic inequality, commodifies people, degrades the environment, is anti-democratic, and leads to an erosion of human rights because of its incentivization of imperialist expansion and war. See also -------- * Anti-capitalism * Advanced capitalism * Ancient economic thought * Bailout Capitalism * Capitalism (disambiguation) * Christian views on poverty and wealth * Communism * Corporatocracy * Crony capitalism * Economic sociology * Free market * Global financial crisis in September 2008 * Humanistic economics * Invisible hand * Late capitalism * *Le Livre noir du capitalisme* * Market socialism * Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought * Post-capitalism * Post-Fordism * Racial capitalism * Rent-seeking * State monopoly capitalism * Surveillance capitalism * Perestroika Notes Bibliography * Bacher, Christian (2007). *Capitalism, Ethics and the Paradoxon of Self-Exploitation*. Munich: GRIN Verlag. p. 2. ISBN 978-3-638-63658-2. Archived from the original on 1 November 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015. * Boldizzoni, Francesco (2020). *Foretelling the End of Capitalism: Intellectual Misadventures since Karl Marx*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-91932-7. * Carsel, Wilfred (1940). "The Slaveholders' Indictment of Northern Wage Slavery". *Journal of Southern History*. **6** (4): 504–20. doi:10.2307/2192167. JSTOR 2192167. * Deakin, Simon; Wilkinson, Frank (2005). *The Law of the Labour Market: Industrialization, Employment, and Legal Evolution*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815281-1. * De George, Richard T. (1986). *Business Ethics*. New York: Macmillan. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-02-328010-8. * Elkins, Caroline (2005). *Britain's Gulag: The Brutal End of Empire in Kenya*. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-224-07363-9. * Fitzhugh, George (1857). *Cannibals All! or, Slaves Without Masters*. Richmond, VA: A. Morris. ISBN 978-1-4290-1643-8. Archived from the original on 18 October 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015. * Fulcher, James (2004). *Capitalism A Very Short Introduction*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280218-7. * Graeber, David (2004). *Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology*. Prickly Paradigm Press. ISBN 978-0-9728196-4-0. * Graeber, David (2007). *Possibilities: Essays on Hierarchy, Rebellion and Desire*. AK Press. ISBN 978-1-904859-66-6. * Hallgrimsdottir, Helga Kristin; Benoit, Cecilia (2007). "From Wage Slaves to Wage Workers: Cultural Opportunity Structures and the Evolution of the Wage Demands of the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor, 1880–1900". *Social Forces*. **85** (3): 1393–411. doi:10.1353/sof.2007.0037. JSTOR 4494978. S2CID 154551793. * James, Paul; Gills, Barry (2007). *Globalization and Economy, Vol. 1: Global Markets and Capitalism*. London: SAGE Publications. Archived from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2014. * Krahn, Harvey J., and Graham S. Lowe (1993). *Work, Industry, and Canadian Society*. Second ed. Scarborough, Ont.: Nelson Canada. xii, 430 p. ISBN 0-17-603540-0 * Lash, Scott; Urry, John (2000). "Capitalism". In Abercrombie, Nicholas; Hill, Stephen; Turner, Bryan S (eds.). *The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology* (4th ed.). London: Penguin Books. pp. 36–40. ISBN 978-0-14-051380-6. * McCraw, Thomas K. (August 2011). "The Current Crisis and the Essence of Capitalism". *The Montreal Review*. ISSN 0707-9656. Archived from the original on 8 September 2011. Retrieved 14 August 2011. * Nelson, John O. (1995). "That a Worker's Labour Cannot Be a Commodity". *Philosophy*. **70** (272): 157–65. doi:10.1017/s0031819100065359. JSTOR 3751199. S2CID 171054136. * Obrinsky, Mark (1983). *Profit Theory and Capitalism*. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8122-7863-7. * Olusoga, David; Erichsen, Casper W. (2010). *The Kaiser's Holocaust: Germany's Forgotten Genocide*. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-23141-6. * Marx, Karl (1847). *Wage Labour and Capital*. Archived from the original on 6 September 2019. 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In: *International* London, vol. 2, no. 1, 1973. * Fisher, Mark (2009). *Capitalist Realism: Is There No Alternative?*. John Hunt Publishing. ISBN 978-1846943171. * Gough, Ian. *State Expenditure in Advanced Capitalism Archived 7 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine* New Left Review. * Habermas, J. [1973] *Legitimation Crisis* (eng. translation by T. McCarthy). Boston, Beacon. From Google books Archived 20 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine; excerpt. * Harvey, David (2014). *Seventeen Contradictions and the End of Capitalism*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-936026-0. * Hyman, Louis and Edward E. Baptist (2014). *American Capitalism: A Reader.* Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4767-8431-1. * James, Paul; Patomäki, Heikki (2007). *Globalization and Economy, Vol. 2: Global Finance and the New Global Economy*. London: SAGE Publications. Archived from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2018. * James, Paul; Palen, Ronen (2007). *Globalization and Economy, Vol. 3: Global Economic Regimes and Institutions*. London: SAGE Publications. Archived from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2018. * James, Paul; O'Brien, Robert (2007). *Globalization and Economy, Vol. 4: Globalizing Labour*. London: SAGE Publications. Archived from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2018. * Jameson, Fredric (1991). *Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism*. * Kotler, Philip (2015). *Confronting Capitalism: Real Solutions for a Troubled Economic System.* AMACOM. ISBN 978-0814436455 * Mandel, Ernest (1999). *Late Capitalism.* ISBN 978-1859842027 * Mander, Jerry (2012). *The Capitalism Papers: Fatal Flaws of an Obsolete System*. Counterpoint. ISBN 978-1-61902-158-7. * Marcel van der Linden, *Western Marxism and the Soviet Union*. New York, Brill Publishers, 2007. * Mayfield, Anthony. "Economics", in his *On the Brink: Resource Depletion, Debt Collapse, and Super-technology* ([Vancouver, B.C., Canada]: On the Brink Publishing, 2013), pp. 50–104. * Musacchio, Aldo; Lazzarini, Sergio G. (2014). *Reinventing State Capitalism: Leviathan in Business, Brazil and Beyond*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72968-1. * Newitz, Annalee (2006). *Pretend We′re Dead: Capitalist Monsters in American Pop Culture*. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-3745-4. Archived from the original on 26 October 2016. Retrieved 26 October 2016. * Nitzan, Jonathan; Bichler, Shimshon (2009). *Capital as Power: A Study of Order and Creorder*. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415496803. * Panitch, Leo, and Sam Gindin (2012). *The Making of Global Capitalism: the Political Economy of American Empire*. London, Verso. ISBN 978-1-84467-742-9. * Piketty, Thomas (2014). *Capital in the Twenty-First Century*. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-43000-6. * Piketty, Thomas (2020). *Capital and Ideology*. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-98082-2. * Polanyi, Karl (2001). *The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time.* Beacon Press; 2nd ed. ISBN 0-8070-5643-X * Reisman, George (1998). *Capitalism: A complete understanding of the nature and value of human economic life*. Jameson Books. ISBN 978-0-915463-73-2. * Richards, Jay W. (2009). *Money, Greed, and God: Why Capitalism is the Solution and Not the Problem*. New York: HarperOne. ISBN 978-0-06-137561-3 * Roberts, Paul Craig (2013). *The Failure of Laissez-faire Capitalism: towards a New Economics for a Full World*. Atlanta, Ga.: Clarity Press. ISBN 978-0-9860362-5-5 * Robinson, William I. *Global Capitalism and the Crisis of Humanity.* Cambridge University Press, 2014. ISBN 1-107-69111-7 * Schram, Sanford F. (2015). *The Return of Ordinary Capitalism: Neoliberalism, Precarity, Occupy*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-025302-8. Archived from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2017. * Hoevet, Ocean. "Capital as a Social Relation" (New Palgrave article) * Sombart, Werner (1916) *Der moderne Kapitalismus. Historisch-systematische Darstellung des gesamteuropäischen Wirtschaftslebens von seinen Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart.* Final edn. 1916, repr. 1969, paperback edn. (3 vols. in 6): 1987 Munich: dtv. (Also in Spanish; no English translation yet.) * Wallerstein, Immanuel (1983). *Historical Capitalism*. Verso Books. ISBN 978-0-86091-761-8. * Wolff, Richard D. (2012). *Democracy at Work: A Cure for Capitalism*. Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-60846-247-6. * Wood, Ellen Meiksins (2002). *The Origin of Capitalism: A Longer View*. Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-392-5.

Capitalism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism

**Yamanashi Prefecture** (山梨県, *Yamanashi-ken*) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of Honshu. Yamanashi Prefecture has a population of 817,192 (1 January 2019) and has a geographic area of 4,465 km2 (1,724 sq mi). Yamanashi Prefecture borders Saitama Prefecture to the northeast, Nagano Prefecture to the northwest, Shizuoka Prefecture to the southwest, Kanagawa Prefecture to the southeast, and Tokyo to the east. Kōfu is the capital and largest city of Yamanashi Prefecture, with other major cities including Kai, Minamiarupusu, and Fuefuki. Yamanashi Prefecture is one of only eight landlocked prefectures, and the majority of the population lives in the central Kōfu Basin surrounded by the Akaishi Mountains, with 27% of its total land area being designated as Natural Parks. Yamanashi Prefecture is home to many of the highest mountains in Japan, and Mount Fuji, the tallest mountain in Japan and cultural icon of the country, is partially located in Yamanashi Prefecture on the border with Shizuoka Prefecture. History ------- ### Pre-history to the 14th century As in most other Japanese regions, prehistoric society in Yamanashi progressed through the hunting, fishing and gathering stage of the Jōmon period, then the rice-producing stage of the Yayoi period and subsequent village and regional formation. The Maruyama and Choshizuka Kofun (earthen burial mounds) located on Sone Hill of Nakamichi Town (Southern Kōfu) are believed to have been built from the end of the 4th century. From these remains it can be assumed that the people of Sone Hill had great influence. During the Heian period, Kai Province was created in this area. ### 15th to 19th centuries Among the many Kaigenji generations, those of the Takeda, Ogasawara, and Nanbu families were particularly prosperous. During the Sengoku period of the 16th century, Takeda Shingen attained the status of daimyō and built Tsuzuji Mansion and the Yōgai Castle in Kōfu. From this base, he attempted to unify and control Japan. After Takeda's death in 1582, Kai-no-Kuni came under the control of the Oda and Toyotomi clans before being subsumed into the Tokugawa shogunate during the Edo period. Beneath the Edo shogunate, the Kōfu clan (based in Kuninaka, or Central and Western Yamanashi) and the Yamura clan (based in Gunnai, or Eastern Yamanashi) were formed, but in 1724 the area came under the direct control of the Shogunate. With the development of the Kōshū Kaidō (highway) and Fuji River transport, goods, materials and culture flowed into the region. By the mid-19th century, the contradictions of military government and clan system caused stability to erode and resistance to erupt across Japan, paving the way for the Meiji Restoration of 1868. ### Meiji Restoration (1868) to end of World War II (1945) During the Boshin War, the Battle of Kōshū-Katsunuma on the 29 March 1868 was a significant battle between pro-Imperial and Tokugawa shogunate forces immediately prior to the Imperial Forces march on Edo Castle. Preceding the Kōshū-Katsunuma battle, Kōfu Castle had been captured by troops loyal to the Emperor Meiji. The province was renamed Kōfu Prefecture in 1869 and then Yamanashi Prefecture in 1871. The anniversary of this event on November 20, 1872, is now celebrated as Prefectural Citizen's Day in Yamanashi. In the early part of the Meiji period (1868–1911), industrial promotion policies furthered sericulture, silk textile production and wine making industries. In 1903, after seven years of construction, including the building of a nearly three mile long tunnel at the Sasago Pass, the Chūō Railway Line from Hachiōji and central Tokyo finally reached Kōfu. The reduced journey times to the capital and the port of Yokohama brought significant change to local industry and culture. Agricultural production in farming communities was still on a small scale at the turn of the century and land reforms had yet to be introduced. From the 1920s however, tenancy and contract disputes between landowners and farmers in Yamanashi grew increasingly common. In 1926, the Minobu Railway Line connecting Kōfu with Shizuoka Prefecture opened, bringing an end to Fuji River transportation. The Koumi Line connecting Kobuchizawa to Kiyosato was opened by Japanese National Railways (JNR) in 1933, providing access to hitherto remote highland areas on the slopes of Mt. Yatsugatake in the North of the prefecture. ### 1945 to present The capital city, Kōfu, suffered extensive damage during a major air raid on the night of 6 July 1945. From 1945 onwards, as part of economic initiatives introduced under the post war Government of Occupation, agricultural land reforms significantly increased the number of individual farms and promoted fruit farming and viticulture throughout the prefecture. At first with limited success in 1946, but on a much more sustained basis in 1951, dairy farming, introduced by American Paul Rusch, became a feature of highland pastures surrounding the town of Kiyosato. Small scale manufacturing industries and commerce grew at rapid speed during the expansion of the post-war Japanese economy. The 1982 opening of the Chūō Expressway also led to significant growth in service industries, transport logistics and tourism. In common with many similar sized cities during the 1990s, rapid growth in car ownership, out of town shopping, and improved transportation links to Tokyo, caused a drop in commercial activity and land values in the center of the prefectural capital Kōfu. To counterbalance this trend the prefectural government launched a city center revitalization plan in 2008, promoting downtown tourist attractions such as redeveloped land North of Kōfu station, Maizuru Castle Park and new residential, cultural and government office facilities. Planned changes in transportation infrastructure also promise to significantly impact the Yamanashi economy in the coming decades; under mountains in the eastern part of the prefecture is a completed 42.8 km section of the SCMaglev test track, a section of the planned Chūō Shinkansen. The maglev line is designed to ultimately connect Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka with a station also planned to the South of Kōfu. Central Government permission to proceed with an extension to the existing test track was granted on May 27, 2011. At the end of 2013 construction was already well advanced as far as Fuefuki. JR Central is considering opening a demonstration service from a new station in Kōfu by the 2020 Summer Olympics so that visitors can also ride on the experimental track through the Yamanashi mountains. Geography --------- Yamanashi Prefecture is bordered by Tokyo, Kanagawa Prefecture, Saitama Prefecture, Shizuoka Prefecture, and Nagano Prefecture. The prefecture is landlocked, with high mountains surrounding the central Kōfu Basin. Mount Fuji and the Fuji Five Lakes region is located on the southern border with Shizuoka. Mount Fuji provides rain shadow effects, and as a result, the prefecture receives only about 818 mm of rainfall a year. As of April 1, 2012, 27% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as Natural Parks, namely the Chichibu Tama Kai, Fuji-Hakone-Izu, and Minami Alps National Parks; Yatsugatake-Chūshin Kōgen Quasi-National Park; and Minami Alps Koma and Shibireko Prefectural Natural Parks. 78% of the prefecture is covered by forests, making it one of the most densely wooded prefectures in Japan. Land cultivated for agriculture is mainly restricted to the lower elevations of the Kōfu basin. ### Cities Thirteen cities are located in Yamanashi Prefecture: | Name | Area (km2) | Population | Map | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Rōmaji | Kanji | | Chūō | 中央市 | 31.69 | 30,835 | | | Fuefuki | 笛吹市 | 201.92 | 69,463 | | | Fujiyoshida | 富士吉田市 | 121.74 | 48,782 | | | Hokuto | 北杜市 | 602.48 | 46,888 | | | Kai | 甲斐市 | 71.95 | 75,706 | | | Kōfu (capital) | 甲府市 | 212.47 | 187,985 | | | Kōshū | 甲州市 | 264.11 | 31,526 | | | Minami-Alps | 南アルプス市 | 264.14 | 71,618 | | | Nirasaki | 韮崎市 | 143.69 | 29,483 | | | Ōtsuki | 大月市 | 280.25 | 23,976 | | | Tsuru | 都留市 | 161.63 | 30,311 | | | Uenohara | 上野原市 | 170.57 | 23,158 | | | Yamanashi | 山梨市 | 289.8 | 34,738 | | ### Towns and villages These are the towns and villages in each district: | Name | Area (km2) | Population | District | Type | Map | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Rōmaji | Kanji | | Dōshi | 道志村 | 79.57 | 1,676 | Minamitsuru District | Village | | | Fujikawa | 富士川町 | 111.98 | 15,125 | Minamikoma District | Town | | | Fujikawaguchiko | 富士河口湖町 | 158.4 | 26,540 | Minamitsuru District | Town | | | Hayakawa | 早川町 | 369.86 | 994 | Minamikoma District | Town | | | Ichikawamisato | 市川三郷町 | 75.18 | 15,799 | Nishiyatsushiro District | Town | | | Kosuge | 小菅村 | 52.78 | 701 | Kitatsuru District | Village | | | Minobu | 身延町 | 302 | 11,674 | Minamikoma District | Town | | | Nanbu | 南部町 | 200.63 | 7,222 | Minamikoma District | Town | | | Narusawa | 鳴沢村 | 89.58 | 3,152 | Minamitsuru District | Village | | | Nishikatsura | 西桂町 | 15.22 | 4,298 | Minamitsuru District | Town | | | Oshino | 忍野村 | 25.05 | 9,710 | Minamitsuru District | Village | | | Shōwa | 昭和町 | 9.08 | 20,338 | Nakakoma District | Town | | | Tabayama | 丹波山村 | 101.3 | 529 | Kitatsuru District | Village | | | Yamanakako | 山中湖村 | 52.81 | 5,826 | Minamitsuru District | Village | | ### Mergers List of governors of Yamanashi Prefecture ----------------------------------------- | Name | Start | End | | --- | --- | --- | | Katsuyasu Yoshie (吉江勝保) | 12 April 1947 | 29 April 1951 | | Hisashi Amano (天野久) | 30 April 1951 | 16 February 1967 | | Kunio Tanabe (田辺国男) | 17 February 1967 | 16 February 1979 | | Komei Mochizuki (望月幸明) | 17 February 1979 | 16 February 1991 | | Ken Amano (天野建) | 17 February 1991 | 16 February 2003 | | Takahiko Yamamoto (山本栄彦) | 17 February 2003 | 16 February 2007 | | Shōmei Yokouchi (横内 正明) | 17 February 2007 | 16 February 2015 | | Hitoshi Goto (後藤 斎) | 17 February 2015 | 16 February 2019 | | Kotaro Nagasaki (長崎幸太郎) | 17 February 2019 | Present | Economy ------- Yamanashi has a sizable industrial base in and around Kōfu city, with jewelry and robotics industries being particularly prominent. The headquarters of FANUC, manufacturer of factory automation systems, is based in Oshino in the south of the prefecture. The prefecture is also host to numerous fruit farms and vineyards. Yamanashi is one of the major fruit producing regions in Japan, being the top domestic producer of grapes, peaches, plums, as well as wine. In addition, roughly 40% of the mineral water bottled in Japan comes from Yamanashi, mainly from around the Southern Alps, Mount Fuji, and Mitsutōge areas. The quality of the water sources in the Southern Alps prompted Suntory Group to open the Hakushu distillery in the northern Yamanashi town of Hokuto. Population ---------- Per Japanese census data, Yamanashi prefecture had negative population growth from 1950 to 1970 and again in the 21st century, with the population peaking at roughly 890,000 around the turn of the millenium. Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1920 | 583,000 | —     | | 1930 | 631,000 | +8.2% | | 1940 | 663,000 | +5.1% | | 1950 | 811,000 | +22.3% | | 1960 | 782,000 | −3.6% | | 1970 | 762,000 | −2.6% | | 1980 | 804,000 | +5.5% | | 1990 | 853,000 | +6.1% | | 2000 | 888,172 | +4.1% | | 2010 | 863,075 | −2.8% | | 2020 | 817,192 | −5.3% | Tourism ------- The natural scenery and cultural sights of Yamanashi are popular destinations for both domestic and international tourists due to the prefecture's proximity to the crowded Tokyo conurbation and ease of access by road and rail. Mount Fuji, the Fuji Five Lakes region, the highland resort region of Kiyosato, the city of Kōfu, the Senga Falls, Koshu wineries, the temple of Erin-ji in Koshu, and the Kuonji Temple at Minobu are a few of the most popular places to visit. The Fuji-Q Highland amusement park at Fujiyoshida with roller coasters Eejanaika, and Takabisha, the world's steepest roller coaster, is also a popular destination for day trips. It also features Do-Dodonpa, the world's fastest accelerating roller coaster. At one point, it was also the world's fastest roller coaster before Cedar Point's Top Thrill Dragster took the record in 2003. The natural topography of the region makes Yamanashi popular with mountaineering, hiking and climbing enthusiasts throughout the year. The highest mountain in Japan, Mount Fuji, at 3,776 m (12,388 ft) and the second highest mountain in Japan, Mount Kita, at 3,193 m (10,476 ft) are both located within Yamanashi. The Mt. Fuji summer hiking season in July and August attracts thousands of overnight hikers typically starting at the Fifth Station in the late evening and climbing through the night to witness the sunrise at the summit. Although not as tall, Mount Minobu, a popular place for Buddhist pilgrimage, offers extensive views from the summit of the mountain. Parts of the Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park, Chichibu-Tama-Kai National Park, and Minami Alps National Park are all located in Yamanashi. Given the area's volcanic activity, natural hot springs, or onsens, are found in abundance. Some of the more well known are Shimobe Onsen, Isawa Onsen and Yamanami Onsen. The mascot of the prefecture is Hishimaru (菱丸), a Kai Ken dog who is based on the local Sengoku-era daimyō Takeda Shingen. He wears a kabuto with the crest of the Takeda clan. Major festivals --------------- * Shingen festival, held each March in the precincts of Kōfu Castle and Takeda Shrine in commemoration of Takeda Shingen's role in prefectural history. * Fujiyoshida fire festival, marks the end of the summer climbing season on Mount Fuji. Held on the last weekend in August. * Yatsugatake county fair and Paul Rusch festival. Held each October in Kiyosato to celebrate the life and work of Paul Rusch, his contributions to local agricultural development and US Japan friendship. Universities ------------ * Tsuru University * University of Yamanashi * Yamanashi Gakuin University * Yamanashi Prefectural University * Yamanashi Eiwa College Sports ------ Ventforet Kōfu, the J2 League association football (soccer) team is based in Kōfu. The team's home ground is the Yamanashi Chuo Bank Stadium. Since 2005 the Fujizakura Country Club in Fujikawaguchiko has also hosted the Fujisankei Classic golf tournament, an annual event on the Japan Golf Tour. Transportation -------------- ### Railway lines * East Japan Railway Company + Chūō Main Line + Koumi Line * Central Japan Railway Company + Minobu Line * Fuji Kyuko + Fujikyuko Line * Chūō Shinkansen(Under construction) ### Road #### Expressways * Chuo Expressway * Chūbu-Ōdan Expressway (under construction) * Higashifuji-goko Road * Kōfu Yamanashi Road #### National highways * Route 20 * Route 52 * Route 137 * Route 138 * Route 139 * Route 140 * Route 141 * Route 411 * Route 413 * Route 469 Media ----- ### Television * Yamanashi Broadcasting System (YBS) * UHF Television Yamanashi (UTY) ### Radio * FM Fuji (FMF) Sister states and regions ------------------------- * United States Iowa, United States (since 1960) * Brazil Minas Gerais, Brazil (since 1973) * China Sichuan Province, China (since 1985) * South Korea Chungcheongbuk-do, Korea (since 1992) * France Saône-et-Loire, France (since 2000) * United States Fairfield, California, United States (since the 1970s) 35°37′N 138°37′E / 35.617°N 138.617°E / 35.617; 138.617

Yamanashi Prefecture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamanashi_Prefecture

**Parrots**, also known as **psittacines** (/ˈsɪtəsaɪnz/), are birds of four families that contain roughly 410 species in 101 genera. These make up the order **Psittaciformes** (/ˈsɪtəsɪfɔːrmiːz/) and are found mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. The four families are: Psittaculidae (Old World parrots) , the Psittacidae (African and New World parrots), the Cacatuoidea (cockatoos), and the Strigopidae (New Zealand parrots). One-third of all parrot species are threatened by extinction, with higher aggregate extinction risk (IUCN Red List Index) than any other comparable bird group. Parrots have a generally pantropical distribution with several species inhabiting temperate regions in the Southern Hemisphere, as well. The greatest diversity of parrots is in South America and Australasia. Characteristic features of parrots include a strong, curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly coloured, and some are multi-coloured. Most parrots exhibit little or no sexual dimorphism in the visual spectrum. They form the most variably sized bird order in terms of length. The most important components of most parrots' diets are seeds, nuts, fruit, buds, and other plant material. A few species sometimes eat animals and carrion, while the lories and lorikeets are specialised for feeding on floral nectar and soft fruits. Almost all parrots nest in tree hollows (or nest boxes in captivity), and lay white eggs from which hatch altricial (helpless) young. Parrots, along with ravens, crows, jays, and magpies, are among the most intelligent birds, and the ability of some species to imitate human speech enhances their popularity as pets. Trapping wild parrots for the pet trade, as well as hunting, habitat loss, and competition from invasive species, has diminished wild populations, with parrots being subjected to more exploitation than any other group of birds. As of 2021, about 50 million parrots (half of all parrots) live in captivity, with the vast majority of these living as pets in people's homes. Measures taken to conserve the habitats of some high-profile charismatic species have also protected many of the less charismatic species living in the same ecosystems. Parrots are the only creatures that display true tripedalism, using their necks and beaks as limbs with propulsive forces equal to or greater than those forces generated by the forelimbs of primates when climbing vertical surfaces. They can travel with cyclical tripedal gaits when climbing. Taxonomy -------- ### Origins and evolution Psittaciform diversity in South America and Australasia suggests that the order may have evolved in Gondwana, centred in Australasia. The scarcity of parrots in the fossil record, however, presents difficulties in confirming the hypothesis. There is currently a higher number of fossil remains from the northern hemisphere in the early Cenozoic. Molecular studies suggest that parrots evolved approximately 59 million years ago (Mya) (range 66–51 Mya) in Gondwana. The Neotropical Parrots are monophyletic, and the three major clades originated about 50 Mya (range 57–41 Mya). A single 15 mm (0.6 in) fragment from a large lower bill (UCMP 143274), found in deposits from the Lance Creek Formation in Niobrara County, Wyoming, had been thought to be the oldest parrot fossil and is presumed to have originated from the Late Cretaceous period, which makes it about 70 million years old. However, other studies suggest that this fossil is not from a bird, but from a caenagnathid oviraptorosaur (a non-avian dinosaur with a birdlike beak), as several details of the fossil used to support its identity as a parrot are not actually exclusive to parrots, and it is dissimilar to the earliest-known unequivocal parrot fossils. It is generally assumed that the Psittaciformes were present during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (K-Pg extinction), 66 mya. They were probably generalised arboreal birds, and did not have the specialised crushing bills of modern species. Genomic analysis provides strong evidence that parrots are the sister group of passerines, forming the clade Psittacopasserae, which is the sister group of the falcons. The first uncontroversial parrot fossils date to tropical Eocene Europe around 50 mya. Initially, a neoavian named *Mopsitta tanta*, uncovered in Denmark's Early Eocene Fur Formation and dated to 54 mya, was assigned to the Psittaciformes. However, the rather nondescript bone is not unequivocally psittaciform, and it may rather belong to the ibis genus *Rhynchaeites*, whose fossil legs were found in the same deposits. Several fairly complete skeletons of parrot-like birds have been found in England and Germany. These are probably not transitional fossils between ancestral and modern parrots, but rather lineages that evolved parallel to true parrots and cockatoos: * *Psittacopes* * *Serudaptus* * **Halcyornithidae** + *Cyrilavis* + *Halcyornis* + *Pulchrapollia* + *Pseudasturides* * **Vastanavidae** + *Vastanavis* * **Quercypsittidae** + *Quercypsitta* * **Messelasturidae** + *Messelastur* + *Tynskya* The earliest records of modern parrots date to around 23–20 mya. The fossil record—mainly from Europe—consists of bones clearly recognisable as belonging to anatomically modern parrots. The Southern Hemisphere contains no known parrot-like remains earlier than the Early Miocene around 20 mya. ### Etymology The name 'Psittaciformes' comes from the ancient Greek for parrot, ψιττακός (*'Psittacus'*), whose origin is unclear. Ctesias (5th century BCE) recorded the name *Psittacus* after the Indian name for a bird, most likely a parakeet (now placed in the genus *Psittacula*). Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE) in his *Natural History* (book 10, chapter 58) noted that the Indians called the bird as "siptaces"; however, no matching Indian name has been traced. **Popinjay** is an older term for parrots, first used in English in the 1500s. ### Phylogeny Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that Psittaciformes form a monophyletic clade that is sister to the Passeriformes: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Australaves | | | | | --- | --- | | | Cariamiformes – seriemas | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Falconiformes – falcons | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | **Psittaciformes** – parrots | | | | | Passeriformes – songbirds | | | | | | | | | | | | Most taxonomists now divided Psittaciformes into four families: Strigopidae (New Zealand parrots), Cacatuidae (Cockatoos), Psittacidae (African and New World parrots) and Psittaculidae (Old World parrots). In 2012 Leo Joseph and collaborators proposed that the parrots should be divided into six families. The New Zealand parrots in the genus *Nestor* were placed in a separate family Nestoridae and the two basal genera in the family Psittaculidae (*Psittrichas* and *Coracopsis*) were placed in a separate family Psittrichasidae. The two additional families have not been recognised by taxonomists involved in curating lists of the world birds and instead only four families are recognised. The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships between the four families. The species numbers are taken from the list maintained by Frank Gill, Pamela Rasmussen and David Donsker on behalf of the International Ornithological Committee (IOC), now the International Ornithologists' Union. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Psittaciformes** | | | | | --- | --- | | | Strigopidae – New Zealand parrot (4 species) | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Cacatuidae – Cockatoos (21 species) | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Psittacidae – African and New World parrots (181 species) | | | | | Psittaculidae – Old World parrots (204 species) | | | | | | | | | | | | The Psittaciformes comprise three main lineages: Strigopoidea, Psittacoidea and Cacatuoidea. The Strigopoidea were considered part of the Psittacoidea, but the former is now placed at the base of the parrot tree next to the remaining members of the Psittacoidea, as well as all members of the Cacatuoidea. The Cacatuoidea are quite distinct, having a movable head crest, a different arrangement of the carotid arteries, a gall bladder, differences in the skull bones, and lack the Dyck texture feathers that—in the Psittacidae—scatter light to produce the vibrant colours of so many parrots. Colourful feathers with high levels of psittacofulvin resist the feather-degrading bacterium *Bacillus licheniformis* better than white ones. Lorikeets were previously regarded as a third family, Loriidae, but are now considered a tribe (Loriini) within the subfamily Loriinae, family Psittaculidae. The two other tribes in the subfamily are the closely related fig parrots (two genera in the tribe Cyclopsittini) and budgerigar (tribe Melopsittacini). | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | |  Strigopoidea  | Strigopidae  | | | | | | |   | | | | | --- | --- | |  Cacatuoidea  | Cacatuidae | | | |  Psittacoidea  | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Psittacidae | | | | | --- | --- | |   | Neotropical parrots | | | |   | Psittacinae | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Psittrichasiidae | | | | | --- | --- | |   | Psittrichadinae | | | |   | Coracopseinae | | | | | | | Psittaculidae | | | | | --- | --- | | | Psittaculinae | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Broad-tailed parrots | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Fig parrots | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Budgerigar | | | | | Lories and Lorikeets | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | *Bolbopsittacus* | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Hanging parrots | | | | | Lovebirds | | | | | | | | | | | | | | *Psittacella* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Phylogenetic relations between parrots | ### Systematics The order Psittaciformes consists of four families containing roughly 410 species belonging to 101 genera. **Superfamily Strigopoidea**: New Zealand parrots * Family Psittacidae + Subamily Nestorinae: two genera with two living (kea and New Zealand kaka) and several extinct species of the New Zealand region + Subfamily Strigopinae: the flightless, critically endangered kakapo of New Zealand **Superfamily Cacatuoidea**: cockatoos * Family Cacatuidae + Subfamily Nymphicinae: one genus with one species, the cockatiel. + Subfamily Calyptorhynchinae: the black cockatoos + Subfamily Cacatuinae - Tribe Microglossini: one genus with one species, the black palm cockatoo - Tribe Cacatuini: four genera of white, pink, and grey species **Superfamily Psittacoidea**: true parrots * Family Psittacidae + Subfamily Psittacinae: two African genera, *Psittacus* and *Poicephalus* + Subfamily Arinae - Tribe Arini: 18 genera - Tribe Androglossini: seven genera. * Family Psittaculidae + Subfamily Psittrichasinae: two genera, *Psittrichas* (Pesquet's parrot), *Coracopsis* + Subfamily Platycercinae - Tribe Pezoporini: ground parrots and allies - Tribe Platycercini: broad-tailed parrots + Subfamily Psittacellinae: one genus (*Psittacella*) with several species + Subfamily Loriinae - Tribe Loriini: lories and lorikeets - Tribe Melopsittacini: one genus with one species, the budgerigar - Tribe Cyclopsittini: fig parrots + Subfamily Agapornithinae: three genera + Subfamily Psittaculinae - Tribe Polytelini: three genera - Tribe Psittaculini: Asian psittacines - Tribe Micropsittini: pygmy parrots Morphology ---------- Living species range in size from the buff-faced pygmy parrot, at under 10 g (0.4 oz) in weight and 8 cm (3.1 in) in length, to the hyacinth macaw, at 1 m (3.3 ft) in length, and the kakapo, at 4.0 kg (8.8 lb) in weight. Among the superfamilies, the three extant Strigopoidea species are all large parrots, and the cockatoos tend to be large birds, as well. The Psittacoidea parrots are far more variable, ranging the full spectrum of sizes shown by the family. The most obvious physical characteristic is the strong, curved, broad bill. The upper mandible is prominent, curves downward, and comes to a point. It is not fused to the skull, which allows it to move independently, and contributes to the tremendous biting pressure the birds are able to exert. A large macaw, for example, has a bite force of 35 kg/cm2 (500 lb/sq in), close to that of a large dog. The lower mandible is shorter, with a sharp, upward-facing cutting edge, which moves against the flat portion of the upper mandible in an anvil-like fashion. Touch receptors occur along the inner edges of the keratinised bill, which are collectively known as the "bill tip organ", allowing for highly dexterous manipulations. Seed-eating parrots have a strong tongue (containing similar touch receptors to those in the bill tip organ), which helps to manipulate seeds or position nuts in the bill so that the mandibles can apply an appropriate cracking force. The head is large, with eyes positioned high and laterally in the skull, so the visual field of parrots is unlike any other birds. Without turning its head, a parrot can see from just below its bill tip, all above its head, and quite far behind its head. Parrots also have quite a wide frontal binocular field for a bird, although this is nowhere near as large as primate binocular visual fields. Unlike humans, the vision of parrots is also sensitive to ultraviolet light. Parrots have strong zygodactyl feet (two toes facing forward and two back) with sharp, elongated claws, which are used for climbing and swinging. Most species are capable of using their feet to manipulate food and other objects with a high degree of dexterity, in a similar manner to a human using their hands. A study conducted with Australian parrots has demonstrated that they exhibit "handedness", a distinct preference with regards to the foot used to pick up food, with adult parrots being almost exclusively "left-footed" or "right-footed", and with the prevalence of each preference within the population varying by species. Cockatoo species have a mobile crest of feathers on the top of their heads, which they can raise for display, and retract. No other parrots can do so, but the Pacific lorikeets in the genera *Vini* and *Phigys* can ruffle the feathers of the crown and nape, and the red-fan parrot (or hawk-headed parrot) has a prominent feather neck frill that it can raise and lower at will. The predominant colour of plumage in parrots is green, though most species have some red or another colour in small quantities. Cockatoos, however, are predominately black or white with some red, pink, or yellow. Strong sexual dimorphism in plumage is not typical among parrots, with some notable exceptions, the most striking being the eclectus parrot. However it has been shown that some parrot species exhibit sexually dimorphic plumage in the ultraviolet spectrum, normally invisible to humans. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ Parrots are found on all tropical and subtropical continents and regions including Australia and Oceania, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Central America, South America, and Africa. Some Caribbean and Pacific islands are home to endemic species. By far the greatest number of parrot species come from Australasia and South America. The lories and lorikeets range from Sulawesi and the Philippines in the north to Australia and across the Pacific as far as French Polynesia, with the greatest diversity being found in and around New Guinea. The subfamily Arinae encompasses all the neotropical parrots, including the amazons, macaws, and conures, and ranges from northern Mexico and the Bahamas to Tierra del Fuego in the southern tip of South America. The pygmy parrots, tribe Micropsittini, form a small genus restricted to New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. The superfamily Strigopoidea contains three living species of aberrant parrots from New Zealand. The broad-tailed parrots, subfamily Platycercinae, are restricted to Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific islands as far eastwards as Fiji. The true parrot superfamily, Psittacoidea, includes a range of species from Australia and New Guinea to South Asia and Africa. The centre of cockatoo biodiversity is Australia and New Guinea, although some species reach the Solomon Islands (and one formerly occurred in New Caledonia), Wallacea and the Philippines. Several parrots inhabit the cool, temperate regions of South America and New Zealand. Three species—the thick-billed parrot, the green parakeet, and the now-extinct Carolina parakeet—have lived as far north as the southern United States. Many parrots, especially monk parakeets, have been introduced to areas with temperate climates, and have established stable populations in parts of the United States (including New York City), the United Kingdom, Belgium, Spain and Greece. These birds can be quite successful in introduced areas, such as the non-native population of red-crowned amazons in the U.S. which may rival that of their native Mexico. The only parrot to inhabit alpine climates is the kea, which is endemic to the Southern Alps mountain range on New Zealand's South Island. Few parrots are wholly sedentary or fully migratory. Most fall somewhere between the two extremes, making poorly understood regional movements, with some adopting an entirely nomadic lifestyle. Only three species are migratory – the orange-bellied, blue-winged and swift parrots. Behaviour --------- Numerous challenges are found in studying wild parrots, as they are difficult to catch and once caught, they are difficult to mark. Most wild bird studies rely on banding or wing tagging, but parrots chew off such attachments. Parrots also tend to range widely, and consequently many gaps occur in knowledge of their behaviour. Some parrots have a strong, direct flight. Most species spend much of their time perched or climbing in tree canopies. They often use their bills for climbing by gripping or hooking on branches and other supports. On the ground, parrots often walk with a rolling gait. ### Diet The diet of parrots consists of seeds, fruit, nectar, pollen, buds, and sometimes arthropods and other animal prey. The most important of these for most true parrots and cockatoos are seeds; the large and powerful bill has evolved to open and consume tough seeds. All true parrots, except the Pesquet's parrot, employ the same method to obtain the seed from the husk; the seed is held between the mandibles and the lower mandible crushes the husk, whereupon the seed is rotated in the bill and the remaining husk is removed. They may use their foot sometimes to hold large seeds in place. Parrots are granivores rather than seed dispersers, and in many cases where they are seen consuming fruit, they are only eating the fruit to get at the seed. As seeds often have poisons that protect them, parrots carefully remove seed coats and other chemically defended fruit parts prior to ingestion. Many species in the Americas, Africa, and Papua New Guinea consume clay, which releases minerals and absorbs toxic compounds from the gut. Geographical range and body size predominantly explains diet composition of Neotropical parrots rather than phylogeny. Lories, lorikeets, hanging parrots, and swift parrots are primarily nectar and pollen consumers, and have tongues with brush tips to collect it, as well as some specialised gut adaptations. Many other species also consume nectar when it becomes available. Some parrot species prey on animals, especially invertebrate larvae. Golden-winged parakeets prey on water snails, the New Zealand kea can, though uncommonly, hunt adult sheep, and the Antipodes parakeet, another New Zealand parrot, enters the burrows of nesting grey-backed storm petrels and kills the incubating adults. Some cockatoos and the New Zealand kaka excavate branches and wood to feed on grubs; the bulk of the yellow-tailed black cockatoo's diet is made up of insects. Some extinct parrots had carnivorous diets. Pseudasturids were probably cuckoo- or puffbird-like insectivores, while messelasturids were raptor-like carnivores. ### Breeding With few exceptions, parrots are monogamous breeders who nest in cavities and hold no territories other than their nesting sites. The pair bonds of the parrots and cockatoos are strong and a pair remains close during the nonbreeding season, even if they join larger flocks. As with many birds, pair bond formation is preceded by courtship displays; these are relatively simple in the case of cockatoos. In Psittacidae parrots' common breeding displays, usually undertaken by the male, include slow, deliberate steps known as a "parade" or "stately walk" and the "eye-blaze", where the pupil of the eye constricts to reveal the edge of the iris. Allopreening is used by the pair to help maintain the bond. Cooperative breeding, where birds other than the breeding pair help raise the young and is common in some bird families, is extremely rare in parrots, and has only unambiguously been demonstrated in the El Oro parakeet and the golden parakeet (which may also exhibit polygamous, or group breeding, behaviour with multiple females contributing to the clutch). Only the monk parakeet and five species of lovebirds build nests in trees, and three Australian and New Zealand ground parrots nest on the ground. All other parrots and cockatoos nest in cavities, either tree hollows or cavities dug into cliffs, banks, or the ground. The use of holes in cliffs is more common in the Americas. Many species use termite nests, possibly to reduce the conspicuousness of the nesting site or to create a favourable microclimate. In most cases, both parents participate in the nest excavation. The length of the burrow varies with species, but is usually between 0.5 and 2 m (1.6 and 6.6 ft) in length. The nests of cockatoos are often lined with sticks, wood chips, and other plant material. In the larger species of parrots and cockatoos, the availability of nesting hollows may be limited, leading to intense competition for them both within the species and between species, as well as with other bird families. The intensity of this competition can limit breeding success in some cases. Hollows created artificially by arborists have proven successful in boosting breeding rates in these areas. Some species are colonial, with the burrowing parrot nesting in colonies up to 70,000 strong. Coloniality is not as common in parrots as might be expected, possibly because most species adopt old cavities rather than excavate their own. The eggs of parrots are white. In most species, the female undertakes all the incubation, although incubation is shared in cockatoos, the blue lorikeet, and the vernal hanging parrot. The female remains in the nest for almost all of the incubation period and is fed both by the male and during short breaks. Incubation varies from 17 to 35 days, with larger species having longer incubation periods. The newly born young are altricial, either lacking feathers or with sparse white down. The young spend three weeks to four months in the nest, depending on species, and may receive parental care for several months thereafter. As typical of K-selected species, the macaws and other larger parrot species have low reproductive rates. They require several years to reach maturity, produce one or very few young per year, and do not necessarily breed every year. ### Intelligence and learning Some grey parrots have shown an ability to associate words with their meanings and form simple sentences. Along with crows, ravens, and jays (family Corvidae), parrots are considered the most intelligent of birds. The brain-to-body size ratio of psittacines and corvines is comparable to that of higher primates. Instead of using the cerebral cortex like mammals, birds use the mediorostral HVC for cognition.[*failed verification*] Not only have parrots demonstrated intelligence through scientific testing of their language-using ability, but also some species of parrots, such as the kea, are also highly skilled at using tools and solving puzzles. Learning in early life is apparently important to all parrots, and much of that learning is social learning. Social interactions are often practised with siblings, and in several species, crèches are formed with several broods. Foraging behaviour is generally learnt from parents, and can be a very protracted affair. Generalists and specialists generally become independent of their parents much quicker than partly specialised species who may have to learn skills over long periods as various resources become seasonally available. Play forms a large part of learning in parrots; play can be solitary or social. Species may engage in play fights or wild flights to practice predator evasion. An absence of stimuli can delay the development of young birds, as demonstrated by a group of vasa parrots kept in tiny cages with domesticated chickens from the age of 3 months; at 9 months, these birds still behaved in the same way as 3-month-olds, but had adopted some chicken behaviour. In a similar fashion, captive birds in zoo collections or pets can, if deprived of stimuli, develop stereotyped and harmful behaviours like self-plucking. Aviculturists working with parrots have identified the need for environmental enrichment to keep parrots stimulated. #### Sound imitation and speech Many parrots can imitate human speech or other sounds. A study by scientist Irene Pepperberg suggested a high learning ability in a grey parrot named Alex. Alex was trained to use words to identify objects, describe them, count them, and even answer complex questions such as "How many red squares?" with over 80% accuracy. N'kisi, another grey parrot, has been shown to have a vocabulary around a thousand words, and has displayed an ability to invent and use words in context in correct tenses. Parrots do not have vocal cords, so sound is accomplished by expelling air across the mouth of the trachea in the organ called the syrinx. Different sounds are produced by changing the depth and shape of the trachea. Grey parrots are known for their superior ability to imitate sounds and human speech, which has made them popular pets since ancient times. Although most parrot species are able to imitate, some of the amazon parrots are generally regarded as the next-best imitators and speakers of the parrot world. The question of why birds imitate remains open, but those that do often score very high on tests designed to measure problem-solving ability. Wild grey parrots have been observed imitating other birds. #### Song Parrots are unusual among birds due to their learned vocalizations, a trait they share with only hummingbirds and songbirds. The syrinx (vocal organ) of parrots, which aids in their ability to produce song, is located at the base of the trachea and consists of two complex syringeal muscles that allow for the production of sound vibrations, and a pair of lateral tympaniform membranes that control sound frequency. The position of the syrinx in birds allows for directed air flow into the interclavicular air sacs according to air sac pressure, which in turn creates a higher and louder tone in birds’ singing. #### Cooperation A 2011 study stated that some African grey parrots preferred to work alone, while others like to work together. With two parrots, they know the order of tasks or when they should do something together at once, but they have trouble exchanging roles. With three parrots, one parrot usually prefers to cooperate with one of the other two, but all of them are cooperating to solve the task. Relationship with humans ------------------------ ### Pets Parrots may not make good pets for most people because of their natural wild instincts such as screaming and chewing. Although parrots can be very affectionate and cute when immature, they often become aggressive when mature (partly due to mishandling and poor training) and may bite, causing serious injury. For this reason, parrot rescue groups estimate that most parrots are surrendered and rehomed through at least five homes before reaching their permanent destinations or before dying prematurely from unintentional or intentional neglect and abuse. The parrots' ability to mimic human words and their bright colours and beauty prompt impulse buying from unsuspecting consumers. The domesticated budgerigar, a small parrot, is the most popular of all pet bird species. In 1992, the newspaper *USA Today* published that 11 million pet birds were in the United States alone, many of them parrots. Europeans kept birds matching the description of the rose-ringed parakeet (or called the ring-necked parrot), documented particularly in a first-century account by Pliny the Elder. As they have been prized for thousands of years for their beauty and ability to talk, they have also often been misunderstood. For example, author Wolfgang de Grahl says in his 1987 book *The Grey Parrot* that some importers had parrots drink only coffee while they were shipped by boat, believing that pure water was detrimental and that their actions would increase survival rates during shipping. Nowadays, it is commonly accepted that the caffeine in coffee is toxic to birds. Pet parrots may be kept in a cage or aviary; though generally, tame parrots should be allowed out regularly on a stand or gym. Depending on locality, parrots may be either wild-caught or be captive-bred, though in most areas without native parrots, pet parrots are captive-bred. Parrot species that are commonly kept as pets include conures, macaws, amazon parrots, cockatoos, greys, lovebirds, cockatiels, budgerigars, caiques, parakeets, and *Eclectus*, *Pionus*, and *Poicephalus* species. Temperaments and personalities vary even within a species, just as with dog breeds. Grey parrots are thought to be excellent talkers, but not all grey parrots want to talk, though they have the capability to do so. Noise level, talking ability, cuddliness with people, and care needs can sometimes depend on how the bird is cared for and the attention he/she regularly receives. Parrots invariably require an enormous amount of attention, care, and intellectual stimulation to thrive, akin to that required by a three-year-old child, which many people find themselves unable to provide in the long term. Parrots that are bred for pets may be hand fed or otherwise accustomed to interacting with people from a young age to help ensure they become tame and trusting. However, even when hand fed, parrots revert to biting and aggression during hormonal surges and if mishandled or neglected. Parrots are not low-maintenance pets; they require feeding, grooming, veterinary care, training, environmental enrichment through the provision of toys, exercise, and social interaction (with other parrots or humans) for good health. Some large parrot species, including large cockatoos, amazons, and macaws, have very long lifespans, with 80 years being reported, and record ages of over 100. Small parrots, such as lovebirds, hanging parrots, and budgies, have shorter lifespans up to 15–20 years. Some parrot species can be quite loud, and many of the larger parrots can be destructive and require a very large cage, and a regular supply of new toys, branches, or other items to chew up. The intelligence of parrots means they are quick to learn tricks and other behaviours—both good and bad—that get them what they want, such as attention or treats. The popularity, longevity, and intelligence of many of the larger kinds of pet parrots and their wild traits such as screaming, has led to many birds needing to be rehomed during the course of their long lifespans. A common problem is that large parrots that are cuddly and gentle as juveniles mature into intelligent, complex, often demanding adults who can outlive their owners, and can also become aggressive or even dangerous. Due to an increasing number of homeless parrots, they are being euthanised like dogs and cats, and parrot adoption centres and sanctuaries are becoming more common. Parrots do not often do well in captivity, causing some parrots to go insane and develop repetitive behaviours, such as swaying and screaming, or they become riddled with intense fear. Feather destruction and self-mutilation, although not commonly seen in the wild, occur frequently in captivity. ### Trade The popularity of parrots as pets has led to a thriving—and often illegal—trade in the birds, and some species are now threatened with extinction. A combination of trapping of wild birds and damage to parrot habitats makes survival difficult or even impossible for some species of parrot. Importation of wild-caught parrots into the US and Europe is illegal after the Wild Bird Population Act was passed in 1992. The scale of the problem can be seen in the Tony Silva case of 1996, in which a parrot expert and former director at Tenerife's Loro Parque (Europe's largest parrot park) was jailed in the United States for 82 months and fined $100,000 for smuggling hyacinth macaws (such birds command a very high price.) Different nations have different methods of handling internal and international trade. Australia has banned the export of its native birds since 1960. In July 2007, following years of campaigning by NGOs and outbreaks of avian flu, the European Union (EU) halted the importation of all wild birds with a permanent ban on their import. Prior to an earlier temporary ban started in late October 2005, the EU was importing about two million live birds a year, about 90% of the international market: hundreds of thousands of these were parrots. No national laws protect feral parrot populations in the U.S. Mexico has a licensing system for capturing and selling native birds. According to a 2007 report, 65,000 to 78,500 parrots are captured annually, but the mortality rate before reaching a buyer is over 75%, meaning around 50,000 to 60,000 will die. ### Culture Parrots have featured in human writings, story, art, humor, religion, and music for thousands of years, such as Aesop's fable "The parrot and the cat", the mention "*The parrot can speak, and yet is nothing more than a bird*" in *The Book of Rites* of Ancient China, the *Masnavi* by Rumi of Persia in 1250 "The Merchant and the Parrot". Recent books about parrots in human culture include *Parrot Culture*. In ancient times and current, parrot feathers have been used in ceremonies and for decoration. They also have a long history as pets, stretching back thousands of years, and were often kept as a symbol of royalty or wealth. Parrots are used as symbols of nations and nationalism. A parrot is found on the flag of Dominica and two parrots on their coat of arms. The St. Vincent parrot is the national bird of St. Vincent and the Grenadines, a Caribbean nation. Sayings about parrots colour the modern English language. The verb "parrot" in the dictionary means "to repeat by rote". Also clichés such as the British expression "sick as a parrot" are given; although this refers to extreme disappointment rather than illness, it may originate from the disease of psittacosis, which can be passed to humans. The first occurrence of a related expression is in Aphra Behn's 1681 play *The False Count*. Fans of Jimmy Buffett are known as parrotheads. Parrots feature in many media. Magazines are devoted to parrots as pets, and to the conservation of parrots. Fictional media include Monty Python's "Dead Parrot sketch", *Home Alone 3* and *Rio*; and documentaries include *The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill*. #### Mythology As early as the ancient Chinese Shang dynasty (c. 1600 BCE ~ 1045 BCE), jade artifacts are found crafted in the shape of parrots and were subjected to burning over wood along with other jade objects and livestock, likely as a part of ritual sacrifices known as 'Liao' sacrifices (燎祭), generating smoke offerings to the heavens, gods and ancestors. This ritual is believed to have been inherited from previous worship practices and continued into the Zhou Dynasty. A jade parrot, among other artifacts, recovered from the tomb of Fu Hao at Yinxu provides significant evidence of this practice. In Polynesian legend as current in the Marquesas Islands, the hero Laka/Aka is mentioned as having undertaken a long and dangerous voyage to Aotona in what are now the Cook Islands, to obtain the highly prized feathers of a red parrot as gifts for his son and daughter. On the voyage, 100 of his 140 rowers died of hunger on their way, but the survivors reached Aotona and captured enough parrots to fill 140 bags with their feathers. Parrots have also been considered sacred. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped birds and often depicted parrots in their art. Parrots are popular in Buddhist scripture and many writings about them exist. For example, Amitābha once changed himself into a parrot to aid in converting people. Another old story tells how after a forest caught fire, the parrot was so concerned, it carried water to try to put out the flames. The ruler of heaven was so moved upon seeing the parrot's act, he sent rain to put out the fire. In Chinese Buddhist iconography, a parrot is sometimes depicted hovering on the upper right side Guan Yin clasping a pearl or prayer beads in its beak. ### Feral populations Escaped parrots of several species have become established in the wild outside their natural ranges and in some cases outside the natural range of parrots. Among the earliest instances were pet red shining-parrots from Fiji, which established a population on the islands of southern Tonga. These introductions were prehistoric and red-shining parrots were recorded in Tonga by Captain Cook in the 1770s. Escapees first began breeding in cities in California, Texas, and Florida in the 1950s (with unproven earlier claims dating back to the 1920s in Texas and Florida). They have proved surprisingly hardy in adapting to conditions in Europe and North America. They sometimes even multiply to the point of becoming a nuisance or pest, and a threat to local ecosystems, and control measures have been used on some feral populations. Feral parrot flocks can be formed after mass escapes of newly imported, wild-caught parrots from airports or quarantine facilities. Large groups of escapees have the protection of a flock and possess the skills to survive and breed in the wild. Some feral parakeets may have descended from escaped zoo birds. Escaped or released pets rarely contribute to establishing feral populations, as they usually result in only a few escapees, and most captive-born birds do not possess the necessary survival skills to find food or avoid predators and often do not survive long without human caretakers. However, in areas where there are existing feral parrot populations, escaped pets may sometimes successfully join these flocks. The most common years that feral parrots were released to non-native environments was from the 1890s to the 1940s, during the wild-caught parrot era. In the "parrot fever" panic of 1930, a city health commissioner urged everyone who owned a parrot to put them down, but some owners abandoned their parrots on the streets. ### Threats and conservation The principal threats of parrots are habitat loss and degradation, hunting, and, for certain species, the wild-bird trade. Parrots are persecuted because, in some areas, they are (or have been) hunted for food and feathers, and as agricultural pests. For a time, Argentina offered a bounty on monk parakeets for that reason, resulting in hundreds of thousands of birds being killed, though apparently this did not greatly affect the overall population. Parrots, being cavity nesters, are vulnerable to the loss of nesting sites and to competition with introduced species for those sites. The loss of old trees is a particular problem in some areas, particularly in Australia, where suitable nesting trees must be centuries old. Many parrots occur only on islands and are vulnerable to introduced species such as rats and feral cat, as they lack the appropriate antipredator behaviours needed to deal with predators. Island species, such as the Puerto Rican amazon, which have small populations in restricted habitats, are also vulnerable to natural events, such as hurricanes. Due to deforestation, the Puerto Rican amazon is one of the world's rarest birds despite conservation efforts. One of the largest parrot conservation groups is the World Parrot Trust, an international organisation. The group gives assistance to worthwhile projects, as well as producing a magazine (*PsittaScene*) and raising funds through donations and memberships, often from pet parrot owners. On a smaller scale, local parrot clubs raise money to donate to a conservation cause. Zoo and wildlife centres usually provide public education, to change habits that cause damage to wild populations. Conservation measures to conserve the habitats of some of the high-profile charismatic parrot species has also protected many of the less charismatic species living in the ecosystem. A popular attraction that many zoos employ is a feeding station for lories and lorikeets, where visitors feed them with cups of liquid food. This is usually done in association with educational signs and lectures. Birdwatching-based ecotourism can be beneficial to economies. Several projects aimed specifically at parrot conservation have met with success. Translocation of vulnerable kakapo, followed by intensive management and supplementary feeding, has increased the population from 50 individuals to 123 in 2010. In New Caledonia, the Ouvea parakeet was threatened by trapping for the pet trade and loss of habitat. Community-based conservation, which eliminated the threat of poaching, has allowed the population to increase from around 600 birds in 1993 to over 2000 birds in 2009. As of 2009, the IUCN recognises 19 species of parrot as extinct since 1500 (the date used to denote modern extinctions). This does not include species like the New Caledonian lorikeet, which has not been officially seen for 100 years, yet is still listed as critically endangered. Trade, export, and import of all wild-caught parrots is regulated and only permitted under special licensed circumstances in countries party to the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) which came into force in 1975 to regulate the international trade of all endangered, wild-caught animal and plant species. In 1975, 24 parrot species were included on Appendix I, thus prohibiting commercial international trade in these birds. Since that initial listing, continuing threats from international trade led it to add an additional 32 parrot varieties to Appendix I. All other parrot species, aside from the rosy-faced lovebird, budgerigar, cockatiel and rose-ringed parakeet (which are not included in the appendices) are protected on Appendix II of CITES. In addition, individual countries may have laws to regulate trade in certain species; for example, the EU has banned parrot trade, whereas Mexico has a licensing system for capturing parrots. ### World Parrot Day Every year on 31 May, World Parrot Day is celebrated. See also -------- * List of parrots * Parrots of New Zealand * Parrots of New Guinea Cited sources ------------- * Cameron, Matt (2007). *Cockatoos*. Collingwood, VIC, Australia: CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 978-0-643-09232-7.

Parrot

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parrot

The **Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccine**, sold under the brand names **Covishield** and **Vaxzevria** among others, is a viral vector vaccine for prevention of COVID-19. Developed in the United Kingdom by Oxford University and British-Swedish company AstraZeneca, using as a vector the modified chimpanzee adenovirus ChAdOx1. The vaccine is given by intramuscular injection. Studies carried out in 2020 showed that the efficacy of the vaccine is 76.0% at preventing symptomatic COVID-19 beginning at 22 days following the first dose, and 81.3% after the second dose. A study in Scotland found that, for symptomatic COVID-19 infection after the second dose, the vaccine is 81% effective against the Alpha variant (lineage B.1.1.7), and 61% against the Delta variant (lineage B.1.617.2). The vaccine is stable at refrigerator temperatures and has a good safety profile, with side effects including injection-site pain, headache, and nausea, all generally resolving within a few days. More rarely, anaphylaxis may occur; the UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) has 268 reports out of some 21.2 million vaccinations as of 14 April 2021[update]. In very rare cases (around 1 in 100,000 people) the vaccine has been associated with an increased risk of blood clots when in combination with low levels of blood platelets (Embolic and thrombotic events after COVID-19 vaccination). According to the European Medicines Agency as of 4 April 2021, a total of 222 cases of extremely rare blood clots had been recorded among 34 million people who had been vaccinated in the European Economic Area (a percentage of 0.0007%). On 30 December 2020, the vaccine was first approved for use in the UK vaccination programme, and the first vaccination outside of a trial was administered on 4 January 2021. The vaccine has since been approved by several medicine agencies worldwide, such as the European Medicines Agency (EMA), and the Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration (provisional approval in February 2021), and was approved for an Emergency Use Listing by the World Health Organization (WHO). As of January 2022[update], more than 2.5 billion doses of the vaccine have been released to more than 170 countries worldwide. Some countries have limited its use to elderly people at higher risk for severe COVID-19 illness due to concerns over the very rare side effects of the vaccine in younger individuals. Medical uses ------------ The Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID‑19 vaccine is used to provide protection against infection by the SARS-CoV-2 virus in order to prevent COVID-19 in adults aged 18 years and older. The medicine is administered by two 0.5 ml (0.017 US fl oz) doses given by intramuscular injection into the deltoid muscle (upper arm). The initial course consists of two doses with an interval of 4 to 12 weeks between doses. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends an interval of 8 to 12 weeks between doses for optimal efficacy. As of August 2021[update], there is no evidence that a third booster dose is needed to prevent severe disease in healthy adults. ### Effectiveness Preliminary data from a study in Brazil with 61 million individuals from 18 January to 30 June 2021 indicate that the effectiveness against infection, hospitalization and death is similar between most age groups, but protection against all these outcomes is significantly reduced in those aged 90 or older, attributable to immunosenescence. A vaccine is generally considered effective if the estimate is ≥50% with a >30% lower limit of the 95% confidence interval. Effectiveness is generally expected to slowly decrease over time. Initial effectiveness by variant| Doses | Severity of illness | Delta | Alpha | Gamma | Beta | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Asymptomatic | 18% (9–25%) | 37% (32–42%) | 33% (32–34%) | Not reported | | Symptomatic | 33% (23–41%) | 39% (32–45%) | 33% (26–40%) | Not reported | | Hospitalization | 71% (51–83%) | 76% (61–85%) | 52% (50–53%) | Not reported | | 2 | Asymptomatic | 60% (53–66%) | 73% (66–78%) | 70% (69–71%) | Not reported | | Symptomatic | 61% (51–70%) | 81% (72–87%) | 78% (69–84%) | 10% (−77 to 55%) | | Hospitalization | 92% (75–97%) | 86% (53–96%) | 87% (85–88%) | Not reported | 1. 1 2 3 4 Preliminary data of effectiveness against hospitalization referenced by Public Health England. 2. ↑ Efficacy from a study with 2026 participants. Preliminary data suggest that the initial two-dose regimen is not effective against symptomatic disease caused by the Omicron variant from the 15th week onwards. A regimen of two doses of the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine followed by a booster dose of the Pfizer–BioNTech or the Moderna vaccine is initially about 60% effective against symptomatic disease caused by Omicron, then after 10 weeks the effectiveness drops to about 35% with the Pfizer–BioNTech and to about 45% with the Moderna vaccine. The vaccine remains effective against severe disease, hospitalization and death. Contraindications ----------------- The Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine should not be administered to people who have had capillary leak syndrome. Adverse effects --------------- The most common side effects in the clinical trials were usually mild or moderate and got better within a few days after vaccination. Vomiting, diarrhoea, fever, swelling, redness at the injection site and low levels of blood platelets occurred in less than 1 in 10 people. Enlarged lymph nodes, decreased appetite, dizziness, sleepiness, sweating, abdominal pain, itching and rash occurred in less than 1 in 100 people. An increased risk of the rare and potentially fatal thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome (TTS) has been associated with mainly younger female recipients of the vaccine. Analysis of VigiBase reported embolic and thrombotic events after vaccination with Oxford–AstraZeneca, Moderna and Pfizer vaccines, found a temporally related incidence of 0.21 cases per 1 million vaccinated-days. Anaphylaxis and other allergic reactions are known side effects of the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) has assessed 41 cases of anaphylaxis from around 5 million vaccinations in the United Kingdom. Capillary leak syndrome is a possible side effect of the vaccine. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) listed Guillain-Barré syndrome as a very rare side effect of the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine and added a warning in the product information. Additional side effects include tinnitus (persistent ringing in the ears), paraesthesia (unusual feeling in the skin, such as tingling or a crawling sensation), and hypoaesthesia (decreased feeling or sensitivity, especially in the skin). Pharmacology ------------ The Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine is a viral vector vaccine containing a modified, replication-deficient chimpanzee adenovirus ChAdOx1, containing the full‐length codon‐optimised coding sequence of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein along with a tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) leader sequence. The adenovirus is called replication-deficient because some of its essential genes required for replication were deleted and replaced by a gene coding for the spike protein. However, the HEK 293 cells used for vaccine manufacturing, express several adenoviral genes, including the ones required for the vector to replicate. Following vaccination, the adenovirus vector enters the cells and releases its genes, in the form of DNA, which are transported to the cell nucleus; thereafter, the cell's machinery does the transcription from DNA into mRNA and the translation into spike protein. The approach to use adenovirus as a vector to deliver spike protein is similar to the approach used by the Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine and the Russian Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine. The protein of interest is the spike protein, a protein on the exterior of the virus that enables SARS-type coronaviruses to enter cells through the ACE2 receptor. Following vaccination, the production of coronavirus spike protein within the body will cause the immune system to attack the spike protein with antibodies and T-cells if the virus later enters the body. Manufacturing ------------- To manufacture the vaccine the virus is propagated on HEK 293 cell lines and then purified multiple times to completely remove the cell culture. The vaccine costs around US$3 to US$4 per dose to manufacture. On 17 December 2020, a tweet by the Belgian Budget State Secretary revealed that the European Union (EU) would pay €1.78 (US$2.16) per dose, *The New York Times* suggesting the lower price might relate to factors including investment in vaccine production infrastructure by the EU. As of March 2021[update] the vaccine active substance (ChAdOx1-SARS-COV-2) is being produced at several sites worldwide, with AstraZeneca claiming to have established 25 sites in 15 countries. The UK sites are Oxford and Keele with bottling and finishing in Wrexham. Other sites include the Serum Institute of India at Pune. The Halix site at Leiden was approved by the EMA on 26 March 2021, joining three other sites approved by the EU. History ------- The vaccine arose from a collaboration between Oxford University's Jenner Institute and Vaccitech, a private company spun off from the university, with financing from Oxford Sciences Innovation, Google Ventures, and Sequoia Capital, among others. The first batch of the COVID-19 vaccine produced for clinical testing was developed by Oxford University's Jenner Institute and the Oxford Vaccine Group in collaboration with Italian manufacturer Advent Srl located in Pomezia. The team is led by Sarah Gilbert, Adrian Hill, Andrew Pollard, Teresa Lambe, Sandy Douglas and Catherine Green. ### Early development In February 2020, the Jenner Institute agreed a collaboration with the Italian company Advent Srl for the production of a batch of 1,000 doses of a vaccine candidate for clinical trials. Originally, Oxford intended to donate the rights to manufacture and market the vaccine to any drugmaker who wanted to do so, but after the Gates Foundation urged Oxford to find a large company partner to get its COVID-19 vaccine to market, the university backed off of this offer in May 2020. The UK government then encouraged Oxford to work with AstraZeneca, a company based in Europe, instead of Merck & Co., a US-based company (The Guardian reported the initial partner was the German-based Merck Group instead). Government ministers also had concerns that a vaccine manufactured in the US would not be available in the UK, according to anonymous sources in *The Wall Street Journal*. Financial considerations at Oxford and spin-out companies may have also played a part in the decision to partner with AstraZeneca. An initially not-for-profit licensing agreement was signed between the university and AstraZeneca PLC, in May 2020, with 1 billion doses of potential supply secured, with the UK reserving access to the initial 100 million doses. Furthermore, the US reserved 300 million doses, as well as the authority to perform Phase III trials in the US. The collaboration was also granted £68m of UK government funding, and US$1.2bn of US government funding, to support the development of the vaccine. In June 2020, the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) confirmed that the third phase of trials for the vaccine would begin in July 2020. On 4 June, AstraZeneca announced that the COVAX program for equitable vaccine access managed by the WHO and financed by CEPI and GAVI had spent $750m to secure 300 million doses of the vaccine to be distributed to low-income or under-developed countries. Preliminary data from a study that reconstructed funding for the vaccine indicates that funding was at least 97% public, almost all from UK government departments, British and American scientific institutes, the European Commission and charities. ### Clinical trials In July 2020, AstraZeneca partnered with IQVIA to accelerate the timeframe for clinical trials being planned or conducted in the US. On 31 August, AstraZeneca announced that it had begun enrolment of adults for a US-funded, 30,000-subject late-stage study. Clinical trials for the vaccine candidate were halted worldwide on 8 September, as AstraZeneca investigated a possible adverse reaction which occurred in a trial participant in the UK. Trials were resumed on 13 September after AstraZeneca and Oxford, along with UK regulators, concluded it was safe to do so. AstraZeneca was later criticised for refusing to provide details about potentially serious neurological side effects in two trial participants who had received the experimental vaccine in the UK. While the trials resumed in the UK, Brazil, South Africa, Japan and India, the US did not resume clinical trials of the vaccine until 23 October. This was due to a separate investigation by the Food and Drug Administration surrounding a patient illness that triggered a clinical hold, according to the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Secretary Alex Azar. The results of the COV002 phase II/III trial showed that immunity lasts for at least one year after a single dose.[*unreliable medical source?*] #### Results of Phase III trial On 23 November 2020, the first interim data was released by Oxford University and AstraZeneca from the vaccine's ongoing Phase III trials. The interim data reported a 70% efficacy, based on combined results of 62% and 90% from different groups of participants who were given different dosages. The decision to combine results from two different dosages was met with criticism from some who questioned why the results were being combined. AstraZeneca responded to the criticism by agreeing to carry out a new multi-country trial using the lower dose, which had led to the 90% claim. The full publication of the interim results from four ongoing Phase III trials on 8 December allowed regulators and scientists to begin evaluating the vaccine's efficacy. The December report showed that at 21 days after the second dose and beyond, there were no hospitalisations or severe disease in those who received the vaccine, compared to 10 cases in the control groups. The rate of serious adverse events was balanced between the active and control groups, which suggested that the active vaccine did not pose safety concerns beyond a rate experienced in the general population. One case of transverse myelitis was reported 14 days after the second-dose was administered as being possibly related to vaccination, with an independent neurological committee considering the most likely diagnosis to be of an idiopathic, short-segment, spinal cord demyelination. The other two cases of transverse myelitis, one in the vaccine group and the other in the control group, were considered to be unrelated to vaccination. A subsequent analysis, published on 19 February 2021, showed an efficacy of 76.0% at preventing symptomatic COVID-19 beginning at 22 days following the first dose, increasing to 81.3% when the second dose is given 12 weeks or more after the first. However, the results did not show any protection against asymptomatic COVID-19 following only one dose. Beginning 14 days following timely administration of a second dose, with different duration from the first dose depending on trials, the results showed 66.7% efficacy at preventing symptomatic infection, and the UK arm (which evaluated asymptomatic infections in participants) was inconclusive as to the prevention of asymptomatic infection. Efficacy was higher at greater intervals between doses, peaking at around 80% when the second dose was given at 12 weeks or longer after the first. Preliminary results from another study with 120 participants under 55 years of age showed that delaying the second dose by up to 45 weeks increases the resulting immune response and that a booster (third) dose given at least six months later produces a strong immune response. A booster dose may not be necessary, but it alleviates concerns that the body would develop immunity to the vaccine's viral vector, which would reduce the potency of annual inoculations. On 22 March 2021, AstraZeneca released interim results from the phase III trial conducted in the US that showed efficacy of 79% at preventing symptomatic COVID-19 and 100% efficacy at preventing severe disease and hospitalisation. The next day, the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) published a statement countering that those results may have relied on "outdated information" that may have provided an incomplete view of the efficacy data. AstraZeneca later revised its efficacy claim to be 76% after further review of the data. On 29 September 2021, AstraZeneca shows of 74% efficacy rate in the US trial. #### Single dose effectiveness A study on the effectiveness of a first dose of the Pfizer–BioNTech or Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccines against COVID-19 related hospitalisation in Scotland was based on a national prospective cohort study of 5.4 million people. Between 8 December 2020 and 15 February 2021, 1,137,775 participants were vaccinated in the study, 490,000 of whom were given the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine. The first dose of the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine was associated with a vaccine effect of 94% for COVID-19-related hospitalisation at 28–34 days post-vaccination. Combined results (all vaccinated participants, whether Pfizer–BioNTech or Oxford–AstraZeneca) showed a significant vaccine effect for prevention of COVID-19-related hospitalisation, which was comparable when restricting the analysis to those aged ≥80 years (81%). The majority of the participants over the age of 65 were given the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine. #### Nasal spray On 25 March 2021, the University of Oxford announced the start of a phase I clinical trial to investigate the efficacy of an intranasal spray method. ### Approvals The first country to issue a temporary or emergency approval for the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine was the UK. The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) began a review of efficacy and safety data on 27 November 2020, followed by approval for use on 30 December 2020, becoming the second vaccine approved for use in the national vaccination programme. The BBC reported that the first person to receive the vaccine outside of clinical trials was vaccinated on 4 January 2021. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) began review of the vaccine on 12 January 2021, and stated in a press release that a recommendation could be issued by the agency by 29 January, followed by the European Commission deciding on a conditional marketing authorisation within days. On 29 January 2021, the EMA recommended granting a conditional marketing authorisation for AZD1222 for people 18 years of age and older, and the recommendation was accepted by the European Commission the same day. Prior to approval across the EU, the Hungarian regulator unilaterally approved the vaccine instead of waiting for EMA approval. In October 2022, the conditional marketing authorisation was converted to a standard one. On 30 January 2021, the Vietnamese Ministry of Health approved the AstraZeneca vaccine for use, becoming the first vaccine to be approved in Vietnam. The vaccine has since been approved by a number of non-EU countries, including Argentina, Bangladesh, Brazil, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, India, Israel, Malaysia, Mexico, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Taiwan regulatory authorities for emergency usage in their respective countries. South Korea granted approval of the AstraZeneca vaccine on 10 February 2021, thus becoming the first vaccine to be approved for use in that country. The regulator recommended the two-shot regimen be used in all adults, including the elderly, noting that consideration is needed when administering the vaccine to individuals over 65 years of age due to limited data from that demographic in clinical trials. On the same day, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued interim guidance and recommended the AstraZeneca vaccine for all adults, its Strategic Advisory Group of Experts also having considered use where variants were present and concluded there was no need not to recommend it. In February 2021, the government and regulatory authorities in Australia (16 February 2021) and Canada (26 February 2021) granted approval for temporary use of the vaccine. On 19 November 2021, the vaccine was approved for use in Canada. ### Suspensions #### South Africa On 7 February 2021, the vaccine rollout in South Africa was suspended. Researchers from the University of the Witwatersrand released interim, non-peer-reviewed data that suggested the AstraZeneca vaccine provided minimal protection against mild or moderate disease infection among young people. The BBC reported on 8 February 2021 that Katherine O'Brien, director of immunisation at the WHO, felt it was "really plausible" the AstraZeneca vaccine could have a "meaningful impact" on the Beta variant (lineage B.1.351), particularly in preventing serious illness and death. The same report also indicated the Deputy Chief Medical Officer for England Jonathan Van-Tam said the Witwatersrand study did not change his opinion that the AstraZeneca vaccine was "rather likely" to have an effect on severe disease from the Beta variant. The South African government subsequently cancelled the use of the AstraZeneca vaccine. #### European Union On 3 March 2021, Austria suspended the use of one batch of vaccine after two people had blood clots after vaccination, one of whom died. In total, four cases of blood clots have been identified in the same batch of 1 million doses. Although no causal link with vaccination has been shown, several other countries, including Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Bulgaria, Ireland, Italy, Spain, Germany, France, the Netherlands and Slovenia also halted the vaccine rollout over the following days while waiting for the EMA to finish a safety review triggered by the cases. In April 2021, the EMA concluded its safety review and concluded that unusual blood clots with low blood platelets should be listed as very rare side effects while reaffirming the overall benefits of the vaccine. Following this announcement EU countries have resumed use of the vaccine with some limiting its use to elderly people at higher risk for severe COVID-19 illness. On 11 March 2021, the Norwegian government temporarily suspended the vaccine's use, awaiting more information regarding potential adverse effects. Then, on 15 April, the Norwegian Institute of Public Health recommended to the government to permanently suspended vaccination with AstraZeneca due to the "rare but severe incidents with low platelet counts, blood clots, and haemorrhages," since in the case of Norway, "the risk of dying after vaccination with the AstraZeneca vaccine would be higher than the risk of dying from the disease, particularly for younger people." At the same time, the Norwegian government announced their decision to wait for a final decision and to establish an expert group to provide a broader assessment on the safety of the AstraZeneca and Janssen vaccines. On 10 May, the expert committee also recommended suspending the use of both vaccines. Finally, on 12 May —two months after the initial suspension— the Prime Minister of Norway announced that the government decided to completely remove the AstraZeneca vaccine from the Norwegian Coronavirus Immunisation Programme, and people who have had the first will be offered another coronavirus vaccine for their second dose. On 30 March 2021, the German Ministry of Health announced that the use of the vaccine in people aged 60 and below should be the result of a recipient-specific discussion, and that younger patients could still be given the AstraZeneca vaccine, but only "at the discretion of doctors, and after individual risk analysis and thorough explanation". On 14 April, the Danish Health Authority suspended use of the vaccine. The Danish Health Authority said that it had other vaccines available, and that the next target groups being a lower-risk population had to be "[weighed] against the fact that we now have a known risk of severe adverse effects from vaccination with AstraZeneca, even if the risk in absolute terms is slight." A 2021 study found that the decisions to suspend the vaccine led to increased vaccine hesitancy across the West, even in countries that did not suspend the vaccine. In October 2022, the conditional marketing authorisation was converted to a standard one. Despite the continued authorsation, most EU countries stopped the administration of the vaccine by end of 2021.[*clarification needed*] After an initial quick uptake, the number of doses administered remained at 67 Million since October 2021. #### Canada On 29 March 2021, Canada's National Advisory Committee on Immunization (NACI) recommended that distribution of the vaccine be suspended for patients below the age of 55; NACI chairwoman Caroline Quach-Thanh stated that the risk of blood clots was higher in younger patients, and that NACI needed to "evolve" its recommendations as new data becomes available. Most Canadian provinces subsequently announced that they would follow this guidance. As of 20 April 2021[update] there had been three confirmed cases of blood clotting tied to the vaccine in Canada, out of over 700,000 doses administered in the country. Beginning 18 April, amid a major third wave of the virus, several Canadian provinces announced that they would backtrack on the NACI recommendation and extend eligibility for the AstraZeneca vaccine to residents as young as 40 years old, including Alberta, British Columbia, Ontario, and Saskatchewan. Quebec also extended eligibility to residents 45 and older. The NACI guidance is a recommendation which does not affect the formal approval of the vaccine by Health Canada for all adults over 18; it stated on 14 April that it had updated its warnings on the vaccine as part of an ongoing review, but that "the potential risk of these events is very rare, and the benefits of the vaccine in protecting against COVID-19 outweigh its potential risks." On 23 April, citing the current state of supplies for mRNA-based vaccines and new data, NACI issued a recommendation that the vaccine can be offered to patients as young as 30 years old if benefits outweigh the risks, and the patient "does not wish to wait for an mRNA vaccine". Beginning 11 May, multiple provinces announced that they would suspend use of the AstraZeneca vaccine once again, citing either supply issues or the blood clotting risk. Some provinces stated that they planned to only use the AstraZeneca vaccine for outstanding second doses. On 1 June, NACI issued guidance, citing the safety concerns as well as European studies showing an improved antibody response, recommending that an mRNA vaccine be administered as a second dose to patients that had received the AstraZeneca vaccine as their first dose. #### Indonesia In March 2021, Indonesia halted the rollout of the vaccine while awaiting more safety guidance from the World Health Organization, and then resumed using the vaccine on 19 March. #### Australia In June 2021, Australia revised its recommendations for the rollout of the vaccine, recommending that the Pfizer Comirnaty vaccine be used for people aged under 60 years if the person has not already received a first dose of AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine. The AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine can still be used in people aged under 60 years where the benefits are likely to outweigh the risks for that person, and the person has made an informed decision based on an understanding of the risks and benefits in consultation with a medical professional. #### Malaysia After initially approving the use of the AstraZeneca vaccine, Malaysian health authorities removed the vaccine from the country's mainstream vaccination programme due to public concerns about its safety. The AstraZeneca vaccines will be distributed in designated vaccination centres, and the public can register for the vaccine on a voluntary basis. All 268,800 doses of the initial batch of the vaccine were fully booked in three and a half hours after the registration opened for residents of the state of Selangor and the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur. A second batch of 1,261,000 doses was offered to residents of the states of Selangor, Penang, Johore, Sarawak, and the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur. A total of 29,183 doses were reserved for previously waitlisted registrants, and 275,208 doses were taken up by senior citizens during a grace 3-day period. The remaining 956,609 doses were then offered to those aged 18 and above, and was completely booked within an hour. ### Safety review In March 2021, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) stated that there is no indication that vaccination has been the cause of the observed clotting issues, which were not listed as side effects of the vaccine. At the time, according to the EMA, the number of thromboembolic events in vaccinated people was no higher than that seen in the general population. As of 11 March 2021[update], 30 cases of thromboembolic events had been reported among the almost 5 million people vaccinated in the European Economic Area. The UK's MHRA also stated that after more than 11 million doses administered, it had not been confirmed that the reported blood clots were caused by the vaccine and that vaccinations would not be stopped. On 12 March 2021 the WHO stated that a causal relationship had not been shown and that vaccinations should continue. AstraZeneca confirmed on 14 March 2021 that after examining over 17 million people who have been vaccinated with the vaccine, no evidence of an increased risk of blood clots in any particular country was found. The company reported that as of 8 March 2021[update], across the EU and UK, there had been 15 events of deep vein thrombosis and 22 events of pulmonary embolism reported among those given the vaccine, which is much lower than would be expected to occur naturally in a general population of that size. In March 2021, the German Paul-Ehrlich Institute (PEI) reported that out of 1.6 million vaccinations, seven cases of cerebral vein thrombosis in conjunction with a deficiency of blood platelets had occurred. According to the PEI, the number of cases of cerebral vein thrombosis after vaccination was statistically significantly higher than the number that would occur in the general population during a similar time period. These reports prompted the PEI to recommend a temporary suspension of vaccinations until the EMA had completed their review of the cases. The World Health Organization (WHO) issued a statement on 17 March, regarding the AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine safety signals, and still considers the benefits of the vaccine to outweigh its potential risks, further recommending that vaccinations continue. On 18 March, the EMA announced that out of the around 20 million people who had received the vaccine, general blood clotting rates were normal, but that it had identified seven cases of disseminated intravascular coagulation, and eighteen cases of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis. A causal link with the vaccine was not proven, but the EMA said it would conduct further analysis and recommended informing people eligible for the vaccine of the fact that the possibility it may cause rare clotting problems had not been disproven. The EMA confirmed that the vaccine's benefits outweighed the risks. On 25 March, the EMA released updated product information. According to the EMA, 100,000 cases of blood clots occur naturally each month in the EU, and the risk of blood clots was not statistically higher in the vaccinated population. The EMA noted that COVID-19 itself causes an increased risk of the development of blood clots, and as such the vaccine would lower the risk of the formation of blood clots even if the 15 cases' causal link were to be confirmed. Italy resumed vaccinations after the EMA's statement, with most of the remaining European countries following suit and resuming their AstraZeneca inoculations shortly thereafter. To reassure the public of the vaccine's safety, the British and French Prime Ministers, Boris Johnson and Jean Castex, had themselves vaccinated with it in front of the media shortly after the restart of the AstraZeneca vaccination campaigns in the EU. In April 2021, the EMA issued its direct healthcare professional communication (DHPC) about the vaccine. The DHPC indicated that a causal relationship between the vaccine and blood clots (thrombosis) in combination with low blood platelets (thrombocytopenia) was plausible and identified it as a very rare side effect of the vaccine. According to the EMA these very rare adverse events occur in around 1 out of 100,000 vaccinated people. ### Further development #### Efficacy against variants A study published in April 2021 by researchers from the COVID-19 Genomics United Kingdom Consortium, the AMPHEUS Project, and the Oxford COVID-19 Vaccine Trial Group indicated the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine showed somewhat reduced efficacy against infection with the Alpha variant (lineage B.1.1.7), with 70.4% efficacy in absolute terms against Alpha versus 81.5% against other variants. Despite this, the researchers concluded that the vaccine remained effective at preventing symptomatic infection from this variant and that vaccinated individuals infected symptomatically typically had shorter duration of symptoms and less viral load, thereby reducing the risk of transmission. Following the identification of notable variants of concern, concern arose that the E484K mutation, present in the Beta and Gamma variants (lineages B.1.351 and P.1), could evade the protection given by the vaccine. In February 2021, the collaboration was working to adapt the vaccine to target these variants, with the expectation that a modified vaccine would be available "in a few months" as a "booster" given to people who had already completed the two-dose series of the original vaccine. In June 2021, AstraZeneca published a press release confirming undergoing Phase II/III trials of an **AZD2816** COVID-19 variant vaccine candidate. The new vaccine would be based on the current *Vaxzevria* adenoviral vector platform but modified with spike proteins based on the Beta (B.1.351 lineage) variant. Phase II/III trials saw 2849 volunteers participating from UK, South Africa, Brazil and Poland with parallel dosing of both the current Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine and the variant vaccine candidate. By September 2021, AZD2816 vaccine candidate is still undergoing Phase II/III trials with intent to switch to this vaccine if approved by government regulators. Particularly the government of Thailand, with delivery of additional 60 million doses of AstraZeneca COVID-19 Vaccine agreed for 2022. #### Heterologous prime-boost vaccination In December 2020, a clinical trial was registered to examine a heterologous prime-boost vaccination course consisting of one dose of the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine followed by Sputnik Light based on the Ad26 vector 29 days later. After suspensions due to rare cases of blood clots in March 2021, Canada and several European countries recommended receiving a different vaccine for the second dose. Despite the lack of clinical data on the efficacy and safety of such heterologous combinations, some experts believe that doing so may boost immunity, and several studies have begun to examine this effect. In June 2021, preliminary results from a study of 463 participants showed that a heterologous prime-boost vaccination course consisting of one dose of the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine followed by one dose of the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine produced the strongest T cell activity and an antibody level almost as high as two doses of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine. The reversal of the order resulted in T cell activity at half the potency and one-seventh the antibody levels, the latter still five times higher than two doses of Oxford–AstraZeneca. The lowest T cell activity was observed in homologous courses, when both doses were of the same vaccine. In July 2021, a study of 216 participants found that a heterologous prime-boost vaccination course consisting of one dose of the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine followed by one dose of the Moderna vaccine produced a similar level of neutralizing antibodies and T cell responses with increased spike-specific cytotoxic T cells compared to a homologous course consisting of two doses of the Moderna vaccine. Society and culture ------------------- The Oxford University and AstraZeneca collaboration was seen as having the potential as being a low-cost vaccine with no onerous storage requirements. A series of events including a deliberate undermining of the AstraZeneca vaccine for geopolitical purposes by both the EU and EU member states including miscommunication, reports of supply difficulties (responsibility of which were due to the EU mis-handling vaccine procurement) misleading reports of inefficacy and adverse effects as well as the high-profile European Commission–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine dispute, have been a public relations disaster for both Brussels and member states, and in the opinion of one academic has led to increased vaccine hesitancy. The vaccine is a key component of the WHO backed COVAX (COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access) program, with the WHO, the EMA, and the MHRA continuing to state that the benefits of the vaccine outweigh any possible side effects. About 69 million doses of the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine were administered in the EU/EEA from authorization to 26 June 2022. ### Economics Vaccine supply agreements by country| Country | Date | Doses | | --- | --- | --- | | United Kingdom | 17 May 2020 | 100 million | | United States | 21 May 2020 | 300 million | | COVAX (WHO) | 4 June 2020 | 300 million | | 29 September 2020 | 100 million | | Egypt | 22 June 2020 | Unknown | | Japan | 8 August 2020 | 120 million | | Australia | 19 August 2020 | 25 million | | European Union | 27 August 2020 | 400 million | | Canada | 25 September 2020 | 20 million | | Switzerland | 16 October 2020 | 5.3 million | | Bangladesh | 5 November 2020 | 30 million | | Thailand | 27 November 2020 | 26 million | | Philippines | 27 November 2020 | 2.6 million | | South Korea | 1 December 2020 | 20 million | | South Africa | 7 January 2021 | 1 million | | 1. ↑ Contingent on completion of trials and efficacy, agreement finalized in August 2. ↑ To be supplied to EU member countries and others in the European Economic Area. Preliminary negotiations were entered into by the Inclusive Vaccines Alliance composed of: France, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands, before the EU elected to centrally negotiate for the block 3. ↑ A preliminary agreement with the abandoned four nation Inclusive Vaccine Alliance, of France, Italy, Germany and Netherlands, was agreed on 13 June 2020, before EU elected to centrally procure vaccines for all EU member states, and elective EEA states 4. ↑ Was to be followed by 500,000 at a later date. South Africa later suspended use the use of the vaccine before the rollout began and sold purchased supply to 14 African Union Members. | Agreements for access to vaccines began being signed in May 2020, with the UK having priority for the first 100 million doses if trials proved successful, with the final agreement being signed at the end of August. On 21 May 2020, AstraZeneca agreed to provide 300 million doses to the US for US$1.2 billion, implying a cost of US$4 per dose. An AstraZeneca spokesman said the funding also covers development and clinical testing. It also reached a technology transfer agreement with the Mexican and Argentinean governments and agreed to produce at least 400 million doses to be distributed throughout Latin America. The active ingredients would be produced in Argentina and sent to Mexico to be completed for distribution. In June 2020, Emergent BioSolutions signed a US$87 million deal to manufacture doses of the AstraZeneca vaccine specifically for the US market. The deal was part of the Trump administration's Operation Warp Speed initiative to develop and rapidly scale production of targeted vaccines before the end of 2020. Catalent would be responsible for the finishing and packaging process. On 4 June 2020, the WHO's COVAX (COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access) facility made initial purchases of 300 million doses from the company for low- to middle-income countries. Also, AstraZeneca and Serum Institute of India reached a licensing agreement to independently supply 1 billion doses of the Oxford University vaccine to middle- and low-income countries, including India. Later in September, funded by a grant from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the COVAX program secured an additional 100  million doses at US$3 per dose. On 27 August 2020, AstraZeneca concluded an agreement with the EU, to supply up to 400 million doses to all EU and select European Economic Area (EEA) member states. The European Commission took over negotiations started by the Inclusive Vaccines Alliance, a group made up of France, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands, in June 2020. On 5 November 2020, a tripartite agreement was signed between the government of Bangladesh, the Serum Institute of India, and Beximco Pharma of Bangladesh. Under the agreement Bangladesh ordered 30 million doses of Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine from Serum through Beximco for $4 per shot. On the other hand, Indian government has given 3.2 million doses to Bangladesh as a gift which were also produced by Serum. But Serum supplied only 7 million doses from the tripartite agreement in the first two months of the year. Bangladesh was supposed to receive 5 million doses per month but not received shipments in March and April. As a result, rollout of vaccine has been disrupted by supply shortfalls. The situation became complicated when the second dose of 1.3 million citizens is uncertain as India halts exports. Not getting the second dose at the right time is likely to reduce the effectiveness of the vaccination program. In addition, several citizens of Bangladesh have expressed doubts about its effectiveness and safety. Bangladesh is looking for alternative vaccine sources because India isn't supplying the vaccine according to the timeline of the deal. Thailand's agreement in November 2020 for 26 million doses of vaccine would cover 13 million people, approximately 20% of the population, with the first lot expected to be delivered at the end of May. The public health minister indicated the price paid was $5 per dose; AstraZeneca (Thailand) explained in January 2021 after a controversy that the price each country paid depended on production cost and differences in supply chain, including manufacturing capacity, labour and raw material costs. In January 2021, the Thai cabinet approved further talks on ordering another 35 million doses, and the Thai FDA approved the vaccine for emergency use for 1 year. Siam Bioscience, a company owned by Vajiralongkorn, will receive technological transfer and has the capacity to manufacture up to 200 million doses a year for export to ASEAN. Also in November, the Philippines agreed to buy 2.6 million doses, reportedly worth around ₱700 million (approximately US$5.60 per dose). In December 2020, South Korea signed a contract with AstraZeneca to secure 20 million doses of its vaccine, reportedly equivalent in worth to those signed by Thailand and the Philippines, with the first shipment expected as early as January 2021. As of January 2021[update], the vaccine remains under review by the South Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency. AstraZeneca signed a deal with South Korea's SK Bioscience to manufacture its vaccine products. The collaboration calls for the SK affiliate to manufacture AZD1222 for local and global markets. On 7 January 2021, the South African government announced that they had secured an initial 1 million doses from the Serum Institute of India, to be followed by another 500,000 doses in February, however the South African government subsequently cancelled the use of the vaccine, selling its supply to other African countries, and switched its vaccination program to use the Janssen COVID-19 vaccine. On 22 January 2021, AstraZeneca announced that in the event the European Union approved the COVID-19 Vaccine AstraZeneca, initial supplies would be lower than expected due to production issues at Novasep in Belgium. Only 31 million of the previously predicted 80 million doses would be delivered to the EU by March 2021. In an interview with Italian newspaper *La Repubblica*, AstraZeneca's CEO Pascal Soriot said the delivery schedule for the doses in the EU was two months behind schedule. He mentioned low yield from cell cultures at one large-scale European site. Analysis published in *The Guardian* also identified an apparently low yield from bioreactors in the Belgium plant and noted the difficulties in setting up this form of process, with variable yields often occurring. As a result, the EU imposed export controls on vaccine doses; controversy erupted as to whether doses were being diverted to the UK and whether deliveries to Northern Ireland would be disrupted. On 24 February 2021, a shipment of the vaccine to Accra, Ghana, via COVAX made it the first country in Africa to receive vaccines via the initiative. In early 2021, the Bureau for Investigative Journalism found that South Africa had paid double the rate for the European Commission, while Uganda paid triple. According to the Higher Education Statistics Agency data, Oxford received a US$176 million windfall on vaccine in the 2021-22 academic year. ### Brand names The vaccine is marketed under the brand name Covishield by the Serum Institute of India. The name of the vaccine was changed to Vaxzevria in the European Union on 25 March 2021. Vaxzevria, AstraZeneca COVID‐19 Vaccine, and COVID-19 Vaccine AstraZeneca are manufactured by AstraZeneca. Research -------- As of February 2021[update], the AZD1222 development team is working on adapting the vaccine to be more effective in relation to newer SARS-CoV-2 variants; redesigning the vaccine being the relatively quick process of switching the genetic sequence of the spike protein. Manufacturing set-up and a small scale trial are also required before the adapted vaccine might be available in autumn. Further reading --------------- * "Protocol AZD1222 – A Phase III Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo controlled Multicenter Study in Adults to Determine the Safety, Efficacy, and Immunogenicity of AZD1222, a Non-replicating ChAdOx1 Vector Vaccine, for the Prevention of COVID-19" (PDF). AstraZeneca. Scholia has a profile for **AZD1222 (Q95042269)**.

Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford%E2%80%93AstraZeneca_COVID-19_vaccine

The **Scythians** (/ˈsɪθiən/ or /ˈsɪðiən/) or **Scyths** (/ˈsɪθ/, but note *Scytho-* (/ˈsaɪθʊ/) in composition) and sometimes also referred to as the **Pontic Scythians**, were an ancient Eastern Iranic equestrian nomadic people who had migrated during the 9th to 8th centuries BC from Central Asia to the Pontic Steppe in modern-day Ukraine and Southern Russia, where they remained established from the 7th century BC until the 3rd century BC. Skilled in mounted warfare, the Scythians replaced the Agathyrsi and the Cimmerians as the dominant power on the western Eurasian Steppe in the 8th century BC. In the 7th century BC, the Scythians crossed the Caucasus Mountains and frequently raided West Asia along with the Cimmerians. After being expelled from West Asia by the Medes, the Scythians retreated back into the Pontic Steppe and were gradually conquered by the Sarmatians. In the late 2nd century BC, the capital of the largely Hellenized Scythians at Scythian Neapolis in the Crimea was captured by Mithridates VI and their territories incorporated into the Bosporan Kingdom. By the 3rd century AD, the Sarmatians and last remnants of the Scythians were overwhelmed by the Goths, and by the early Middle Ages, the Scythians and the Sarmatians had been largely assimilated and absorbed by early Slavs. The Scythians were instrumental in the ethnogenesis of the Ossetians, who are believed to be descended from the Alans. After the Scythians' disappearance, authors of the ancient, mediaeval, and early modern periods used the name "Scythian" to refer to various populations of the steppes unrelated to them. The Scythians played an important part in the Silk Road, a vast trade network connecting Greece, Persia, India and China, perhaps contributing to the prosperity of those civilisations. Settled metalworkers made portable decorative objects for the Scythians, forming a history of Scythian metalworking. These objects survive mainly in metal, forming a distinctive Scythian art. Names ----- ### Etymology The English name *Scythians* or *Scyths* is derived from the Ancient Greek name *Skuthēs* (Σκυθης) and *Skuthoi* (Σκυθοι), derived from the Scythian endonym *Skuδatā*, meaning "archers." Due to a sound change from /δ/ to /l/ in the Scythian language, evolved into the form *\*Skulatā*. This designation was recorded in Greek as *Skōlotoi* (Σκωλοτοι), which, according to Herodotus of Halicarnassus, was the self-designation of the tribe of the Royal Scythians. The Assyrians rendered the name of the Scythians as *Iškuzaya* (𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀), *māt Iškuzaya* (𒆳𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀), and *awīlū Iškuzaya* (𒇽𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀), or *ālu Asguzaya* (𒌷𒊍𒄖𒍝𒀀𒀀), *māt Askuzaya* (𒆳𒊍𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀), and *māt Ašguzaya* (𒆳𒀾𒄖𒍝𒀀𒀀). The ancient Persians meanwhile called the Scythians "*Sakā* who live beyond the (Black) Sea" (𐎿𐎣𐎠 𐏐 𐎫𐎹𐎡𐎹 𐏐 𐎱𐎼𐎭𐎼𐎹, romanized: *Sakā tayaiy paradraya*) in Old Persian and simply *Sakā* (Ancient Egyptian: **𓋴𓎝𓎡𓈉**, romanized: *sk*; **𓐠𓎼𓈉**, romanized: *sꜣg*) in Ancient Egyptian, from which was derived the Graeco-Roman name *Sacae* (Ancient Greek: Σακαι; Latin: *Sacae*). ### Modern terminology The Scythians were part of the wider Scytho-Siberian world, stretching across the Eurasian Steppes of Kazakhstan, the Russian steppes of the Siberian, Ural, Volga and Southern regions, and eastern Ukraine. In a broader sense, Scythians has also been used to designate all early Eurasian nomads, although the validity of such terminology is controversial, and other terms such as "Early nomadic" have been deemed preferable. Although the Scythians, Saka and Cimmerians were closely related nomadic Iranic peoples, and the ancient Babylonians, ancient Persians and ancient Greeks respectively used the names "Cimmerian," "Saka," and "Scythian" for all the steppe nomads, and early modern historians such as Edward Gibbon used the term Scythian to refer to a variety of nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples across the Eurasian Steppe, * the name "Scythian" in contemporary modern scholarship generally refers to the nomadic Iranic people who from the 7th century BC to the 3rd century BC dominated the steppe and forest-steppe zones to the north of the Black Sea, Crimea, the Kuban valley, as well as the Taman and Kerch peninsulas, * while the name "Saka" is used specifically for their eastern members who inhabited the northern and eastern Eurasian Steppe and the Tarim Basin; * and while the Cimmerians were often described by contemporaries as culturally Scythian, they formed a different tribe from the Scythians proper, to whom the Cimmerians were related, and who also displaced and replaced the Cimmerians in the Pontic Steppe. The Scythians share several cultural similarities with other populations living to their east, in particular similar weapons, horse gear and Scythian art, which has been referred to as the *Scythian triad*. Cultures sharing these characteristics have often been referred to as Scythian cultures, and its peoples called *Scythians*. Peoples associated with Scythian cultures include not only the Scythians themselves, who were a distinct ethnic group, but also Cimmerians, Massagetae, Saka, Sarmatians and various obscure peoples of the East European Forest Steppe, such as early Slavs, Balts and Finnic peoples. Within this broad definition of the term *Scythian*, the actual Scythians have often been distinguished from other groups through the terms *Classical Scythians*, *Western Scythians*, *European Scythians* or *Pontic Scythians*. Nevertheless, the archaeologist Maurits Nanning van Loon in 1966 instead used the term *Western Scythians* to designate the Cimmerians and referred to the Scythians proper as the *Eastern Scythians*. Scythologist Askold Ivantchik notes with dismay that the term "Scythian" has been used within both a broad and a narrow context, leading to a good deal of confusion. He reserves the term "Scythian" for the Iranic people dominating the Pontic Steppe from the 7th century BC to the 3rd century BC. Nicola Di Cosmo writes that the broad concept of "Scythian" to describe the early nomadic populations of the Eurasian Steppe is "too broad to be viable," and that the term "early nomadic" is preferable. Location -------- ### Early phase in the western steppes After migrating out of Central Asia and into the western steppes, the Scythians first settled and established their kingdom in the area between the Araxes, the Caucasus Mountains and the Lake Maeotis. ### In West Asia In West Asia, the Scythians initially settled in the area between the Araxes and Kura rivers before further expanding into the region to the south of the Kuros river in what is present-day Azerbaijan, where they settled around what is today Mingəçevir, Gəncə and the Muğan plain, and Transcaucasia remained their centre of operations in West Asia until the early 6th century BC, although this presence in West Asia remained an extension of the Scythian kingdom of the steppes, and the Scythian kings' headquarters were instead located in the Ciscaucasian steppes. During the peak of the Scythians' power in West Asia after they had conquered Media, Mannai and Urartu and defeated the Cimmerians, the Scythian kingdom's possessions in the region consisted of a large area extending from the Halys river in Anatolia in the west to the Caspian Sea and the eastern borders of Media in the east, and from Transcaucasia in the north to the northern borders of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the south. ### In the Pontic steppe The territory of the Scythian kingdom of the Pontic steppe extended from the Don river in the east to the Danube river in the west, and covered the territory of the treeless steppe immediately north of the Black Sea's coastline, which was inhabited by nomadic pastoralists, as well as the fertile black-earth forest-steppe area to the north of the treeless steppe, which was inhabited by an agricultural population, and the northern border of this Scythian kingdom were the dedicuous woodlands. Several rivers flowed southwards across this region and emptied themselves into the Black Sea, of which the largest one was the Borysthenes (Dnipro), which was the richest river in Scythia, with most of the fish living in it, and the best pastures and most fertile lands being located on its banks, while its water was the cleanest; due to this, Graeco-Roman authors compared it to the Nile in Egypt. Other important rivers of Scythia were the: * Istros (Danube), * Tyras (Dnister), * Hypanis (Southern Buh), * Panticapes (Inhulets), * Hypacyris, * Gerrhus, * and Tanais (Don). Earlier ancient West Asian and Greek sources also included Ciscaucasia within the confines of Scythia. However, Ciscaucasia was no longer part of Scythia by the 5th century BC, and the Don river formed its easternmost limit. In these favourable climatic conditions, the ranges of beavers and elk extended further south than presently, with beavers then being present in the lower Dnipro and lower Southern Buh river valleys, and elk living until the environs of Olbia, and the bones both these animals have been found in kitchen refuse dating from the Scythian period. Thanks to this propitious climate, grass also grew abundantly on the treeless steppe, which permitted the nomadic Scythians to rear large herds of cattle and horses. The country which the Greeks named *Hylaea* (Ancient Greek: Υλαια, romanized: *Hulaia*, lit. 'the Woodland'), consisting of the region of the lower Dnipro river along the territory of what is modern-day Kherson and the valleys further north along the river, was covered with forests. Conditions in the southern lands near the shores of the Black Sea were propitious for agriculture and propitious for cultivating cereals, orchards and vineyards. #### Little Scythia After the 3rd century BC, Scythian territory because restricted to two small states, each called "Little Scythia," respectively located in Dobruja and Crimea: * in Dobruja, the Scythian kingdom's territory stretched from Tyras or even Pontic Olbia in the north to Odessus in the south; * in Crimea, the Scythian kingdom covered a limited a territory which included the steppes and foothills of Crimea until Taurida, the lower Dnieper, and the lower Southern Bug rivers. History ------- Because the Scythians did not use writing and they did not leave much material remains due to their nomadic lifestyle, most of the information regarding them has been pieced from the accounts of outsiders such as the Assyrians, Persians, and Greeks, as well as from archaeological study of their burial mounds. ### Origins According to archaeological evidence, the Scythians originated in the region of the Volga-Ural steppes of Central Asia, possibly around the 9th century BC, as a section of the population of the Srubnaya culture containing a significant element originating from the Siberian Andronovo culture. The population of the Srubnaya culture was among the first truly nomadic pastoralist groups, who themselves emerged in the Central Asian and Siberian steppes during the 9th century BC as a result of the cold and dry climate then prevailing in these regions. Genetic evidence has suggested that Western Scythians may have been closely related to the Srubnaya culture, however, this does not imply direct continuity from Srubnaya, and the Western Scythians themselves derived ancestry from other populations, particularly from East Asian sources. ### Early history During the 9th to 8th centuries BC, a significant movement of the nomadic peoples of the Eurasian Steppe started when another nomadic Iranic tribe closely related to the Scythians from eastern Central Asia, either the Massagetae or the Issedones, migrated westwards, forcing the early Scythians to the west across the Araxes river, following which some Scythian tribes had migrated westwards into the steppe adjacent to the shores of the Black Sea, which they occupied along with the Cimmerians, who were also a nomadic Iranic people closely related to the Scythians. Arzhan kurgan (8-7th century BC)Some of the earliest Scythian artefacts in Animal style, Arzhan kurgan, Southern Siberia, dated to 8-7th century BC. Arrowheads from the 1st kurgan of the Arzhan burials suggests that the typical Scythian socketed arrows made of copper alloy might have originated during this period. Over the course of the 8th and 7th centuries BC, the Scythians migrated into the Caucasian and Caspian Steppes in several waves, becoming the dominant population of the region, where they assimilated most of the Cimmerians and conquered their territory, with this absorption of the Cimmerians by the Scythians being facilitated by their similar ethnic backgrounds and lifestyles, after which the Scythians settled in the area between the Araxes, the Caucasus and the Lake Maeotis. Archaeologically, the westwards migration of the Early Scythians from Central Asia into the Caspian Steppe constituted the latest of the two to three waves of expansion of the Srubnaya culture to the west of the Volga. The last and third wave corresponding to the Scythian migration has been dated to the 9th century BC. The Scythians were already skilled at goldsmithing at these early dates. Materially, the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk culture with which the Cimmerians are associated showed strong influences originating from the east in Central Asia and Siberia (more specifically from the Karasuk, Arzhan, and Altai cultures), as well as from the Kuban culture of the Caucasus which contributed to its development, thus making it difficult to distinguish from the Late Srubnaya culture of the early Scythians who became dominant in the Pontic steppe and replaced the Cimmerians in the Caucasian steppe, with both the Cimmerians and the Scythians being part of the larger Chernagorovsk-Arzhan cultural complex, and both Scythians and the Cimmerians used Novocherkassk objects when the Scythians initially arrived into the Caucasian and Pontic steppes. The transition from the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk culture to the Scythian culture appears to have itself been a continuous process, and the Cimmerians cannot be distinguished from the Scythians during the period of transition from the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk culture to the Scythian culture. During this early migratory period, some groups of Scythians settled in Ciscaucasia and the Caucasus Mountains' foothills to the east of the Kuban river, where they settled among the native populations of this region, and did not migrate to the south into West Asia. #### Arrival into West Asia Under Scythian pressure, the displaced Cimmerians migrated to the south along the coast of the Black Sea and reached Anatolia, and the Scythians in turn later expanded to the south, following the coast of the Caspian Sea and arrived in the Ciscaucasian steppes, from where they settled in the area between the Araxes and Kura rivers before further expanding into the region to the south of the Kuros river in what is present-day Azerbaijan, where they settled around what is today Mingəçevir, Gəncə and the Muğan plain, and turned eastern Transcaucasia into their centre of operations in West Asia until the early 6th century BC, with this presence in West Asia being an extension of the Scythian kingdom of the steppes. The earliest Scythians had belonged to the Srubnaya culture, and, archaeologically, the Scythian movement into Transcaucasia is attested in the form of a migration of a section of the Srubnaya culture, called the Srubnaya-Khvalynsk culture, to the south till the northern foothills of the Caucasus Mountains, and then further south along the western coast of the Caspian Sea into Transcaucasia and Iran. Although the Early Scythians initially belonged to a pre-Scythian archaeological culture of Central Asian origin, their original Srubnaya culture which contained significant admixture from the Andronovo culture evolved into the Scythian culture from coming in contact with the peoples of Transcaucasia and the Urartians, and further contacts with the civilisation of West Asia, and especially with that of Mesopotamia, would also have an important influence on the formation of Scythian culture. The Scythians were still a Bronze Age society until the late 8th century BC, and it was only when they expanded into West Asia that they became acquainted with iron smelting and forging. During this period, the Scythian kings' headquarters were located in the Ciscaucasian steppes, and this presence in Transcaucasia influenced Scythian culture: the *akīnakēs* sword and socketed bronze arrowheads with three edges, which, although they are considered as typically "Scythian weapons," were in fact of Transcaucasian origin and had been adopted by the Scythians during their stay in the Caucasus. Alternatively, the typical Scythian arrowheads might have originated in Siberia during the 9th century BC and was introduced into West Asia by the Scythians. #### Arrival in the Pontic steppe From their base in the Caucasian Steppe, during the period of the 8th to 7th centuries BC itself, the Scythians conquered the Pontic and Crimean Steppes to the north of the Black Sea up to the Danube river, which formed the western boundary of Scythian territory onwards, with this process of Scythian takeover of the Pontic Steppe becoming fully complete by the 7th century BC. Archaeologically, the expansion of the Scythians into the Pontic Steppe is attested through the westward movement of the Srubnaya-Khvalynsk culture into Ukraine contemporaneous with its movement to the south along the coast of the Caspian Sea. The Srubnaya-Khvalynsk culture in Ukraine is referred to in scholarship as the "Late Srubnaya" culture. The westward migration of the Scythians was accompanied by the introduction into the north Pontic region of articles originating in the Siberian Karasuk culture, such as distinctive swords and daggers, and which were characteristic of Early Scythian archaeological culture, consisting of cast bronze cauldrons, daggers, swords, and horse harnesses, which had themselves been influenced by Chinese art, with, for example, the "cruciform tubes" used to fix strap-crossings being of types which had initially been modelled by Shang artisans. The Scythian migration into the Pontic Steppe destroyed earlier cultures, with the settlements of the Sabatynivka culture [uk] in the Dnipro valley being largely destroyed around c. 800 BC, and the centre of Cimmerian bronze production stopping existing at the time while the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk culture was disturbed during the 8th to 7th centuries BC. The migration of the Scythians affected the steppe and forest steppe areas of south-east Europe and forced several other populations of the region, especially many smaller groups, to migrate towards more remote regions, including some North Caucasian groups who retreated to the west and settled in Transylvania and the Hungarian Plain where they introduced Novocherkassk culture type swords, daggers, horse harnesses, and other objects: among these displaced smaller populations from the Caucasus were the Sigynnae, who were displaced westward into the eastern part of the Pannonian Basin. Among the many peoples displaced by the Scythian expansion were also the Gelonians and the Agathyrsi, the latter of whom were another nomadic Iranic people related to the Scythians as well as one of the oldest Iranic population to have dominated the Pontic Steppe. The Agathyrsi were pushed westwards by the Scythians, away from the steppes and from their original home around Lake Maeotis, after which the relations between the two populations remained hostile. Within the Pontic steppe, some of the Scythian tribes intermarried with the already present native sedentary Thracian populations to form new tribes such as the Nomadic Scythians and the Alazones. In many parts of the north Pontic region under their rule, the Scythians established themselves as a ruling class over already present sedentary populations, including Thracians in the western regions, Maeotians on the eastern shore of Lake Maeotis, and later the Greeks on the north coast of the Black Sea. Between 650 and 625 BC, the Pontic Scythians came into contact with the Greeks, who were starting to create colonies in the areas under Scythian rule, including on the island of Borysthenes, near Taganrog on Lake Maeotis, as well as more places, including Panticapaeum, Pontic Olbia, and Phanagoria and Hermonassa on the Taman peninsula; the Greeks carried out thriving commercial ties with the sedentary peoples of the forest steppe who lived to the north of the Scythians, with the large rivers of eastern Europe which flowed into the Black Sea forming the main access routes to these northern markets. This process put the Scythians into permanent contact with the Greeks, and the relations between the latter and the Greek colonies remained peaceful, although the Scythians might have destroyed Panticapaeum at some point in the middle of the 6th century BC. The territory around Pontic Olbia was under the direct rule of that city and was inhabited only by Greeks. Using the Pontic steppe as their base, the Scythians over the course of the 7th to 6th centuries BC often raided into the adjacent regions, with Central Europe being a frequent target of their raids, and Scythian incursions reaching Podolia, Transylvania, and the Hungarian Plain, due to which, beginning in this period, and from the end of the 7th century onwards, new objects, including weapons and horse-equipment, originating from the steppes and remains associated with the early Scythians started appearing within Central Europe, especially in the Thracian and Hungarian plains, and in the regions corresponding to present-day Bessarabia, Transylvania, Hungary, and Slovakia. Multiple fortified settlements of the Lusatian culture were destroyed by Scythian attacks during this period, with the Scythian onslaught causing the destruction of the Lusatian culture itself. Attacks by the Scythians were directed at southern Germania, and, from there, until as far as Gaul, and possibly even the Iberian Peninsula; these activities of the Scythians were not unlike those of the Huns and the Avars during the Migration Period and of the Mongols in the mediaeval era, and they were recorded in Etruscan bronze figurines depicting mounted Scythian archers as well as in Scythian influences in Celtic art. Among the sites in Central Europe attacked by the Scythians was that of Smolenice-Molpír [sk], where Scythian-type arrows were found at this fortified hillfort's access points at the gate and the south-west side of the acropolis The Scythians attacked, sacked and destroyed many of the wealthy and important Iron Age settlements located to the north and south of the Moravian Gate and belonging to the eastern group of the Hallstatt culture, including that of Smolenice-Molpír [sk], leading to the adoption of the Scythian-type "Animal Style" art and mounted archery by the population of these regions in the subsequent period. It was also at this time that the Scythians introduced metalwork types which followed Shang Chinese models into Western Eurasia, where they were adopted by the Hallstatt culture. As part of the Scythians' expansion into Europe, one section of the Scythian Sindi tribe migrated during the 7th to 6th centuries BC from the region of the Lake Maeotis towards the west, through Transylvania into the eastern Pannonian basin, where they settled alongside the Sigynnae and soon lost contact with the Scythians of the Pontic steppe. Another section of the Sindi established themselves on the Taman peninsula, where they formed a ruling class over the indigenous Maeotians, the latter of whom were of native Caucasian origin. ### Presence in West Asia During the earliest phase of their presence in West Asia, the Scythians under their king Išpakaia were allied with the Cimmerians, and the two groups, in alliance with the Medes, who were an Iranic people of West Asia to whom the Scythians and Cimmerians were distantly related, as well as the Mannaeans, were threatening the eastern frontier of the kingdom of Urartu during the reign of its king Argishti II, who reigned from 714 to 680 BC. due to which Argishti II's successor, Rusa II, built several fortresses in the east of Urartu's territory, including that of Teishebaini, to monitor and repel attacks by the Cimmerians, the Mannaeans, the Medes, and the Scythians. The first mention of the Scythians in the records of the then superpower of West Asia, the Neo-Assyrian Empire, is from between 680/679 and 678/677 BC, when their king Išpakaia joined an alliance with the Mannaeans and the Cimmerians in an attack on the Neo-Assyrian Empire. During this time, the Scythians under Išpakaia, allied to Rusa II of Urartu, were raiding far in the south till the Assyrian province of Zamua. These allied forces were defeated by the Assyrian king Esarhaddon. The Mannaeans, in alliance with an eastern group of the Cimmerians who had migrated into the Iranic plateau and with the Scythians (the latter of whom attacked the borderlands of Assyria from across the territory of the kingdom of Ḫubuškia), were able to expand their territories at the expense of Assyria and capture the fortresses of Šarru-iqbi and Dūr-Ellil. Negotiations between the Assyrians and the Cimmerians appeared to have followed, according to which the Cimmerians promised not to interfere in the relations between Assyria and Mannai, although a Babylonian diviner in Assyrian service warned Esarhaddon not to trust either the Mannaeans or the Cimmerians and advised him to spy on both of them. In 676 BC, Esarhaddon responded by carrying out a military campaign against Mannai during which he killed Išpakaia. Išpakaia was succeeded by Bartatua, who might have been his son. In the later mid-670s BC, in alliance with the eastern Cimmerians, the Scythians were menacing the Assyrian provinces of Parsumaš and Bīt Ḫamban, and these joint Cimmerian-Scythian forces together were threatening communication between the Assyrian Empire and its vassal of Ḫubuškia. The Mannaeans, eastern Cimmerians and Medes soon joined a grand coalition headed by the Median chieftain Kashtariti. #### Bartatua and the alliance with Assyria Išpakaia was succeeded by Bartatua, who might have been his son, and with whom they had already started negotiations immediately after Išpakaia's death and they had been able to defeat Kashtariti in the meantime in 674 BC, after which his coalition disintegrated. In 672 BC Bartatua himself sought a rapprochement with the Assyrians and asked for the hand of Esarhaddon's daughter Šērūʾa-ēṭirat in marriage, which is attested in Esarhaddon's questions to the oracle of the Sun-god Šamaš. Whether this marriage did happen is not recorded in the Assyrian texts, but the close alliance between the Scythians and Assyria under the reigns of Bartatua and his son and successor Madyes suggests that the Assyrian priests did approve of this marriage between a daughter of an Assyrian king and a nomadic lord, which had never happened before in Assyrian history; thus, the Scythians were separated from the Medes and were brought into a marital alliance with Assyria, and Šērūʾa-ēṭirat was likely the mother of Bartatua's son Madyes. Bartatua's marriage to Šērūʾa-ēṭirat required that he would pledge allegiance to Assyria as a vassal, and in accordance to Assyrian law, the territories ruled by him would be his fief granted by the Assyrian king, which made the Scythian presence in West Asia a nominal extension of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Bartatua himself an Assyrian viceroy. Under this arrangement, the power of the Scythians in West Asia heavily depended on their cooperation with the Assyrian Empire; henceforth, the Scythians remained allies of the Assyrian Empire, with Bartatua helping the Assyrians by defeating the state of Mannai and imposing Scythian hegemony over it. Around this time, the Urartian king Rusa II might also have enlisted Scythian troops to guard his western borderlands. The marital alliance between the Scythian king and the Assyrian ruling dynasty, as well as the proximity of the Scythians with the Assyrian-influenced Mannai and Urartu, thus placed the Scythians under the strong influence of Assyrian culture, and contact with the civilisation of West Asia would have an important influence on the formation of Scythian culture. Among the concepts initially foreign to the Scythians which they had adopted from the Mesopotamian and Transcaucasian peoples was that of the divine origin of royal power, as well as the practice of performing human sacrifices during royal funerals, and the Scythian kings henceforth imitated the style of rulership of the West Asian kings. ##### West Asian influence on Scythians The Scythians adopted many elements of the cultures of the populations of Urartu and Transcaucasia, especially of more effective weapons: the *akīnakēs* sword and socketed bronze arrowheads with three edges, which, although they are considered as typically "Scythian weapons," were in fact of Transcaucasian origin and had been adopted by the Scythians during their stay in the Caucasus. The art typical of the Scythians proper originated between 650 and 600 BC for the needs of the Royal Scythians at the time when they ruled over large swathes of West Asia, with the objects of the Ziwiye hoard being the first example of this art. Later examples of this West Asian-influenced art from the 6th century BC were found in western Ciscaucasia, as well as in the Melhuniv kurhan [uk] in what is presently Ukraine and in the Witaszkowo kurgan [pl] in what is modern-day Poland. This art style was initially restricted to the Scythian upper classes, and the Scythian lower classes in both West Asia and the Pontic steppe had not yet adopted it, with the latter group's bone cheek-pieces and bronze buckles being plain and without decorations, while the Pontic groups were still using Srubnaya- and Andronovo-type geometric patterns. Within the Scythian religion, the goddess Artimpasa and the Snake-Legged Goddess were significantly influenced by the Mesopotamian and Syro-Canaanite religions, and respectively absorbed elements from Astarte-Ishtar-Aphrodite for Artimpasa and from Atargatis-Derceto for the Snake-Legged Goddess. ##### Conquest of Mannai Over the course of 660 to 659 BC, Esarhaddon's son and successor to the Assyrian throne, Ashurbanipal, sent his general Nabû-šar-uṣur to carry out a military campaign against Mannai. After trying in vain to stop the Assyrian advance, the Mannaean king Aḫsēri was overthrown by a popular rebellion and was killed along with most of his dynasty by the revolting populace, after which his surviving son Ualli requested help from Assyria, which was provided through the intermediary of Ashurbanipal's relative, the Scythian king Bartatua, after which the Scythians extended their hegemony to Mannai itself. Around this same time, Bartatua's Scythians were also able to take over a significant section of the south-eastern territories of the state of Urartu. #### Madyes Bartatua was succeeded by his son with Šērūʾa-ēṭirat, Madyes, who soon expanded the Scythian hegemony to the state of Urartu. ##### Conquest of Media When, following a period of Assyrian decline over the course of the 650s BC, Esarhaddon's other son, Šamaš-šuma-ukin, who had succeeded him as the king of Babylon, revolted against his brother Ashurbanipal in 652 BC, the Medes supported him, and Madyes helped Ashurbanipal suppress the revolt externally by invading the Medes. The Median king Phraortes was killed in battle, either against the Assyrians or against Madyes himself, who then imposed Scythian hegemony over the Medes for twenty-eight years on behalf of the Assyrians, thus starting a period which Greek authors called called the “Scythian rule over Asia,” with Media, Mannai and Urartu all continuing to exist as kingdoms under Scythian suzerainty. During this period, the Medes adopted Scythian archery techniques and equipment due to their superiority over those of the West Asian peoples, and the trade of silk to western Eurasia might have started at this time through the intermediary of the Scythians during their stay in West Asia, with the earliest presence of silk in this part of the world having been found in a Urartian fortress, presumably imported from China through the intermediary of the Scythians. ##### Defeat of the Cimmerians During the 7th century BC, the bulk of Cimmerians were operating in Anatolia, where they constituted a threat against the Scythians’ Assyrian allies, who since 669 BC were ruled by Madyes's uncle, that is Esarhaddon's son and Šērūʾa-ēṭirat's brother, Ashurbanipal. Assyrian records in 657 BC might have referred to a threat against or a conquest of the western possessions of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in Syria, and these Cimmerian aggressions worried Ashurbanipal about the security of his empire's north-west border. By 657 BC the Assyrian divinatory records were calling the Cimmerian king Tugdammi by the title of *šar-kiššati* ("King of the Universe"), which could normally belong only to the Neo-Assyrian King: thus, Tugdammi's successes against Assyria meant that he had become recognised in ancient West Asia as equally powerful as Ashurbanipal, and the kingship over the Universe, which rightfully belonged to the Assyrian king, had been usurped by the Cimmerians and had to be won back by Assyria. This situation continued throughout the rest of the 650s BC and the early 640s BC. In 644 BC, the Cimmerians, led by Tugdammi, attacked the kingdom of Lydia, defeated the Lydians and captured the Lydian capital, Sardis; the Lydian king Gyges died during this attack. After sacking Sardis, Tugdammi led the Cimmerians into invading the Greek city-states of Ionia and Aeolis on the western coast of Anatolia. After this attack on Lydia and the Asian Greek cities, around 640 BC the Cimmerians moved to Cilicia on the north-west border of the Neo-Assyrian empire, where, after Tugdammi faced a revolt against himself, he allied with Assyria and acknowledged Assyrian overlordship, and sent tribute to Ashurbanipal, to whom he swore an oath. Tugdammi soon broke this oath and attacked the Neo-Assyrian Empire again, but he fell ill and died in 640 BC, and was succeeded by his son Sandakšatru. In 637 BC, the Thracian Treres tribe who had migrated across the Thracian Bosporus and invaded Anatolia, under their king Kōbos and in alliance with Sandakšatru's Cimmerians and the Lycians, attacked Lydia during the seventh year of the reign of Gyges's son Ardys. They defeated the Lydians and captured their capital of Sardis except for its citadel, and Ardys might have been killed in this attack. Ardys's son and successor, Sadyattes, might possibly also have been killed in another Cimmerian attack on Lydia in 635 BC. Soon after 635 BC, with Assyrian approval and in alliance with the Lydians, the Scythians under Madyes entered Anatolia, expelled the Treres from Asia Minor, and defeated the Cimmerians so that they no longer constituted a threat again, following which the Scythians extended their domination to Central Anatolia. This final defeat of the Cimmerians was carried out by the joint forces of Madyes, whom Strabo credits with expelling the Treres and Cimmerians from Asia Minor, and of the son of Sadyattes and the great-grandson of Gyges, the Lydian king Alyattes, whom Herodotus of Halicarnassus and Polyaenus claim finally defeated the Cimmerians. In Polyaenus' account of the defeat of the Cimmerians, he claimed that Alyattes used "war dogs" to expel them from Asia Minor, with the term "war dogs" being a Greek folkloric reinterpretation of young Scythian warriors who, following the Indo-European passage rite of the kóryos, would ritually take on the role of wolf- or dog-warriors. Scythian power in West Asia thus reached its peak under Madyes, with the territories ruled by the Scythians extending from the Halys river in Anatolia in the west to the Caspian Sea and the eastern borders of Media in the east, and from Transcaucasia in the north to the northern borders of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the south. A Scythian group might have left Media and migrated into the region between the Don and Volga rivers, near the Sea of Azov in the North Caucasus, during this period in the 7th century BC, after which they merged with Maeotians who had a matriarchal culture and formed the Sauromatian tribe. #### Decline ##### Revolt of Media By the 620s BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire began unravelling after the death of Ashurbanipal in 631 BC: in addition to internal instability within Assyria itself, Babylon revolted against the Assyrians in 626 BC under the leadership of Nabopolassar; and the next year, in 625 BC, Cyaxares, the son of Phraortes and his successor to the Median kingship, overthrew the Scythian yoke over the Medes by inviting the Scythian rulers to a banquet and then murdering them all, including Madyes, after getting them drunk. ##### Raid till Egypt Shortly after Madyes's assassination, some time between 623 and 616 BC, the Scythians took advantage of the power vacuum created by the crumbling of the power of their former Assyrian allies and overran the Levant. This Scythian raid into the Levant reached as far south as Palestine, and was foretold by the Judahite prophets Jeremiah and Zephaniah as a pending "disaster from the north," which they believed would result in the destruction of Jerusalem, but Jeremiah was discredited and in consequence temporarily stopped prophetising and lost favour with the Judahite king Josiah when the Scythian raid did not affect Jerusalem and or Judah. The Scythian expedition instead reached up to the borders of Egypt, where their advance was stopped by the marshes of the Nile Delta, after which the pharaoh Psamtik I met them and convinced them to turn back by offering them gifts. The Scythians retreated by passing through the Philistine city of Ascalon largely without any incident, although some stragglers looted the temple of ʿAštart in the city, which was considered to be the most ancient of all temples to that goddess, as a result of which the perpetrators of this sacrilege and their descendants were allegedly cursed by ʿAštart with a “female disease,” due to which they became a class of transvestite diviners called the *Anarya* (meaning “unmanly” in Scythian). ##### War against Assyria According to Babylonian records, around 615 BC the Scythians were operating as allies of Cyaxares and the Medes in their war against Assyria, with the Scythians' abandonment of their alliance with Assyria to instead side with the Babylonians and the Medes being a critical factor in worsening the position of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and the Scythians participated in the Medo-Babylonian conquests of Aššur in 614 BC, Nineveh in 612 BC, and Ḫarran in 610 BC, which permanently destroyed the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The presence of Scythian-style arrowheads at locations where the Neo-Babylonian Empire is known to have conducted military campaigns, and which are associated with the destruction layers of these campaigns, suggests that certain contingents composed of Scythians or of Medes who had adopted Scythian archery techniques might have recruited by the Neo-Babylonian army during this war. These contingents participated in the battle of Carchemish in 605 BC, while clay figurines depicting Scythian riders, as well as an Ionian shield and a Neo-Hittite battle-axe similar to those found in Scythian remains in the Pontic steppe, suggest that actual Scythian mercenaries had also participated at the final Neo-Babylonian victory over the Egyptians at Carchemish. The Scythian or Scythian-style contingents also participated in the Neo-Babylonian campaigns in the southern Levant, including in the Babylonian annexation of the kingdom of Judah in 586 BC. #### Expulsion from West Asia The rise of the Medes and their empire allowed them to finally expel the Scythians from West Asia in the c. 600s BC, after which, beginning in the later 7th and lasting throughout much of the 6th century BC, the majority of the Scythians migrated from Ciscaucasia into the Pontic Steppe, which became the centre of Scythian power. The inroads of the Cimmerians and the Scythians into West Asia over the course of the 8th to 6th centuries BC had destabilised the political balance which had prevailed in the region between the states of Assyria, Urartu, Mannaea and Elam on one side and the mountaineer and tribal peoples on the other, resulting in the destruction of these former kingdoms and their replacement by new powers, including the kingdoms of the Medes and of the Lydians. Some splinter Scythian groups nevertheless remained in West Asia, in the southeast Caucasus, and settled in Transcaucasia, especially the area corresponding to modern-day Azerbaijan in eastern Transcaucasia, due to which the area where they lived, and which corresponded to the core regions of the former West Asian Scythian realm, was called *Sakašayana*, meaning "land inhabited by the Saka (i.e. Scythians)," by the Medes after they had annexed this region to their empire. The Median name for this territory was later recorded by Titus Livius under the form of *Sacassani*, and as *Sakasēnē* by Ptolemy, while the country was called the “Land of the *Skythēnoi*” by Xenophon. One such splinter group joined the Medes and participated in the Median conquest of Urartu, with Scythian arrowheads having been found in the destruction layers of the Urartian fortresses of Argištiḫinili and Teišebani, which were conquered by the Medes around c. 600 BC. One group formed a kingdom in what is now Azerbaijan under Median overlordship, but eventually hostilities broke out between some of them and Cyaxares, due to which they left Transcaucasia and fled to Lydia. By the middle of the 6th century BC, the Scythians who had remained in West Asia had completely assimilated culturally and politically into Median society and no longer existed as a distinct group. Meanwhile, other Transcaucasian Scythian splinter groups later retreated northwards to join the West Asian Scythians who had already previously moved into the Kuban Steppe. ### Pontic Scythian kingdom #### Early phase After their expulsion from West Asia, and beginning in the later 7th and lasting throughout much of the 6th century BC, the majority of the Scythians, including the Royal Scythians, migrated into the Kuban Steppe in Ciscaucasia around 600 BC, and from Ciscaucasia into the Pontic Steppe, which became the centre of Scythian power, Although Herodotus of Halicarnassus claimed that the Scythians retreated into the northern Pontic region through Crimea, archaeological evidence instead suggests that the Royal Scythians migrated northwards into western Ciscaucasia, and from there into the country of those Scythians who had previously established themselves in the Pontic steppe. Some of the Scythian groups who had settled in the eastern Pontic steppe to the east of the Dnipro river were displaced by the arrival of the Royal Scythians from West Asia, and they moved north into the region of the forest-steppe zone, outside of the Pontic Scythian kingdom itself. These groups formed the tribes of the Androphagi, Budini, and Melanchlaeni. During this early phase of the Pontic Scythian kingdom, the hold of the Royal Scythians on the western part of the steppe located to the west of the Dnipro was light, and they were largely satisfied with the tribute they levied on the sedentary agriculturist population of the region. Meanwhile, the tribe of the Aroteres, which consisted of a settled Thracian population over which ruled an Iranic Scythian ruling class, imported Greek pottery, jewellery and weapons in exchange of agricultural products, and in turn offered them in tribute to their Scythian overlords. However, the country of the Alazones tribe appears to have become poorer during this time, in the early 6th century BC, when many of the rebuilt pre-Scythian settlements in their territory were destroyed by the Royal Scythians arriving from West Asia. In Crimea, the Royal Scythians took over most of the territory up to the Cimmerian Bosporus in the east. In western Ciscaucasia, where the Scythians were not large in number enough to spread throughout the region, they instead took over the steppe to the south of the Kuban river's middle course, where they reared large herds of horses. It was at this time that the Scythians brought the knowledge of working iron which they had acquired in West Asia with them and introduced it into the Pontic Steppe, whose peoples were still Bronze Age societies until then. Some West Asian blacksmiths might also have accompanied the Scythians during their nortwards retreat and become employed by Scythian kings, after which the practice of ironworking soon spread to the neighbouring populations. During this period, the tribe of the Royal Scythians would primarily bury their dead at the edges of the territories they occupied, especially in the western Cisaucasian region, instead of within the steppe region that was the centre of their kingdom; due to this, several Scythian kurgan *nekropoleis* were located in Ciscaucasia, with some of them being significantly wealthy and belonging to aristocrats or royalty, and the Royal Scythians' burials in the Kuban Steppe were the most lavish of all Scythian funerary monuments during the Early Scythian period. During the early 6th century BC, the some groups of Transcaucasian Scythians migrating northwards would arrive into the Pontic Steppe to reinforce the Royal Scythians who had already arrived there. Meanwhile, the Median, Lydian, Egyptian, and Neo-Babylonian empires that the Scythians had interacted with during their stay in West Asia were replaced at this time by the Persian Achaemenid Empire founded by the Persian Cyrus II. The Persians were an Iranic people just like the Scythians and the Medes, and, during the early phase of the Achaemenid empire, their society still preserved many archaic Iranic aspects which they had in common with the Scythians. The formation of the Achaemenid empire appears to have pressured the Scythians into remaining to the north of the Black Sea. Soon after, during the Early Scythian period itself, the centre of power of the Royal Scythians shifted from the eastern Pontic steppe to the north-west, in the country of the Aroteres tribe, where was located the main industrial centre of Scythia: and which corresponded to the country of *Gerrhos*, which was located in the eastern part of the country of the Aroteres, on the boundary of the steppe and the forest-steppe. During this period, the Royal Scythians buried their dead in the country of *Gerrhos*. At this time, there were close links between the new political centre of Scythia in *Gerrhos* and the Greek colony of Pontic Olbia, and members of the royal family often visited this city. During this period, the Scythians were ruled by a succession of kings whose names were recorded by Herodotus of Halicarnassus: * Spargapeithes * Lykos, son of Spargapeithes * Gnouros, son of Lykos * Saulios, son of Gnouros * Idanthyrsus, son of Saulios At the time of Idanthyrsus, and possibly later, the Scythians were ruled by a triple monarchy, with Skōpasis and Taxakis ruling alongside Idanthyrsus. Scopasis was himself the king of the Sauromatians, who maintained peaceful relations with the Scythians, with a long road starting in Scythia and continuing towards the eastern regions of Asia existing thanks to these friendly relations. #### The Persian invasion In 513 BC, the king Darius I of the Persian Achaemenid Empire carried out a campaign against the Pontic Scythians. In, the Scythian king Idanthyrsus summoned the kings of the peoples surrounding his kingdom to a meeting to decide how to deal with the Persian invasion. The kings of the Budini, Gelonians and Sarmatians accepted to help the Scythians against the Persian attack, while the kings of the Agathyrsi, Androphagi, Melanchlaeni, Neuri, and Tauri refused to support the Scythians. When the armies of the Scythians fled to the territories of their neighbours in front of the advancing Persian army, the Agathyrsi refused to provide refuge to the Scythians, which forced them to retreat back into their own territory. Darius's invasion was resisted by Idanthyrsus, Skōpasis and Taxakis, with the Scythians refusing to fight an open battle against the well-organised Achaemenid army, and instead resorting to partisan warfare and goading the Persian army deep into Scythian territory. The Persian army might have crossed the Don river and reached the territory of the Sauromatians, where Darius built fortifications, but resumed their pursuit when the Scythian forces returned. The results of this campaign were also unclear, with the Persian inscriptions themselves referring to the *Sakā tayaiy paradraya* (the "Saka who dwell beyond the (Black) Sea"), that is to the Scythians, as having been conquered by Darius, while Greek authors instead claimed that Darius's campaign failed and from then onwards developed a tradition of idealising the Scythians as being invincible thanks to their nomadic lifestyle. Although the Scythians and the Persians were both Iranic peoples related to each other, the Greeks tended to perceive the Scythians as being "savage" nomads whom they associated with the Thracians, while they saw the Persians as a "civilised" sedentary people whom they associated with the Assyrians and Babylonians. Therefore, the ancient Greeks saw the Persian invasion of Scythia as a clash between "savagery" represented by the Scythians and "civilisation" represented by the Persians. #### Early decline Over the course of the late 6th century BC, the Scythians had progressively lost their territories in the Kuban region to another nomadic Iranic people, the Sauromatians, beginning with the territory to the east of the Laba river, and then the whole Kuban territory. By the end of the 6th century BC, the Scythians had lost their territories in the Kuban Steppe and had been forced to retreat into the Pontic Steppe, except for its westernmost part which included the Taman peninsula, where the Scythian Sindi tribe formed a ruling class over the native Maeotians, due to which this country was named Sindica. By the 5th century BC, Sindica was the only place in the Caucasus where the Scythian culture survived. #### Expansion After losing their territories in the Kuban Steppe in the late 6th century BC, the Scythians had being forced to fully retreat into the Pontic Steppe, and the Royal Scythians' centre of power within Scythia shifted to the south, in the region of the bend of the Dnipro, where the site of Kamianka became the principal industrial centre of Scythia, with the sedentary population of the city being largely metal-workers who smelted bog iron ores into iron that was made into tools, simple ornaments and weapons for the agricultural population of the Dnipro valley and of other regions of Scythia, and the city itself was the most prominent supplier of iron and bronze products to the nomadic Scythians; the city of Kamianka also became the capital of the Scythian kings, whose headquarters were located in the further fortified acropolis of the city. At the same time, a wave of Sauromatian nomads from the lower Volga steppe in the east immigrated into Scythia over the course of 550 and 500 BC and were absorbed by the Pontic Scythians with whom they mingled. A large number of settlements in the valleys of the steppe rivers were destroyed as a result of these various migratory movements. The retreat of the Scythians from the Kuban Steppe and the arrival of the Sauromatian immigrants into the Pontic steppe over the course of the late 6th to early 5th centuries BC caused significant material changes in the Scythian culture soon after the Persian campaign which are not attributable to a normal evolution of it. Some of the changes were derived from the Sauromatian culture of the Volga steppe, while others originated among the Kuban Scythians, thus resulting in the sudden appearance within the lower Dnipro region of a fully formed Scythian culture with no local forerunners, and which included a notable increase in the number of Scythian funerary monuments. The Scythians underwent tribal unification and political consolidation in reaction to the Persian invasion, and the names of kings who ruled over the Scythians the 5th century BC are known, although it is unknown whether these kings were ruling only the western regions of Scythia located between the Danube and Pontic Olbia or over all the Scythians: * Ariapeithes * Scyles, the son of Ariapeithes by a Greek woman from Histria * Octamasadas, the son of Ariapeithes by the daughter of the Thracian Odrysian king Teres I. Octamasadas deposed Scyles and replaced him on the throne The Scythians also became more active and aggressive around this time, possibly as a result of the arrival of the new Sauromatian nomadic elements from the east, or out of necessity to resist Persian expansionism. This change manifested itself through the consolidation of the dominant position of the Royal Scythians over the other tribes within Scythia and through the Royal Scythians' hold on the western part of their realm to the west of the Dnipro, where lived the agriculturist populations, becoming heavier and more oppressive, and the Scythians may also have gained access to the Wallachian and Moldavian plains at this time, although Oltenia and parts of Moldavia were instead occupied by the Agathyrsi. Another result of the changes within Scythia during this period was increased Scythian expansionism: one of the target areas of Scythian expansionism was Thrace, where the Scythians seem to have established a permanent presence to the south of the Danube at an early point, with the Greek cities of Kallatis and Dionysupolis in the area corresponding to the present-day Dobruja both being surrounded by Scythian territory; and, in 496 or 495 BC, the Scythians raided the Thracian territories far to the south of the Danube till the Thracian Chersonese on the Hellespont, as an attempt to secure themselves from Persian encroachment. The emergence of the Thracian Odrysian kingdom during the 5th century BC soon blocked the Scythian advances in Thrace, and the Scythians established friendly contacts with the Odrysians, with the Danube river being set as the common border between the two kingdoms, and a daughter of the Odrysian founder king Tērēs I marrying the Scythian king Ariapeithes; these friendly relations also saw the Scythians and Thracians adopting aspects of each other's art and lifestyles. However, at some point in the 5th century BC, the Agathyrsian king Spargapeithes treacherously killed the Scythian king Ariapeithes. In the north and north-west, Scythian expansionism manifested itself through the destruction of the fortified settlements of the forest steppe and the subjugation of its population. In the south, the Scythians tried to impose their rule over the Greek colonies on the northern shores of the Black Sea: the Greek settlement of Kremnoi [uk] at Taganrog on the lower reaches of the Don river river, which was the only Greek colony in that area, had already been destroyed by the Scythians between 550 and 525 BC, and, owing to the Scythians' necessity to continue commerce with the Greeks, was replaced by a Scythian settlement at Yelizavetovskaya [ru] which became the principal trade station between the Greeks and the Scythians in this region. Although the relations between the Scythians and the Greek cities of the northern Pontic region had until then been largely peaceful and the cities previously had no defensive walls and possessed unfortified rural settlements in the area, new hostile relations developed between these two parties, and during the 490s BC fortifications were built in many Pontic Greek cities, whose *khōrai* were abandoned or destroyed, while burials of men killed by Scythian-type arrowheads appeared in their *nekropoleis*. Between 450 and 400 BC, Kerkinitis was paying tribute to the Scythians. The Scythians were eventually able to successfully impose their rule over the Greek colonies in the north-western Pontic shores and in western Crimea, including Niconium, Tyras, Pontic Olbia, and Kerkinitis, and the close relations between Pontic Olbia and the Scythian political centre ended at this time. The hold of the Scythians over the western part of the Pontic region thus became firmer during the 5th century BC, with the Scythian king Scyles having a residence in the Greek city of Pontic Olbia which he would visit each year, while the city itself experienced a significant influx of Scythian inhabitants during this period, and the presence of coins of Scyles issued at Niconium in the Dnister valley attesting of his control over this latter city. This, in turn, allowed the Scythians to participate in indirect relations with the city of Athens in Greece proper, which had established contacts in Crimea. The destruction of the Greek cities' *khōrai* and rural settlements however also meant that they lost their grain-producing hinterlands, with the result being that the Scythians instituted an economic policy under their control whereby the sedentary peoples of the forest steppe to their north became the primary producers of grain, which was then transported through the Southern Buh and Dnipro rivers to the Greek cities to their south such as Tyras, Niconium and Pontic Olbia, from where the cities exported it to mainland Greece at a profit for themselves. The Scythians were less successful at conquering the Greek cities in the region of the Cimmerian Bosporus, where, although they were initially able to take over Nymphaeum, the other cities built or strengthened city walls, banded together into an alliance under the leadership of Panticapaeum, and successfully defended themselves, after which they united into the Bosporan Kingdom. At the same time, the Scythians sent a diplomatic mission to Sparta in Greece proper with the goal of establishing a military alliance against the Achaemenid Empire. Ancient Greek authors claim that the Spartans started drinking undiluted wine, which they called the "Scythian fashion" of drinking wine because of these contacts. After Scyles, coins minted in Pontic Olbia were minted in the name of Eminakos, who was either a governor of the city for Scyles's brother and successor, Octamasadas, or a successor of Octamasadas. Around the same time, there were inner conflicts within the Scythian kingdom, and a new wave of Sauromatian immigrants arrived into Scythia around c. 400 BC, which destabilised it and ended Scythian military activity against the Greek cities of the Pontic shore. Scythian control of the Greek cities ended sometime between 425 and 400 BC, and the cities started reconstituting their *khōrai*, and Pontic Olbia regained control over the territory it occupied during the Archaic period and expanded it, while Tyras and Niconium also restored their hinterlands. The Scythians lost control of Nymphaeum, which became part of the Bosporan Kingdom which itself had been expanding its territories in the Asian side of the Cimmerian Bosporus. With the arrival of a new wave of Sauromatian immigrants, the Royal Scythians and their allied tribes moved to the western parts of Scythia and expanded into the areas to the south of the Danube corresponding to modern Bessarabia and Bulgaria, and they established themselves in the Dobruja region. One of the Scythian kings who ruled during the later 5th century BC was buried in a sumptuously furnished kurgan located at Agighiol during the early 4th century BC. #### Golden Age The Scythian kingdom of the Pontic steppe reached its peak in the 4th century BC, at the same time when the Greek cities of the coast were prospering, and the relations between the two were mostly peaceful; some Scythians had already started becoming sedentary farmers and building fortified and unfortified settlements around the lower reaches of the Dnipro river since the late 5th century BC, and this process intensified throughout the 4th century BC, with the nomadic Scythians settling in multiple villages in the left bank of the Dnister estuary and in small settlements on the lower banks of the Dnipro and of the small steppe rivers which were favourable for agriculture; at the same time, the Scythians sold furs, fish, and grain to the Greeks in exchange of wine, olive oil, and luxury goods, while there was high demand for the Scythians' exports done through the Greek colonies, such as trade goods, grain, slaves, and fish, due to which the relations between the Pontic and Aegean regions, and most especially with Athens, were thriving; the importation of Greek products by the forest steppe peoples had instead decreased since the 5th century BC, and the Scythians captured territories from them in the area around what is presently Boryspil during this time. Although the Greek cities of the coast extended their territories considerably, this did not infringe on the Scythians, who still possessed abundant pastures and whose settlements were still thriving, with archaeological evidence suggesting that the population of Crimea, most of whom were Scythians, during this time increased by 600%. The rule of the Spartocid dynasty in the Bosporan Kingdom was also favourable for the Scythians under the rules of Leukon I, Spartocus II and Paerisades I, with Leucon employing Scythians in his army, and the Bosporan nobility had contacts with the Scythians, which might have included matrimonial relations between Scythian and Bosporan royalty. In the 4th century BC, the Bosporan kingdom became the main supplier of grains to Greece partly because of the Peloponnesian War which was raging in the latter region, which intensified the grains trade between the Scythians and the Greeks, with the Scythians becoming the principal middlemen in the supply of grains to the Bosporan kingdom: while most of the grains that the Scythians sold to the Greeks was produced by the agricultural populations in the northern forest steppe, the Scythians themselves were also trying to produce more grains within Scythia itself, which was a driving force behind the sedentarisation of many of the hitherto nomadic Scythians; the process of Scythian sedentarisation thus was most intense in the regions adjacent to the Bosporan cities in eastern Crimea. The Scythian royalty and aristocracy obtained enormous profits from this grains trade, and this period saw Scythian culture not only thriving, with most known Scythian monuments dating from then, but also rapidly undergoing significant Hellenisation. The city of the Kamianka site remained the political, industrial and commercial capital of Scythian during the 4th and early 3rd centuries BC, during which time the Scythians founded a new settlement at Yelizavetovskaya [ru] which functioned as the main administrative, commercial and industrial centre of the lower Don river and northern Lake Maeotis areas and was also the residence of local Scythian lords. The main burial centre of the Scythians during this period was located in the Nikopol and Zaporizhzhia region on the lower Dnipro, where were located the Solokha, Chortomlyk, Krasnokutsk and Oleksandropil [uk] kurgans. Rich burials, such as, for example, the Chortomlyk mohyla [uk], attest of the wealth acquired from the grains trade by the Scythian aristocracy of the 4th century BC, who were progressively buried with more, relatives, retainers, and grave goods such as gold and silver objects, including Greek-manufactured toreutics and jewellery; the Scythian commoners however did not obtain any revenue from this trade, and luxury items are absent from their burials. Despite the pressure of some smaller and isolated Sarmatian groups in the east, the period remained largely and unusually peaceful and the Scythian hegemony in the Pontic steppe remained undisturbed, with the Scythian nomads continuing to form the bulk of the northern Pontic region's population. The most famous Scythian king of the 4th century BC was Ateas, who was the successor and possibly the son of the Scythian king buried at Agighiol, and whose rule started around the 360s BC. By this period, Scythian tribes had already settled permanently on the lands to the south of the Danube, where the people of Ateas lived with their families and their livestock, and possibly in Ludogorie as well, and at this time both Crimea and the Dobruja region started being called "Little Scythia" (Ancient Greek: Μικρα Σκυθια; Latin: *Scythia Minor*). Although Ateas had united the Scythian tribes under his rule into a rudimentary state and he still ruled over the traditional territories of the Scythian kingdom of the Pontic steppe until at least Crimea, around 350 BC he had also permanently seized some of the lands on the right bank of the Danube from the Thracian Getae, and it appears that he was largely based in the region to the south of the Danube. Under Ateas, the Greek cities to the south of the Danube had also come under Scythian hegemony, including Kallatis, over which he held control and where he probably issued his coins; further attesting of the power that the Scythians held to the south of the Danube in his time, Ateas's main activities which were centred in Thrace and south-west Scythia, such as his wars against the Thracian Triballi and the Dacian Histriani and his threat of conquest against Byzantium, which might be another possible location for where Ateas minted his coins. Ateas initially allied with Philip II of Macedonia, but eventually this alliance fell apart and war broke out between Scythia and Macedonia over the course of 340 to 339 BC, ending with the death of Ateas, at about 90 years old, and the capture of the Scythians' camp and the 20,000 women and children and more than 2,000 pedigree horses living there. The Scythians appear to have lost some territories on both sides of the Danube due to Ateas's defeat and death, with the Getae moving to the north across the Danube and settling in the lands between the Dnipro and the Prut rivers, although. These changes did not affect Scythian power: the Scythians still continued to nomadise and bury their dead in rich kurgans in the areas to the north-west of the Black Sea between the Dnipro and the Prut; the Scythian capital of the Kamianka site continued to exist as prosperously and extensively as it had before the defeat of Ateas; and the Scythian aristocracy continued burying their dead in barrow tombs which were as sumptuous as those of Ateas's time. In 331 or 330 BC, the Scythians were able to defeat an invasion force of 30,000 men led against them and the Getae by Alexander III's lieutenant Zopyrion and which had managed to attain and besiege Pontic Olbia, with Zopyrion himself getting killed. #### Decline and end During the end of the 4th century BC, the Scythians were militarily defeated by a king of Macedonia again, this time by Lysimachus in and 313 BC. After this, the Scythians experienced another military defeat when their king Agaros participated in the Bosporan Civil War in 309 BC on the side of Satyros II, son of Paerisades I. After Satyros II was defeated and killed, his son Paerisades fled to Agaros's realm. The aftermath of the Scythian conflict with Macedon also coincided with climatic changes and economic crises caused by overgrazed pastures, producing an unfavorable period for the Scythians, and, following their setbacks against the Macedonians, the Scythians came under pressure from the Celts, the Thracian Getae and the Germanic Bastarnae from the west; at this same time, beginning in the late 4th century BC, another related nomadic Iranic people, the Sarmatians, whose smaller, moved from the east into the Pontic steppe, where their more active groups overwhelmed the more numerous, sedentary Scythians, and took over the Scythians' pastures. This deprived the Scythins of their most important resource, causing the collapse of Scythian power and as a consequence Scythian culture suddenly disappeared from the north of the Pontic sea in the early 3rd century BC. During the 3rd century BC the Celts and Bastarnae displaced the Balkan Scythians. The Protogenes inscription, written sometime between 220 and 200 BC, records that the Scythians and the Sarmatian Thisamatae and Saudaratae tribes sought shelter from the allied forces of the Celts and the Germanic Sciri. As the result of the Sarmatian, Getic, Celtic, and Germanic encroachments, the Scythian kingdom came to an end and the Scythian kurgans disappeared from the Pontic region, replaced as the dominant power of the Pontic steppe by the Sarmatians, while "*Sarmatia Europea*" (European Sarmatia) replaced "*Scythia*" as the name for the region. ### Little Scythia Around 200 BC, after their final defeat by the Sarmatian Roxolani, the remnants of the Scythians left their centre at Kamianka and fled to the Scythia Minors in Crimea and in Dobrugea, as well as in nearby regions, their population living in limited, fortified enclaves. The settlements of those Scythians remaining on the Pontic were located in the lower reaches of the Dnieper river. These Scythians were no longer nomadic, having become sedentary, Hellenised farmers, and by the second century BC, these were the only places the Scythians could still be found. By 50 to 150 AD, most of the Scythians had been assimilated by the Sarmatians. The remaining Scythians of Crimea, who had mixed with the Tauri and the Sarmatians, were conquered in the 3rd century AD by the Goths and other Germanic tribes who were then migrating from the north into the Pontic steppe, and who destroyed Scythian Neapolis. In subsequent centuries, remaining Scythians and Sarmatians were largely assimilated by early Slavs. The Scythians and Sarmatians played an instrumental role in the ethnogenesis of the Ossetians, who are considered direct descendants of the Alans. ### Legacy #### Antiquity The Ancient Greeks included the Scythians in their mythology, with Herodorus of Heraclea making a mythical Scythian named Teutarus being a herdsman who served Amphitryon and taught archery to Heracles. Herodorus also portrayed the Titan Prometheus as a Scythian king, and, by extension, described Prometheus's son Deucalion as a Scythian as well. The ancient Israelites called the Scythians *ʾAškūz* (אשכוז), and this name, corrupted to *ʾAškənāz* (אשכנז), appears in the Hebrew Bible, where ʾAškənāz is closely linked to Gōmer (גֹּמֶר‎), that is to the Cimmerians. Later Graeco-Roman tradition transformed the Scythian prince Anacharsis into a legendary figure as a kind of "noble savage" who represented "Barbarian wisdom," due to which the ancient Greeks included him as one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Consequently, Anarcharsis became a popular figure in Greek literature, and many legends arose about him, including claims that he had been a friend of Solon. The ancient Greek historian, Ephorus of Cyme, later used this image of Anacharsis to create an idealised image of the Scythians, and eventually Anacharsis completely became an ideal "man of nature" or "noble savage" figure in Greek literature, as well as favourite figure of the Cynics, who ascribed to him a 3rd-century BC work titled the *Letters of Anacharsis*. The richness of Scythian burials was already well known in Antiquity, and, by the time the power of the Scythians came to an end in the 3rd century BC, the robbing of Scythian graves started and was initially carried out by Scythians themselves. The Romans confused the peoples whom they perceived as archetypical "Barbarians," namely the Scythians and the Celts, into a single grouping whom they called the "Celto-Scythians" (Latin: *Celtoscythae*) and supposedly living from Gaul in the west to the Pontic steppe in the east. During Late Antiquity itself, another wave of grave robbery of Scythian burials occurred at the time of the Sarmatian and Hunnish domination of the Pontic Steppe, when these peoples reused older Scythian kurgans to bury their own dead. In Late Antiquity itself, as well as in and the Middle Ages, the name "Scythians" was used in Greco-Roman and Byzantine literature for various groups of nomadic "barbarians" living on the Pontic-Caspian Steppe who were not related to the actual Scythians, such as the Huns, Goths, Ostrogoths, Gokturks, Pannonian Avars, Slavs, and Khazars. For example, Byzantine sources referred to the Rus' raiders who attacked Constantinople in 860 AD in contemporary accounts as "Tauroscythians" because of their geographical origin, and despite their lack of any ethnic relation to Scythians. #### Mediaeval period Following the Christianisation of Europe, the view that the peoples of this continent originated in West Asia as the descendants of Japheth became the normative historiography. At the same time, drawing on the Classical authors' lumping together of the ancient Celts and Scythians under the label of "Barbarians," whereby these peoples, who were the *other* for the Graeco-Romans, were pictured as sharing traits and resemble each other in how "strange" they were, the various cultures of North Europe started claiming ancestry from the "Celto-Scythians" and adopted the Graeco-Roman vision of the "barbarity" of ancient peoples of Europe as legitimate records of their own ancient cultures. In this context, the similarity of the name *Scythia* with the Latin name of the Irish, *Scotti*, led to the flourishing of speculations of a Scythian ancestry of the Irish, as recorded in the *Historia Brittonum* of Nennius, and consequently the 8th century text, the *Auraicept na n-Éces*, claimed that a Scythian named Fénius Farsaid (lit. 'Irishman the Pharisee') presided over 27 scholars using the best parts of the new confused languages at Babel to create the Irish language. Drawing on the confusion of the *Scotti* with both *Scythia* and the *Picti*, as well as on the late antique conceptualisation of Scythia as a typical "barbarian land" which had persisted into the Middles Ages, Bede in the 8th century itself invented a Scythian origin for the Picts in his *Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum*. The Irish mythological text titled the *Lebor Gabála Érenn* repeated this legend, and claimed that these supposed Scythian ancestors of the Irish had been invited to Egypt because the pharaoh admired how Nel, the son of Fénius, was knowledgeable on the world's many languages, with Nel marrying the pharaoh's daughter Scota. According to the *Lebor Gabála Érenn*, the Scythians fled from Egypt when pharaoh drowned after Moses parted the Red Sea during the flight of the Israelites, and went back to Scythia, and from there to Ireland via Africa and Spain while Nel's and Scota's son, Goídel Glas, became the eponym the Gaelic people. Little is known of the situation of Scythian tombs during the Mediaeval period, when Turkic tribes had moved into the regions formerly inhabited by the Scythians, although the earliest recorded cases of Scythian burials being robbed date from the 15th century BC. #### Modern period Drawing on the Biblical narrative and the Graeco-Roman conflation of the Scythians and Celts, early modern European scholars believed that the Celts were Scythians who were descended from Japheth's son Magog, and that they were related to the Gauls, whom they believed were descended from Japheth's other son Gomer. It therefore became popular among pseudohistorians of the 15th and 16th centuries who drew on this historiography to claim that the Irish people were the "truest" inheritors of Scythian culture so as both to distinguish and denigrate Irish culture. During the early modern era itself, colonial ethnographers used the narrative of Herodotus of Halicarnassus to create an image of the Scythians as a notorious and "savage" people chauvinistically attached to their own customs and opposed to outside influences. Fascinated by this imagery, these ethnographers drew on it to claim populations who were completely unrelated to the Scythians, such as the Irish, Tatars, Mongols, Turks, and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, as being alleged descendants of the Scythians. While claims of Scythian and Japhethic ancestry in much of Europe were abandoned during the Reformation and Renaissance, British works on Ireland continued to emphasise the alleged Scythian ancestry of the Irish to confirm their "barbaric" nature; these endeavours were further reinforced by 17th century proto-linguistic hypotheses about "Scytho-Celtic" languages and enjoyed enthusiastic popularity during the 18th century, until these origin hypotheses were finally discredited by early 19th century advances in philology and by the discovery of features common to the cultures of the ancient continental Celts and the Irish. During the early modern period itself, Hungarian scholars identified the Hungarians with the Huns, and claimed that they descended from Scythians. Therefore, the image of the Scythians among Hungarians was shaped into one of "noble savages" who were valorous and honest, uncouth and hostile to Western refinement, but at the same time defended "Christian civilisation" from aggression from the East, such as from the Pechenegs, Cumans, and Tatars in the Middle Age, and from the Ottomans in the early modern period. This view was later superseded by the now established scientific consensus that the Hungarians are a Finno-Ugric people. The 17th century Irish historian Roderick O'Flaherty continued the claim of the *Lebor Gabála Érenn* that the Irish descended from the Scythians in his history of Ireland titled *Ogygia: seu Rerum Hibernicarum Chronologia & etc.*, in which he identified Fénius Farsaid with the figure of Phoenix, who in Greek mythology was believed to have created the Phoenician alphabet. O'Flaherty elaborated on this by claiming that Fénius Farsaid also invented the Ogham script and the early Greek alphabet from which the Latin alphabet evolved. Large scale robbery of Scythian tombs started when the Russian Empire started occupying the Pontic steppe in the 18th century: in 1718 the Russian Tsar Peter I issued decrees overseeing the collection of "right old and rare" objects to Saint Petersburg in exchange for compensation, and the material thus obtained became the basis of the Saint Petersburg State Hermitage Museum's collection of Scythian gold. This resulted in significant grave robbery of Scythian burials, due to which most of the Scythian tombs of the Russian Empire had been sacked by 1764. In the 18th to 20th centuries, the racialist British Israelist movement developed a pseudohistory according to which, after population of the historical kingdom of Israel had been deported by the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 721 BC and became the Ten Lost Tribes, they fled to the north to the region near Sinope, from where they migrated into East and Central Europe and became the Scythians and Cimmerians, who themselves moved to north-west Europe and became the supposed ancestors of the white Protestant peoples of North Europe; being an antisemitic movement, British Israelists claim to be the most authentic heirs of the ancient Israelites while rejecting Jews as being "contaminated" through intermarriage with Edomites or adhere to the antisemitic conspiracy theory claiming that Jews descend from the Khazars. According to the scholar Tudor Parfitt, the proof cited by adherents of British Israelism is "of a feeble composition even by the low standards of the genre." In the 19th century, Scythian kurgans in Ukraine, Kuban, and Crimea had been looted, so that by the 20th century, more than 85% of Scythian kurgans excavated by archaeologists had already been pillaged. The grave robbers of the 18th and 19th centuries were experienced enough that they almost always found the burial chambers of the tombs and stole the treasures contained within them. In the later 19th century, a cultural movement called *Skifstvo* [ru] (Russian: Скифство, lit. 'Scythianism') emerged in Russia whose members unreservedly referred to themselves and to Russians as a whole as *Skify* (Russian: Скифы, lit. 'Scythians'). The *Skify* were a movement of Russian nationalist religious mysticists closely affiliated to the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries who saw Russia as a sort of Messiah-like figure who would usher in a new historical era of the world, and their identification with the ancient Scythians was a positive acceptance of Dostoevsky's view that Europe had always seen Russians as being Asiatic. The *Skify* therefore used this image to distinguish Russia from the West, although they nevertheless did not see Russia as being a part of Asia, and their ideas were instead a revival of the old conceptualisation of Russia as being the bridge linking Europe and Asia. The culmination of *Skifstvo* was the famous poem written in 1918 by Aleksandr Blok, titled *Skify* (Russian: Скифы, lit. 'The Scythians'), in which he presented "Scythia," that is Russia, as being different from the rest of Asia while also being closer to Europe. In *Skify*, Blok depicted Russia as a barrier between the "warring races" of Europe and Asia, and he made use of the racist Yellow Peril ideology by threatening that Russia was capable of stopping its "protection" of Europe and allow East Asians to overrun it. The scholar Adrienne Mayor hypothesised over the course of 1993 to 2011 that the legend of the griffin originated among the Scythians, who came across fossilised skeletons of the dinosaur *Protoceratops* in Mongolia while mining for gold, and retold this discovery to the ancient Greeks, who interpreted them as mythical beings, thus creating the myth of the griffin. This hypothesis was contested in 2016 by the palaeontologist Mark P. Witton, who demonstrated that the imagery of the griffin originated in early Bronze Age West Asia and was transmitted from there into ancient Greek art during the Orientalising period. The imagery of griffins in Scythian art itself originated from contacts with the artistic traditions of West Asia and ancient Greece. In the present-day, the Ukrainian historian Oleksandr Paliy [uk] has suggested that that the assimilation of the Scythians by the Slavs played a part in the ethnogenesis of Ukrainians. Possible Scythian influences on Ukrainian culture according to him include the wearing of the sharovary, as well as the presence of a fricative "r," ikavism [uk] and the plural form "-ta" in the Ukrainian language, and the "Animal Style" art of Kyivan Rus. Culture and society ------------------- Since the Scythians did not have a written language, their non-material culture can only be pieced together through writings by non-Scythian authors, parallels found among other Iranic peoples, and archaeological evidence. ### Archaeology Scythian archaeology can be divided into three stages: * Early Scythian – from the mid-8th or the late 7th century BC to about 500 BC * Classical Scythian or Mid-Scythian – from about 500 BC to about 300 BC * Late Scythian – from about 200 BC to the mid-3rd century AD, in the Crimea and the Lower Dnipro, by which time the population was settled. Archaeological remains of the Scythians include kurgan tombs (ranging from simple exemplars to elaborate "Royal kurgans" containing the "Scythian triad" of weapons, horse-harness, and Scythian-style wild-animal art), gold, silk, and animal sacrifices, in places also with suspected human sacrifices. Mummification techniques and permafrost have aided in the relative preservation of some remains. Scythian archaeology also examines the remains of cities and fortifications. ### Language The Scythians spoke a language belonging to the Scythian languages, most probably a branch of the Eastern Iranic languages. Whether all the peoples included in the "Scytho-Siberian" archaeological culture spoke languages from this family is uncertain. The Scythian languages may have formed a dialect continuum: "Scytho-Sarmatian" in the west and "Scytho-Khotanese" or Saka in the east. The Scythian languages were mostly marginalised and assimilated as a consequence of the late antiquity and early Middle Ages Slavic and Turkic expansion. The western (Sarmatian) group of ancient Scythian survived as the medieval language of the Alans and eventually gave rise to the modern Ossetian language. ### Social organisation #### Clan structures Scythian society was constituted of kinship structures where clan groups formed the basis of the community and of political organisation. Clan elders wielded considerable power, and were able to depose kings, such as when the Scythian army overthrew the king Scyles and the Scythians demanded his extradition from the Thracians, after which he was executed. Following the deposition of Scyles, the power of both the king and the warrior-aristocracy became further entrenched. As an extension of clan-based relations, a custom of blood brotherhood existed among the Scythians, whereby the blood of the sworn blood brothers was poured in a cup of wine in which their swords, arrows, battle-aces, and spears were lowered before they drank it. #### Tribal structures The Scythians were furthermore organised into tribes which were themselves headed by local lords. These tribes were subject to the dominant tribe of the Royal Scythians, who formed the tribal aristocracy of the Scythians and whose ruling lord was the king of all Scythians. The Scythians were composed of a number of tribal units, including: * the **Royal Scythians**, also called the **Skōlotoi** (Σκωλοτοι) and the **Paralatai** (Παραλαται), were an Iranic tribe who nomadised in the Pontic Steppe, in an area limited by the Dnipro river in the west, and the Don river and the port of Kremnoi in the east, as well in Crimea up to the Cimmerian Bosporus in its east. The Royal Scythians and the Nomad Scythians were the only fully nomadic tribes within Scythia. + The Royal Scythians were the main Scythian tribe, and they were the ruling tribe of the whole of Scythia. They were the dominant tribe within Scythia to whom all the other tribes were subjects, and the high king of all the Scythians came from the tribe of the Royal Scythians. - the various tribes being each led by their own lords were all subservient to the lord of the Royal Scythians, and they all paid tribute to the Royal Scythians and provided them and the high king with servants. + the name *Paralatai* (Scythian: *Paralāta*) corresponds to the Young Avestan name *Paraδāta* (𐬞𐬀𐬭𐬀𐬜𐬁𐬙𐬀‎), meaning “placed at the front.” + the name *Skōlotoi* is the Greek form of the Scythian endonym *Skulatā*, formed by the addition of the plural suffix *-tā* to the Scythian endonym *Skula* * the **Nomad Scythians**, who lived to the west of the Royal Scythians, between the Inhul and the bend of the Dnipro, were a mixed Thracian and Iranic Scythian nomadic tribe. The Nomad Scythians and the Royal Scythians were the only fully nomadic tribes in Scythia. * the **Free Scythians**, who were a tribe of mixed Scythian-Sauromatian origin, lived in the southeastern Pontic Steppe, between the port of Kremnoi and the Don or the Donets river. * the **Alazones** (Ancient Greek: Αλαζονες) or **Alizōnes** (Ancient Greek: Αλιζωνες), who were the westernmost Scythian tribe, were semi-nomads who occupied the steppe between the Inhul and the Dnister around the region where the Dnister and the Southern Buh flow the closest to each other. + The Alazones led semi-nomadic lives, with those of them who lived in the steppe being pastoral nomads and those who lived in the valleys of the Southern Buh and nearby rivers being farmers who cultivated wheat, onions, garlic, lentils and millet. The Alazones were the southern neighbours of the Aroteres and, like them, might have been of mixed Thracian and Iranic origins. The Alazones were themselves in turn the northern neighbours of the Callipidae. * the **Scythian Ploughmen** or **Scythian Husbandmen** or **Arotēres** (Ancient Greek: Αροτηρες) or **Gerrhoi** (Ancient Greek: Γερροι), who were the northern neighbours of the Alazones, were sedentary agriculturists who lived in a region with fertile black earth corresponding to the modern-day part of Ukraine which lies to the west of the Dnipro river until the region of Vinnytsia. Their neighbours to the north were the Baltic Neuri, and to the south were the Alazones. + The Aroteres were large sedentary Thracian population of Scythia who descended from the Late Bronze Age Sabatynivka Culture, over whom had established themselves an Iranic Scythian ruling class during the 6th century BC. * the **Callipidae** (Ancient Greek: Καλλιπιδαι, romanized: *Kallipidai*) were a semi-nomadic population of Thracian origin who lived across a wide section of land adjacent to the shores of the Black sea ranging from the estuary of the Southern Buh river to the area of modern-day Odesa or even until the estuary of the Dnister. The western neighbours of the Callipadae across the Dnister river were Thracian tribe of the Getae in Bessarabia, while Thracian populations under Scythian rule lived on the coast. Their northern neighbours were the Alazones. + The Callipidae were a considerably Hellenised tribe who consisted of a large settled Thracian population with a Scythian ruling class. * the **Scythian Agriculturalists** or **Geōrgoi** (Ancient Greek: Γεωργοι) were another population of Thracian origin. The Geōrgoi lived in the valley of the lower Dnipro river, in the wooded country of *Hylaea*, and they may have been sedendaty or semi-nomadic. * a tribe not named by the Greek authors lived on the north-west shore of Lake Maeotis, and corresponded to the archaeological "Obytichna 12 type" settlements. In addition to the Scythians themselves, as well as the Thracians who had inhabited the region since the Bronze Age, the population of the Pontic Scythian kingdom consisted of Greeks living in colonies on the northern shore of the Black Sea. There were few differences between the many Scythian tribes and tribal groupings in the early period of the Pontic Scythian kingdom, which later became more pronounced as these eventually conquered various native populations. ##### Neighbouring populations The neighbours of the Scythians included: * the Thracian Getae, who lived to the west of Scythia, across the Danube river. * the Melanchlaeni and the Androphagi, who lived to the east of the middle Dnipro river, in the forest steppe bordering the territory of the Royal Scythians to the north, respectively in the valleys of the Donets and Sula rivers. These populations were either of Scythic or of mixed Scythic and native origin. * the Sauromatians, who lived to the east of the Scythians, in the steppe between the Don and the Volga, were another Scythic people. They were the immediate neighbours of the Royal Scythians to the east, across the Don river. * the Neuri, who were a Baltic population of the region of the forest steppe corresponding to modern-day Belarus, lived to the north of the Aroteres. They corresponded to the Milograd culture. * the Agathyrsi lived to the west of the Aroteres and of the Neuri. * the Budini, to the east of the Neuroi and in the valley of the Vorskla river, were either a Scythic tribe, or one of the many Finno-Ugric populations living in the eastern forest steppe until the Ural Mountains. * the Gelonians, to the east of the Dnipro, in the valley of the Vorskla river. * the Maeotians lived on the eastern coast of the Lake Maeotis. * the Tauri lived in the Crimean Mountains. ##### Related populations The Scythians were closely related to other Iranic nomads who occupied the Eurasian steppe during Antiquity, such as: * the Sauromatians of the Volga-Ural region; * the Saka of Central Asia, including: + the Massagetae; + the Pazyryk culture; + the Tagar culture; + the Chandman culture; * the Xiongnu; * the Yuezhi. #### Class structures Scythian society was stratified along class lines. Herodotus of Halicarnassus named the three classes of Scythians only once in his writings, where he described them as descended from the three sons of the Scythian ancestor-god Targitaos: * the **Auchatae** (Ancient Greek: Αυχαται, romanized: *Aukhatai*), who were the priestly class, descended from Targitaos's eldest son, Lipoxais; * the **Catiari** (Ancient Greek: Κατιαροι, romanized: *Katiaroi*) and **Traspies** (Ancient Greek: Τρασπιες, romanized: *Traspies*), who were the farmer-and-peasant class, descended from Targitaos's middle son, Arpoxais; * the **Royal Scythians**, also called the **Scoloti** (Σκωλοτοι) and the **Paralatae** (Παραλαται), who were the warrior-aristocracy, descended from Targitaos's youngest son, Kolaxais. The Scythian aristocracy were property owners who possessed landed estates large enough that it sometimes took a whole day to ride around them. These freeborn Scythian rulers used the whip as their symbol. The commoners were free but still depended to some extent on the aristocracy. They were allowed to own some property, usually a pair of oxen needed to pull a cart, hence why they were called *oktapodes* (Ancient Greek: οκτάποδες, lit. 'eight-feeters'). By the 4th century BC, the exploitation of these free commoners became the main economic policy of Scythia. Serfs belonged to the poorest sections of the native populations of Scythia, and, being tied to the land and not possessing cattle, they were not free and did not own cattle or wagons. Stablemen and farmers were recruited from the serf class. A rudimentary form of slavery was also practised in Scythia, and the Scythian ruling class used a large number of slaves to till the land and tend to the cattle. Slaves were also assigned to the production of dairy products. The Greek author Herodotus of Halicarnassus claimed that the Scythians used to blind their slaves to prevent them from eating the most valuable of these dairy products. He also claimed that the Scythian kings considered the inhabitants of Crimea to be their slaves. This class structure thus existed in a hierarchy where the farmer-peasant class occupied the lowest social position, the clergy occupied the middle position, and warrior-aristocracy occupied the highest social position and dominated the other two classes, with the Scythian kings belonging to this dominant class. The class stratification of Scythian society corresponded to a hierarchy of social standing and property ownership which is visibly in how export of the grain cultivated by the common freemen profited the only the aristocracy but not these commoners, whose graves lacked the lavish furnishing of the aristocratic burials. This drastic difference between the aristocracy and the commoners is also visible in how Scythian art only represented the interested of the Scythian ruling classes. #### Gender structure Scythian society was a patriarchal one where women were subordinate to men, although women from the upper classes were free to ride horses, while women from the lower classes may have not been free to do so and may have spent most of their time indoors. Among the more nomadic tribes, the women and children spent most of their time indoors in the wagons. Polygamy was practised among the Scythian upper classes, and kings had harems in which both local women and woman who had been bought lived. Some of these women were the kings' legal wives and others were their concubines. Reflecting the patriarchal structure of Scythian society, the wives and concubines could be passed down as inheritance, as when the Scythian king Scyles married Opoea, who had been one of his father's wives. Women were likely in charge of tending the herds and organising the livelihood when the men were away to fight. #### Administrative structure ##### Kingship The Scythians were monarchical, and the king of all the Scythians was the main tribal chief, who was from the dominant tribe of the Royal Scythians. Power among the Scythian kings was passed down a single dynasty, and the historian and anthropologist Anatoly Khazanov has suggested that the Scythians had been ruled by the same dynasty from the time of their stay in West Asia until the end of their kingdom in the Pontic Steppe. The Scythologist Askold Ivantchik has instead proposed that the Scythians had been ruled by at least three dynasties, including that of Bartatua, that of Spargapeithes, and that of Ariapeithes. Although the kings' powers were limited by the popular and warrior assemblies, royal power itself was held among the Scythians to be divinely ordained: this conception of royal power, which is well documented in the ritual symbols depicted on 5th to 3rd century BC Scythian toreutics, was initially foreign to Scythian culture and originated in West Asia during the period of Scythian presence there in the 7th century BC. The Scythian kings were later able to further increase their position through the concentration of economic power in their hands because of their dominance of the grains trade with the Greeks, which made them and the Scythian warrior-aristocracy as a whole, very wealthy. After their death, the Scythian kings were buried along with one or some of their wives. The kings also chose servants, cupbearers, courtiers, and members of the royal entourage from the tribes under his authority, who were to be killed and buried along with him to follow and serve him in the afterlife. Warriors belonging to the entourage of Scythian rulers were also buried in smaller and less magnificent tombs surrounding the tombs of the rulers. By the 4th century BC, the Scythian kingdom had developed into a rudimentary state after the king Ateas had united all the Scythian tribes under his personal authority. ##### Popular and warrior assemblies The Scythians were organised into popular and warrior assemblies that limited the power of the kings. The gatherings of these assemblies were held in the nomes, such as the one at which the overthrow of the king Scyles was decided. ##### Administrative divisions The Scythians were ruled by a triple monarchy, with a high king who ruled all of the Scythian kingdom, and two younger kings who ruled in sub-regions. The kingdom was in turn made of nomes headed by local lords. ### Lifestyle The peoples of Scythian consisted of a mix of sedentary farmer populations and nomads, with the tribes living in the steppes remaining primarily nomadic, and their lifestyle and customs were inextricably linked to their nomadic way of life, with the tribe of the Royal Scythians initially leading a transhumant pastoralist nomadic way of life. With the integration of Scythia with the Greek colonies on the northern shore of the Black Sea, the Scythians soon became involved in activities such as cultivating grain, fishing, trading and craftsmanship, and they already started becoming semi-nomads and sedentary farmers by the 5th century BC, and by the 3rd century BC they had become settled farmers. #### Equestrianism Being equestrian nomads, the Scythians excelled at horsemanship, and Scythian men spent most of their lives on horseback. The Scythians reared a small but very swift breed of horse that they rode directly and also used for drawing carts. Graeco-Roman authors claimed that the Scythians and Sarmatians would castrate their horses because they were otherwise too turbulent to handle. The saddle was invented by the Scythians in the 7th century BC, and consisted of two felt cushions stuffed with stag hair and mounted on felt sweatbands; in some cases, the cushions were attached to wooden saddle frames placed to their back and front. Scythian saddles had four raised bolsters at each corner, which, at a time when the stirrup had not yet been invented, allowed the riders to lean into the forward bolsters and raise themselves without being encumbered by the bouncing of their running horses. Scythian saddles very colourful and dyed in red, yellow, dark blue, black, and white; they were also wholly decorated with wool, *appliqué* leather, and felt, as well as wooden carvings decorated in gold leaf. #### Pastoralism The society of the Scythians was highly based on nomadic pastoralism, which was practised by both the sedendary and nomadic Scythian tribes, with their herds being made up of about 40% horses, 40% cattle, and 18% sheep, but no pigs, which the Scythians refused to keep in their lands; with the Scythians being able to raise large herds of these animals thanks to the abundance of grass on the steppe. Horse rearing was especially an important part of Scythian life, not only because the Scythians rode them, but also because horses were a source of food. The strong reliance of the Scythians on pastoralism itself ensured the self-sufficiency of the Scythians, and was conducive towards the nomadic lifestyle. This importance of pastoralism for the Scythians is visible in how representations of pastoral activities formed the predominant theme of Scythian petroglyphic art. Scythian women tended the herds while men were engaged in fighting. #### Hunting Hunting among the Scythians was primarily done for sport and entartainment rather than for procuring meat, although it was occasionally also carried out for food. #### Agriculture In addition to being principally reliant on domesticated animals, the Scythians also complemented their source of food with agriculture, and the Scythian upper classes owned large estates in which large numbers of slaves and members of the tribes subordinate to the Royal Scythians were used to till the land and rear cattle. Among these subordinate tribes, the sedendary Scythian tribes of the Callipidae, Aroteres, Georgoi, and Alizones, engaged in agriculture, and grew crops for their own use as well as to be exported to the Greeks on the northern shores of the Black Sea. These tribes were able to cultivate large quantities of crops thanks to the use of the plough. The ancient Greek author Herodotus of Halicarnassus recorded that these sedendary Scythian tribes grew wheat, barley, millet, lentils, beans, onions, and garlic; and an oven used to dry grains of wheat, barley, and rye was located at the site of Shyroka Balka, near Pontic Olbia. The Callipidae cultivated crops including wheat and millet, and also engaged in animal husbandry and fishing at sea. #### Diet The Scythians ate the meat from the horses, cattle, and sheep they reared. Milk, especially that of mares, was also an important part of the Scythians diet, and it was both consumed and used used to make cheese and an alcoholic drink made from milk similar to the *kumys* still widely consumed by Eurasian steppe nomads. The Scythians also supplemented, to varying extents depending on the regions where they lived, their diets by hunting deer, steppe antelopes, beavers, and other wild animals, as well as by fishing from the large rivers flowing through Scythia. In addition to these, the Scythians consumed large amounts of wine, which they bought from the Greeks. Unline the Greeks, who diluted wine with water before drinking it, the Scythians drank it undiluted, due to which undiluted wine was called "Scythian-style wine" among the Greeks, who also equated the drinking of wine "in the Scythian way" with immoderate and unrestrained binge drinking. During the earlier phase of the Scythian Pontic kingdom, wine was primarily consumed by the aristocracy, and its consumption became more prevalent among the wealthier members of the populace only after the 5th century BC. #### Clothing and grooming Kul-Oba vaseScythian warriors, drawn after figures on an electrum cup from the Kul-Oba kurgan burial near Kerch, Crimea. The warrior on the right strings his bow, bracing it behind his knee; note the typical pointed hood, long jacket with fur or fleece trimming at the edges, decorated trousers, and short boots tied at the ankle. Scythians apparently wore their hair long and loose, and all adult men apparently bearded. The *gōrytos* appears clearly on the left hip of the bare-headed spearman. The shield of the central figure may be made of plain leather over a wooden or wicker base. (Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg). The Scythians wore clothing typical of the steppe nomads, which tended to be soft, warm, and close-fitting, made from wool and leather and fur and felts, and decorated with *appliqué*d and golden ornaments: * the clothing of Scythian men consisted of: + long-sleeved jacket made of embroidered leather; - these jackets were belted and had lapels on the chest, trimmed with fur at the edges; - the jackets also possessed long flaps at their bottom that would have waved up and down during horse riding; + long trousers that could be either narrow or wide; - Scythian trousers were elaborately decorated with patterned textiles and *appliqué*s; + the jackets and trousers were decorated with curved lines and other patterns and trimmed with decorated strips along the seams; + half-boots into which the trousers were tucked or ankle-boots; - the boots were either tied to the feet with narrow laces under the ankle or around the foot itself; + Scythian men wore pointed caps with flaps on the side and on the back that could be tied at the front during earlier periods; + Scythian men went bareheaded in later times. * Scythian women wore: + shoes or short boots; + long dresses that could be pleated or have furbelows on the lower edges; + mantles; + the dresses and mantles were decorated with triangular or round metallic plates, which were made of gold for wealthier women and of bronze for poorer women; + women belonging to the upper classes wore: - *kandus* cloaks over their dresses; - tall headdresses whose shapes ranged from simple diadems to close-fitting caps to 30 cm-high *kalathoi*-shaped hats; - a veil over their head. Scythian garments were sewn together from several pieces of cloth, and generally did not require the use of fibulae to be held in place, unlike the clothing of other ancient European peoples. Textiles used to produce them include wool, hemp, ramie, and mixed fibres that were made into cloth through plain, twill and tapestry weaving, although silk appears to have been imported from China. Scythian dress was brightly coloured using resist painting and embroidery, and was decorated with gold *appliqué*s sewn into the clothing. Scythians wore jewellery usually made of gold, but sometimes also of bronze: * both men and women wore: + bracelets made of silver and bronze wire; + neck rings and torcs made of gold with animal figure-shaped or animal head-shaped terminals; + necklaces made of gold beads and various imported semi-precious stones; * Scythian men wore + earrings; + bracelets; * Scythian women wore: + earrings; + elaborate torques; + rings of various shapes; + gold bangles; + bracelets of pearls and other materials. ##### Hairstyle Scythian men grew their hair long and their beards to significant sizes. Nothing is known about the hairstyles of Scythian women. ##### Grooming Scythian women used to clean and beautify themselves by using a paste made from the wood of cypress, cedar, and frankincense. They also used cosmetics such as scented water and various ointments. Scythian men and women both used mirrors, and bronze mirrors made in Pontic Olbia and whose handles were decorated with animal figures such as those of stags, panthers, and rams, were popular during the early Scythian periods. #### Pets The Scythians had domestic dogs. #### Crafts and materials Aside from the consumed milk and meat, other parts of the animals reared by the Scythians were used to make skins and wool: * felts made of sheep's wool and sewn sheepskins were used to make caps and tents; * wool, hide, and fur was used to make clothing and blankets; * leather was used to make armour, helmets, trousers, shoes, pendants, velts, and quivers; * horse hair was used to make ropes used to cut animals from the herds and tether, laden, and bridle them; * bone was a light and accessible material: + bone was easily worked into many types of tools and ornaments; + bone was also used as fuel because it produced higher temperatures when burnt. The native sedentary Thracians populations who lived in Scythia manufactured products such as pottery, woodwork, and weaving, as well as bronze metal-working made out of raw materials imported from Transylvania. From this practice of handicraft, the peoples of Scythia obtained simple tools and ornaments, as well as certain types of weapons: * wood was a light, important, and accessible material: + it was easy to work into many types of tools and ornaments, such as spear shafts, arrows, battle-axes, tools, composite bows, ploughs, wagons, tents, and other objects used in daily life; + it was also used as fuel; + wood was obtained from the extensive woodlands on the well-watered lands of the lower Dnipro; ##### Metalworking The populations of Scythia practised both metal casting and blacksmithing, with the same craftsmen usually both casting copper and bronze and forging iron: * cast bronze bronze and iron were used to produce weapons and heavy tools; * Scythian bronze-working products included: + large bronze semi-spheric cauldrons with truncated cones as their stands, and which were decorated in cast and had either two or four animal-shaped handles on their rims; + socketed bronze finials which were placed at the top of poles and decorated with various animal figures; * The ores from which copper and tin were smelted were likely mined in the region of the Donets Ridge, and metal might also have been imported from the Ural Mountains and the Caucasus. Iron was meanwhile smelted out of bog iron ores obtained from the swampy regions on the lower Dnipro. The Scythians and the peoples of the Pontic steppe were still Bronze Age societies until the 8th century BC, and it was only after the Scythians had expanded into West Asia that they acquired knowledge of ironworking, which they then brought with them into the Pontic Steppe after they had been expelled from West Asia around c. 600 BC. ##### Goldsmithing The Scythians had practised goldsmithing from an early date, with remains from the 2nd kurgan of the Arzhan burials attesting that the Scythians were already skilled in working gold before their migration out of Central Asia. ##### Textiles The Scythians manufactured textiles using spindles, and wool, hemp, ramie, and mixed fibres were made into cloth through plain, twill and tapestry weaving, while silk appears to have been imported from China. ##### Industrial organisation The centre of industry during the Early Scythian period was located in the region of the Tiasmyn group of the Scythian culture, which corresponded the country of the Scythian Husbandsmen where an Iranic Scythian elite ruled over a sedentary Thracian population. By the Middle Scythian period, its principal centre was at a site corresponding to present-day Kamianka-Dniprovska, where bog iron ores were smelted to produce iron, and various tools, ornaments, and weapons were made. Blacksmiths' workshops in Scythian settlements from this time were located in both the ground-level and pit houses, where they formed groups of craftsmen's quarters. #### Habitations Among the various Scythian tribes, the sedentary farmer tribes lived in western Scythia between the Danube and the Dnipro, while the nomadic pastoralist tribes lived in eastern Scythia between the Dnipro and the Don. Some of these sedentary farmers later moved into Crimea. The more nomadic Scythians lived in habitations suited for nomadic lifestyles, such as tents of the same type as the more recent *yurt* of the Turkic peoples and the *ger* of the Mongolic peoples that could easily be assembled and disassembled to be transported to different locations, as well as covered wagons that functioned as tents on wheels. The walls and floors of these portable habitations were made of felt and the tents themselves were bound together using ropes made from horse hair. The division of Scythian burial chambers into weapon-arsenals, kitchen areas, stables, and living rooms for the deceased family members and their servants, as well as their furnishings, were modelled on the habitations in which the Scythians dwelt during their lives. At the site of Shyroka Balka, near Pontic Olbia, the local inhabitants built square and round pit hute before this region was Hellenised in the 6th century BC. Beginning in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, the Scythians started building fortified sedentary settlements. The most important of these was the settlement of Kamyanka, which was protected by the steep banks of the Dnipro river on one side and by ramparts on the other. The houses of the Scythian upper classes, which were built from stone, were located on the acropolis of Kamyanka, and have yielded significant amounts of Greek pottery and imported jewellery. The houses in these Scythian settlements, which were single-storeyed and had gabled roofs, were built from wooden beams, with the walls being made of beams stuck into the ground and covered with clay while felt fabrics were placed on their inside. Their sizes ranged from 40 to 150 metres square, and they could include multiple rooms. The settlements also contained square pit houses made of wooden posts. The tripe of the Callipidae lived in rammed earth houses built on stone foundations located in open settlements and earthworks, and buried their dead in flat graves while their Scythian ruling class were buried in kurgans. The tribe of the Aroteres were organised into small territorial units that lived in open undefended settlements and strongholds covering between 16 and 24 hectares, with the largest one covering 52 hectares, each possessing a large industrial quarter and functioning as industrial centres. The large number of Aroteres settlements and earthworks suggests that they formed a large and dense population in the black-earth region of the steppe. The earthworks of the Aroteres contained within them kurgan cemeteries, lasting from the 6th to 3rd centuries, that each included up to 400 kurgans where their inhabitants were buried, showing that their settlements also had dense populations. ### Religion The religion of the Scythians was a variant of the Pre-Zoroastrian Iranic religion which differed from Zoroastrian and the post-Zoroastrian Iranic religions, and instead belonged to a more archaic stage of Indo-Iranic religious development than the Zoroastrian and Hindu systems. The use of cannabis to induce trance and divination by soothsayers was a characteristic of the Scythian belief system. #### Warfare The Scythians were a people with a strong warrior culture, and fighting was one of the main occupations of Scythian men, who were all trained in war exercises and in archery from a young age, and the furnishings of Scythian burial chambers, which included weapons, reflected the martial nature of their society, which was made of mounted warriors. The Aroteres were an especially war-like Scythian tribe. However, the mostly small number of depictions of warfare compared to the larger number of representations of peaceful pastoralist activities in Scythian petroglyphic art suggests that the war-like tendencies of the Scythians might have been exaggerated by Herodotus of Halicarnassus and the modern authors who drew on him as a source. ##### Weapons The Scythians used weapons made from cast iron and bronze. ###### Archery Mounted archery was the main form of Scythian warfare. Scythian saddles had four raised bolsters at each corner, which, at a time when the stirrup had not yet been invented, allowed the riders to lean into the forward bolsters and raise themselves so they could use shoot their arrows from horseback. This type of saddle preserved the mounted archer from the bouncing of the running horses, thus allowing Scythian mounted archers to operate at very high performance levels. The main Scythian armament were the bow and arrows: * the typical weapon of the Scythians was the very recurved composite bow that was easy to use for mounted warriors. Scythian bows were: + the most complex composite bows in both their recurved profiles and their cross-sections; + highly engineered bows made from wood, horn, sinew, and fish glue made from sturgeons through laborious craftsmanship; + around 115 centimetres when strung; + capable of being drawn to the ear; + capable of delivering military draw weights; * although the shape of Scythian arrows changed with time, they maintained a basic structure. Scythian arrows: + were between 76 and 78 centimetres long; + had shafts made of reed or birch wood; + Scythian arrowheads were: - largely made of bronze, and iron and bone were more rarely used; - composed of a socket; * during the earlier periods, the arrowheads possessed an outer socket; - made bronze and were bilobate, and made of bone and had square or circular cross-sections during the earliest Scythian period in Central Asia; - made of bronze, were bilobate and trilobate, and were almond- or rhombus-shaped during the 8th century BC; this arrow shape started disappearing during the 7th century BC; - in the 7th century BC, elongated trilobate and three-edged arrowheads with inner or slightly protruding sockets first appeared; * an inner socket was added to these arrowheads during the later 7th century BC; - the new trilobate arrowhead type with an inner socket replaced the older ones in the 5th and 4th centuries BC; - trilobate arrowheads with outer sockets were still used after the 6th century BC, although they were slender and light, and their sockets were short; * although the shape of the arrowheads changed slightly with time, this type remained in use until the end of the Pontic Scythian kingdom; - Scythian trilobate arrowheads possessed propeller twists that made them spin, thus making them more aerodynamically efficient; - sometimes made with a single barb on one side: * these barbed arrows caused star wounds that were more difficult to sew together, therefore increasing the risk of haemorrhage among those shot, which terrorised those who received such wounds; * the barbs stopped being used arrowheads with outer sockets after the 6th century BC; - small in size, and likely fitted on foreshafts made of hardwood: * since the foreshafts were detachable from the main arrow body, they could be: + abandoned while recovering the arrows during hunting or war; + this made it easy to recover an embedded arrow with a barbed arrowhead without breaking it; + the detachability of the foreshafts with the arrowheads meant that they remained in the body, which made them especially useful when using poisoned arrows; * the shape of Scythian bows and the shape of their bronze arrowheads made them the most powerful firing weapon of their time, due to which they were adopted by West Asian armies in the 7nd century BC. When not used, Scythian bows and arrows were kept in a combined quiver-bowcase called a *gōrytos*: * the *gōrytos* was made of leather or bark and was decorated with gold or bronze plates; * *gōrytoi* could each contain up to 300 arrows; * unlike quivers that were set at the right hip among all other cultures, Scythian *gōrytoi* were hanged from belts at the left hip; * arrows were usually taken from the *gōrytoi* using the bow hand and drawn on the bowstring using the right hand, although the Scythians were skilled at ambidextrous archery. Scythian bows and arrows might have required the use of thumb rings to be drawn, although none have been found yet, possibly because hey might have been made of perishable materials. The Scythians coated their arrows with a potent poison referred to in Greek as *Skythikon* (Σκυθικον). To prepare this poison, the Scythians captured small adders, which they left to decompose, while they filled vessels with human blood and buried them in dung to putrefy it, after which the decomposed matter in the blood was mixed with the decomposed remains of the snakes. In addition to the snakes' venom retaining its effect in their decomposed bodies, the human blood was propitious for the growth of bacterial populations such as tetanus- and gangrene-causing germs from the dung. Thus, if an individual initially survived being shot with a poisoned Scythian arrow, they would still experience the effects of the snake poison, including the disintegration of blood cells, shock, and respiratory paralysis, with the gangrening of the wound starting the next day, followed by tetanus after around a week. Another poison used by the Scythians to coat their arrows was hemlock. ###### Other weapons In addition to the bow and arrow, the Scythians also used weapons such as: * iron spears measuring between 1.70 and 2.20 metres long with bay leaf-shaped spearheads that sometimes had a ferrule at the bottom; * long swords in the early period; * 50 to 70 centimetre-short iron swords and daggers called *akīnakēs*: + although considered "typically Scythian" weapons, the *akīnakai* had been borrowed by the Scythians from Transcaucasian peoples, more specifically from Georgian Bronze Age weaponry. + the hafts of *akīnakai* were richly decorated; + the hilts of *akīnakai* had bar-shaped terminals and heart-shaped or butterfly- or kidney-shaped crossguards; + in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, the shapes of the crossguards and terminals changed: - in the 5th century BC, the crossguards became thinner and the terminals shaped like two claws or horns became more widespread; - in the 4th century BC, the swords and daggers had triangular narrow crossguards with notches on their lower edges and oval terminals; * bimetallic pickaxes, called *sagaris*, made of an iron blade and a bronze socket; * shaft-hole war-axes; * other sorts of battle-axes; * lances; * darts; * lassoes; and slings. ##### Armour Some Scythian warriors wore rich protective armour and belts made of metal plates, including: * commoner warriors used leather or hide armour; * aristocrats used scale armour made of scales of bone, bronze, and iron sewn onto leather along the top edge; + scale armour had been borrowed by the Scythians from the peoples of West Asia during the 7th century BC and then made into a prevalent aspect of the Scythian culture of the northern Pontic region; + scale armour was also used to protect horses, especially in the chest area; * sometimes, instead of armour, the Scythians used battle-belts, which were made of scales sewn onto wide strips of either iron sheet, hide, or leather; * helmets: + cast bronze helmets with an opening for the face, called of the "Kuban type," were made by the native Caucasian peoples in the 6th and early 5th centuries BC for Scythians; + Greek-made Attic, Corinthian, Chalcidic, and Thracian helmets replaced the Caucasian-made "Kuban type" helmets in the 6th century BC; + scale helmets made of iron or bronze plates started being used in the later 6th century BC; * Greek-made greaves were imported from the 5th century BC. The Scythians used small hide or wicker shields reinforced with iron strips, with the shields of Scythian aristocrats often being decorated with decorative central plaques. ##### Command structure The high king had the supreme authority over the armies of the Royal Scythians and their subordinate tribes; the local lords were in charge of the army of a nome; the heads of clans were in charge of war bands. The nomes of the Scythian kingdom were in charge of spreading information about the war at the time of the Persian invasion of Scythia. Mounted archery was the mode of fighting of the free commoners of Scythia, who were called *hippotoxotai* (Ancient Greek: ιπποτοξοται, lit. 'horse-archers') in Greek. Serfs and slaves were subordinate to the warriors and accompanied them unarmed, and would be armed with spears only in extremely severe situations. ##### War customs The Scythians had several war-related customs: * every Scythian warrior would drink the blood of the first enemy they would kill; * the Scythians would collect the severed heads of their enemies and bring them to their king; + the war spoils would be divided among the warriors depending on the number of heads they brought; + it was also on the number of severed heads that a warrior had brought to the king that depended the rank of honour given on the warriors at the annual ceremony where the local lords of the nomes would pour wine into a large vessel for the warriors who had been successful in battle by killing at least one enemy; + it was considered the worst disgrace possibly by the Scythians to sit to one side due to having killed no enemies; * the heads of enemies were scalped, and the scalps themselves were tanned and used as: + decorative handkerchiefs tied to the bridles of horses; + as towels to be shown off; + the ancient Greeks associated the practice of scalping so closely with the Scythians that they used the term *aposkuthizein* (αποσκυθιζειν), literally meaning "to Scythianise away," as name for scalping; * the Scythians would fashion the tops of their enemies' skulls into drinking bowls which were covered in leather, and would be gilded on the inside if they belonged to rich Scythians; + this custom was likely derived from the belief that this was a way of absorbing the power of an enemy; * the corpses of enemies would be flayed, after which the skin would be tanned, and the warriors would: + either stretch them on wooden frames and carried by the warriors; + or made into saddles; + the skin and fingernails from the enemies' right hands was used to make *gōrytoi*. Although most authors have tended to focus on the Scythians' warrior culture, battle and fight scenes were only rarely depicted in Scytian petroglyphic art, where depictions of wild animals and peaceful pastoral activities instead predominated. #### Art The distinctive style of art characteristic of the Scythians proper emerged during their stay in Western Asia during the 7th century BC, and was elaborated primarily to serve the needs of the Scythian aristocracy, hence why it depicted prestigious themes, such as the deification of royal power, and the cults of ancestral heroes and of military valour. ##### The "Animal Style" The art of the Scythians was part of specific zoomorphic style called the "Animal Style," which was typical of the Eurasian steppe nomads, although the "Animal Style" of the Pontic Scythians was itself an artistic tradition of its own and differed from the variants of the "Animal Style" of the nomads from eastern Eurasia. The Scythian "Animal Style" represented a limited and specific range of animals in very specific canonical poses, although these did evolve over time. Within the "Animal Style," large surfaces that came together at an angle were used to model the bodies of animals, and the most importants parts of animals were exaggerated and stylised, including: * the eyes, ears and horns of ungulates; * the eyes, ears, claws, nostrils, and mouths of beasts of prey; * the eyes and beaks of birds of prey. As part of the Scythian "Animal Style" a specific motif known as "zoomorphic transformations" was used, whereby parts of the animals were themselves depicted as animals or parts of animals, such as, for example, the branches of deer's antlers and claws of beasts of prey, which were depicted as the heads of birds of prey with curved beaks. Some parts of animals, such as legs, hooves, and birds' heads, were often depicted separately. ##### History ###### Early Central Asian period The populations of the Srubnaya and Andronovo cultures from whom the Scythians were descended used solely geometric patterns on their pottery and cheek-pieces made of bone. ###### East Asian origins The "Animal Style" art of the Scythians was a variant of the art of the Eurasian Steppe nomads, which itself initially developed in eastern Eurasian steppes of Central Asia and Siberia during the 9th century BC under the partial influence of ancient Chinese art and of the "static" naturalistic art of the inhabitants of the Siberian woodlands, after which it arrived westward into eastern Europe during the 8th century BC. ###### West Asian influences During the Scythian stay in West Asia, and especially during their occupation of Media, the Scythian upper class came under the influence of West Asian culture, as a consequence of which the art of the Scythians absorbed many West Asian motifs and themes, due to which the "Animal Style" art was influenced by West Asian artistic traditions. The art style characteristic to the Scythians proper thus developed under these conditions during the period between 650 and 600 BC. In the earlier phases of the art of the Scythians proper, West Asian motifs dominated the earlier Srubnaya-inherited Scythian elements, with this West Asian influence being reflected in the contents of the Litoi [uk] and Kelermes [ru] kurgans, within which were both Scythian and West Asian artifacts, such as bowls and diadems obtained as booty or as diplomatic gifts, as well as items combining Scythian and West Asian elements, such as swords and axes that were typically Scythian in shape but not in their decorative motifs and artistic styles, although they still reproduced images of the Scythian "Animal Style" art, thus suggesting that they had been commissioned from West Asian craftsmen by Scythian patrons. Representations of eagle-headed griffins were adopted into Scythian art from West Asian sources at this time, and their depictions appear only at sites where contacts with West Asia are visible, such as the Kelermes kurgan; these representations of griffins became rare in the art of the Scythians after their expulsion from West Asia, and were distorted when they did appear. Particularly common during this period was the image of griffin-rams, that is of eagles with ram horns, which was absent outside of the range of the Scythian culture, and might have represented the *fārnā*. Only the items of West Asian origin depicted scenes in this period, and animals were largely depicted isolated or in antithetical compositions. Much of the West Asian imagery was however not absorbed by Scythian art. Examples of this West Asian-influenced art from the 6th century BC were found in western Ciscaucasian burials, as well as in the Melhuniv kurhan [uk] in what is presently Ukraine and in the Witaszkowo kurgan [pl] in what is modern-day Poland. The "Animal Style" style was initially restricted to the Scythian upper classes, and the Scythian lower classes in both West Asia and the Pontic Steppe had not yet adopted it, with the latter group's bone cheek-pieces and bronze buckles being plain and without decorations, while the Pontic groups were still using Srubnaya- and Andronovo-type geometric patterns. The Scythian stelae representing armed warriors that were erected over burial mounds, known as kurgan stelae, at this time were sculpted so as to depict faces with almond-shaped eyes, moustaches but not beards, arms, and sometimes phalli; the figures on these sculptures usually wear torcs and belts and sometimes helmets, as well as weapons such as swords, axes, *gōrytoi*, and more rarely whips. A group of sculptures similar to these were found in Iraq, and might have been erected by a splinter group of Scythians or Cimmerians who had settled there and become acculturated: unlike the typical Scythian stelae, these sculptures represented beards but not moustaches, and only one figure is holding a weapon, namely an axe which is in the figure's hand instead of hanging from his belt. ###### Later multiple influences Beginning in the 5th century BC, the influence of arriving Sauromatians from the east, the borrowing of elements from Thracian art as well as the incorporation of Greek elements into the complex synthesis which constituted Scythian art after it came under Greek influence, led to an evolution of the "Animal Style": * the compositions became less schematic, and the eyes and ears and mouths of animals becoming portrayed more realistically while their bodies started to be modelled more smoothly * exaggerated representations of certain animal body parts nevertheless became more prevalent in Scythian art during this period, as did stylisation, with bird beaks being depicted as large spirals; * the technique of "zoomorphic transformations" also became more common, as did the depictions of the single legs of ungulates or carnivorous animals; * depictions of fish became more widespread, and so did representations of elk in the forest steppe. In the forest steppe, the art of the Scythian peoples was influenced that of the inhabitants of the eastern European forested areas. This Scythian art formed out of various influences later spread to the west, in the region which corresponds to present Romania, and eventually it brought influences from Iranic and West Asian art into Celtic art, and also introduced metalwork types which followed Shang Chinese models, such as "cruciform tubes" used in harnesses, into Western Eurasia, where they were adopted by the Hallstatt culture. Under the influence of both Greek and Achaemenid Persian art, scenes of animals fighting or tearing each other also became prevalend in Scythian art. The appearance of plant motifs in Scythian was also a result of Greek influence. The kurgan stelae also evolved at this time, with the style of their faces changing, their eyes becoming more rounded, moustaches becoming rarer, and beards starting to appear; the shapes and arrangement of their hands also changed so that they were always holding a rhyton in their left hands, and swords started being depicted on the sides, while the shapes of the *gōrytoi* changed. The Greek art further influenced that of the Scythians during the 4th century BC, due to which works of art manufactured by Greek craftsmen for Scythians increased in prevalence in Scythia, although the "Animal Style" art continued to be used. Among these objects were small plaques which followed Greek artistic traditions while depicting elements of the "Animal Style": although these included some images of animals, there was a significantly large number of human depictions, usually of Scythians, but sometimes of Greek themes, such as the story of Achilles. Depictions of griffins reappeared in Scythian art in the 4th century BC due to Greek influence, and did representations of lion-headed griffins. Some of the metal works manufactured by Greek craftsmen represented Scythian myths, such as: * cultic vessels from the Chasti kurhan near Voronezh and the Kul-Oba kurgan, which depict the scene of the contest between the three sons of Targitaos from the Scythian genealogical myth; * depictions of the Scythian Snake-Legged Goddess, who was the mother of the sons of Targitaos in the genealogical myth, were also very common and have been found at Kul-Oba, Tsymbalova mohyla [uk], and Velyka Blyznytsya; * the representation of a seated goddess holding a mirror while a man or youth holding a rhyton faces her was found at Kul-Oba, Chortomlyk [uk], Ohuz [uk], Verkhnii Rohachyk, the 1st Mordvynivskiy [uk] kurhan, Melitopolskiy [uk], and the 4th Nosaki [uk] kurhan; * on a plate from Sakhnova bearing the depiction the seated goddess and the male figure with a rhyton is also a scene where two Scythians drink from the same rhyton. There were also some wholly Greek art items in Scythian burials during this period, such as Greek earrings from the Kul Oba kurgan, and objects made by Greek craftsmen were present in all royal and aristocratic burials from this period, including examples of identical Scythian ceremonial weaponry made using the same matrix from multiple different burial mounds: these had been manufactured at the same time in the same workshop, presumably as commissions by multiple Scythian rulers, or by Bosporan kings to be used as diplomatic gifts for Scythian rulers. Among these objects were *gōrytoi* depicting the life of Achilles from the Chortomlyk, Melitopol, the 8th Five Brothers [uk], and Illintsi kurgans, as well as scabbards from the Chortomlyk and Five Brothers 8 kurgans. At the same time, anthropomorphic imagery started appearing in Scythian art itself, such as a "Mistress of Animals" from the Oleksandropilskiy kurhan [uk] or a gryphonomachy scene on a terminal from Slonivska Blyznytsia. Anthropomorphic depictions were themselves the most conservative form of Scythian art, and most of the sculptures from the 4th century BC were made in the Scythian artistic tradition, although Greek influence was visible in some Scythian sculptures from Crimea, where clothing and armour were represented to an extent that was unusual in Scythian art. ##### End Scythian art stopped existing after the end of the Pontic Scythian kingdom in the early 3rd century BC, and the art of the later Scythians of Crimea and Dobruja was completely Hellenised, with the paintings and sculpture from Scythian Neapolis belonging to the Greek artistic tradition and having probably been made by Greek sculptors. The tradition of erecting kurgan stelae nevertheless still continued in this period, although they were cruder than the earlier stelae and the style of their details did not continue the artistic traditions of the Pontic Scythian kingdom. Some crude reliefs similar to Bosporan ones also decorated tombs from this period. ### Trade The Pontic Scythians practised trade extensively, with the substantial trade relations existed between the Scythians and the Greeks which continued the long-established exchanges of goods between the northern Pontic and Aegean region that had already existed since the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. These trade relations became more intense after the Greeks established colonies on the shores of the Black Sea, as a consequence of which the Scythians engaged in trade with both European and Asian Greece. The Scythians exported grain, fish, honey, wax, skins, wood, horses, cattle, sheep, and slaves to Greece, as well as beavers and beaver-skins, and rare furs that the Scythians had themselves bought from the populations living to their north and east such as the Thyssagetae and Iurcae of the Ural Mountains who hunted rare animals and sewed their skins into clothing. The Greeks were especially interested in buying Scythian horses. #### The grain trade The most important of these export goods was grain, and most especially wheat, with the Scythians on the lower Dnipro river cultivating crops principally for export, and the tribes of the Callipidae, the Aroteres, the Georgoi, and the Alizones, selling part of their large crop yields to the Greeks; an oven used to dry grain such as wheat, barley, and rye, was located at Shyroka Balka. The relations between the Scythians and the Greek colonies became more hostile in the early 5th century BC, with the Scythians destroying the Greek cities' *khōrai* and rural settlements, and therefore their grain-producing hinterlands. The result was that the Scythians instituted an economic policy under their control whereby the sedentary peoples of the forest steppe to their north became the primary producers of grain, which was then transported through the Buh and Dnipro rivers to the Greek cities to their south such as Tyras, Niconium and Pontic Olbia, from where the cities exported it to mainland Greece at a profit for themselves. Beginning in the 5th century BC, the grain trade with Greece was carried out through the intermediary of the Bosporan kingdom, due to which the Scythians expanded their agricultural activities to the areas adjoining the Bosporan Kingdom, including in Crimea, resulting in some of the sedentary Scythian farmers moving into Crimea so as to cultivate their crops in close proximity to these clients. As a consequence of the Peloponnesian War, the Bosporan Kingdom became the main supplier of grain to Greece in the 4th century BC, which resulted in an increase of the trade of grain between the Scythians and the Bosporans. The Scythian aristocracy played an important role in this grain trade by becoming the main intermediary in providing grain, obtained both through from the agriculturalist peoples of the forest-steppe and cultivation within Scythia itself, to the Bosporan Kingdom. The Scythian aristocracy was the main beneficiary of these commercial activities, from which it derived immense revenue and was able to significantly enrich itself, hence why it sought to increase the amount of grain produced in Scythia. The rich aristocratic burials richly furnished with imported grave goods and gold silver objects, including fine Greek-made tauretic and jewellers, attest of the Scythian aristocracy's economic power derived from the grain trade, due to which the coins minted by Scythian kings at Pontic Olbia were struck with depictions of ears of wheat. Scythian commoners did however not obtain any benefits from this trade, and luxury goods were absent from their tombs. Inscriptions from the Greek cities on the northern Black Sea coast also show that upper class Greek families also derived wealth from this trade, and as a consequence of these flourishing trade relations, which were themselves possible only thanks to the protection and cooperation of the Scythian kings, the Greek colonies on the northern shores of the Black Sea rapidly grew during the 6th century BC. The Scythian monopoly over the trade of grain imported from the forest steppe to the Greek cities came to an end sometime between 435 and 400 BC, after which the Greek cities regaining their independence and rebuilding their *khōrai*. The grain trade between the Scythians and the Greeks declined in the 3rd century BC because of competition from wheat imported into Greece from Egypt, and due to the collapse of Scythian agriculture resulting from the Sarmatian invasion. #### The slave trade The Scythians also sold slaves to the Greeks, with the slaves to be sold being acquired from neighbouring or subordinate tribes during military campaigns, and the Greek colonies on the northern Black Sea coast being hubs of slave trafficking. After the Greek city-state of Athens had defeated the Persians at Salamis in 480 BC, it bought 300 Scythian slave archers who acted as a police force in the city and who lived in tents. When the Greek city of Mytilene broke away from the Delian League in 428 BC, it also bought a similar force of Scythian warriors. #### Scythian imports In exchange for their many exports, the Scythians bought various Greek products, especially *amphorae* of wine, and the pottery used to consume said wine, such as *oinokhoai* and *kylikes*. The Scythians also bought olive oil, perfumes, ointments, and other luxury goods from the Greeks. Beginning in the 7th and 6th centuries BC, the Scythians had been importing luxuries such as personal ornaments, gold and silver vases, carved semi-precious and gem stones, wine, oil, and offensive and defensive weapons made in the workshops of Pontic Olbia or in mainland Greece, as well as pottery made by the Greeks of the Aegean islands. During the earlier Middle Scythian period of the 5th century BC, the Scythians were importing Corinthian and Athenian pottery; and by the later Middle Scythian period of the 4th to 3rd centuries BC the market for Pontic Olbia was limited to a small part of western Scythia, while the rest of the kingdom's importations came from the Bosporan kingdom, especially from Panticapaeum, from where came most of Scythia's imported pottery, as well as richly decorated fine vases, rhyta, and decorative toreutic plaques for *gōrytoi*. A consequence of the Scythian import of Greek-manufactured art and luxury goods was that Greek art significantly influenced Scythian art and artistic preferences, and, by the Middle and Late Scythian periods, most of the artwork in the Scythian tombs consisted of Scythian motifs and scenes representing Scythian life which had been done by Greek artisans. #### The gold trade route An important trade route existed in Scythia during the Early Scythian period which started in Pontic Olbia and followed the course of the Inhul river and crossed the Dnipro, after which it turned east until the country of the Gelonians and, after crossing the Don and the Volga, passed through the Ural Mountains and continued into Asia until the Altai Mountains. Gold was traded from eastern Eurasia until Pontic Olbia through this route, and the Scythian tradesmen went to the distant regions on its course to carry out commerce. The conquest of the north Pontic region by the Scythians and their imposition of a "*Pax Scythica*" created the conditions of safety for traders which enabled the establishment of this route. Olbian-made goods have been found at multiple locations lying on this route till the Ural Mountains. This trade route was another significant source of revenue for the Scythian rulers, and its location also provided to Pontic Olbia the important position of being a commercial and cultural centre in the northern Pontic region for at least two centuries, and the city itself maintained friendly relations with the populations neighbouring it. #### Coinage Although the Scythians adopted the use of coinage as a method of payment for trade with the Greeks, they never used it for their own domestic market. Physical appearance ------------------- The Scythians looked similar to the populations of Europe, and depictions of Scythian men in Persian sculptures and Scythian gold objects show them as stocky and powerfully built, with strong facial features and long and thick wavy hair. Upper class Scythians were particularly tall, with the men usually being over 1.80 metres tall, and sometimes reaching 1.90 metres, and on some rarer occasions being even more than 2 metres tall. The difference in height between these upper class Scythians and the Scythian commoners was of around 10 to 15 centimetres, with the height difference being a symbol of status among the upper-class men. Analysis of skeletons shows that Scythians had longer arm and leg bones and stronger bone formation than present-day people living in their former territories. In *Histories*, the 5th-century BC Greek historian Halicarnassus describes the Budini of Scythia as red-haired and grey-eyed. In the 5th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates argued that the Scythians were light skinned. In the 3rd century BC, the Greek poet Callimachus described the Arismapes (Arimaspi) of Scythia as fair-haired. The 2nd-century BC Han Chinese envoy Zhang Qian described the Sai (Saka), an eastern people closely related to the Scythians, as having yellow (probably meaning hazel or green) and blue eyes. In the late 2nd century AD, the Christian theologian Clement of Alexandria says that the Scythians and the Celts have long auburn hair. The 2nd-century Greek philosopher Polemon includes the Scythians among the northern peoples characterised by red hair and blue-grey eyes. In the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD, the Greek physician Galen writes that Scythians, Sarmatians, Illyrians, Germanic peoples and other northern peoples have reddish hair. The fourth-century bishop Gregory of Nyssa wrote that the Scythians were fair skinned and blond haired. The 5th-century physician Adamantius, who often followed Polemon, describes the Scythians as fair-haired. Genetics -------- The Scythians (specifically Western or Pontic Scythians, as in differentiation from Eastern Scythian Saka) primarily emerged out of the Bronze and Iron Age population of the Pontic-Caspian and Central Asian Steppe (Western Steppe Herders or "Steppe\_MLBA"). The (Western or Pontic) Scythians (such as Sarmatians) fall in or close to the European-related cluster, while Eastern Scythians (such as the Pazyryk culture) are more heterogeneous, both genetically and culturally. ### Maternal haplogroups The maternal haplogroup frequency of Scythians displayed heterogeneity. While initially, the Western Scythians carried only West Eurasian maternal haplogroups, the frequency of East Eurasian haplogroups rises to 26% in samples dated to the 2nd century BCE. Eastern Scythians had nearly equal amounts of West and East Eurasian maternal haplogroups. Among the Western Scythians discovered at Rostov-on-Don, in European Russia, East Eurasian maternal haplogroups make up 37.5% of the total. These results may suggest that there was increasing marriages between Western and Eastern groups. ### Paternal haplogroups In terms of paternal haplogroups, almost all Scythians carried West Eurasian-associated haplogroups. Western Scythian remains have been observed to carry a specific clade of haplogroup R1b, characteristic of the Northern Pontic-Caspian steppe, which distinguishes them from Eastern Scythians, who most commonly carried haplogroup haplogroup R1a. One Scythian from the Samara region carried R1a-Z93. List of rulers -------------- ### Kings of Early Scythians * Išpakaia (Scythian: *Spakāya*), reigned unknown-679 BC * Bartatua (Scythian: *Pṛtatavah*), reigned 679-c. 658/9 BC * Madyes (Median: *Mādava*), reigned c. 658/9–625 BC ### Kings of Pontic Scythians * Spargapeithes (Scythian: *Spargapaiϑah*), reigned c. 610 BC * Lykos (Scythian: *Lū̆ka*), reigned c. 600 BC * Gnouros, reigned c. 575 BC * Saulios, reigned c. 550 BC * Idanthyrsus (Scythian: *Hiθāmθrauša*), reigned c. 530-c.510 BC Sub-kings: * Scopasis * Taxacis (Scythian: *Taxšaka*), reigned c. 513 BC * Argotas ?, reigned c. 510-490 BC * Ariapeithes (Scythian: *Ariyapaiϑah*), reigned c. 490-460 BC * Scyles (Scythian: *Skula*), reigned c. 460-450 BC * Octamasadas (Scythian: *Uxtamazatā*), reigned c. 450-430 BC * Eminakes ? (Scythian: *Aminaka*), reigned c. 420 BC * Ateas, reigned c. 360s-339 BC * Agaros, reigned c. 310 BC ### Kings of Crimean Scythians * Skilurus (Scythian: *Skilura*), reigned c. 2nd century BC * Palacus (Scythian: *Pālaka*), reigned c. 120 BC ### Kings of Danubian Scythians * Tanusakos, reigned c. 2nd century BC * Kanitos, reigned c. 2nd century BC * Sariakos, reigned c. 2nd century BC * Akrosakos, reigned c. 2nd century BC * Kharaspos, reigned c. 2nd century BC * Ailios, reigned c. 2nd century BC ### Genealogy The relationships of the various Scythian kings with each other are not known for certain, although the historian and anthropologist Anatoly Khazanov suggests that the Scythians had been ruled by the same dynasty from the time of their stay in West Asia until the end of their kingdom in the Pontic steppe, and that Madyes and the later Scythian kings Spargapeithes and Ariapeithes belonged to the same dynasty, and Ellis Minns suggested in 1913 that Idanthyrsus was probably the father of Ariapeithes, which is a position shared by the Scythologist Mikhail Bukharin [ru]. Meanwhile, the scholar Askold Ivantchik instead considers Madyes, Spargapeithes, and Ariapeithes to have each belonged to a different dynasty. | The Scythian royal dynasty | | --- | |   Consanguineous members of the Scythian royal dynasty | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Sargonid dynasty | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Išpakaia**?-c. 679 BC | | | | | | | | **Esarhaddon**681–669 BC | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Bartatua**c. 679-c. 658/9 BC | | | | *Šērūʾa-ēṭirat* | | **Šamaš-šuma-ukin**668–648 BC | | **Ashurbanipal**669–631 BC | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Madyes**c. 658/9-625 BC | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ? | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Spargapeithes**c. 610 BC | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Lykos**c. 600 BC | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Gnouros**c. 575 BC | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Saulios**c. 550 BC | | Anacharsis | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Odrysian dynasty | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Idanthyrsus**c. 530-510 BC | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Teres I**460–445 BC | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ? | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | *Greek woman* | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Ariapeithes**c. 490-460 BC | | *daughter* | | | **Sitalces**431–424 BC | | **Sparatocos**c. 450-c. 431 BC | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Scyles**c. 460-450 BC | | | *Opoea* | | | | | | | | **Octamasadas**c. 450-430 BC | | | | | | | | | **Seuthes I** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Oricus | | | | ? | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Eminakes**c. 420 BC | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ? | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Ateas**c. 360s-339 BC | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ? | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Agaros**c. 310s BC | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | See also -------- * Scythia * Andronovo culture * Scythian art * Scythian languages * Eurasian nomads * Nomadic empire * Pre-Achaemenid Scythian kings of Iran * Early Slavs ### Early sources * Callimachus (1921). *Callimachus, Hymns and Epigrams. 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(2010). *North Pontic Archaeology: Recent Discoveries and Studies*. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004120419. * Ustinova, Yulia (1999). *The Supreme Gods of the Bosporan Kingdom: Celestial Aphrodite and the Most High God*. Leiden, Netherlands; Boston, United States: BRILL. ISBN 978-9-004-11231-5. * Vaggione, Richard P. (1973). "Over All Asia? The Extent of the Scythian Domination in Herodotus". *Journal of Biblical Literature*. **92** (4): 523–530. doi:10.2307/3263121. JSTOR 3263121. Retrieved 22 August 2022. * van Loon, Maurits Nanning (1966). *Urartian Art: Its Distinctive Traits in the Light of New Excavations*. Istanbul, Turkey: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut. * Vasilʹev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1946). *The Russian Attack on Constantinople in 860*. Cambridge, United States: Mediaeval Academy of America. * Vitchak, K. T. (1999). "Скифский язык: опыт описания" [The Scythian Language: Attempt at Description]. *Вопросы языкознания* (in Russian). **5**: 50–59. Retrieved 27 August 2022. * Watson, William (October 1972). "The Chinese Contribution to Eastern Nomad Culture in the Pre-Han and Early Han Periods". *World Archaeology*. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. **4** (2): 139–149. doi:10.1080/00438243.1972.9979528. JSTOR 123972. * Waśko, Andrzej [in Polish] (April 1997). "Sarmatism or the Enlightenment: The Dilemma of Polish Culture". *Sarmatian Review*. Oxford University Press. **XVII** (2). * West, Stephanie (2002). "Scythians". In Bakker, Egbert J.; de Jong, Irene J. F.; van Wees, Hans (eds.). *Brill's Companion to Herodotus*. Brill. pp. 437–456. ISBN 978-90-04-21758-4. * Williams, Mark (2016). *Ireland's Immortals: A History of the Gods of Irish Myth*. Princeton, United States; Oxford, United Kingdom: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-400-88332-5. * Witton, Mark P. (2016). "Why *Protoceratops* almost certainly wasn't the inspiration for the griffin legend". *Mark P. Witton's Blog: Palaeontological artist, consultant, and author*. Retrieved 6 June 2023. * Young, T. Cuyler (1988). "The early history of the Medes and the Persians and the Achaemenid empire to the death of Cambyses". In Boardman, John; Hammond, N. G. L.; Lewis, D. M.; Ostwald, M. (eds.). *Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, c. 525 to 479 B.C*. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 4. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–52. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. * Zaikov, A. V. (2004). "Alcman and the Image of Scythian Steed". In Tuplin, Christopher (ed.). *Pontus and the Outside World: Studies in Black Sea History, Historiography, and Archaeology*. Colloquia Pontica. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers. pp. 69–84. ISBN 978-9-004-12154-6. ### Further reading * Baumer, Christoph (2012). *The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warriors*. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-78076-060-5. * Davis-Kimball, Jeannine (2003). *Warrior Women: An Archaeologist's Search for History's Hidden Heroines*. Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 0-446-67983-6. * Drews, Robert (2004). *Early Riders: The Beginnings of Mounted Warfare in Asia and Europe*. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-203-07107-7. * Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; Ivanov, Vjaceslav V. (2010). *Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture*. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-081503-0. * Humbach, Helmut; Faiss, Klauss (2012). *Herodotus's Scythians and Ptolemy's Central Asia: Semasiological and Onomasiological Studies*. Reichert Verlag. ISBN 978-3-89500-887-0. * Jaedtke, Wolfgang (2008). *Steppenkind: Ein Skythen-Roman* (in German). Piper. ISBN 978-3-492-25146-4. * Johnson, James William (April 1959). "The Scythian: His Rise and Fall". *Journal of the History of Ideas*. University of Pennsylvania Press. **20** (2): 250–257. doi:10.2307/2707822. JSTOR 2707822. * Lebedynsky, Iaroslav (2001). *Les Scythes* (in French). Ed. Errance. ISBN 2877722155. * Rostovtzeff, Michael (1993). *Skythien und der Bosporus* (in German). Vol. 2. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 3-515-06399-4. * Torday, Laszlo (1998). *Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History*. Durham Academic Press. ISBN 1-900838-03-6.

Scythians

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythians

The **Siwa Oasis** (Arabic: واحة سيوة *Wāḥat Sīwah* [ˈwæːħet ˈsiːwæ]) is an urban oasis in Egypt. It is situated between the Qattara Depression and the Great Sand Sea in the Western Desert, 50 kilometres (31 mi) east of the Egypt–Libya border and 560 kilometres (350 mi) from the Egyptian capital city of Cairo. It is famed from its role in ancient Egypt as the home to an oracle of Amun, the ruins of which are a popular tourist attraction, giving it the ancient name **Oasis of Amun-Ra**, after the major Egyptian deity. Geography --------- The Siwa oasis is in a deep depression that reaches below sea level, to about −19 metres (−62 ft). To the west, the al Jaghbub Oasis rests in a similar depression and to the east, the large Qattara Depression is also below sea level. Name ---- | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | sxt | iAm | iAm | iAm | xAst | | | | sḫt jꜣmw | | | | | | | | Egyptian hieroglyphs | The Ancient Egyptian name of the oasis was *sḫt jꜣmw*, meaning "Field of Trees". The native Libyan toponym may be preserved in the Egyptian *t̠ꜣ(j) n d̠rw "tꜣj* on the fringe" where *t̠ꜣ* transcribed the local Palaeo-Berber name *\*Se* or *\*Sa*. This name survived in the works of Muslim geographers as سنترية *Santariyyah.* The etymology of the word سيوة Siwah is unclear. Champollion derives it from ⲥⲟⲟⲩϩ – a corruption of Egyptian word for "oasis", ⲟⲩⲁϩ. The additional evidence of the Egyptian source of Siwa's name is another place name in Kharga Oasis that may share the same etymology – *S.t-wȝḥ,* modern Deir el-Hagar). Basset links it to a Berber tribal name *swh* attested further west in the early Islamic period, while Ilahiane, following Chafik, links it to the Shilha Berber word *asiwan*, a type of bird of prey, and hence to Amun-Ra, one of whose symbols was the falcon. Some classical authors referred to the site as "Ammonium". History ------- Although the oasis is known to have been settled since at least the 10th millennium BC, the earliest evidence of any connection with Ancient Egypt is the 26th Dynasty, when a necropolis was established. Ancient Greek settlers at Cyrene made contact with the oasis around the same time (7th century BC), and the oracle temple of Amun (Greek: *Zeus Ammon*), who, Herodotus was told, took the image here of a ram. Herodotus knew of a "fountain of the Sun" that ran coldest in the noontime heat. During his campaign to conquer the Persian Empire, Alexander the Great reached the oasis, supposedly by following birds across the desert. The oracle, Alexander's court historians alleged, confirmed him as both a divine personage and the legitimate Pharaoh of Egypt, though Alexander's motives in making the excursion, following his founding of Alexandria, remain to some extent inscrutable and contested. During the Ptolemaic Kingdom, its Ancient Egyptian name was *sḫ.t-ỉm3w*, meaning "Field of Trees". Evidence of Christianity at Siwa is uncertain, but in 708 the Siwans resisted an Islamic army, and probably did not convert until the 12th century. A local manuscript mentions only seven families totaling 40 men living at the oasis in 1203. In the 12th century, Al-Idrisi mentions it as being inhabited mainly by Berbers, with an Arab minority; a century before Al-Bakri stated that only Berbers lived there. The Egyptian historian Al-Maqrizi traveled to Siwa in the 15th century and described how the language spoken there 'is similar to the language of the Zenata'. The first European to visit since Roman times was the English traveler William George Browne, who came in 1792 to see the ancient temple of the Oracle of Amun. Bompiani, in her description of the 19th-century explorer Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti, called this site the *Oasis of Jupiter Ammon*. Siwa was annexed by Muhammad Ali of Egypt in 1820, but the Egyptian representative in Siwa was assassinated in 1838. At some point, Muhammad al-Sanusi stayed at Siwa for a few months and gathered some followers here. Later, Siwa was a base of the Sanusiyya in their fight against the British from 1915 to 1917. Meanwhile, in the spring of 1893, German explorer and photographer Hermann Burchardt took photographs of the architecture of the town of Siwa, now stored at the Ethnological Museum of Berlin. Egyptian rule from distant Cairo was at first tenuous and marked by several revolts. Egypt began to assert firmer control after a 1928 visit to the Oasis by King Fuad I, who berated the locals for homosexual practices and specified punishments to bring Siwan behaviour in line with Egyptian morals. Siwa was also the site of some fighting during World War I and World War II. The British Army's Long Range Desert Group (LRDG) was based here, but Rommel's Afrika Korps also took possession three times. German soldiers went skinny dipping in the lake of the oracle, contrary to local customs which prohibit public nudity. In 1942 while the Italian 136th Infantry Division Giovani Fascisti occupied the oasis, a tiny Egyptian puppet government-in-exile was set up at Siwa. The oasis makes a brief appearance as a base of the LRDG in the 1958 war film *Ice Cold in Alex*. The ancient fortress of Siwa, known as the Shali Ghadi (*Shali* being the name of the town, and *Ghadi* meaning "remote"), was built on natural rock (an inselberg) and made of kershif (salt and mud-brick) and palm logs. After it was damaged by three days of heavy rains in 1926 it was abandoned for similar unreinforced construction housing on the plain surrounding it, and in some cases those, in turn, have been replaced by more modern cinder block and sheet metal roof buildings. Only one building in the Shali complex has been repaired and is in use, a mosque. Gradually eroded by infrequent rains and slowly collapsing, the Shali remains a prominent feature, towering five stories above the modern town and lit at night by floodlights. It is most easily approached from its southwest side, south of the end of the paved road which curves around from the north side of the Shali. Several uneven pedestrian streets lead from the southwest end of the Shali into it, the ground rent in places by deep cracks. Many of the unreinforced kershif buildings bordering the streets of the Shali are also split by large cracks, or they are partially collapsed. Other local historic sites of interest include the remains of the oracle temple; the Gebel al Mawta (the Mountain of the Dead), a Roman-era necropolis featuring dozens of rock-cut tombs; and "Cleopatra's Bath", an antique natural spring. The fragmentary remains of the oracle temple, with some inscriptions dating from the 4th century BC, lie within the ruins of Aghurmi. The revelations of the oracle fell into disrepute under the Roman occupation of Egypt. Climate ------- Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as hot desert (BWh), as the rest of Egypt. | Climate data for Siwa | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 29.3(84.7) | 34.6(94.3) | 41.6(106.9) | 44.8(112.6) | 48.0(118.4) | 48.2(118.8) | 45.2(113.4) | 46.2(115.2) | 42.8(109.0) | 41.9(107.4) | 37.5(99.5) | 29.0(84.2) | 48.2(118.8) | | Average high °C (°F) | 19.3(66.7) | 21.5(70.7) | 24.5(76.1) | 29.9(85.8) | 34.0(93.2) | 37.5(99.5) | 37.5(99.5) | 37.0(98.6) | 34.6(94.3) | 30.5(86.9) | 25.0(77.0) | 20.5(68.9) | 29.3(84.7) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 12.1(53.8) | 14.0(57.2) | 17.3(63.1) | 21.9(71.4) | 25.8(78.4) | 29.2(84.6) | 29.9(85.8) | 29.4(84.9) | 27.1(80.8) | 22.8(73.0) | 17.3(63.1) | 13.2(55.8) | 21.7(71.1) | | Average low °C (°F) | 5.6(42.1) | 7.1(44.8) | 10.1(50.2) | 13.7(56.7) | 17.8(64.0) | 20.4(68.7) | 21.7(71.1) | 21.4(70.5) | 19.5(67.1) | 15.5(59.9) | 10.2(50.4) | 6.5(43.7) | 14.1(57.4) | | Record low °C (°F) | −2.2(28.0) | −1.3(29.7) | 0.3(32.5) | 5.7(42.3) | 7.5(45.5) | 14.0(57.2) | 17.5(63.5) | 15.9(60.6) | 11.7(53.1) | 7.8(46.0) | 2.9(37.2) | −0.7(30.7) | −2.2(28.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 2(0.1) | 1(0.0) | 2(0.1) | 1(0.0) | 1(0.0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 2(0.1) | 1(0.0) | 9(0.4) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 1.0 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 56 | 50 | 46 | 38 | 34 | 33 | 37 | 41 | 44 | 50 | 56 | 59 | 45.3 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 230.7 | 248.4 | 270.3 | 289.2 | 318.8 | 338.4 | 353.5 | 363.0 | 315.6 | 294.0 | 265.5 | 252.8 | 3,540.2 | | Source 1: NOAA | | Source 2: *Climate Charts* | | Climate data for Siwa Oasis / Markaz Siwa | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 20.4(68.7) | 21.8(71.2) | 25.8(78.4) | 30.5(86.9) | 34.2(93.6) | 37.7(99.9) | 39.1(102.4) | 38.6(101.5) | 36.3(97.3) | 31.4(88.5) | 25.8(78.4) | 21.5(70.7) | 30.3(86.5) | | Average low °C (°F) | 6.6(43.9) | 8.2(46.8) | 11(52) | 15.1(59.2) | 18.5(65.3) | 21.5(70.7) | 23.3(73.9) | 23.6(74.5) | 21.5(70.7) | 17.2(63.0) | 11.4(52.5) | 7.8(46.0) | 15.5(59.9) | | Average rainy days | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Source: *Storm247* | Culture ------- The traditional culture of Siwa shows many unique elements, some reflecting its longstanding links with the isolated Oasis life and the fact that the inhabitants are Siwi Berbers. Until a tarmac road was built to the Mediterranean coast in the 1980s Siwa's only links with the outside world were by arduous camel tracks through the desert. These were used to export dates and olives, bring trade goods, or carry pilgrims on the route which linked the Maghreb to Cairo and hence to Mecca. As a result of this isolation, Siwis developed a unique natural culture manifested in its crafts of basketry, pottery, silverwork and embroidery and in its style of dress. The most visible and celebrated examples of this were the bridal silver and the ensemble of silver ornaments and beads that women wore in abundance to weddings and other ceremonies. These pieces were decorated with symbols which related to Siwa's history and beliefs and attitudes. The best known of these pieces is a huge silver disc called '*adrim*' and a round necklace, called '*aghraw',* from which it hung over the breast. A girl would give up the disc at a special ceremony in the spring the day she was married. The jewelry, which was made by local silversmiths, consisted of silver necklaces, earrings, bangles, hair ornaments, pendants, and many rings. For a wealthy woman, the full ensemble could weigh as much as five or six kilos. These pieces are decorated with symbols common to Berber people across North Africa designed to promote good health, fertility and to protect the wearer from misfortune. Some of the same signs and patterns are found on the embroidery which embellishes women's dresses, trousers, and shawls. * Siwi Berber jewelry * Silver pendant with engraved Quran-boxSilver pendant with engraved Quran-box * Silver ringSilver ring * Silver ear ornamentSilver ear ornament * Silver disk and round necklace (torc)Silver disk and round necklace (torc) Art and local customs --------------------- The arrival of the road and of television exposed the oasis to the styles and fashions of the outside world and the traditional silver ornaments were gradually replaced by jewelry made of gold. Evidence of the old styles and traditions are however still in evidence in the women's embroidery and costume. The material for the "tarfutet", the distinctive all-enveloping shawl worn by women, are brought from outside the oasis, specifically from the town of Kirdasa, in the Giza Governorate. ### Festivals Siwi people are very religious so on Ramadan, they tend to close all the shops and stay at home for the whole month. Like other Muslim Egyptians, Siwis celebrate Eid al-Fitr (*lʕid ahakkik*,"the Little Eid") and Eid al-Adha (*lʕid azuwwar*,"the Big Eid"). Unlike other Egyptians, however, on Eid al-Adha Siwis cook the skin of the sheep (along with its innards) as a festival delicacy, after removing the hair. They also eat heart of palm (*agroz*). The Siyaha Festival (Eid El Solh – Eid El Hasad), in honour of the town's traditional patron saint Sidi Sulayman, is unique to Siwa. (The name is often misunderstood as a reference to "tourism", but in fact predates tourism.), it is known that on this occasion Siwi men meet on a mountain near the town, Gabal Al – Dakrour, to eat together, sing chants while thanking God, and reconcile with one another; all Siwi houses co-operate in preparing and cooking food, in this day Siwian people eat fattah (rice, toasted bread and meat), after Dohr prayer (12:00 PM) all Siwian youth gather to set the banquet, nobody is allowed to eat before the caller announces to start eating so they can all eat together, the women stay behind in the village, and celebrate with dancing, singing, and drums. The food for the festival is bought collectively, with funds gathered by the oasis' mosques, celebrations last for 3 Qamari days, and in the early morning of the fourth day, siwian men form a big march, while holding flags and singing spiritual songs, march starts from Gabal El – Dakrour and ends in Sidi Solayman square – in the center of Siwa – declaring ending of festivals, and beginning of a new year without hatred or grudge, and with love, respect and reconciliation. Siwi children traditionally also celebrated Ashura by lighting torches, singing, and exchanging sweets. Adults' celebration was limited to the preparation of a large meal. ### Relations with the Bedouins Siwans are preferentially endogamous, only rarely marrying non-Siwans. Nonetheless, Bedouin brides command a higher brideprice in Siwa than Siwan ones. According to older members of the *Awlad Ali* Bedouins, the Bedouin relations with Siwans were traditionally mediated through a system of "friendship", whereby a specific Siwan (and his descendants) would be the friend of a specific Bedouin (and his descendants). The Bedouin would stay at the Siwan's house when he came to Siwa, and would exchange his animal products and grain for the Siwan's dates and olive oil. Siwa's Berbers are close to 30,000 in number. The hot springs are an attraction to visitors. ### Role of women Women have traditionally played a prominent role in Siwan households, often being in charge of a household's financial decisions. They have also been responsible for raising children; the town's deputy mayor said in 1985, "If our children speak Siwi, it to our womenfolk that they owe it." ### Siwan homosexual tradition Siwa is of special interest to anthropologists and sociologists because of its historical acceptance of male homosexuality and even rituals celebrating same-sex marriage – traditions that the Egyptian authorities have sought to repress, with increasing success, since the early twentieth century. The German egyptologist Georg Steindorff explored the Oasis in 1900 and reported that homosexual relations were common and often extended to a form of marriage: "The feast of marrying a boy was celebrated with great pomp, and the money paid for a boy sometimes amounted to fifteen pounds, while the money paid for a woman was a little over one pound." Mahmud Mohammad Abd Allah, writing of Siwan customs for the Harvard Peabody Museum in 1917, commented that although Siwan men could take up to four wives, "Siwan customs allow a man but one boy to whom he is bound by a stringent code of obligations." In 1937 the anthropologist Walter Cline wrote the first detailed ethnography of the Siwans in which he noted: "All normal Siwan men and boys practice sodomy...among themselves the natives are not ashamed of this; they talk about it as openly as they talk about love of women, and many if not most of their fights arise from homosexual competition....Prominent men lend their sons to each other. All Siwans know the matings which have taken place among their sheiks and their sheiks' sons....Most of the boys used in sodomy are between twelve and eighteen years of age." After an expedition to Siwa, the archaeologist Count Byron de Prorok reported in 1937 "an enthusiasm [that] could not have been approached even in Sodom... Homosexuality was not merely rampant, it was raging...Every dancer had his boyfriend...[and] chiefs had harems of boys". In the late 1940s a Siwan merchant told the visiting British novelist Robin Maugham that the Siwan women were "badly neglected", but that Siwan men "will kill each other for boy. Never for a woman", although as Maugham noted, marriage to a boy had become illegal by then. The Egyptian archaeologist Ahmed Fakhry, who studied Siwa for three decades, observed in 1973 that "While the Siwans were still living inside their walled town, none of these bachelors was allowed to spend the night in the town and had to sleep outside the gates...Under such circumstances it is not surprising that homosexuality was common among them....Up to the year 1928, it was not unusual that some kind of written agreement, which was sometimes called a marriage contract, was made between two males; but since the visit of King Fu'ad to this oasis it has been completely forbidden...However, such agreements continued, but in great secrecy, and without the actual writing, until the end of World War II. Now the practice is not followed." Despite the multiplicity of sources for these practices, the Egyptian authorities and even the Siwan tribal elders have attempted to repress the historical and anthropological record. When the Siwa-born anthropologist Fathi Malim included reference to Siwan homosexuality (especially a love poem from a man to a youth) in his book *Oasis Siwa* (2001), the tribal council demanded that he blank out the material in the current edition of the book and remove it from future editions, or be expelled from the community. Malim reluctantly agreed and physically deleted the passages in the first edition of his book, and excluded them from the second. A newer book, *Siwa Past and Present* (2005) by A. Dumairy, the Director of Siwa Antiquities, discreetly omits all mention of the famous historical practices of the inhabitants. People ------ About 80 km (50 mi) in length and 20 km (12 mi) wide, Siwa Oasis is one of Egypt's most isolated settlements with about 25,000 people, mostly Siwi berbers. who developed a very isolated desert culture and a language called Siwi; they are also fluent in the Egyptian dialect of Arabic which is called "Masry" meaning Egyptian. Economy ------- Siwa has been noted for its dates since ancient times, and today date palm cultivation is by far the largest component of its economy. In a distant second place, with about one-fifth of the scale as dates, is olive cultivation. Handicrafts like basketry are also of regional importance. Tourism has in recent decades become a vital source of income. Much attention has been given to creating hotels that use local materials and display local styles. Archaeology ----------- In the mid-20th century, Egyptian archaeologist Ahmed Fakhry worked at Siwa (and elsewhere in the Western Desert). In 1995, Greek archaeologist Liana Souvaltzi announced that she had identified the tomb of Alexander the Great in the oasis of Siwa. Mrs Liana Souvaltzi made the following statement to the Greek media: “but I am speaking to every Greek all over the world. I want every one of you to feel proud because Greek hands have found this very important monument”. This statement was an answer to the, at the time, Greek prime minister Costas Simitis who urged the archaeologists to stop their research in Egypt and sent a Greek Embassy advisor to ask the Egyptian government to withdraw Mrs Souvaltzi’s permission to excavate in the area. This was the first time in human history that one country's government intervened in another country's internal affairs to stop an archaeological excavation. The case is still active in the Greek courts of law. An extremely old hominid footprint was discovered in 2007 at Siwa Oasis. Egyptian scientists claimed it could be 2–3 million years old, which would make it the oldest fossilized hominid footprint ever found. However, no proof of this conjecture was ever presented. In late 2013, an announcement was made regarding the apparent Archaeoastronomy discovery of precise spring and fall Equinox sunrise alignments over the Aghurmi mound/Amun Oracle when viewed from Timasirayn temple in the Western Desert, 12 km away across Lake Siwa. The first known recent public viewing of this event occurred on 21 March 2014 during the spring Equinox. In popular culture ------------------ Siwa Oasis is an official map for *Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory* which belongs to North Africa Campaign. The fifth mission from the game *Sniper Elite III* takes place on the Siwa Oasis. Siwa is prominently featured in *Assassin's Creed: Origins* and is the birthplace and home of protagonist Bayek. In British author Anthony Horowitz's *Alex Rider* series, the ninth and eleventh instalments *Scorpia Rising* and *Never Say Die* feature Siwa. In Australian author Matthew Reilly's *Jack West* series of seven novels starting with *Seven Ancient Wonders* feature prominently the Oracle of Siwa. Gallery ------- * Panoramic view of Siwa OasisPanoramic view of Siwa Oasis * Mud-brick houses in the old town of ShaliMud-brick houses in the old town of Shali * Clay houses of old Shali townClay houses of old Shali town * Old walls near the templeOld walls near the temple * Siwa salt lakeSiwa salt lake * Cleopatra's bath (Cleopatra's pool)Cleopatra's bath (Cleopatra's pool) * Mosque at AghurmiMosque at Aghurmi * Desert rock formations on the outskirtsDesert rock formations on the outskirts * View through the Temple of the Oracle of Amun to Gebel el-DakrourView through the Temple of the Oracle of Amun to Gebel el-Dakrour * Sand dunes in the desert near Siwa OasisSand dunes in the desert near Siwa Oasis See also -------- * List of cities and towns in Egypt

Siwa Oasis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siwa_Oasis

A **ritual** is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or revered objects. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized, but not defined, by formalism, traditionalism, invariance, rule-governance, sacral symbolism, and performance. Rituals are a feature of all known human societies. They include not only the worship rites and sacraments of organized religions and cults, but also rites of passage, atonement and purification rites, oaths of allegiance, dedication ceremonies, coronations and presidential inaugurations, marriages, funerals and more. Even common actions like hand-shaking and saying "hello" may be termed as *rituals*. The field of ritual studies has seen a number of conflicting definitions of the term. One given by Kyriakidis is that a ritual is an outsider's or "etic" category for a set activity (or set of actions) that, to the outsider, seems irrational, non-contiguous, or illogical. The term can be used also by the insider or "emic" performer as an acknowledgement that this activity can be seen as such by the uninitiated onlooker. In psychology, the term *ritual* is sometimes used in a technical sense for a repetitive behavior systematically used by a person to neutralize or prevent anxiety; it can be a symptom of obsessive–compulsive disorder but obsessive-compulsive ritualistic behaviors are generally isolated activities. Etymology --------- The English word *ritual* derives from the Latin *ritualis,* "that which pertains to rite *(ritus*)". In Roman juridical and religious usage, *ritus* was the proven way *(mos)* of doing something, or "correct performance, custom". The original concept of *ritus* may be related to the Sanskrit *ṛtá* ("visible order)" in Vedic religion, "the lawful and regular order of the normal, and therefore proper, natural and true structure of cosmic, worldly, human and ritual events". The word "ritual" is first recorded in English in 1570, and came into use in the 1600s to mean "the prescribed order of performing religious services" or more particularly a book of these prescriptions. Characteristics --------------- There are hardly any limits to the kind of actions that may be incorporated into a ritual. The rites of past and present societies have typically involved special gestures and words, recitation of fixed texts, performance of special music, songs or dances, processions, manipulation of certain objects, use of special dresses, consumption of special food, drink, or drugs, and much more. Catherine Bell argues that rituals can be characterized by formalism, traditionalism, invariance, rule-governance, sacral symbolism and performance. ### Formalism Ritual uses a limited and rigidly organized set of expressions which anthropologists call a "restricted code" (in opposition to a more open "elaborated code"). Maurice Bloch argues that ritual obliges participants to use this formal oratorical style, which is limited in intonation, syntax, vocabulary, loudness, and fixity of order. In adopting this style, ritual leaders' speech becomes more style than content. Because this formal speech limits what can be said, it induces "acceptance, compliance, or at least forbearance with regard to any overt challenge". Bloch argues that this form of ritual communication makes rebellion impossible and revolution the only feasible alternative. Ritual tends to support traditional forms of social hierarchy and authority, and maintains the assumptions on which the authority is based from challenge. ### Traditionalism Rituals appeal to tradition and are generally continued to repeat historical precedent, religious rite, mores, or ceremony accurately. Traditionalism varies from formalism in that the ritual may not be formal yet still makes an appeal to the historical trend. An example is the American Thanksgiving dinner, which may not be formal, yet is ostensibly based on an event from the early Puritan settlement of America. Historians Eric Hobsbawm and Terrence Ranger have argued that many of these are *invented traditions*, such as the rituals of the British monarchy, which invoke "thousand year-old tradition" but whose actual form originate in the late nineteenth century, to some extent reviving earlier forms, in this case medieval, that had been discontinued in the meantime. Thus, the appeal to history is important rather than accurate historical transmission. ### Invariance Catherine Bell states that ritual is also invariant, implying careful choreography. This is less an appeal to traditionalism than a striving for timeless repetition. The key to invariance is bodily discipline, as in monastic prayer and meditation meant to mold dispositions and moods. This bodily discipline is frequently performed in unison, by groups. ### Rule-governance Rituals tend to be governed by rules, a feature somewhat like formalism. Rules impose norms on the chaos of behavior, either defining the outer limits of what is acceptable or choreographing each move. Individuals are held to communally approved customs that evoke a legitimate communal authority that can constrain the possible outcomes. Historically, war in most societies has been bound by highly ritualized constraints that limit the legitimate means by which war was waged. ### Sacral symbolism Activities appealing to supernatural beings are easily considered rituals, although the appeal may be quite indirect, expressing only a generalized belief in the existence of the sacred demanding a human response. National flags, for example, may be considered more than signs representing a country. The flag stands for larger symbols such as freedom, democracy, free enterprise or national superiority. Anthropologist Sherry Ortner writes that the flag > does not encourage reflection on the logical relations among these ideas, nor on the logical consequences of them as they are played out in social actuality, over time and history. On the contrary, the flag encourages a sort of all-or-nothing allegiance to the whole package, best summed [by] 'Our flag, love it or leave.' > > Particular objects become sacral symbols through a process of consecration which effectively creates the sacred by setting it apart from the profane. Boy Scouts and the armed forces in any country teach the official ways of folding, saluting and raising the flag, thus emphasizing that the flag should never be treated as just a piece of cloth. ### Performance The performance of ritual creates a theatrical-like frame around the activities, symbols and events that shape participant's experience and cognitive ordering of the world, simplifying the chaos of life and imposing a more or less coherent system of categories of meaning onto it. As Barbara Myerhoff put it, "not only is seeing believing, doing is believing." Genres ------ For simplicity's sake, the range of diverse rituals can be divided into categories with common characteristics, generally falling into one three major categories: * rites of passage, generally changing an individual's social status; * communal rites, whether of worship, where a community comes together to worship, such as Jewish synagogue or Mass, or of another character, such as fertility rites and certain non-religious festivals; * rites of personal devotion, where an individual worships, including prayer and pilgrimages, pledges of allegiance, or promises to wed someone. However, rituals can fall in more than one category or genre, and may be grouped in a variety of other ways. For example, the anthropologist Victor Turner writes: > Rituals may be seasonal, ... or they may be contingent, held in response to an individual or collective crisis. ... Other classes of rituals include divinatory rituals; ceremonies performed by political authorities to ensure the health and fertility of human beings, animals, and crops in their territories; initiation into priesthoods devoted to certain deities, into religious associations, or into secret societies; and those accompanying the daily offering of food and libations to deities or ancestral spirits or both. > > — Turner (1973) ### Rites of passage A rite of passage is a ritual event that marks a person's transition from one status to another, including adoption, baptism, coming of age, graduation, inauguration, engagement, and marriage. Rites of passage may also include initiation into groups not tied to a formal stage of life such as a fraternity. Arnold van Gennep stated that rites of passage are marked by three stages: 1. SeparationWherein the initiates are separated from their old identities through physical and symbolic means. 2. TransitionWherein the initiated are "betwixt and between". Victor Turner argued that this stage is marked by liminality, a condition of ambiguity or disorientation in which initiates have been stripped of their old identities, but have not yet acquired their new one. Turner states that "the attributes of liminality or of liminal *personae* ("threshold people") are necessarily ambiguous". In this stage of liminality or "anti-structure" (see below), the initiates' role ambiguity creates a sense of communitas or emotional bond of community between them. This stage may be marked by ritual ordeals or ritual training. 3. IncorporationWherein the initiates are symbolically confirmed in their new identity and community. ### Rites of affliction Anthropologist Victor Turner defines rites of affliction actions that seek to mitigate spirits or supernatural forces that inflict humans with bad luck, illness, gynecological troubles, physical injuries, and other such misfortunes. These rites may include forms of spirit divination (consulting oracles) to establish causes—and rituals that heal, purify, exorcise, and protect. The misfortune experienced may include individual health, but also broader climate-related issues such as drought or plagues of insects. Healing rites performed by shamans frequently identify social disorder as the cause, and make the restoration of social relationships the cure. Turner uses the example of the Isoma ritual among the Ndembu of northwestern Zambia to illustrate. The Isoma rite of affliction is used to cure a childless woman of infertility. Infertility is the result of a "structural tension between matrilineal descent and virilocal marriage" (i.e., the tension a woman feels between her mother's family, to whom she owes allegiance, and her husband's family among whom she must live). "It is because the woman has come too closely in touch with the 'man's side' in her marriage that her dead matrikin have impaired her fertility." To correct the balance of matrilinial descent and marriage, the Isoma ritual dramatically placates the deceased spirits by requiring the woman to reside with her mother's kin. Shamanic and other ritual may effect a psychotherapeutic cure, leading anthropologists such as Jane Atkinson to theorize how. Atkinson argues that the effectiveness of a shamanic ritual for an individual may depend upon a wider audiences acknowledging the shaman's power, which may lead to the shaman placing greater emphasis on engaging the audience than in the healing of the patient. ### Death, mourning, and funerary rites Many cultures have rites associated with death and mourning, such as the last rites and wake in Christianity, *shemira* in Judaism, the *antyesti* in Hinduism, and the *antam sanskar* in Sikhism. ### Calendrical and commemorative rites Calendrical and commemorative rites are ritual events marking particular times of year, or a fixed period since an important event. Calendrical rituals give social meaning to the passage of time, creating repetitive weekly, monthly or yearly cycles. Some rites are oriented towards a culturally defined moment of change in the climatic cycle, such as solar terms or the changing of seasons, or they may mark the inauguration of an activity such as planting, harvesting, or moving from winter to summer pasture during the agricultural cycle. They may be fixed by the solar or lunar calendar; those fixed by the solar calendar fall on the same day (of the Gregorian, Solar calendar) each year (such as New Year's Day on the first of January) while those calculated by the lunar calendar fall on different dates (of the Gregorian, Solar calendar) each year (such as Chinese lunar New Year). Calendrical rites impose a cultural order on nature. Mircea Eliade states that the calendrical rituals of many religious traditions recall and commemorate the basic beliefs of a community, and their yearly celebration establishes a link between past and present, as if the original events are happening over again: "Thus the gods did; thus men do." ### Rites of sacrifice, exchange, and communion This genre of ritual encompasses forms of sacrifice and offering meant to praise, please or placate divine powers. According to early anthropologist Edward Tylor, such sacrifices are gifts given in hope of a return. Catherine Bell, however, points out that sacrifice covers a range of practices from those that are manipulative and "magical" to those of pure devotion. Hindu puja, for example, appear to have no other purpose than to please the deity. According to Marcel Mauss, sacrifice is distinguished from other forms of offering by being consecrated, and hence sanctified. As a consequence, the offering is usually destroyed in the ritual to transfer it to the deities. ### Rites of feasting, fasting, and festivals Rites of feasting and fasting are those through which a community publicly expresses an adherence to basic, shared religious values, rather than to the overt presence of deities as is found in rites of affliction where feasting or fasting may also take place. It encompasses a range of performances such as communal fasting during Ramadan by Muslims; the slaughter of pigs in New Guinea; Carnival festivities; or penitential processions in Catholicism. Victor Turner described this "cultural performance" of basic values a "social drama". Such dramas allow the social stresses that are inherent in a particular culture to be expressed and worked out symbolically in a ritual catharsis; as the social tensions continue to persist outside the ritual, pressure mounts for the ritual's cyclical performance. In Carnival, for example, the practice of masking allows people to be what they are not, and acts as a general social leveller, erasing otherwise tense social hierarchies in a festival that emphasizes play outside the bounds of normal social limits. Yet outside carnival, social tensions of race, class and gender persist, hence requiring the repeated periodic release found in the festival. ### Water rites A water rite is a rite or ceremonial custom that uses water as its central feature. Typically, a person is immersed or bathed as a symbol of religious indoctrination or ritual purification. Examples include the Mikveh in Judaism, a custom of purification; misogi in Shinto, a custom of spiritual and bodily purification involving bathing in a sacred waterfall, river, or lake; the Muslim ritual ablution or Wudu before prayer; baptism in Christianity, a custom and sacrament that represents both purification and initiation into the religious community (the Christian Church); and Amrit Sanskar in Sikhism, a rite of passage (sanskar) that similarly represents purification and initiation into the religious community (the khalsa). Rites that use water are not considered water rites if it is not their central feature. For example, having water to drink during or after ritual is common, but does not make thar ritual a water ritual unless the drinking of water is a central activity such as in the Church of All Worlds waterkin rite. ### Fertility rites Fertility rites or fertility cult are religious rituals that are intended to stimulate reproduction in humans or in the natural world. Such rites may involve the sacrifice of "a primal animal, which must be sacrificed in the cause of fertility or even creation". ### Sexual rituals Sexual rituals fall into two categories: culture-created, and natural behaviour, the human animal having developed sex rituals from evolutionary instincts for reproduction, which are then integrated into society, and elaborated to include aspects such as marriage rites, dances, etc. Sometimes sexual rituals are highly formalized and/or part of religious activity, as in the cases of *hieros gamos*, the hierodule and the Ordo Templi Orientis (OTO). ### Political rituals According to anthropologist Clifford Geertz, political rituals actually construct power; that is, in his analysis of the Balinese state, he argued that rituals are not an ornament of political power, but that the power of political actors depends upon their ability to create rituals and the cosmic framework within which the social hierarchy headed by the king is perceived as natural and sacred. As a "dramaturgy of power" comprehensive ritual systems may create a cosmological order that sets a ruler apart as a divine being, as in "the divine right" of European kings, or the divine Japanese Emperor. Political rituals also emerge in the form of uncodified or codified conventions practiced by political officials that cement respect for the arrangements of an institution or role against the individual temporarily assuming it, as can be seen in the many rituals still observed within the procedure of parliamentary bodies. Ritual can be used as a form of resistance, as for example, in the various Cargo Cults that developed against colonial powers in the South Pacific. In such religio-political movements, Islanders would use ritual imitations of western practices (such as the building of landing strips) as a means of summoning cargo (manufactured goods) from the ancestors. Leaders of these groups characterized the present state (often imposed by colonial capitalist regimes) as a dismantling of the old social order, which they sought to restore. Rituals may also attain political signficance after conflict, as is the case with the Bosnian syncretic holidays and festivals that transgress religious boundaries. Anthropological theories ------------------------ ### Functionalism Nineteenth century "armchair anthropologists" were concerned with the basic question of how religion originated in human history. In the twentieth century their conjectural histories were replaced with new concerns around the question of what these beliefs and practices did for societies, regardless of their origin. In this view, religion was a universal, and while its content might vary enormously, it served certain basic functions such as the provision of prescribed solutions to basic human psychological and social problems, as well as expressing the central values of a society. Bronislaw Malinowski used the concept of function to address questions of individual psychological needs; A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, in contrast, looked for the function (purpose) of the institution or custom in preserving or maintaining society as a whole. They thus disagreed about the relationship of anxiety to ritual. Malinowski argued that ritual was a non-technical means of addressing anxiety about activities where dangerous elements were beyond technical control: "magic is to be expected and generally to be found whenever man comes to an unbridgeable gap, a hiatus in his knowledge or in his powers of practical control, and yet has to continue in his pursuit.". Radcliffe-Brown in contrast, saw ritual as an expression of common interest symbolically representing a community, and that anxiety was felt only if the ritual was not performed. George C. Homans sought to resolve these opposing theories by differentiating between "primary anxieties" felt by people who lack the techniques to secure results, and "secondary (or displaced) anxiety" felt by those who have not performed the rites meant to allay primary anxiety correctly. Homans argued that purification rituals may then be conducted to dispel secondary anxiety. A.R. Radcliffe-Brown argued that ritual should be distinguished from technical action, viewing it as a structured event: "ritual acts differ from technical acts in having in all instances some expressive or symbolic element in them." Edmund Leach, in contrast, saw ritual and technical action less as separate structural types of activity and more as a spectrum: "Actions fall into place on a continuous scale. At one extreme we have actions which are entirely profane, entirely functional, technique pure and simple; at the other we have actions which are entirely sacred, strictly aesthetic, technically non-functional. Between these two extremes we have the great majority of social actions which partake partly of the one sphere and partly of the other. From this point of view technique and ritual, profane and sacred, do not denote *types* of action but *aspects* of almost any kind of action." #### As social control The functionalist model viewed ritual as a homeostatic mechanism to regulate and stabilize social institutions by adjusting social interactions, maintaining a group ethos, and restoring harmony after disputes. Although the functionalist model was soon superseded, later "neofunctional" theorists adopted its approach by examining the ways that ritual regulated larger ecological systems. Roy Rappaport, for example, examined the way gift exchanges of pigs between tribal groups in Papua New Guinea maintained environmental balance between humans, available food (with pigs sharing the same foodstuffs as humans) and resource base. Rappaport concluded that ritual, "...helps to maintain an undegraded environment, limits fighting to frequencies which do not endanger the existence of regional population, adjusts man-land ratios, facilitates trade, distributes local surpluses of pig throughout the regional population in the form of pork, and assures people of high quality protein when they are most in need of it". Similarly, J. Stephen Lansing traced how the intricate calendar of Hindu Balinese rituals served to regulate the vast irrigation systems of Bali, ensuring the optimum distribution of water over the system while limiting disputes. #### Rebellion While most Functionalists sought to link ritual to the maintenance of social order, South African functionalist anthropologist Max Gluckman coined the phrase "rituals of rebellion" to describe a type of ritual in which the accepted social order was symbolically turned on its head. Gluckman argued that the ritual was an expression of underlying social tensions (an idea taken up by Victor Turner), and that it functioned as an institutional pressure valve, relieving those tensions through these cyclical performances. The rites ultimately functioned to reinforce social order, insofar as they allowed those tensions to be expressed without leading to actual rebellion. Carnival is viewed in the same light. He observed, for example, how the first-fruits festival (*incwala*) of the South African Bantu kingdom of Swaziland symbolically inverted the normal social order, so that the king was publicly insulted, women asserted their domination over men, and the established authority of elders over the young was turned upside down. ### Structuralism Claude Lévi-Strauss, the French anthropologist, regarded all social and cultural organization as symbolic systems of communication shaped by the inherent structure of the human brain. He therefore argued that the symbol systems are not reflections of social structure as the Functionalists believed, but are imposed on social relations to organize them. Lévi-Strauss thus viewed myth and ritual as complementary symbol systems, one verbal, one non-verbal. Lévi-Strauss was not concerned to develop a theory of ritual (although he did produce a four-volume analysis of myth) but was influential to later scholars of ritual such as Mary Douglas and Edmund Leach. ### Structure and anti-structure Victor Turner combined Arnold van Gennep's model of the structure of initiation rites, and Gluckman's functionalist emphasis on the ritualization of social conflict to maintain social equilibrium, with a more structural model of symbols in ritual. Running counter to this emphasis on structured symbolic oppositions within a ritual was his exploration of the liminal phase of rites of passage, a phase in which "anti-structure" appears. In this phase, opposed states such as birth and death may be encompassed by a single act, object or phrase. The dynamic nature of symbols experienced in ritual provides a compelling personal experience; ritual is a "mechanism that periodically converts the obligatory into the desirable". Mary Douglas, a British Functionalist, extended Turner's theory of ritual structure and anti-structure with her own contrasting set of terms "grid" and "group" in the book *Natural Symbols*. Drawing on Levi-Strauss' Structuralist approach, she saw ritual as symbolic communication that constrained social behaviour. Grid is a scale referring to the degree to which a symbolic system is a shared frame of reference. Group refers to the degree people are tied into a tightly knit community. When graphed on two intersecting axes, four quadrants are possible: strong group/strong grid, strong group/weak grid, weak group/weak grid, weak group/strong grid. Douglas argued that societies with strong group or strong grid were marked by more ritual activity than those weak in either group or grid. (see also, section below) #### Anti-structure and communitas In his analysis of rites of passage, Victor Turner argued that the liminal phase - that period 'betwixt and between' - was marked by "two models of human interrelatedness, juxtaposed and alternating": structure and anti-structure (or *communitas*). While the ritual clearly articulated the cultural ideals of a society through ritual symbolism, the unrestrained festivities of the liminal period served to break down social barriers and to join the group into an undifferentiated unity with "no status, property, insignia, secular clothing, rank, kinship position, nothing to demarcate themselves from their fellows". These periods of symbolic inversion have been studied in a diverse range of rituals such as pilgrimages and Yom Kippur. #### Social dramas Beginning with Max Gluckman's concept of "rituals of rebellion", Victor Turner argued that many types of ritual also served as "social dramas" through which structural social tensions could be expressed, and temporarily resolved. Drawing on Van Gennep's model of initiation rites, Turner viewed these social dramas as a dynamic process through which the community renewed itself through the ritual creation of communitas during the "liminal phase". Turner analyzed the ritual events in 4 stages: breach in relations, crisis, redressive actions, and acts of reintegration. Like Gluckman, he argued these rituals maintain social order while facilitating disordered inversions, thereby moving people to a new status, just as in an initiation rite. ### Symbolic approaches to ritual > Arguments, melodies, formulas, maps and pictures are not idealities to be stared at but texts to be read; so are rituals, palaces, technologies, and social formations. > > — Geertz (1980), p. 135 Clifford Geertz also expanded on the symbolic approach to ritual that began with Victor Turner. Geertz argued that religious symbol systems provided both a "model of" reality (showing how to interpret the world as is) as well as a "model for" reality (clarifying its ideal state). The role of ritual, according to Geertz, is to bring these two aspects – the "model of" and the "model for" – together: "it is in ritual – that is consecrated behaviour – that this conviction that religious conceptions are veridical and that religious directives are sound is somehow generated." Symbolic anthropologists like Geertz analyzed rituals as language-like codes to be interpreted independently as cultural systems. Geertz rejected Functionalist arguments that ritual describes social order, arguing instead that ritual actively shapes that social order and imposes meaning on disordered experience. He also differed from Gluckman and Turner's emphasis on ritual action as a means of resolving social passion, arguing instead that it simply displayed them. ### As a form of communication Whereas Victor Turner saw in ritual the potential to release people from the binding structures of their lives into a liberating anti-structure or communitas, Maurice Bloch argued that ritual produced conformity. Maurice Bloch argued that ritual communication is unusual in that it uses a special, restricted vocabulary, a small number of permissible illustrations, and a restrictive grammar. As a result, ritual utterances become very predictable, and the speaker is made anonymous in that they have little choice in what to say. The restrictive syntax reduces the ability of the speaker to make propositional arguments, and they are left, instead, with utterances that cannot be contradicted such as "I do thee wed" in a wedding. These kinds of utterances, known as performatives, prevent speakers from making political arguments through logical argument, and are typical of what Weber called traditional authority instead. Bloch's model of ritual language denies the possibility of creativity. Thomas Csordas, in contrast, analyzes how ritual language can be used to innovate. Csordas looks at groups of rituals that share performative elements ("genres" of ritual with a shared "poetics"). These rituals may fall along the spectrum of formality, with some less, others more formal and restrictive. Csordas argues that innovations may be introduced in less formalized rituals. As these innovations become more accepted and standardized, they are slowly adopted in more formal rituals. In this way, even the most formal of rituals are potential avenues for creative expression. ### As a disciplinary program In his historical analysis of articles on ritual and rite in the *Encyclopædia Britannica*, Talal Asad notes that from 1771 to 1852, the brief articles on ritual define it as a "book directing the order and manner to be observed in performing divine service" (i.e., as a script). There are no articles on the subject thereafter until 1910, when a new, lengthy article appeared that redefines ritual as "...a type of routine behaviour that symbolizes or expresses something". As a symbolic activity, it is no longer confined to religion, but is distinguished from technical action. The shift in definitions from script to behavior, which is likened to a text, is matched by a semantic distinction between ritual as an *outward sign* (i.e., public symbol) and *inward meaning*. The emphasis has changed to establishing the meaning of public symbols and abandoning concerns with inner emotional states since, as Evans-Pritchard wrote "such emotional states, if present at all, must vary not only from individual to individual, but also in the same individual on different occasions and even at different points in the same rite." Asad, in contrast, emphasizes behavior and inner emotional states; rituals are to be performed, and mastering these performances is a skill requiring disciplined action. > In other words, apt performance involves not symbols to be interpreted but abilities to be acquired according to rules that are sanctioned by those in authority: it presupposes no obscure meanings, but rather the formation of physical and linguistic skills. > > — Asad (1993), p. 62 Drawing on the example of Medieval monastic life in Europe, he points out that ritual in this case refers to its original meaning of the "...book directing the order and manner to be observed in performing divine service". This book "prescribed practices, whether they had to do with the proper ways of eating, sleeping, working, and praying or with proper moral dispositions and spiritual aptitudes, aimed at developing virtues that are put 'to the service of God.'" Monks, in other words, were disciplined in the Foucauldian sense. The point of monastic discipline was to learn skills and appropriate emotions. Asad contrasts his approach by concluding: > Symbols call for interpretation, and even as interpretive criteria are extended so interpretations can be multiplied. Disciplinary practices, on the other hand, cannot be varied so easily, because learning to develop moral capabilities is not the same thing as learning to invent representations. > > — Asad (1993), p. 79 ### As a form of social solidarity Ethnographic observation shows ritual can create social solidarity. Douglas Foley Went to North Town, Texas, between 1973 and 1974 to study public high school culture. He used interviews, participant observation, and unstructured chatting to study racial tension and capitalist culture in his ethnography *Learning Capitalist Culture*. Foley refers to football games and Friday Night Lights as a community ritual. This ritual united the school and created a sense of solidarity and community on a weekly basis involving pep rallies and the game itself. Foley observed judgement and segregation based on class, social status, wealth, and gender. He described Friday Night Lights as a ritual that overcomes those differences: "The other, gentler, more social side of football was, of course, the emphasis on camaraderie, loyalty, friendship between players, and pulling together". In his ethnography *Waiting for Elijah: Time and Encounter in a Bosnian Landscape*, anthropologist Safet HadžiMuhamedović suggests that shared festivals like St George's Day and St Elijah's Day structure interfaith relationships and appear as acts of solidarity against ethno-nationalist purifications of territory in Bosnia. ### Ritualization Asad's work critiqued the notion that there were universal characteristics of ritual to be found in all cases. Catherine Bell has extended this idea by shifting attention from ritual as a category, to the processes of "ritualization" by which ritual is created as a cultural form in a society. Ritualization is "a way of acting that is designed and orchestrated to distinguish and privilege what is being done in comparison to other, usually more quotidian, activities". ### Sociobiology and behavioral neuroscience Anthropologists have also analyzed ritual via insights from other behavioral sciences. The idea that cultural rituals share behavioral similarities with personal rituals of individuals was discussed early on by Freud. Dulaney and Fiske compared ethnographic descriptions of both rituals and non-ritual doings, such as work to behavioral descriptions from clinical descriptions of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). They note that OCD behavior often consists of such behavior as constantly cleaning objects, concern or disgust with bodily waste or secretions, repetitive actions to prevent harm, heavy emphasis on number or order of actions etc. They then show that ethnographic descriptions of cultural rituals contain around 5 times more of such content than ethnographic descriptions of other activities such as "work". Fiske later repeated similar analysis with more descriptions from a larger collection of different cultures, also contrasting descriptions of cultural rituals to descriptions of other behavioral disorders (in addition to OCD), in order to show that only OCD-like behavior (not other illnesses) shares properties with rituals. The authors offer tentative explanations for these findings, for example that these behavioral traits are widely needed for survival, to control risk, and cultural rituals are often performed in the context of perceived collective risk. Other anthropologists have taken these insights further, and constructed more elaborate theories based on the brain functions and physiology. Liénard and Boyer suggest that commonalities between obsessive behavior in individuals and similar behavior in collective contexts possibly share similarities due to underlying mental processes they call hazard precaution. They suggest that individuals of societies seem to pay more attention to information relevant to avoiding hazards, which in turn can explain why collective rituals displaying actions of hazard precaution are so popular and prevail for long periods in cultural transmission. ### Ritual as a methodological measure of religiosity According to the sociologist Mervin Verbit, ritual may be understood as one of the key components of religiosity. And ritual itself may be broken down into four dimensions; content, frequency, intensity and centrality. The content of a ritual may vary from ritual to ritual, as does the frequency of its practice, the intensity of the ritual (how much of an impact it has on the practitioner), and the centrality of the ritual (in that religious tradition). In this sense, ritual is similar to Charles Glock's "practice" dimension of religiosity. Religious perspectives ---------------------- In religion, a ritual can comprise the prescribed outward forms of performing the *cultus*, or cult, of a particular observation within a religion or religious denomination. Although ritual is often used in context with worship performed in a church, the actual relationship between any religion's doctrine and its ritual(s) can vary considerably from organized religion to non-institutionalized spirituality, such as ayahuasca shamanism as practiced by the Urarina of the upper Amazon. Rituals often have a close connection with reverence, thus a ritual in many cases expresses reverence for a deity or idealized state of humanity. ### Christianity In Christianity, a rite is used to refer to a sacred ceremony (such as anointing of the sick), which may or may not carry the status of a sacrament depending on the Christian denomination (in Roman Catholicism, anointing of the sick is a sacrament while in Lutheranism it is not). The word "rite" is also used to denote a liturgical tradition usually emanating from a specific center; examples include the Roman Rite, the Byzantine Rite, and the Sarum Rite. Such rites may include various sub-rites. For example, the Byzantine Rite (which is used by the Eastern Orthodox, Eastern Lutheran, and Eastern Catholic churches) has Greek, Russian, and other ethnically-based variants. ### Islam For daily prayers, practicing Muslims must perform a ritual recitation from the Quran in Arabic while bowing and prostrating. Quranic chapter 2 prescribes rituals such as the direction to face for prayers (qiblah); pilgrimage (Hajj), and fasting in Ramadan. Iḥrām is a state of ritual purity in preparation for pilgrimage in Islam. Hajj rituals include circumambulation around the Kaʿbah.... *and show us our rites* - these rites (manāsik) are presumed the rituals of ḥajj. *Truly Ṣafā and Marwah are among the rituals of God* Saʿy is the ritual travel, partway between walking and running, seven times between the two hills. Freemasonry ----------- In Freemasonry, rituals are scripted words and actions which employ Masonic symbolism to illustrate the principles espoused by Freemasons. These rituals are progressively taught to entrusted members during initiation into a particular Masonic rite comprising a series of degrees conferred by a Masonic body. The degrees of Freemasonry derive from the three grades of medieval craft guilds; those of "Entered Apprentice", "Journeyman" (or "Fellowcraft"), and "Master Mason". In North America, Freemasons who have been raised to the degree of "Master Mason” have the option of joining appendant bodies that offer additional degrees to those, such as those of the Scottish Rite or the York Rite. See also -------- * Behavioral script * Builders' rites * Chinese ritual mastery traditions * Confucianism § Rite and centring * Gut (ritual) * Kagura * Nabichum * Nuo rituals * Process art * Processional walkway * Religious symbolism * Ritualism in the Church of England * Symbolic boundaries * Taiping Qingjiao * *The Rite of Spring* ### Cited literature * Asad, Talal (1993). "Toward a genealogy of the concept of ritual". *Genealogies of Religion*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. * Bell, Catherine (1997). *Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions*. New York: Oxford University Press. * Geertz, Clifford (1980). *Negara: the Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali*. Princeton: Princeton University Press. * Lessa, William A.; Vogt, Evon Z., eds. (1979). *Reader in Comparative Religion: An Anthropological Approach*. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 9780060439910. * Tolbert, Elizabeth (1990a). "Women Cry with Words: Symbolization of Affect in the Karelian Lament". *Yearbook for Traditional Music*. **22**: 80–105. doi:10.2307/767933. JSTOR 767933. S2CID 192949893. * Tolbert, Elizabeth (1990b). "Magico-Religious Power and Gender in the Karelian Lament". In Herndon, M.; Zigler, S. (eds.). *Music, Gender, and Culture, vol. 1*. Intercultural Music Studies. Wilhelmshaven, DE.: International Council for Traditional Music, Florian Noetzel Verlag. pp. 41–56. * Turner, Victor W. (1967). *The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual*. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. * Turner, Victor W. (1969). *The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure*. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. * Wilce, James M. (2006). "Magical Laments and Anthropological Reflections: The Production and Circulation of Anthropological Text as Ritual Activity". *Current Anthropology*. **47** (6): 891–914. doi:10.1086/507195. S2CID 11691889. Further reading --------------- * Aractingi, Jean-Marc and G. Le Pape. (2011) "Rituals and catechisms in Ecumenical Rite" in *East and West at the Crossroads Masonic*, Editions l'Harmattan- Paris ISBN 978-2-296-54445-1. * Bax, Marcel. (2010). 'Rituals'. In: Jucker, Andeas H. & Taavitsainen, Irma, eds. *Handbook of Pragmatics, Vol. 8: Historical Pragmatics*. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 483–519. * Bloch, Maurice. (1992) *Prey into Hunter: The Politics of Religious Experience*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Buc, Philippe. (2001) *The Dangers of Ritual. Between Early Medieval Texts and Social Scientific Theory*. Princeton: Princeton University Press. * Buc, Philippe. (2007). 'The monster and the critics. A ritual reply'. *Early Medieval Europe* 15: 441–52. * Carrico, K., ed. (2011). 'Ritual.' *Cultural Anthropology* (Journal of the Society for Cultural Anthropology). Virtual Issue: http://www.culanth.org/?q=node/462. * D'Aquili, Eugene G., Charles D. Laughlin and John McManus. (1979) *The Spectrum of Ritual: A Biogenetic Structural Analysis*. New York: Columbia University Press. * Douglas, Mary. (1966) *Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo*. London: Routledge. * Durkheim, E. (1965 [1915]). *The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life*. New York: The Free Press. * Etzioni, Amitai. (2000). "Toward a theory of public ritual." *Sociological Theory* 18(1): 44-59. * Erikson, Erik. (1977) *Toys and Reasons: Stages in the Ritualization of Experience*. New York: Norton. * Fogelin, L. (2007). The Archaeology of Religious Ritual. *Annual Review of Anthropology* 36: 55–71. * Gennep, Arnold van. (1960) *The Rites of Passage*. Chicago: Chicago University Press. * Grimes, Ronald L. (2014) *The Craft of Ritual Studies*. New York: Oxford University Press. * Grimes, Ronald L. (1982, 2013) *Beginnings in Ritual Studies*. Third edition. Waterloo, Canada: Ritual Studies International. * Kyriakidis, E., ed. (2007) *The archaeology of ritual*. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology UCLA publications * Lawson, E.T. & McCauley, R.N. (1990) *Rethinking Religion: Connecting Cognition and Culture*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Malinowski, Bronisław. (1948) *Magic, Science and Religion*. Boston: Beacon Press. * McCorkle Jr., William W. (2010) *Ritualizing the Disposal of Dead Bodies: From Corpse to Concept*. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc. * Perniola Mario. (2000). *Ritual Thinking. Sexuality, Death, World*, foreword by Hugh J. Silverman, with author's introduction, Amherst (USA), Humanity Books. * Post, Paul (2015) 'Ritual Studies', in: *Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion* 1-23. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.21 * Rappaport, Roy A. (1999) *Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Seijo, F. (2005). "The Politics of Fire: Spanish Forest Policy and Ritual Resistance in Galicia, Spain". *Environmental Politics* 14 (3): 380–402 * Silverstein, M. (2003). *Talking Politics :The Substance of Style from Abe to "W"*. Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press (distributed by University of Chicago). * Silverstein, M. (2004). ""Cultural" Concepts and the Language-Culture Nexus". *Current Anthropology* 45: 621–52. * Smith, Jonathan Z. (1987) *To Take Place: Toward Theory in Ritual*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. * Staal, Frits (1990) *Ritual and Mantras: Rules Without Meaning*. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc. * Stollberg-Rilinger, Barbara (2013). *Rituale*. Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 2013 * Utz, Richard. “Negotiating Heritage: Observations on Semantic Concepts, Temporality, and the Centre for the Study of the Cultural Heritage of Medieval Rituals.” *Philologie im Netz* (2011): 70-87. * Yatromanolakis, Dimitrios and Panagiotis Roilos, (2003). *Towards a Ritual Poetics*, Athens, Foundation of the Hellenic World. * Yatromanolakis, Dimitrios and Panagiotis Roilos (eds.), (2005) *Greek Ritual Poetics*, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press.

Ritual

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritual

**Acid rain** is rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it has elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). Most water, including drinking water, has a neutral pH that exists between 6.5 and 8.5, but acid rain has a pH level lower than this and ranges from 4–5 on average. The more acidic the acid rain is, the lower its pH is. Acid rain can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters, soils, microbes, insects and aquatic life-forms. In ecosystems, persistent acid rain reduces tree bark durability, leaving flora more susceptible to environmental stressors such as drought, heat/cold and pest infestation. Acid rain is also capable of detrimenting soil composition by stripping it of nutrients such as calcium and magnesium which play a role in plant growth and maintaining healthy soil. In terms of human infrastructure, acid rain also causes paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and weathering of stone buildings and statues as well as having impacts on human health. Some governments, including those in Europe and North America, have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere through air pollution regulations. These efforts have had positive results due to the widespread research on acid rain starting in the 1960s and the publicized information on its harmful effects. The main source of sulfur and nitrogen compounds that result in acid rain are anthropogenic, but nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. Definition ---------- "Acid rain" is a popular term referring to the deposition of a mixture from wet (rain, snow, sleet, fog, cloudwater, and dew) and dry (acidifying particles and gases) acidic components. Distilled water, once carbon dioxide is removed, has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are alkaline. "Clean" or unpolluted rain has an acidic pH, but usually no lower than 5.7, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak acid according to the following reaction: H2O (l) + CO2 (g) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq) Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low concentrations of carbonate and hydronium ions: H2O (l) + H2CO3 (aq) ⇌ HCO−3 (aq) + H3O+ (aq) Unpolluted rain can also contain other chemicals which affect its pH (acidity level). A common example is nitric acid produced by electric discharge in the atmosphere such as lightning. Acid deposition as an environmental issue (discussed later in the article) would include additional acids other than H2CO3. Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below 2.4 have been reported in industrialized areas. The main sources of the SO2 and NOx pollution that causes acid rain are burning fossil fuels to generate electricity and power internal combustion vehicles, to refine oil, and in industrial manufacturing and other processes. History ------- Acid rain was first systematically studied in Europe, in the 1960s, and in the United States and Canada, the following decade. ### In Europe The corrosive effect of polluted, acidic city air on limestone and marble was noted in the 17th century by John Evelyn, who remarked upon the poor condition of the Arundel marbles. Since the Industrial Revolution, emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere have increased. In 1852, Robert Angus Smith was the first to show the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England. Smith coined the term "acid rain" in 1872. In the late 1960s, scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon. At first, the main focus in this research lay on local effects of acid rain. Waldemar Christofer Brøgger was the first to acknowledge long-distance transportation of pollutants crossing borders from the United Kingdom to Norway – a problem systematically studied by Brynjulf Ottar in the 1970s. Ottar's work was strongly influenced by Swedish soil scientist Svante Odén, who had drawn widespread attention to Europe's acid rain problem in popular newspapers and wrote a landmark paper on the subject in 1968. ### In the United States The earliest report about acid rain in the United States came from chemical evidence gathered from Hubbard Brook Valley; public awareness of acid rain in the US increased in the 1970s after *The New York Times* reported on these findings. In 1972, a group of scientists including Gene Likens discovered the rain that was deposited at White Mountains of New Hampshire was acidic. The pH of the sample was measured to be 4.03 at Hubbard Brook. The Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study followed up with a series of research studies that analyzed the environmental effects of acid rain. Acid rain that mixed with stream water at Hubbard Brook was neutralized by the alumina from soils. The result of this research indicated that the chemical reaction between acid rain and aluminium leads to an increasing rate of soil weathering. Experimental research was done to examine the effects of increased acidity in streams on ecological species. In 1980, a group of scientists modified the acidity of Norris Brook, New Hampshire, and observed the change in species' behaviors. There was a decrease in species diversity, an increase in community dominants, and a decrease in the food web complexity. In 1980, the US Congress passed an Acid Deposition Act. This Act established an 18-year assessment and research program under the direction of the National Acidic Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP). NAPAP enlarged a network of monitoring sites to determine how acidic the precipitation actually was, seeking to determine long-term trends, and established a network for dry deposition. Using a statistically based sampling design, NAPAP quantified the effects of acid rain on a regional basis by targeting research and surveys to identify and quantify the effects of acid precipitation on freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. NAPAP also assessed the effects of acid rain on historical buildings, monuments, and building materials. It also funded extensive studies on atmospheric processes and potential control programs. From the start, policy advocates from all sides attempted to influence NAPAP activities to support their particular policy advocacy efforts, or to disparage those of their opponents. For the US Government's scientific enterprise, a significant impact of NAPAP were lessons learned in the assessment process and in environmental research management to a relatively large group of scientists, program managers, and the public. In 1981, the National Academy of Sciences was looking into research about the controversial issues regarding acid rain. President Ronald Reagan dismissed the issues of acid rain until his personal visit to Canada and confirmed that the Canadian border suffered from the drifting pollution from smokestacks originating in the US Midwest. Reagan honored the agreement to Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's enforcement of anti-pollution regulation. In 1982, Reagan commissioned William Nierenberg to serve on the National Science Board. Nierenberg selected scientists including Gene Likens to serve on a panel to draft a report on acid rain. In 1983, the panel of scientists came up with a draft report, which concluded that acid rain is a real problem and solutions should be sought. White House Office of Science and Technology Policy reviewed the draft report and sent Fred Singer's suggestions of the report, which cast doubt on the cause of acid rain. The panelists revealed rejections against Singer's positions and submitted the report to Nierenberg in April. In May 1983, the House of Representatives voted against legislation that aimed to control sulfur emissions. There was a debate about whether Nierenberg delayed to release the report. Nierenberg himself denied the saying about his suppression of the report and stated that the report was withheld after the House's vote because it was not ready to be published. In 1991, the US National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) provided its first assessment of acid rain in the United States. It reported that 5% of New England Lakes were acidic, with sulfates being the most common problem. They noted that 2% of the lakes could no longer support Brook Trout, and 6% of the lakes were unsuitable for the survival of many species of minnow. Subsequent *Reports to Congress* have documented chemical changes in soil and freshwater ecosystems, nitrogen saturation, decreases in amounts of nutrients in soil, episodic acidification, regional haze, and damage to historical monuments. Meanwhile, in 1990, the US Congress passed a series of amendments to the Clean Air Act. Title IV of these amendments established a cap and trade system designed to control emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Title IV called for a total reduction of about 10 million tons of SO2 emissions from power plants, close to a 50% reduction. It was implemented in two phases. Phase I began in 1995, and limited sulfur dioxide emissions from 110 of the largest power plants to a combined total of 8.7 million tons of sulfur dioxide. One power plant in New England (Merrimack) was in Phase I. Four other plants (Newington, Mount Tom, Brayton Point, and Salem Harbor) were added under other provisions of the program. Phase II began in 2000, and affects most of the power plants in the country. During the 1990s, research continued. On March 10, 2005, the EPA issued the Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR). This rule provides states with a solution to the problem of power plant pollution that drifts from one state to another. CAIR will permanently cap emissions of SO2 and NOx in the eastern United States. When fully implemented[*when?*], CAIR will reduce SO2 emissions in 28 eastern states and the District of Columbia by over 70% and NOx emissions by over 60% from 2003 levels. Overall, the program's cap and trade program has been successful in achieving its goals. Since the 1990s, SO2 emissions have dropped 40%, and according to the Pacific Research Institute, acid rain levels have dropped 65% since 1976. Conventional regulation was used in the European Union, which saw a decrease of over 70% in SO2 emissions during the same time period. In 2007, total SO2 emissions were 8.9 million tons, achieving the program's long-term goal ahead of the 2010 statutory deadline. In 2007 the EPA estimated that by 2010, the overall costs of complying with the program for businesses and consumers would be $1 billion to $2 billion a year, only one fourth of what was originally predicted. Forbes says: "In 2010, by which time the cap and trade system had been augmented by the George W. Bush administration's Clean Air Interstate Rule, SO2 emissions had fallen to 5.1 million tons." The term citizen science can be traced back as far as January 1989 to a campaign by the Audubon Society to measure acid rain. Scientist Muki Haklay cites in a policy report for the Wilson Center entitled 'Citizen Science and Policy: A European Perspective' a first use of the term 'citizen science' by R. Kerson in the magazine MIT Technology Review from January 1989. Quoting from the Wilson Center report: "The new form of engagement in science received the name "citizen science". The first recorded example of the use of the term is from 1989, describing how 225 volunteers across the US collected rain samples to assist the Audubon Society in an acid-rain awareness raising campaign. The volunteers collected samples, checked for acidity, and reported back to the organization. The information was then used to demonstrate the full extent of the phenomenon." ### In Canada Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a "dead" lake. In 1971, he and R.J. Beamish published a report, "Acidification of the La Cloche Mountain Lakes", documenting the gradual deterioration of fish stocks in 60 lakes in Killarney Park in Ontario, which they had been studying systematically since 1966. In the 1970s and 80s, acid rain was a major topic of research at the Experimental Lakes Area (ELA) in Northwestern Ontario, Canada. Researchers added sulfuric acid to whole lakes in controlled ecosystem experiments to simulate the effects of acid rain. Because its remote conditions allowed for whole-ecosystem experiments, research at the ELA showed that the effect of acid rain on fish populations started at concentrations much lower than those observed in laboratory experiments. In the context of a food web, fish populations crashed earlier than when acid rain had direct toxic effects to the fish because the acidity led to crashes in prey populations (e.g. mysids). As experimental acid inputs were reduced, fish populations and lake ecosystems recovered at least partially, although invertebrate populations have still not completely returned to the baseline conditions. This research showed both that acidification was linked to declining fish populations and that the effects could be reversed if sulfuric acid emissions decreased, and influenced policy in Canada and the United States. In 1985, seven Canadian provinces (all except British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan) and the federal government signed the Eastern Canada Acid Rain Program. The provinces agreed to limit their combined sulfur dioxide emissions to 2.3 million tonnes by 1994. The Canada-US Air Quality Agreement was signed in 1991. In 1998, all federal, provincial, and territorial Ministers of Energy and Environment signed The Canada-Wide Acid Rain Strategy for Post-2000, which was designed to protect lakes that are more sensitive than those protected by earlier policies. Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification ----------------------------------------------- The most important gas which leads to acidification is sulfur dioxide. Emissions of nitrogen oxides which are oxidized to form nitric acid are of increasing importance due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur compounds. 70 Tg(S) per year in the form of SO2 comes from fossil fuel combustion and industry, 2.8 Tg(S) from wildfires, and 7–8 Tg(S) per year from volcanoes. ### Natural phenomena Mean acidifying emissions (air pollution) of different foods per 100g of protein| Food Types | Acidifying Emissions (g SO2eq per 100g protein) | | --- | --- | | Beef | 343.6 | | Cheese | 165.5 | | Pork | 142.7 | | Lamb and Mutton | 139.0 | | Farmed Crustaceans | 133.1 | | Poultry | 102.4 | | Farmed Fish | 65.9 | | Eggs | 53.7 | | Groundnuts | 22.6 | | Peas | 8.5 | | Tofu | 6.7 | The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-producing gases to the atmosphere are emissions from volcanoes. Thus, for example, fumaroles from the Laguna Caliente crater of Poás Volcano create extremely high amounts of acid rain and fog, with acidity as high as a pH of 2, clearing an area of any vegetation and frequently causing irritation to the eyes and lungs of inhabitants in nearby settlements. Acid-producing gasses are also created by biological processes that occur on the land, in wetlands, and in the oceans. The major biological source of sulfur compounds is dimethyl sulfide. Nitric acid in rainwater is an important source of fixed nitrogen for plant life, and is also produced by electrical activity in the atmosphere such as lightning. Acidic deposits have been detected in glacial ice thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe. ### Human activity The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen compounds from human sources, such as electricity generation, animal agriculture, factories, and motor vehicles. Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in China and Russia and areas downwind from them. These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to generate heat and electricity. The problem of acid rain has not only increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation; dispersal from these taller stacks causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing widespread ecological damage. Often deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind of the emissions, with mountainous regions tending to receive the greatest deposition (because of their higher rainfall). An example of this effect is the low pH of rain which falls in Scandinavia. Chemical processes ------------------ Combustion of fuels produces sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides. They are converted into sulfuric acid and nitric acid. ### Gas phase chemistry In the gas phase sulfur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with the hydroxyl radical via an intermolecular reaction: SO2 + OH· → HOSO2· which is followed by: HOSO2· + O2 → HO2· + SO3 In the presence of water, sulfur trioxide (SO3) is converted rapidly to sulfuric acid: SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (aq) Nitrogen dioxide reacts with OH to form nitric acid: NO2 + OH· → HNO3 ### Chemistry in cloud droplets When clouds are present, the loss rate of SO2 is faster than can be explained by gas phase chemistry alone. This is due to reactions in the liquid water droplets. Hydrolysis Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like carbon dioxide, hydrolyses in a series of equilibrium reactions: SO2 (g) + H2O ⇌ SO2·H2O SO2·H2O ⇌ H+ + HSO3− HSO3− ⇌ H+ + SO32− Oxidation There are a large number of aqueous reactions that oxidize sulfur from S(IV) to S(VI), leading to the formation of sulfuric acid. The most important oxidation reactions are with ozone, hydrogen peroxide and oxygen (reactions with oxygen are catalyzed by iron and manganese in the cloud droplets). Acid deposition --------------- ### Wet deposition Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow, and so on) removes acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface. This can result from the deposition of acids produced in the raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by the precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below clouds. Wet removal of both gases and aerosols are both of importance for wet deposition. ### Dry deposition Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the absence of precipitation. This can be responsible for as much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition. This occurs when particles and gases stick to the ground, plants or other surfaces. Adverse effects --------------- Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and aquatic life-forms as well as causing damage to buildings and having impacts on human health. ### Surface waters and aquatic animals Both the lower pH and higher aluminium concentrations in surface water that occur as a result of acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At pH lower than 5 most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pH can kill adult fish. As lakes and rivers become more acidic biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain has eliminated insect life and some fish species, including the brook trout in some lakes, streams, and creeks in geographically sensitive areas, such as the Adirondack Mountains of the United States. However, the extent to which acid rain contributes directly or indirectly via runoff from the catchment to lake and river acidity (i.e., depending on characteristics of the surrounding watershed) is variable. The United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) website states: "Of the lakes and streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75% of the acidic lakes and about 50% of the acidic streams". Lakes hosted by silicate basement rocks are more acidic than lakes within limestone or other basement rocks with a carbonate composition (i.e. marble) due to buffering effects by carbonate minerals, even with the same amount of acid rain. ### Soils Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some microbes are unable to tolerate changes to low pH and are killed. The enzymes of these microbes are denatured (changed in shape so they no longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions of acid rain also mobilize toxins, such as aluminium, and leach away essential nutrients and minerals such as magnesium. 2 H+ (aq) + Mg2+ (clay) ⇌ 2 H+ (clay) + Mg2+ (aq) Soil chemistry can be dramatically changed when base cations, such as calcium and magnesium, are leached by acid rain, thereby affecting sensitive species, such as sugar maple (Acer saccharum). **Soil acidification** Impacts of acidic water and Soil acidification on plants could be minor or in most cases major. Most minor cases which do not result in fatality of plant life can be attributed to the plants being less susceptible to acidic conditions and/or the acid rain being less potent. However, even in minor cases, the plant will eventually die due to the acidic water lowering the plant's natural pH. Acidic water enters the plant and causes important plant minerals to dissolve and get carried away; which ultimately causes the plant to die of lack of minerals for nutrition. In major cases, which are more extreme, the same process of damage occurs as in minor cases, which is removal of essential minerals, but at a much quicker rate. Likewise, acid rain that falls on soil and on plant leaves causes drying of the waxy leaf cuticle, which ultimately causes rapid water loss from the plant to the outside atmosphere and eventually results in death of the plant. To see if a plant is being affected by soil acidification, one can closely observe the plant leaves. If the leaves are green and look healthy, the soil pH is normal and acceptable for plant life. But if the plant leaves have yellowing between the veins on their leaves, that means the plant is suffering from acidification and is unhealthy. Moreover, a plant suffering from soil acidification cannot photosynthesize; the acid-water-induced process of drying out of the plant can destroy chloroplast organelles. Without being able to photosynthesize, a plant cannot create nutrients for its own survival or oxygen for the survival of aerobic organisms, which affects most species on Earth and ultimately ends the purpose of the plant's existence.   ### Forests and other vegetation Adverse effects may be indirectly related to acid rain, like the acid's effects on soil (see above) or high concentration of gaseous precursors to acid rain. High altitude forests are especially vulnerable as they are often surrounded by clouds and fog which are more acidic than rain. Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain, but the effect on food crops is minimized by the application of lime and fertilizers to replace lost nutrients. In cultivated areas, limestone may also be added to increase the ability of the soil to keep the pH stable, but this tactic is largely unusable in the case of wilderness lands. When calcium is leached from the needles of red spruce, these trees become less cold tolerant and exhibit winter injury and even death. ### Ocean acidification Acid rain has a much less harmful effect on oceans on a global scale, but it creates an amplified impact in the shallower waters of coastal waters. Acid rain can cause the ocean's pH to fall, known as ocean acidification, making it more difficult for different coastal species to create their exoskeletons that they need to survive. These coastal species link together as part of the ocean's food chain, and without them being a source for other marine life to feed off of, more marine life will die. Coral's limestone skeleton is particularly sensitive to pH decreases, because the calcium carbonate, a core component of the limestone skeleton, dissolves in acidic (low pH) solutions. In addition to acidification, excess nitrogen inputs from the atmosphere promote increased growth of phytoplankton and other marine plants, which, in turn, may cause more frequent harmful algal blooms and eutrophication (the creation of oxygen-depleted "dead zones") in some parts of the ocean. ### Human health effects Acid rain does not directly affect human health. The acid in the rainwater is too dilute to have direct adverse effects. The particulates responsible for acid rain (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) do have an adverse effect. Increased amounts of fine particulate matter in the air contribute to heart and lung problems, including asthma and bronchitis. ### Other adverse effects Acid rain can damage buildings, historic monuments, and statues, especially those made of rocks, such as limestone and marble, that contain large amounts of calcium carbonate. Acids in the rain react with the calcium compounds in the stones to create gypsum, which then flakes off. CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ⇌ CaSO4 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) The effects of this are commonly seen on old gravestones, where acid rain can cause the inscriptions to become completely illegible. Acid rain also increases the corrosion rate of metals, in particular iron, steel, copper and bronze. Affected areas -------------- Places significantly impacted by acid rain around the globe include most of eastern Europe from Poland northward into Scandinavia, the eastern third of the United States, and southeastern Canada. Other affected areas include the southeastern coast of China and Taiwan. Prevention methods ------------------ ### Technical solutions Many coal-firing power stations use flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) to remove sulfur-containing gases from their stack gases. For a typical coal-fired power station, FGD will remove 95% or more of the SO2 in the flue gases. An example of FGD is the wet scrubber which is commonly used. A wet scrubber is basically a reaction tower equipped with a fan that extracts hot smoke stack gases from a power plant into the tower. Lime or limestone in slurry form is also injected into the tower to mix with the stack gases and combine with the sulfur dioxide present. The calcium carbonate of the limestone produces pH-neutral calcium sulfate that is physically removed from the scrubber. That is, the scrubber turns sulfur pollution into industrial sulfates. In some areas the sulfates are sold to chemical companies as gypsum when the purity of calcium sulfate is high. In others, they are placed in landfill. The effects of acid rain can last for generations, as the effects of pH level change can stimulate the continued leaching of undesirable chemicals into otherwise pristine water sources, killing off vulnerable insect and fish species and blocking efforts to restore native life. Fluidized bed combustion also reduces the amount of sulfur emitted by power production. Vehicle emissions control reduces emissions of nitrogen oxides from motor vehicles. ### International treaties International treaties on the long-range transport of atmospheric pollutants have been agreed upon by western countries for some time now. Beginning in 1979, European countries convened in order to ratify general principles discussed during the UNECE Convention. The purpose was to combat Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. The 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulfur Emissions under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution furthered the results of the convention. Results of the treaty have already come to fruition, as evidenced by an approximate 40 percent drop in particulate matter in North America. The effectiveness of the Convention in combatting acid rain has inspired further acts of international commitment to prevent the proliferation of particulate matter. Canada and the US signed the Air Quality Agreement in 1991. Most European countries and Canada signed the treaties. Activity of the Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention remained dormant after 1999, when 27 countries convened to further reduce the effects of acid rain. In 2000, foreign cooperation to prevent acid rain was sparked in Asia for the first time. Ten diplomats from countries ranging throughout the continent convened to discuss ways to prevent acid rain. Following these discussions, the Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia (EANET) was established in 2001 as an intergovernmental initiative to provide science-based inputs for decision makers and promote international cooperation on acid deposition in East Asia. In 2023, the EANET member countries include Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Republic of Korea, Russia, Thailand and Vietnam. ### Emissions trading In this regulatory scheme, every current polluting facility is given or may purchase on an open market an emissions allowance for each unit of a designated pollutant it emits. Operators can then install pollution control equipment, and sell portions of their emissions allowances they no longer need for their own operations, thereby recovering some of the capital cost of their investment in such equipment. The intention is to give operators economic incentives to install pollution controls. The first emissions trading market was established in the United States by enactment of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. The overall goal of the Acid Rain Program established by the Act is to achieve significant environmental and public health benefits through reductions in emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), the primary causes of acid rain. To achieve this goal at the lowest cost to society, the program employs both regulatory and market based approaches for controlling air pollution. See also -------- * Alkaline precipitation * Citizen science - one of two 'first uses' of the term was in an acid rain campaign 1989. * Gene Likens * List of environmental issues * Lists of environmental topics * Ocean acidification * Rain dust (an *alkaline rain*) * Soil retrogression and degradation

Acid rain

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain

A **nomad** is a member of a community without fixed habitation who regularly moves to and from areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the population of nomadic pastoral tribes slowly decreased, reaching an estimated 30–40 million nomads in the world as of 1995[update]. Nomadic hunting and gathering—following seasonally available wild plants and game—is by far the oldest human subsistence method. Pastoralists raise herds of domesticated livestock, driving or accompanying them in patterns that normally avoid depleting pastures beyond their ability to recover. Nomadism is also a lifestyle adapted to infertile regions such as steppe, tundra, or ice and sand, where mobility is the most efficient strategy for exploiting scarce resources. For example, many groups living in the tundra are reindeer herders and are semi-nomadic, following forage for their animals. Sometimes also described as "nomadic" are various itinerant populations who move among densely populated areas to offer specialized services (crafts or trades) to their residents—external consultants, for example. These groups are known as "peripatetic nomads". Etymology --------- The English word *nomad* comes from the Middle French *nomade*, from Latin *nomas* ("wandering shepherd"), from Ancient Greek νομᾰ́ς (*nomás*, “roaming, wandering, esp. to find pasture”), which is derived from the Ancient Greek νομός (*nomós*, “pasture”).[*dubious – discuss*] Common characteristics ---------------------- A nomad is a person with no settled home, moving from place to place as a way of obtaining food, finding pasture for livestock, or otherwise making a living. Most nomadic groups follow a fixed annual or seasonal pattern of movements and settlements. Nomadic people traditionally travel by animal, canoe or on foot. Animals include camels, horses and alpaca. Today, some nomads travel by motor vehicle. Some nomads may live in homes or homeless shelters, though this would necessarily be on a temporary or itinerant basis. Nomads keep moving for different reasons. Nomadic foragers move in search of game, edible plants, and water. Aboriginal Australians, Negritos of Southeast Asia, and San of Africa, for example, traditionally move from camp to camp to hunt and gather wild plants. Some tribes of the Americas followed this way of life. Pastoral nomads, on the other hand, make their living raising livestock such as camels, cattle, goats, horses, sheep, or yaks; these nomads usually travel in search of pastures for their flocks. The Fulani and their cattle travel through the grasslands of Niger in western Africa. Some nomadic peoples, especially herders, may also move to raid settled communities or to avoid enemies. Nomadic craftworkers and merchants travel to find and serve customers. They include the Gadia Lohar blacksmiths of India, the Roma traders, Scottish travellers and Irish travellers. Most nomads travel in groups of families, bands, or tribes. These groups are based on kinship and marriage ties or on formal agreements of cooperation. A council of adult males makes most of the decisions, though some tribes have chiefs. In the case of Mongolian nomads, a family moves twice a year. These two movements generally occur during the summer and winter. The winter destination is usually located near the mountains in a valley and most families already have fixed winter locations. Their winter locations have shelter for animals and are not used by other families while they are out. In the summer they move to a more open area in which the animals can graze. Most nomads usually move within the same region and do not travel very far. Since they usually circle around a large area, communities form and families generally know where the other ones are. Often, families do not have the resources to move from one province to another unless they are moving out of the area permanently. A family can move on its own or with others; if it moves alone, they are usually no more than a couple of kilometres from each other. The geographical closeness of families is usually for mutual support. Pastoral nomad societies usually do not have large populations. One nomadic society, the Mongols, gave rise to the largest land empire in history. The Mongols originally consisted of loosely organized nomadic tribes in Mongolia, Manchuria, and Siberia. In the late 12th century, Genghis Khan united them and other nomadic tribes to found the Mongol Empire, which eventually stretched the length of Asia. The nomadic way of life has become increasingly rare. Many countries have converted pastures into cropland and forced nomadic peoples into permanent settlements. Modern forms of nomadic peoples are variously referred to as "shiftless", "gypsies", "rootless cosmopolitans", hunter-gatherers, refugees and urban homeless or street-people, depending on their individual circumstances. These terms may be used in a derogatory sense. According to Gérard Chaliand, terrorism originated in nomad-warrior cultures. He points to Machiavelli's classification of war into two types, which Chaliand interprets as describing a difference between warfare in sedentary and nomadic societies: > There are two different kinds of war. The one springs from the ambition of princes or republics that seek to extend their empire; such were the wars of Alexander the Great, and those of the Romans, and those which two hostile powers carry on against each other. These wars are dangerous but never go so far as to drive all its inhabitants out of a province, because the conqueror is satisfied with the submission of the people... The other kind of war is when an entire people, constrained by famine or war, leave their country with their families for the purpose of seeking a new home in a new country, not for the purpose of subjecting it to their dominion as in the first case, but with the intention of taking absolute possession of it themselves and driving out or killing its original inhabitants. > > Primary historical sources for nomadic steppe-style warfare are found in many languages: Chinese, Persian, Polish, Russian, Classical Greek, Armenian, Latin and Arabic. These sources concern both the true steppe nomads (Mongols, Huns, Magyars and Scythians) and also the semi-settled people like Turks, Crimean Tatars and Russians, who retained or, in some cases, adopted the nomadic form of warfare. Hunter-gatherers ---------------- Hunter-gatherers (also known as foragers) move from campsite to campsite, following game and wild fruits and vegetables. Hunting and gathering describes early peoples' subsistence living style. Following the development of agriculture, most hunter-gatherers were eventually either displaced or converted to farming or pastoralist groups. Only a few contemporary societies, such as the Pygmies, the Hadza people, and some uncontacted tribes in the Amazon rainforest, are classified as hunter-gatherers; some of these societies supplement, sometimes extensively, their foraging activity with farming or animal husbandry. Pastoralism ----------- Pastoral nomads are nomads moving between pastures. Nomadic pastoralism is thought to have developed in three stages that accompanied population growth and an increase in the complexity of social organization. Karim Sadr has proposed the following stages: * **Pastoralism:** This is a mixed economy with a symbiosis within the family. * **Agropastoralism:** This is when symbiosis is between segments or clans within an ethnic group. * **True Nomadism:** This is when symbiosis is at the regional level, generally between specialised nomadic and agricultural populations. The pastoralists are sedentary to a certain area, as they move between the permanent spring, summer, autumn and winter (or dry and wet season) pastures for their livestock. The nomads moved depending on the availability of resources. ### History #### Origins Nomadic pastoralism seems to have developed first as a part of the secondary-products revolution proposed by Andrew Sherratt, in which early pre-pottery Neolithic cultures that had used animals as live meat ("on the hoof") also began using animals for their secondary products, for example: milk and its associated dairy products, wool and other animal hair, hides (and consequently leather), manure (for fuel and fertilizer), and traction. The first nomadic pastoral society developed in the period from 8,500 to 6,500 BCE in the area of the southern Levant. There, during a period of increasing aridity, Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) cultures in the Sinai were replaced by a nomadic, pastoral pottery-using culture, which seems to have been a cultural fusion between them and a newly-arrived Mesolithic people from Egypt (the Harifian culture), adopting their nomadic hunting lifestyle to the raising of stock. This lifestyle quickly developed into what Jaris Yurins has called the circum-Arabian nomadic pastoral techno-complex and is possibly associated with the appearance of Semitic languages in the region of the Ancient Near East. The rapid spread of such nomadic pastoralism was typical of such later developments as of the Yamnaya culture of the horse and cattle nomads of the Eurasian steppe (c. 3300–2600 BCE), and of the Mongol spread in the later Middle Ages. Yamnaya steppe pastoralists from the Pontic–Caspian steppe, who were among the first to master horseback riding, played a key role in Indo-European migrations and in the spread of Indo-European languages across Eurasia. Trekboers in southern Africa adopted nomadism from the 17th century. Some elements of gaucho culture in colonial South America also re-invented nomadic lifestyles. #### Increase in post-Soviet Central Asia One of the results of the break-up of the Soviet Union and the subsequent political independence and economic collapse of its Central Asian republics has been the resurgence of pastoral nomadism. Taking the Kyrgyz people as a representative example, nomadism was the centre of their economy before Russian colonization at the turn of the 20th century, when they were settled into agricultural villages. The population became increasingly urbanized after World War II, but some people still take their herds of horses and cows to high pastures (*jailoo*) every summer, continuing a pattern of transhumance. Since the 1990s, as the cash economy shrank, unemployed relatives were reabsorbed into family farms, and the importance of this form of nomadism has increased. The symbols of nomadism, specifically the crown of the grey felt tent known as the yurt, appears on the national flag, emphasizing the central importance of nomadism in the genesis of the modern nation of Kyrgyzstan. #### Sedentarization From 1920 to 2008, the population of nomadic pastoral tribes slowly decreased from over a quarter of Iran's population. Tribal pastures were nationalized during the 1960s. The National Commission of UNESCO registered the population of Iran at 21 million in 1963, of whom two million (9.5%) were nomads. Although the nomadic population of Iran has dramatically decreased in the 20th century, Iran still has one of the largest nomadic populations in the world, an estimated 1.5 million in a country of about 70 million. In Kazakhstan where the major agricultural activity was nomadic herding, forced collectivization under Joseph Stalin's rule met with massive resistance and major losses and confiscation of livestock. Livestock in Kazakhstan fell from 7 million cattle to 1.6 million and from 22 million sheep to 1.7 million. The resulting famine of 1931–1934 caused some 1.5 million deaths: this represents more than 40% of the total Kazakh population at that time. In the 1950s as well as the 1960s, large numbers of Bedouin throughout the Middle East started to leave the traditional, nomadic life to settle in the cities of the Middle East, especially as home ranges have shrunk and population levels have grown. Government policies in Egypt and Israel, oil production in Libya and the Persian Gulf, as well as a desire for improved standards of living, effectively led most Bedouin to become settled citizens of various nations, rather than stateless nomadic herders. A century ago nomadic Bedouin still made up some 10% of the total Arab population. Today they account for some 1% of the total. At independence in 1960, Mauritania was essentially a nomadic society. The great Sahel droughts of the early 1970s caused massive problems in a country where 85% of its inhabitants were nomadic herders. Today only 15% remain nomads. As many as 2 million nomadic Kuchis wandered over Afghanistan in the years before the Soviet invasion, and most experts agreed that by 2000 the number had fallen dramatically, perhaps by half. A severe drought had destroyed 80% of the livestock in some areas. Niger experienced a serious food crisis in 2005 following erratic rainfall and desert locust invasions. Nomads such as the Tuareg and Fulani, who make up about 20% of Niger's 12.9 million population, had been so badly hit by the Niger food crisis that their already fragile way of life is at risk. Nomads in Mali were also affected. ### Lifestyle Pala nomads living in Western Tibet have a diet that is unusual in that they consume very few vegetables and no fruit. The main staple of their diet is *tsampa* and they drink Tibetan style butter tea. Pala will eat heartier foods in the winter months to help keep warm. Some of the customary restrictions they explain as cultural saying only that *drokha* do not eat certain foods, even some that may be naturally abundant. Though they live near sources of fish and fowl these do not play a significant role in their diet, and they do not eat carnivorous animals, rabbits or the wild asses that are abundant in the environs, classifying the latter as horse due to their cloven hooves. Some families do not eat until after the morning milking, while others may have a light meal with butter tea and *tsampa*. In the afternoon, after the morning milking, the families gather and share a communal meal of tea, *tsampa* and sometimes yogurt. During winter months the meal is more substantial and includes meat. Herders will eat before leaving the camp and most do not eat again until they return to camp for the evening meal. The typical evening meal may include thin stew with *tsampa*, animal fat and dried radish. Winter stew would include a lot of meat with either *tsampa* or boiled flour dumplings. Nomadic diets in Kazakhstan have not changed much over centuries. The Kazakh nomad cuisine is simple and includes meat, salads, marinated vegetables and fried and baked breads. Tea is served in bowls, possibly with sugar or milk. Milk and other dairy products, like cheese and yogurt, are especially important. *Kumiss* is a drink of fermented milk. Wrestling is a popular sport, but the nomadic people do not have much time for leisure. Horse riding is a valued skill in their culture. ### Perception Ann Marie Kroll Lerner states that the pastoral nomads were viewed as "invading, destructive, and altogether antithetical to civilizing, sedentary societies" during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. According to Lerner, they are rarely accredited as "a civilizing force". Allan Hill and Sara Randall observe that western authors have looked for "romance and mystery, as well as the repository of laudable characteristics believed lost in the West, such as independence, stoicism in the face of physical adversity, and a strong sense of loyalty to family and to tribe" in nomadic pastoralist societies. Hill and Randall observe that nomadic pastoralists are stereotypically seen by the settled populace in Africa and Middle East as "aimless wanderers, immoral, promiscuous and disease-ridden" peoples. According to Hill and Randall, both of these perceptions "misrepresent the reality". Contemporary peripatetic minorities in Eurasia ---------------------------------------------- Peripatetic minorities are mobile populations moving among settled populations offering a craft or trade. Each existing community is primarily endogamous, and subsists traditionally on a variety of commercial or service activities. Formerly, all or a majority of their members were itinerant, and this largely holds true today. Migration generally takes place within the political boundaries of a single state these days. Each of the peripatetic communities is multilingual, it speaks one or more of the languages spoken by the local sedentary populations, and, additionally, within each group, a separate dialect or language is spoken. They are speaking languages of Indic origin and many are structured somewhat like an argot or secret language, with vocabularies drawn from various languages. There are indications that in northern Iran at least one community speaks Romani language, and some groups in Turkey also speak Romani. ### Asia #### India #### Dom people In Afghanistan, the Nausar worked as tinkers and animal dealers. Ghorbat men mainly made sieves, drums, and bird cages, and the women peddled these as well as other items of household and personal use; they also worked as moneylenders to rural women. Peddling and the sale of various goods was also practiced by men and women of various groups, such as the Jalali, the Pikraj, the Shadibaz, the Noristani, and the Vangawala. The latter and the Pikraj also worked as animal dealers. Some men among the Shadibaz and the Vangawala entertained as monkey or bear handlers and snake charmers; men and women among the Baluch were musicians and dancers. The Baluch men were warriors that were feared by neighboring tribes and often were used as mercenaries. Jogi men and women had diverse subsistence activities, such as dealing in horses, harvesting, fortune-telling, bloodletting, and begging. In Iran, the Asheq of Azerbaijan, the Challi of Baluchistan, the Luti of Kurdistan, Kermānshāh, Īlām, and Lorestān, the Mehtar in the Mamasani district, the Sazandeh of Band-i Amir and Marv-dasht, and the Toshmal among the Bakhtyari pastoral groups worked as professional musicians. The men among the Kowli worked as tinkers, smiths, musicians, and monkey and bear handlers; they also made baskets, sieves, and brooms and dealt in donkeys. Their women made a living from peddling, begging, and fortune-telling. The Ghorbat among the Basseri were smiths and tinkers, traded in pack animals, and made sieves, reed mats, and small wooden implements. In the Fārs region, the Qarbalband, the Kuli, and Luli were reported to work as smiths and to make baskets and sieves; they also dealt in pack animals, and their women peddled various goods among pastoral nomads. In the same region, the Changi and Luti were musicians and balladeers, and their children learned these professions from the age of 7 or 8 years. The nomadic groups in Turkey make and sell cradles, deal in animals, and play music. The men of the sedentary groups work in towns as scavengers and hangmen; elsewhere they are fishermen, smiths, basket makers, and singers; their women dance at feasts and tell fortunes. Abdal men played music and made sieves, brooms, and wooden spoons for a living. The Tahtacı traditionally worked as lumberers; with increased sedentarization, however, they have taken to agriculture and horticulture. Little is known for certain about the past of these communities; the history of each is almost entirely contained in their oral traditions. Although some groups—such as the Vangawala—are of Indian origin, some—like the Noristani—are most probably of local origin; still others probably migrated from adjoining areas. The Ghorbat and the Shadibaz claim to have originally come from Iran and Multan, respectively, and Tahtacı traditional accounts mention either Baghdad or Khorāsān as their original home. The Baluch say they[*clarification needed*] were attached as a service community to the Jamshedi, after they fled Baluchistan because of feuds. #### Kochi people #### Yörüks Still some groups such as Sarıkeçililer continues nomadic lifestyle between coastal towns Mediterranean and Taurus Mountains even though most of them were settled by both late Ottoman and Turkish republic. #### Bukat People of Borneo The Bukat people of Borneo in Malaysia live within the region of the river Mendalam, which the natives call **Buköt**. Bukat is an ethnonym that encapsulates all the tribes in the region. These natives are historically self-sufficient but were also known to trade various goods. This is especially true for the clans who lived on the periphery of the territory. The products of their trade were varied and fascinating, including: "...resins (damar, *Agathis dammara; jelutong bukit, Dyera costulata,* gutta-percha, *Palaquium* spp.); wild honey and beeswax (important in trade but often unreported); aromatic resin from insence wood (*gaharu, Aquilaria microcarpa);* camphor (found in the fissures of *Dryobalanops aromaticus);* several types of rotan of cane (*Calamus rotan* and other species); poison for blowpipe darts (one source is *ipoh* or *ipu*: see Nieuwenhuis 1900a:137); the antlers of deer (the sambar, *Cervus unicolor);* rhinoceros horn (see Tillema 1939:142); pharmacologically valuable bezoar stones (concretions formed in the intestines and gallbladder of the gibbon, *Seminopithecus,* and in the wounds of porcupines, *Hestrix crassispinus);* birds' nests, the edible nests of swifts (*Collocalia* spp.); the heads and feathers of two species of hornbills (*Buceros rhinoceros, Rhinoplax vigil)*; and various hides (clouded leopards, bears, and other animals)." These nomadic tribes also commonly hunted boar with poison blow darts for their own needs. ### Europe #### Roma Image gallery ------------- * Nomad camp near Tingri, Tibet. 1993Nomad camp near Tingri, Tibet. 1993 * Snake charmer from Telugu community of Sri Lanka.Snake charmer from Telugu community of Sri Lanka. * A Scythian horseman from the general area of the Ili river, Pazyryk, c. 300 BCE.A Scythian horseman from the general area of the Ili river, Pazyryk, c. 300 BCE. * Yeniche people, 15th centuryYeniche people, 15th century * A young Bedouin lighting a camp fire in Wadi Rum, Jordan.A young Bedouin lighting a camp fire in Wadi Rum, Jordan. * Kyrgyz nomads in the steppes of the Russian Empire, now Uzbekistan, by pioneer color photographer Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, c. 1910.Kyrgyz nomads in the steppes of the Russian Empire, now Uzbekistan, by pioneer color photographer Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, c. 1910. * Tuareg in Mali, 1974.Tuareg in Mali, 1974. * Kyrgyz nomads, 1869–1870.Kyrgyz nomads, 1869–1870. * Nomads in the Desert (Giulio Rosati).*Nomads in the Desert* (Giulio Rosati). * Gros Ventre (Atsina) American Indians moving camps with travois for transporting skin lodges and belongings.Gros Ventre (Atsina) American Indians moving camps with travois for transporting skin lodges and belongings. * House barge of the Sama-Bajau peoples, Indonesia. 1914–1921House barge of the Sama-Bajau peoples, Indonesia. 1914–1921 * Photograph of Bedouins (wandering Arabs) of Tunisia, 1899Photograph of Bedouins (wandering Arabs) of Tunisia, 1899 * Indian nomads (1893), by Raja Ravi VarmaIndian nomads (1893), by Raja Ravi Varma * BanjaraIndian nomad Banjara See also -------- * Nomadic peoples of Europe * Seasonal human migration * Nomadic conflict * Sea Gypsies * Antlers Gallery: The 'nomadic' gallery, Bristol * Snufkin Figurative use of the term: * Global nomad * Digital nomad * Snowbird (people) * Military brat * The Nomadic Project * Perpetual traveler * RV lifestyle * Third culture kid Further reading --------------- * Jen Grimble (10 Jul 2021). "A different way of living: the last surviving nomads". *MSN*. * Oberfalzerova, Alena (2006): *Metaphors and Nomads*, Triton, Prague. ISBN 8072548492 * Sadr, Karim (1991). *The Development of Nomadism in Ancient Northeast Africa*, University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0812230663 * Cowan, Gregory (2002). "Nomadology in Architecture: Ephemerality, Movement and Collaboration" University of Adelaide (available: Nomadology in architecture: ephemerality, movement and collaboration. Adelaide University Public View) * Chatty, Dawn (1983–2009). Articles on Nomadic life * Chatwin, Bruce (1987). *The Songlines* * Deleuze and Guattari (1980). *A Thousand Plateaus* * Melvyn Goldstein: The Impact of China's Reform Policy on the Nomads of Western Tibet * The Remote World of Tibet's Nomads * Grousset, René (1939). *L'Empire des Steppes* (in French) * Michael Haerdter. Remarks on modernity, mobility, nomadism and the arts * Kradin, Nikolay (2004). "Nomadic Empires in Evolutionary Perspective". In *Alternatives of Social Evolution*. Ed. by N.N. Kradin, A.V. Korotayev, Dmitri Bondarenko, V. de Munck, and P.K. Wason (pp. 274–288). Vladivostok: Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences; reprinted in: The Early State, its Alternatives and Analogues. Ed. by Leonid Grinin et al. (pр. 501–524). Volgograd: Uchitel'. * Kradin, Nikolay N. (2002). "Nomadism, Evolution, and World-Systems: Pastoral Societies in Theories of Historical Development+. *Journal of World-System Research* 8: 368–388. * Kradin, Nikolay N. (2003). "Nomadic Empires: Origins, Rise, Declin"e. In *Nomadic Pathways in Social Evolution*. Ed. by N.N. Kradin, Dmitri Bondarenko, and T. Barfield (pp. 73–87). Moscow: Center for Civilizational Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences. * Kradin, Nikolay N. (2006). "Cultural Complexity of Pastoral Nomads". *World Cultures* 15: 171–189. * Beall, Cynthia and Goldstein, Melvyn (May 1993). "Past becoming future for Mongolian nomads" *National Geographic Magazine* * Vigo, Julian (2005). "Nomadic Sexualities and Nationalities: Postcolonial Performative Words and Visual Texts". *Inscriptions in the Sand* Famagusta: Eastern Mediterranean University Press.

Nomad

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomad

The **decimal** numeral system (also called the **base-ten** positional numeral system and **denary** /ˈdiːnəri/ or **decanary**) is the standard system for denoting integer and non-integer numbers. It is the extension to non-integer numbers of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. The way of denoting numbers in the decimal system is often referred to as *decimal notation*. A *decimal numeral* (also often just *decimal* or, less correctly, *decimal number*), refers generally to the notation of a number in the decimal numeral system. Decimals may sometimes be identified by a decimal separator (usually "." or "," as in 25.9703 or 3,1415). *Decimal* may also refer specifically to the digits after the decimal separator, such as in "3.14 is the approximation of π to *two decimals*". Zero-digits after a decimal separator serve the purpose of signifying the precision of a value. The numbers that may be represented in the decimal system are the decimal fractions. That is, fractions of the form *a*/10*n*, where *a* is an integer, and *n* is a non-negative integer. The decimal system has been extended to *infinite decimals* for representing any real number, by using an infinite sequence of digits after the decimal separator (see decimal representation). In this context, the decimal numerals with a finite number of non-zero digits after the decimal separator are sometimes called *terminating decimals*. A *repeating decimal* is an infinite decimal that, after some place, repeats indefinitely the same sequence of digits (e.g., 5.123144144144144... = 5.123144). An infinite decimal represents a rational number, the quotient of two integers, if and only if it is a repeating decimal or has a finite number of non-zero digits. Origin ------ Many numeral systems of ancient civilizations use ten and its powers for representing numbers, possibly because there are ten fingers on two hands and people started counting by using their fingers. Examples are firstly the Egyptian numerals, then the Brahmi numerals, Greek numerals, Hebrew numerals, Roman numerals, and Chinese numerals. Very large numbers were difficult to represent in these old numeral systems, and only the best mathematicians were able to multiply or divide large numbers. These difficulties were completely solved with the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system for representing integers. This system has been extended to represent some non-integer numbers, called *decimal fractions* or *decimal numbers*, for forming the *decimal numeral system*. Decimal notation ---------------- For writing numbers, the decimal system uses ten decimal digits, a decimal mark, and, for negative numbers, a minus sign "−". The decimal digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; the decimal separator is the dot "." in many countries (mostly English-speaking), and a comma "," in other countries. For representing a non-negative number, a decimal numeral consists of * either a (finite) sequence of digits (such as "2017"), where the entire sequence represents an integer: a m a m − 1 … a 0 {\displaystyle a\_{m}a\_{m-1}\ldots a\_{0}} {\displaystyle a_{m}a_{m-1}\ldots a_{0}} * or a decimal mark separating two sequences of digits (such as "20.70828") a m a m − 1 … a 0 . b 1 b 2 … b n {\displaystyle a\_{m}a\_{m-1}\ldots a\_{0}.b\_{1}b\_{2}\ldots b\_{n}} {\displaystyle a_{m}a_{m-1}\ldots a_{0}.b_{1}b_{2}\ldots b_{n}}. If *m* > 0, that is, if the first sequence contains at least two digits, it is generally assumed that the first digit *a**m* is not zero. In some circumstances it may be useful to have one or more 0's on the left; this does not change the value represented by the decimal: for example, 3.14 = 03.14 = 003.14. Similarly, if the final digit on the right of the decimal mark is zero—that is, if *b**n* = 0—it may be removed; conversely, trailing zeros may be added after the decimal mark without changing the represented number; for example, 15 = 15.0 = 15.00 and 5.2 = 5.20 = 5.200. For representing a negative number, a minus sign is placed before *a**m*. The numeral a m a m − 1 … a 0 . b 1 b 2 … b n {\displaystyle a\_{m}a\_{m-1}\ldots a\_{0}.b\_{1}b\_{2}\ldots b\_{n}} {\displaystyle a_{m}a_{m-1}\ldots a_{0}.b_{1}b_{2}\ldots b_{n}} represents the number a m 10 m + a m − 1 10 m − 1 + ⋯ + a 0 10 0 + b 1 10 1 + b 2 10 2 + ⋯ + b n 10 n {\displaystyle a\_{m}10^{m}+a\_{m-1}10^{m-1}+\cdots +a\_{0}10^{0}+{\frac {b\_{1}}{10^{1}}}+{\frac {b\_{2}}{10^{2}}}+\cdots +{\frac {b\_{n}}{10^{n}}}} {\displaystyle a_{m}10^{m}+a_{m-1}10^{m-1}+\cdots +a_{0}10^{0}+{\frac {b_{1}}{10^{1}}}+{\frac {b_{2}}{10^{2}}}+\cdots +{\frac {b_{n}}{10^{n}}}}. The *integer part* or *integral part* of a decimal numeral is the integer written to the left of the decimal separator (see also truncation). For a non-negative decimal numeral, it is the largest integer that is not greater than the decimal. The part from the decimal separator to the right is the *fractional part*, which equals the difference between the numeral and its integer part. When the integral part of a numeral is zero, it may occur, typically in computing, that the integer part is not written (for example, .1234, instead of 0.1234). In normal writing, this is generally avoided, because of the risk of confusion between the decimal mark and other punctuation. In brief, the contribution of each digit to the value of a number depends on its position in the numeral. That is, the decimal system is a positional numeral system. Decimal fractions ----------------- **Decimal fractions** (sometimes called **decimal numbers**, especially in contexts involving explicit fractions) are the rational numbers that may be expressed as a fraction whose denominator is a power of ten. For example, the decimals 0.8 , 14.89 , 0.00079 , 1.618 , 3.14159 {\displaystyle 0.8,14.89,0.00079,1.618,3.14159} {\displaystyle 0.8,14.89,0.00079,1.618,3.14159} represent the fractions 4/5, 1489/100, 79/100000, +809/500 and +314159/100000, and are therefore decimal numbers. More generally, a decimal with *n* digits after the separator (a point or comma) represents the fraction with denominator 10*n*, whose numerator is the integer obtained by removing the separator. It follows that a number is a decimal fraction if and only if it has a finite decimal representation. Expressed as fully reduced fractions, the decimal numbers are those whose denominator is a product of a power of 2 and a power of 5. Thus the smallest denominators of decimal numbers are 1 = 2 0 ⋅ 5 0 , 2 = 2 1 ⋅ 5 0 , 4 = 2 2 ⋅ 5 0 , 5 = 2 0 ⋅ 5 1 , 8 = 2 3 ⋅ 5 0 , 10 = 2 1 ⋅ 5 1 , 16 = 2 4 ⋅ 5 0 , 20 = 2 2 ⋅ 5 1 , 25 = 2 0 ⋅ 5 2 , … {\displaystyle 1=2^{0}\cdot 5^{0},2=2^{1}\cdot 5^{0},4=2^{2}\cdot 5^{0},5=2^{0}\cdot 5^{1},8=2^{3}\cdot 5^{0},10=2^{1}\cdot 5^{1},16=2^{4}\cdot 5^{0},20=2^{2}\cdot 5^{1},25=2^{0}\cdot 5^{2},\ldots } {\displaystyle 1=2^{0}\cdot 5^{0},2=2^{1}\cdot 5^{0},4=2^{2}\cdot 5^{0},5=2^{0}\cdot 5^{1},8=2^{3}\cdot 5^{0},10=2^{1}\cdot 5^{1},16=2^{4}\cdot 5^{0},20=2^{2}\cdot 5^{1},25=2^{0}\cdot 5^{2},\ldots } Real number approximation ------------------------- Decimal numerals do not allow an exact representation for all real numbers, e.g. for the real number π. Nevertheless, they allow approximating every real number with any desired accuracy, e.g., the decimal 3.14159 approximates the real π, being less than 10−5 off; so decimals are widely used in science, engineering and everyday life. More precisely, for every real number x and every positive integer n, there are two decimals *L* and *u* with at most *n* digits after the decimal mark such that *L* ≤ *x* ≤ *u* and (*u* − *L*) = 10−*n*. Numbers are very often obtained as the result of measurement. As measurements are subject to measurement uncertainty with a known upper bound, the result of a measurement is well-represented by a decimal with *n* digits after the decimal mark, as soon as the absolute measurement error is bounded from above by 10−*n*. In practice, measurement results are often given with a certain number of digits after the decimal point, which indicate the error bounds. For example, although 0.080 and 0.08 denote the same number, the decimal numeral 0.080 suggests a measurement with an error less than 0.001, while the numeral 0.08 indicates an absolute error bounded by 0.01. In both cases, the true value of the measured quantity could be, for example, 0.0803 or 0.0796 (see also significant figures). Infinite decimal expansion -------------------------- For a real number x and an integer *n* ≥ 0, let [*x*]*n* denote the (finite) decimal expansion of the greatest number that is not greater than *x* that has exactly n digits after the decimal mark. Let *d**i* denote the last digit of [*x*]*i*. It is straightforward to see that [*x*]*n* may be obtained by appending *d**n* to the right of [*x*]*n*−1. This way one has [*x*]*n* = [*x*]0.*d*1*d*2...*d**n*−1*d**n*, and the difference of [*x*]*n*−1 and [*x*]*n* amounts to | [ x ] n − [ x ] n − 1 | = d n ⋅ 10 − n < 10 − n + 1 {\displaystyle \left\vert \left[x\right]\_{n}-\left[x\right]\_{n-1}\right\vert =d\_{n}\cdot 10^{-n}<10^{-n+1}} {\displaystyle \left\vert \left[x\right]_{n}-\left[x\right]_{n-1}\right\vert =d_{n}\cdot 10^{-n}<10^{-n+1}}, which is either 0, if *d**n* = 0, or gets arbitrarily small as *n* tends to infinity. According to the definition of a limit, *x* is the limit of [*x*]*n* when *n* tends to infinity. This is written as x = lim n → ∞ [ x ] n {\textstyle \;x=\lim \_{n\rightarrow \infty }[x]\_{n}\;} {\textstyle \;x=\lim _{n\rightarrow \infty }[x]_{n}\;}or *x* = [*x*]0.*d*1*d*2...*d**n*..., which is called an **infinite decimal expansion** of *x*. Conversely, for any integer [*x*]0 and any sequence of digits ( d n ) n = 1 ∞ {\textstyle \;(d\_{n})\_{n=1}^{\infty }} {\textstyle \;(d_{n})_{n=1}^{\infty }} the (infinite) expression [*x*]0.*d*1*d*2...*d**n*... is an *infinite decimal expansion* of a real number *x*. This expansion is unique if neither all *d**n* are equal to 9 nor all *d**n* are equal to 0 for *n* large enough (for all *n* greater than some natural number N). If all *d**n* for *n* > *N* equal to 9 and [*x*]*n* = [*x*]0.*d*1*d*2...*d**n*, the limit of the sequence ( [ x ] n ) n = 1 ∞ {\textstyle \;([x]\_{n})\_{n=1}^{\infty }} {\textstyle \;([x]_{n})_{n=1}^{\infty }} is the decimal fraction obtained by replacing the last digit that is not a 9, i.e.: *d**N*, by *d**N* + 1, and replacing all subsequent 9s by 0s (see 0.999...). Any such decimal fraction, i.e.: *d**n* = 0 for *n* > *N*, may be converted to its equivalent infinite decimal expansion by replacing *d**N* by *d**N* − 1 and replacing all subsequent 0s by 9s (see 0.999...). In summary, every real number that is not a decimal fraction has a unique infinite decimal expansion. Each decimal fraction has exactly two infinite decimal expansions, one containing only 0s after some place, which is obtained by the above definition of [*x*]*n*, and the other containing only 9s after some place, which is obtained by defining [*x*]*n* as the greatest number that is *less* than x, having exactly *n* digits after the decimal mark. ### Rational numbers Long division allows computing the infinite decimal expansion of a rational number. If the rational number is a decimal fraction, the division stops eventually, producing a decimal numeral, which may be prolongated into an infinite expansion by adding infinitely many zeros. If the rational number is not a decimal fraction, the division may continue indefinitely. However, as all successive remainders are less than the divisor, there are only a finite number of possible remainders, and after some place, the same sequence of digits must be repeated indefinitely in the quotient. That is, one has a *repeating decimal*. For example, 1/81 = 0. 012345679 012... (with the group 012345679 indefinitely repeating). The converse is also true: if, at some point in the decimal representation of a number, the same string of digits starts repeating indefinitely, the number is rational. | | | | --- | --- | | For example, if *x* is |       0.4156156156... | | then 10,000*x* is |    4156.156156156... | | and 10*x* is |       4.156156156... | | so 10,000*x* − 10*x*, i.e. 9,990*x*, is |    4152.000000000... | | and *x* is |    4152/9990 | or, dividing both numerator and denominator by 6, 692/1665. Decimal computation ------------------- Most modern computer hardware and software systems commonly use a binary representation internally (although many early computers, such as the ENIAC or the IBM 650, used decimal representation internally). For external use by computer specialists, this binary representation is sometimes presented in the related octal or hexadecimal systems. For most purposes, however, binary values are converted to or from the equivalent decimal values for presentation to or input from humans; computer programs express literals in decimal by default. (123.1, for example, is written as such in a computer program, even though many computer languages are unable to encode that number precisely.) Both computer hardware and software also use internal representations which are effectively decimal for storing decimal values and doing arithmetic. Often this arithmetic is done on data which are encoded using some variant of binary-coded decimal, especially in database implementations, but there are other decimal representations in use (including decimal floating point such as in newer revisions of the IEEE 754 Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic). Decimal arithmetic is used in computers so that decimal fractional results of adding (or subtracting) values with a fixed length of their fractional part always are computed to this same length of precision. This is especially important for financial calculations, e.g., requiring in their results integer multiples of the smallest currency unit for book keeping purposes. This is not possible in binary, because the negative powers of 10 {\displaystyle 10} 10 have no finite binary fractional representation; and is generally impossible for multiplication (or division). See Arbitrary-precision arithmetic for exact calculations. History ------- Many ancient cultures calculated with numerals based on ten, sometimes argued due to human hands typically having ten fingers/digits. Standardized weights used in the Indus Valley civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) were based on the ratios: 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500, while their standardized ruler – the *Mohenjo-daro ruler* – was divided into ten equal parts. Egyptian hieroglyphs, in evidence since around 3000 BCE, used a purely decimal system, as did the Cretan hieroglyphs (c. 1625−1500 BCE) of the Minoans whose numerals are closely based on the Egyptian model. The decimal system was handed down to the consecutive Bronze Age cultures of Greece, including Linear A (c. 18th century BCE−1450 BCE) and Linear B (c. 1375−1200 BCE) – the number system of classical Greece also used powers of ten, including, Roman numerals, an intermediate base of 5. Notably, the polymath Archimedes (c. 287–212 BCE) invented a decimal positional system in his Sand Reckoner which was based on 108 and later led the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss to lament what heights science would have already reached in his days if Archimedes had fully realized the potential of his ingenious discovery. Hittite hieroglyphs (since 15th century BCE) were also strictly decimal. Some non-mathematical ancient texts such as the Vedas, dating back to 1700–900 BCE make use of decimals and mathematical decimal fractions. The Egyptian hieratic numerals, the Greek alphabet numerals, the Hebrew alphabet numerals, the Roman numerals, the Chinese numerals and early Indian Brahmi numerals are all non-positional decimal systems, and required large numbers of symbols. For instance, Egyptian numerals used different symbols for 10, 20 to 90, 100, 200 to 900, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, to 10,000. The world's earliest positional decimal system was the Chinese rod calculus. ### History of decimal fractions Decimal fractions were first developed and used by the Chinese in the end of 4th century BCE, and then spread to the Middle East and from there to Europe. The written Chinese decimal fractions were non-positional. However, counting rod fractions were positional. Qin Jiushao in his book Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections (1247) denoted 0.96644 by 寸 , meaning 寸 096644 J. Lennart Berggren notes that positional decimal fractions appear for the first time in a book by the Arab mathematician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi written in the 10th century. The Jewish mathematician Immanuel Bonfils used decimal fractions around 1350, anticipating Simon Stevin, but did not develop any notation to represent them. The Persian mathematician Jamshīd al-Kāshī claimed to have discovered decimal fractions himself in the 15th century. Al Khwarizmi introduced fraction to Islamic countries in the early 9th century; a Chinese author has alleged that his fraction presentation was an exact copy of traditional Chinese mathematical fraction from Sunzi Suanjing. This form of fraction with numerator on top and denominator at bottom without a horizontal bar was also used by al-Uqlidisi and by al-Kāshī in his work "Arithmetic Key". A forerunner of modern European decimal notation was introduced by Simon Stevin in the 16th century. John Napier introduced using the period (.) to separate the integer part of a decimal number from the fractional part in his book on constructing tables of logarithms, published posthumously in 1620. ### Natural languages A method of expressing every possible natural number using a set of ten symbols emerged in India. Several Indian languages show a straightforward decimal system. Many Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages have numbers between 10 and 20 expressed in a regular pattern of addition to 10. The Hungarian language also uses a straightforward decimal system. All numbers between 10 and 20 are formed regularly (e.g. 11 is expressed as "tizenegy" literally "one on ten"), as with those between 20 and 100 (23 as "huszonhárom" = "three on twenty"). A straightforward decimal rank system with a word for each order (10 十, 100 百, 1000 千, 10,000 万), and in which 11 is expressed as *ten-one* and 23 as *two-ten-three*, and 89,345 is expressed as 8 (ten thousands) 万 9 (thousand) 千 3 (hundred) 百 4 (tens) 十 5 is found in Chinese, and in Vietnamese with a few irregularities. Japanese, Korean, and Thai have imported the Chinese decimal system. Many other languages with a decimal system have special words for the numbers between 10 and 20, and decades. For example, in English 11 is "eleven" not "ten-one" or "one-teen". Incan languages such as Quechua and Aymara have an almost straightforward decimal system, in which 11 is expressed as *ten with one* and 23 as *two-ten with three*. Some psychologists suggest irregularities of the English names of numerals may hinder children's counting ability. ### Other bases Some cultures do, or did, use other bases of numbers. * Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures such as the Maya used a base-20 system (perhaps based on using all twenty fingers and toes). * The Yuki language in California and the Pamean languages in Mexico have octal (base-8) systems because the speakers count using the spaces between their fingers rather than the fingers themselves. * The existence of a non-decimal base in the earliest traces of the Germanic languages is attested by the presence of words and glosses meaning that the count is in decimal (cognates to "ten-count" or "tenty-wise"); such would be expected if normal counting is not decimal, and unusual if it were. Where this counting system is known, it is based on the "long hundred" = 120, and a "long thousand" of 1200. The descriptions like "long" only appear after the "small hundred" of 100 appeared with the Christians. Gordon's Introduction to Old Norse Archived 2016-04-15 at the Wayback Machine p. 293, gives number names that belong to this system. An expression cognate to 'one hundred and eighty' translates to 200, and the cognate to 'two hundred' translates to 240. Goodare details the use of the long hundred in Scotland in the Middle Ages, giving examples such as calculations where the carry implies i C (i.e. one hundred) as 120, etc. That the general population were not alarmed to encounter such numbers suggests common enough use. It is also possible to avoid hundred-like numbers by using intermediate units, such as stones and pounds, rather than a long count of pounds. Goodare gives examples of numbers like vii score, where one avoids the hundred by using extended scores. There is also a paper by W.H. Stevenson, on 'Long Hundred and its uses in England'. * Many or all of the Chumashan languages originally used a base-4 counting system, in which the names for numbers were structured according to multiples of 4 and 16. * Many languages use quinary (base-5) number systems, including Gumatj, Nunggubuyu, Kuurn Kopan Noot and Saraveca. Of these, Gumatj is the only true 5–25 language known, in which 25 is the higher group of 5. * Some Nigerians use duodecimal systems. So did some small communities in India and Nepal, as indicated by their languages. * The Huli language of Papua New Guinea is reported to have base-15 numbers. *Ngui* means 15, *ngui ki* means 15 × 2 = 30, and *ngui ngui* means 15 × 15 = 225. * Umbu-Ungu, also known as Kakoli, is reported to have base-24 numbers. *Tokapu* means 24, *tokapu talu* means 24 × 2 = 48, and *tokapu tokapu* means 24 × 24 = 576. * Ngiti is reported to have a base-32 number system with base-4 cycles. * The Ndom language of Papua New Guinea is reported to have base-6 numerals. *Mer* means 6, *mer an thef* means 6 × 2 = 12, *nif* means 36, and *nif thef* means 36×2 = 72. See also -------- * Algorism * Binary-coded decimal (BCD) * Decimal classification * Decimal computer * Decimal time * Decimal representation * Decimal section numbering * Decimal separator * Decimalisation * Densely packed decimal (DPD) * Duodecimal * Octal * Scientific notation * Serial decimal * SI prefix

Decimal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal

**Isaac** is one of the three patriarchs of the Israelites and an important figure in the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He was the son of Abraham and Sarah, the father of Jacob and Esau, and the grandfather of the twelve tribes of Israel. Isaac's name means "he will laugh", reflecting the laughter, in disbelief, of Abraham and Sarah, when told by God that they would have a child. He is the only patriarch whose name was not changed, and the only one who did not move out of Canaan. According to the narrative, he died aged 180, the longest-lived of the three patriarchs. Etymology --------- The anglicized name "Isaac" is a transliteration of the Hebrew name יִצְחָק‎ (*Yīṣḥāq*) which literally means "He laughs/will laugh." Ugaritic texts dating from the 13th century BCE refer to the benevolent smile of the Canaanite deity El. Genesis, however, ascribes the laughter to Isaac's parents, Abraham and Sarah, rather than El. According to the biblical narrative, Abraham fell on his face and laughed when God (Hebrew, *Elohim*) imparted the news of their son's eventual birth. He laughed because Sarah was past the age of childbearing; both she and Abraham were advanced in age. Later, when Sarah overheard three messengers of the Lord renew the promise, she laughed inwardly for the same reason. Sarah denied laughing when God questioned Abraham about it. Genesis narrative ----------------- ### Birth After God changes Abram and Sarai's names to *Abraham* and *Sarah*, he tells Abraham that he will bear a second son by Sarah named Isaac, with whom a new covenant would be established. In response, Abraham began to laugh, as both he and Sarah were well beyond natural child-bearing age. Some time later, three men who Abraham identifies as messengers of God visit him and Sarah, and Abraham treats them to food and niceties. They repeat the prophecy that Sarah would bear a child, promising Isaac's birth within a year's time, at which point Sarah laughs in disbelief. God questions why the pair laughed in disbelief at his words, and if it is because they believe such things were not within his power. Now afraid, they futilely deny ever having laughed at God's words. Time passes as Isaac is born. Although this was Abraham's second son (Abraham's first son was Ishmael, with Hagar) it was Sarah's first and only child. On the eighth day from his birth, Isaac was circumcised, as was necessary for all males of Abraham's household, in order to be in compliance with Yahweh's covenant. After Isaac had been weaned, Sarah saw Ishmael playing with him, and urged her husband to cast out Hagar the bondservant and her son, so that Isaac would be Abraham's sole heir. Abraham was hesitant, but at God's order he listened to his wife's request. ### Binding At some point in Isaac's youth, his father Abraham took him to Mount Moriah. At God's command, Abraham was to build a sacrificial altar and sacrifice his son Isaac upon it. After he had bound his son to the altar and drawn his knife to kill him, at the last moment an angel of God prevented Abraham from proceeding. Instead, he was directed to sacrifice a nearby ram that was stuck in thickets. ### Family life Before Isaac was 40 (Genesis 25:20), Abraham sent Eliezer, his steward, into Mesopotamia to find a wife for Isaac, from his nephew Bethuel's family. Eliezer chose the Aramean Rebekah for Isaac. After many years of marriage to Isaac, Rebekah had still not given birth to a child and was believed to be barren. Isaac prayed for her and she conceived. Rebekah gave birth to twin boys, Esau and Jacob. Isaac was 60 years old when his two sons were born. Isaac favored Esau, and Rebekah favored Jacob. The narratives about Isaac do not mention his having concubines. ### Migration Isaac moved to *Beer-lahai-roi* after his father died. When the land experienced famine, he moved to the Philistine land of Gerar where his father once lived. This land was still under the control of King Abimelech as it was in the days of Abraham. Like his father, Isaac also pretended that Rebekah was his sister due to fear that Abimelech would kill him in order to take her. He had gone back to all of the wells that his father dug and saw that they were all stopped up with earth. The Philistines did this after Abraham died. So, Isaac unearthed them and began to dig for more wells all the way to Beersheba, where he made a pact with Abimelech, just like in the day of his father. ### Birthright Isaac grew old and became blind. He called his son Esau and directed him to procure some venison for him, in order to receive Isaac's blessing. While Esau was hunting, Jacob, after listening to his mother's advice, deceived his blind father by misrepresenting himself as Esau and thereby obtained his father's blessing, such that Jacob became Isaac's primary heir and Esau was left in an inferior position. According to Genesis 25:29–34, Esau had previously sold his birthright to Jacob for "bread and stew of lentils". Thereafter, Isaac sent Jacob into Mesopotamia to take a wife of his mother's brother's house. After 20 years working for his uncle Laban, Jacob returned home. He reconciled with his twin brother Esau, then he and Esau buried their father, Isaac, in Hebron after he died at the age of 180. Burial site ----------- According to local tradition, the graves of Isaac and Rebekah, along with the graves of Abraham and Sarah and Jacob and Leah, are in the Cave of the Patriarchs. Jewish views ------------ In rabbinical tradition, the age of Isaac at the time of binding is taken to be 37, which contrasts with common portrayals of Isaac as a child. The rabbis also thought that the reason for the death of Sarah was the news of the intended sacrifice of Isaac. The sacrifice of Isaac is cited in appeals for the mercy of God in later Jewish traditions. The post-biblical Jewish interpretations often elaborate the role of Isaac beyond the biblical description and primarily focus on Abraham's intended sacrifice of Isaac, called the *aqedah* ("binding"). According to a version of these interpretations, Isaac died in the sacrifice and was revived. According to many accounts of Aggadah, unlike the Bible, it is Satan who is testing Isaac as an agent of God. Isaac's willingness to follow God's command at the cost of his death has been a model for many Jews who preferred martyrdom to violation of the Jewish law. According to the Jewish tradition, Isaac instituted the afternoon prayer. This tradition is based on Genesis chapter 24, verse 63 ("Isaac went out to meditate in the field at the eventide"). Isaac was the only patriarch who stayed in Canaan during his whole life and though once he tried to leave, God told him not to do so. Rabbinic tradition gave the explanation that Isaac was almost sacrificed and anything dedicated as a sacrifice may not leave the Land of Israel. Isaac was the oldest of the biblical patriarchs at the time of his death, and the only patriarch whose name was not changed. Rabbinic literature also linked Isaac's blindness in old age, as stated in the Bible, to the sacrificial binding: Isaac's eyes went blind because the tears of angels present at the time of his sacrifice fell on Isaac's eyes. Christian views --------------- The early Christian church continued and developed the New Testament theme of Isaac as a type of Christ and the Church being both "the son of the promise" and the "father of the faithful". Tertullian draws a parallel between Isaac's bearing the wood for the sacrificial fire with Christ's carrying his cross. and there was a general agreement that, while all the sacrifices of the Old Law were anticipations of that on Calvary, the sacrifice of Isaac was so "in a pre-eminent way". The Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church consider Isaac as a saint along with other biblical patriarchs. Along with those of other patriarchs and the Old Testament Righteous, his feast day is celebrated in the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Byzantine rite of the Catholic Church on the Second Sunday before Christmas (December 11–17), under the title *the Sunday of the Forefathers*. Isaac is commemorated in the Catholic Church on 25 March or on 17 December. ### New Testament The New Testament states Isaac was "offered up" by his father Abraham, and that Isaac blessed his sons. Paul contrasted Isaac, symbolizing Christian liberty, with the rejected older son Ishmael, symbolizing slavery; Hagar is associated with the Sinai covenant, while Sarah is associated with the covenant of grace, into which her son Isaac enters. The Epistle of James chapter 2, verses 21–24, states that the sacrifice of Isaac shows that justification (in the Johannine sense) requires both faith and works. In the Epistle to the Hebrews, Abraham's willingness to follow God's command to sacrifice Isaac is used as an example of faith as is Isaac's action in blessing Jacob and Esau with reference to the future promised by God to Abraham. In verse 19, the author views the release of Isaac from sacrifice as analogous to the resurrection of Jesus, the idea of the sacrifice of Isaac being a prefigurement of the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross. Islamic views ------------- Islam considers Isaac (Arabic: اسحاق, romanized: *Isḥāq*) a prophet, and describes him as the father of the Israelites and a righteous servant of God. Isaac, along with Ishmael, is highly important for Muslims for continuing to preach the message of monotheism after his father Abraham. Among Isaac's children was the follow-up Israelite patriarch Jacob, who is also venerated as an Islamic prophet. Isaac is mentioned seventeen times by name in the Quran, often with his father and his son, Jacob. The Quran states that Abraham received "good tidings of Isaac, a prophet, of the righteous", and that God blessed them both ( 37:112). In a fuller description, when angels came to Abraham to tell him of the future punishment to be imposed on Sodom and Gomorrah, his wife, Sarah, "laughed, and We gave her good tidings of Isaac, and after Isaac of (a grandson) Jacob" ( 11:71–74); and it is further explained that this event will take place despite Abraham and Sarah's old age. Several verses speak of Isaac as a "gift" to Abraham (6:84; 14:49–50), and 24:26–27 adds that God made "prophethood and the Book to be among his offspring", which has been interpreted to refer to Abraham's two prophetic sons, his prophetic grandson Jacob, and his prophetic great-grandson Joseph. In the Quran, it later narrates that Abraham also praised God for giving him Ishmael and Isaac in his old age ( 14:39–41). Elsewhere in the Quran, Isaac is mentioned in lists: Joseph follows the religion of his forefathers Abraham, Isaac and Jacob ( 12:38) and speaks of God's favor to them ( 12:6); Jacob's sons all testify their faith and promise to worship the God that their forefathers, "Abraham, Ishmael and Isaac", worshiped ( 2:127); and the Quran commands Muslims to believe in the revelations that were given to "Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob and the Patriarchs" ( 2:136; 3:84). In the Quran's narrative of Abraham's near-sacrifice of his son ( 37:102), the name of the son is not mentioned and debate has continued over the son's identity, though many feel that the identity is the least important element in a story which is given to show the courage that one develops through faith. ### Quran The Quran mentions Isaac as a prophet and a righteous man of God. Isaac and Jacob are mentioned as being bestowed upon Abraham as gifts of God, who then worshipped God only and were righteous leaders in the way of God: > And We bestowed on him Isaac and, as an additional gift, (a grandson), Jacob, and We made righteous men of every one (of them). > > And We made them leaders, guiding (men) by Our Command, and We sent them inspiration to do good deeds, to establish regular prayers, and to practise regular charity; and they constantly served Us (and Us only). > > — Surah Al-Anbiya 21:72-73 > And WE gave him the glad tidings of Isaac, a Prophet, and one of the righteous. > > — Surah As-Saaffat 37:112 Academic -------- Some scholars have described Isaac as "a legendary figure" or "as a figure representing tribal history, or "as a seminomadic leader." The stories of Isaac, like other patriarchal stories of Genesis, are generally believed to have "their origin in folk memories and oral traditions of the early Hebrew pastoralist experience." *The Cambridge Companion to the Bible* makes the following comment on the biblical stories of the patriarchs: > Yet for all that these stories maintain a distance between their world and that of their time of literary growth and composition, they reflect the political realities of the later periods. Many of the narratives deal with the relationship between the ancestors and peoples who were part of Israel's political world at the time the stories began to be written down (eighth century B.C.E.). Lot is the ancestor of the Transjordanian peoples of Ammon and Moab, and Ishmael personifies the nomadic peoples known to have inhabited north Arabia, although located in the Old Testament in the Negev. Esau personifies Edom (36:1), and Laban represents the Aramean states to Israel's north. A persistent theme is that of difference between the ancestors and the indigenous Canaanites… In fact, the theme of the differences between Judah and Israel, as personified by the ancestors, and the neighboring peoples of the time of the monarchy is pressed effectively into theological service to articulate the choosing by God of Judah and Israel to bring blessing to all peoples. > > According to Martin Noth, a scholar of the Hebrew Bible, the narratives of Isaac date back to an older cultural stage than that of the West-Jordanian Jacob. At that era, the Israelite tribes were not yet sedentary. In the course of looking for grazing areas, they had come in contact in southern Philistia with the inhabitants of the settled countryside. The biblical historian A. Jopsen believes in the connection between the Isaac traditions and the north, and in support of this theory adduces Amos 7:9 ("the high places of Isaac"). Albrecht Alt and Martin Noth hold that, "The figure of Isaac was enhanced when the theme of promise, previously bound to the cults of the 'God the Fathers' was incorporated into the Israelite creed during the southern-Palestinian stage of the growth of the Pentateuch tradition." According to Martin Noth, at the Southern Palestinian stage of the growth of the Pentateuch tradition, Isaac became established as one of the biblical patriarchs, but his traditions were receded in the favor of Abraham. In art ------ The earliest Christian portrayal of Isaac is found in the Roman catacomb frescoes. Excluding the fragments, Alison Moore Smith classifies these artistic works in three categories: > Abraham leads Isaac towards the altar; or Isaac approaches with the bundle of sticks, Abraham having preceded him to the place of offering ... Abraham is upon a pedestal and Isaac stands near at hand, both figures in orant attitude ... Abraham is shown about to sacrifice Isaac while the latter stands or kneels on the ground beside the altar. Sometimes Abraham grasps Isaac by the hair. Occasionally the ram is added to the scene and in the later paintings the Hand of God emerges from above. > > See also -------- * Biblical and Quranic narratives * Testament of Isaac * Wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis – three such narratives, involving Abraham (two) and Isaac (one)

Isaac

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac

1. **Go** is an abstract strategy board game for two players in which the aim is to surround more territory than the opponent. The game was invented in China more than 2,500 years ago and is believed to be the oldest board game continuously played to the present day. A 2016 survey by the International Go Federation's 75 member nations found that there are over 46 million people worldwide who know how to play Go and over 20 million current players, the majority of whom live in East Asia. The playing pieces are called stones. One player uses the white stones and the other black. The players take turns placing the stones on the vacant intersections (*points*) on a board. Once placed on the board, stones may not be moved, but stones are removed from the board if the stone (or group of stones) is surrounded by opposing stones on all orthogonally adjacent points, in which case the stone or group is *captured*. The game proceeds until neither player wishes to make another move. When a game concludes, the winner is determined by counting each player's surrounded territory along with captured stones and komi (points added to the score of the player with the white stones as compensation for playing second). Games may also be terminated by resignation. The standard Go board has a 19×19 grid of lines, containing 361 points. Beginners often play on smaller 9×9 and 13×13 boards, and archaeological evidence shows that the game was played in earlier centuries on a board with a 17×17 grid. However, boards with a 19×19 grid had become standard by the time the game reached Korea in the 5th century CE and Japan in the 7th century CE. Go was considered one of the four essential arts of the cultured aristocratic Chinese scholars in antiquity. The earliest written reference to the game is generally recognized as the historical annal *Zuo Zhuan* (c. 4th century BCE). Despite its relatively simple rules, Go is extremely complex. Compared to chess, Go has both a larger board with more scope for play and longer games and, on average, many more alternatives to consider per move. The number of legal board positions in Go has been calculated to be approximately 2.1×10170, which is far greater than the number of atoms in the observable universe, estimated to be of the order of 1080. Description ----------- The word *Go* is a short form of the Japanese word *igo* (囲碁; いご), which derives from earlier *wigo* (ゐご), in turn from Middle Chinese *ɦʉi gi* (圍棋, Mandarin: *wéiqí*, lit. 'encirclement board game' or 'board game of surrounding'). In English, the name *Go* when used for the game is often capitalized to differentiate it from the common word *go*. In events sponsored by the Ing Chang-ki Foundation, it is spelled *goe*. The Korean word *baduk* derives from the Middle Korean word *Badok*, the origin of which is controversial; the more plausible etymologies include the suffix *dok* added to *Ba* to mean 'flat and wide board', or the joining of *Bat*, meaning 'field', and *Dok*, meaning 'stone'. Less plausible etymologies include a derivation of *Badukdok*, referring to the playing pieces of the game, or a derivation from Chinese *páizi* (排子), meaning 'to arrange pieces'. Overview -------- Go is an adversarial game with the objective of surrounding a larger total area of the board with one's stones than the opponent. As the game progresses, the players position stones on the board to map out formations and potential territories. Contests between opposing formations are often extremely complex and may result in the expansion, reduction, or wholesale capture and loss of formation stones. A basic principle of Go is that a group of stones must have at least one open point bordering the group, known as a liberty, to remain on the board. One or more liberties enclosed within a group is called an eye, and a group with two or more eyes cannot be captured, even if surrounded. Such groups are said to be unconditionally alive. The general strategy is to expand one's territory, attack the opponent's weak groups (groups that can be killed), and always stay mindful of the life status of one's own groups. The liberties of groups are countable. Situations where mutually opposing groups must capture each other or die are called capturing races, or semeai. In a capturing race, the group with more liberties will ultimately be able to capture the opponent's stones. Capturing races and the elements of life or death are the primary challenges of Go. Players may pass rather than place a stone if they think there are no further opportunities for profitable play. The game ends when both players pass or when one player resigns. In general, to score the game, each player counts the number of unoccupied points surrounded by their stones and then subtracts the number of stones that were captured by the opponent. The player with the greater score (after adjusting for komi) wins the game. In the opening stages of the game, players typically establish positions (or *bases*) in the corners and around the sides of the board, usually starting on the third or fourth line from the border rather than at the very edge of the board. These bases help to quickly develop strong shapes which have many options for *life* (self-viability for a group of stones that prevents capture) and establish formations for potential territory. Players usually start in the corners because establishing territory is easier with the aid of two edges of the board. Established corner opening sequences are called joseki and are often studied independently. Dame are points that lie in between the boundary walls of black and white, and as such are considered to be of no value to either side. Seki are mutually alive pairs of white and black groups where neither has two eyes. A *ko* (Chinese and Japanese: 劫) is a repeated-position shape that may be contested by making forcing moves elsewhere. After the forcing move is played, the ko may be "taken back" and returned to its original position. Some *ko fights* may be important and decide the life of a large group, while others may be worth just one or two points. Some ko fights are referred to as *picnic kos* when only one side has a lot to lose. The Japanese call it a hanami (flower-viewing) ko. Playing with others usually requires a knowledge of each player's strength, indicated by the player's rank (increasing from 30 kyu to 1 kyu, then 1 dan to 7 dan, then 1 dan pro to 9 dan pro). A difference in rank may be compensated by a handicap—Black is allowed to place two or more stones on the board to compensate for White's greater strength. There are different rulesets (Korean, Japanese, Chinese, AGA, etc.), which are almost entirely equivalent, except for certain special-case positions and the method of scoring at the end. Rules ----- Aside from the order of play (alternating moves, Black moves first or takes a handicap) and scoring rules, there are essentially only two rules in Go: * **Rule 1** (the rule of liberty) states that *every stone remaining on the board must have at least one open point (a* liberty*) directly orthogonally adjacent (up, down, left, or right)*, **or** *must be part of a connected group that has at least one such open point (liberty) next to it. Stones or groups of stones which lose their last liberty are removed from the board.* * **Rule 2** (the ko rule) states that *the stones on the board must never repeat a previous position of stones. Moves which would do so are forbidden, and thus only moves elsewhere on the board are permitted that turn.* Almost all other information about how the game is played is a heuristic, meaning it is learned information about how the game is played, rather than a rule. Other rules are specialized, as they come about through different rulesets, but the above two rules cover almost all of any played game. Although there are some minor differences between rulesets used in different countries, most notably in Chinese and Japanese scoring rules, these differences do not greatly affect the tactics and strategy of the game. Except where noted, the basic rules presented here are valid independent of the scoring rules used. The scoring rules are explained separately. Go terms for which there is no ready English equivalent are commonly called by their Japanese names. ### Basic rules The two players, Black and White, take turns placing stones of their colour on the intersections of the board, one stone at a time. The usual board size is a 19×19 grid, but for beginners or for playing quick games, the smaller board sizes of 13×13 and 9×9 are also popular. The board is empty to begin with. Black plays first unless given a handicap of two or more stones, in which case White plays first. The players may choose any unoccupied intersection to play on except for those forbidden by the ko and suicide rules (see below). Once played, a stone can never be moved and can be taken off the board only if it is captured. A player may pass their turn, declining to place a stone, though this is usually only done at the end of the game when both players believe nothing more can be accomplished with further play. When both players pass consecutively, the game ends and is then scored. ### Liberties and capture Vertically and horizontally adjacent stones of the same color form a chain (also called a *string* or *group*), forming a discrete unit that cannot then be divided. Only stones connected to one another by the lines on the board create a chain; stones that are diagonally adjacent are not connected. Chains may be expanded by placing additional stones on adjacent intersections, and they can be connected together by placing a stone on an intersection that is adjacent to two or more chains of the same color. A vacant point adjacent to a stone, along one of the grid lines of the board, is called a *liberty* for that stone. Stones in a chain share their liberties. A chain of stones must have at least one liberty to remain on the board. When a chain is surrounded by opposing stones so that it has no liberties, it is captured and removed from the board. ### Ko rule | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | An example of a situation in which the ko rule applies Players are not allowed to make a move that returns the game to the previous position. This rule, called the ko rule, prevents unending repetition. As shown in the example pictured: Black has just played the stone marked **1**, capturing a white stone at the intersection marked with the red circle. If White were allowed to play on the marked intersection, that move would capture the black stone marked **1** and recreate the situation before Black made the move marked **1**. Allowing this could result in an unending cycle of captures by both players. The ko rule therefore prohibits White from playing at the marked intersection immediately. Instead White must play elsewhere, or pass; Black can then end the ko by filling at the marked intersection, creating a five-stone black chain. If White wants to continue the ko (that specific repeating position), White tries to find a play elsewhere on the board that Black must answer; if Black answers, then White can retake the ko. A repetition of such exchanges is called a *ko fight*. While the various rulesets agree on the ko rule prohibiting returning the board to an *immediately* previous position, they deal in different ways with the relatively uncommon situation in which a player might recreate a past position that is further removed. See Rules of Go § Repetition for further information. ### Suicide A player may not place a stone such that it or its group immediately has no liberties unless doing so immediately deprives an enemy group of its final liberty. In the second case, the enemy group is captured, leaving the new stone with at least one liberty, so the new stone can be placed. This rule is responsible for the all-important difference between one and two eyes: if a group with only one eye is fully surrounded on the outside, it can be killed with a stone placed in its single eye. The Ing and New Zealand rules do not have this rule, and there a player might destroy one of its own groups (commit suicide). This play would only be useful in limited sets of situations involving a small interior space or planning. In the example at right, it may be useful as a ko threat. ### Komi Because Black has the advantage of playing the first move, the idea of awarding White some compensation came into being during the 20th century. This is called komi, which gives white a 6.5-point compensation under Japanese rules (number of points varies by rule set). Under handicap play, White receives only a 0.5-point komi, to break a possible tie (*jigo*). ### Scoring rules Two general types of scoring system are used, and players determine which to use before play. Both systems almost always give the same winner. * **Area scoring (including Chinese):** counts the number of points a player's stones occupy and surround. It is associated with contemporary Chinese play and was probably established there during the Ming Dynasty in the 15th or 16th century. Beginner-friendly, but takes longer to count. A player's score is the number of stones that the player has on the board, plus the number of empty intersections surrounded by that player's stones. If there is disagreement about which stones are dead, then under area scoring rules, the players simply resume play to resolve the matter. The score is computed using the position after the next time the players pass consecutively. * **Territory scoring (including Japanese and Korean):** counts the number of empty points a player's stones surround, together with the number of stones the player captured. In the course of the game, each player retains the stones they capture, termed *prisoners*. Any dead stones removed at the end of the game become prisoners. The score is the number of empty points enclosed by a player's stones, plus the number of prisoners captured by that player. Under territory scoring there can be an extra penalty for playing inside ones' territory, so if there is a disagreement extra play to resolve it would, in tournament settings, happen on a separate board, where the player claiming a group is dead would play first, and would demonstrate how to capture those stones. For further information, see Rules of Go. Both systems are counted after both players have passed consecutively, the stones that are still on the board but unable to avoid capture, called *dead* stones, are removed. Given that the number of stones a player has on the board is directly related to the number of prisoners their opponent has taken, the resulting net score, that is, the difference between Black's and White's scores is identical under both rulesets (unless the players have passed different numbers of times during the course of the game). Thus, the net result given by the two scoring systems rarely differs by more than a point. ### Life and death While not actually mentioned in the rules of Go (at least in simpler rule sets, such as those of New Zealand and the U.S.), the concept of a *living* group of stones is necessary for a practical understanding of the game. | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Examples of eyes (marked). The black groups at the top of the board are alive, as they have at least two eyes. The black groups at the bottom are dead as they only have one eye. The point marked *a* is a false eye, therefore the black group with false eye *a* is killed by white. When a group of stones is mostly surrounded and has no options to connect with friendly stones elsewhere, the status of the group is either alive, dead or *unsettled*. A group of stones is said to be alive if it cannot be captured, even if the opponent is allowed to move first. Conversely, a group of stones is said to be dead if it cannot avoid capture, even if the owner of the group is allowed the first move. Otherwise, the group is said to be unsettled: the defending player can make it alive or the opponent can *kill* it, depending on who gets to play first. An eye is an empty point or group of points surrounded by a group of stones. If the eye is surrounded by Black stones, White cannot play there unless such a play would take Black's last liberty and capture the Black stones. (Such a move is forbidden according to the suicide rule in most rule sets, but even if not forbidden, such a move would be a useless suicide of a White stone.) If a Black group has two eyes, White can never capture it because White cannot remove both liberties simultaneously. If Black has only one eye, White can capture the Black group by playing in the single eye, removing Black's last liberty. Such a move is not suicide because the Black stones are removed first. In the "Examples of eyes" diagram, all the circled points are eyes. The two black groups in the upper corners are alive, as both have at least two eyes. The groups in the lower corners are dead, as both have only one eye. The group in the lower left may seem to have two eyes, but the surrounded empty point marked *a* is not actually an eye. White can play there and take a black stone. Such a point is often called a *false eye*. ### Seki (mutual life) There is an exception to the requirement that a group must have two eyes to be alive, a situation called *seki* (or *mutual life*). Where different colored groups are adjacent and share liberties, the situation may reach a position when neither player wants to move first because doing so would allow the opponent to capture; in such situations therefore both players' stones remain on the board (in seki). Neither player receives any points for those groups, but at least those groups themselves remain living, as opposed to being captured. Seki can occur in many ways. The simplest are: 1. each player has a group without eyes and they share two liberties, and 2. each player has a group with one eye and they share one more liberty. In the "Example of seki (mutual life)" diagram, the circled points are liberties shared by both a black and a white group. Neither player wants to play on a circled point, because doing so would allow the opponent to capture. All the other groups in this example, both black and white, are alive with at least two eyes. Seki can result from an attempt by one player to invade and kill a nearly settled group of the other player. Tactics ------- In Go, *tactics* deal with immediate fighting between stones, capturing and saving stones, life, death and other issues localized to a specific part of the board. Larger issues, not limited to only part of the board, are referred to as *strategy* and are covered in their own section. ### Capturing tactics There are several tactical constructs aimed at capturing stones. These are among the first things a player learns after understanding the rules. Recognizing the possibility that stones can be captured using these techniques is an important step forward. | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A ladder. Black cannot escape unless the ladder connects to black stones further down the board that will intercept with the ladder or if one of white's pieces have only one liberty. The most basic technique is the *ladder*. To capture stones in a ladder, a player uses a constant series of capture threats (atari) to force the opponent into a zigzag pattern as shown in the adjacent diagram. Unless the pattern runs into friendly stones along the way, the stones in the ladder cannot avoid capture. Experienced players recognize the futility of continuing the pattern and play elsewhere. | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A net. The chain of three marked black stones cannot escape in any direction. Another technique to capture stones is the so-called *net*, also known by its Japanese name, *geta*. This refers to a move that loosely surrounds some stones, preventing their escape in all directions. An example is given in the adjacent diagram. It is generally better to capture stones in a net than in a ladder, because a net does not depend on the condition that there are no opposing stones in the way, nor does it allow the opponent to play a strategic ladder breaker. | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A snapback. Although Black can capture the white stone by playing at the circled point, the resulting shape for Black has only one liberty (at 1), thus White can then capture the three black stones by playing at **1** again (*snapback*). A third technique to capture stones is the *snapback*. In a snapback, one player allows a single stone to be captured, then immediately plays on the point formerly occupied by that stone; by so doing, the player captures a larger group of their opponent's stones, in effect *snapping back* at those stones. An example can be seen on the right. As with the ladder, an experienced player does not play out such a sequence, recognizing the futility of capturing only to be captured back immediately. ### Reading ahead One of the most important skills required for strong tactical play is the ability to read ahead. Reading ahead includes considering available moves to play, the possible responses to each move, and the subsequent possibilities after each of those responses. Some of the strongest players of the game can read up to 40 moves ahead even in complicated positions. As explained in the scoring rules, some stone formations can never be captured and are said to be alive, while other stones may be in a position where they cannot avoid being captured and are said to be dead. Much of the practice material available to players of the game comes in the form of life and death problems, also known as tsumego. In such problems, players are challenged to find the vital move sequence that kills a group of the opponent or saves a group of their own. Tsumego are considered an excellent way to train a player's ability at reading ahead, and are available for all skill levels, some posing a challenge even to top players. ### Ko fighting In situations when the Ko rule applies, a ko fight may occur. If the player who is prohibited from capture is of the opinion that the capture is important because it prevents a large group of stones from being captured for instance, the player may play a *ko threat*. This is a move elsewhere on the board that threatens to make a large profit if the opponent does not respond. If the opponent does respond to the ko threat, the situation on the board has changed, and the prohibition on capturing the ko no longer applies. Thus the player who made the ko threat may now recapture the ko. Their opponent is then in the same situation and can either play a ko threat as well or concede the ko by simply playing elsewhere. If a player concedes the ko, either because they do not think it important or because there are no moves left that could function as a ko threat, they have *lost* the ko, and their opponent may connect the ko. Instead of responding to a ko threat, a player may also choose to *ignore* the threat and connect the ko. They thereby win the ko, but at a cost. The choice of when to respond to a threat and when to ignore it is a subtle one, which requires a player to consider many factors, including how much is gained by connecting, how much is lost by not responding, how many possible ko threats both players have remaining, what the optimal order of playing them is, and what the *size*—points lost or gained—of each of the remaining threats is. Frequently, the winner of the ko fight does not connect the ko but instead captures one of the chains that constituted their opponent's side of the ko. In some cases, this leads to another ko fight at a neighboring location. Strategy -------- Strategy deals with global influence, the interaction between distant stones, keeping the whole board in mind during local fights, and other issues that involve the overall game. It is therefore possible to allow a tactical loss when it confers a strategic advantage. Novices often start by randomly placing stones on the board, as if it were a game of chance. An understanding of how stones connect for greater power develops, and then a few basic common opening sequences may be understood. Learning the ways of life and death helps in a fundamental way to develop one's strategic understanding of *weak groups*. A player who both plays aggressively and can handle adversity is said to display kiai, or fighting spirit, in the game. ### Basic concepts Basic strategic aspects include the following: * Connection: Keeping one's own stones connected means that fewer groups need to make living shape, and one has fewer groups to defend. * Cut: Keeping opposing stones disconnected means that the opponent needs to defend and make living shape for more groups. * Stay alive: The simplest way to stay alive is to establish a foothold in the corner or along one of the sides. At a minimum, a group must have two eyes (separate open points) to be alive. An opponent cannot fill in either eye, as any such move is suicidal and prohibited in the rules. * Mutual life (seki) is better than dying: A situation in which neither player can play on a particular point without then allowing the other player to play at another point to capture. The most common example is that of adjacent groups that share their last few liberties—if either player plays in the shared liberties, they can reduce their own group to a single liberty (putting themselves in *atari*), allowing their opponent to capture it on the next move. * Death: A group that lacks living shape is eventually removed from the board as captured. * Invasion: Set up a new living group inside an area where the opponent has greater influence, means one reduces the opponent's score in proportion to the area one occupies. * Reduction: Placing a stone far enough into the opponent's area of influence to reduce the amount of territory they eventually get, but not so far that it can be cut off from friendly stones outside. * Sente: A play that forces one's opponent to respond (gote). A player who can regularly play *sente* has the initiative and can control the flow of the game. * Sacrifice: Allowing a group to die in order to carry out a play, or plan, in a more important area. The strategy involved can become very abstract and complex. High-level players spend years improving their understanding of strategy, and a novice may play many hundreds of games against opponents before being able to win regularly. ### Opening strategy In the opening of the game, players usually play and gain territory in the corners of the board first, as the presence of two edges makes it easier for them to surround territory and establish their stones. From a secure position in a corner, it is possible to lay claim to more territory by extending along the side of the board. The opening is the most theoretically difficult part of the game and takes a large proportion of professional players' thinking time. The first stone played at a corner of the board is generally placed on the third or fourth line from the edge. Players tend to play on or near the 4–4 star point during the opening. Playing nearer to the edge does not produce enough territory to be efficient, and playing further from the edge does not safely secure the territory. In the opening, players often play established sequences called joseki, which are locally balanced exchanges; however, the joseki chosen should also produce a satisfactory result on a global scale. It is generally advisable to keep a balance between territory and influence. Which of these gets precedence is often a matter of individual taste. ### Middlegame and endgame The middle phase of the game is the most combative, and usually lasts for more than 100 moves. During the middlegame, the players invade each other's territories, and attack formations that lack the necessary *two eyes* for viability. Such groups may be saved or sacrificed for something more significant on the board. It is possible that one player may succeed in capturing a large weak group of the opponent's, which often proves decisive and ends the game by a resignation. However, matters may be more complex yet, with major trade-offs, apparently dead groups reviving, and skillful play to attack in such a way as to construct territories rather than kill. The end of the middlegame and transition to the endgame is marked by a few features. Near the end of a game, play becomes divided into localized fights that do not affect each other, with the exception of *ko* fights, where before the central area of the board related to all parts of it. No large weak groups are still in serious danger. Moves can reasonably be attributed some definite value, such as 20 points or fewer, rather than simply being necessary to compete. Both players set limited objectives in their plans, in making or destroying territory, capturing or saving stones. These changing aspects of the game usually occur at much the same time, for strong players. In brief, the middlegame switches into the endgame when the concepts of strategy and influence need reassessment in terms of concrete final results on the board. History ------- ### Origin in China The earliest written reference to the game is generally recognized as the historical annal *Zuo Zhuan* (c. 4th century BCE), referring to a historical event of 548 BCE. It is also mentioned in Book XVII of the *Analects of Confucius* and in two books written by Mencius (c. 3rd century BCE). In all of these works, the game is referred to as **yì** (弈). Today, in China, it is known as ***weiqi*** (simplified Chinese: 围棋; traditional Chinese: 圍棋; pinyin: ; Wade–Giles: *wei ch'i*), lit. 'encirclement board game'. Go was originally played on a 17×17 line grid, but a 19×19 grid became standard by the time of the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE). Legends trace the origin of the game to the mythical Chinese emperor Yao (2337–2258 BCE), who was said to have had his counselor Shun design it for his unruly son, Danzhu, to favorably influence him. Other theories suggest that the game was derived from Chinese tribal warlords and generals, who used pieces of stone to map out attacking positions. In China, Go was considered one of the four cultivated arts of the Chinese scholar gentleman, along with calligraphy, painting and playing the musical instrument guqin In ancient times the rules of Go were passed on verbally, rather than being written down. * Model of a 19×19 Go board, from a tomb of the Sui dynasty (581–618 CE)Model of a 19×19 Go board, from a tomb of the Sui dynasty (581–618 CE) * Painting of a woman playing Go, from the Astana Graves. Tang dynasty, c. 744 CE.Painting of a woman playing Go, from the Astana Graves. Tang dynasty, c. 744 CE. * Li Jing playing Go with his brothers. Detail from a painting by Zhou Wenju (fl. 942–961 CE), Southern Tang dynasty.Li Jing playing Go with his brothers. Detail from a painting by Zhou Wenju (fl. 942–961 CE), Southern Tang dynasty. ### Spread to Korea and Japan Go was introduced to Korea sometime between the 5th and 7th centuries CE, and was popular among the higher classes. In Korea, the game is called ***baduk*** (hangul: 바둑), and a variant of the game called Sunjang baduk was developed by the 16th century. Sunjang baduk became the main variant played in Korea until the end of the 19th century, when the current version was reintroduced from Japan. The game reached Japan in the 7th century CE—where it is called ***go*** (碁) or ***igo*** (囲碁). It became popular at the Japanese imperial court in the 8th century, and among the general public by the 13th century. The game was further formalized in the 15th century. In 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu re-established Japan's unified national government. In the same year, he assigned the then-best player in Japan, a Buddhist monk named Nikkai (né Kanō Yosaburo, 1559), to the post of Godokoro (Minister of Go). Nikkai took the name Hon'inbō Sansa and founded the Hon'inbō Go school. Several competing schools were founded soon after. These officially recognized and subsidized Go schools greatly developed the level of play and introduced the dan/kyu style system of ranking players. Players from the four schools (Hon'inbō, Yasui, Inoue and Hayashi) competed in the annual castle games, played in the presence of the shōgun. * Detail from a Japanese illustrated handscroll of The Tale of Genji. Heian period, 12th century CE.Detail from a Japanese illustrated handscroll of *The Tale of Genji*. Heian period, 12th century CE. * A Korean couple playing Go in traditional dress. Photographed between 1910 and 1920.A Korean couple playing Go in traditional dress. Photographed between 1910 and 1920. ### Internationalization Despite its widespread popularity in East Asia, Go has been slow to spread to the rest of the world. Although there are some mentions of the game in western literature from the 16th century forward, Go did not start to become popular in the West until the end of the 19th century, when German scientist Oskar Korschelt wrote a treatise on the game. By the early 20th century, Go had spread throughout the German and Austro-Hungarian empires. In 1905, Edward Lasker learned the game while in Berlin. When he moved to New York, Lasker founded the New York Go Club together with (amongst others) Arthur Smith, who had learned of the game in Japan while touring the East and had published the book *The Game of Go* in 1908. Lasker's book *Go and Go-moku* (1934) helped spread the game throughout the U.S., and in 1935, the American Go Association was formed. Two years later, in 1937, the German Go Association was founded. World War II put a stop to most Go activity, since it was a popular game in Japan, but after the war, Go continued to spread. For most of the 20th century, the Japan Go Association (Nihon Ki-in) played a leading role in spreading Go outside East Asia by publishing the English-language magazine *Go Review* in the 1960s, establishing Go centers in the U.S., Europe and South America, and often sending professional teachers on tour to Western nations. Internationally, the game had been commonly known since the start of the twentieth century by its shortened Japanese name, and terms for common Go concepts are derived from their Japanese pronunciation. In 1996, NASA astronaut Daniel Barry and Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata became the first people to play Go in space. They used a special Go set, which was named Go Space, designed by Wai-Cheung Willson Chow. Both astronauts were awarded honorary dan ranks by the Nihon Ki-in. As of December 2015[update], the International Go Federation has 75 member countries, with 67 member countries outside East Asia. Chinese cultural centres across the world are promoting Go, and cooperating with local Go associations, for example the seminars held by the Chinese cultural centre in Tel Aviv, Israel, together with the Israeli Go association. Competitive play ---------------- ### Ranks and ratings In Go, rank indicates a player's skill in the game. Traditionally, ranks are measured using *kyu* and *dan* grades, a system also adopted by many martial arts. More recently, mathematical rating systems similar to the Elo rating system have been introduced. Such rating systems often provide a mechanism for converting a rating to a kyu or dan grade. Kyu grades (abbreviated *k*) are considered student grades and decrease as playing level increases, meaning 1st kyu is the strongest available kyu grade. Dan grades (abbreviated *d*) are considered master grades, and increase from 1st dan to 7th dan. First dan equals a black belt in eastern martial arts using this system. The difference among each amateur rank is one handicap stone. For example, if a 5k plays a game with a 1k, the 5k would need a handicap of four stones to even the odds. Top-level amateur players sometimes defeat professionals in tournament play. Professional players have professional dan ranks (abbreviated *p*). These ranks are separate from amateur ranks. The rank system comprises, from the lowest to highest ranks: | Rank Type | Range | Stage | | --- | --- | --- | | Double-digit *kyu* | 30–21k | Beginner | | Double-digit *kyu* | 20–10k | Casual player | | Single-digit *kyu* | 9–1k | Intermediate/club player | | Amateur *dan* | 1–7d (where 8d is a special title) | Advanced player | | Professional *dan* | 1–9p (where 10p is a special title) | Professionals | ### Tournament and match rules Tournament and match rules deal with factors that may influence the game but are not part of the actual rules of play. Such rules may differ between events. Rules that influence the game include: the setting of compensation points (komi), handicap, and time control parameters. Rules that do not generally influence the game are the tournament system, pairing strategies, and placement criteria. Common tournament systems used in Go include the McMahon system, Swiss system, league systems and the knockout system. Tournaments may combine multiple systems; many professional Go tournaments use a combination of the league and knockout systems. Tournament rules may also set the following: * compensation points, called komi, which compensate the second player for the first move advantage of their opponent; tournaments commonly use a compensation in the range of 5–8 points, generally including a half-point to prevent draws; * handicap stones placed on the board before alternate play, allowing players of different strengths to play competitively (see Go handicap for more information); and * *superko*: Although the basic ko rule described above covers more than 95% of all cycles occurring in games, there are some complex situations—triple ko, *eternal life*, etc.—that are not covered by it but would allow the game to cycle indefinitely. To prevent this, the ko rule is sometimes extended to forbid the repetition of *any* previous position. This extension is called superko. ### Time control A game of Go may be timed using a game clock. Formal time controls were introduced into the professional game during the 1920s and were controversial. Adjournments and sealed moves began to be regulated in the 1930s. Go tournaments use a number of different time control systems. All common systems envisage a single main period of time for each player for the game, but they vary on the protocols for continuation (in *overtime*) after a player has finished that time allowance. The most widely used time control system is the so-called byoyomi system. The top professional Go matches have timekeepers so that the players do not have to press their own clocks. Two widely used variants of the byoyomi system are: * *Standard byoyomi*: After the main time is depleted, a player has a certain number of time periods (typically around thirty seconds). After each move, the number of full-time periods that the player took (often zero) is subtracted. For example, if a player has three thirty-second time periods and takes thirty or more (but less than sixty) seconds to make a move, they lose one time period. With 60–89 seconds, they lose two time periods, and so on. If, however, they take less than thirty seconds, the timer simply resets without subtracting any periods. Using up the last period means that the player has lost on time. * *Canadian byoyomi*: After using all of their main time, a player must make a certain number of moves within a certain period of time, such as twenty moves within five minutes. If the time period expires without the required number of stones having been played, then the player has lost on time. ### Notation and recording games Go games are recorded with a simple coordinate system. This is comparable to algebraic chess notation, except that Go stones do not move and thus require only one coordinate per turn. Coordinate systems include purely numerical (4–4 point), hybrid (K3), and purely alphabetical. The Smart Game Format uses alphabetical coordinates internally, but most editors represent the board with hybrid coordinates as this reduces confusion. Alternatively, the game record can also be noted by writing the successive moves on a diagram, where odd numbers mean black stones, even numbers mean white stones (or conversely when playing with a handicap), and a notation like "25=22" in the margin means that the 25th stone was played at the same location as the 22nd one, which had been captured in the meantime. The Japanese word kifu is sometimes used to refer to a game record. In Unicode, Go stones can be represented with black and white circles from the block Geometric Shapes: * U+25CB ○ WHITE CIRCLE (&cir;) * U+25CF ● BLACK CIRCLE The block Miscellaneous Symbols includes "Go markers" that were likely meant for mathematical research of Go: * U+2686 ⚆ WHITE CIRCLE WITH DOT RIGHT * U+2687 ⚇ WHITE CIRCLE WITH TWO DOTS * U+2688 ⚈ BLACK CIRCLE WITH WHITE DOT RIGHT * U+2689 ⚉ BLACK CIRCLE WITH TWO WHITE DOTS ### Top players and professional Go A Go professional is a professional player of the game of Go. There are six areas with professional go associations, these are: China (Chinese Weiqi Association), Japan (Nihon Ki-in, Kansai Ki-in), South Korea (Korea Baduk Association), Taiwan (Taiwan Chi Yuan Culture Foundation), the United States (AGA Professional System) and Europe (European Professional System). Although the game was developed in China, the establishment of the Four Go houses by Tokugawa Ieyasu at the start of the 17th century shifted the focus of the Go world to Japan. State sponsorship, allowing players to dedicate themselves full-time to study of the game, and fierce competition between individual houses resulted in a significant increase in the level of play. During this period, the best player of his generation was given the prestigious title Meijin (master) and the post of Godokoro (minister of Go). Of special note are the players who were dubbed Kisei (Go Sage). The only three players to receive this honor were Dōsaku, Jōwa and Shūsaku, all of the house Hon'inbō. After the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and the Meiji Restoration period, the Go houses slowly disappeared, and in 1924, the Nihon Ki-in (Japanese Go Association) was formed. Top players from this period often played newspaper-sponsored matches of 2–10 games. Of special note are the (Chinese-born) player Go Seigen (Chinese: Wu Qingyuan), who scored 80% in these matches and beat down most of his opponents to inferior handicaps, and Minoru Kitani, who dominated matches in the early 1930s. These two players are also recognized for their groundbreaking work on new opening theory (Shinfuseki). For much of the 20th century, Go continued to be dominated by players trained in Japan. Notable names included Eio Sakata, Rin Kaiho (born in Taiwan), Masao Kato, Koichi Kobayashi and Cho Chikun (born Cho Ch'i-hun, from South Korea). Top Chinese and Korean talents often moved to Japan, because the level of play there was high and funding was more lavish. One of the first Korean players to do so was Cho Namchul, who studied in the Kitani Dojo 1937–1944. After his return to Korea, the Hanguk Kiwon (Korea Baduk Association) was formed and caused the level of play in South Korea to rise significantly in the second half of the 20th century. In China, the game declined during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) but quickly recovered in the last quarter of the 20th century, bringing Chinese players, such as Nie Weiping and Ma Xiaochun, on par with their Japanese and South Korean counterparts. The Chinese Weiqi Association (today part of the China Qiyuan) was established in 1962, and professional dan grades started being issued in 1982. Western professional Go began in 2012 with the American Go Association's Professional System. In 2014, the European Go Federation followed suit and started their professional system. With the advent of major international titles from 1989 onward, it became possible to compare the level of players from different countries more accurately. Cho Hunhyun of South Korea won the first edition of the Quadrennial Ing Cup in 1989. His disciple Lee Chang-ho was the dominant player in international Go competitions for more than a decade spanning much of 1990s and early 2000s; he is also credited with groundbreaking works on the endgame. Cho, Lee and other South Korean players such as Seo Bong-soo, Yoo Changhyuk and Lee Sedol between them won the majority of international titles in this period. Several Chinese players also rose to the top in international Go from 2000s, most notably Ma Xiaochun, Chang Hao, Gu Li and Ke Jie. As of 2016[update], Japan lags behind in the international Go scene. Historically, more men than women have played Go. Special tournaments for women exist, but until recently, men and women did not compete together at the highest levels; however, the creation of new, open tournaments and the rise of strong female players, most notably Rui Naiwei, have in recent years highlighted the strength and competitiveness of emerging female players. The level in other countries has traditionally been much lower, except for some players who had preparatory professional training in East Asia. Knowledge of the game has been scant elsewhere up until the 20th century. A famous player of the 1920s was Edward Lasker. It was not until the 1950s that more than a few Western players took up the game as other than a passing interest. In 1978, Manfred Wimmer became the first Westerner to receive a professional player's certificate from an East Asian professional Go association. In 2000, American Michael Redmond became the first Western player to achieve a 9 dan rank. Equipment --------- It is possible to play Go with a simple paper board and coins, plastic tokens, or white beans and coffee beans for the stones; or even by drawing the stones on the board and erasing them when captured. More popular midrange equipment includes cardstock, a laminated particle board, or wood boards with stones of plastic or glass. More expensive traditional materials are still used by many players. The most expensive Go sets have black stones carved from slate and white stones carved from translucent white shells, played on boards carved in a single piece from the trunk of a tree. ### Traditional equipment #### Boards The Go board (generally referred to by its Japanese name *goban* 碁盤) typically measures between 45 and 48 cm (18 and 19 in) in length (from one player's side to the other) and 42 to 44 cm (16+1⁄2 to 17+1⁄4 in) in width. Chinese boards are slightly larger, as a traditional Chinese Go stone is slightly larger to match. The board is not square; there is a 15:14 ratio in length to width, because with a perfectly square board, from the player's viewing angle the perspective creates a foreshortening of the board. The added length compensates for this. There are two main types of boards: a table board similar in most respects to other gameboards like that used for chess, and a floor board, which is its own free-standing table and at which the players sit. The traditional Japanese *goban* is between 10 and 18 cm (3.9 and 7.1 in) thick and has legs; it sits on the floor (see picture). It is preferably made from the rare golden-tinged Kaya tree (*Torreya nucifera*), with the very best made from Kaya trees up to 700 years old. More recently, the related California Torreya (*Torreya californica*) has been prized for its light color and pale rings as well as its reduced expense and more readily available stock. The natural resources of Japan have been unable to keep up with the enormous demand for the slow-growing Kaya trees; both *T. nucifera* and *T. californica* take many hundreds of years to grow to the necessary size, and they are now extremely rare, raising the price of such equipment tremendously. As Kaya trees are a protected species in Japan, they cannot be harvested until they have died. Thus, an old-growth, floor-standing Kaya *goban* can easily cost in excess of $10,000 with the highest-quality examples costing more than $60,000. Other, less expensive woods often used to make quality table boards in both Chinese and Japanese dimensions include Hiba (*Thujopsis dolabrata*), Katsura (*Cercidiphyllum japonicum*), Kauri (*Agathis*), and Shin Kaya (various varieties of spruce, commonly from Alaska, Siberia and China's Yunnan Province). So-called *Shin Kaya* is a potentially confusing merchant's term: *shin* means 'new', and thus *shin kaya* is best translated 'faux kaya', because the woods so described are biologically unrelated to Kaya. #### Stones A full set of Go stones (*goishi*) usually contains 181 black stones and 180 white ones; a 19×19 grid has 361 points, so there are enough stones to cover the board, and Black gets the extra odd stone because that player goes first. However it may happen, especially in beginners' games, that many back-and-forth captures empty the bowls before the end of the game: in that case an exchange of prisoners allows the game to continue. Traditional Japanese stones are double-convex, and made of clamshell (white) and slate (black). The classic slate is nachiguro stone mined in Wakayama Prefecture and the clamshell from the Hamaguri clam; however, due to a scarcity in the Japanese supply of this clam, the stones are most often made of shells harvested from Mexico. Historically, the most prized stones were made of jade, often given to the reigning emperor as a gift. In China, the game is traditionally played with single-convex stones made of a composite called Yunzi. The material comes from Yunnan Province and is made by sintering a proprietary and trade-secret mixture of mineral compounds derived from the local stone. This process dates to the Tang Dynasty and, after the knowledge was lost in the 1920s during the Chinese Civil War, was rediscovered in the 1960s by the now state-run Yunzi company. The material is praised for its colors, its pleasing sound as compared to glass or to synthetics such as melamine, and its lower cost as opposed to other materials such as slate/shell. The term *yunzi* can also refer to a single-convex stone made of any material; however, most English-language Go suppliers specify Yunzi as a material and single-convex as a shape to avoid confusion, as stones made of Yunzi are also available in double-convex while synthetic stones can be either shape. Traditional stones are made so that black stones are slightly larger in diameter than white; this is to compensate for the optical illusion created by contrasting colors that would make equal-sized white stones appear larger on the board than black stones. #### Bowls The bowls for the stones are shaped like a flattened sphere with a level underside. The lid is loose fitting and upturned before play to receive stones captured during the game. Chinese bowls are slightly larger, and a little more rounded, a style known generally as *Go Seigen*; Japanese *Kitani* bowls tend to have a shape closer to that of the bowl of a snifter glass, such as for brandy. The bowls are usually made of turned wood. Mulberry is the traditional material for Japanese bowls, but is very expensive; wood from the Chinese jujube date tree, which has a lighter color (it is often stained) and slightly more visible grain pattern, is a common substitute for rosewood, and traditional for Go Seigen-style bowls. Other traditional materials used for making Chinese bowls include lacquered wood, ceramics, stone and woven straw or rattan. The names of the bowl shapes, *Go Seigen* and *Kitani*, were introduced in the last quarter of the 20th century by the professional player Janice Kim as homage to two 20th-century professional Go players by the same names, of Chinese and Japanese nationality, respectively, who are referred to as the "Fathers of modern Go". ### Playing technique and etiquette The traditional way to place a Go stone is to first take one from the bowl, gripping it between the index and middle fingers, with the middle finger on top, and then placing it directly on the desired intersection. One can also place a stone on the board and then slide it into position under appropriate circumstances (where it does not move any other stones). It is considered respectful towards White for Black to place the first stone of the game in the upper right-hand corner. (Because of symmetry, this has no effect on the game's outcome.) It is considered poor manners to run one's fingers through one's bowl of unplayed stones, as the sound, however soothing to the player doing this, can be disturbing to one's opponent. Similarly, clacking a stone against another stone, the board, or the table or floor is also discouraged. However, it is permissible to emphasize select moves by striking the board more firmly than normal, thus producing a sharp clack. Additionally, hovering one's arm over the board (usually when deciding where to play) is also considered rude as it obstructs the opponent's view of the board. Manners and etiquette are extensively discussed in 'The Classic of WeiQi in Thirteen Chapters', a Song dynasty manual to the game. Apart from the points above it also points to the need to remain calm and honorable, in maintaining posture, and knowing the key specialised terms, such as titles of common formations. Generally speaking, much attention is paid to the etiquette of playing, as much as to winning or actual game technique. Computers and Go ---------------- ### Nature of the game In combinatorial game theory terms, Go is a zero-sum, perfect-information, partisan, deterministic strategy game, putting it in the same class as chess, draughts (checkers), and Reversi (Othello). The game emphasizes the importance of balance on multiple levels: to secure an area of the board, it is good to play moves close together; however, to cover the largest area, one needs to spread out, perhaps leaving weaknesses that can be exploited. Playing too *low* (close to the edge) secures insufficient territory and influence, yet playing too *high* (far from the edge) allows the opponent to invade. Decisions in one part of the board may be influenced by an apparently unrelated situation in a distant part of the board (for example, ladders can be broken by stones at an arbitrary distance away). Plays made early in the game can shape the nature of conflict a hundred moves later. The game complexity of Go is such that describing even elementary strategy fills many introductory books. In fact, numerical estimates show that the number of possible games of Go far exceeds the number of atoms in the observable universe. Research of Go endgame by John H. Conway led to the invention of the surreal numbers. Go also contributed to the development of combinatorial game theory (with Go infinitesimals being a specific example of its use in Go). ### Software players Go long posed a daunting challenge to computer programmers, putting forward "difficult decision-making tasks, an intractable search space, and an optimal solution so complex it appears infeasible to directly approximate using a policy or value function". Prior to 2015, the best Go programs only managed to reach amateur dan level. On smaller 9×9 and 13x13 boards, computer programs fared better, and were able to compare to professional players. Many in the field of artificial intelligence consider Go to require more elements that mimic human thought than chess. The reasons why computer programs had not played Go at the professional dan level prior to 2016 include: * The number of spaces on the board is much larger (over five times the number of spaces on a chess board—361 vs. 64). On most turns there are many more possible moves in Go than in chess. Throughout most of the game, the number of legal moves stays at around 150–250 per turn, and rarely falls below 100 (in chess, the average number of moves is 37). Because an exhaustive computer program for Go must calculate and compare every possible legal move in each ply (player turn), its ability to calculate the best plays is sharply reduced when there are a large number of possible moves. Most computer game algorithms, such as those for chess, compute several moves in advance. Given an average of 200 available moves through most of the game, for a computer to calculate its next move by exhaustively anticipating the next four moves of each possible play (two of its own and two of its opponent's), it would have to consider more than 320 billion (3.2×1011) possible combinations. To exhaustively calculate the next eight moves, would require computing 512 quintillion (5.12×1020) possible combinations. As of March 2014[update], the most powerful supercomputer in the world, NUDT's "Tianhe-2", can sustain 33.86 petaflops. At this rate, even given an exceedingly low estimate of 10 operations required to assess the value of one play of a stone, Tianhe-2 would require four hours to assess all possible combinations of the next eight moves in order to make a single play. * The placement of a single stone in the initial phase can affect the play of the game a hundred or more moves later. A computer would have to predict this influence, and it would be unworkable to attempt to exhaustively analyze the next hundred moves. * In capture-based games (such as chess), a position can often be evaluated relatively easily, such as by calculating who has a material advantage or more active pieces. In Go, there is often no easy way to evaluate a position. However a 6-kyu human can evaluate a position at a glance, to see which player has more territory, and even beginners can estimate the score within 10 points, given time to count it. The number of stones on the board (material advantage) is only a weak indicator of the strength of a position, and a territorial advantage (more empty points surrounded) for one player might be compensated by the opponent's strong positions and influence all over the board. Normally a 3-dan can easily judge most of these positions. As an illustration, the greatest handicap normally given to a weaker opponent is 9 stones. It was not until August 2008 that a computer won a game against a professional level player at this handicap. It was the Mogo program, which scored this first victory in an exhibition game played during the US Go Congress. By 2013, a win at the professional level of play was accomplished with a four-stone advantage. In October 2015, Google DeepMind's program AlphaGo beat Fan Hui, the European Go champion and a 2 dan (out of 9 dan possible) professional, five times out of five with no handicap on a full size 19×19 board. AlphaGo used a fundamentally different paradigm than earlier Go programs; it included very little direct instruction, and mostly used deep learning where AlphaGo played itself in hundreds of millions of games such that it could measure positions more intuitively. In March 2016, Google next challenged Lee Sedol, a 9 dan considered the top player in the world in the early 21st century, to a five-game match. Leading up to the game, Lee Sedol and other top professionals were confident that he would win; however, AlphaGo defeated Lee in four of the five games. After having already lost the series by the third game, Lee won the fourth game, describing his win as "invaluable". In May 2017, AlphaGo beat Ke Jie, who at the time continuously held the world No. 1 ranking for two years, winning each game in a three-game match during the Future of Go Summit. In October 2017, DeepMind announced a significantly stronger version called AlphaGo Zero which beat the previous version by 100 games to 0. In February 2023, Kellin Pelrine, an amateur American Go player, won 14 out of 15 games against a top-ranked AI system in a significant victory over artificial intelligence. Pelrine took advantage of a previously unknown flaw in the Go computer program, which had been identified by another computer. He exploited this weakness by slowly encircling the opponent's stones and distracting the AI with moves in other parts of the board. The tactics used by Pelrine have highlighted a fundamental flaw in the deep learning systems that underpin many of today's advanced AI. Although the AI systems can "understand" specific situations, they lack the ability to generalize in a way that humans find easy. ### Software assistance An abundance of software is available to support players of the game. This includes programs that can be used to view or edit game records and diagrams, programs that allow the user to search for patterns in the games of strong players, and programs that allow users to play against each other over the Internet. Some web servers provide graphical aids like maps, to aid learning during play. These graphical aids may suggest possible next moves, indicate areas of influence, highlight vital stones under attack and mark stones in atari or about to be captured. There are several file formats used to store game records, the most popular of which is SGF, short for Smart Game Format. Programs used for editing game records allow the user to record not only the moves, but also variations, commentary and further information on the game. Electronic databases can be used to study life and death situations, joseki, fuseki and games by a particular player. Programs are available that give players pattern searching options, which allow players to research positions by searching for high-level games in which similar situations occur. Such software generally lists common follow-up moves that have been played by professionals and gives statistics on win–loss ratio in opening situations. Internet-based Go servers allow access to competition with players all over the world, for real-time and turn-based games. Such servers also allow easy access to professional teaching, with both teaching games and interactive game review being possible. In popular culture ------------------ Apart from technical literature and study material, Go and its strategies have been the subject of several works of fiction, such as *The Master of Go* by Nobel prize-winning author Yasunari Kawabata and *The Girl Who Played Go* by Shan Sa. Other books have used Go as a theme or minor plot device. For example, the novel *Shibumi* by Trevanian centers around the game and uses Go metaphors. Go features prominently in the *Chung Kuo* series of novels by David Wingrove, being the favourite game of the main villain. The manga (Japanese comic book) and anime series *Hikaru no Go*, released in Japan in 1998, had a large impact in popularizing Go among young players, both in Japan and—as translations were released—abroad. Similarly, Go has been used as a subject or plot device in film, such as *π*, *A Beautiful Mind*, *Tron: Legacy*, *Knives Out*, and *The Go Master*, a biopic of Go professional Go Seigen. 2013's *Tôkyô ni kita bakari* or *Tokyo Newcomer* portrays a Chinese foreigner Go player moving to Tokyo. In King Hu's wuxia film *The Valiant Ones*, the characters are color-coded as Go stones (black or other dark shades for the Chinese, white for the Japanese invaders), Go boards and stones are used by the characters to keep track of soldiers prior to battle, and the battles themselves are structured like a game of Go. Go has also been featured as a plot device in a number of television series. Examples include Starz's science fiction thriller *Counterpart*, which is rich in references (the opening itself featuring developments on a Go board), and includes Go matches, accurately played, relevant to the plot. The corporation and brand Atari was named after the Go term. Hedge fund manager Mark Spitznagel used Go as his main investing metaphor in his investing book *The Dao of Capital*. *The Way of Go: 8 Ancient Strategy Secrets for Success in Business and Life* by Troy Anderson applies Go strategy to business. *GO: An Asian Paradigm for Business Strategy* by Miura Yasuyuki, a manager with Japan Airlines, uses Go to describe the thinking and behavior of business men. Psychology ---------- A 2004 review of literature by Fernand Gobet, de Voogt and Jean Retschitzki shows that relatively little scientific research has been carried out on the psychology of Go, compared with other traditional board games such as chess. Computer Go research has shown that given the large search tree, knowledge and pattern recognition are more important in Go than in other strategy games, such as chess. A study of the effects of age on Go-playing has shown that mental decline is milder with strong players than with weaker players. According to the review of Gobet and colleagues, the pattern of brain activity observed with techniques such as PET and fMRI does not show large differences between Go and chess. On the other hand, a study by Xiangchuan Chen et al. showed greater activation in the right hemisphere among Go players than among chess players, but the research was inconclusive because strong players from Go were hired while very weak chess players were hired in the original study. There is some evidence to suggest a correlation between playing board games and reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease and dementia. Science ------- In formal game theory terms, Go is a non-chance, combinatorial game with perfect information. Informally that means there are no dice used (and decisions or moves create discrete outcome vectors rather than probability distributions), the underlying math is combinatorial, and all moves (via single vertex analysis) are visible to both players (unlike some card games where some information is hidden). Perfect information also implies sequence—players can theoretically know about all past moves. Other game theoretical taxonomy elements include the facts that Go is bounded (because every game must end with a victor (or a tie) within a finite number of moves); the strategy is associative (every strategy is a function of board position); format is non-cooperative (not a team sport); positions are extensible (can be represented by board position trees); game is zero-sum (player choices do not increase resources available–colloquially, rewards in the game are fixed and if one player wins, the other loses) and the utility function is restricted (in the sense of win/lose; however, ratings, monetary rewards, national and personal pride and other factors can extend utility functions, but generally not to the extent of removing the win/lose restriction). Affine transformations can theoretically add non-zero and complex utility aspects even to two player games. In the endgame, it can often happen that the state of the board consists of several subpositions that do not interact with the others. The whole board position can then be considered as a mathematical sum, or composition, of the individual subpositions. It is this property of Go endgames that led John Horton Conway to the discovery of surreal numbers. Comparisons ----------- Go begins with an empty board. It is focused on building from the ground up (nothing to something) with multiple, simultaneous battles leading to a point-based win. Chess is tactical rather than strategic, as the predetermined strategy is to trap one individual piece (the king). This comparison has also been applied to military and political history, with Scott Boorman's book *The Protracted Game* (1969) and, more recently, Robert Greene's book *The 48 Laws of Power* (1998) exploring the strategy of the Chinese Communist Party in the Chinese Civil War through the lens of Go. A similar comparison has been drawn among Go, chess and backgammon, perhaps the three oldest games that enjoy worldwide popularity. Backgammon is a "man vs. fate" contest, with chance playing a strong role in determining the outcome. Chess, with rows of soldiers marching forward to capture each other, embodies the conflict of "man vs. man". Because the handicap system tells Go players where they stand relative to other players, an honestly ranked player can expect to lose about half of their games; therefore, Go can be seen as embodying the quest for self-improvement, "man vs. self". See also -------- * Games played with Go equipment * List of books about Go * List of top title holders in Go * Sensei's Library References ---------- ### Sources * Allis, Louis Victor (1994), *Searching for solutions in Games and Artificial Intelligence* (PDF), Maastricht: Proefschrift Rijksuniversiteit Limburg, ISBN 978-90-9007488-7, archived (PDF) from the original on March 7, 2005 * Bozulich, Richard, ed. (2001). *The Go Player's Almanac* (2nd ed.). Kiseido Publishing Company. ISBN 978-4-906574-40-7. * Chen, Zuyuan (2011), *The History of Go Rules* (PDF), American Go Association, archived (PDF) from the original on May 15, 2013, retrieved May 7, 2014 * Cho Chikun (1997). *Go: A Complete Introduction to the Game*. Tokyo: Kiseido Publishers. ISBN 978-4-906574-50-6. * Cobb, William (2002). *The Book of Go*. Sterling Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8069-2729-9. * Dahl, Fredrik A. (2001). "Honte, a Go-Playing Program Using Neural Nets". In Fürnkranz, Johannes; Kubat, Miroslav (eds.). *Machines That Learn To Play Games*. Huntington, NY: Nova Science Publishers. pp. 205–223. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.50.2676. ISBN 1-59033-021-8. * Davies, James (1995). *Tesuji*. Elementary Go Series. Vol. 3 (3rd ed.). Japan: Kiseido Publishing Company. ISBN 4-906574-12-2. * Fairbairn, John (1992). "A Survey of the best in Go Equipment". In Bozulich, Richard (ed.). *The Go Player's Almanac* (2nd ed.). Kiseido Publishing Company (published 2001). pp. 142–155. ISBN 978-4-906574-40-7. * Fairbairn, John (1995), *Go in Ancient China*, retrieved 2007-11-02 * Fairbairn, John (2000), *History of Go in Korea*, archived from the original on 8 June 2011, retrieved 15 May 2014 * Fairbairn, John (2004). *Invitation to Go* (2nd ed.). United States: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-43356-0. * Fairbairn, John; Hall, T. Mark (2007), *The GoGoD Encyclopaedia*, Games of Go on Disc (GoGoD) * Ishigure, Ikuro (2006). *In the Beginning: the Opening in the game of Go*. Elementary Go Series. Vol. 1 (8th ed.). Japan: Kiseido Publishing Company. ISBN 4-906574-10-6. * Iwamoto, Kaoru (1977). *Go for Beginners*. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73331-9. * Kageyama, Toshiro (2007). *Lessons in the Fundamentals of Go* (3rd ed.). Japan: Kiseido Publishing Company. ISBN 978-4-906574-28-5. * Kim, Janice; Jeong, Soo-hyun (1997). *Learn to Play Go*. Five volumes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Good Move Press. ISBN 978-0-9644796-1-6. * Lasker, Edward (1960). *Go and Go-Moku: the Oriental Board Games* (2nd ed.). New York: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0486-20613-0. LCCN 60050074. * Masayoshi, Shirakawa (2005), *A Journey In Search of the Origins of Go*, Yutopian Enterprises, ISBN 978-1-889554-98-3 * Matthews, Charles (September 2002), *Sufficient but Not Necessary: Two Eyes and Seki in Go*, University of Cambridge, retrieved 2007-12-31 * Matthews, Charles (2004). *Teach Yourself Go*. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-142977-1. * Moews, David (1996), "Loopy Games and Go" (PDF), *Games of No Chance*, MRSI Publications, vol. 29, pp. 259–272, archived (PDF) from the original on April 10, 2011 * Moskowitz, Marc L. (2013), "*Weiqi* Legends, then and now: Cultural Paradigms in the Game of Go", in Lent, John; Fitzsimmons, Lorna (eds.), *Asian Popular Culture*, United Kingdom: Lexington Books, ISBN 978-0-7391-7961-1, retrieved May 9, 2014 * Müller, Martin & Gasser, Ralph (1996), "Experiments in Computer Go Endgames" (PDF), in Nowakowski, Richard J. (ed.), *Games of No Chance: Combinatorial Games at MSRI, 1994*, Cambridge University Press, pp. 273–284, ISBN 0-521-64652-9, archived (PDF) from the original on April 10, 2011 * Nihon Kiin (1973). *Go: the World's most Fascinating Game* (1st ed.). Tokyo, Japan: Nihon Kiin. + Vol. 1: Introduction OCLC 926865835 + Vol. 2: Basic techniques OCLC 59692609 * Otake, Hideo (2002). *Opening Theory Made Easy: Twenty Strategic Principles to Improve Your Opening Game* (6th ed.). Tokyo: Kiseido Publishing Company. ISBN 978-4-906574-36-0. * Peng, Mike; Hall, Mark (1996). "One Giant Leap For Go, or Astronauts Find Life In Space" (PDF). *Svenks Go Tidning*. Vol. 96, no. 2. pp. 7–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-04. Retrieved 2007-11-12. * Shotwell, Peter (2003), *Go! More Than a Game* (1st ed.), Tuttle Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8048-3475-9 Further reading --------------- ### Introductory books * Bradley, Milton N. *Go for Kids*, Yutopian Enterprises, Santa Monica, 2001 ISBN 978-1-889554-74-7. * Ogawa, Tomoko; Davies, James (2000). *The Endgame*. Elementary Go Series. Vol. 6 (2nd ed.). Tokyo: Kiseido Publishing Company. ISBN 4-906574-15-7. * Seckiner, Sancar. *Chinese Go Players*, 6th article of the main book *Budaha*, Efil Yayinevi, Ankara, Feb. 2016, ISBN 978-605-4160-62-4. * Shotwell, Peter. *Go! More than a Game*, Tuttle Publishing, 4th ed. 2014, ISBN 978-0-8048-3475-9. ### Historical interest * De Havilland, Walter Augustus (1910), *The ABC of Go: The National War Game of Japan*, Yokohama, Kelly & Walsh, OCLC 4800147 * Korschelt, Oscar (1966), *The Theory and Practice of Go*, C.E. Tuttle Co, ISBN 978-0-8048-0572-8 * Smith, Arthur (1956) [1908], *The Game of Go: The National Game of Japan*, C.E. Tuttle Co, OCLC 912228

Go (game)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game)

**Ganja** (/ˈɡændʒə/; Azerbaijani: *Gəncə* [ɟænˈdʒæ] ()) is Azerbaijan's third largest city, with a population of around 335,600. The city has been a historic and cultural center throughout most of its existence. It was the capital of the Ganja Khanate until 1804; after Qajar Iran ceded it to the Russian Empire following the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813, it became part of the administrative divisions of the Georgia Governorate, Georgia-Imeretia Governorate, Tiflis Governorate, and Elizavetpol Governorate. Following the dissolution of the Russian Empire and the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic, it became a part of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, followed by Azerbaijan SSR, and, since 1991, the Republic of Azerbaijan. Etymology --------- The name Ganja derives from the Persian word *ganj* (Middle Persian: ganza), meaning "treasure" or "treasury". The city was renamed *Yelisavetpol* (Russian: Елизаветпо́ль, tr. *Yelizavetpól'*, IPA: [jɪlʲɪzəvʲɪtˈpolʲ]) during the Russian Empire period. After its incorporation into the Soviet Union it was initially renamed back to Ganja (*Gyandzha*), but in 1935 the name was changed again to *Kirovabad* (Russian: Кироваба́д, tr. *Kirovabád*, IPA: [kʲɪrəvɐˈbat]), a name which the city retained throughout most of the rest of the Soviet period. In 1989, during perestroika, the city regained its original name of Ganja (Azerbaijani: *Gəncə*), which is known as *Gyandzha* (Гянджа, [ɡʲɪnˈdʑa]) in Russian, *Gandzak* (Գանձակ) in Armenian, and *Ganjeh* (گنجه) in Persian. History ------- ### Feudal era According to medieval Arabic sources, the city of Ganja was founded in 859–60 by Muhammad ibn Khalid ibn Yazid ibn Mazyad, the Arab governor of the region during the reign of the caliph Al-Mutawakkil, and so-called because of a treasure unearthed there. According to the legend, the Arab governor had a dream where a voice told him that there was a treasure hidden under one of the three hills around the area where he camped. The voice told him to unearth it and use the money to found a city. He did so and informed the caliph about the money and the city. Caliph made Muhammad the hereditary governor of the city on the condition that he would give the money he found to the caliph. The foundation of the city by Arabs is confirmed by the medieval Armenian historian Movses Kaghankatvatsi, who mentions that the city of Ganja was founded in 846–47 in the canton of Arshakashen by the son of Khazr Patgos, "a furious and merciless man". However, the Persian origin of Ganja's name suggests that there was an older pre-Islamic town there. According to some sources, it changed hands between Persians, Khazars and Arabs even in the 7th century. The area in which Ganja is located was known as *Arran* from the 9th to 12th century; its urban population spoke mainly in the Persian language. Historically an important city of the South Caucasus, Ganja has been part of the Sassanid Empire, Great Seljuk Empire, Kingdom of Georgia, Atabegs of Azerbaijan, Khwarezmid Empire, Il-Khans, Timurids, Qara Qoyunlu, Ak Koyunlu, the Safavid, the Afsharid, the Zand and the Qajar empires of Persia/Iran. Prior to the Iranian Zand and Qajar rule, following Nader Shah's death, it was ruled locally for a few decades by the khans/dukes of the Ganja Khanate, who themselves were subordinate to the central rule in mainland Iran and were a branch of the Iranian Qajar family. Ganja is also the birthplace of the famous Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi. Silver coin of Abbas II (r. 1642–1666), minted in Ganja, dated 1658/9 (left = obverse; right = reverse) Silver coin of Karim Khan Zand (r. 1751–1779), minted in Ganja, dated 1763/4 (left = obverse; right = reverse) The people of Ganja experienced a temporary cultural decline after an earthquake in 1139, when the city was taken by king Demetrius I of Georgia and its gates taken as trophies which is still kept in Georgia, and again after the Mongol invasion in 1231. The city was revived after the Safavids came to power in 1501, and incorporated all of Azerbaijan and beyond into their territories. The city came under brief occupation by the Ottomans between 1578–1606 and 1723–1735 during the prolonged Ottoman-Persian Wars, but nevertheless stayed under intermittent Iranian suzerainty from the earliest 16th century up to the course of the 19th century, when it was forcefully ceded to neighbouring Imperial Russia. ### 16th–19th centuries and Iran's ceding to Russia Silver coin of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar (r. 1797–1834), minted in Ganja, dated 1802/3 (left = obverse; right = reverse) For a short period, Ganja was renamed Abbasabad by Shah Abbas after war against the Ottomans. He built a new city 8 kilometres (5 miles) to the southwest of the old one, but the name changed back to Ganja during the time. During the Safavid rule, it was the capital of the Karabakh province. In 1747, Ganja became the center of the Ganja Khanate for a few decades following the death of Nader Shah, until the advent of the Iranian Zand and Qajar dynasties. The khans/dukes who de facto self-ruled the khanate, were subordinate to the central rule in mainland Iran and were from a branch of the Iranian Qajar family. From the late 18th century, Russia actively started to increase its enroachments into Iranian and Turkish territory to the south. Following the annexation of eastern Georgia in 1801, Russia was now keen to conquer the rest of the Iranian possessions in the Caucasus. Russian expansion into the South Caucasus met particularly strong opposition in Ganja. In 1804, the Russians, led by General Pavel Tsitsianov, invaded and sacked Ganja, sparking the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813. Some western sources assert that "the capture of the city was followed by a massacre of up to 3,000 inhabitants of Ganja by the Russians". They also claim that "500 of them were slaughtered in a mosque where they had taken refuge, after an Armenian apprised the Russians that there might have been 'Daghestani robbers' among them". With their military superiority, the Russians were victorious in the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813. By the Treaty of Gulistan that followed, Iran was forced to cede the Ganja Khanate to Russia. The Iranians briefly managed to oust the Russians from Ganja during the 1826 offensive during the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828, but the resulting Treaty of Turkmenchay made its inclusion into the Russian Empire permanent. It was renamed *Yelizavetpol* (Елизаветполь) after the wife of Alexander I of Russia, Elizabeth, and in 1840 became the capital of the Elizavetpol uezd and later in 1868, the Elizavetpol Governorate. The Russian name of the city was rejected by the local Azerbaijanis who continued call it *Ganja*. ### 20th century Ganja—known then as Yelisavetpol—was one of the main sites of the Armenian–Tatar massacres of 1905–07. In 1918, Ganja became the temporary capital of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, at which point it was renamed Ganja again, until Baku was recaptured from the British-backed Centrocaspian Dictatorship. In April 1920, the Red Army occupied Azerbaijan. In May 1920, Ganja was the scene of an abortive anti-Soviet rebellion, during which the city was heavily damaged by fighting between the insurgents and the Red Army. In 1935, Joseph Stalin renamed the city Kirovabad after Sergei Kirov. In 1991, Azerbaijan re-established its independence, and the ancient name of the city was given back. For many years the 104th Guards Airborne Division of the Soviet Airborne Troops was based in the town. In November 1988, the Kirovabad pogrom forced the local Armenian population to leave the city. ### 21st century Reconstruction in the 21st century has led to dramatic changes in the city's urban development, transforming the old Soviet city into a hub of high-rise, mixed-use buildings. In 2008, Ganja Mausoleum Gates were built on the basis of sketches of ancient Ganja gates made by local master Ibrahim Osmanoğlu in 1063. In 2020, during the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Ganja came under bombardment by Armenian armed forces several times, killing 32 civilians and injuring dozens more. On 11 October, a residential apartment block in Azerbaijan's city of Ganja was destroyed overnight in an Armenian missile strike, killing 10 civilians and wounding 34 others. The Armenian MoD denied that this came from its territory, while Artsakh stated that Armenian forces had targeted and destroyed the Ganja military airbase on Ganja International Airport, which they alleged was used to bombard Artsakh's capital Stepanakert and also stated that the Azerbaijani population were given warning to move away from military facilities to avoid collateral damage. Subsequently, both a correspondent reporting from the scene for a Russian media outlet and the airport director denied that the airport, which was not operational since March due to the COVID-19 pandemic, had been shelled. On 17 October, 21 civilians were killed and more than 50 injured when an Armenian SCUD B ballistic missile hit a residential area in Ganja. Geography --------- ### Location Ganja, located 400–450 meters (1312 to 1476 ft) above the sea level, lies on the Ganja-Dashkasan plain in the Kur-Araz lowland in the west of Azerbaijan, 375 km (33 mi) away from Baku. It is situated at the north-eastern foothills of the Lesser Caucasus mountain ranges on the Ganjachay river. The city borders on the administrative rayons of Goygol to the south, west and north-west and Samukh to the north-east. ### Climate Ganja has a cool semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: *BSk*). | Climate data for Ganja (1981–2010, extremes 1890–2014) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 22.8(73.0) | 25.0(77.0) | 28.0(82.4) | 35.6(96.1) | 39.5(103.1) | 39.2(102.6) | 42.0(107.6) | 41.7(107.1) | 38.8(101.8) | 33.4(92.1) | 28.0(82.4) | 23.3(73.9) | 42.0(107.6) | | Average high °C (°F) | 7.0(44.6) | 8.2(46.8) | 12.7(54.9) | 18.7(65.7) | 23.4(74.1) | 28.7(83.7) | 31.6(88.9) | 31.1(88.0) | 26.3(79.3) | 19.5(67.1) | 12.9(55.2) | 8.4(47.1) | 19.0(66.2) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 3.2(37.8) | 3.9(39.0) | 7.8(46.0) | 13.4(56.1) | 18.1(64.6) | 23.2(73.8) | 26.2(79.2) | 25.6(78.1) | 21.1(70.0) | 15.0(59.0) | 8.9(48.0) | 4.7(40.5) | 14.3(57.7) | | Average low °C (°F) | 0.5(32.9) | 1.0(33.8) | 4.3(39.7) | 9.4(48.9) | 13.8(56.8) | 18.6(65.5) | 21.4(70.5) | 21.0(69.8) | 16.8(62.2) | 11.6(52.9) | 6.2(43.2) | 2.1(35.8) | 10.6(51.1) | | Record low °C (°F) | −17.8(0.0) | −15.2(4.6) | −12.0(10.4) | −4.4(24.1) | 1.5(34.7) | 5.8(42.4) | 10.1(50.2) | 10.5(50.9) | 2.8(37.0) | −1.3(29.7) | −7.9(17.8) | −13.0(8.6) | −17.8(0.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 8(0.3) | 12(0.5) | 24(0.9) | 31(1.2) | 40(1.6) | 32(1.3) | 17(0.7) | 15(0.6) | 15(0.6) | 24(0.9) | 16(0.6) | 7(0.3) | 241(9.5) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 7.0 | 7.0 | 8.0 | 8.2 | 9.0 | 7.0 | 4.0 | 3.0 | 4.0 | 6.3 | 6.5 | 6.0 | 76.0 | | Average rainy days | 3 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 9 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 63 | | Average snowy days | 3 | 5 | 2 | 0.2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.4 | 1 | 2 | 14 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 71 | 71 | 68 | 70 | 68 | 61 | 59 | 61 | 65 | 74 | 76 | 74 | 68 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 120 | 113 | 141 | 182 | 229 | 267 | 278 | 252 | 212 | 168 | 123 | 115 | 2,200 | | Source 1: Deutscher Wetterdienst (sun, 1961-1990) | | Source 2: Pogoda.ru.net | Administrative divisions ------------------------ Today, Ganja is divided into 2 *rayons* (administrative districts). The mayor, presently Niyazi Bayramov embodies the executive power of the city. Ganja includes 6 administrative settlements, namely Hajikend, Javadkhan, Shixzamanli, Natavan, Mahsati and Sadilli. ### Kapaz rayon Kapaz District (*Kəpəz rayonu*) was established on 21 November 1980 according to the decision of Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR. The district consists of 2 administrative territorial units and 6 administrative settlements. It has an area of approximately 70 square kilometers (27 sq mi) with the population of 178,000. ### Nizami rayon Nizami District (*Nizami rayonu*) was also established on 21 November 1980 according to the decision of Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR as Ganja raion of Kirovabad city. When Ganja's historic name was restored and the city was renamed as Ganja instead of Kirovabad in 1989, the district was also renamed as Nizami rayon. The district consists of 2 administrative territorial units. The area of the district is roughly 39 square kilometers (15 sq mi) and population is 148,000. Demographics ------------ Ganja is the third largest city of Azerbaijan after Baku and Sumqayit with about 335,600 residents. The city is also inhabited by a large number of Azerbaijani refugees from Armenia and IDPs from the Azerbaijani community of Nagorno-Karabakh and surrounding areas. Their number was estimated to be more than 33,000 in 2011. Lezgi people in Ganja number around 20,000. ### Historic Armenian community In addition to Persian and Turkic-speaking Muslims, the city had a numerically, economically and culturally significant Christian Armenian community. The city's traditional Armenian name is Gandzak (Գանձակ), which derives from *gandz* (գանձ), a loan word from Old Iranian, which means treasure or riches. The founder of the Hethumid dynasty, Oshin of Lampron was an Armenian nakharar and lord of a castle near Ganja who fled to Cilicia in 1075 during the Seljuk invasion of Armenia. The city's historically important Armenian figures include: * Mkhitar Gosh, 12th-century philosopher, author of the *Code of Laws* that was used in Armenia, Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia and Armenian diaspora communities in Europe * Kirakos Gandzaketsi, a 13th-century historian * Vardan Areveltsi, 13th-century polymath * Grigor Paron-Ter, Armenian Patriarch of Jerusalem in 1613–45 * Karo Halabyan, Soviet architect * Askanaz Mravyan, secretary of the Armenian SSR Communist Party * Abram Alikhanov and Artem Alikhanian, physicists * Sergei Adian, Soviet mathematician * Albert Azaryan, artistic gymnast and Olympic champion ### Religion The urban landscape of Ganja is shaped by many communities. Religious diversity has however greatly decreased over the last decades, with the emigration of most Armenians, Slavs, Jews and Germans. The religion with the largest community of followers by far is Islam. The majority of the Muslims are Shia Muslims, and the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second-highest Shia population percentage in the world after Iran. The city's notable mosques include Shah Abbas Mosque, Goy Imam Mosque, Shahsevenler Mosque, Qirikhli Mosque and Qazakhlar Mosque. There are some other faiths practiced among the different ethnic groups within the country. The other faith worshipping places include Alexander Nevsky Church, German Lutheran Church, Saint John Church and Saint Sarkis Church. Before the Kirovabad pogrom in 1988 a significant community of Armenian Christians existed. According to the State Statistics Committee, as of 2018, the population of city recorded 332,600 persons, which increased by 31,900 persons (about 10.6 percent) from 300,700 persons in 2000. 162,300 of total population are men, 170,300 are women. More than 26 percent of the population (about 86,500 persons) consists of young people and teenagers aged 14–29. **Population of the district by the year (at the beginning of the year, thsd. persons)**| Region | 2000 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Ganja town | 300,7 | 324,7 | 328,4 | 330,1 | 331,4 | 332,6 | 334,0 | 335,6 | 335,8 | | Nizami region | ... | 149,3 | 150,4 | 151,2 | 151,6 | 152,0 | 152,5 | 153,0 | 153,0 | | Kapaz region | ... | 175,4 | 178,0 | 178,9 | 179,8 | 180,6 | 181,5 | 182,6 | 182,8 | Economy ------- The economy of Ganja is partially agricultural, partially tourist based, with some industries in operation. Ore minerals extracted from nearby mines supply Ganja's metallurgical industries, which produces copper and alumina. There are porcelain, silk and footwear industries. Other industries process food, grapes and cotton from the surrounding farmlands. The city has one of the largest textile conglomerates in Azerbaijan and is famous for a fabric named *Ganja silk*, which received the highest marks in the markets of neighboring countries and the Middle East. People are mainly employed in manufacturing, education, transportation, service sectors and catering. Det.Al-Aluminium is the largest employer operating in Ganja, followed by Ganja Auto Plant and Ganja Winery Plant 2. ### Tourism and shopping Traditional shops, modern shops and malls create a mixture of shopping opportunities in Ganja. Javad Khan Street is the traditional shopping street that is located in the old town. Constructed between 2014 and 2017, Ganja Mall is considered the city's largest mall. Other shopping centers include Khamsa Park, Taghiyev Mall and Aura Park. Ganja is one of the famous tourist destinations in Azerbaijan with its historic buildings such as Nizami Mausoleum, Ancient gates, Juma Mosque, Imamzadeh, Tomb of Javad Khan, Chokak Hamam, Shah Abbas Caravanserai and Ugurlu Bay Caravanserai. Other tourist and entertainment spots include Javad khan street, Triumphal Arch near Heydar Aliyev Center, the Bottle House, Flag square, Hajikend resort zone. Goygol National Park with the sceneries of lake Goygol, lake Maralgol, Mount Kapaz and Mount Murov are located near Ganja. In 2016, Ganja was selected as the European Youth Capital by the final decision of international jury at the General Assembly of the European Youth Forum. Ganja became the first city to win the title of European Youth Capital among the former Commonwealth Independent States (CIS) and non-EU cities. It was an event with a budget of 5.7 million euros, projected to boost tourism by about one-fifth. Culture ------- Some of the city landmarks include Gates of Ganja. As of 2012[update], the city along with Baku and Lankaran participates in Earth Hour movement. ### Museums Ganja State History-Ethnography Museum is the oldest museum in the city, with over 30,000 artifacts. The city is also home to Nizami Ganjavi Museum, which was built in 2014. The museum contains a research section, a library, a conference room, and corners for guests and tourists' relaxation. Other museums include Heydar Aliyev Museum, House Museum of Mir Jalal Pashayev, Memorial House-Museum of Nizami Ganjavi, Memorial-House Museum of İsrafil Mammadov, Ganja branch of Museum of Miniature Books, "Ganja Castle Gates – Archaeology and Ethnography Museum" monument complex, Cultural Center named after Mahsati Ganjavi, Museum of Modern Art and Museum of Mirza Shafi Vazeh. ### Galleries Ganja State Art Gallery was established in April 1984 according to the decision of Council of Ministers of Azerbaijan SSR. The Gallery is headed by the carpet-artist Faig Osmanov. ### Architecture Ganja is primarily known for its Azerbaijani and Islamic architecture, but its buildings reflect the various peoples and empires that have previously ruled the city. During the Ganja Khanate period, the Khans proceeded to make an indelible impression on the skyline of Ganja, building towering mosques and houses from red bricks. Among the oldest surviving examples of Islamic architecture in Ganja are the Nizami Mausoleum and Shah Abbas Caravanserai, which assisted the Shahs during their siege of the city. The area around and inside the mosques, contains many fine examples of traditional architecture like Chokak Bath. Another interesting building is the Bottle house of Ganja. ### Music and media The Ganja State Philharmonic was established in August 1990 according to the decision of the Ministry of Culture of the Azerbaijan SSR. On 21 January 2012, president Ilham Aliyev laid the foundation of the Ganja State Philharmonic. The facility includes a 1,200 concert hall, an open-air cinema theatre, a drawing gallery, an urban center and an observation tower. The new building of the Philharmonic Hall was put into use in 2017. The Goygol State Song and Dance Ensemble, the Orchestra of Folk Instruments and the Ganja State Chamber Orchestra operate under the Ganja State Philharmonic. * Bottle house in Ganja, a local icon entirely made of glass bottlesBottle house in Ganja, a local icon entirely made of glass bottles Two regional channels, Kapaz TV and Alternativ TV, are headquartered in Ganja. Two newspapers are published in Ganja (*Gəncənin səsi* and *Novosti Qyandji*). ### Theaters #### Ganja State Drama Theater The building of the Ganja State Drama Theater was built by the German entrepreneur Christofor Forer in the 1880s. Ganja Drama Theater was established in 1921 in Baku as "Tənqid-təbliğ" (literally means "Criticism-propaganda"). In 1935 the theater moved to Ganja with its staff and continues its activity here under different names until 1990. The theater has been called the Ganja State Drama Theater since 1990. #### Ganja State Puppet Theater Ganja State Puppet Theater was established according to Decree No. 299 of the Council of Ministers of the Azerbaijan SSR in September 1986. Before receiving "state theater" status in 1986, it was functioning as public theater. Ganja Puppet Theater operates in the building of Lutheran church constructed in 1885 by German settlers. ### Parks and gardens Ganja has many well-maintained parks and gardens, with the Khan's garden being one of the most scenic parks, and one of the city's most known landmarks. It features interesting landscaping, and consists of a wide variety of trees and plants in an open concept. Other prominent parks and gardens include Heydar Aliyev Park Complex, "Ganja 2016 European Youth Capital Park", "Ganja river" park-boulevard complex, Istiglal Avenue, Fikrat Amirov Park, Fuzuli Park, and Narimanov Park. Heydar Aliyev Park Complex includes an Amphitheater considered for organizing large outdoor events for up to 5000 people. ### Sports The city has one professional football team, Kapaz, currently competing in the second-flight of Azerbaijani football, the Azerbaijan First Division. The club has three Azerbaijani league and four cup titles. There are Olympic Sports Complex with 2 buildings (put into operation in 2002 and 2006 respectively), Ganja City Stadium with a capacity of 27000 put into use in 1964 and other sporting facilities in Ganja. İn September 2017 "Ganja Marathon 2017" was organized involving 11,000 people from different regions of Azerbaijan, as well as foreigners under the slogan "Be with us in the Marathon". The race started from Triumphal Arch and finished at the Heydar Aliyev Park Complex covering a distance of 17 kilometers. Transportation -------------- ### Public transport Ganja has a large urban transport system, mostly managed by the Ministry of Transportation. In 2013, Ministry of Transportation stated that the city, along with Nakhchivan and Sumqayit will have a new subway line within the framework of the 20-year subway program. The city had a trolleybus system, functioning from 1955 to 2004. Ganja is without a tram system since Ganja tramway network ceased in the 1980s. ### Air Ganja International Airport is the only airport in the city. The airport is connected by bus to the city center. There are domestic flights to Baku and international service to Russia and Turkey. ### Rail Ganja sits on one of the Azerbaijani primary rail lines running east–west connecting the capital, Baku, with the rest of the country. The Baku–Tbilisi–Kars railway runs along the line through the city. The railway provides both human transportation and transport of goods and commodities such as oil and gravel. Ganja's Central Railway Station is the terminus for national and international rail links to the city. The Baku–Tbilisi–Kars railway, which directly connects Turkey, Georgia and Azerbaijan, began to be constructed in 2007 and completed in 2017. The completed branch connects Ganja with Tbilisi in Georgia, and from there trains continue to Akhalkalaki, and Kars in Turkey. Education --------- The first seminary in Azerbaijan aimed at professional training of school teachers was opened in Ganja in 1914 which was united with Girls Seminary in 1927 and renamed as Ganja Pedagogical Technical School (Azerbaijani: *Gəncə Pedoqoji Texnikumu*). Ganja is home to four major institutes for post-secondary education. Ganja State University was founded as Ganja Teachers Institute after Hasan bey Zardabi in 1939. In 2000, the President of Azerbaijan renamed the institute to Ganja State University. The university includes 8 faculty departments and 10 offices. The city also includes Azerbaijan State Agricultural University, Azerbaijan Technological University and a local branch of the Azerbaijan Teachers' Institute. There are also schools offering secondary specialized education like Ganja Music College, Ganja Medicine College, Ganja State Regional Collage (established by combining Ganja Humanitarian Collage and Ganja Technical College in 2010). There are a total of 7 schools offering vocational education in Ganja, being located as 3 vocational lyceums and a vocational school in Kapaz raion, a vocational lyceum and 2 vocational schools in Nizami raion. Notable residents ----------------- The city's notable residents include: poet Nizami Ganjavi, scientist Firuddin Babayev, Olympic champion Toghrul Asgarov, ruler of Ganja Khanate Javad Khan, poets Mirza Shafi Vazeh, Mahsati Ganjavi, Nigar Rafibeyli, writer Ibn Khosrov al-Ustad, composer Fikrat Amirov, historian Farid Alakbarli, major political figure Nasib Yusifbeyli, deputy speaker of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, Hasan bey Aghayev, geologist Mirali Qashqai, prime minister of Azerbaijan Artur Rasizade, chess player Faiq Hasanov and footballer Mahmud Qurbanov. There were also several notable Armenian residents of Ganja, including Mkhitar Gosh, Kirakos Gandzaketsi, Vardan Areveltsi, Grigor Paron-Ter, Karo Halabyan, Askanaz Mravyan and Albert Azaryan. * Nizami Ganjavi, the author of Khamsa, considered one of the Middle East's greatest poets.Nizami Ganjavi, the author of *Khamsa*, considered one of the Middle East's greatest poets. * Nasib Yusifbeyli, was a major political figure in the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.Nasib Yusifbeyli, was a major political figure in the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. * Toghrul Asgarov, Azerbaijani Olympic and European champion in freestyle wrestling.Toghrul Asgarov, Azerbaijani Olympic and European champion in freestyle wrestling. * Mirali Qashqai, was an eminent Azerbaijani geologist, author of multitude works in the sphere of geomorphology and stratigraphy.Mirali Qashqai, was an eminent Azerbaijani geologist, author of multitude works in the sphere of geomorphology and stratigraphy. * Mirza Shafi Vazeh, continued the classical traditions of Azerbaijani poetry from the 14th century.Mirza Shafi Vazeh, continued the classical traditions of Azerbaijani poetry from the 14th century. * Hasan bey Aghayev, served as Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.Hasan bey Aghayev, served as Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. * Faiq Hasanov, known as International Arbiter of chess and television presenter of weekly Chess Club programme.Faiq Hasanov, known as International Arbiter of chess and television presenter of weekly *Chess Club* programme. * Mahsati, a 12th-century woman poet persecuted for her courageous poetry condemning religious fanaticism and dogmas.Mahsati, a 12th-century woman poet persecuted for her courageous poetry condemning religious fanaticism and dogmas. * Nigar Rafibeyli, writer and the Chairman of the Writers' Union of Azerbaijan.Nigar Rafibeyli, writer and the Chairman of the Writers' Union of Azerbaijan. * Mahmud Qurbanov, won Azerbaijan Premier League record 12 times with six different clubs.Mahmud Qurbanov, won Azerbaijan Premier League record 12 times with six different clubs. Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Ganja is twinned with: * Russia Derbent, Russia * Turkey Kars, Turkey (2001) * Georgia (country) Kutaisi, Georgia (1996) * Russia Moscow, Russia * United States Newark, United States (2004) * Czech Republic Olomouc Region, Czech Republic (2012) * Turkey Ordu, Turkey * Iran Tabriz, Iran (2015) See also -------- * List of cities in Azerbaijan * Mingachevir * Nakhchivan (city) * Qabala * Sumgait 40°40′58″N 46°21′38″E / 40.68278°N 46.36056°E / 40.68278; 46.36056

Ganja, Azerbaijan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganja,_Azerbaijan

A **crêpe** or **crepe** (/kreɪp/ () or /krɛp/, French: [kʁɛp] (), Quebec French: [kʁaɪ̯p] ()) is a very thin type of pancake. Crêpes are usually one of two varieties: *sweet crêpes* (*crêpes sucrées*) or *savoury galettes* (*crêpes salées*). They are often served with a wide variety of fillings such as cheese, fruit, vegetables, meats, and a variety of spreads. Crêpes can also be flambéed, such as in crêpes Suzette. Etymology --------- The French term "crêpe" derives from *crispa*, the feminine version of the Latin word *crispus*, which means "curled, wrinkled, having curly hair." Traditions ---------- In France, crêpes are traditionally served on the Christian holiday Candlemas (*La Chandeleur*), on February 2. In 472, Roman Pope Gelasius I offered *Crispus* (later said Crêpes) to French pilgrims that were visiting Rome for the Chandeleur. They brought the dish back to France, and the day also became known as "Le Jour des Crêpes" ("The Day of the Crêpes"). The day is also celebrated by many as the day that marks the transition from winter to spring (similar to the North American tradition of Groundhog Day), with the golden color and circular shape of crêpes representing the sun and the circle of life. There are a few superstitions around the preparation of crêpes for Le Jour des Crêpes. One example involves holding a gold coin (such as a Louis d'or) or ring in the left hand while successfully flipping a crêpe in a pan with the right hand. It's said to bring a person wealth in the upcoming year (other variations describe a year of good weather). Another version of the tradition involves cooking a crêpe with a gold coin on top. Some hide the first crêpe in a drawer instead of eating it for good luck in the coming year. Eating and sharing crêpes with others on Candlemas is another tradition based on popes giving food to the poor every year on February 2. A traditional French proverb describes the tradition of eating crêpes on Candlemas: “manger des crêpes à la chandeleur apporte un an de bonheur” (eating crêpes on Candlemas brings a year of happiness). Types ----- Sweet crêpes are generally made with wheat flour (*farine de blé*). When sweet, they can be eaten as part of breakfast or as a dessert. Common fillings include hazelnut cocoa spread, preserves, sugar (granulated or powdered), maple syrup, golden syrup, lemon juice, whipped cream, fruit spreads, custard, and sliced soft fruits or confiture. Savory crêpes can be made with non-wheat flours such as buckwheat. A normal savory crêpe recipe includes using wheat flour but omitting the sugar. Batter made from buckwheat flour is gluten-free, which makes it possible for people who have a wheat allergy or gluten intolerance to eat this type of crêpe. Common savory fillings for crêpes are cheese, ham, and eggs, ratatouille, mushrooms, artichoke (in certain regions), and various meat products. Crêpes can also be made into crepe cakes by stacking plain crepes on top of each other, adding a layer of filling between the layers. Fruits, chocolate, cookies, marshmallow, etc., can be added. Most crêpe cakes are sweet and considered dessert. It can also replace the traditional birthday cake. Crêpe cakes are usually 15-30 layers, and the crêpes used are very thin and soft. Batters can also consist of other ingredients such as butter, milk, water, eggs, flour, salt, and sugar. Fillings are commonly added to the center of the crêpe and served with the edges partially folded over the center. An Indian variety of the crêpe uses a multi-grain flour called "bhajanee," eggs, curd, and an assortment of spices as its ingredients. It is a modern variation of an Indian dish called Thalipeeth. A cake made with layers of crêpes with a filling in between is called “gâteau de crêpes” or “ミルクレープ(mille-crêpes)” (a Japanese-made French word combining crêpes and mille-feuille). This French pâtisserie, was popularized by Emy Wada, a pâtissier who studied in France and operated Paper Moon Cake Boutiques in Japan, in the 1980s. In 2001, she expanded to New York City, where she supplied crêpe cakes to popular chains Dean & DeLuca and Takashimaya through the company Lady M. Recipe ------ The standard recipe for French crêpe calls for flour, eggs, milk, salt, and butter. Sugar is optional. In the industrial production of crêpes, the dry ingredients are combined with eggs to form a dough. The rest of the wet ingredients are then added to thin the batter to a loose enough consistency to spread easily. The batter is added, one ladle at a time, to a hot, greased pan, cooked until golden, then flipped. Crêpe batter is characterized by its liquidity, making it easy to spread in a thin layer. Crêpes are also characterized by their quick cooking time, usually 20–30 seconds per side. In older versions of crêpe recipes, beer or wine was used instead of milk. Buckwheat flour is often used as well, specifically in making a Breton Galette. Crêperies --------- A **crêperie** may be a takeaway restaurant or stall, serving crêpes as a form of fast food or street food, or it may be a more formal sit-down restaurant or café. Crêperies can be found throughout France, especially in Brittany and in many other countries. Many also serve apple cider, a popular drink to accompany crêpes. * A small crêperie in Switzerland (Basel)A small crêperie in Switzerland (Basel) * Crêperie in Germany (Münster)Crêperie in Germany (Münster) * A street crêperie stall in Pak Kret, ThailandA street crêperie stall in Pak Kret, Thailand Special crêpes -------------- *Mille crêpes*(ja) are a French cake made of many crêpe layers. The word *mille* means "a thousand," implying the many layers of crêpe. Another standard French and Belgian crêpe is the *crêpe Suzette*, a crêpe with lightly grated orange peel and liqueur (usually Grand Marnier), which is lit during presentation. The *49er flapjack* is a sourdough crêpe which is popular in the United States, getting its name from the popularity of this style of pancake during the California Gold Rush. Because it is similar to a Swedish pancake, the 49er is sometimes served with lingonberry sauce, although most often, it is rolled up with butter and powdered sugar or served open-faced and topped with maple syrup. *Crêpe dentelle* is a crispy biscuit made with a very thin layer of crêpe folded in a cigar shape and then baked. It is usually enjoyed with a hot drink during the *goûter*, in France. Crêpes in European culture -------------------------- In Norwegian, crêpes are called *pannekake*, and in most German regions *Crêpes* (referring to a wide and flat crêpe, as opposed to the smaller and thicker native *Pfannkuchen* pancakes). In Swedish, a crêpe is called *pannkaka* in southern regions while being called *plättar* in the north. In Danish it is called *pandekager* ("pancakes"). In Icelandic it is called *pönnukaka.* In Finnish a crêpe is called either *ohukainen* or *lettu* or *räiskäle.* In Greek it is called krepa (Κρέπα). In Dutch it is a *pannenkoek* or *flensje.* In Afrikaans crêpes are called *pannekoek*, and are usually served with cinnamon and sugar. In the Spanish regions of Galicia and Asturias, they are traditionally served at carnivals. In Galicia, they're called *filloas* and may also be made with pork blood instead of milk. In Asturias, they are called *fayueles* or *frixuelos*, and in Turkey, *akıtma*. In areas of central Europe, formerly belonging to the Austro-Hungarian empire, there is a thin pancake comparable to a crêpe that in Austro-Bavarian is called *Palatschinken*; in Hungarian: *palacsinta*; and in Bulgarian, Macedonian, Czech, Serbo-Croatian, and Slovene: *palačinka*; in Slovak: *palacinka*. In the Balkan countries, *palačinka* or *pallaçinka* may be eaten with fruit jam, quark cheese, sugar, honey, or the hazelnut-chocolate cream Nutella, while there is also a breaded variant which is mostly filled with meat. Restaurants specializing in palačinci are called "Palačinkara" in the region. In Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine, there is a similar dish known as the blintz. The *Oxford English Dictionary* derives the German and Slavic words from the Hungarians *palacsinta*, which it derives from the Romanian *plăcintă*, which comes in turn from classical Latin *placenta* ("small flat cake"), even though the Romanian *plăcintă* is more similar to a pie, and the crêpes are called *clătită*. During the East Slavic celebration of Maslenitsa (Cheesefare Week), one of the most popular foods are blini, or crêpes. Since they are made from butter, eggs, and milk, crêpes can be consumed during the celebration by the Orthodox church. White flour can be replaced with buckwheat flour, milk can be switched for kefir, and oils can be added or substituted. Blini are served with butter and topped with caviar, cheese, meat, potatoes, mushrooms, honey, berry jam, or often a dollop of sour cream. The dish is supposed to represent the sun since the holiday is about the beginning of spring. * A sweet crêpe filled with oats and berries and topped with whipped creamA sweet crêpe filled with oats and berries and topped with whipped cream * Frixuelos. This is a kind of crêpe made in Asturias, Spain.Frixuelos. This is a kind of crêpe made in Asturias, Spain. * Making Finnish crêpes called ohukainenMaking Finnish crêpes called *ohukainen* * Chocolate-Coconut Crêpe served in crêperie near the Pantheon in Paris, FranceChocolate-Coconut Crêpe served in crêperie near the Pantheon in Paris, France Crêpes outside of Europe ------------------------ Crêpes have also long been popular in Japan and Malaysia, with sweet and savory varieties being sold at many small stands, usually called crêperies. In Argentina and Uruguay, they are called *panqueques* and are often eaten with dulce de leche. Various other French foods such as crêpes, soufflés, and quiche have slowly made their way into American cooking establishments. Typically, these franchises stick to the traditional French method of making crêpes, but they have also put their own spin on the crêpe with new types, such as the hamburger and pizza crêpe. In Canada, particularly in French-speaking regions, crêpes and galettes have long been traditional food items. The Japanese crêpes developed into something different from the French crêpes due to their various fillings and toppings, and the style later spread outside of Japan. It is often called 'Harajuku Crêpes'. In Japan, French crêpes were introduced in the 1970s, and they were only spread with jam and were not very popular. In 1977, Mizuki Ono opened a crêpe shop in Harajuku and, taking inspiration from ice cream monaka, began to sell crêpes with ice cream, whipped cream, and sliced fruit, which became very popular. They were rarely made at home and spread as sweets purchased from street stalls and eaten on the street. In Mexico, crêpes are known as *crepas* and were introduced during the 19th century by the French and are typically served either as a sweet dessert when filled with *cajeta* (similar to dulce de leche), or as a savoury dish when filled with *Huitlacoche* (corn smut), which is considered a delicacy. Similar dishes in other cuisines -------------------------------- In South India, a similar dish made of fermented rice batter is called a dosa, which often has savory fillings. In Western India, a dish made of gram flour is called "Pudlaa" or "Poodla," with the batter consisting of vegetables and spices. Another variety is called "patibola" and is sweet in taste due to milk, jaggery, or sugar. The injera of Ethiopian/Eritrean/Somali/Yemeni cuisine is often described as a thick crêpe. In Somalia, malawah is very similar to a crêpe. It is mostly eaten at breakfast. In the Philippines, a native crêpe recipe is the *daral* which is made from ground glutinous rice and coconut milk batter (*galapong*). It is rolled into a cylinder and filled with sweetened coconut meat strips (*hinti*). In Indonesia, Kue leker is a type of Indonesian crêpe. Also, *ledre*, a rolled banana crêpe from Bojonegoro. In China, Jianbing is a traditional Chinese street food similar to crêpes. It is generally eaten for breakfast and hailed as "one of China's most popular street breakfasts." It consists of wheat and grain-based crepe, an egg, deep-fried crackers (known as Bao Cui/薄脆 in Chinese), 2-3 savory/spicy sauces, and chopped scallions & coriander. See also -------- * Bánh xèo * Blintz * Blodplättar, a form of savory crepe made with blood * Brik * Crêpe bretonne * Crepe maker, crepe cooking device * Dosa * Galette, another kind of Breton pancake, also from Brittany, France * Injera * Jianbing, a traditional Chinese street food similar to a crepe * Kue leker, a traditional Indonesian crepe * Krampouz, crepe maker manufacturer, also from Brittany, France * List of pancakes * Maslenitsa * Memiljeon * Palatschinken * Pek Nga, Malaysian crepe-like snack * Popiah, Chinese roll wrapped in a thin crepe made by "wiping" dough on a hot plate * Roti prata * Sope * Swedish pancake * Tava Sources ------- 19. Life A La Henri – Being The Memories of Henri Charpentier, by Henri Charpentier and Boyden Sparkes, The Modern Library, New York, 2001 Paperback Edition. Originally published in 1934 by Simon & Schuster, Inc.

Crêpe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%AApe

**Polyester** is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in every repeat unit of their main chain. As a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in plants and insects, as well as synthetics such as polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not. Synthetic polyesters are used extensively in clothing. Polyester fibers are sometimes spun together with natural fibers to produce a cloth with blended properties. Cotton-polyester blends can be strong, wrinkle- and tear-resistant, and reduce shrinking. Synthetic fibers using polyester have high water, wind and environmental resistance compared to plant-derived fibers. They are less fire-resistant and can melt when ignited. Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially used liquid crystal polymers. They are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are also important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines. Types ----- Polyesters are one of the most economically important classes of polymers, driven especially by PET, which is counted among the commodity plastics; in 2000 around 30 million tons were produced worldwide. There is great variety of structures and properties in the polyester family, based on the varying nature of the R group (see first figure with blue ester group). ### Natural Polyesters occurring in nature include the cutin component of plant cuticles, which consists of omega hydroxy acids and their derivatives, interlinked via ester bonds, forming polyester polymers of indeterminate size. Polyesters are also produced by bees in the genus *Colletes*, which secrete a cellophane-like polyester lining for their underground brood cells earning them the nickname "polyester bees". ### Synthetic The family of synthetic polyesters comprises * Linear aliphatic high molecular weight polyesters (*Mn* >10,000) are low-melting (m. p. 40 – 80 °C) semicrystalline polymers and exhibit relatively poor mechanical properties. Their inherent degradability, resulting from their hydrolytic instability, makes them suitable for applications where a possible environmental impact is a concern, e.g. packaging, disposable items or agricultural mulch films⁠ or in biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. * Aliphatic linear low-molar-mass (*Mn* < 10,000) hydroxy-terminated polyesters are used as macromonomers for the production of polyurethanes. * hyperbranched polyesters are used as rheology modifiers in thermoplastics or as crosslinkers in coatings due to their particularly low viscosity, good solubility and high functionality * Aliphatic–aromatic polyesters, including poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT), poly(hexamethylene terephthalate)(PHT), poly(propylene terephthalate) (PTT, Sorona), etc are high-melting semicrystalline materials (m. p. 160–280 °C) that and have benefited from engineering thermoplastics, fibers and films. * Wholly aromatic linear copolyesters present superior mechanical properties and heat resistance and are used in a number of high-performance applications. * Unsaturated polyesters are produced from multifunctional alcohols and unsaturated dibasic acids and are cross-linked thereafter; they are used as matrices in composite materials. Alkyd resins are made from polyfunctional alcohols and fatty acids and are used widely in the coating and composite industries as they can be cross-linked in the presence of oxygen. Also rubber-like polyesters exist, called thermoplastic polyester elastomers (ester TPEs). Unsaturated polyesters (UPR) are thermosetting resins. They are used in the liquid state as casting materials, in sheet molding compounds, as fiberglass laminating resins and in non-metallic auto-body fillers. They are also used as the thermoset polymer matrix in pre-pregs. Fiberglass-reinforced unsaturated polyesters find wide application in bodies of yachts and as body parts of cars. Depending on the chemical structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset. There are also polyester resins cured by hardeners; however, the most common polyesters are thermoplastics. The OH group is reacted with an Isocyanate functional compound in a 2 component system producing coatings which may optionally be pigmented. Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat. While combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water absorption and minimal shrinkage in comparison with other industrial fibers. Increasing the aromatic parts of polyesters increases their glass transition temperature, melting temperature, thermostability, chemical stability, and solvent resistance. Polyesters can also be telechelic oligomers like the polycaprolactone diol (PCL) and the polyethylene adipate diol (PEA). They are then used as prepolymers. ### Aliphatic *vs.* aromatic polymers Thermally stable polymers, which generally have a high proportion of aromatic structures, are also called high-performance plastics. This application-oriented classification compares such polymers with engineering plastics and commodity plastics. The continuous service temperature of high-performance plastics is generally stated as being higher than 150 °C, whereas engineering plastics (such as polyamide or polycarbonate) are often defined as thermoplastics that retain their properties above 100 °C.⁠ Commodity plastics (such as polyethylene or polypropylene) have in this respect even greater limitations, but they are manufactured in great amounts at low cost. Poly(ester imides) contain an aromatic imide group in the repeat unit, the imide-based polymers have a high proportion of aromatic structures in the main chain and belong to the class of thermally stable polymers. Such polymers contain structures that impart high melting temperatures, resistance to oxidative degradation and stability to radiation and chemical reagents. Among the thermally stable polymers with commercial relevance are polyimides, polysulfones, polyetherketones, and polybenzimidazoles. Of these, polyimides are most widely applied. The polymers' structures result also in poor processing characteristics, in particular a high melting point and low solubility. The named properties are in particular based on a high percentage of aromatic carbons in the polymer backbone which produces a certain stiffness.⁠ Approaches for an improvement of processability include the incorporation of flexible spacers into the backbone, the attachment of stable pendent groups or the incorporation of non-symmetrical structures.⁠ Flexible spacers include, for example, ether or hexafluoroisopropylidene, carbonyl or aliphatic groups like isopropylidene; these groups allow bond rotation between aromatic rings. Less symmetrical structures, for example based on *meta*- or *ortho*-linked monomers introduce structural disorder and thereby decrease the crystallinity. The generally poor processability of aromatic polymers (for example, a high melting point and a low solubility) also limits the available options for synthesis and may require strong electron-donating co-solvents like HFIP or TFA for analysis (e. g. 1H NMR spectroscopy) which themselves can introduce further practical limitations. Uses and applications --------------------- Fabrics woven or knitted from polyester thread or yarn are used extensively in apparel and home furnishings, from shirts and pants to jackets and hats, bed sheets, blankets, upholstered furniture and computer mouse mats. Industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in car tire reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters and upholstery padding. Polyester fabrics are highly stain-resistant since polyester is a hydrophobic material, making it hard to absorb liquids. The only class of dyes which can be used to alter the color of polyester fabric are what are known as disperse dyes. Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, sails (Dacron), canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire and insulating tapes. Polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos, and vehicle/yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, with a high-build film thickness per coat. It can be used for fashionable dresses, but it is most admired for its ability to resist wrinkling and shrinking while washing the product. Its toughness makes it a frequent choice for children's wear. Polyester is often blended with other fibres like cotton to get the desirable properties of both materials. Cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish. Production ---------- ### Basics Polyethylene terephthalate, the polyester with the greatest market share, is a synthetic polymer made of purified terephthalic acid (PTA) or its dimethyl ester dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and monoethylene glycol (MEG). With 18% market share of all plastic materials produced, it ranges third after polyethylene (33.5%) and polypropylene (19.5%) and is counted as commodity plastic. There are several reasons for the importance of polyethylene terephthalate: * The relatively easy accessible raw materials PTA or DMT and MEG * The very well understood and described simple chemical process of its synthesis * The low toxicity level of all raw materials and side products during production and processing * The possibility to produce PET in a closed loop at low emissions to the environment * The outstanding mechanical and chemical properties * The recyclability * The wide variety of intermediate and final products. In the following table, the estimated world polyester production is shown. Main applications are textile polyester, bottle polyester resin, film polyester mainly for packaging and specialty polyesters for engineering plastics. World polyester production by year| Product type | 2002 (million tonnes/year) | 2008 (million tonnes/year) | | --- | --- | --- | | Textile-PET | 20 | 39 | | Resin, bottle/A-PET | 9 | 16 | | Film-PET | 1.2 | 1.5 | | Special polyester | 1 | 2.5 | | Total | 31.2 | 59 | ### Polyester processing After the first stage of polymer production in the melt phase, the product stream divides into two different application areas which are mainly textile applications and packaging applications. In the following table, the main applications of textile and packaging of polyester are listed. Textile and packaging polyester application list (melt or pellet)| Textile | Packaging | | --- | --- | | Staple fiber (PSF) | Bottles for CSD, water, beer, juice, detergents, etc. | | Filaments POY, DTY, FDY | A-PET film | | Technical yarn and tire cord | Thermoforming | | Non-woven and spunbond | biaxial-oriented film (BO-PET) | | Mono-filament | Strapping | Abbreviations: PSFPolyester-staple fiber POYPartially oriented yarn DTYDrawn textured yarn FDYFully drawn yarn CSDCarbonated soft drink A-PETAmorphous polyethylene terephthalate film BO-PETBiaxial-oriented polyethylene terephthalate film A comparable small market segment (much less than 1 million tonnes/year) of polyester is used to produce engineering plastics and masterbatch. In order to produce the polyester melt with a high efficiency, high-output processing steps like staple fiber (50–300 tonnes/day per spinning line) or POY /FDY (up to 600 tonnes/day split into about 10 spinning machines) are meanwhile more and more vertically integrated direct processes. This means the polymer melt is directly converted into the textile fibers or filaments without the common step of pelletizing. We are talking about full vertical integration when polyester is produced at one site starting from crude oil or distillation products in the chain oil → benzene → PX → PTA → PET melt → fiber/filament or bottle-grade resin. Such integrated processes are meanwhile established in more or less interrupted processes at one production site. Eastman Chemicals were the first to introduce the idea of closing the chain from PX to PET resin with their so-called INTEGREX process. The capacity of such vertically integrated production sites is >1000 tonnes/day and can easily reach 2500 tonnes/day. Besides the above-mentioned large processing units to produce staple fiber or yarns, there are ten thousands of small and very small processing plants, so that one can estimate that polyester is processed and recycled in more than 10 000 plants around the globe. This is without counting all the companies involved in the supply industry, beginning with engineering and processing machines and ending with special additives, stabilizers and colors. This is a gigantic industry complex and it is still growing by 4–8% per year, depending on the world region. Synthesis --------- Synthesis of polyesters is generally achieved by a polycondensation reaction. The general equation for the reaction of a diol with a diacid is: (n+1) R(OH)2 + n R'(COOH)2 → HO[ROOCR'COO]nROH + 2n H2O. Polyesters can be obtained by a wide range of reactions of which the most important are the reaction of acids and alcohols, alcoholysis and or acidolysis of low-molecular weight esters or the alcoholysis of acyl chlorides. The following figure gives an overview over such typical polycondensation reactions for polyester production. Furthermore, polyesters are accessible via ring-opening polymerization. Azeotrope esterification is a classical method for condensation. The water formed by the reaction of alcohol and a carboxylic acid is continually removed by azeotropic distillation. When melting points of the monomers are sufficiently low, a polyester can be formed via direct esterification while removing the reaction water via vacuum. Direct bulk polyesterification at high temperatures (150 – 290 °C) is well-suited and used on the industrial scale for the production of aliphatic, unsaturated, and aromatic–aliphatic polyesters. Monomers containing phenolic or tertiary hydroxyl groups exhibit a low reactivity with carboxylic acids and cannot be polymerized via direct acid alcohol-based polyesterification.⁠ In the case of PET production, however, the direct process has several advantages, in particular a higher reaction rate, a higher attainable molecular weight, the release of water instead of methanol and lower storage costs of the acid when compared to the ester due to the lower weight. ### Alcoholic transesterification **Transesterification**: An alcohol-terminated oligomer and an ester-terminated oligomer condense to form an ester linkage, with loss of an alcohol. R and R' are the two oligomer chains, R'' is a sacrificial unit such as a methyl group (methanol is the byproduct of the esterification reaction). The term "transesterification" is typically used to describe hydroxy–ester, carboxy–ester, and ester–ester exchange reactions. The hydroxy–ester exchange reaction possesses the highest rate of reaction and is used for the production of numerous aromatic–aliphatic and wholly aromatic polyesters. The transesterification based synthesis is particularly useful for when high melting and poorly soluble dicarboxylic acids are used. In addition, alcohols as condensation product are more volatile and thereby easier to remove than water. The high-temperature melt synthesis between bisphenol diacetates and aromatic dicarboxylic acids or in reverse between bisphenols and aromatic dicarboxylic acid diphenyl esters (carried out at 220 to 320 °C upon the release of acetic acid) is, besides the acyl chloride based synthesis, the preferred route to wholly aromatic polyesters. ### Acylation In acylation, the acid begins as an acyl chloride, and thus the polycondensation proceeds with emission of hydrochloric acid (HCl) instead of water. The reaction between diacyl chlorides and alcohols or phenolic compounds has been widely applied to polyester synthesis and has been subject of numerous reviews and book chapters.⁠ The reaction is carried out at lower temperatures than the equilibrium methods; possible types are the high-temperature solution condensation, amine catalysed and interfacial reactions. In addition, the use of activating agents is counted as non-equilibrium method. The equilibrium constants for the acyl chloride-based condensation yielding yielding arylates and polyarylates are very high indeed and are reported to be 4.3 × 103 and 4.7 × 103, respectively. This reaction is thus often referred to as a 'non-equilibrium' polyesterification. Even though the acyl chloride based synthesis is also subject of reports in the patent literature, it is unlikely that the reaction is utilized on the production scale. The method is limited by the acid dichlorides' high cost, its sensitivity to hydrolysis and the occurrence of side reactions. The high temperature reaction (100 to > 300 °C) of an diacyl chloride with an dialcohol yields the polyester and hydrogen chloride. Under these relatively high temperatures the reaction proceeds rapidly without a catalyst: The conversion of the reaction can be followed by titration of the evolved hydrogen chloride. A wide variety of solvents has been described including chlorinated benzenes (e.g. dichlorobenzene), chlorinated naphthalenes or diphenyls, as well as non-chlorinated aromatics like terphenyls, benzophenones or dibenzylbenzenes. The reaction was also applied successfully to the preparation of highly crystalline and poorly soluble polymers which require high temperatures to be kept in solution (at least until a sufficiently high molecular weight was achieved). In an interfacial acyl chloride-based reaction, the alcohol (generally in fact a phenol) is dissolved in the form of an alkoxide in an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution, the acyl chloride in an organic solvent immiscible with water such as dichloromethane, chlorobenzene or hexane, the reaction occurs at the interface under high-speed agitation near room temperature. The procedure is used for the production of polyarylates (polyesters based on bisphenols), polyamides, polycarbonates, poly(thiocarbonate)s, and others. Since the molecular weight of the product obtained by a high-temperature synthesis can be seriously limited by side reactions, this problem is circumvented by the mild temperatures of interfacial polycondensation. The procedure is applied to the commercial production of bisphenol-A-based polyarylates like Unitika's U-Polymer. Water could be in some cases replaced by an immiscible organic solvent (e. g. in the adiponitrile/carbon tetrachloride system). The procedure is of little use in the production of polyesters based on aliphatic diols which have higher p*K*a values than phenols and therefore do not form alcoholate ions in aqueous solutions. The base catalysed reaction of an acyl chloride with an alcohol may also be carried out in one phase using tertiary amines (e. g. triethylamine, Et3N) or pyridine as acid acceptors: While acyl chloride-based polyesterifications proceed only very slowly at room temperature without a catalyst, the amine accelerates the reaction in several possible ways, although the mechanism is not fully understood. However, it is known that tertiary amines can cause side-reactions such as the formation of ketenes and ketene dimers.⁠ **Silyl method** In this variant of the HCl method, the carboxylic acid chloride is converted with the trimethyl silyl ether of the alcohol component and production of trimethyl silyl chloride is obtained ### Acetate method (esterification) **Silyl acetate method** ### Ring-opening polymerization Aliphatic polyesters can be assembled from lactones under very mild conditions, catalyzed anionically, cationically, metallorganically or enzyme-based. A number of catalytic methods for the copolymerization of epoxides with cyclic anhydrides have also recently been shown to provide a wide array of functionalized polyesters, both saturated and unsaturated. Ring-opening polymerization of lactones and lactides is also applied on the industrial scale. ### Other methods Numerous other reactions have been reported for the synthesis of selected polyesters, but are limited to laboratory-scale syntheses using specific conditions, for example using dicarboxylic acid salts and dialkyl halides or reactions between bisketenes and diols. Instead of acyl chlorides, so-called activating agents can be used, such as 1,1'-carbonyldiimidazole, dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, or trifluoroacetic anhydride. The polycondensation proceeds via the *in situ* conversion of the carboxylic acid into a more reactive intermediate while the activating agents are consumed. The reaction proceeds, for example, via an intermediate *N*-acylimidazole which reacts with catalytically acting sodium alkoxide: The use of activating agents for the production of high-melting aromatic polyesters and polyamides under mild conditions has been subject of intensive academic research since the 1980s, but the reactions have not gained commercial acceptance as similar results can be achieved with cheaper reactants. ### Thermodynamics of polycondensation reactions Polyesterifications are grouped by some authors into two main categories: a) equilibrium polyesterifications (mainly alcohol-acid reaction, alcohol–ester and acid–ester interchange reactions, carried out in bulk at high temperatures), and b) non-equilibrium polyesterifications, using highly reactive monomers (for example acid chlorides or activated carboxylic acids, mostly carried out at lower temperatures in solution). The acid-alcohol based polyesterification is one example of an equilibrium reaction. The ratio between the polymer-forming ester group (-C(O)O-) and the condensation product water (H2O) against the acid-based (-C(O)OH) and alcohol-based (-OH) monomers is described by the equilibrium constant *KC*. K C = [ . . . − C ( O ) O − . . . ] [ H 2 O ] [ − C ( O ) O H ] [ − O H ] {\displaystyle K\_{C}={\frac {[...-C(O)O-...][H\_{2}O]}{[-C(O)OH][-OH]}}} {\displaystyle K_{C}={\frac {[...-C(O)O-...][H_{2}O]}{[-C(O)OH][-OH]}}} The equilibrium constant of the acid-alcohol based polyesterification is typically *KC* ≤ 10, what is not high enough to obtain high-molecular weight polymers (*DPn* ≥ 100), as the number average degree of polymerization (*DPn*) can be calculated from the equilibrium constant *KC*. D P n   =   K C 2 + 1 {\displaystyle DP\_{n}~=~{\sqrt[{2}]{K\_{C}}}+1} {\displaystyle DP_{n}~=~{\sqrt[{2}]{K_{C}}}+1} In equilibrium reactions, it is therefore necessary to remove the condensation product continuously and efficiently from the reaction medium in order to drive the equilibrium towards polymer. The condensation product is therefore removed at reduced pressure and high temperatures (150–320 °C, depending on the monomers) to prevent the back reaction. With the progress of the reaction, the concentration of active chain ends is decreasing and the viscosity of the melt or solution increasing. For an increase of the reaction rate, the reaction is carried out at high end group concentration (preferably in the bulk), promoted by the elevated temperatures. Equilibrium constants of magnitude *KC* ≥ 104 are achieved when using reactive reactants (acid chlorides or acid anhydrides) or activating agents like 1,1′-carbonyldiimidazole. Using these reactants, molecular weights required for technical applications can be achieved even without active removal of the condensation product. History ------- In 1926, United States–based DuPont began research on large molecules and synthetic fibers. This early research, headed by Wallace Carothers, centered on what became nylon, which was one of the first synthetic fibers. Carothers was working for DuPont at the time. Carothers' research was incomplete and had not advanced to investigating the polyester formed from mixing ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. In 1928 polyester was patented in Britain by the International General Electric company. Carothers' project was revived by British scientists Whinfield and Dickson, who patented polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or PETE in 1941. Polyethylene terephthalate forms the basis for synthetic fibers like Dacron, Terylene and polyester. In 1946, DuPont bought all legal rights from Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI). Biodegradation and environmental concerns ----------------------------------------- The Futuro houses were made of fibreglass-reinforced polyester plastic; polyester-polyurethane, and poly(methyl methacrylate). One house was found to be degrading by cyanobacteria and Archaea. ### Cross-linking Unsaturated polyesters are thermosetting polymers. They are generally copolymers prepared by polymerizing one or more diols with saturated and unsaturated dicarboxylic acids (maleic acid, fumaric acid, etc.) or their anhydrides. The double bond of unsaturated polyesters reacts with a vinyl monomer, usually styrene, resulting in a 3-D cross-linked structure. This structure acts as a thermoset. The exothermic cross-linking reaction is initiated through a catalyst, usually an organic peroxide such as methyl ethyl ketone peroxide or benzoyl peroxide. ### Pollution of freshwater and seawater habitats A team at Plymouth University in the UK spent 12 months analysing what happened when a number of synthetic materials were washed at different temperatures in domestic washing machines, using different combinations of detergents, to quantify the microfibres shed. They found that an average washing load of 6 kg could release an estimated 137,951 fibres from polyester-cotton blend fabric, 496,030 fibres from polyester and 728,789 from acrylic. Those fibers add to the general microplastics pollution. Recycling --------- Recycling of polymers has become very important as the production and use of plastic is continuously rising. Global plastic waste may almost triple by 2060 if this continues. Plastics can be recycled by various means like mechanical recycling, chemical recycling, etc. Among the recyclable polymers, polyester PET is one of the most recycled plastic. The ester bond present in polyesters is susceptible to hydrolysis (acidic or basic conditions), methanolysis and glycolysis which makes this class of polymers suitable for chemical recycling. Enzymatic/biological recycling of PET can be carried out using different enzymes like PETase, cutinase, esterase, lipase, etc. PETase has been also reported for enzymatic degradation of other synthetic polyesters (PBT, PHT, Akestra™, etc) which contains similar aromatic ester bond as that of PET. See also -------- * Epoxy * Glycerine phthalate * Microfiber * Oligoester * Polyamide * Rayon * Viscose Further reading --------------- * *Textiles*, by Sara Kadolph and Anna Langford. 8th Edition, 1998.

Polyester

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyester

**Linear algebra** is the branch of mathematics concerning linear equations such as: a 1 x 1 + ⋯ + a n x n = b , {\displaystyle a\_{1}x\_{1}+\cdots +a\_{n}x\_{n}=b,} {\displaystyle a_{1}x_{1}+\cdots +a_{n}x_{n}=b,} linear maps such as: ( x 1 , … , x n ) ↦ a 1 x 1 + ⋯ + a n x n , {\displaystyle (x\_{1},\ldots ,x\_{n})\mapsto a\_{1}x\_{1}+\cdots +a\_{n}x\_{n},} {\displaystyle (x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n})\mapsto a_{1}x_{1}+\cdots +a_{n}x_{n},} and their representations in vector spaces and through matrices. Linear algebra is central to almost all areas of mathematics. For instance, linear algebra is fundamental in modern presentations of geometry, including for defining basic objects such as lines, planes and rotations. Also, functional analysis, a branch of mathematical analysis, may be viewed as the application of linear algebra to spaces of functions. Linear algebra is also used in most sciences and fields of engineering, because it allows modeling many natural phenomena, and computing efficiently with such models. For nonlinear systems, which cannot be modeled with linear algebra, it is often used for dealing with first-order approximations, using the fact that the differential of a multivariate function at a point is the linear map that best approximates the function near that point. History ------- The procedure (using counting rods) for solving simultaneous linear equations now called Gaussian elimination appears in the ancient Chinese mathematical text Chapter Eight: *Rectangular Arrays* of *The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art*. Its use is illustrated in eighteen problems, with two to five equations. Systems of linear equations arose in Europe with the introduction in 1637 by René Descartes of coordinates in geometry. In fact, in this new geometry, now called Cartesian geometry, lines and planes are represented by linear equations, and computing their intersections amounts to solving systems of linear equations. The first systematic methods for solving linear systems used determinants and were first considered by Leibniz in 1693. In 1750, Gabriel Cramer used them for giving explicit solutions of linear systems, now called Cramer's rule. Later, Gauss further described the method of elimination, which was initially listed as an advancement in geodesy. In 1844 Hermann Grassmann published his "Theory of Extension" which included foundational new topics of what is today called linear algebra. In 1848, James Joseph Sylvester introduced the term *matrix*, which is Latin for *womb*. Linear algebra grew with ideas noted in the complex plane. For instance, two numbers w and z in C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } \mathbb {C} have a difference *w* – *z*, and the line segments *wz* and 0(*w* − *z*) are of the same length and direction. The segments are equipollent. The four-dimensional system H {\displaystyle \mathbb {H} } \mathbb {H} of quaternions was discovered by W.R. Hamilton in 1843. The term *vector* was introduced as **v** = *x***i** + *y***j** + *z***k** representing a point in space. The quaternion difference *p* – *q* also produces a segment equipollent to *pq*. Other hypercomplex number systems also used the idea of a linear space with a basis. Arthur Cayley introduced matrix multiplication and the inverse matrix in 1856, making possible the general linear group. The mechanism of group representation became available for describing complex and hypercomplex numbers. Crucially, Cayley used a single letter to denote a matrix, thus treating a matrix as an aggregate object. He also realized the connection between matrices and determinants, and wrote "There would be many things to say about this theory of matrices which should, it seems to me, precede the theory of determinants". Benjamin Peirce published his *Linear Associative Algebra* (1872), and his son Charles Sanders Peirce extended the work later. The telegraph required an explanatory system, and the 1873 publication of *A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism* instituted a field theory of forces and required differential geometry for expression. Linear algebra is flat differential geometry and serves in tangent spaces to manifolds. Electromagnetic symmetries of spacetime are expressed by the Lorentz transformations, and much of the history of linear algebra is the history of Lorentz transformations. The first modern and more precise definition of a vector space was introduced by Peano in 1888; by 1900, a theory of linear transformations of finite-dimensional vector spaces had emerged. Linear algebra took its modern form in the first half of the twentieth century, when many ideas and methods of previous centuries were generalized as abstract algebra. The development of computers led to increased research in efficient algorithms for Gaussian elimination and matrix decompositions, and linear algebra became an essential tool for modelling and simulations. Vector spaces ------------- Until the 19th century, linear algebra was introduced through systems of linear equations and matrices. In modern mathematics, the presentation through *vector spaces* is generally preferred, since it is more synthetic, more general (not limited to the finite-dimensional case), and conceptually simpler, although more abstract. A vector space over a field *F* (often the field of the real numbers) is a set *V* equipped with two binary operations satisfying the following axioms. Elements of *V* are called *vectors*, and elements of *F* are called *scalars*. The first operation, *vector addition*, takes any two vectors **v** and **w** and outputs a third vector **v** + **w**. The second operation, *scalar multiplication*, takes any scalar *a* and any vector **v** and outputs a new vector *a***v**. The axioms that addition and scalar multiplication must satisfy are the following. (In the list below, **u**, **v** and **w** are arbitrary elements of *V*, and *a* and *b* are arbitrary scalars in the field *F*.) | | | | --- | --- | | **Axiom** | **Signification** | | Associativity of addition | **u** + (**v** + **w**) = (**u** + **v**) + **w** | | Commutativity of addition | **u** + **v** = **v** + **u** | | Identity element of addition | There exists an element **0** in *V*, called the *zero vector* (or simply *zero*), such that **v** + **0** = **v** for all **v** in *V*. | | Inverse elements of addition | For every **v** in *V*, there exists an element −**v** in *V*, called the *additive inverse* of **v**, such that **v** + (−**v**) = **0** | | Distributivity of scalar multiplication with respect to vector addition   | *a*(**u** + **v**) = *a***u** + *a***v** | | Distributivity of scalar multiplication with respect to field addition | (*a* + *b*)**v** = *a***v** + *b***v** | | Compatibility of scalar multiplication with field multiplication | *a*(*b***v**) = (*ab*)**v** | | Identity element of scalar multiplication | 1**v** = **v**, where 1 denotes the multiplicative identity of F. | The first four axioms mean that *V* is an abelian group under addition. An element of a specific vector space may have various nature; for example, it could be a sequence, a function, a polynomial or a matrix. Linear algebra is concerned with those properties of such objects that are common to all vector spaces. ### Linear maps **Linear maps** are mappings between vector spaces that preserve the vector-space structure. Given two vector spaces *V* and *W* over a field F, a linear map (also called, in some contexts, linear transformation or linear mapping) is a map T : V → W {\displaystyle T:V\to W} T:V\to W that is compatible with addition and scalar multiplication, that is T ( u + v ) = T ( u ) + T ( v ) , T ( a v ) = a T ( v ) {\displaystyle T(\mathbf {u} +\mathbf {v} )=T(\mathbf {u} )+T(\mathbf {v} ),\quad T(a\mathbf {v} )=aT(\mathbf {v} )} {\displaystyle T(\mathbf {u} +\mathbf {v} )=T(\mathbf {u} )+T(\mathbf {v} ),\quad T(a\mathbf {v} )=aT(\mathbf {v} )} for any vectors **u**,**v** in *V* and scalar *a* in F. This implies that for any vectors **u**, **v** in *V* and scalars *a*, *b* in F, one has T ( a u + b v ) = T ( a u ) + T ( b v ) = a T ( u ) + b T ( v ) {\displaystyle T(a\mathbf {u} +b\mathbf {v} )=T(a\mathbf {u} )+T(b\mathbf {v} )=aT(\mathbf {u} )+bT(\mathbf {v} )} {\displaystyle T(a\mathbf {u} +b\mathbf {v} )=T(a\mathbf {u} )+T(b\mathbf {v} )=aT(\mathbf {u} )+bT(\mathbf {v} )} When *V* = *W* are the same vector space, a linear map *T* : *V* → *V* is also known as a *linear operator* on V. A bijective linear map between two vector spaces (that is, every vector from the second space is associated with exactly one in the first) is an isomorphism. Because an isomorphism preserves linear structure, two isomorphic vector spaces are "essentially the same" from the linear algebra point of view, in the sense that they cannot be distinguished by using vector space properties. An essential question in linear algebra is testing whether a linear map is an isomorphism or not, and, if it is not an isomorphism, finding its range (or image) and the set of elements that are mapped to the zero vector, called the kernel of the map. All these questions can be solved by using Gaussian elimination or some variant of this algorithm. ### Subspaces, span, and basis The study of those subsets of vector spaces that are in themselves vector spaces under the induced operations is fundamental, similarly as for many mathematical structures. These subsets are called linear subspaces. More precisely, a linear subspace of a vector space V over a field F is a subset W of V such that **u** + **v** and *a***u** are in W, for every **u**, **v** in W, and every a in F. (These conditions suffice for implying that W is a vector space.) For example, given a linear map *T* : *V* → *W*, the image *T*(*V*) of V, and the inverse image *T*−1(**0**) of **0** (called kernel or null space), are linear subspaces of W and V, respectively. Another important way of forming a subspace is to consider linear combinations of a set S of vectors: the set of all sums a 1 v 1 + a 2 v 2 + ⋯ + a k v k , {\displaystyle a\_{1}\mathbf {v} \_{1}+a\_{2}\mathbf {v} \_{2}+\cdots +a\_{k}\mathbf {v} \_{k},} {\displaystyle a_{1}\mathbf {v} _{1}+a_{2}\mathbf {v} _{2}+\cdots +a_{k}\mathbf {v} _{k},} where **v**1, **v**2, ..., **v***k* are in S, and *a*1, *a*2, ..., *a**k* are in F form a linear subspace called the span of S. The span of S is also the intersection of all linear subspaces containing S. In other words, it is the smallest (for the inclusion relation) linear subspace containing S. A set of vectors is linearly independent if none is in the span of the others. Equivalently, a set S of vectors is linearly independent if the only way to express the zero vector as a linear combination of elements of S is to take zero for every coefficient ai. A set of vectors that spans a vector space is called a spanning set or generating set. If a spanning set S is *linearly dependent* (that is not linearly independent), then some element **w** of S is in the span of the other elements of S, and the span would remain the same if one remove **w** from S. One may continue to remove elements of S until getting a *linearly independent spanning set*. Such a linearly independent set that spans a vector space V is called a basis of *V*. The importance of bases lies in the fact that they are simultaneously minimal generating sets and maximal independent sets. More precisely, if S is a linearly independent set, and T is a spanning set such that *S* ⊆ *T*, then there is a basis B such that *S* ⊆ *B* ⊆ *T*. Any two bases of a vector space *V* have the same cardinality, which is called the dimension of *V*; this is the dimension theorem for vector spaces. Moreover, two vector spaces over the same field F are isomorphic if and only if they have the same dimension. If any basis of *V* (and therefore every basis) has a finite number of elements, *V* is a *finite-dimensional vector space*. If *U* is a subspace of *V*, then dim *U* ≤ dim *V*. In the case where *V* is finite-dimensional, the equality of the dimensions implies *U* = *V*. If *U*1 and *U*2 are subspaces of *V*, then dim ⁡ ( U 1 + U 2 ) = dim ⁡ U 1 + dim ⁡ U 2 − dim ⁡ ( U 1 ∩ U 2 ) , {\displaystyle \dim(U\_{1}+U\_{2})=\dim U\_{1}+\dim U\_{2}-\dim(U\_{1}\cap U\_{2}),} {\displaystyle \dim(U_{1}+U_{2})=\dim U_{1}+\dim U_{2}-\dim(U_{1}\cap U_{2}),} where *U*1 + *U*2 denotes the span of *U*1 ∪ *U*2. Matrices -------- Matrices allow explicit manipulation of finite-dimensional vector spaces and linear maps. Their theory is thus an essential part of linear algebra. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space over a field *F*, and (**v**1, **v**2, ..., **v***m*) be a basis of *V* (thus m is the dimension of *V*). By definition of a basis, the map ( a 1 , … , a m ) ↦ a 1 v 1 + ⋯ a m v m F m → V {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(a\_{1},\ldots ,a\_{m})&\mapsto a\_{1}\mathbf {v} \_{1}+\cdots a\_{m}\mathbf {v} \_{m}\\F^{m}&\to V\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(a_{1},\ldots ,a_{m})&\mapsto a_{1}\mathbf {v} _{1}+\cdots a_{m}\mathbf {v} _{m}\\F^{m}&\to V\end{aligned}}} is a bijection from *Fm*, the set of the sequences of m elements of F, onto V. This is an isomorphism of vector spaces, if *Fm* is equipped of its standard structure of vector space, where vector addition and scalar multiplication are done component by component. This isomorphism allows representing a vector by its inverse image under this isomorphism, that is by the coordinate vector (*a*1, ..., *am*) or by the column matrix [ a 1 ⋮ a m ] . {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}a\_{1}\\\vdots \\a\_{m}\end{bmatrix}}.} {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}a_{1}\\\vdots \\a_{m}\end{bmatrix}}.} If W is another finite dimensional vector space (possibly the same), with a basis (**w**1, ..., **w***n*), a linear map f from W to V is well defined by its values on the basis elements, that is (*f*(**w**1), ..., *f*(**w***n*)). Thus, f is well represented by the list of the corresponding column matrices. That is, if f ( w j ) = a 1 , j v 1 + ⋯ + a m , j v m , {\displaystyle f(w\_{j})=a\_{1,j}v\_{1}+\cdots +a\_{m,j}v\_{m},} {\displaystyle f(w_{j})=a_{1,j}v_{1}+\cdots +a_{m,j}v_{m},} for *j* = 1, ..., *n*, then f is represented by the matrix [ a 1 , 1 ⋯ a 1 , n ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ a m , 1 ⋯ a m , n ] , {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}a\_{1,1}&\cdots &a\_{1,n}\\\vdots &\ddots &\vdots \\a\_{m,1}&\cdots &a\_{m,n}\end{bmatrix}},} {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}a_{1,1}&\cdots &a_{1,n}\\\vdots &\ddots &\vdots \\a_{m,1}&\cdots &a_{m,n}\end{bmatrix}},} with m rows and n columns. Matrix multiplication is defined in such a way that the product of two matrices is the matrix of the composition of the corresponding linear maps, and the product of a matrix and a column matrix is the column matrix representing the result of applying the represented linear map to the represented vector. It follows that the theory of finite-dimensional vector spaces and the theory of matrices are two different languages for expressing exactly the same concepts. Two matrices that encode the same linear transformation in different bases are called similar. It can be proved that two matrices are similar if and only if one can transform one into the other by elementary row and column operations. For a matrix representing a linear map from W to V, the row operations correspond to change of bases in V and the column operations correspond to change of bases in W. Every matrix is similar to an identity matrix possibly bordered by zero rows and zero columns. In terms of vector spaces, this means that, for any linear map from W to V, there are bases such that a part of the basis of W is mapped bijectively on a part of the basis of V, and that the remaining basis elements of W, if any, are mapped to zero. Gaussian elimination is the basic algorithm for finding these elementary operations, and proving these results. Linear systems -------------- A finite set of linear equations in a finite set of variables, for example, *x*1, *x*2, ..., *xn*, or *x*, *y*, ..., *z* is called a **system of linear equations** or a **linear system**. Systems of linear equations form a fundamental part of linear algebra. Historically, linear algebra and matrix theory has been developed for solving such systems. In the modern presentation of linear algebra through vector spaces and matrices, many problems may be interpreted in terms of linear systems. For example, let | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2 x + y − z = 8 − 3 x − y + 2 z = − 11 − 2 x + y + 2 z = − 3 {\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{7}2x&&\;+\;&&y&&\;-\;&&z&&\;=\;&&8\\-3x&&\;-\;&&y&&\;+\;&&2z&&\;=\;&&-11\\-2x&&\;+\;&&y&&\;+\;&&2z&&\;=\;&&-3\end{alignedat}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{7}2x&&\;+\;&&y&&\;-\;&&z&&\;=\;&&8\\-3x&&\;-\;&&y&&\;+\;&&2z&&\;=\;&&-11\\-2x&&\;+\;&&y&&\;+\;&&2z&&\;=\;&&-3\end{alignedat}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(S)** | be a linear system. To such a system, one may associate its matrix M = [ 2 1 − 1 − 3 − 1 2 − 2 1 2 ] . {\displaystyle M=\left[{\begin{array}{rrr}2&1&-1\\-3&-1&2\\-2&1&2\end{array}}\right].} {\displaystyle M=\left[{\begin{array}{rrr}2&1&-1\\-3&-1&2\\-2&1&2\end{array}}\right].} and its right member vector v = [ 8 − 11 − 3 ] . {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} ={\begin{bmatrix}8\\-11\\-3\end{bmatrix}}.} {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} ={\begin{bmatrix}8\\-11\\-3\end{bmatrix}}.} Let T be the linear transformation associated to the matrix M. A solution of the system (**S**) is a vector X = [ x y z ] {\displaystyle \mathbf {X} ={\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\z\end{bmatrix}}} {\displaystyle \mathbf {X} ={\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\z\end{bmatrix}}} such that T ( X ) = v , {\displaystyle T(\mathbf {X} )=\mathbf {v} ,} {\displaystyle T(\mathbf {X} )=\mathbf {v} ,} that is an element of the preimage of v by T. Let (**S′**) be the associated homogeneous system, where the right-hand sides of the equations are put to zero: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2 x + y − z = 0 − 3 x − y + 2 z = 0 − 2 x + y + 2 z = 0 {\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{7}2x&&\;+\;&&y&&\;-\;&&z&&\;=\;&&0\\-3x&&\;-\;&&y&&\;+\;&&2z&&\;=\;&&0\\-2x&&\;+\;&&y&&\;+\;&&2z&&\;=\;&&0\end{alignedat}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{7}2x&&\;+\;&&y&&\;-\;&&z&&\;=\;&&0\\-3x&&\;-\;&&y&&\;+\;&&2z&&\;=\;&&0\\-2x&&\;+\;&&y&&\;+\;&&2z&&\;=\;&&0\end{alignedat}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(S′)** | The solutions of (**S′**) are exactly the elements of the kernel of T or, equivalently, M. The Gaussian-elimination consists of performing elementary row operations on the augmented matrix [ M v ] = [ 2 1 − 1 8 − 3 − 1 2 − 11 − 2 1 2 − 3 ] {\displaystyle \left[\!{\begin{array}{c|c}M&\mathbf {v} \end{array}}\!\right]=\left[{\begin{array}{rrr|r}2&1&-1&8\\-3&-1&2&-11\\-2&1&2&-3\end{array}}\right]} {\displaystyle \left[\!{\begin{array}{c|c}M&\mathbf {v} \end{array}}\!\right]=\left[{\begin{array}{rrr|r}2&1&-1&8\\-3&-1&2&-11\\-2&1&2&-3\end{array}}\right]} for putting it in reduced row echelon form. These row operations do not change the set of solutions of the system of equations. In the example, the reduced echelon form is [ M v ] = [ 1 0 0 2 0 1 0 3 0 0 1 − 1 ] , {\displaystyle \left[\!{\begin{array}{c|c}M&\mathbf {v} \end{array}}\!\right]=\left[{\begin{array}{rrr|r}1&0&0&2\\0&1&0&3\\0&0&1&-1\end{array}}\right],} {\displaystyle \left[\!{\begin{array}{c|c}M&\mathbf {v} \end{array}}\!\right]=\left[{\begin{array}{rrr|r}1&0&0&2\\0&1&0&3\\0&0&1&-1\end{array}}\right],} showing that the system (**S**) has the unique solution x = 2 y = 3 z = − 1. {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=2\\y&=3\\z&=-1.\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=2\\y&=3\\z&=-1.\end{aligned}}} It follows from this matrix interpretation of linear systems that the same methods can be applied for solving linear systems and for many operations on matrices and linear transformations, which include the computation of the ranks, kernels, matrix inverses. Endomorphisms and square matrices --------------------------------- A linear endomorphism is a linear map that maps a vector space V to itself. If V has a basis of n elements, such an endomorphism is represented by a square matrix of size n. With respect to general linear maps, linear endomorphisms and square matrices have some specific properties that make their study an important part of linear algebra, which is used in many parts of mathematics, including geometric transformations, coordinate changes, quadratic forms, and many other part of mathematics. ### Determinant The *determinant* of a square matrix A is defined to be ∑ σ ∈ S n ( − 1 ) σ a 1 σ ( 1 ) ⋯ a n σ ( n ) , {\displaystyle \sum \_{\sigma \in S\_{n}}(-1)^{\sigma }a\_{1\sigma (1)}\cdots a\_{n\sigma (n)},} {\displaystyle \sum _{\sigma \in S_{n}}(-1)^{\sigma }a_{1\sigma (1)}\cdots a_{n\sigma (n)},} where *Sn* is the group of all permutations of n elements, σ is a permutation, and (−1)*σ* the parity of the permutation. A matrix is invertible if and only if the determinant is invertible (i.e., nonzero if the scalars belong to a field). Cramer's rule is a closed-form expression, in terms of determinants, of the solution of a system of n linear equations in n unknowns. Cramer's rule is useful for reasoning about the solution, but, except for *n* = 2 or 3, it is rarely used for computing a solution, since Gaussian elimination is a faster algorithm. The *determinant of an endomorphism* is the determinant of the matrix representing the endomorphism in terms of some ordered basis. This definition makes sense, since this determinant is independent of the choice of the basis. ### Eigenvalues and eigenvectors If f is a linear endomorphism of a vector space V over a field F, an *eigenvector* of f is a nonzero vector v of V such that *f*(*v*) = *av* for some scalar a in F. This scalar a is an *eigenvalue* of f. If the dimension of V is finite, and a basis has been chosen, f and v may be represented, respectively, by a square matrix M and a column matrix z; the equation defining eigenvectors and eigenvalues becomes M z = a z . {\displaystyle Mz=az.} {\displaystyle Mz=az.} Using the identity matrix I, whose entries are all zero, except those of the main diagonal, which are equal to one, this may be rewritten ( M − a I ) z = 0. {\displaystyle (M-aI)z=0.} {\displaystyle (M-aI)z=0.} As z is supposed to be nonzero, this means that *M* – *aI* is a singular matrix, and thus that its determinant det (*M* − *aI*) equals zero. The eigenvalues are thus the roots of the polynomial det ( x I − M ) . {\displaystyle \det(xI-M).} {\displaystyle \det(xI-M).} If V is of dimension n, this is a monic polynomial of degree n, called the characteristic polynomial of the matrix (or of the endomorphism), and there are, at most, n eigenvalues. If a basis exists that consists only of eigenvectors, the matrix of f on this basis has a very simple structure: it is a diagonal matrix such that the entries on the main diagonal are eigenvalues, and the other entries are zero. In this case, the endomorphism and the matrix are said to be diagonalizable. More generally, an endomorphism and a matrix are also said diagonalizable, if they become diagonalizable after extending the field of scalars. In this extended sense, if the characteristic polynomial is square-free, then the matrix is diagonalizable. A symmetric matrix is always diagonalizable. There are non-diagonalizable matrices, the simplest being [ 0 1 0 0 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}0&1\\0&0\end{bmatrix}}} {\begin{bmatrix}0&1\\0&0\end{bmatrix}} (it cannot be diagonalizable since its square is the zero matrix, and the square of a nonzero diagonal matrix is never zero). When an endomorphism is not diagonalizable, there are bases on which it has a simple form, although not as simple as the diagonal form. The Frobenius normal form does not need of extending the field of scalars and makes the characteristic polynomial immediately readable on the matrix. The Jordan normal form requires to extend the field of scalar for containing all eigenvalues, and differs from the diagonal form only by some entries that are just above the main diagonal and are equal to 1. Duality ------- A linear form is a linear map from a vector space V over a field F to the field of scalars F, viewed as a vector space over itself. Equipped by pointwise addition and multiplication by a scalar, the linear forms form a vector space, called the **dual space** of V, and usually denoted V\* or V′. If **v**1, ..., **v***n* is a basis of V (this implies that V is finite-dimensional), then one can define, for *i* = 1, ..., *n*, a linear map *vi*\* such that *vi*\*(**v***i*) = 1 and *vi*\*(**v***j*) = 0 if *j* ≠ *i*. These linear maps form a basis of *V*\*, called the dual basis of **v**1, ..., **v***n*. (If V is not finite-dimensional, the *vi*\* may be defined similarly; they are linearly independent, but do not form a basis.) For **v** in V, the map f → f ( v ) {\displaystyle f\to f(\mathbf {v} )} {\displaystyle f\to f(\mathbf {v} )} is a linear form on V\*. This defines the canonical linear map from V into (*V*\*)\*, the dual of V\*, called the **bidual** of V. This canonical map is an isomorphism if V is finite-dimensional, and this allows identifying V with its bidual. (In the infinite dimensional case, the canonical map is injective, but not surjective.) There is thus a complete symmetry between a finite-dimensional vector space and its dual. This motivates the frequent use, in this context, of the bra–ket notation ⟨ f , x ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle f,\mathbf {x} \rangle } {\displaystyle \langle f,\mathbf {x} \rangle } for denoting *f*(**x**). ### Dual map Let f : V → W {\displaystyle f:V\to W} f:V\to W be a linear map. For every linear form h on W, the composite function *h* ∘ *f* is a linear form on V. This defines a linear map f ∗ : W ∗ → V ∗ {\displaystyle f^{\*}:W^{\*}\to V^{\*}} {\displaystyle f^{*}:W^{*}\to V^{*}} between the dual spaces, which is called the **dual** or the **transpose** of f. If V and W are finite dimensional, and M is the matrix of f in terms of some ordered bases, then the matrix of f\* over the dual bases is the transpose *M*T of M, obtained by exchanging rows and columns. If elements of vector spaces and their duals are represented by column vectors, this duality may be expressed in bra–ket notation by ⟨ h T , M v ⟩ = ⟨ h T M , v ⟩ . {\displaystyle \langle h^{\mathsf {T}},M\mathbf {v} \rangle =\langle h^{\mathsf {T}}M,\mathbf {v} \rangle .} {\displaystyle \langle h^{\mathsf {T}},M\mathbf {v} \rangle =\langle h^{\mathsf {T}}M,\mathbf {v} \rangle .} For highlighting this symmetry, the two members of this equality are sometimes written ⟨ h T ∣ M ∣ v ⟩ . {\displaystyle \langle h^{\mathsf {T}}\mid M\mid \mathbf {v} \rangle .} {\displaystyle \langle h^{\mathsf {T}}\mid M\mid \mathbf {v} \rangle .} ### Inner-product spaces Besides these basic concepts, linear algebra also studies vector spaces with additional structure, such as an inner product. The inner product is an example of a bilinear form, and it gives the vector space a geometric structure by allowing for the definition of length and angles. Formally, an *inner product* is a map ⟨ ⋅ , ⋅ ⟩ : V × V → F {\displaystyle \langle \cdot ,\cdot \rangle :V\times V\to F} \langle \cdot ,\cdot \rangle :V\times V\to F that satisfies the following three axioms for all vectors **u**, **v**, **w** in *V* and all scalars *a* in *F*: * Conjugate symmetry: ⟨ u , v ⟩ = ⟨ v , u ⟩ ¯ . {\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle ={\overline {\langle \mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {u} \rangle }}.} {\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle ={\overline {\langle \mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {u} \rangle }}.} In R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } \mathbb {R} , it is symmetric. * Linearity in the first argument: ⟨ a u , v ⟩ = a ⟨ u , v ⟩ . ⟨ u + v , w ⟩ = ⟨ u , w ⟩ + ⟨ v , w ⟩ . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\langle a\mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle &=a\langle \mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle .\\\langle \mathbf {u} +\mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {w} \rangle &=\langle \mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {w} \rangle +\langle \mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {w} \rangle .\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\langle a\mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle &=a\langle \mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle .\\\langle \mathbf {u} +\mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {w} \rangle &=\langle \mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {w} \rangle +\langle \mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {w} \rangle .\end{aligned}}} * Positive-definiteness: ⟨ v , v ⟩ ≥ 0 {\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle \geq 0} {\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle \geq 0} with equality only for **v** = 0. We can define the length of a vector **v** in *V* by ‖ v ‖ 2 = ⟨ v , v ⟩ , {\displaystyle \|\mathbf {v} \|^{2}=\langle \mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle ,} {\displaystyle \|\mathbf {v} \|^{2}=\langle \mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle ,} and we can prove the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality: | ⟨ u , v ⟩ | ≤ ‖ u ‖ ⋅ ‖ v ‖ . {\displaystyle |\langle \mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle |\leq \|\mathbf {u} \|\cdot \|\mathbf {v} \|.} {\displaystyle |\langle \mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle |\leq \|\mathbf {u} \|\cdot \|\mathbf {v} \|.} In particular, the quantity | ⟨ u , v ⟩ | ‖ u ‖ ⋅ ‖ v ‖ ≤ 1 , {\displaystyle {\frac {|\langle \mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle |}{\|\mathbf {u} \|\cdot \|\mathbf {v} \|}}\leq 1,} {\displaystyle {\frac {|\langle \mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle |}{\|\mathbf {u} \|\cdot \|\mathbf {v} \|}}\leq 1,} and so we can call this quantity the cosine of the angle between the two vectors. Two vectors are orthogonal if ⟨**u**, **v**⟩ = 0. An orthonormal basis is a basis where all basis vectors have length 1 and are orthogonal to each other. Given any finite-dimensional vector space, an orthonormal basis could be found by the Gram–Schmidt procedure. Orthonormal bases are particularly easy to deal with, since if **v** = *a*1 **v**1 + ⋯ + *an* **v***n*, then a i = ⟨ v , v i ⟩ . {\displaystyle a\_{i}=\langle \mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {v} \_{i}\rangle .} {\displaystyle a_{i}=\langle \mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {v} _{i}\rangle .} The inner product facilitates the construction of many useful concepts. For instance, given a transform *T*, we can define its Hermitian conjugate *T\** as the linear transform satisfying ⟨ T u , v ⟩ = ⟨ u , T ∗ v ⟩ . {\displaystyle \langle T\mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle =\langle \mathbf {u} ,T^{\*}\mathbf {v} \rangle .} {\displaystyle \langle T\mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle =\langle \mathbf {u} ,T^{*}\mathbf {v} \rangle .} If *T* satisfies *TT\** = *T\*T*, we call *T* normal. It turns out that normal matrices are precisely the matrices that have an orthonormal system of eigenvectors that span *V*. Relationship with geometry -------------------------- There is a strong relationship between linear algebra and geometry, which started with the introduction by René Descartes, in 1637, of Cartesian coordinates. In this new (at that time) geometry, now called Cartesian geometry, points are represented by Cartesian coordinates, which are sequences of three real numbers (in the case of the usual three-dimensional space). The basic objects of geometry, which are lines and planes are represented by linear equations. Thus, computing intersections of lines and planes amounts to solving systems of linear equations. This was one of the main motivations for developing linear algebra. Most geometric transformation, such as translations, rotations, reflections, rigid motions, isometries, and projections transform lines into lines. It follows that they can be defined, specified and studied in terms of linear maps. This is also the case of homographies and Möbius transformations, when considered as transformations of a projective space. Until the end of the 19th century, geometric spaces were defined by axioms relating points, lines and planes (synthetic geometry). Around this date, it appeared that one may also define geometric spaces by constructions involving vector spaces (see, for example, Projective space and Affine space). It has been shown that the two approaches are essentially equivalent. In classical geometry, the involved vector spaces are vector spaces over the reals, but the constructions may be extended to vector spaces over any field, allowing considering geometry over arbitrary fields, including finite fields. Presently, most textbooks, introduce geometric spaces from linear algebra, and geometry is often presented, at elementary level, as a subfield of linear algebra. Usage and applications ---------------------- Linear algebra is used in almost all areas of mathematics, thus making it relevant in almost all scientific domains that use mathematics. These applications may be divided into several wide categories. ### Geometry of ambient space The modeling of ambient space is based on geometry. Sciences concerned with this space use geometry widely. This is the case with mechanics and robotics, for describing rigid body dynamics; geodesy for describing Earth shape; perspectivity, computer vision, and computer graphics, for describing the relationship between a scene and its plane representation; and many other scientific domains. In all these applications, synthetic geometry is often used for general descriptions and a qualitative approach, but for the study of explicit situations, one must compute with coordinates. This requires the heavy use of linear algebra. ### Functional analysis Functional analysis studies function spaces. These are vector spaces with additional structure, such as Hilbert spaces. Linear algebra is thus a fundamental part of functional analysis and its applications, which include, in particular, quantum mechanics (wave functions). ### Study of complex systems Most physical phenomena are modeled by partial differential equations. To solve them, one usually decomposes the space in which the solutions are searched into small, mutually interacting cells. For linear systems this interaction involves linear functions. For nonlinear systems, this interaction is often approximated by linear functions.This is called a linear model or first-order approximation. Linear models are frequently used for complex nonlinear real-world systems because it makes parametrization more manageable. In both cases, very large matrices are generally involved. Weather forecasting (or more specifically, parametrization for atmospheric modeling) is a typical example of a real-world application, where the whole Earth atmosphere is divided into cells of, say, 100 km of width and 100 km of height. ### Scientific computation Nearly all scientific computations involve linear algebra. Consequently, linear algebra algorithms have been highly optimized. BLAS and LAPACK are the best known implementations. For improving efficiency, some of them configure the algorithms automatically, at run time, for adapting them to the specificities of the computer (cache size, number of available cores, ...). Some processors, typically graphics processing units (GPU), are designed with a matrix structure, for optimizing the operations of linear algebra. Extensions and generalizations ------------------------------ This section presents several related topics that do not appear generally in elementary textbooks on linear algebra, but are commonly considered, in advanced mathematics, as parts of linear algebra. ### Module theory The existence of multiplicative inverses in fields is not involved in the axioms defining a vector space. One may thus replace the field of scalars by a ring R, and this gives a structure called **module** over R, or R-module. The concepts of linear independence, span, basis, and linear maps (also called module homomorphisms) are defined for modules exactly as for vector spaces, with the essential difference that, if R is not a field, there are modules that do not have any basis. The modules that have a basis are the free modules, and those that are spanned by a finite set are the finitely generated modules. Module homomorphisms between finitely generated free modules may be represented by matrices. The theory of matrices over a ring is similar to that of matrices over a field, except that determinants exist only if the ring is commutative, and that a square matrix over a commutative ring is invertible only if its determinant has a multiplicative inverse in the ring. Vector spaces are completely characterized by their dimension (up to an isomorphism). In general, there is not such a complete classification for modules, even if one restricts oneself to finitely generated modules. However, every module is a cokernel of a homomorphism of free modules. Modules over the integers can be identified with abelian groups, since the multiplication by an integer may identified to a repeated addition. Most of the theory of abelian groups may be extended to modules over a principal ideal domain. In particular, over a principal ideal domain, every submodule of a free module is free, and the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups may be extended straightforwardly to finitely generated modules over a principal ring. There are many rings for which there are algorithms for solving linear equations and systems of linear equations. However, these algorithms have generally a computational complexity that is much higher than the similar algorithms over a field. For more details, see Linear equation over a ring. ### Multilinear algebra and tensors In multilinear algebra, one considers multivariable linear transformations, that is, mappings that are linear in each of a number of different variables. This line of inquiry naturally leads to the idea of the dual space, the vector space *V\** consisting of linear maps *f* : *V* → *F* where *F* is the field of scalars. Multilinear maps *T* : *Vn* → *F* can be described via tensor products of elements of *V\**. If, in addition to vector addition and scalar multiplication, there is a bilinear vector product *V* × *V* → *V*, the vector space is called an algebra; for instance, associative algebras are algebras with an associate vector product (like the algebra of square matrices, or the algebra of polynomials). ### Topological vector spaces Vector spaces that are not finite dimensional often require additional structure to be tractable. A normed vector space is a vector space along with a function called a norm, which measures the "size" of elements. The norm induces a metric, which measures the distance between elements, and induces a topology, which allows for a definition of continuous maps. The metric also allows for a definition of limits and completeness – a metric space that is complete is known as a Banach space. A complete metric space along with the additional structure of an inner product (a conjugate symmetric sesquilinear form) is known as a Hilbert space, which is in some sense a particularly well-behaved Banach space. Functional analysis applies the methods of linear algebra alongside those of mathematical analysis to study various function spaces; the central objects of study in functional analysis are Lp spaces, which are Banach spaces, and especially the *L*2 space of square integrable functions, which is the only Hilbert space among them. Functional analysis is of particular importance to quantum mechanics, the theory of partial differential equations, digital signal processing, and electrical engineering. It also provides the foundation and theoretical framework that underlies the Fourier transform and related methods. See also -------- * Fundamental matrix (computer vision) * Geometric algebra * Linear programming * Linear regression, a statistical estimation method * List of linear algebra topics * Multilinear algebra * Numerical linear algebra * Transformation matrix Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. ↑ This axiom is not asserting the associativity of an operation, since there are two operations in question, scalar multiplication *b***v**; and field multiplication: *ab*. 2. ↑ This may have the consequence that some physically interesting solutions are omitted. General and cited sources ------------------------- * Anton, Howard (1987), *Elementary Linear Algebra* (5th ed.), New York: Wiley, ISBN 0-471-84819-0 * Axler, Sheldon (18 December 2014), *Linear Algebra Done Right*, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics (3rd ed.), Springer Publishing (published 2015), ISBN 978-3-319-11079-0 * Beauregard, Raymond A.; Fraleigh, John B. (1973), *A First Course In Linear Algebra: with Optional Introduction to Groups, Rings, and Fields*, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, ISBN 0-395-14017-X * Burden, Richard L.; Faires, J. Douglas (1993), *Numerical Analysis* (5th ed.), Boston: Prindle, Weber and Schmidt, ISBN 0-534-93219-3 * Golub, Gene H.; Van Loan, Charles F. (1996), *Matrix Computations*, Johns Hopkins Studies in Mathematical Sciences (3rd ed.), Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-5414-9 * Halmos, Paul Richard (1974), *Finite-Dimensional Vector Spaces*, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics (1958 2nd ed.), Springer Publishing, ISBN 0-387-90093-4, OCLC 1251216 * Harper, Charlie (1976), *Introduction to Mathematical Physics*, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-487538-9 * Katznelson, Yitzhak; Katznelson, Yonatan R. (2008), *A (Terse) Introduction to Linear Algebra*, American Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-0-8218-4419-9 * Roman, Steven (March 22, 2005), *Advanced Linear Algebra*, Graduate Texts in Mathematics (2nd ed.), Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-24766-3 Further reading --------------- ### History * Fearnley-Sander, Desmond, "Hermann Grassmann and the Creation of Linear Algebra", American Mathematical Monthly **86** (1979), pp. 809–817. * Grassmann, Hermann (1844), *Die lineale Ausdehnungslehre ein neuer Zweig der Mathematik: dargestellt und durch Anwendungen auf die übrigen Zweige der Mathematik, wie auch auf die Statik, Mechanik, die Lehre vom Magnetismus und die Krystallonomie erläutert*, Leipzig: O. Wigand ### Introductory textbooks * Anton, Howard (2005), *Elementary Linear Algebra (Applications Version)* (9th ed.), Wiley International * Banerjee, Sudipto; Roy, Anindya (2014), *Linear Algebra and Matrix Analysis for Statistics*, Texts in Statistical Science (1st ed.), Chapman and Hall/CRC, ISBN 978-1420095388 * Bretscher, Otto (2004), *Linear Algebra with Applications* (3rd ed.), Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-145334-0 * Farin, Gerald; Hansford, Dianne (2004), *Practical Linear Algebra: A Geometry Toolbox*, AK Peters, ISBN 978-1-56881-234-2 * Hefferon, Jim (2020). *Linear Algebra* (4th ed.). Ann Arbor, Michigan: Orthogonal Publishing. ISBN 978-1-944325-11-4. OCLC 1178900366. OL 30872051M. * Kolman, Bernard; Hill, David R. (2007), *Elementary Linear Algebra with Applications* (9th ed.), Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-229654-0 * Lay, David C. (2005), *Linear Algebra and Its Applications* (3rd ed.), Addison Wesley, ISBN 978-0-321-28713-7 * Leon, Steven J. (2006), *Linear Algebra With Applications* (7th ed.), Pearson Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-185785-8 * Murty, Katta G. (2014) *Computational and Algorithmic Linear Algebra and n-Dimensional Geometry*, World Scientific Publishing, ISBN 978-981-4366-62-5. *Chapter 1: Systems of Simultaneous Linear Equations* * Noble, B. & Daniel, J.W. (2nd Ed. 1977) , Pearson Higher Education, ISBN 978-0130413437. * Poole, David (2010), *Linear Algebra: A Modern Introduction* (3rd ed.), Cengage – Brooks/Cole, ISBN 978-0-538-73545-2 * Ricardo, Henry (2010), *A Modern Introduction To Linear Algebra* (1st ed.), CRC Press, ISBN 978-1-4398-0040-9 * Sadun, Lorenzo (2008), *Applied Linear Algebra: the decoupling principle* (2nd ed.), AMS, ISBN 978-0-8218-4441-0 * Strang, Gilbert (2016), *Introduction to Linear Algebra* (5th ed.), Wellesley-Cambridge Press, ISBN 978-09802327-7-6 * The Manga Guide to Linear Algebra (2012), by Shin Takahashi, Iroha Inoue and Trend-Pro Co., Ltd., ISBN 978-1-59327-413-9 ### Advanced textbooks * Bhatia, Rajendra (November 15, 1996), *Matrix Analysis*, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-94846-1 * Demmel, James W. (August 1, 1997), *Applied Numerical Linear Algebra*, SIAM, ISBN 978-0-89871-389-3 * Dym, Harry (2007), *Linear Algebra in Action*, AMS, ISBN 978-0-8218-3813-6 * Gantmacher, Felix R. (2005), *Applications of the Theory of Matrices*, Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-44554-0 * Gantmacher, Felix R. (1990), *Matrix Theory Vol. 1* (2nd ed.), American Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-0-8218-1376-8 * Gantmacher, Felix R. (2000), *Matrix Theory Vol. 2* (2nd ed.), American Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-0-8218-2664-5 * Gelfand, Israel M. (1989), *Lectures on Linear Algebra*, Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-66082-0 * Glazman, I. M.; Ljubic, Ju. I. (2006), *Finite-Dimensional Linear Analysis*, Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-45332-3 * Golan, Johnathan S. (January 2007), *The Linear Algebra a Beginning Graduate Student Ought to Know* (2nd ed.), Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-5494-5 * Golan, Johnathan S. (August 1995), *Foundations of Linear Algebra*, Kluwer, ISBN 0-7923-3614-3 * Greub, Werner H. (October 16, 1981), *Linear Algebra*, Graduate Texts in Mathematics (4th ed.), Springer, ISBN 978-0-8018-5414-9 * Hoffman, Kenneth; Kunze, Ray (1971), *Linear algebra* (2nd ed.), Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., MR 0276251 * Halmos, Paul R. (August 20, 1993), *Finite-Dimensional Vector Spaces*, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-90093-3 * Friedberg, Stephen H.; Insel, Arnold J.; Spence, Lawrence E. (September 7, 2018), *Linear Algebra* (5th ed.), Pearson, ISBN 978-0-13-486024-4 * Horn, Roger A.; Johnson, Charles R. (February 23, 1990), *Matrix Analysis*, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-38632-6 * Horn, Roger A.; Johnson, Charles R. (June 24, 1994), *Topics in Matrix Analysis*, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-46713-1 * Lang, Serge (March 9, 2004), *Linear Algebra*, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics (3rd ed.), Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-96412-6 * Marcus, Marvin; Minc, Henryk (2010), *A Survey of Matrix Theory and Matrix Inequalities*, Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-67102-4 * Meyer, Carl D. (February 15, 2001), *Matrix Analysis and Applied Linear Algebra*, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM), ISBN 978-0-89871-454-8, archived from the original on October 31, 2009 * Mirsky, L. (1990), *An Introduction to Linear Algebra*, Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-66434-7 * Shafarevich, I. R.; Remizov, A. O (2012), *Linear Algebra and Geometry*, Springer, ISBN 978-3-642-30993-9 * Shilov, Georgi E. (June 1, 1977), *Linear algebra*, Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-63518-7 * Shores, Thomas S. (December 6, 2006), *Applied Linear Algebra and Matrix Analysis*, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-33194-2 * Smith, Larry (May 28, 1998), *Linear Algebra*, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-98455-1 * Trefethen, Lloyd N.; Bau, David (1997), *Numerical Linear Algebra*, SIAM, ISBN 978-0-898-71361-9 ### Study guides and outlines * Leduc, Steven A. (May 1, 1996), *Linear Algebra (Cliffs Quick Review)*, Cliffs Notes, ISBN 978-0-8220-5331-6 * Lipschutz, Seymour; Lipson, Marc (December 6, 2000), *Schaum's Outline of Linear Algebra* (3rd ed.), McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-136200-9 * Lipschutz, Seymour (January 1, 1989), *3,000 Solved Problems in Linear Algebra*, McGraw–Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-038023-3 * McMahon, David (October 28, 2005), *Linear Algebra Demystified*, McGraw–Hill Professional, ISBN 978-0-07-146579-3 * Zhang, Fuzhen (April 7, 2009), *Linear Algebra: Challenging Problems for Students*, The Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-9125-0 External links -------------- ### Online Resources * MIT Linear Algebra Video Lectures, a series of 34 recorded lectures by Professor Gilbert Strang (Spring 2010) * International Linear Algebra Society * "Linear algebra", *Encyclopedia of Mathematics*, EMS Press, 2001 [1994] * Linear Algebra on MathWorld * Matrix and Linear Algebra Terms on Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics * Earliest Uses of Symbols for Matrices and Vectors on Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols * Essence of linear algebra, a video presentation from 3Blue1Brown of the basics of linear algebra, with emphasis on the relationship between the geometric, the matrix and the abstract points of view ### Online books * Beezer, Robert A. (2009) [2004]. *A First Course in Linear Algebra*. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. ISBN 9781616100049. * Connell, Edwin H. (2004) [1999]. *Elements of Abstract and Linear Algebra*. University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida: Self-published. * Hefferon, Jim (2020). *Linear Algebra* (4th ed.). Ann Arbor, Michigan: Orthogonal Publishing. ISBN 978-1-944325-11-4. OCLC 1178900366. OL 30872051M. * Margalit, Dan; Rabinoff, Joseph (2019). *Interactive Linear Algebra*. Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia: Self-published. * Matthews, Keith R. (2013) [1991]. *Elementary Linear Algebra*. University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia: Self-published. * Mikaelian, Vahagn H. (2020) [2017]. *Linear Algebra: Theory and Algorithms*. Yerevan, Armenia: Self-published – via ResearchGate. * Sharipov, Ruslan, *Course of linear algebra and multidimensional geometry* * Treil, Sergei, *Linear Algebra Done Wrong*

Linear algebra

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebra

**Laziness** (also known as **indolence**) is disinclination to activity or exertion despite having the ability to act or to exert oneself. It is often used as a pejorative; terms for a person seen to be lazy include "couch potato", "slacker", and "bludger". Related concepts include *sloth*, a Christian sin, *abulia*, a medical term for reduced motivation, and *lethargy*, a state of lacking energy. Despite famed neurologist Sigmund Freud's discussion of the "pleasure principle", Leonard Carmichael noted in 1954 that "laziness is not a word that appears in the table of contents of most technical books on psychology". A 1931 survey found high-school students more likely to attribute their failing performance to laziness, while teachers ranked "lack of ability" as the major cause, with laziness coming in second. Laziness is not to be confused with avolition, a negative symptom of certain mental-health issues such as depression, ADHD, ASD, sleep disorders, substance use disorders and schizophrenia. Psychology ---------- Laziness may reflect a lack of self-esteem, a lack of positive recognition by others, a lack of discipline stemming from low self-confidence, or a lack of interest in the activity or belief in its efficacy. Laziness may manifest as procrastination or vacillation. Studies of motivation suggest that laziness may be caused by a decreased level of motivation, which in turn can be caused by over-stimulation or excessive impulses or distractions. These increase the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter responsible for reward and pleasure. The more dopamine that is released, the greater intolerance one has for valuing and accepting productive and rewarding action.[*full citation needed*] This desensitization leads to dulling of the neural patterns and affects negatively the anterior insula of the brain responsible for risk perception. ADHD specialists say engaging in multiple activities can cause behavioral problems such as attention/focus failure or perfectionism and subsequently pessimism. In these circumstances laziness can manifest as a negative coping mechanism (aversion), the desire to avoid certain situations in the hopes of countering certain experiences and preconceived ill results. Lacanian thought says laziness is the "acting out" of archetypes from societal programming and negative child rearing practices. Thomas Goetz, University of Konstanz, Germany, and John Eastwood, York University, Canada, concur that aversive states such as laziness can be equally adaptive for making change and toxic if allowed to fester. An outlook found to be helpful in their studies is "being mindful and not looking for ways out of it, simultaneously to be also open to creative and active options if they should arise." They point out that a relentless engaging in activities without breaks can cause oscillations of failure, which may result in mental health issues. It has also been shown that laziness can render one apathetic to reactant mental health issues such as anger, anxiety, indifference, substance abuse, and depression. ### Related concepts * Acedia, a state of listlessness. * Avolition, decrease in the motivation to initiate and perform self-directed purposeful activities. * Athymhormia, disorder of motivation. * Aboulia, neurological, with anatomical damage. * Amotivational syndrome, normally in the context of heavy cannabis use. * Procrastination, the delaying of fulfilling tasks. * Counter-productive work behavior * Senioritis, the decreased motivation to study which is said to affect those nearing the end of their studies. Economics --------- Economists have differing views of laziness. Frédéric Bastiat argues that idleness is the result of people focusing on the pleasant immediate effects of their actions rather than potentially negative long-term consequences. Others note that humans seem to have a tendency to seek after leisure. Hal Cranmer writes, "For all these arguments against laziness, it is amazing we work so hard to achieve it. Even those hard-working Puritans were willing to break their backs every day in exchange for an eternity of lying around on a cloud and playing the harp. Every industry is trying to do its part to give its customers more leisure time." Ludwig von Mises writes, "The expenditure of labor is deemed painful. Not to work is considered a state of affairs more satisfactory than working. Leisure is, other things being equal, preferred to travail (work). People work only when they value the return of labor higher than the decrease in satisfaction brought about by the curtailment of leisure. To work involves disutility." Literary -------- Laziness in American literature is figured as a fundamental problem with social and spiritual consequences. In 1612 John Smith in his *A Map of Virginia* is seen using a jeremiad to address idleness. In the 1750s this sort of advocating reached its apex in literature. David Bertelson in *The Lazy South* (1767) expressed this as a substitution of "spiritual industry" over "patriotic industry". Writers like William Byrd went to a great extent and censured North Carolina as land of lubbers. Thomas Jefferson in his *Notes on the State of Virginia* (1785) acknowledges a small portion of the people have only seen labor and identifies the cause of this indolence to the rise of "slave-holding" society. Jefferson raised his concerns what this deleterious system will bring to the economic system. Later by the 1800s the rise of Romanticism changed attitudes of the society, values of work were re-written; stigmatization of idleness was overthrown with glamorous notions. John Pendleton Kennedy was a prominent writer in romanticizing sloth and slavery: in *Swallow Barn* (1832) he equated idleness and its flow as living in oneness with nature. Mark Twain in *The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn* (1885) contrasts realist and romantic perspective of "laziness" and calls attention to the essential convention of aimlessness and transcendence that connects the character. In 20th century the poor whites were portrayed in the grotesque caricatures of early southern laziness. In Flannery O'Connor's *Wise Blood* (1952) and *Good Country People* (1955) she depicts spiritual backwardness as the cause for disinclination to work. The lack of any social function which could be valued equally with a luxurious lifestyle was closely portrayed through lives of displaced aristocrats and their indolence. Jason Compson, Robert Penn Warren and William Styron were some of the writers who explored this perspective. The lack of meaningful work was defined as a void which aristocrats needed to fill with pompous culture; Walker Percy is a writer who has thoroughly mined the subject. Percy's characters are often exposed to the emptiness (spiritual sloth) of contemporary life, and come to rectify it with renewed spiritual resources. Religion -------- ### Christianity One of the Catholic seven deadly sins is sloth, which is often defined as spiritual and/or physical apathy or laziness. Sloth is discouraged in (Hebrews 6:12), 2 Thessalonians, and associated with wickedness in one of the parables of Jesus in the *Gospel of Matthew* (Matthew 25:26). In the Wisdom books of *Proverbs* and *Ecclesiastes*, it is stated that laziness can lead to poverty (Proverbs 10:4, Ecclesiastes 10:18). According to Peter Binsfeld's *Binsfeld's Classification of Demons*, Belphegor is thought to be its chief demon. ### Islam The Arabic term used in the Quran for laziness, inactivity and sluggishness is كَسَل (*kasal*). The opposite of laziness is Jihad al-Nafs, i.e. the struggle against the self, against one’s own ego. Among the five pillars of Islam, praying five times a day and fasting during Ramaḍān are part of actions against laziness. ### Buddhism In Buddhism, the term *kausīdya* is commonly translated as "laziness" or "spiritual sloth". *Kausīdya* is defined as clinging to unwholesome activities such as lying down and stretching out, procrastinating, and not being enthusiastic about or engaging in virtuous activity. In selected societies --------------------- ### Southern United States From 1909 to 1915, the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission for the Eradication of Hookworm Disease sought to eradicate hookworm infestation from 11 southern U.S. states. Hookworms were popularly known as "the germ of laziness" because they produced listlessness and weakness in the people they infested. Hookworms infested 40 percent of southerners and were identified in the North as the cause of the South's alleged backwardness. ### Indonesia It was alleged that indolence was the reason for backward conditions in Indonesia, such as the failure to implement Green Revolution agricultural methods. But a counter-argument is that the Indonesians, living very precariously, sought to play it safe by not risking a failed crop, given that not all experiments introduced by outsiders had been successful. Animals ------- It is common for animals (even those like hummingbirds that have high energy needs) to forage for food until satiated, and then spend most of their time doing nothing, or at least nothing in particular. They seek to "satisfice" their needs rather than obtaining an optimal diet or habitat. Even diurnal animals, which have a limited amount of daylight in which to accomplish their tasks, follow this pattern. Social activity comes in a distant third to eating and resting for foraging animals. When more time must be spent foraging, animals are more likely to sacrifice time spent on aggressive behavior than time spent resting. Extremely efficient predators have more free time and thus often appear more lazy than relatively inept predators that have little free time. Beetles likewise seem to forage lazily due to a lack of foraging competitors. On the other hand, some animals, such as pigeons and rats, seem to prefer to respond for food rather than eat equally available "free food" in some conditions. See also -------- * Critique of work * Diligence * Discipline * Dopamine * Executive function * Goldbricking * Goofing off * Histamine * In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays * Kurt von Hammerstein-Equord#Classification of officers * Lethargy * Procrastination * Psychostimulants * Temporal discounting * That Which Is Seen, and That Which Is Not Seen * The Right To Be Lazy * Time management * Underachievement * Willpower

Laziness

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laziness

**Sardinian** or **Sard** (*sardu* [ˈsaɾdu], *limba sarda* [ˈlimba ˈzaɾda] or *lìngua sarda* [ˈliŋɡwa ˈzaɾda]) is a Romance language spoken by the Sardinians on the Western Mediterranean island of Sardinia. Many Romance linguists consider it the language that, together with Italian, is the closest to Latin among all its genealogical descendants. However, it has also incorporated elements of a Pre-Latin (mostly Paleo-Sardinian and, to a much lesser degree, Punic) substratum, as well as a Byzantine Greek, Catalan, Castilian, and Italian superstratum. These elements originate in the political history of Sardinia, whose indigenous society experienced for centuries competition and at times conflict with a series of colonizing newcomers: before the Middle Ages, the island was for a time a Byzantine possession; then, after a significant period of self-rule with the Judicates, when Sardinian was officially employed in accordance with documentary testimonies, it came during the late Middle Ages into the Iberian sphere of influence, during which Catalan and Castilian became the island's prestige languages and would remain so well into the 18th century; and finally, from the early 18th century onward, under the Savoyard and contemporary Italian one, following since then the country's linguistic policies which, to the detriment of Sardinian and the local Catalan, led to diglossia. The original character of the Sardinian language among the Romance idioms has long been known among linguists. After a long strife for the acknowledgement of the island's cultural patrimony, in 1997, Sardinian, along with the other languages spoken therein, managed to be recognized by regional law in Sardinia without challenge by the central government, and in 1999, Sardinian and eleven other "historical linguistic minorities", i.e. locally indigenous, and not foreign-grown, minority languages of Italy (*minoranze linguistiche storiche*, as defined by the legislator) were similarly recognized as such by national law (specifically, Law No. 482/1999). Among these, Sardinian is notable as having, in terms of absolute numbers, the largest community of speakers. Although the Sardinian-speaking community can be said to share "a high level of linguistic awareness", policies eventually fostering language loss and assimilation have considerably affected Sardinian, whose actual speakers have become noticeably reduced in numbers over the last century. The Sardinian adult population would today no longer be able to carry on a single conversation in the ethnic language, as it is used exclusively by 0.6 percent of the total, and less than 15 percent of the new generations were reported to have been passed down some residual Sardinian in a deteriorated form described by linguist Roberto Bolognesi as "an ungrammatical slang". The rather fragile and precarious state in which the Sardinian language now finds itself, where its use has been discouraged and consequently reduced even within the family sphere, is illustrated by the *Euromosaic* report, in which Sardinian "is in 43rd place in the ranking of the 50 languages taken into consideration and of which were analysed (a) use in the family, (b) cultural reproduction, (c) use in the community, (d) prestige, (e) use in institutions, (f) use in education". As the Sardinians have almost completely assimilated into the Italian national mores, including in terms of onomastics, and therefore now only happen to keep but a scant and fragmentary knowledge of their native and once first spoken language, limited in both scope and frequency of use, Sardinian has been classified by UNESCO as "definitely endangered". In fact, the intergenerational chain of transmission appears to have been broken since at least the 1960s, in such a way that the younger generations, who are predominantly Italian monolinguals, do not identify themselves with the indigenous tongue, which is now reduced to the memory of "little more than the language of their grandparents". As the long- to even medium-term future of the Sardinian language looks far from secure in the present circumstances, Martin Harris concluded in 2003 that, assuming the continuation of present trends to language death, it was possible that there would not be a Sardinian language of which to speak in the future, being referred to by linguists as the mere substratum of the now-prevailing idiom, i.e. Italian articulated in its own Sardinian-influenced variety, which may come to wholly supplant the islanders' once living native tongue. Overview -------- > Now the question arises as to whether Sardinian is to be considered a dialect or a language. Politically speaking, of course, it is one of the many dialects of Italy, just like the Serbo-Croatian and the Albanian that are spoken in various Calabrian and Sicilian villages. The question, however, takes on a different nature when considered from a linguistic perspective. Sardinian cannot be said to be closely related to any dialect of mainland Italy; it is an archaic Romance tongue with its own distinctive characteristics, which can be seen in its rather unique vocabulary as well as its morphology and syntax, which differ radically from those of the Italian dialects. > > — Max Leopold Wagner As an insular language par excellence, Sardinian is considered the most conservative Romance language, as well as one of the most highly individual within the family; its substratum (Paleo-Sardinian or Nuragic) has also been researched. In the first written testimonies, dating to the eleventh century, Sardinian appears as a language already distinct from the dialects of Italy. A 1949 study by the Italian-American linguist Mario Pei, analyzing the degree of difference from a language's parent (Latin, in the case of Romance languages) by comparing phonology, inflection, syntax, vocabulary, and intonation, indicated the following percentages (the higher the percentage, the greater the distance from Latin): Sardinian 8%, Italian 12%, Spanish 20%, Romanian 23.5%, Occitan 25%, Portuguese 31%, and French 44%. The significant degree to which the Sardinian language has retained its Latin base was also noted by the French geographer Maurice Le Lannou during a research project on the island in 1941. Although the lexical base is mostly of Latin origin, Sardinian nonetheless retains a number of traces of the linguistic substratum prior to the Roman conquest of the island: several words and especially toponyms stem from Paleo-Sardinian and, to a lesser extent, Phoenician-Punic. These etyma might refer to an early Mediterranean substratum, which reveal close relations with Basque. In addition to the aforementioned substratum, linguists such as Max Leopold Wagner and Benvenuto Aronne Terracini trace much of the distinctive Latin character of Sardinia to the languoids once spoken by the Christian and Jewish Berbers in North Africa, known as African Romance. Indeed, Sardinian was perceived as rather similar to African Latin when the latter was still in use, giving credit to the theory that vulgar Latin in both Africa and Sardinia displayed a significant wealth of parallelisms. J. N. Adams is of the opinion that similarities in many words, such as *acina* (grape), *pala* (shoulderblade) and *spanu(s)* ("reddish-brown"), prove that there might have been a fair amount of vocabulary shared between Sardinia and Africa. According to Wagner, it is notable that Sardinian is the only Romance language whose name for the Milky Way (*(b)ía de sa báza, (b)ía de sa bálla*, "the Way of Straw") also recurs in the Berber languages. To most Italians Sardinian is unintelligible, reminding them of Spanish, because of the way in which the language is acoustically articulated; characterized as it is by a sharply outlined physiognomy which is displayed from the earliest sources available, it is in fact considered a distinct language, if not an altogether different branch, among the Romance idioms; George Bossong summarises thus: "be this as it may, from a strictly linguistic point of view there can be no doubt that Sardinian is to be classified as an independent Romance language, or even as an independent branch inside the family, and so it is classed alongside the great national languages like French and Italian in all modern manuals of Romance linguistics". History ------- Sardinia's relative isolation from mainland Europe encouraged the development of a Romance language that preserves traces of its indigenous, pre-Roman language(s). The language is posited to have substratal influences from Paleo-Sardinian, which some scholars have linked to Basque and Etruscan; comparisons have also been drawn with the Berber languages from North Africa to shed more light on the language(s) spoken in Sardinia prior to its Romanization. Subsequent adstratal influences include Catalan, Spanish, and Italian. The situation of the Sardinian language with regard to the politically dominant ones did not change until fascism and, most evidently, the 1950s. ### Origins of modern Sardinian Prenuragic and Nuragic era The origins of ancient Sardinian, also known as Paleo-Sardinian, are currently unknown. Research has attempted to discover obscure, indigenous, pre-Romance roots. The root *s(a)rd*, indicating many place names as well as the island's people, is reportedly either associated with or originating from the Sherden, one of the Sea Peoples. Other sources trace instead the root *s(a)rd* from Σαρδώ, a legendary woman from the Anatolian Kingdom of Lydia, or from the Libyan mythological figure of the Sardus Pater *Babai* ("Sardinian Father" or "Father of the Sardinians"). In 1984, Massimo Pittau claimed to have found the etymology of many Latin words in the Etruscan language, after comparing it with the Nuragic language(s). Etruscan elements, formerly thought to have originated in Latin, would indicate a connection between the ancient Sardinian culture and the Etruscans. According to Pittau, the Etruscan and Nuragic language(s) are descended from Lydian (and therefore Indo-European) as a consequence of contact with Etruscans and other Tyrrhenians from Sardis as described by Herodotus. Although Pittau suggests that the Tirrenii landed in Sardinia and the Etruscans landed in modern Tuscany, his views are not shared by most Etruscologists. According to Bertoldi and Terracini, Paleo-Sardinian has similarities with the Iberic languages and Siculian; for example, the suffix -*ara* in proparoxytones indicated the plural. Terracini proposed the same for suffixes in -*/àna/*, -/*ànna*/, -/*énna*/, -/*ònna*/ + */r/* + a paragogic vowel (such as the toponym *Bunnànnaru*). Rohlfs, Butler and Craddock add the suffix -*/ini/* (such as the toponym *Barùmini*) as a unique element of Paleo-Sardinian. Suffixes in /*a*, *e*, *o*, *u*/ + -*rr*- found a correspondence in north Africa (Terracini), in Iberia (Blasco Ferrer) and in southern Italy and Gascony (Rohlfs), with a closer relationship to Basque (Wagner and Hubschmid). However, these early links to a Basque precursor have been questioned by some Basque linguists. According to Terracini, suffixes in -*/ài/*, -*/éi/*, -*/òi/*, and -*/ùi/* are common to Paleo-Sardinian and northern African languages. Pittau emphasized that this concerns terms originally ending in an accented vowel, with an attached paragogic vowel; the suffix resisted Latinization in some place names, which show a Latin body and a Nuragic suffix. According to Bertoldi, some toponyms ending in -*/ài/* and -/*asài*/ indicated an Anatolian influence. The suffix -/*aiko*/, widely used in Iberia and possibly of Celtic origin, and the ethnic suffix in -/*itanos*/ and -/*etanos*/ (for example, the Sardinian *Sulcitanos*) have also been noted as Paleo-Sardinian elements (Terracini, Ribezzo, Wagner, Hubschmid and Faust). Some linguists, like Max Leopold Wagner (1931), Blasco Ferrer (2009, 2010) and Arregi (2017) have attempted to revive a theoretical connection with Basque by linking words such as Sardinian *idile* "marshland" and Basque *itil* "puddle"; Sardinian *ospile* "fresh grazing for cattle" and Basque *hozpil* "cool, fresh"; Sardinian *arrotzeri* "vagabond" and Basque *arrotz* "stranger"; Sardinian *golostiu* and Basque *gorosti* "holly"; Gallurese (Corso-Sardinian) *zerru* "pig" (with *z* for [dz]) and Basque *zerri* (with *z* for [s]). Genetic data have found the Basques to be close to the Sardinians. Since the Neolithic period, some degree of variance across the island's regions is also attested. The Arzachena culture, for instance, suggests a link between the northernmost Sardinian region (Gallura) and southern Corsica that finds further confirmation in the Natural History by Pliny the Elder. There are also some stylistic differences across Northern and Southern Nuragic Sardinia, which may indicate the existence of two other tribal groups (Balares and Ilienses) mentioned by the same Roman author. According to the archeologist Giovanni Ugas, these tribes may have in fact played a role in shaping the current regional linguistic differences of the island. Classical period Around the 10th and 9th century BC, Phoenician merchants were known to have made their presence in Sardinia, which acted as a geographical mediator in between the Iberian and the Italian peninsula. In the eighth and seventh centuries, the Phoenicians began to develop permanent settlements, politically arranged as city-states in similar fashion to the Lebanese coastal areas. It did not take long before they started gravitating around the Carthaginian sphere of influence, whose level of prosperity spurred Carthage to send a series of expeditionary forces to the island; although they were initially repelled by the natives, the North African city vigorously pursued a policy of active imperialism and, by the sixth century, managed to establish its political hegemony and military control over South-Western Sardinia. Punic began to be spoken in the area, and many words entered ancient Sardinian as well. Words like *giara* ‘plateau’ (cf. Hebrew *yaʿar* ‘forest, scrub’), *g(r)uspinu* ‘nasturtium’ (from Punic *cusmin*), *curma* ‘fringed rue’ (cf. Arabic *ḥarmal* ‘Syrian rue’), *mítza* ‘spring’ (cf. Hebrew *mitsa*, *metza* ‘source, fountainhead’), *síntziri* ‘marsh horsetail’ (from Punic *zunzur* ‘common knotgrass’), *tzeúrra* ‘sprout’ (from \**zerula*, diminutive of Punic *zeraʿ* ‘seed’), *tzichirìa* ‘dill’ (from Punic *sikkíria*; cf. Hebrew *šēkār* ‘ale’) and *tzípiri* ‘rosemary’ (from Punic *zibbir*) are commonly used, especially in the modern Sardinian varieties of the Campidanese plain, while proceeding northwards the influence is more limited to place names, such as the town of Magomadas, *Macumadas* in Nuoro or *Magumadas* in Gesico and Nureci, all of which deriving from the Punic *maqom hadash* "new city". The Roman domination began in 238 BC, but was often contested by the local Sardinian tribes, who had by then acquired a high level of political organization, and would manage to only partly supplant the pre-Latin Sardinian languages, including Punic. Although the colonists and *negotiatores* (businessmen) of strictly Italic descent would later play a relevant role in introducing and spreading Latin to Sardinia, Romanisation proved slow to take hold among the Sardinian natives, whose proximity to the Carthaginian cultural influence was noted by Roman authors. Punic continued to be spoken well into the 3rd–4th century AD, as attested by votive inscriptions, and it is thought that the natives from the most interior areas, led by the tribal chief Hospito, joined their brethren in making the switch to Latin around the 7th century AD, through their conversion to Christianity. Cicero, who loathed the Sardinians on the ground of numerous factors, such as their outlandish language, their kinship with Carthage and their refusal to engage with Rome, would call the Sardinian rebels *latrones mastrucati* ("thieves with rough wool cloaks") or *Afri* ("Africans") to emphasize Roman superiority over a population mocked as the refuse of Carthage. A number of obscure Nuragic roots remained unchanged, and in many cases Latin accepted the local roots (like *nur*, presumably cognate of Norax, which makes its appearance in nuraghe, *Nurra*, *Nurri* and many other toponyms). Barbagia, the mountainous central region of the island, derives its name from the Latin *Barbaria* (a term meaning "Land of the Barbarians", similar in origin to the now antiquated word "Barbary"), because its people refused cultural and linguistic assimilation for a long time: 50% of toponyms of central Sardinia, particularly in the territory of Olzai, are actually not related to any known language. According to Terracini, amongst the regions in Europe that went on to draw their language from Latin, Sardinia has overall preserved the highest proportion of pre-Latin toponyms. Besides the place names, on the island there are still a few names of plants, animals and geological formations directly traceable to the ancient Nuragic era. By the end of the Roman domination, Latin had gradually become however the speech of most of the island's inhabitants. As a result of this protracted and prolonged process of Romanisation, the modern Sardinian language is today classified as Romance or neo-Latin, with some phonetic features resembling Old Latin. Some linguists assert that modern Sardinian, being part of the Island Romance group, was the first language to split off from Latin, all others evolving from Latin as Continental Romance. In fact, contact with Rome might have ceased from as early as the first century BC. In terms of vocabulary, Sardinian retains an array of peculiar Latin-based forms that are either unfamiliar to, or have altogether disappeared in, the rest of the Romance-speaking world. The number of Latin inscriptions on the island is relatively small and fragmented. Some engraved poems in ancient Greek and Latin (the two most prestigious languages in the Roman Empire) are seen in the so-called "Viper's Cave" (*Gruta 'e sa Pibera* in Sardinian, *Grotta della Vipera* in Italian, *Cripta Serpentum* in Latin), a burial monument built in Caralis (Cagliari) by Lucius Cassius Philippus (a Roman who had been exiled to Sardinia) in remembrance of his dead spouse Atilia Pomptilla; we also have some religious works by Eusebius and Saint Lucifer, both from Caralis and in the writing style of whom may be noted the lexicon and perifrastic forms typical of Sardinian (e.g. *narrare* in place of *dicere*; compare with Sardinian *nàrrere* or *nàrri(ri)* "to say"). After a period of 80 years under the Vandals, Sardinia would again be part of the Byzantine Empire under the Exarchate of Africa for almost another five centuries. Luigi Pinelli believes that the Vandal presence had "estranged Sardinia from Europe, linking its own destiny to Africa's territorial expanse" in a bond that was to strengthen further "under Byzantine rule, not only because the Roman Empire included the island in the African Exarchate, but also because it developed from there, albeit indirectly, its ethnic community, causing it to acquire many of the African characteristics" that would allow ethnologists and historians to elaborate the theory of the Paleo-Sardinians' supposed African origin, now disproved. Casula is convinced that the Vandal domination caused a "clear breaking with the Roman-Latin writing tradition or, at the very least, an appreciable bottleneck" so that the subsequent Byzantine government was able to establish "its own operational institutions" in a "territory disputed between the Greek- and the Latin-speaking world". Despite a period of almost five centuries, the Greek language only lent Sardinian a few ritual and formal expressions using Greek structure and, sometimes, the Greek alphabet. Evidence for this is found in the *condaghes*, the first written documents in Sardinian. From the long Byzantine era there are only a few entries but they already provide a glimpse of the sociolinguistical situation on the island in which, in addition to the community's everyday Neo-Latin language, Greek was also spoken by the ruling classes. Some toponyms, such as Jerzu (thought to derive from the Greek *khérsos*, "untilled"), together with the personal names Mikhaleis, Konstantine and Basilis, demonstrate Greek influence. ### Judicates period As the Muslims made their way into North Africa, what remained of the Byzantine possession of the Exarchate of Africa was only the Balearic Islands and Sardinia. Pinelli believes that this event constituted a fundamental watershed in the historical course of Sardinia, leading to the definitive severance of those previously close cultural ties between Sardinia and the southern shore of the Mediterranean: any previously held commonality shared between Sardinia and Africa "disappeared, like mist in the sun, as a result of North Africa's conquest by Islamic forces, since the latter, due to the fierce resistance of the Sardinians, were not able to spread to the island, as they had in Africa". Michele Amari, quoted by Pinelli, writes that "the attempts of the Muslims of Africa to conquer Sardinia and Corsica were frustrated by the unconquered valour of the poor and valiant inhabitants of those islands, who saved themselves for two centuries from the yoke of the Arabs". As the Byzantines were fully focused on reconquering southern Italy and Sicily, which had in the meanwhile also fallen to the Muslims, their attention on Sardinia was neglected and communications broke down with Constantinople; this spurred the former Byzantine province of Sardinia to become progressively more autonomous from the Byzantine oecumene, and eventually attain independence. Pinelli argues that "the Arab conquest of North Africa separated Sardinia from that continent without, however, causing the latter to rejoin Europe" and that this event "determined a capital turning point for Sardinia, giving rise to a *de facto* independent national government". Historian Marc Bloch believed that, owing to Sardinia being a country which found itself in "quasi-isolation" from the rest of the continent, the earliest documentary testimonies, written in Sardinian, were much older than those first issued in Italy. Sardinian was the first Romance language of all to gain official status, being used by the four Judicates, former Byzantine districts that became independent political entities after the Arab expansion in the Mediterranean had cut off any ties left between the island and Byzantium. The exceptionality of the Sardinian situation, which in this sense constitutes a unique case throughout the Latin-speaking Europe, consists in the fact that any official text was written solely in Sardinian from the very beginning and completely excluded Latin, unlike what was happening – and would continue to happen – in France, Italy and Iberia at the same time; Latin, although co-official, was in fact used only in documents concerning external relations in which the Sardinian kings (*judikes*, "judges") engaged. Awareness of the dignity of Sardinian for official purposes was such that, in the words of Livio Petrucci, a Neo-Latin language had come to be used "at a time when nothing similar can be observed in the Italian peninsula" not only "in the legal field" but also "in any other field of writing". A diplomatic analysis of the earliest Sardinian documents shows that the Judicates provided themselves with chanceries, which employed an indigenous diplomatic model for writing public documents; one of them, dating to 1102, displays text in half-uncial, a script that had long fallen out of use on the European continent and F. Casula believes may have been adopted by the Sardinians of Latin culture as their own "national script" from the 8th until the 12th century, prior to their receiving outside influence from the arrival of mainly Italian notaries. | Extract from Bonarcado's Condaghe, 22 (1120–1146) | | --- | | " Ego Gregorius, priore de Bonarcadu, partivi cun iudice de Gallulu. Coiuvedi Goantine Mameli, serbu de sancta Maria de Bonarcadu, cun Maria de Lee, ancilla de iudice de Gallul. Fegerunt II fiios: Zipari et Justa. Clesia levait a Zipari et iudice levait a Justa. Testes: Nigola de Pane, Comida Pira, Goantine de Porta, armentariu dessu archipiscobu. " | Old Sardinian had a greater number of archaisms and Latinisms than the present language does, with few Germanic words, mostly coming from Latin itself, and even fewer Arabisms, which had been imported by scribes from Iberia; in spite of their best efforts with a score of expeditions to the island, from which they would get considerable booty and a hefty number of Sardinian slaves, the Arab assailants were in fact each time forcefully driven back and would never manage to conquer and settle on the island. Although the surviving texts come from such disparate areas as the north and the south of the island, Sardinian then presented itself in a rather homogeneous form: even though the orthographic differences between Logudorese and Campidanese Sardinian were beginning to appear, Wagner found in this period "the original unity of the Sardinian language". In agreement with Wagner is Paolo Merci, who found a "broad uniformity" around this period, as were Antonio Sanna and Ignazio Delogu too, for whom it was the islanders' community life that prevented Sardinian from localism. According to Carlo Tagliavini, these earlier documents show the existence of a Sardinian Koine which pointed to a model based on Logudorese. According to Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, it was in the wake of the fall of the Judicates of Cagliari and Gallura, in the second half of the 13th century, that Sardinian began to fragment into its modern dialects, undergoing some Tuscanization under the rule of the Republic of Pisa; it did not take long before the Genoese too started carving their own sphere of influence in northern Sardinia, both through the mixed Sardinian-Genoese nobility of Sassari and the members of the Doria family. A certain range of dialectal variation is then noted. A special position was occupied by the Judicate of Arborea, the last Sardinian kingdom to fall to foreign powers, in which a transitional dialect was spoken, that of Middle Sardinian. The Carta de Logu of the Kingdom of Arborea, one of the first constitutions in history drawn up in 1355–1376 by Marianus IV and the Queen, the "Lady Judge" (*judikessa* in Sardinian, *jutgessa* in Catalan, *giudicessa* in Italian) Eleanor, was written in this transitional variety of Sardinian, and would remain in force until 1827. The Arborean judges' effort to unify the Sardinian dialects were due to their desire to be legitimate rulers of the entire island under a single state (*republica sardisca* "Sardinian Republic"); such political goal, after all, was already manifest in 1164, when the Arborean Judge Barison ordered his great seal to be made with the writings *Baresonus Dei Gratia Rei Sardiniee* ("Barison, by the grace of God, King of Sardinia") and *Est vis Sardorum pariter regnum Populorum* ("The people's rule is equal to the Sardinians' own force"). Dante Alighieri wrote in his 1302–05 essay *De vulgari eloquentia* that Sardinians were strictly speaking not Italians (*Latii*), even though they appeared superficially similar to them, and they did not speak anything close to a Neo-Latin language of their own (*lingua vulgaris*), but resorted to aping straightforward Latin instead. Dante's view on the Sardinians, however, is proof of how their language had been following its own course in a way which was already unintelligible to non-islanders, and had become, in Wagner's words, an impenetrable "sphinx" to their judgment. Frequently mentioned is a previous 12th-century poem by the troubadour Raimbaut de Vaqueiras, *Domna, tant vos ai preiada* ("Lady, so much I have endeared you"); Sardinian epitomizes outlandish speech therein, along with non-Romance languages such as German and Berber, with the troubadour having the lady say "*No t'entend plui d'un Todesco / Sardesco o Barbarì*" ("I don't understand you more than a German or Sardinian or Berber"); the Tuscan poet Fazio degli Uberti refers to the Sardinians in his poem *Dittamondo* as "*una gente che niuno non-la intende / né essi sanno quel ch'altri pispiglia*" ("a people that no one is able to understand / nor do they come to a knowledge of what other peoples say about them"). The Muslim geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi, who lived in Palermo, Sicily at the court of King Roger II, wrote in his work *Kitab Nuzhat al-mushtāq fi'khtirāq al-āfāq* ("The book of pleasant journeys into faraway lands" or, simply, "The book of Roger") that "Sardinians are ethnically *Rūm Afāriqah*, like the Berbers; they shun contacts with all the other *Rūm* nations and are people of purpose and valiant that never leave the arms". According to Wagner, the close relationship in the development of Vulgar Latin between North Africa and Sardinia might not have only derived from ancient ethnic affinities between the two populations, but also from their common political past within the Exarchate of Africa. What literature is left to us from this period primarily consists of legal and administrative documents, besides the aforementioned *Cartas* and *condaghes*. The first document containing Sardinian elements is a 1063 donation to the abbey of Montecassino signed by Barisone I of Torres. Another such document (the so-called *Carta Volgare*) comes from the Judicate of Cagliari and was issued by Torchitorio I de Lacon-Gunale in around 1070, written in Sardinian whilst still employing the Greek alphabet. Other documents are the 1080 "Logudorese Privilege", the 1089 Torchitorius' Donation (in the Marseille archives), the 1190–1206 Marsellaise Chart (in Campidanese Sardinian) and an 1173 communication between the Bishop Bernardo of Civita and Benedetto, who oversaw the Opera del Duomo in Pisa. The Statutes of Sassari (1316) and Castelgenovese (c. 1334) are written in Logudorese Sardinian. The first chronicle in *lingua sive ydiomate sardo*, called *Condagues de Sardina*, was published anonymously in the 13th century, relating the events of the Judicate of Torres. ### Iberian period – Catalan and Castilian influence The 1297 feoffment of Sardinia by Pope Boniface VIII led to the creation of the Kingdom of Sardinia: that is, of a state which, although lacking in *summa potestas*, entered by right as a member in personal union within the broader Mediterranean structure of the Crown of Aragon. Thus began a long war between the latter and, to the cry of *Helis, Helis*, from 1353, the previously allied Judicate of Arborea, in which the Sardinian language was to play the role of an ethnic marker. The war had, among its motives, a never dormant and ancient Arborean political design to establish "a great island nation-state, wholly indigenous" which was assisted by the massive participation of the rest of the Sardinians, i.e. those not residing within the jurisdiction of Arborea (*Sardus de foras*), as well as a widespread impatience with the foreign importation of a feudal regime, specifically "*more Italie*" and "*Cathalonie*", which threatened the survival of deep-rooted indigenous institutions and, far from ensuring the return of the island to a unitary regime, had only introduced there "*tot reges quot sunt ville*" ("as many petty rulers as there are villages"), whereas instead "*Sardi unum regem se habuisse credebant* ("the Sardinians believed they had one single king"). The conflict between the two sovereign and warring parties, during which the Aragonese possessions making up the Kingdom of Sardinia were first administratively split into two separate "halves" (*capita*) by Peter IV the Ceremonious in 1355, ended after sixty-seven years with the Iberian victory at Sanluri in 1409 and the renunciation of any succession right signed by William II of Narbonne in 1420. This event marked the definitive end of Sardinian independence, whose historical relevance for the island, likened by Francesco C. Casula to "the end of Aztec Mexico", should be considered "neither triumph nor defeat, but the painful birth of today's Sardinia". Any outbreak of anti-Aragonese rebellion, such as the revolt of Alghero in 1353, that of Uras in 1470 and finally that of Macomer in 1478, celebrated in *De bello et interitu marchionis Oristanei*, were and would have been systematically neutralised. From that moment, "*quedó de todo punto Sardeña por el rey*". Casula believes that the Aragonese winners from the brutal conflict would then move on to destroy the pre-existing documentary production of the still living Sardinian Judicate, which was predominantly written in Sardinian language along with other ones the chancery was engaged with, leaving behind their trail only "a few stones" and, overall, a "small group of documents", many of which are in fact still preserved and/or refer to archives outside the island. Specifically, the Arborean documents and the palace in which they were kept would be completely set on fire on May 21, 1478, as the viceroy triumphantly entered Oristano after having tamed the aforementioned 1478 rebellion, which threatened the revival of an Arborean identity which had been *de jure* abolished in 1420 but was still very much alive in popular memory. Thereafter, the ruling class in Sardinia proceeded to adopt Catalan as their primary language. The situation in Cagliari, a city subject to Aragonese repopulation and where, according to Giovanni Francesco Fara (*Ioannes Franciscus Fara* / *Juanne Frantziscu Fara*), for a time Catalan took over Sardinian as in Alghero, was emblematic, so much so as to later generate idioms such as *no scit su catalanu* ("he does not know Catalan") to indicate a person who could not express themselves "correctly". Alghero is still a Catalan-speaking enclave on Sardinia to this day. Nevertheless, the Sardinian language did not disappear from official use: the Catalan juridical tradition in the cities coexisted with that of the Sardinians, marked in 1421 by the Parliamentary extension of the Arborean *Carta de Logu* to the feudal areas during the Reign of King Alfonso the Magnanimous, and Sardinian continued to be used in documents pertaining to administrative and ecclesiastical spheres until the late 17th century. Fara, in the same first modern monograph dedicated to Sardinia, reported the lively multilingualism in "one and the same people", because of immigration "by Spaniards and Italians" who came to the island to trade with the native Sardinians. The long-lasting war and the so-called Black Death had a devastating effect on the island, depopulating large parts of it. People from the neighbouring island of Corsica, which had been already Tuscanised, began to settle en masse in the northern Sardinian coast, leading to the birth of Sassarese and then Gallurese, two Italo-Dalmatian lects. | Extract from *sa Vitta et sa Morte, et Passione de sanctu Gavinu, Prothu et Januariu* (A. Cano, ~1400) | | --- | | O Deus eternu, sempre omnipotente, In s'aiudu meu ti piacat attender, Et dami gratia de poder acabare Su sanctu martiriu, in rima vulgare, 5. De sos sanctos martires tantu gloriosos Et cavaleris de Cristus victoriosos, Sanctu Gavinu, Prothu e Januariu, Contra su demoniu, nostru adversariu, Fortes defensores et bonos advocados, 10. Qui in su Paradisu sunt glorificados De sa corona de sanctu martiriu. Cussos sempre siant in nostru adiutoriu. Amen. | Despite Catalan being widely spoken and written on the island at this time (leaving a lasting influence in Sardinian), there are written records of Sardinian, one of which is the 15th-century *Sa Vitta et sa Morte, et Passione de sanctu Gavinu, Brothu et Ianuariu*, written by Antòni Canu (1400–1476) and published in 1557. The 16th century is instead marked by a new literary revival of Sardinian, which was estimated to be the native people's ordinary language by the Jesuits in 1561. *Rimas Spirituales*, by Hieronimu Araolla, was aimed at "glorifying and enriching Sardinian, our language" (*magnificare et arrichire sa limba nostra sarda*) as the Spanish, French and Italian poets had already done for their own languages (*la Deffense et illustration de la langue françoyse* and *Il Dialogo delle lingue*). This way, Araolla is one of the first Sardinian authors to bind the language to a Sardinian nation, the existence of which is not outright stated but naturally implied. Antonio Lo Frasso, a poet born in Alghero (a city he remembered fondly) who spent his life in Barcelona, wrote lyric poetry in Sardinian. Agreeing with Fara's aforementioned *De rebus Sardois*, the Sardinian attorney Sigismondo Arquer, author of *Sardiniae brevis historia et descriptio* in Sebastian Münster's Cosmographia universalis (whose report would also be quoted in Conrad Gessner's "On the different languages used by the various nations across the globe" with minor variations), stated that Sardinian prevailed in most of the Kingdom, with particular regard for the rural interior, while Catalan and Spanish were spoken in the cities, where the predominantly Iberian ruling class "occupies most of the official positions"; although the Sardinian language had become fragmented due to foreign domination (i.e. "namely Latins, Pisans, Genoese, Spanish, and Africans"), Arquer pointed to there being many Sardinian words with apparently no traceable origin and reported that Sardinians nevertheless "understand each other perfectly". The sociolinguistic situation was characterised by the active and passive competence of the two Iberian languages in the cities and of Sardinian in the rest of the island, as reported in various contemporary testimonies: Cristòfor Despuig, in *Los Colloquis de la Insigne Ciutat de Tortosa*, claimed in 1557 that, although Catalan had carved out a place for itself as *llengua cortesana*, in many parts of the island the "ancient language of the Kingdom" ("*llengua antigua del Regne*") was still preserved; the ambassador and *visitador reial* Martin Carillo (supposed author of the ironic judgment on the Sardinians' tribal and sectarian divisions: "*pocos, locos, y mal unidos*" "few, thickheaded, and badly united") noted in 1611 that the main cities spoke Catalan and Spanish, but outside these cities no other language was understood than Sardinian, which in turn was understood by everyone in the entire Kingdom; Joan Gaspar Roig i Jalpí, author of *Llibre dels feyts d'armes de Catalunya*, reported in the mid-seventeenth century that in Sardinia "*parlen la llengua catalana molt polidament, axì com fos a Catalunya*" ("they speak Catalan very well, as though I was in Catalonia"); Anselm Adorno, originally from Genoa but living in Bruges, noted in his pilgrimages how, many foreigners notwithstanding, the natives still spoke their own language (*linguam propriam sardiniscam loquentes*);); another testimony is offered by the rector of the Jesuit college of Sassari Baldassarre Pinyes who, in Rome, wrote: "As far as the Sardinian language is concerned, Your Paternity should know that it is not spoken in this city, nor in Alghero, nor in Cagliari: it is only spoken in the towns". Especially through the reorganization of the monarchy led by the Count-Duke of Olivares, Sardinia would gradually join a broad Spanish cultural sphere. Spanish was perceived as an elitist language, gaining solid ground among the ruling Sardinian class; Spanish had thus a profound influence on Sardinian, especially in those words, styles and cultural models owing to the prestigious international role of the Habsburg monarchy as well as the Court. Most Sardinian authors would write in both Spanish and Sardinian until the 19th century and were well-versed in the former, like Vicente Bacallar y Sanna that was one of the founders of the Real Academia Española; according to Bruno Anatra's estimates, around 87% of the books printed in Cagliari were in Spanish. A notable exception was Pedro Delitala (1550–1590), who decided to write in Italian instead. Nonetheless, the Sardinian language retained much of its importance, earning respect from the Spaniards in light of it being the ethnic code the people from most of the Kingdom kept using, especially in the interior. New genres of popular poetry were established around this period, like the *gosos* or *gocius* (sacred hymns), the *anninnia* (lullabies), the *attitu* (funeral laments), the *batorinas* (quatrains), the *berbos* and *paraulas* (curses), and the improvised poetry of the *mutu* and *mutetu*. Sardinian was also one of the few official languages, along with Spanish, Catalan and Portuguese, whose knowledge was required to be an officer in the Spanish *tercios*. Ioan Matheu Garipa, a priest from Orgosolo who translated the Italian *Leggendario delle Sante Vergini e Martiri di Gesù Cristo* into Sardinian (*Legendariu de Santas Virgines, et Martires de Iesu Christu*) in 1627, was the first author to claim that Sardinian was the closest living relative of classical Latin and, like Araolla before him, valued Sardinian as the language of a specific ethno-national community. In this regard, the philologist Paolo Maninchedda argues that by doing so, these authors did not write "about Sardinia or in Sardinian to fit into an island system, but to inscribe Sardinia and its language – and with them, themselves – in a European system. Elevating Sardinia to a cultural dignity equal to that of other European countries also meant promoting the Sardinians, and in particular their educated countrymen, who felt that they had no roots and no place in the continental cultural system". ### Savoyard period – Italian influence The War of the Spanish Succession gave Sardinia to Austria, whose sovereignty was confirmed by the 1713–14 treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt. In 1717 a Spanish fleet reoccupied Cagliari, and the following year Sardinia was ceded to Victor Amadeus II of Savoy in exchange for Sicily. The Savoyard representative, the Count of Lucerna di Campiglione, received the definitive deed of cession from the Austrian delegate Don Giuseppe dei Medici, on condition that the "rights, statutes, privileges of the nation" that had been the subject of diplomatic negotiations were preserved. The island thus entered the Italian orbit after the Iberian one, although this transfer would not initially entail any social nor cultural and linguistic changes: Sardinia would still retain for a long time its Iberian character, so much so that only in 1767 were the Aragonese and Spanish dynastic symbols replaced by the Savoyard cross. Until 1848, the Kingdom of Sardinia would in fact technically remain an island state with its own traditions and institutions, albeit without *summa potestas* and in personal union as an overseas possession of the House of Savoy. The Sardinian language, although practiced in a state of diglossia, continued to be spoken by all social classes, its linguistic alterity and independence being universally perceived; Spanish, on the other hand, was the prestige code known and used by the Sardinian social strata with at least some education, in so pervasive a manner that Joaquín Arce refers to it in terms of a paradox: Castilian had become the common language of the islanders by the time they officially ceased to be Spanish and, through their annexation by the House of Savoy, became Italian through Piedmont instead. Given the current situation, the Piedmontese ruling class which held the reins of the island, in this early phase, resolved to maintain its political and social institutions, while at the same time progressively hollowing them out as well as "treating the [Sardinian] followers of one faction and of the other equally, but keeping them divided in such a way as to prevent them from uniting, and for us to put to good use such rivalry when the occasion presents itself". According to Amos Cardia, this pragmatic stance was rooted in three political reasons: in the first place, the Savoyards did not want to rouse international suspicion and followed to the letter the rules dictated by the Treaty of London, signed on 2 August 1718, whereby they had committed themselves to respect the fundamental laws of the newly acquired Kingdom; in the second place, they did not want to antagonize the hispanophile locals, especially the elites; and finally, they lingered on hoping they could one day manage to dispose of Sardinia altogether, while still keeping the title of Kings by regaining Sicily. In fact, since imposing Italian would have violated one of the fundamental laws of the Kingdom, which the new rulers swore to observe upon taking on the mantle of King, Victor Amadeus II emphasised the need for the operation to be carried out through incremental steps, small enough to go relatively unnoticed (*insensibilmente*), as early as 1721. Such prudence was again noted, when the King claimed that he was nevertheless not intentioned to ban either Sardinian or Spanish on two separate occasions, in 1726 and 1728. The fact that the new masters of Sardinia felt at loss as to how they could better deal with a cultural and linguistic environment they perceived as alien to the Mainland, where Italian had long been the prestige and even official language, can be deduced from the study *Memoria dei mezzi che si propongono per introdurre l'uso della lingua italiana in questo Regno* ("Account of the proposed ways to introduce the Italian language to this Kingdom") commissioned in 1726 by the Piedmontese administration, to which the Jesuit Antonio Falletti from Barolo responded suggesting the *ignotam linguam per notam expōnĕre* ("to introduce an unknown language [Italian] through a known one [Spanish]") method as the best course of action for Italianisation. In the same year, Victor Amadeus II had already said he could no longer tolerate the lack of ability to speak Italian on the part of the islanders, in view of the inconveniences that such inability was putting through for the functionaries sent from the Mainland. Restrictions to mixed marriages between Sardinian women and the Piedmontese officers dispatched to the island, which had hitherto been prohibited by law, were at one point lifted and even encouraged so as to better introduce the language to the local population. Eduardo Blasco Ferrer argues that, in contrast to the cultural dynamics long established in the Mainland between Italian and the various Romance dialects thereof, in Sardinia the relationship between the Italian language – recently introduced by Savoy – and the native one had been perceived from the start by the locals, educated and uneducated alike, as a relationship (albeit unequal in terms of political power and prestige) between two very different languages, and not between a language and one of its dialects. The plurisecular Iberian period had also contributed in making the Sardinians feel relatively detached from the Italian language and its cultural sphere; local sensibilities towards the language were further exacerbated by the fact that the Spanish ruling class had long considered Sardinian a distinct language, with respect to their own ones and Italian as well. The perception of the alterity of Sardinian was also widely shared among the Italians who happened to visit the island and recounted their experiences with the local population, whom they often likened to the Spanish and the ancient peoples of the Orient, an opinion illustrated by the Duke Francis IV and Antonio Bresciani; a popular assertion by the officer Giulio Bechi, who would participate in a military campaign against Sardinian banditry dubbed as *caccia grossa* ("great hunt"), was that the islanders spoke "a horrible language, as intricate as Saracen, and sounding like Spanish". However, the Savoyard government eventually decided to directly introduce Italian altogether to Sardinia on the conventional date of 25 July 1760, because of the Savoyards' geopolitical need to draw the island away from Spain's gravitational pull and culturally integrate Sardinia into the orbit of the Italian peninsula, through the thorough assimilation of the island's cultural models, which were deemed by the Savoyard functionaries as "foreign" and "inferior", to Piedmont. In fact, the measure in question prohibited, among other things, "the unreserved use of the Castilian idiom in writing and speaking, which, after forty years of Italian rule, was still so deeply rooted in the hearts of the Sardinian teachers". In 1764, the exclusive imposition of the Italian language was finally extended to all sectors of public life, including education, in parallel with the reorganisation of the Universities of Cagliari and Sassari, which saw the arrival of personnel from the Italian mainland, and the reorganisation of lower education, where it was decided likewise to send teachers from Piedmont to make up for the lack of Italian-speaking Sardinian teachers. In 1763, it had already been planned to "send a number of skilled Italian professors" to Sardinia to "rid the Sardinian teachers of their errors" and "steer them along the right path". The purpose did not elude the attention of the Sardinian ruling class, who deplored the fact that "the Piedmontese bishops have introduced preaching in Italian" and, in an anonymous document attributed to the conservative Sardinian Parliament and eloquently called *Lamento del Regno* ("Grievance of the Kingdom"), denounced how "the arms, the privileges, the laws, the language, University, and currency of Aragon have now been taken away, to the disgrace of Spain, and to the detriment of all particulars". Spanish was replaced as the official language, even though Italian struggled to take roots for a long time: Milà i Fontanals wrote in 1863 that Catalan had been used in notarial instruments from Sardinia well into the 1780s, while parish registers and official deeds continued to be drawn up in Spanish until 1828. The most immediate effect of the order was thus the further marginalization of the Sardinians' native idiom, making way for a thorough Italianisation of the island. For the first time, in fact, even the wealthy and most powerful families of rural Sardinia, the *printzipales*, started to perceive Sardinian as a handicap. Girolamo Sotgiu asserts on the matter that "the Sardinian ruling class, just as it had become Hispanicized, now became Italianised, without ever managing to become Sardinian, that is to say, to draw from the experience and culture of their people, from which it came, those elements of concreteness without which a culture and a ruling class always seem foreign even in their homeland. This was the objective that the Savoyard government had set itself and which, to a good measure, it managed to pursue". Francesco Gemelli, in *Il Rifiorimento della Sardegna proposto nel miglioramento di sua agricoltura*, depicts the island's linguistic pluralism in 1776, and referring to Francesco Cetti's *I quadrupedi della Sardegna* for a more meticulous analysis of "the character of the Sardinian language ("*indole della lingua sarda*") and the main differences between Sassarese and Tuscan": "five languages are spoken in Sardinia, that is Spanish, Italian, Sardinian, Algherese, and Sassarese. The former two because of the past and today's domination, and they are understood and spoken through schooling by all the educated people residing in the cities, as well as villages. Sardinian is common to all the Kingdom, and is divided into two main dialects, Campidanese Sardinian and Sardinian from the Upper Half ("*capo di sopra*"). Algherese is a Catalan dialect, for a Catalan colony is Alghero; and finally Sassarese, which is spoken in Sassari, Tempio and Castel sardo (*sic*), is a dialect of Tuscan, a relic of their Pisan overlords. Spanish is losing ground to Italian, which has taken over the former in the fields of education and jurisdiction". The first systematic study on the Sardinian language was written in 1782 by the philologist Matteo Madau, with the title of *Il ripulimento della lingua sarda lavorato sopra la sua antologia colle due matrici lingue, la greca e la latina*. The intention that motivated Madau was to trace the ideal path through which Sardinian could be elevated to the island's proper national language; nevertheless, according to Amos Cardia, the Savoyard climate of repression on Sardinian culture would induce Matteo Madau to veil its radical proposals with some literary devices, and the author was eventually unable to ever translate them into reality. The first volume of comparative Sardinian dialectology was produced in 1786 by the Catalan Jesuit Andres Febres, known in Italy and Sardinia by the pseudonym of *Bonifacio d'Olmi*, who returned from Lima where he had first published a book of Mapuche grammar in 1764. After he moved to Cagliari, he became fascinated with the Sardinian language as well and conducted some research on three specific dialects; the aim of his work, entitled *Prima grammatica de' tre dialetti sardi*, was to "write down the rules of the Sardinian language" and spur the Sardinians to "cherish the language of their Homeland, as well as Italian". The government in Turin, which had been monitoring Febres' activity, decided that his work would not be allowed to be published: Victor Amadeus III had supposedly not appreciated the fact that the book had a bilingual dedication to him in Italian and Sardinian, a mistake that his successors, while still echoing back to a general concept of "Sardinian ancestral homeland", would from then on avoid, and making exclusive use of Italian to produce their works. At the end of the 18th century, following the trail of the French Revolution, a group of the Sardinian middle class planned to break away from Savoyard rule and institute an independent Sardinian Republic under French protection; all over the island, a number of political pamphlets printed in Sardinian were illegally distributed, calling for a mass revolt against the "Piedmontese" rule and the barons' abuse. The most famous literary product born out of such political unrest was the poem *Su patriottu sardu a sos feudatarios*, noted as a testament of the French-inspired democratic and patriotic values, as well as Sardinia's situation under feudalism. As for the reactions that the three-year Sardinian revolutionary period aroused in the island's ruling class, who were now in the process of Italianisation, for Sotgiu "its failure was complete: undecided between a breathless municipalism and a dead-end attachment to the Crown, it did not have the courage to lead the revolutionary wave coming from the countryside". In fact, although pamphlets such as "the Achilles of Sardinian Liberation" circulated, denouncing the backwardness of an oppressive feudal system and a Ministry that was said to have "always been the enemy of the Sardinian Nation", and the "social pact between the Sovereign and the Nation" was declared to have been broken, there was no radical change in the form of government: therefore, it is not surprising, according to Sotgiu, that although "the call for the Sardinian nation, its traditions and identity became stronger and stronger, even to the point of requesting the creation of a stable military force of "Sardinian nationals only"", the concrete hypothesis of abolishing the monarchical and feudal regimes did not "make its way into the consciousness of many". The only result was therefore "the defeat of the peasant class emerging from the very core of feudal society, urged on by the masses of peasants and led by the most advanced forces of the Sardinian bourgeoisie" and, conversely, the victory of the feudal barons and "of large strata of the town bourgeoisie that had developed within the framework of the feudal order and feared that the abolition of feudalism and the proclamation of the Republic might simultaneously destroy the very basis of their own wealth and prestige". In the climate of monarchic restoration that followed Giovanni Maria Angioy's rebellion, whose substantial failure marked therefrom a historic watershed in Sardinia's future, other Sardinian intellectuals, all characterized by an attitude of general devotion to their island as well as proven loyalty to the House of Savoy, posed in fact the question of the Sardinian language, while being careful enough to use only Italian as a language to get their point across. During the 19th century in particular, the Sardinian intellectuality and ruling class found itself divided over the adherence to the Sardinian national values and the allegiance to the new Italian nationality, toward which they eventually leaned in the wake of the abortive Sardinian revolution. The identity crisis of the Sardinian ruling class, and their strive for acceptance into the new citizenship of the Italian identity, would manifest itself with the publication of the so-called *Falsi d'Arborea* by the unionist Pietro Martini in 1863. A few years after the major anti-Piedmontese revolt, in 1811, the priest Vincenzo Raimondo Porru published a timid essay of Sardinian grammar, which, however, referred expressively to the Southern dialect (hence the title of *Saggio di grammatica del dialetto sardo meridionale*) and, out of prudence towards the king, was made with the declared intention of easing the acquisition of Italian among his fellow Sardinians, instead of protecting their language. The more ambitious work of the professor and senator Giovanni Spano, the *Ortographia sarda nationale* ("Sardinian National Orthography"), although it was officially meant for the same purpose as Porru's, attempted in reality to establish a unified Sardinian orthography based on Logudorese, just like Florentine had become the basis for Italian. The jurist Carlo Baudi di Vesme claimed that the suppression of Sardinian and the imposition of Italian was desirable to make the islanders into "civilized Italians". Since Sardinia was, in the words of Di Vesme, "not Spanish, but neither Italian: it is and has been for centuries just Sardinian", it was necessary, at the turn of the circumstances that "inflamed it with ambition, desire and love of all things Italian", to promote these tendencies even more in order "to profit from them in the common interest", for which it proved "almost necessary" to spread the Italian language in Sardinia "presently so little known in the interior" with a view to better enable the Perfect Fusion: "Sardinia will be Piedmont, it will be Italy; it will receive and give us lustre, wealth and power!". The primary and tertiary education was thus offered exclusively through Italian, and Piedmontese cartographers went on to replace many Sardinian place names with Italian ones. The Italian education, being imparted in a language the Sardinians were not familiar with, spread Italian for the first time in history to Sardinian villages, marking the troubled transition to the new dominant language; the school environment, which employed Italian as the sole means of communication, grew to become a microcosm around the then-monolingual Sardinian villages. In 1811, the canon Salvatore Carboni published in Bologna the polemic book *Sos discursos sacros in limba sarda* ("Holy Discourses in Sardinian language"), wherein the author lamented the fact that Sardinia, "*hoe provinzia italiana non podet tenner sas lezzes e sos attos pubblicos in sa propia limba*" ("Being an Italian province nowadays, [Sardinia] cannot have laws and public acts made in its own language"), and while claiming that "*sa limba sarda, totu chi non uffiziale, durat in su Populu Sardu cantu durat sa Sardigna*" ("the Sardinian language, however unofficial, will last as long as Sardinia among the Sardinians"), he also asked himself "*Proite mai nos hamus a dispreziare cun d'unu totale abbandonu sa limba sarda, antiga et nobile cantu s'italiana, sa franzesa et s'ispagnola?*" ("Why should we show neglect and contempt for Sardinian, which is a language as ancient and noble as Italian, French and Spanish?"). In 1827, the historical legal code serving as the *consuetud de la nació sardesca* in the days of the Iberian rule, the *Carta de Logu*, was abolished and replaced by the more advanced Savoyard code of Charles Felix "*Leggi civili e criminali del Regno di Sardegna*", written in Italian. The Perfect Fusion with the Mainland States, enacted under the auspices of a "transplant, without any reserves and obstacles, [of] the culture and civilization of the Italian Mainland to Sardinia", would result in the loss of the island's residual autonomy and marked the moment when "the language of the "Sardinian nation" lost its value as an instrument with which to ethnically identify a particular people and its culture, to be codified and cherished, and became instead one of the many regional dialects subordinated to the national language". Despite the long-term assimilation policy, the anthem of the Savoyard Kingdom of Sardinia would be *S'hymnu sardu nationale* ("the Sardinian National Anthem"), also known as *Cunservet Deus su Re* ("God save the King"), before it was *de facto* replaced by the Italian *Marcia Reale* as well, in 1861. However, even when the island became part of the Kingdom of Italy under Victor Emmanuel II in 1861, Sardinia's distinct culture from the now unified Mainland made it an overall neglected province within the newly proclaimed unitary nation state. Between 1848 and 1861, the island was plunged into a social and economic crisis that was to last until the post-war period. Eventually, Sardinian came to be perceived as *sa limba de su famine* / *sa lingua de su famini*, literally translating into English as "the language of hunger" (i.e. the language of the poor), and Sardinian parents strongly supported the teaching of the Italian tongue to their children, since they saw it as the portal to escaping from a poverty-stricken, rural, isolated and underprivileged life. ### Late modern period At the dawn of the 20th century, Sardinian had remained an object of research almost only among the island's scholars, struggling to garner international interest and even more suffering from a certain marginalization in the strictly Italian sphere: one observes in fact "the prevalence of foreign scholars over Italian ones and/or the existence of fundamental and still irreplaceable contributions by non-Italian linguists". Previously, Sardinian had been mentioned in a book by August Fuchs on irregular verbs in Romance languages (*Über die sogennannten unregelmässigen Zeitwörter in den romanischen Sprachen*, Berlin, 1840) and, later, in the second edition of *Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen* (1856–1860) written by Friedrich Christian Diez, credited as one of the founders of Romance philology. The pioneering research of German authors spurred a certain interest in the Sardinian language on the part of some Italian scholars, such as Graziadio Isaia Ascoli and, above all, his disciple Pier Enea Guarnerio, who was the first in Italy to classify Sardinian as a separate member of the Romance language family without subordinating it to the group of "Italian dialects", as was previously the custom in Italy. Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke, an undisputed authority on Romance linguistics, published in 1902 an essay on Logudorese Sardinian from the survey of the condaghe of San Pietro di Silki (*Zur Kenntnis des Altlogudoresischen*, in *Sitzungsberichte der kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaft Wien*, Phil. Hist. Kl., 145), the study of which led to the initiation into Sardinian linguistics of the then university student Max Leopold Wagner: it is to the latter's activity that much of the twentieth-century knowledge and research of Sardinian in the phonetic, morphological and, in part, syntactic fields was generated. During the mobilization for World War I, the Italian Army compelled all people on the island that were "of Sardinian stock" (*di stirpe sarda*) to enlist as Italian subjects and established the Sassari Infantry Brigade on 1 March 1915 at Tempio Pausania and Sinnai. Unlike the other infantry brigades of Italy, Sassari's conscripts were only Sardinians (including many officers). It is currently the only unit in Italy with an anthem in a language other than Italian: *Dimonios* ("Devils"), which would be written in 1994 by Luciano Sechi; its title derives from the German-language *Rote Teufel* ("red devils"), by which they were popularly known among the troops of the Austro-Hungarian Army. Compulsory military service around this period played a role in language shift and is referred to by historian Manlio Brigaglia as "the first great mass "nationalization"" of the Sardinians. Nevertheless, similarly to Navajo-speaking service members in the United States during World War II, as well as Quechua speakers during the Falklands War, native Sardinians were offered the opportunity to be recruited as code talkers to transmit tactical information in Sardinian over radio communications which might have otherwise run the risk of being gained by Austrian troops, since some of them hailed from Italian-speaking areas to which, therefore, the Sardinian language was utterly alien: Alfredo Graziani writes in his war diary that "having learned that many of our phonograms were being intercepted, we adopted the system of communicating on the phone only in Sardinian, certain that in this way they would never be able to understand what one was saying". To avoid infiltration attempts by said Italophone troops, positions were guarded by Sardinian recruits from the Sassari Brigade who required anyone who came to them that they identify themselves first by proving they spoke Sardinian: "*si ses italianu, faedda in sardu!*". The Sardinian-born philosopher Antonio Gramsci commented on the Sardinian linguistic question while writing a letter to his sister Teresina; Gramsci was aware of the long-term ramifications of language shift, and suggested that Teresa let her son acquire Sardinian with no restriction, because doing otherwise would result in "putting his imagination into a straitjacket" as well as him ending up eventually "learning two jargons, and no language at all". Coinciding with the year of the Irish War of Independence, Sardinian autonomism re-emerged as an expression of the fighters' movement, coagulating into the Sardinian Action Party (PsdAz) which, before long, would become one of the most important players in the island's political life. At the beginning, the party would not have had strictly ethnic claims though, being the Sardinian language and culture widely perceived, in the words of Fiorenzo Toso, as "symbols of the region's underdevelopment". The policy of forced assimilation culminated in the twenty years of the Fascist regime, which launched a campaign of violent compression of autonomist demands and finally determined the island's definitive entry into the "national cultural system" through the combined work of the educational system and the one-party system. Local cultural expressions were thus repressed, including Sardinia's festivals and improvised poetry competitions, and a large number of Sardinian surnames were changed to sound more Italian. An argument broke out between the Sardinian poet Antioco Casula (popularly known as *Montanaru*) and the fascist journalist Gino Anchisi, who stated that "once the region is moribund or dead", which the regime declared to be, "so will the dialect *(sic)*", which was interpreted as "the region's revealing spiritual element"; in the wake of this debate, Anchisi managed to have Sardinian banned from the printing press, as well. The significance of the Sardinian language as it was posed by Casula, in fact, lent itself to potentially subversive themes, being tied to the practices of cultural resistance of an indigenous ethnic group, whose linguistic repertoire had to be introduced in school to preserve a "Sardinian personality" and regain "a dignity" perceived to have been lost in the process. Another famed poet from the island, Salvatore (*Bore*) Poddighe, fell into a severe depression and took his own life a few years after his masterwork (*Sa Mundana Cummedia*) had been seized by Cagliari's police commissioner. When the use of Sardinian in school was banned in 1934 as part of a nation-wide educational plan against the alloglot "dialects", the then Sardinian-speaking children were confronted with another means of communication that was supposed to be their own from then onwards. On a whole, this period saw the most aggressive cultural assimilation effort by the central government, which led to an even further sociolinguistic degradation of Sardinian. While the interior managed to at least partially resist this intrusion at first, everywhere else the regime had succeeded in thoroughly supplanting the local cultural models with new ones hitherto foreign to the community and compress the former into a "pure matter of folklore", marking a severance from the island's heritage that engendered, according to Guido Melis, "an identity crisis with worrying social repercussions", as well as "a rift that could no longer be healed through the generations". This period is identified by Manlio Brigaglia as the second mass "nationalization" of the Sardinians, which was characterized by "a policy deliberately aiming at "Italianisation"" by means of, in his words, "a declared war" against the usage of the Sardinian language by fascism and the Catholic Church alike. In 1945, following the restoration of political freedoms, the Sardinian Action Party called for autonomy as a federal state within the "new Italy" that had emerged from the Resistance: it was in the context of the second post-war period that, as consensus for autonomy kept growing, the party began to distinguish itself by policies based on Sardinia's linguistic and cultural specificity. Present situation ----------------- After World War II, awareness around the Sardinian language and the danger of its slipping away did not seem to concern the Sardinian elites and entered the political spaces later than in other European peripheries marked by the presence of local ethno-linguistic minorities; Sardinian was in fact dismissed by the middle class, as both the Sardinian language and culture were still being held responsible for the island's underdevelopment. The Sardinian ruling class, drawn to the Italian modernisation stance on how to steer the islanders to "social development", believed in fact that the Sardinians had been held back by their own "traditional practices" vis-à-vis the mainlanders, and that, in order to catch up with the latter, social and cultural progress could only be brought about through the rejection of said practices. As the language bore an increasing amount of stigmatisation and came to be perceived as an undesirable identity marker, the Sardinians were consequently encouraged to part with it by way of linguistic and cultural assimilation. At the time of drafting of the statute in 1948, the national legislator in Rome eventually decided to specify the "Sardinian specialty" as a criterion for political autonomy uniquely on the grounds of local socio-economic issues; further considerations were discarded which were centred on the ascertainment of a distinct cultural, historical and geographical identity, although they had been hitherto the primary local justifications arguing for home rule, as they were looked down upon as a potential prelude to more autonomist or even more radical separatist claims; this view would be exemplified by a report of the Italian Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry into Banditry, which warned against a looming threat posed by "isolationist tendencies injurious to the development of Sardinian society and recently manifesting themselves in the proposal to regard Sardinian as the language of an ethnic minority". Eventually, the special statute of 1948 settled instead to concentrate on the arrangement of state-funded plans (baptised with the Italian name of *piani di rinascita*) for the heavy industrial development of the island. Therefore, far from generating a Statute grounded on the acknowledgment of a particular cultural identity like, for example, in the Aosta Valley and South Tyrol, what ended up resulting in Sardinia was, in the words of Mariarosa Cardia, an outcome "solely based on economic considerations, because there was not either the will or the ability to devise a strong and culturally motivated autonomy, a "Sardinian specificity" that was not defined in terms of social backwardness and economic deprivation". Emilio Lussu, who admitted that he had only voted in favour of the final draft "to prevent the Statute from being rejected altogether by a single vote, even in such a reduced form", was the only member, at the session of 30 December 1946, to call in vain for the mandatory teaching of the Sardinian language, arguing that it was "a millenary heritage that must be preserved". In the meantime, the emphasis on Italian continued, with historical sites and ordinary objects being henceforth popularised in Italian for mass consumption (e.g. the various kinds of "traditional" *pecorino* cheese, *zippole* instead of *tzipulas*, *carta da musica* instead of *carasau*, *formaggelle* instead of *pardulas* / *casadinas*, etc.). The Ministry of Public Education once requested that the teachers willing to teach Sardinian be put under surveillance. The rejection of the indigenous language and culture, along with a rigid model of Italian-language education which induced a denigration of Sardinian through corporal punishment and shaming, has led to poor schooling for the Sardinians. Roberto Bolognesi stated that in his school years in Sardinia, he had "witnessed both physical and psychological abuse against monolingual Sardinian-speaking children. The psychological violence consisted usually in calling the children "donkeys" and in inviting the whole class to join the mockery". Early school leaving and high school failure rates in Sardinia prompted a debate in the early Nineties on the efficaciousness of strictly monolingual education, with proposals for a focus on a comparative approach. Claims for an autonomous solution to the Sardinian economic, social and cultural problems, which the 1948 Statute proved unable to resolve, came to the fore once again in the Sixties, with campaigns, often expressed in the form of political demands by Sardinian nationalists, to give Sardinian equal status with Italian as a means to promote cultural identity. Antonio Simon Mossa had drawn from his past experiences across the world, including the newly independent country of Algeria, that Sardinians were one of the many ethnic and national minorities facing the danger of cultural assimilation, and his fervor reverberated across the Sardinian society, pushing even some non-nationalist groups to take an interest in matters relating to minorities. Although a law was passed as early as 1955 for the establishment of five professorships of Sardinian linguistics, one of the first demands for bilingualism was in fact formulated in a resolution adopted by the University of Cagliari in 1971, calling upon the national and regional authorities to recognize the Sardinians as an ethnic and linguistic minority and Sardinian as the islanders' co-official language. At a time when the Italian "modernisation plans" in Sardinia were in full swing, the Italian government was apprehensive about this deliberation by the University of Cagliari as providing the timber for further ethnic unrest in the state's peripheries. Sergio Salvi's description of the Sardinians as a "forbidden nation" in Italy further contributed to the linguistic question gaining more notoriety at the national level. A first legal draft concerning Sardinian as a language to be legally put on an equal position with Italian was developed by the Sardinian Action Party in 1975. Critical acclaim in Sardinian cultural circles followed the patriotic poem *No sias isciau* ("Don't be a slave") by Raimondo (*Remundu*) Piras some months before his death in 1977, urging bilingual education to reverse the ongoing trend of cultural De-Sardization. Indeed, during the late 70s reports were released that Sardinian was on course of being abandoned in favour of Italian in the towns and among the younger generation. By then, a significant shift to Italian had been noted in rural Sardinia not only in the Campidanese plain, but even in some inner areas that had been previously considered Sardinian-speaking bastions, manifesting a parallel shift of the values upon which the ethnic and cultural identity of the Sardinians was traditionally grounded. From then onwards, the use of Sardinian would continue to recede because of the strongly negative view the Sardinian community developed toward it, assuming a self-belittling attitude which has been described as the emergence of a "minority complex" fairly typical of linguistic minorities. However, by the Eighties the language had become a point of ethnic pride: it also became a tool through which long held grievances towards the central government's failure at delivering better economic and social conditions could be channeled. A contradicting tendency has been noted by observing that, while Sardinian is held in a much more positive light than before, its actual use has notably decreased and keeps doing so. A law by popular initiative for Sardinian-Italian bilingualism garnered considerable success as it kept gathering thousands of signatures, but was promptly blocked by the Italian Communist Party and thus never implemented. The same Italian Communist Party would later propose, however, another bill of its own initiative "for the protection of the language and culture of the Sardinian people" in 1980. In the end, following tensions and claims of the Sardinian nationalist movement for concrete cultural and political autonomy, including the recognition of the Sardinians as an ethnic and linguistic minority, three separate bills were eventually presented to the Regional Council in the Eighties. In 1981, the Regional Council debated and voted for the introduction of bilingualism in Sardinia for the first time. As pressure by a resolution of the Council of Europe continued to bear on Italian policy-makers for the protection of minorities, a Commission was appointed in 1982 to investigate the issue; the following year, a bill was presented to the Italian Parliament, but without success. One of the first laws approved by the Sardinian legislator with respect to the protection and promotion of the Sardinian language and culture was soon rejected by the Constitutional Court in 1994, which deemed it "exorbitant in a multitude of ways with regard to the supplementary and implementing powers enjoyed by the Region in matters of education"; it was not until 1997 that Sardinian was finally recognized by the regional law (n. 26 of 15 October 1997 "Promotion and enhancement of the culture and language of Sardinia") without there being any recourse from the Italian central government; this law too, however, would prove to be more focused on the traditions and history of the Sardinian people than their language in itself. A survey conducted by MAKNO in 1984 showed that three-quarters of the Sardinians had a positive attitude towards bilingual education (22% of the interviewees, especially in the Province of Nuoro and Oristano, wanted Sardinian to be compulsory in Sardinian schools, while 54.7% would prefer to see teaching in Sardinian as optional) and official bilingualism like in the Aosta Valley and South Tyrol (62.7% of the population were in favour, 25.9% said no and 11.4% were unsure). Such consensus remains relatively stable to this day; another survey, conducted in 2008, reported that more than half of the interviewees, 57.3%, were in favour of the introduction of Sardinian into schools alongside Italian. More research carried out in 2010 confirmed warm reception among the students' parents to introducing Sardinian at school, even though skepticism circulated around having it taught as the vehicular language of education. In the 1990s, there had been a resurgence of Sardinian-language music, ranging from the more traditional genres (*cantu a tenore*, *cantu a chiterra*, *gosos* etc.) to rock (*Kenze Neke*, *Askra*, *Tzoku*, *Tazenda* etc.) and even hip hop and rap (*Dr. Drer e CRC Posse*, *Quilo*, *Sa Razza*, *Malam*, *Su Akru*, *Menhir*, *Stranos Elementos*, *Malos Cantores*, *Randagiu Sardu*, *Futta* etc.), and with artists who used the language as a means to promote the island and address its long-standing issues and the new challenges. A few films (like *Su Re*, *Bellas Mariposas*, *Treulababbu*, *Sonetaula* etc.) have also been dubbed in Sardinian, and some others were provided with subtitles in the language. The first scientific work in Sardinian (*Sa chistione mundiali de s'Energhia*), delving into the question of modern energy supplies, was written by Paolo Giuseppe Mura, Physics Professor at the University of Cagliari, in 1995. Eventually, sustained activism made possible the ratification by Italy of the European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in 1998, which would be followed in 1999 by the formal recognition of twelve minority languages (Sardinian, Albanian, Catalan, German, Greek, Slovenian, Croatian, French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Ladin and Occitan) through the framework law no. 482, in keeping with the spirit of Art. 6 of the Italian Constitution ("The Republic safeguards linguistic minorities by means of appropriate measures"). While the first section of said law states that Italian is the official language of the Republic, a number of provisions are included to normalize the use of such languages and let them become part of the national fabric. However, Italy (along with France and Malta) has never ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Nevertheless, the law proved to be a positive step towards the legalization of Sardinian as it put at least an end to the ban on the language which had been in effect since the Italian Unification, and was deemed as a starting point, albeit timid, to pursue a more decentralized school curriculum for the island. Still, some national school books (education has never fallen under the region's remits and is managed by the state at the central level) have not stopped to squeeze the language into the Italian acceptation of *dialetto* ("Italian dialect") in spite of its actual recognition by the state. Sardinian is yet to be taught at school, with the exception of a few experimental occasions; Mauro Maxia noticed a lack of interest on the part of school managers, some request for Sardinian language classes notwithstanding. Furthermore, its use has not ceased to be disincentivized as antiquated or even indicative of a lack of education, leading many locals to associate it with negative feelings of shame, backwardness, and provincialism. Similar issues of identity have been observed in regard to the community's attitude toward what they positively perceive to be part of "modernity", generally associated with the Italian cultural sphere, as opposed to the Sardinian one, whose aspects have long been stigmatized as "primitive" and "barbarous" by the political and social institutions that ruled the island. Roberto Bolognesi believes that the enduring stigmatisation of Sardinian as the language of the "socially and culturally disadvantaged" classes leads to the nurturing of a vicious circle that further promotes the language's regression, reinforcing its negative judgement among those who perceive themselves as "most competitive": "a perverse mechanism that has condemned and still condemns Sardinian speakers to social marginalisation, systematically excluding them from those linguistic and cultural interactions in which the prestigious registers and high style of language are developed, first and foremost in schools". A number of other factors like a considerable immigration flow from mainland Italy, the interior rural exodus to urban areas, where Sardinian is spoken by a much lower percentage of the population, and the use of Italian as a prerequisite for jobs and social advancement actually hinder any policy set up to promote the language. Therefore, following the model proposed by a UNESCO panel of experts in 2003, Sardinian is classified by UNESCO as a "definitely endangered" language ("children no longer learn the language as mother tongue in the home"), on the way to become "severely endangered" ("the language is used mostly by the grandparental generation and up"). Language use is far from stable; following the Expanded GIDS (*Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale*) model, Sardinian would position between 7 ("Shifting: the child-bearing generation knows the language well enough to use it among themselves but none are transmitting it to their children") and 8a ("Moribund: the only remaining active speakers of the language are members of the grandparent generation"). While an estimated 68 percent of the islanders had in fact a good oral command of Sardinian, language ability among the children has plummeted to less than 13 percent; some linguists, like Mauro Maxia, cite the low number of Sardinian-speaking children (with the notable case of a number of villages where Sardinian has ceased to be spoken altogether since 1993) as indicative of language decline, calling Sardinia a case of "linguistic suicide". The depth of the Sardophone networks' increasing assimilation into Italian is illustrated by the latest ISTAT data published in 2017, which confirm Italian as the language that has largely taken root as the means of socialization within Sardinian families (52.1%), relegating the practice of code-switching to 31.5% and the actual use of languages other than Italian to only 15.6%; outside the social circle of family and friends, the numbers define Italian as by far the most prevalent language (87.2%), as opposed to the usage of Sardinian and other languages which has dropped to 2.8%. Today, most people who use Sardinian as part of day-to-day life reside mainly in the sparsely populated areas in the countryside, like the mountainous region of Barbagia. A bill proposed by the cabinet of the former Italian Prime Minister Mario Monti would have further lowered the protection level of Sardinian, distinguishing between the so-called "national minorities", speaking languages protected by international agreements (German, Slovenian, French) and the "linguistic minorities" whose language is not spoken in any state other than Italy (all the other ethno-linguistic groups, including Sardinian). This bill, which was eventually implemented but later deemed unconstitutional by the Court, triggered a reaction on the island. Students expressed an interest in taking all (or part) of their exit examinations in Sardinian. In response to a 2013 Italian initiative to remove bilingual signs on the island, a group of Sardinians began a virtual campaign on Google Maps to replace Italian place names with the original Sardinian names. After about one month, Google changed the place names back to Italian. After a signature campaign, it has been made possible to change the language setting on Facebook from any language to Sardinian. It is also possible to switch to Sardinian even in Telegram and a number of other programs, like F-Droid, Diaspora, OsmAnd, Notepad++, QGIS, Swiftkey, Stellarium, Skype, VLC media player for Android and iOS, Linux Mint Debian Edition 2 "Betsy", Firefox etc. The DuckDuckGo search engine is available in Sardinian as well. In 2016, the first automatic translation software from Italian to Sardinian was developed. In 2015, all the political parties in the Sardinian regional council reached an agreement concerning a series of amendments to the old 1997 law to be able to introduce the optional teaching of the language in Sardinia's schools. The Unified Text on the Discipline of the Regional linguistic policy was eventually approved on 27 June 2018, with the aim of setting in motion a path towards bilingual administration, contributions to bilingual mass media, publishing, IT schools and websites; it also allowed for the foundation of a Sardinian board (*Consulta de su Sardu*) with thirty experts that would propose a linguistic standard based on the main historical varieties, and would also have advisory duties towards the Regional body. However, said law has yet to be followed up by the respective implementing decrees, the lack of which prevents it from being legally applicable. Some Sardinian language activists and activist groups have also contested the law itself, considering it a political attack on Sardinian made to try to negate its uniformity and to relegate it to folklore, and also noted how its text contains a few parts that could bring the Italian government to challenge it. In 2021 the Prosecutor of Oristano opened a Sardinian linguistic desk, both to support citizens and to provide advice and translations to magistrates and the police. It has been the first time in Italy in which such a service has been offered to a minority language. Although there is still not an option to teach Sardinian on the island itself, let alone in Italy, some language courses are instead sometimes available in Germany (Universities of Stuttgart, Munich, Tübingen, Mannheim etc.), Spain (University of Girona), Iceland and Czech Republic (Brno university). Shigeaki Sugeta also taught Sardinian to his students of Romance languages at the Waseda University in Tokyo (Japan), and would even release a Sardinian–Japanese dictionary out of it. At present, the Sardinian-speaking community is the least protected one in Italy, despite being the largest minority language group officially recognized by the state. In fact the language, which is receding in all domains of use, is still not given access to any field of public life, such as education (Italian–Sardinian bilingualism is still frowned upon, while the local public universities play little, if any, role whatsoever in supporting the language), politics (with the exception of some nationalist groups), justice, administrative authorities and public services, media, and cultural, ecclesiastical, economic and social activities, as well as facilities. In a case presented to the European Commission by the then MEP Renato Soru in 2017, in which he complained of national negligence with regard to the state's own legislation in comparison to other linguistic minorities, the Commission's response pointed out to the Honourable Member that matters of language policy pursued by individual member states do not fall within its competences. According to a 2017 report on the digital language diversity in Europe, Sardinian appears to be particularly vital on social media as part of many people's everyday life for private use, but such vitality does not still translate into a strong and wide availability of Internet media for the language. In 2017, a 60-hour Sardinian language course was introduced for the first time in Sardinia and Italy at the University of Cagliari, although such a course had been already available in other universities abroad. In 2015, the Council of Europe commented on the status of national minorities in Italy, noting the approach of the Italian government towards them with the exception of the German, French and Slovenian languages, where Italy has applied full bilingualism due to international agreements; despite the formal recognition from the Italian state, Italy does not in fact collect any information on the ethnic and linguistic composition of the population, apart from South Tyrol. There is also virtually no print and broadcasting media exposure in politically or numerically weaker minorites like Sardinian. Moreover, the resources allocated to cultural projects like bilingual education, which lacks a consistent approach and offers no guarantee of continuity throughout the years, are largely insufficient to meet "even the most basic expectations". A solution to the Sardinian question being unlikely to be found anytime soon, the language has become highly endangered: even though the endogamy rate among group members seems to be very high, less than 15 per cent of the Sardinian children use the language to communicate with each other. it appears that the late recognition of Sardinian as a minority language on the part of the state, as well as the gradual but pervasive Italianisation promoted by the latter's education system, the administration system and the media, followed by the intergenerational language replacement, made it so that the vitality of Sardinian has been heavily compromised. The 1995 Euromosaic project, which conducted a research study on the current situation of the ethno-linguitic minorities across Europe under the auspices of the European Commission, concludes their report on Sardinian as follows: > This would appear to be yet another minority language group under threat. The agencies of production and reproduction are not serving the role they did a generation ago. The education system plays no role whatsoever in supporting the language and its production and reproduction. The language has no prestige and is used in work only as a natural as opposed to a systematic process. It seems to be a language relegated to a highly localised function of interaction between friends and relatives. Its institutional base is extremely weak and declining. Yet there is concern among its speakers who have an emotive link to the language and its relationship to Sardinian identity. > > — Sardinian language use survey, Euromosaic report As Matteo Valdes explains, "the island's population sees, day after day, the decline of their original languages. They are complicit in this decline, passing on to their children the language of prestige and power, but at the same time they feel that the loss of local languages is also a loss of themselves, of their history, of their own specific identity or distinctiveness". With cultural assimilation having already occurred, most of the younger generation of islanders, although they do understand some basic Sardinian, is now in fact Italian monolingual and monocultural as they are not able to speak Sardinian anymore, but simply regional Italian (known amongst Italian linguists as *italiano regionale sardo* or *IrS*) which in its lowest diastratic forms is, oftentimes derisively, nicknamed *italiànu porcheddìnu* (literally "swinish Italian") by native Sardinian speakers. Roberto Bolognesi argues that, in the face of the persistent denial and rejection of the Sardinian language, it is as if the latter "had taken revenge" on its original community of speakers "and continues to do so by "polluting" the hegemonic linguistic system", recalling Gramsci's prophetic warning uttered at the dawn of the previous century. In fact, compared to a now prevalent regional Italian that, according to Bolognesi, "is in fact a hybrid language that has arisen from the contact between two different linguistic systems", "the (little) Sardinian which is used by young people often constitutes an ungrammatical jargon filled with obscenities and constructions belonging to Italian": in other words, the population would therefore only master "two crippled languages" (*due lingue zoppe*) whose manifestations do not arise from a recognisable norm, nor do they constitute a clear source of linguistic security. Bolognesi believes therefore that the Sardinians' utter "rejection of their original linguistic identity has not entailed the hoped-for and automatic homologation to a more socially prestigious identity, but the acquisition of a second-class identity (neither truly Sardinian nor truly Italian), no longer self-centred but rather peripheral with respect to the sources of linguistic and cultural norms, which still remain beyond their reach: on the other side of the Tyrrhenian Sea". By contrast, Eduardo Blasco Ferrer has been noted how the Sardinian-speaking community engages only in code-switching and usually takes care in refraining from code-mixing between the two different languages. Negative attitudes among native speakers have been observed towards second-language learners for speaking "poor Sardinian", an attitude considered to be ethnically grounded on the interaction of in-group and out-group dynamics. In conclusion, the Sardinian language, while still being described as "viable" in 2003, continues to be adversely affected by pervasive and all-encompassing Italianisation through language shift, and is thus nowadays moribund, albeit its replacement continues at a slower pace than before thanks to the commitment of those who, in various contexts, promote its revaluation in a process that has been defined by some scholars as "linguistic re-Sardization". Still, arrangements for bilingualism exist only on paper and factors such as the intergenerational transmission, which remain essential in the reproduction of the ethnolinguistic group, are severely compromised because of Italianisation; many young speakers, who have been raised in Italian rather than Sardinian, have a command of their ethnic language which does not extend beyond a few stereotyped formulas, and even today's cohort of older Sardinian speakers is unable to carry on an entire conversation in Sardinian as their knowledge of it gets increasingly fragmented. As of now, Sardinian seems to be viewed by the islanders as an instrument for the reappropriation of their past, rather than for its use as a means of communication for the present and future. Phonology --------- Sardinian Consonants| | Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Retroflex | Post-alv./ Palatal | Velar | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Plosive | voiceless | p | t | t͡s | | t͡ʃ† | k | | voiced | b | d | d͡z | ɖ | d͡ʒ† | ɡ | | Fricative | voiceless | f | θ‡ | s | | ʃ† | | | voiced | v† | | | | ʒ† | | | Nasal | m | n | | | ɲ† | | | Vibrant | | | r | | | | | Approximant | w† | | l | | j | | † Variable presence, depending on dialect. ‡ Mainly in Nuorese. Sardinian Vowels| | Front | Central | Back | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Close | i | | u | | Close-mid | e† | | o† | | Open-mid | ɛ | | ɔ | | Open | | a | | † Only in Campidanese. Grammar ------- Some distinctive features typical of Sardinian include: ### Nouns * The plural marker is *-s* (from the Latin accusative plural), as in Western Romance languages like French, Occitan, Catalan, Spanish, Portuguese and Galician: *sardu*, *sardus* "Sardinian"; *pudda*, *puddas* "hen"; *margiane*, *margianes* "fox". In Italo-Dalmatian languages like Italian, or Eastern Romance languages like Romanian, the plural ends with *-i*, *-e* or *-a*. However, Sardinian may also change the final vowel. * The definite article derives from the Latin *ipse*: *su, sa*, plural *sos, sas* (Logudorese) and *is* (Campidanese). At present, such articles are only common in Balearic Catalan and were once used in Gascon as well, whilst all the other Romance languages make use of forms derived from *ille*. ### Verbs Sardinian verbs are divided into three main classes, each distinguished by a different infinitive ending (*-are*, *-ere*, or *-ire*). The conjugations of regular verbs in the standard language are as follows: | Infinitive | *cantare* | *tìmere* | *finire* | | Participle | Present | *cantende* | *timende* | *finende* | | Past | *cantadu* | *tìmidu* | *finidu* | | Indicative | Present | *canto**cantas**cantat**cantamus**cantades**cantant* | *timo**times**timet**timimus**timides**timent* | *fino**finis**finit**finimus**finides**finent* | | Imperfect | *cantaia**cantaias**cantaiat**cantaìamus**cantaiais**cantaiant* | *timia**timias**timiat**timìamus**timiais**timiant* | *finia**finias**finiat**finìamus**finiais**finiant* | | Subjunctive | Present | *cante**cantes**cantet**cantemus**canteis**cantent* | *tima**timas**timat**timamus**timais**timant* | *fina**finas**finat**finamus**finais**finant* | | Imperfect | *cantare**cantares**cantaret**cantaremus**cantareis**cantarent* | *timere**timeres**timeret**timeremus**timereis**timerent* | *finire**finires**finiret**finiremus**finireis**finirent* | | Imperative | *canta**cantade* | *time**timide* | *fini**finais* | ### Syntax Distinctive syntax features include: * A common occurrence of a left-dislocated construction: *cussa cantone apo cantadu* ("That song I have sung": that is, "I've sung that song"). + In yes/no questions, fronting of a constituent (especially a predicative element) is required, though it is not specifically a question-formation process: *Cumprendiu m'as?* ("Understood me you have", that is, "Have you understood me?"), *Mandicatu at?* ("Eaten he/she has", that is "Has he/she eaten?"), *Fattu l'at* ("Done he/she has", that is "He/She's done it"), etc. * Interrogative phrases might be constructed like echo questions, with the interrogative marker remaining in underlying position: *Sunt lòmpios cando?* ("They arrived when?", that is, "when did they arrive?"), *Juanne at pigadu olìas cun chie?* ("John has picked olives with whom?"), etc. * Impersonal sentence constructions are commonly used to replace the passive voice, which is limited to the formal register: *A Juanni ddu ant mortu* rather than *Juanni est istadu mortu*. * The use of *non de* + noun: *non de abba, abbardente est* ("not of water brandy it+is": that is, "It is not water, but brandy."); *non de frades, parent inimigos* ("Not of brothers, they seem enemies": that is, "Far from being brothers, they are like enemies"). * The use of *ca* (from *quia*) or *chi* as subordinate conjunctions: *Ja nau ti l'apo ca est issa sa mere* ("Already told I have you that is she the boss", that is "I've already told you that it's her the boss"). * Existential uses of *àer* / *ài* ("to have") and *èsser* / *èssi* ("to be"): *B'at prus de chentu persones inoghe!* ("There is over a hundred people in here!"), *Nci funt is pratus in mesa* ("There are the plates on the table"). * *Ite* ("What") + adjective + *chi*: *Ite bellu chi ses!* ("What beautiful that (you) are!", that is "How beautiful you are!"). * Nominal syntagmas without having a head: *Cussu ditzionariu de gregu est prus mannu de su de Efis* ("That Greek dictionary is bigger than Efisio's"), *Cudda machina est prus manna de sa de Juanne* ("That car is bigger than John's"). * Extraposition of the lexical head: *Imprestami su tou de ditzionariu* ("Please lend me your dictionary"). * *Ancu* + subjunctive as a way to express a (malevolent) wish on someone: *Ancu ti falet unu lampu!* ("May you be struck by lightning!"). * Prepositional accusative: *Apo bidu a Maria* ("I've seen Mary"). * Insertion of the affirmative particle *ja* / *giai*: *Ja m'apo corcau* ("I did go to bed"). + Use of the same particle to express antiphrastic formulas: *Jai ses totu istudiatu, tue!* ("You're so well educated!", that is, "You are so ignorant and full of yourself!"). * Reflexive use of intransitive verbs: *Tziu Pascale si nch'est mortu eris sero* ("Uncle Pascal passed away yesterday"), *Mi nch'apo dormiu pro una parica de oras* ("I've slept for a couple of hours"). * Use of *àer* in reflexive sentences: *Si at fertu a s'anca traballende* ("He/She injured himself/herself while working"). * Combination of the perfective and progressive verb aspect: *Est istadu traballende totu sa die* ("He/She has been working all day"). * Continuous and progressive aspect of the verb, which is meant to indicate an effective situation rather than typical or habitual: *Non ti so cumprendende* ("I don't understand you"). * Relative lack of adverbs: with the exception of some localized words like the Nuorese *mescamente* ("especially"), as well as some recent loanwords from Italian, all the Sardinian dialects have a number of ways with which to express the meaning conferred to the adverbs by the other Romance languages (e.g. *Luchía currit prus a lestru / acoitendi de María*, "Lucy runs faster than Mary"). * The expression of the deontic modality through a periphrastic form, characterized by the verb "to want" in auxiliary position, a feature also common to Southern Corsican, Sicilian, Moroccan Arabic and Moroccan Berber, in addition to some non-standard varieties of English. (e.g. *Su dinare bolet / cheret torradu* "money has to be paid back"). * The *condaghes* seem to demonstrate that unlike other Romance languages, Old Sardinian may have had verb-initial word order, with optional topicalization into the beginning of the sentence. While verb-initial word order is also attested in other old Romance languages, such as Old Venetian, Old French, Old Neapolitan, Old Spanish, Old Sicilian and others, it has been argued that Old Sardinian was alone in licensing verb-initial word order (V1) as the generalized word order, while the others had V1 only as a marked alternative. ### Vocabulary comparison with other Romance languages | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | English | *Late Latin* | ***Sardinian*** | *Corsican* | *Sicilian* | *Italian* | *Spanish* | *Catalan* | *French* | *Portuguese* | *Romanian* | | key | *clāvem* | **crae/-i** | *chjave/chjavi* | *chiavi* | *chiave* | *llave* | *clau* | *clé* | *chave* | *cheie* | | night | *noctem* | **note/-i** | *notte/notti* | *notti* | *notte* | *noche* | *nit* | *nuit* | *noite* | *noapte* | | sing | *cantāre* | **cantare/-ai** | *cantà* | *cantari* | *cantare* | *cantar* | *cantar* | *chanter* | *cantar* | *cânta* | | goat | *capram* | **cabra/craba** | *capra* | *crapa* | *capra* | *cabra* | *cabra* | *chèvre* | *cabra* | *capră* | | language | *linguam* | **limba/lìngua** | *lingua/linga* | *liṅgua* | *lingua* | *lengua* | *llengua* | *langue* | *língua* | *limbă* | | plaza | *plateam* | **pratza** | *piazza* | *chiazza* | *piazza* | *plaza* | *plaça* | *place* | *praça* | *piață* | | bridge | *pontem* | **ponte/-i** | *ponte/ponti* | *punti* | *ponte* | *puente* | *pont* | *pont* | *ponte* | *pod, punte* | | church | *ecclēsiam* | **crèsia/eccresia** | *ghjesgia* | *cresia/chiesa* | *chiesa* | *iglesia* | *església* | *église* | *igreja* | *biserică* | | hospital | *hospitālem* | **ispidale/spidali** | *spedale/uspidali* | *spitali* | *ospedale* | *hospital* | *hospital* | *hôpital* | *hospital* | *spital* | | cheese | *cāseum (fōrmāticum)* | **casu** | *casgiu* | *tumazzu* | *cacio, formaggio* | *queso* | *formatge* | *fromage* | *queijo* | *brânză, caș* | Varieties --------- Historically, the Sardinians have always been a small-numbered population scattered across isolated cantons, sharing demographic patterns similar to the neighbouring Corsica; as a result, Sardinian developed a broad spectrum of dialects over the time. Starting from Francesco Cetti's description in the 18th century, Sardinian has been presented as a pluricentric language, being traditionally subdivided into two standardized varieties spoken by roughly half of the entire community: the dialects spoken in North-Central Sardinia, centered on the orthography known as Logudorese (*su sardu logudoresu*), and the dialects spoken in South-Central Sardinia, centered on another orthography called Campidanese (*su sardu campidanesu*). All the Sardinian dialects differ primarily in phonetics, which does not considerably hamper intelligibility; the view of there being a dialectal boundary rigidly separating the two varieties of High Sardinian has been in fact subjected to more recent research, which shows a fluid dialect continuum from the northern to the southern ends of the island. The dualist perception of the Sardinian dialects, rather than pointing to an actual isogloss, is in fact the result of a psychological adherence to the way Sardinia was administratively subvidided into a *Caput Logudori* (*Cabu de Susu*) and a *Caput Calaris* (*Cabu de Jossu*) by the Spanish. The dialects centered on the "Logudorese Sardinian model" are generally considered more conservative, with the Nuorese dialect of Sardinian (*su sardu nugoresu*) being deemed the most conservative of all. They have all retained the classical Latin pronunciation of the stop velars (*kena* versus *cena*, "supper"), the front middle vowels (compare Campidanese iotacism, probably from Byzantine Greek) and assimilation of close-mid vowels (*cane* versus *cani*, "dog" and *gattos* versus *gattus*, "cats"). Labio-velars become plain labials (*limba* versus *lingua*, "language" and *abba* versus *acua*, "water"). *I* is prosthesized before consonant clusters beginning in *s* (*iscala* versus Campidanese Sardinian *scala*, "stairway" and *iscola* versus *scola*, "school"). An east-west strip of villages in central Sardinia, mainly in the central part of the Province of Oristano, and central part of the Province of Nuoro, speaks a transitional group of dialects (*su sardu de mesania*). Examples include *is limbas* (the languages) and *is abbas* (the waters). The dialects centered on the Campidanese model, spreading from Cagliari (once the metropolis of the Roman province), show relatively more influences from Carthage, Rome, Constantinople and Late Latin. Examples include *is fruminis* (the rivers) and *is domus* (the houses). Some dialects of Sardinian from the extreme ends of the aforementioned continuum have been estimated in another research to have 88% of matches in 110-item wordlist, similarly to the 85–88% number of matches between Provençal Occitan and some Catalan dialects which by some standards is usually (even though arbitrarily) considered characteristic for two different, albeit very closely related, languages. ISO 639 counts four Sardinian languages (Campidanese, Gallurese, Logudorese and Sassarese), each with its own language code. Non-Sardinian language varieties spoken in Sardinia Sardinian is the indigenous and historical language of most Sardinian communities. However, Sardinian is not spoken as the native and primary language in a significant number of other ones, roughly amounting to 20% of the Sardinian population; Sassari, the second-largest city on Sardinia and the main center of the northern half of the island, is amongst the latter. The aforementioned Gallurese and Sassarese, despite being often colloquially considered part of Sardinian, are two Corso-Sardinian transitional languages; they are spoken in the northernmost part of Sardinia, although some Sardinian is also understood by the majority of people living therein (73.6% in Gallura and 67.8% in the Sassarese-speaking subregion). Francesco Cetti, responsible for the dialectal partition of the Sardinian language in his early dissertation, went on to deem these Corso-Sardinian varieties spoken in the island "foreign" (i.e. not indigenous to Sardinia) and therefore "not national" (i.e. non-Sardinian) in that he averred they would be "an Italian dialect, much more Tuscan in fact than the vast majority of Italy's dialects themselves". There are also two language islands, the Catalan Algherese-speaking community from the inner city of Alghero (northwest Sardinia) and the Ligurian-speaking towns of Carloforte, in San Pietro Island, and Calasetta in Sant'Antioco island (south-west Sardinia). ### Sample of text | English | Logudorese Sardinian | Campidanese Sardinian | LSC (Sardinian Written Standard) | Latin | Italian | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Our Father, who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. thy kingdom come, thy will be done, on earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread, and forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. | Babbu nostru chi ses in chelu, Santificadu siat su nomine tou. Benzat a nois su rennu tou, Siat fata sa boluntade tua, comente in chelu gai in terra. Dona nos oe su pane nostru de donzi die, Et perdona nos sos peccados nostros, Comente nois perdonamus a sos depidores nostros. Et no nos lesses ruer in tentatzione, Et libera nos dae male. | Babbu nostu chi ses in celu, Santificau siat su nomini tuu. Bengiat a nosus su regnu tuu, Siat fata sa boluntadi tua, comenti in celu aici in terra. Donasi oi su pani nostu de dogna dii, Et perdonasi is peccaus nostus, Comenti nosus perdonaus a is depidoris nostus. Et no si lessis arrui in tentatzioni, Et liberasi de mali. | Babbu nostru chi ses in chelu, Santificadu siat su nòmine tuo. Bèngiat a nois su rennu tuo, Siat fata sa voluntade tua, comente in chelu gasi in terra. Dona་nos oe su pane nostru de ònnia die, E perdona་nos is pecados nostros, Comente nois perdonamus a is depidores nostros. E no nos lasses arrùere in tentatzione, E lìbera་nos de male. | Pater noster qui es in cælis, sanctificetur nomen tuum. adveniat regnum tuum, fiat voluntas tua, sicut in cælo et in terra. Panem nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie, et dimitte nobis debita nostra, sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris. et ne nos inducas in tentationem sed libera nos a malo. | Padre Nostro, che sei nei cieli, Sia santificato il tuo nome. Venga il tuo regno, Sia fatta la tua volontà, Come in cielo, così in terra. Dacci oggi il nostro pane quotidiano, E rimetti a noi i nostri debiti Come noi li rimettiamo ai nostri debitori. E non-ci indurre in tentazione, Ma liberaci dal male. | Standardization --------------- Until 2001, there was not a unifying orthographic standard available for all the dialects of Sardinian, neither in the literary nor in the oral domain (one designed for the latter does not exist to this day). After the Middle Ages, where a certain orthographic uniformity can be observed, the only steps to provide the language with a single standard, called "illustrious Sardinian", were undertaken by such writers as Hieronimu Araolla, Ioan Mattheu Garipa and Matteo Madau, who had based their works on the model of medieval Sardinian. However, attempts to formalise and spread this orthography would be hindered by the Iberian and later Savoyard authorities. The dialectally fragmented nature of the language is such that it is popularly contended that Sardinian is divided into two or more groups, which have provided themselves with a series of traditional orthographies already, albeit with many changes over the time. While this belief is not grounded on linguistic considerations, it is however motivated by political and social reasons. In addition to the orthographies commonly referred to as "Logudorese" and "Campidanese", the Nuorese orthography, the Arborense one and even those restricted to individual towns were also developed, sometimes finding common ground with some general rules, such as those required by the Ozieri Award. It is often the case, however, that speakers who are not commonly taught the Sardinian language and are thus literate only in Italian, for lack of a bilingual education, transcribe their local spelling following rules pertaining to the latter rather than the former. However, some attempts have been made to introduce a single orthographic form for administrative purposes over the recent decades; said form does not aim to refer to morphology and syntax, which is already fairly homogeneous, but concerns itself primarily with spelling. To allow for an effective implementation of the provisions on the language, as per the regional law no. 26/1997 and the national law no. 482/1999, the Sardinian Autonomous Region arranged for a commission of experts to elaborate a standard capable of overcoming the hurdle posed by the dialectal differences and thereby providing a unified writing system. A first proposal (the LSU: *Limba Sarda Unificada*, published on 28 February 2001) was tabled, which identified a model language of reference (based on the analysis of local varieties of Sardinian and on the selection of the most representative and compatible models) so as to guarantee the necessary characteristics of certainty, coherence, univocity, and supra-local diffusion. The people appointed for the task were Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Roberto Bolognesi, Diego Salvatore Corraine, Ignazio Delogu, Antonietta Dettori, Giulio Paulis, Massimo Pittau, Tonino Rubattu, Leonardo Sole, Heinz Jürgen Wolf, and Matteo Porru acting as the Committee's secretary. This study, although scientifically valid, has never been adopted at an institutional level: critics argued that it was an "artificial" system "imposed" on Sardinian speakers. Nevertheless, the LSU would act as a springboard for a subsequent drafting proposal, this time drawn by a new Committee composed of Giulio Angioni, Roberto Bolognesi, Manlio Brigaglia, Michel Contini, Diego Corraine, Giovanni Lupinu, Anna Oppo, Giulio Paulis, Maria Teresa Pinna Catte and Mario Puddu. The new project continued to be worked on, going by the name of LSC (*Limba Sarda Comuna*). The new experimental standard proposal, published in 2006, was characterised by taking the *mesania* (transitional) varieties as reference, and welcoming elements of the spoken language so as to be perceived as a more "natural" mediation; it also ensured that the common orthography would be provided with the characteristics of over-dialectality and supra-municipality, while being open to integrating the phonetic peculiarities of the local variants. Despite this, there was some criticism for this norm as well, both by those who proposed amendments to improve it, and by those who preferred to insist with the idea of dividing Sardinian into two macro-variants with their own separate orthographies. The Sardinian Regional Government, with the resolution of the Regional Council n. 16/14 of 18 April 2006 "Limba Sarda Comuna. Adoption of the reference standards of an experimental nature for the written language output of the Regional Administration", has experimentally adopted the LSC as the official orthography for the acts and documents issued by the Region of Sardinia (even if, as per Article 8 of the national Law no. 482/99, only the text written in Italian has legal value), giving citizens the right to write to the Public Administration in their own variety and establishing the regional language desk *Ufitziu de sa Limba Sarda*. The resolution does not aim to impose the guide and further notes that it is "open to integrations" and that "all solutions are of equal linguistic value". In the following years, the Region has abided by the LSC standard in the translation of many documents and resolutions and in many other areas. In addition, the LSC standard has been adopted on a voluntary basis by many other institutions, schools and media, often in a complementary manner with orthographic norms closer to the local spelling. Regarding these uses, a percentage estimate was made, considering only the projects financed or co-financed by the Region for the diffusion of the Sardinian language in the municipal and supra-municipal language offices, for the teaching in schools and the media from 2007 to 2013. The monitoring, by the Sardinian Language and Culture Service of the Department of Public Education, was published on the website of the Sardinian Autonomous Region in April 2014. Regarding the school projects financed in 2013, for example, it appears that there was a clear preference, in schools, for the use of the LSC orthographic standard together with a local spelling (51%), compared to the exclusive use of the LSC (11%) or the exclusive use of a local spelling (33%). On the other hand, regarding the editorial projects in Sardinian language in the regional media, financed by the Region in 2012, we find a greater presence of the LSC (which could derive from a reward of 2 points in the formation of the rankings to take funding, a reward that was not present in the notice for schools). According to those data, it appears that 35% of textual production in media projects was in LSC, 35% in LSC and in local spellings and 25% in local spellings only. The local language offices, co-financed by the Regional Government, in 2012 used LSC in 50% of their writing, LSC together with local spelling for 9% and local spellings for 41%. A recent research on the use of the LSC orthography in schools, carried out in the municipality of Orosei, showed that the students of the local middle school had no problem using that standard despite the fact that the Sardinian they spoke was partly different. No pupil rejected it or considered it "artificial", a thing that proved its validity as a didactic tool. The results were first presented in 2016 and published in an article in 2021. Surnames, given names, and toponyms ----------------------------------- From the Sardinian language stem both the historical Sardinian given names, which the natives used to confer on each other until contemporary times, as well as most of the traditional surnames still common on the island. Sardinian place names have a very ancient history and, in some cases, have originated a significant debate about their origins. See also -------- * Help:IPA/Sardinian * Paleo-Sardinian language * Southern Romance * Traditional writing forms of Sardinian: Logudorese, Campidanese * Non-Sardinian languages spoken on Sardinia: Sassarese, Gallurese, Algherese, Tabarchino * Sardinian surnames References ---------- 1. ↑ Pope Symmachus (498–514 C.E.), a Sardinian by birth, described himself as *ex paganitate veniens*, "coming from a pagan land". Gregory the Great (590–614 C.E.) reproached the people of Barbagia for still worshipping stone and wooden idols (Wagner 1951: 73). 2. ↑ "*Fallacissimum genus esse Phoenicum omnia monumenta vetustatis atque omnes historiae nobis prodiderunt. ab his orti Poeni multis Carthaginiensium rebellionibus, multis violatis fractisque foederibus nihil se degenerasse docuerunt. A Poenis admixto Afrorum genere Sardi non deducti in Sardiniam atque ibi constituti, sed amandati et repudiati coloni. [...] Neque ego, cum de vitiis gentis loquor, neminem excipio; sed a me est de universo genere dicendum, in quo fortasse aliqui suis moribus et humanitate stirpis ipsius et gentis vitia vicerunt. magnam quidem esse partem sine fide, sine societate et coniunctione nominis nostri res ipsa declarat. quae est enim praeter Sardiniam provincia quae nullam habeat amicam populo Romano ac liberam civitatem? Africa ipsa parens illa Sardiniae, quae plurima et acerbissima cum maioribus nostris bella gessit.*" "Cicero: Pro Scauro". Retrieved 28 November 2015. ("All the monuments of the ancients and all histories have handed down to us the tradition that the nation of the Phoenicians is the most treacherous of all nations. The Poeni, who are descended from them, have proved by many rebellions of the Carthaginians, and very many broken and violated treaties, that they have in no respect degenerated from them. The Sardinians, who are sprung from the Poeni, with an admixture of African blood, were not led into Sardinia as colonists and established there, but are rather a tribe who were draughted off, and put there to get rid of them. Nor indeed, when I speak of the vices of the nation, do I except no one. But I am forced to speak generally of the entire race; in which, perhaps, some individuals by their own civilized habits and natural humanity have got the better of the vices of their family and nation. That the greater part of the nation is destitute of faith, destitute of any community and connection with our name, the facts themselves plainly show. For what province is there besides Sardinia which has not one city in it on friendly terms with the Roman people, not one free city? Africa itself is the parent of Sardinia, which has waged many most bitter wars against our ancestors." Translation by C. D. Yonge, B. A. London. Henry G. Bohn, York Street, Covent Garden. 1856, "Perseus Digital Library".) 3. ↑ As Ludovico Antonio Muratori noted, "*Potissimum vero ad usurpandum in scriptis Italicum idioma gentem nostram fuisse adductam puto finitimarum exemplo, Provincialium, Corsorum atque Sardorum*" ("In reality, I believe that our people [Italians] have been induced to employ the Italian language for writing by following the example of our neighbours, the Provençals, the Corsicans and the Sardinians") and "*Sardorum quoque et Corsorum exemplum memoravi Vulgari sua Lingua utentium, utpote qui Italis preivisse in hoc eodem studio videntur*" ("Moreover, I made reference to the example of the Sardinians and the Corsicans, who used their own vulgar language, as being those who preceded the Italians in such regard"). Antonio, Ludovico Antonio (1739). *Antiquitates Italicae Moedii Evi*, Mediolani, t. 2, col.1049 4. ↑ Incipit to "Lettera al Maestro" in Ines Loi Corvetto (1993). *La Sardegna e la Corsica*. Torino: UTET. Hieronimu Araolla (1915). Max Leopold Wagner (ed.). *Die Rimas Spirituales Von Girolamo Araolla. Nach Dem Einzigen Erhaltenen Exemplar Der Universitätsbibliothek in Cagliari*. Princeton University. p. 76.: *Semper happisi desiggiu, Illustrissimu Segnore, de magnificare, & arrichire sa limba nostra Sarda; dessa matessi manera qui sa naturale insoro tottu sas naciones dessu mundu hant magnificadu & arrichidu; comente est de vider per isos curiosos de cuddas.* 5. ↑ Jacinto Arnal de Bolea (1636), El Forastero, Antonio Galcerin editor, Cagliari – "....ofreciéndonos a la vista la insigne ciudad de Càller, corte que me dixeron era de aquel reino. ....La hermosura de las damas, el buen gusto de su alino, lo prendido y bien saconado de lo curioso-dandole vida con mil donaires-, la grandeza en los titulos, el lucimientos en los cavalleros, el concurso grande de la nobleza y el agasajo para un forastero no os los podrà zifrar mi conocimiento. Basta para su alavanza el deciros que alcuna vez, con olvido en mi peregrinaciò y con descuido en mis disdichas, discurria por los templos no estrano y por las calles no atajado, me hallava con evidencias grandes que era aquel sitio el alma de Madrid, que con tanta urbanidad y cortesìa se exercitavan en sus nobles correspondencias" 6. ↑ Juan Francisco Carmona Cagliari, 1610–1670, Alabança de San George obispu suelense: Citizen (in Spanish): "You, shepherd! What frightens you? Have you never seen some people gathering?"; Shepherd (in Sardinian): "Are you asking me if I'm married?"; Citizen (in Spanish): "You're not getting a grasp of what I say, do you? Oh, what an idiot shepherd!"; Shepherd (in Sardinian): "I'm actually thirsty and tired"; Citizen (in Spanish): "I'd better speak in Sardinian so that we understand each other better. (in Sardinian) Tell me, shepherd, where are you from?"; Shepherd: "I'm from Suelli, my lord, I've been ordered to bring my lord a present"; Citizen: "Ah, now you understand what I said, don't you!"". ("Ciudadano: Que tiens pastor, de que te espantas? que nunca has visto pueblo congregado?; Pastor: E ite mi nais, si seu coiadu?; Ciudadano: Que no me entiendes? o, que pastor bozal aqui me vino; Pastor: A fidi tengu sidi e istau fadiau; Ciudadano: Mejor sera que en sardo tambien able pues algo dello se y nos oigamos. Nada mi su pastori de undi seis?; Pastor: De Suedi mi Sennori e m'anti cumandadu portari unu presenti a monsignori; Ciudadano: Jmoi jà mi jntendeis su que apu nadu"). 7. ↑ "In this Roman Court, having come into possession of a book in Italian, a new edition […] I have translated it into Sardinian to give news of it to the devotees of my homeland who are eager to know these legends. I have translated them into Sardinian, rather than into another language, out of love for the people […] who did not need an interpreter to enunciate them, and also because of the fact that the Sardinian language is noble by virtue of its participation in Latinity, since no language spoken is as close to classical Latin as Sardinian. […] Since, if the Italian language is much appreciated, and if among all the vernacular languages is in first place for having much followed in the footsteps of Latin, no less should the Sardinian language be appreciated considering that it is not only a relative of Latin, but is largely straightforward Latin. […] And even if this were not so, it is sufficient reason to write in Sardinian to see that all nations write and print books in their natural language, boasting of having history and moral subjects written in the vernacular, so that all may benefit from them. And since the Sardinian Latin language is as clear and intelligible (when written, and pronounced as it should be), if not even more so, than the vulgar ones, since the Italians, and Spaniards, and all those who practice Latin in general understand it." Original text: "*Sendemi vennidu à manos in custa Corte Romana vnu Libru in limba Italiana, nouamente istampadu, […] lu voltao in limba Sarda pro dare noticia de cuddas assos deuotos dessa patria mia disijosos de tales legendas. Las apo voltadas in sardu menjus qui non-in atera limba pro amore de su vulgu […] qui non-tenjan bisonju de interprete pro bi-las decrarare, & tambene pro esser sa limba sarda tantu bona, quanta participat de sa latina, qui nexuna de quantas limbas si plàtican est tantu parente assa latina formale quantu sa sarda. […] Pro su quale si sa limba Italiana si preciat tantu de bona, & tenet su primu logu inter totas sas limbas vulgares pro esser meda imitadore dessa Latina, non-si diat preciare minus sa limba Sarda pusti non-solu est parente dessa Latina, pero ancora sa majore parte est latina vera. […] Et quando cussu non-esseret, est suficiente motiuu pro iscrier in Sardu, vider, qui totas sas nationes iscriven, & istampan libros in sas proprias limbas naturales in soro, preciandosi de tenner istoria, & materias morales iscritas in limba vulgare, pro qui totus si potan de cuddas aprofetare. Et pusti sa limba latina Sarda est clara & intelligibile (iscrita, & pronunciada comente conuenit) tantu & plus qui non-quale si querjat dessas vulgares, pusti sos Italianos, & Ispagnolos, & totu cuddos qui tenen platica de latinu la intenden medianamente.*" Garipa, Ioan Matheu. *Legendariu de santas virgines, et martires de Iesu Crhistu*, 1627, Per Lodouicu Grignanu, Roma 8. ↑ King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, Royal Note, 23 July 1760: "Dovendosi per tali insegnamenti (scuole inferiori) adoperare fra le lingue più colte quella che è meno lontana dal materno dialetto ed a un tempo la più corrispondente alle pubbliche convenienze, si è determinato di usare nelle scuole predette l'italiana, siccome quella appunto che non essendo più diversa dalla sarda di quello fosse la castigliana, poiché anzi la maggior parte dei sardi più colti già la possiede; resta altresì la più opportuna per maggiormente agevolare il commercio ed aumentare gli scambievoli comodi; ed i Piemontesi che verranno nel Regno, non avranno a studiare una nuova lingua per meglio abituarsi al servizio pubblico e dei sardi, i quali in tal modo potranno essere impiegati anche nel continente." 9. ↑ In Spano's dedication to Charles Albert's wife, out of devotion to the new rulers, there are several passages in which the author sings the praises of the Savoyards and their cultural policies pursued in Sardinia, such as "It was destiny that the sweet Italian tongue, although born on the pleasant banks of the Arno, would one day also become rich heritage of the Tirso's inhabitants" (p. 5) and, formulating a vow of loyalty to the new dynasty of regents that followed the Spanish ones, "Sardinia owes so much to the most August HOUSE OF SAVOY, which, once the Hispanic domination had ceased, so wisely promoted the development of science, and also commanded during the middle of the last century, that Tuscan be made the language of the Dicasteries and public education" (p. 6). The Preface, entitled *Al giovanetto alunno*, states the intention, already common to Porru, to publish a work dedicated to the teaching of Italian, through the differences and similarities provided by another language more familiar to the Sardinian subjects. 10. ↑ "Una innovazione in materia di incivilimento della Sardegna e d'istruzione pubblica, che sotto vari aspetti sarebbe importantissima, si è quella di proibire severamente in ogni atto pubblico civile non meno che nelle funzioni ecclesiastiche, tranne le prediche, l'uso dei dialetti sardi, prescrivendo l'esclusivo impiego della lingua italiana. Attualmente in sardo si gettano i così detti pregoni o bandi; in sardo si cantano gl'inni dei Santi (*Goccius*), alcuni dei quali privi di dignità [...] È necessario inoltre scemare l'uso del dialetto sardo *[sic]* ed introdurre quello della lingua italiana anche per altri non men forti motivi; ossia per incivilire alquanto quella nazione, sì affinché vi siano più universalmente comprese le istruzioni e gli ordini del Governo,... sì finalmente per togliere una delle maggiori divisioni, che sono fra la Sardegna e i Regi stati di terraferma." Carlo Baudi di Vesme (1848). *Considerazioni politiche ed economiche sulla Sardegna*. Dalla Stamperia Reale. pp. 49–51. 11. ↑ Andrea Manca dell'Arca, an agronomist from Sassari (a city which, like most of Northern Sardinia, had been historically more exposed via Corsica to the Italian culture than the rest of the island) had so illustrated how Italian was still perceived by the locals: "Italian is as familiar to me as Latin, French or other foreign languages which one only partially learns through grammar study and the books, without fully mastering them" (*È tanto nativa per me la lingua italiana, come la latina, francese o altre forestiere che solo s'imparano in parte colla grammatica, uso e frequente lezione de' libri, ma non si possiede appieno*). *Ricordi di Santu Lussurgiu di Francesco Maria Porcu in Santu Lussurgiu dalle Origini alla "Grande Guerra"* – Grafiche editoriali Solinas – Nuoro, 2005 12. ↑ The introduction of Italian as a foreign language to the Sardinian villages is exemplified in a passage from the contemporary Francesco (*Frantziscu*) Masala's *Sa limba est s'istoria de su mundu; Condaghe de Biddafraigada* ("The language is the world's history; Biddafraigada's Condaghe"), Condaghes, p. 4: "A sos tempos de sa pitzinnìa, in bidda, totus chistionaiamus in limba sarda. In domos nostras no si faeddaiat atera limba. E deo, in sa limba nadìa, comintzei a connoscher totu sas cosas de su mundu. A sos ses annos, intrei in prima elementare e su mastru de iscola proibeit, a mie e a sos fedales mios, de faeddare in s'unica limba chi connoschiamus: depiamus chistionare in limba italiana, "*la lingua della Patria*", nos nareit, seriu seriu, su mastru de iscola. Gai, totus sos pitzinnos de 'idda, intraian in iscola abbistos e allirgos e nde bessian tontos e cari-tristos." ("When I was a little kid growing up in the village, we all used to speak in the Sardinian language. We did not speak any other language in our homes. And I began to know all the things of the world in the native language. At the age of six, I went to first grade and the school teacher forbade me as well as my peers to speak in the only language we knew: from that moment on, we only had to speak in Italian, "the language of the Fatherland", he told us seriously. Thus, the children of our village would come to school bright and happy, and walk out of school empty-headed and with a gloomy look on our faces.") 13. ↑ Casula's reply to Anchisi, arguing in favour of Sardinian as the only means through which the island's "cultural reawakening" could be pursued, was never published in the newspaper L'Unione Sarda, whose editorial staff properly censored it in accordance with the regime's directives. The newspaper then justified itself in the following way, in a personal letter addressed to Casula on 12 September: "Your article could not be published because part of it clearly exalts the region too much. This is absolutely forbidden by the current provisions of the Head of Government's press office, which specifically state: 'In no way and for no reason does the region exist'. We are very sorry. However, we would ask you to redo the article by simply talking about your poetry in dialect [*sic*] without touching on this dangerous subject!" Francesco Casula. "Sa chistione de sa limba in Montanaru e oe" (PDF). p. 66. 14. ↑ Istanza del Prof. A. Sanna sulla pronuncia della Facoltà di Lettere in relazione alla difesa del patrimonio etnico-linguistico sardo. Il prof.Antonio Sanna fa a questo proposito una dichiarazione: "Gli indifferenti problemi della scuola, sempre affrontati in Sardegna in torma empirica, appaiono oggi assai particolari e non risolvibili in un generico quadro nazionale; il tatto stesso che la scuola sia diventata scuola di massa comporta il rifiuto di una didattica inadeguata, in quanto basata sull'apprendimento concettuale attraverso una lingua, per molti aspetti estranea al tessuto culturale sardo. Poiché esiste un popolo sardo con una propria lingua dai caratteri diversi e distinti dall'italiano, ne discende che la lingua ufficiale dello Stato, risulta in effetti una lingua straniera, per di più insegnata con metodi didatticamente errati, che non tengono in alcun conto la lingua materna dei Sardi: e ciò con grave pregiudizio per un'efficace trasmissione della cultura sarda, considerata come sub-cultura. Va dunque respinto il tentativo di considerare come unica soluzione valida per questi problemi una forzata e artificiale forma di acculturazione dall'esterno, la quale ha dimostrato (e continua a dimostrare tutti) suoi gravi limiti, in quanto incapace di risolvere i problemi dell'isola. È perciò necessario promuovere dall'interno i valori autentici della cultura isolana, primo fra tutti quello dell'autonomia, e "provocare un salto di qualità senza un'acculturazione di tipo colonialistico, e il superamento cosciente del dislivello di cultura" (Lilliu). La Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia dell'Università di Cagliari, coerentemente con queste premesse con l'istituzione di una Scuola Superiore di Studi Sardi, è pertanto invitata ad assumere l'iniziativa di proporre alle autorità politiche della Regione Autonoma e dello Stato il riconoscimento della condizione di minoranza etnico-linguistica per la Sardegna e della lingua sarda come lingua <<nazionale>> della minoranza. È di conseguenza opportuno che si predispongano tutti i provvedimenti a livello scolastico per la difesa e conservazione dei valori tradizionali della lingua e della cultura sarda e, in questo contesto, di tutti i dialetti e le tradizioni culturali presenti in Sardegna (ci si intende riferire al Gallurese, al Sassarese, all'Algherese e al Ligure-Carlofortino). In ogni caso tali provvedimenti dovranno comprendere necessariamente, ai livelli minimi dell'istruzione, la partenza dell'insegnamento del sardo e dei vari dialetti parlati in Sardegna, l'insegnamento nella scuola dell'obbligo riservato ai Sardi o coloro che dimostrino un'adeguata conoscenza del sardo, o tutti quegli altri provvedimenti atti a garantire la conservazione dei valori tradizionali della cultura sarda. È bene osservare come, nel quadro della diffusa tendenza a livello internazionale per la difesa delle lingue delle minoranze minacciate, provvedimenti simili a quelli proposti sono presi in Svizzera per la minoranza ladina fin dal 1938 (48000 persone), in Inghilterra per il Galles, in Italia per le minoranze valdostana, slovena e ultimamente ladina (15000 persone), oltre che per quella tedesca; a proposito di queste ultime e specificamente in relazione al nuovo ordinamento scolastico alto-atesino. Il presidente del Consiglio on. Colombo, nel raccomandare ala Camera le modifiche da apportare allo Statuto della Regione Trentino-Alto Adige (il cosiddetto "pacchetto"), <<modifiche che non-escono dal concetto di autonomia indicato dalla Costituzione>>, ha ritenuto di dover sottolineare l'opportunità "che i giovani siano istruiti nella propria lingua materna da insegnanti appartenenti allo stesso gruppo linguistico"; egli inoltre aggiungeva che "solo eliminando ogni motivo di rivendicazione si crea il necessario presupposto per consentire alla scuola di svolgere la sua funzione fondamentale in un clima propizio per la migliore formazione degli allievi". Queste chiare parole del presidente del Consiglio ci consentono di credere che non-si voglia compiere una discriminazione nei confronti della minoranza sarda, ma anche per essa valga il principio enunciato dall'opportunità dell'insegnamento della lingua materna ad opera di insegnanti appartenenti allo stesso gruppo linguistico, onde consentire alla scuola di svolgere anche in Sardegna la sua funzione fondamentale in un clima propizio alla migliore formazione per gli allievi. Si chiarisce che tutto ciò non è sciovinismo né rinuncia a una cultura irrinunciabile, ma una civile e motivata iniziativa per realizzare in Sardegna una vera scuola, una vera rinascita, "in un rapporto di competizione culturale con lo stato (...) che arricchisce la Nazione" (Lilliu)". Il Consiglio unanime approva le istanze proposte dal prof. Sanna e invita le competenti autorità politiche a promuovere tutte le iniziative necessarie, sul piano sia scolastico che politico-economico, a sviluppare coerentemente tali principi, nel contempo acquisendo dati atti a mettere in luce il suesposto stato. Cagliari, 19 Febbraio 1971. Priamo Farris (2016). *Problemas e aficàntzias de sa pianificatzioni linguistica in Sardigna. Limba, Istòria, Sotziedadi / Problemi e prospettive della pianificazione linguistica in Sardegna. Lingua, Storia, Società*. Youcanprint. 15. ↑ "O sardu, si ses sardu e si ses bonu, / Semper sa limba tua apas presente: / No sias che isciau ubbidiente / Faeddende sa limba 'e su padronu. / Sa nassione chi peldet su donu / De sa limba iscumparit lentamente, / Massimu si che l'essit dae mente / In iscritura che in arrejonu. / Sa limba 'e babbos e de jajos nostros / No l'usades pius nemmancu in domo / Prite pobera e ruza la creides. / Si a iscola no che la jughides / Po la difunder menzus, dae como / Sezis dissardizende a fizos bostros." ("Oh Sardinian! If you are Sardinian and a good Sardinian as well, you should always keep your language etched in your mind: do not be like a submissive slave, speaking your master's language. The nation that loses the gift of its own language is fated to slowly fade out of existence, especially when it does not come to its mind anymore to write and speak. Not even at home is the language of our ancestors used anymore, for you consider it wretched and uncout. If you do not bring it to be taught in school so as to better spread its use, from now on you are going to be stripping the Sardinian identity out of your children.") In "Piras, Raimondo. No sias isciau". 16. ↑ Gavino Pau, in an article published on La Nuova Sardegna (18 aprile 1978, *Una lingua defunta da studiare a scuola* "A defunct language to be studied in school"), claimed that "per tutti l'italiano era un'altra lingua nella quale traducevamo i nostri pensieri che, irrefrenabili, sgorgavano in sardo" and went on to conclude that for the Sardinian language "abbiamo vissuto, per essa abbiamo sofferto, per essa viviamo e vivremo. Il giorno che essa morrà, moriremo anche noi come sardi." (cit. in Giovanni Melis Onnis (2014). *Fueddariu sardu campidanesu-italianu* (PDF). Domus de Janas. p. Presentazione.) 17. ↑ Similar dynamics led the Irish language to be primarily spoken only in certain areas, known as *Gaeltacht* (Edwards J., *Language, society and identity*, Oxford, 1985) 18. ↑ As opposed to the transitive use of *morrer* / *morri a...*, which means "to kill" instead. E.g.: *Pascale at mortu a tziu Bachis* ("Pascal has killed uncle Bachisio").

Sardinian language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardinian_language

**Canidae** (/ˈkænɪdiː/; from Latin, *canis*, "dog") is a biological family of dog-like carnivorans, colloquially referred to as **dogs**, and constitutes a clade. A member of this family is also called a **canid** (/ˈkeɪnɪd/). The family includes three subfamilies: the extant Caninae and the extinct Borophaginae and Hesperocyoninae. The Caninae are known as canines, and include domestic dogs, wolves, coyotes, foxes, jackals and other extant and extinct species. Canids are found on all continents except Antarctica, having arrived independently or accompanied human beings over extended periods of time. Canids vary in size from the 2-metre-long (6.6 ft) gray wolf to the 24-centimetre-long (9.4 in) fennec fox. The body forms of canids are similar, typically having long muzzles, upright ears, teeth adapted for cracking bones and slicing flesh, long legs, and bushy tails. They are mostly social animals, living together in family units or small groups and behaving cooperatively. Typically, only the dominant pair in a group breeds, and a litter of young are reared annually in an underground den. Canids communicate by scent signals and vocalizations. One canid, the domestic dog, originated from a symbiotic relationship with Upper Paleolithic humans and today remains one of the most widely kept domestic animals. Taxonomy -------- In the history of the carnivores, the family Canidae is represented by the two extinct subfamilies designated as Hesperocyoninae and Borophaginae, and the extant subfamily Caninae. This subfamily includes all living canids and their most recent fossil relatives. All living canids as a group form a dental monophyletic relationship with the extinct borophagines, with both groups having a bicuspid (two points) on the lower carnassial talonid, which gives this tooth an additional ability in mastication. This, together with the development of a distinct entoconid cusp and the broadening of the talonid of the first lower molar, and the corresponding enlargement of the talon of the upper first molar and reduction of its parastyle distinguish these late Cenozoic canids and are the essential differences that identify their clade. The cat-like feliformia and dog-like caniforms emerged within the Carnivoramorpha around 45–42 Mya (million years ago). The Canidae first appeared in North America during the Late Eocene (37.8-33.9 Mya). They did not reach Eurasia until the Miocene or to South America until the Late Pliocene. ### Phylogenetic relationships This cladogram shows the phylogenetic position of canids within Caniformia, based on fossil finds: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Caniformia | | | | | --- | --- | | | Arctoidea (bears, procyonids, pinnipeds, etc.) | | | | Cynoidea | | | | | --- | --- | | | †*Miacis spp.* | | | | **Canidae** | | | | | --- | --- | | | †Hesperocyoninae | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | †Borophaginae | | | | | Caninae (all modern canids and extinct relatives) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Evolution --------- The Canidae today includes a diverse group of some 37 species ranging in size from the maned wolf with its long limbs to the short-legged bush dog. Modern canids inhabit forests, tundra, savannahs, and deserts throughout tropical and temperate parts of the world. The evolutionary relationships between the species have been studied in the past using morphological approaches, but more recently, molecular studies have enabled the investigation of phylogenetics relationships. In some species, genetic divergence has been suppressed by the high level of gene flow between different populations and where the species have hybridized, large hybrid zones exist. ### Eocene epoch Carnivorans evolved after the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs 66 million years ago. Around 50 million years ago, or earlier, in the Paleocene, the carnivorans split into two main divisions: caniforms (dog-like) and feliforms (cat-like). By 40 Mya, the first identifiable member of the dog family had arisen. Named *Prohesperocyon wilsoni*, its fossilized remains have been found in what is now the southwestern part of Texas. The chief features which identify it as a canid include the loss of the upper third molar (part of a trend toward a more shearing bite), and the structure of the middle ear which has an enlarged bulla (the hollow bony structure protecting the delicate parts of the ear). *Prohesperocyon* probably had slightly longer limbs than its predecessors, and also had parallel and closely touching toes which differ markedly from the splayed arrangements of the digits in bears. The canid family soon subdivided into three subfamilies, each of which diverged during the Eocene: Hesperocyoninae (about 39.74–15 Mya), Borophaginae (about 34–32 Mya), and Caninae (about 34–30 Mya). The Caninae are the only surviving subfamily and all present-day canids, including wolves, foxes, coyotes, jackals, and domestic dogs. Members of each subfamily showed an increase in body mass with time and some exhibited specialized hypercarnivorous diets that made them prone to extinction. ### Oligocene epoch By the Oligocene, all three subfamilies of canids (Hesperocyoninae, Borophaginae, and Caninae) had appeared in the fossil records of North America. The earliest and most primitive branch of the Canidae was the Hesperocyoninae lineage, which included the coyote-sized *Mesocyon* of the Oligocene (38–24 Mya). These early canids probably evolved for the fast pursuit of prey in a grassland habitat; they resembled modern viverrids in appearance. Hesperocyonines eventually became extinct in the middle Miocene. One of the early members of the Hesperocyonines, the genus *Hesperocyon*, gave rise to *Archaeocyon* and *Leptocyon*. These branches led to the borophagine and canine radiations. ### Miocene epoch Around 8 Mya, the Beringian land bridge allowed members of the genus *Eucyon* a means to enter Asia from North America and they continued on to colonize Europe. ### Pliocene epoch The *Canis*, *Urocyon*, and *Vulpes* genera developed from canids from North America, where the canine radiation began. The success of these canines was related to the development of lower carnassials that were capable of both mastication and shearing. Around 5 million years ago, some of the Old World *Eucyon* evolved into the first members of *Canis*, During the Pliocene, around 4–5 Mya, *Canis lepophagus* appeared in North America. This was small and sometimes coyote-like. Others were wolf-like in characteristics. *C. latrans* (the coyote) is theorized to have descended from *C. lepophagus*. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama, about 3 Mya, joined South America to North America, allowing canids to invade South America, where they diversified. However, the most recent common ancestor of the South American canids lived in North America some 4 Mya and more than one incursion across the new land bridge is likely given the fact that more than one lineage is present in South America. Two North American lineages found in South America are the gray fox (*Urocyon cinereoargentus*) and the now-extinct dire wolf (*Aenocyon dirus*). Besides these, there are species endemic to South America: the maned wolf (*Chrysocyon brachyurus*), the short-eared dog (*Atelocynus microtis*), the bush dog (*Speothos venaticus*), the crab-eating fox (*Cerdocyon thous*), and the South American foxes (*Lycalopex* spp.). The monophyly of this group has been established by molecular means. ### Pleistocene epoch During the Pleistocene, the North American wolf line appeared, with *Canis edwardii*, clearly identifiable as a wolf, and *Canis rufus* appeared, possibly a direct descendant of *C. edwardii*. Around 0.8 Mya, *Canis ambrusteri* emerged in North America. A large wolf, it was found all over North and Central America and was eventually supplanted by the dire wolf, which then spread into South America during the Late Pleistocene. By 0.3 Mya, a number of subspecies of the gray wolf (*C. lupus*) had developed and had spread throughout Europe and northern Asia. The gray wolf colonized North America during the late Rancholabrean era across the Bering land bridge, with at least three separate invasions, with each one consisting of one or more different Eurasian gray wolf clades. MtDNA studies have shown that there are at least four extant *C. lupus* lineages. The dire wolf shared its habitat with the gray wolf, but became extinct in a large-scale extinction event that occurred around 11,500 years ago. It may have been more of a scavenger than a hunter; its molars appear to be adapted for crushing bones and it may have gone extinct as a result of the extinction of the large herbivorous animals on whose carcasses it relied. In 2015, a study of mitochondrial genome sequences and whole-genome nuclear sequences of African and Eurasian canids indicated that extant wolf-like canids have colonized Africa from Eurasia at least five times throughout the Pliocene and Pleistocene, which is consistent with fossil evidence suggesting that much of African canid fauna diversity resulted from the immigration of Eurasian ancestors, likely coincident with Plio-Pleistocene climatic oscillations between arid and humid conditions. When comparing the African and Eurasian golden jackals, the study concluded that the African specimens represented a distinct monophyletic lineage that should be recognized as a separate species, *Canis anthus* (African golden wolf). According to a phylogeny derived from nuclear sequences, the Eurasian golden jackal (*Canis aureus*) diverged from the wolf/coyote lineage 1.9 Mya, but the African golden wolf separated 1.3 Mya. Mitochondrial genome sequences indicated the Ethiopian wolf diverged from the wolf/coyote lineage slightly prior to that. Characteristics --------------- Wild canids are found on every continent except Antarctica, and inhabit a wide range of different habitats, including deserts, mountains, forests, and grasslands. They vary in size from the fennec fox, which may be as little as 24 cm (9.4 in) in length and weigh 0.6 kg (1.3 lb), to the gray wolf, which may be up to 160 cm (5.2 ft) long, and can weigh up to 79 kg (174 lb). Only a few species are arboreal—the gray fox, the closely related island fox and the raccoon dog habitually climb trees. All canids have a similar basic form, as exemplified by the gray wolf, although the relative length of muzzle, limbs, ears, and tail vary considerably between species. With the exceptions of the bush dog, the raccoon dog and some domestic dog breeds, canids have relatively long legs and lithe bodies, adapted for chasing prey. The tails are bushy and the length and quality of the pelage vary with the season. The muzzle portion of the skull is much more elongated than that of the cat family. The zygomatic arches are wide, there is a transverse lambdoidal ridge at the rear of the cranium and in some species, a sagittal crest running from front to back. The bony orbits around the eye never form a complete ring and the auditory bullae are smooth and rounded. Females have three to seven pairs of mammae. All canids are digitigrade, meaning they walk on their toes. The tip of the nose is always naked, as are the cushioned pads on the soles of the feet. These latter consist of a single pad behind the tip of each toe and a more-or-less three-lobed central pad under the roots of the digits. Hairs grow between the pads and in the Arctic fox the sole of the foot is densely covered with hair at some times of the year. With the exception of the four-toed African wild dog (*Lycaon pictus*), five toes are on the forefeet, but the pollex (thumb) is reduced and does not reach the ground. On the hind feet are four toes, but in some domestic dogs, a fifth vestigial toe, known as a dewclaw, is sometimes present, but has no anatomical connection to the rest of the foot. In some species, slightly curved nails are non-retractile and more-or-less blunt while other species have sharper, partially-retractile claws. The penis in male canids is supported by a baculum and contains a structure called the bulbus glandis, which creates a copulatory tie that lasts for up to an hour during mating. Young canids are born blind, with their eyes opening a few weeks after birth. All living canids (Caninae) have a ligament analogous to the nuchal ligament of ungulates used to maintain the posture of the head and neck with little active muscle exertion; this ligament allows them to conserve energy while running long distances following scent trails with their nose to the ground. However, based on skeletal details of the neck, at least some of the Borophaginae (such as *Aelurodon*) are believed to have lacked this ligament. ### Dentition Dentition relates to the arrangement of teeth in the mouth, with the dental notation for the upper-jaw teeth using the upper-case letters I to denote incisors, C for canines, P for premolars, and M for molars, and the lower-case letters i, c, p and m to denote the mandible teeth. Teeth are numbered using one side of the mouth and from the front of the mouth to the back. In carnivores, the upper premolar P4 and the lower molar m1 form the carnassials that are used together in a scissor-like action to shear the muscle and tendon of prey. Canids use their premolars for cutting and crushing except for the upper fourth premolar P4 (the upper carnassial) that is only used for cutting. They use their molars for grinding except for the lower first molar m1 (the lower carnassial) that has evolved for both cutting and grinding depending on the canid's dietary adaptation. On the lower carnassial, the trigonid is used for slicing and the talonid is used for grinding. The ratio between the trigonid and the talonid indicates a carnivore's dietary habits, with a larger trigonid indicating a hypercarnivore and a larger talonid indicating a more omnivorous diet. Because of its low variability, the length of the lower carnassial is used to provide an estimate of a carnivore's body size. A study of the estimated bite force at the canine teeth of a large sample of living and fossil mammalian predators, when adjusted for their body mass, found that for placental mammals the bite force at the canines was greatest in the extinct dire wolf (163), followed among the modern canids by the four hypercarnivores that often prey on animals larger than themselves: the African wild dog (142), the gray wolf (136), the dhole (112), and the dingo (108). The bite force at the carnassials showed a similar trend to the canines. A predator's largest prey size is strongly influenced by its biomechanical limits. Most canids have 42 teeth, with a dental formula of: 3.1.4.23.1.4.3. The bush dog has only one upper molar with two below, the dhole has two above and two below. and the bat-eared fox has three or four upper molars and four lower ones. The molar teeth are strong in most species, allowing the animals to crack open bone to reach the marrow. The deciduous, or baby teeth, formula in canids is 3.1.33.1.3, molars being completely absent. Life history ------------ ### Social behavior Almost all canids are social animals and live together in groups. In general, they are territorial or have a home range and sleep in the open, using their dens only for breeding and sometimes in bad weather. In most foxes, and in many of the true dogs, a male and female pair work together to hunt and to raise their young. Gray wolves and some of the other larger canids live in larger groups called packs. African wild dogs have packs which may consist of 20 to 40 animals and packs of fewer than about seven individuals may be incapable of successful reproduction. Hunting in packs has the advantage that larger prey items can be tackled. Some species form packs or live in small family groups depending on the circumstances, including the type of available food. In most species, some individuals live on their own. Within a canid pack, there is a system of dominance so that the strongest, most experienced animals lead the pack. In most cases, the dominant male and female are the only pack members to breed. Canids communicate with each other by scent signals, by visual clues and gestures, and by vocalizations such as growls, barks, and howls. In most cases, groups have a home territory from which they drive out other conspecifics. The territory is marked by leaving urine scent marks, which warn trespassing individuals. Social behavior is also mediated by secretions from glands on the upper surface of the tail near its root and from the anal glands, preputial glands, and supracaudal glands. ### Reproduction Mating canidaeKorean wolvesRed foxes Canids as a group exhibit several reproductive traits that are uncommon among mammals as a whole. They are typically monogamous, provide paternal care to their offspring, have reproductive cycles with lengthy proestral and dioestral phases and have a copulatory tie during mating. They also retain adult offspring in the social group, suppressing the ability of these to breed while making use of the alloparental care they can provide to help raise the next generation of offspring. Most canid species are spontaneous ovulators, although maned wolves are induced ovulators. During the proestral period, increased levels of estradiol make the female attractive to the male. There is a rise in progesterone during the estral phase when female is receptive. Following this, the level of estradiol fluctuates and there is a lengthy dioestrous phase during which the female is pregnant. Pseudo-pregnancy frequently occurs in canids that have ovulated but failed to conceive. A period of anestrus follows pregnancy or pseudo-pregnancy, there being only one oestral period during each breeding season. Small and medium-sized canids mostly have a gestation period of 50 to 60 days, while larger species average 60 to 65 days. The time of year in which the breeding season occurs is related to the length of day, as has been demonstrated in the case of several species that have been translocated across the equator to the other hemisphere and experiences a six-month shift of phase. Domestic dogs and certain small canids in captivity may come into oestrus more frequently, perhaps because the photoperiod stimulus breaks down under conditions of artificial lighting. The size of a litter varies, with from one to 16 or more pups being born. The young are born small, blind and helpless and require a long period of parental care. They are kept in a den, most often dug into the ground, for warmth and protection. When the young begin eating solid food, both parents, and often other pack members, bring food back for them from the hunt. This is most often vomited up from the adult's stomach. Where such pack involvement in the feeding of the litter occurs, the breeding success rate is higher than is the case where females split from the group and rear their pups in isolation. Young canids may take a year to mature and learn the skills they need to survive. In some species, such as the African wild dog, male offspring usually remain in the natal pack, while females disperse as a group and join another small group of the opposite sex to form a new pack. Canids and humans ----------------- One canid, the domestic dog, entered into a partnership with humans a long time ago. The dog was the first domesticated species. The archaeological record shows the first undisputed dog remains buried beside humans 14,700 years ago, with disputed remains occurring 36,000 years ago. These dates imply that the earliest dogs arose in the time of human hunter-gatherers and not agriculturists. The fact that wolves are pack animals with cooperative social structures may have been the reason that the relationship developed. Humans benefited from the canid's loyalty, cooperation, teamwork, alertness and tracking abilities, while the wolf may have benefited from the use of weapons to tackle larger prey and the sharing of food. Humans and dogs may have evolved together. Among canids, only the gray wolf has widely been known to prey on humans.[*page needed*] Nonetheless, at least two records of coyotes killing humans have been published, and at least two other reports of golden jackals killing children. Human beings have trapped and hunted some canid species for their fur and some, especially the gray wolf, the coyote and the red fox, for sport. Canids such as the dhole are now endangered in the wild because of persecution, habitat loss, a depletion of ungulate prey species and transmission of diseases from domestic dogs. See also -------- * Largest wild canids * Canid hybrid * Free-ranging dog

Canidae

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canidae

**Fugging** (German: [ˈfʊkɪŋ] ()), spelt **Fucking** until 2021, is an Austrian village in the municipality of Tarsdorf, located in the Innviertel region of western Upper Austria. It is 33 km (21 mi) north of Salzburg and 4 km (2.5 mi) east of the Inn river, which forms part of the German border. Despite a population of only 106 in 2020, the village has drawn attention in the English-speaking world for its former name, which was spelled the same as an inflected form of the vulgar English-language word "fuck". Its road signs were a popular visitor attraction and were often stolen by souvenir-hunting vandals until 2005, when they were modified to be theft-resistant. A campaign to change the village's name to Fugging was rejected in 2004 but succeeded in late 2020. Former name ----------- The settlement is believed to have been founded in the 6th century AD by Focko, a Bavarian nobleman. The Austrian region during this century was mostly under the domain of the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths and was populated by a mix of Christians and Pagans. The existence of the village was documented for the first time in 1070, and historical records show that some 20 years later, the lord was recorded in Latin as **Adalpertus de Fucingin**. The spelling of the name, which is pronounced with the English language vowel *oo* as in *book*, evolved over the years; it is first recorded in historical sources as *Vucchingen* in 1070, as *Fukching* in 1303, as *Fugkhing* in 1532, and in the modern spelling *Fucking* in the 18th century. The ending *-*ing** is an old Germanic suffix indicating the people belonging to the root word to which it is attached, thus *Fucking* means "(place of) Focko's people". Demographics ------------ The Austrian census of 2020 recorded that the village had a population of 106. *The Age* reported in 2005 that it had 104 inhabitants and 32 houses. Popularity and notoriety ------------------------ Fugging is best known for the four traffic signs at the entrances to the village, beside which many English-speaking tourists have had their photograph taken because of the profane English word with the same spelling as the former name. British and United States soldiers based in nearby Salzburg noticed the name after World War II and began to travel to the village to have their photos taken beside the signs. The local residents, the Fuckingers, were bemused, as they had not previously been aware of the meaning of their village's name in English. During the second half of the 20th century and the early 21st century, the number of tourists visiting the village increased, including the occasional tour bus. The village is especially popular with British tourists; as a local tour guide explained: "The Germans all want to see Mozart's house in Salzburg; the Americans want to see where *The Sound of Music* was filmed; the Japanese want Hitler's birthplace in Braunau; but for the British, it's all about Fucking." Augustina Lindlbauer, the manager of an area guesthouse, said that the area had lakes, forests, and vistas worth visiting, but there was an "obsession with Fucking", and she had to explain to a British tourist "that there were no Fucking postcards". The English meaning of its name also resulted in the village being the butt of jokes in popular media. *The Grand Tour* featured the village in the 2017 episode "[censored] to [censored]", as part of a road trip from Wank via Kissing, Petting, and Fucking to Wedding. In 2019, Norwegian broadcasting company NRK Sport produced a comedic tourism video on Fucking. Released on YouTube, the video consists of the reporter and the former *Melodi Grand Prix Junior* presenter Nicolay Ramm both advertising the village's attractions and listing off a large number of double entendres based on its name. The road signs were commonly stolen as souvenirs, and cost some 300 euros to replace. In 2005 theft-resistant welded signs were installed, secured in concrete. The mayor of Tarsdorf said that tourists were still welcome, though the local police chief emphasised that "we will not stand for the Fucking signs being removed. It may be very amusing for you British, but Fucking is simply Fucking to us. What is this big Fucking joke? It is puerile." One resident set up a website selling T-shirts featuring the signs, with the slogan "I like Fucking in Austria", but shut it down after other residents disapproved. In 2009, the village said it would install surveillance cameras to deter tourists from continuing to attempt to steal the road signs. The mayor said that he would prefer not to see the village featured in the press anymore: "Just leave [us] alone". Also in 2009, the European Union's Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market trademarks agency forbade a German brewery to market a beer called "Fucking Hell". They appealed and were granted permission in January 2010. (The second part of the name is the German term for a pale lager, **Hell**.) Name change ----------- A 2004 vote on changing the village's name failed. "Everyone here knows what it means in English, but for us Fucking is Fucking—and it's going to stay Fucking" said the mayor as he pointed out that the name had been *Fucking* for 800 years. In April 2012, rumours spread through international media that villagers had been thinking about changing the name of the village or had actually voted to change it. The satirical website *The Spoof!* published a story that was expanded in the British tabloid the *Daily Mirror*. The story was then reported elsewhere as news, including by *The Guardian* and *The Huffington Post*, who said that a vote had taken place to change the name to Fugging, but it was discovered that a village with that name already existed in the municipality of Obritzberg-Rust just west of Herzogenburg. The mayor denied these rumours. The council of Tarsdorf voted in their 17 November 2020 session to have the village's name officially changed to Fugging, effective 1 January 2021. A video by a Danish YouTuber, Albert Dyrlund, was reportedly stated as being the reason for the name change. The following month, signs with the new name were vandalised to read "Fucking". In literature and film ---------------------- *Bad Fucking*, a 2011 satirical mystery novel by the Austrian director and novelist Kurt Palm, is set in a slightly renamed Fucking; it won the Friedrich Glauser Prize [de] and was filmed in 2013 by Harald Sicheritz. See also -------- * Place names considered unusual * Oberfucking * Unterfucking * Shitterton, a hamlet in Dorset, England with a similar history of sign theft

Fugging, Upper Austria

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugging,_Upper_Austria

**Neurosis** (plural: neuroses) is a term mainly used today by followers of Freudian thinking to describe mental disorders caused by past anxiety, often that has been repressed. This concept is more usually known today as psychological trauma. In recent history, the term has also referred to anxiety-related conditions more generally. The term "neurosis" is no longer used in condition names or categories by the World Health Organization's *International Classification of Diseases* (ICD) or the American Psychiatric Association's *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders* (DSM). According to the *American Heritage Medical Dictionary* of 2007, the term is "no longer used in psychiatric diagnosis". Sublimation can be considered neuroses' positive counterpart. Neurosis should not be mistaken for *psychosis*, which refers to a loss of touch with reality. Nor should it be mistaken for its descendant term *neuroticism*, which refers to a personality trait of being prone to anxiousness and mental collapse. The term "neuroticism" is also no longer used for DSM or ICD conditions; however, it is a common name for one of the Big Five personality traits. A similar concept is included in the ICD-11 as the condition "negative affectivity". History ------- ### A broad condition (1769-1879) The term *neurosis* was coined by Scottish doctor William Cullen to refer to "disorders of sense and motion" caused by a "general affection of the nervous system". The term is derived from the Greek word *neuron* (νεῦρον, 'nerve') and the suffix *-osis* (-ωσις, 'diseased' or 'abnormal condition'). It was first used in print in Cullen's *System of Nosology*, first published in Latin in 1769. Cullen used the term to describe various nervous disorders and symptoms that could not be explained physiologically. Physical features, however, were almost inevitably present, and physical diagnostic tests, such as exaggerated knee-jerks, loss of the gag reflex and dermatographia, were used into the 20th century. French psychiatrist Phillipe Pinnel's *Nosographie philosophique ou La méthode de l'analyse appliquée à la médecine* (1798) was greatly inspired by Cullen. It divided medical conditions into five categories, with one being "neurosis". This was divided into four basic types of mental disorder: melancholia, mania, dementia, and idiotism. Morphine was first isolated from opium in 1805, by German chemist Friedrich Sertürner. After the publication of his third paper on the topic in 1817, morphine became more widely known, and used to treat neuroses and other kinds of mental distress. After becoming addicted to this highly addictive substance, he warned "I consider it my duty to attract attention to the terrible effects of this new substance I called morphium in order that calamity may be averted." The tranquilising properties of potassium bromide were noted publicly by British doctor Charles Locock in 1857. Over the coming decades, this and other bromides were used in great quantities to calm people with neuroses. This led to many cases of bromism. ### Breuer, Freud and contemporaries (1880-1939) Austrian psychiatrist Josef Breuer first used psychoanalysis to treat hysteria in 1880–1882. Bertha Pappenheim was treated for a variety of symptoms that began when her father suddenly fell seriously ill in mid-1880 during a family holiday in Ischl. His illness was a turning point in her life. While sitting up at night at his sickbed she was suddenly tormented by hallucinations and a state of anxiety. At first the family did not react to these symptoms, but in November 1880, Breuer, a friend of the family, began to treat her. He encouraged her, sometimes under light hypnosis, to narrate stories, which led to partial improvement of the clinical picture, although her overall condition continued to deteriorate. According to Breuer, the slow and laborious progress of her "remembering work" in which she recalled individual symptoms after they had occurred, thus "dissolving" them, came to a conclusion on 7 June 1882 after she had reconstructed the first night of hallucinations in Ischl. "She has fully recovered since that time" were the words with which Breuer concluded his case report. Accounts differ on the success of Pappenheim's treatment by Breuer. She didn't speak about this episode in her later life, and vehemently opposed any attempts at psychoanalytic treatment of people in her care. Breuer was not quick to publish about this case. (Subsequent research has suggested Pappenheim may have had one of a number of neurological illnesses. This includes temporal lobe epilepsy, tuberculous meningitis, and encephalitis. Whatever the nature of her condition, she went on to run an orphanage, and then found and lead the *Jüdischer Frauenbund* for twenty years.) The term *psychoneurosis* was coined by Scottish psychiatrist Thomas Clouston for his 1883 book *Clinical Lectures on Mental Diseases*. He describes a condition that covers what is today considered the schizophrenia and autism spectrums (a combination of symptoms that would soon become better known as dementia praecox). French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot came to believe that psychological trauma was a cause of some cases of hysteria. He wrote in his book *Leçons sur les maladies du système nerveux*, (1885-1887) (and published in English as *Clinical Lectures on the Diseases of the Nervous System):* > Quite recently male hysteria has been studied by Messrs. Putnam [1884] and Walton [1883] in America, principally as it occurs after injuries, and especially after railway accidents. They have recognised, like Mr. Page, [1885] who in England has also paid attention to this subject, that many of those nervous accidents described under the name of Railway-spine, and which according to them would be better described as Railway-brain, are in fact, whether occurring in man or woman, simply manifestations of hysteria. > > Charcot documented around two dozen cases where psychological trauma appears to have caused hysteria. In some cases, the results are described like the modern concept of PTSD. Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud was a student of Charcot in 1885–6. French psychiatrist Pierre Janet believed that the main aspect of psychological trauma is dissociation (a disconnection of the conscious mind from reality) in 1889. (Freud would later claim Janet as a major influence.) In 1891, Thomas Clouston published *Neuroses of Development*, which covered a wide range of physical and mental developmental conditions. Breuer came to mentor Freud. The pair released the paper "Ueber den psychischen Mechanismus hysterischer Phänomene. (Vorläufige Mittheilung.)" (known in English as "On the physical mechanism of hysterical phenomena: preliminary communication") in January 1893. It opens with: > A chance observation has led us, over a number of years, to investigate a great variety of different forms and symptoms of hysteria, with a view to discovering their precipitating cause the event which provoked the first occurrence, often many years earlier, of the phenomenon in question. In the great majority of cases it is not possible to establish the point of origin by a simple interrogation of the patient, however thoroughly it may be carried out. This is in part because what is in question is often some experience which the patient dislikes discussing; but principally because he is genuinely unable to recollect it and often has no suspicion of the causal connection between the precipitating event and the pathological phenomenon. As a rule it is necessary to hypnotize the patient and to arouse his memories under hypnosis of the time at which the symptom made its first appearance; when this has been done, it becomes possible to demonstrate the connection in the clearest and most convincing fashion... > > > It is of course obvious that in cases of 'traumatic' hysteria what provokes the symptoms is the accident. The causal connection is equally evident in hysterical attacks when it is possible to gather from the patient's utterances that in each attack he is hallucinating the same event which provoked the first one. The situation is more obscure in the case of other phenomena. > > > > Our experiences have shown us, however, that the most various symptoms, which are ostensibly spontaneous and, as one might say, idiopathic products of hysteria, are just as strictly related to the precipitating trauma as the phenomena to which we have just alluded and which exhibit the connection quite clearly. > > This paper was reprinted and supplemented with case studies in the pair's 1895 book *Studien über Hysterie* (Studies on Hysteria*).* Of the book's five case studies, the most famous became that of Breuer's patient Bertha Pappenheim (given the pseudonym "Anna O."). This book established the field of psychoanalysis. French neurologist Paul Oulmont was mentored by Charcot. In his 1894 book *Thérapeutique des névroses* (Therapy of neuroses), he lists the neuroses as being hysteria, neurasthenia, exophthalmic goitre, epilepsy, migraine, Sydenham's chorea, Parkinson's disease and tetany. The fifth edition of German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin’s popular psychiatry textbook in 1896 gave "neuroses" a well-accepted definition: > In the following presentation we want to summarize a group of disease states as general neuroses, which are accompanied by more or less pronounced nervous dysfunctions. What is common to these manifestations of insanity is that we are constantly dealing with the morbid processing of vital stimuli; what they also have in common is the occurrence of more transitory, peculiar manifestations of illness, sometimes in the physical, sometimes in the psychic area. These attacks of fluctuations in mental balance are therefore not independent illnesses, but only the occasional increase in a persistent illness... > > It seems useful to me, for the time being, to distinguish between two main forms of general neuroses, epileptic and hysterical insanity. > > Pierre Janet published the two volume work *Névroses et Idées Fixes* (Neuroses and Fixations) in 1898. According to Janet, neuroses could be usefully divided into hysterias and psychasthenias. Hysterias induced such symptoms as anaesthesia, visual field narrowing, paralyses, and unconscious acts. Psychasthenias involved the ability to adjust to one's surroundings, similar to the later concepts of adjustment disorder and executive functions. Barbiturate is a class of highly addictive sedative drug. The first barbiturate, barbital, was synthesized in 1902 by German chemists Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering and was first marketed as "Veronal" in 1904. The similar barbiturate phenobarbital was brought to market in 1912 under the name "Luminal". Barbiturate became a popular drug in many countries to reduce neurotic anxiety, and displaced the use of bromides. Janet published the book *Les Obsessions et la Psychasthénie* (The Obsessions and the Psychasthenias) in 1903. Janet followed this with the books *The Major Symptoms of Hysteria* in 1907, and *Les Névroses* (The Neuroses) in 1909. According to Janet, one cause of neurosis is when the mental force of a traumatic event is stronger than what someone can counter using their normal coping mechanisms. Meanwhile, Freud developed a number of different theories of neurosis. The most impactful one was that it referred to mental disorders caused by the brain's defence against past psychological trauma. This redefined the general understanding and use of the word. It came to replace the concept of "hysteria". He held the First Congress for Freudian Psychology in Salzburg in April 1908. Subsequent Congresses continue today. Freud published the detailed case study *Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose* (Notes Upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis) in 1909, documenting his treatment of "Rat Man". Freud established the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA) in March 1910. He arranged for Carl Jung to be its first president. This organisation chose to only provide psychoanalytic training and recognition to medical doctors. The American Psychoanalytic Association was founded in 1911 by Welsh neurologist Ernest Jones, with the support of Freud. It followed the IPA's practice of only supporting psychoanalysis provided by medical doctors. Jung gave a speech explaining his understanding of Freud's work called *Psychoanalysis and Neurosis* in New York in 1912. It was published in 1916. The journal *Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse* was established in 1913, and continued until 1941. The battlefield stresses of World War I (1914–18) lead to many cases of strong short-term psychological symptoms, known today as "combat stress reaction" (CSR). Other terms for the condition include "combat fatigue", "battle fatigue", "battle neurosis", "shell shock" and "operational stress reaction". The general psychological term acute stress disorder was first used for this condition at this time. The fight-or-flight response was first described by American physiologist Walter Bradford Cannon in 1915. American military psychiatrist Thomas W. Salmon (the chief consultant in psychiatry in the American Expeditionary Force) released the book *The care and treatment of mental diseases and war neuroses ("shell shock") in the British army* in 1917, dealing primarily with what was considered was the best treatment for hysteria. His recommendations were broadly adopted in the US armed forces. Freud's most explanatory work on neurosis was his lectures later grouped together as "General Theory of the Neuroses" (1916–17), forming part 3 of the book *Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse* (1917), later published in English as *A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis* (1920). In that work, Freud noted that: > The meaning of neurotic symptoms was first discovered by J. Breuer in the study and felicitous cure of a case of hysteria which has since become famous (1880–82). It is true that P. Janet independently reached the same result... > > > The [neurotic] symptom develops as a substitution for something else that has remained suppressed. Certain psychological experiences should normally have become so far elaborated that consciousness would have attained knowledge of them. This did not take place, however, but out of these interrupted and disturbed processes, imprisoned in the unconscious, the symptom arose... > > > > Our therapy does its work by means of changing the unconscious into the conscious, and is effective only in so far as it has the opportunity of bringing about this transformation... > > Freud added to this with his paper *Aus der Geschichte einer infantilen Neurose* (From the History of an Infantile Neurosis) published in 1918, which is a detailed case study of Freud's treatment of the "Wolfman". The International Journal of Psychoanalysis was founded by Ernest Jones in 1920. In response to stress injuries from World War I, the British government produced the *Report of the War Office Committee of Inquiry into "Shell-Shock"*, which was published in 1922. Its recommended course of treatment included: > While recognizing that each individual case of war neurosis must be treated on its merits, the Committee are of opinion that good results will be obtained in the majority by the simplest forms of psycho-therapy, i.e., explanation, persuasion and suggestion, aided by such physical methods as baths, electricity and massage. Rest of mind and body is essential in all cases. > > > The committee are of opinion that the production of deep hypnotic sleep, while beneficial as a means of conveying suggestions or eliciting forgotten experiences are useful in selected cases, but in the majority they are unnecessary and may even aggravate the symptoms for a time. > > > They do not recommend psycho-analysis in the Freudian sense. > > > > In the state of convalescence, re-education and suitable occupation of an interesting nature are of great importance. If the patient is unfit for further military service, it is considered that every endeavor should be made to obtain for him suitable employment on his return to active life. > > In 1929, Austrian psychiatrist Alfred Adler published the book *Problems of Neurosis: A Book of Case-Histories*, furthering the school of individual psychology he had established in 1912. The general adaptation syndrome (GAS) theory of stress was developed by Austro-Hungarian physiologist Hans Selye in 1936. In 1937, Austrian-American psychiatrist Adolph Stern proposed that there were many people with conditions that fitted between the definitions of psychoneurosis and psychosis, and called them the "border line group of neuroses". This group would later become known as borderline personality disorder. ### 1939-1952 Followers of Freud's psychoanalytic thinking, including the Swiss Carl Jung, German-American Karen Horney, and the French Jacques Lacan, continued to develop his neurosis ideas after his death in 1939. The term continues to be used in the way Freud did in psychology and philosophy. By 1939, some 120,000 British ex-servicemen had received final awards for primary psychiatric disability or were still drawing pensions – about 15% of all pensioned disabilities – and another 44,000 or so were getting pensions for 'soldier's heart' or effort syndrome. British historian Ben Shephard notes, "There is, though, much that statistics do not show, because in terms of psychiatric effects, pensioners were just the tip of a huge iceberg." Approximately 20% of U.S. troops displayed symptoms of combat stress reaction during WWII (1939-1945). It was assumed to be a temporary response of healthy individuals to witnessing or experiencing traumatic events. Symptoms included depression, anxiety, withdrawal, confusion, paranoia, and sympathetic hyperactivity. Thomas W. Salmon's battle neurosis principles were adopted by the U.S. forces during this conflict. The American Journal of Psychoanalysis was founded by Karen Horney in 1941. Austrian psychiatrist Otto Fenichel's encyclopaedic textbook *The psychoanalytic theory of neurosis* (1945) set the post-war Freudian orthodoxy on the subject. It has been heavily cited by academic papers in the years since. Karen Horney's *Our Inner Conflicts: A Constructive Theory of Neurosis* (1945) was a popular book on the topic. Austrian psychiatrist Viktor Frankl's best selling book *Man's Search for Meaning* (1946) launched the psychotherapy school of logotherapy. For his 1947 book, *Dimensions of Personality*, German-British psychologist Hans Eysenck created the term "neuroticism" to refer to someone whose "constitution may leave them liable to break down [emotionally] with the slightest provocation". The book outlines a two-factor theory of personality, with neuroticism as one of those two factors. This book would be greatly influential on future personality theory. Karen Horney's *Neurosis and Human Growth* (1950) further expanded the understanding of neuroses. French-Swiss psychologist Germaine Guex's 1950 book *La névrose d'abandon* proposed the existence of the condition of "abandonment neurosis". It also detailed all the forms of treatment Geux had found effective in treating it. (It was published in English as *The Abandonment Neurosis* in 2015). In October 1951, highly influential American psychologist Carl Rogers presented a paper in which he described the relationship between neurosis and his understanding of effective therapy. He wrote: > The emotionally maladjusted person, the "neurotic", is in difficulty first because communication within himself has broken down, and second because as a result of this his communication with others has been damaged. If this sounds somewhat strange, then let me put it in other terms. In the "neurotic" individual, parts of himself which have been termed unconscious, or repressed, or denied to awareness, become blocked off so that they no longer communicate themselves to the conscious or managing part of himself... The task of psychotherapy is to help the person achieve, through a special relationship with the therapist, good communication within himself. > > The North American Society of Adlerian Psychology was established in 1952, becoming the predominant society of its cause in the world. ### DSM-I (1952-1968) The first edition of the American Psychiatric Association's *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders* (DSM-I) in 1952 included a category named "Psychoneurotic Disorders". Regarding the definition of this category, the Manual stated: > Grouped as Psychoneurotic Disorders are those disturbances in which “anxiety” is a chief characteristic, directly felt and expressed, or automatically controlled by such defenses as depression, conversion, dissociation, displacement, phobia formation, or repetitive thoughts and acts. > > For this nomenclature, a psychoneurotic reaction may be defined as one in which the personality, in its struggle for adjustment to internal and external stresses, utilizes the mechanisms listed above to handle the anxiety created. The qualifying phrase, x.2 with neurotic reaction, may be used to amplify the diagnosis when, in the presence of another psychiatric disturbance, a symptomatic clinical picture appears which might be diagnosed under Psychoneurotic Disorders in this nomenclature. A specific example may be seen in an episode of acute anxiety occurring in a homosexual. > > Conditions in the category included: * Anxiety reaction * Dissociative reaction * Conversion reaction * Phobic reaction * Obsessive compulsive reaction * Depressive reaction * Psychoneurotic reaction, other The DSM-I also included a category of "transient situational personality disorders". This included the diagnosis of "gross stress reaction". This was defined as a normal personality using established patterns of reaction to deal with overwhelming fear as a response to conditions of great stress. The diagnosis included language which relates the condition to combat as well as to "civilian catastrophe". The other situational disorders were "adult situational reaction" and a variety of time-of-life delineated "adjustment reactions". These referred to short-term reactions to stressors. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) were developed for the treatment of neurosis and other conditions from the early 1950s. Because of their undesirable adverse-effect profile and high potential for toxicity, their use was limited. The use of modern exposure therapy for neuroses began in the 1950s in South Africa. South African-American Joseph Wolpe was one of the first psychiatrists to spark interest in treating psychiatric problems as behavioral issues. In May 1950, pharmacologist Frank Berger (Czech-American) and chemist Bernard John Ludwig engineered meprobamate to be a non-drowsy tranquiliser. Launched as "Miltown" in 1955, it rapidly became the first blockbuster psychotropic drug in American history, becoming popular in Hollywood and gaining fame for its effects. It is highly addictive. After the Korean War (1950-1953), Thomas W. Salmon's battle neurosis treatment practices became summarised as the PIE principles: * Proximity – treat the casualties close to the front and within sound of the fighting. * Immediacy – treat them without delay and not wait until the wounded were all dealt with. * Expectancy – ensure that everyone had the expectation of their return to the front after a rest and replenishment. The International Association of Analytical Psychology was founded in 1955. It is the predominant organisation devoted to the psychology of Carl Jung. In 1956, American psychologist Albert Ellis published his first paper on his methodology "rational psychotherapy"*.* This and later works defined what is now known as rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). Ellis believed that people's erroneous beliefs about their adversities was a major cause of neurosis, and his therapy aimed to dissolve these neuroses by correcting people's understandings. Ellis published the first REBT book, *How to live with a neurotic,* in 1957. Ellis' therapy was also the beginning of what is now called cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Albert Ellis and others founded The Institute for Rational Living in April 1959, which later became the Albert Ellis Institute. The concept of "institutional neurosis" was coined by British psychiatrist Russell Barton, and explained in his well-cited 1959 book *Institutional Neurosis*. Barton believed that many of the mental health symptoms had by people living in mental hospitals and similar institutions were caused by being in those environments, rather than other causes. Barton was a leader in the deinstitutionalisation movement. (This form of neurosis later came to be known as "institutional syndrome"). Benzodiazepine is a class of highly addictive sedative drugs that reduce anxiety by depressing function in certain parts of the brain. The first of these drugs, chlordiazepoxide (Librium), was made available for sale in 1960. (It was discovered by Polish-American chemist Leo Sternbach in 1955.) Librium was followed with the more popular diazepam (Valium) in 1963. These drugs soon displaced Miltown. Spanish history writer Jose M. Lopez Pinero published *Origenes historicos del concepto de neurosis* in 1963. It was published in English as *Historical Origins of the Concept of Neurosis* in 1983. Neurotics Anonymous began in February 1964, as a twelve-step program to help the neurotic. It was founded in Washington, D.C. by American psychologist Grover Boydston, and has since spread through the Americas. Alfred Adler released the book *Problems of Neurosis* in 1964, explaining his understanding of what neurosis exist, and how best to treat them. Also in 1964, Polish psychiatrist Kazimierz Dąbrowski released his book *Positive Disintegration*. The book argues that developing and resolving psychoneurosis is a necessary part of healthy personality development. The popular textbook *The causes and cures of neurosis; an introduction to modern behaviour therapy based on learning theory and the principles of conditioning* was published in 1965 by Hans Eysenck and South African-British psychologist Stanley Rachman. It aimed to replace the Freudian approach to neurosis with behaviorism. In 1966, psychologists began to observe large numbers of children of Holocaust survivors seeking mental help in clinics in Canada. The grandchildren of Holocaust survivors were overrepresented by 300% among the referrals to psychiatry clinics in comparison with their representation in the general population. Further study lead to the better understanding of transgenerational trauma. The noted book *Psychological stress and the coping process* was released by American psychologist Richard Lazarus in 1966. The Association for Advancement of Behavioral Therapies was founded in 1966. (In 2005, it became the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies.) ### DSM-II (1968-1980) After Freudian thinking became less prominent in psychology, the term "neurosis" came to be used as a near synonym for "anxiety". The second edition of the DSM (*DSM-II*) in 1968 described neuroses thusly: > Anxiety is the chief characteristic of the neuroses. It may be felt and expressed directly, or it may be controlled unconsciously and automatically by conversion [into physical symptoms], displacement [into mental symptoms] and various other psychological mechanisms. Generally, these mechanisms produce symptoms experienced as subjective distress from which the patient desires relief. The neuroses, as contrasted to the psychoses, manifest neither gross distortion or misinterpretation of external reality, nor gross personality disorganization... > > Included in this category were the conditions: * Hysterical neurosis + Hysterical neurosis, conversion type + Hysterical neurosis, dissociative type * Phobic neurosis * Obsessive compulsive neurosis * Depressive neurosis * Neurasthenic neurosis (neurasthenia) * Depersonalization neurosis (depersonalization syndrome) * Hypochondriacal neurosis * Other neurosis * Unspecified neurosis What was previously "gross stress reaction" and "adult situational reaction" was combined into the new "adjustment disorder of adult life", a condition covering mild to strong reactions. Other adjustment disorders for other times-of-life were also included. (Also, the category "transient situational personality disorders" was renamed "transient situational disturbances.") *Anxiety and Neurosis* was a popular mass-market book released in 1968 by British psychologist Charles Rycroft. *Neuroses and Personality Disorders* was a popular textbook released by American psychologist Elton B McNeil in 1970. The book *Primal Scream. Primal Therapy: The Cure for Neurosis* by American psychologist Arthur Janov was released in 1970. It established primal therapy as a treatment for neurosis. It is based on the idea that neurosis is caused by the repressed pain of childhood trauma. Janov argued that repressed pain can be sequentially brought to conscious awareness for resolution through re-experiencing specific incidents and fully expressing the resulting pain during therapy. Janov criticizes the talking therapies as they deal primarily with the cerebral cortex and higher-reasoning areas and do not access the source of Pain within the more basic parts of the central nervous system. (A second edition of the book was published in 1999). Dąbrowski expanded on his earlier book with *Psychoneurosis Is Not An Illness: Neuroses And Psychoneuroses From The Perspective Of Positive Disintegration* in 1972. In 1975, Americans the nurse Ann Burgess and sociologist Lynda Lytle Holmstrom defined rape trauma syndrome in order to draw attention to the striking similarities between the experiences of soldiers returning from war and of rape victims. Beta-blockers are a class of medication that block the receptor sites for epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) on beta receptors, of the sympathetic nervous system, which mediates the fight-or-flight response. By the mid-1970s, beta blockers were used to reduce symptoms of anxiety. (Scottish pharmacologist James Black had synthesized the first clinically significant beta blockers (propranolol and pronethalol) in 1964). In 1977, benzodiazepines had become the most prescribed medications globally. That was the year the highly addictive benzodiazepine lorazepam (Ativan) entered the US market, (having earlier been invented by American chemist Stanley C Bell in 1963.) American psychiatrist and historian Kenneth Levin's *Freud's early psychology of the neuroses: a historical perspective* was published in 1978. Albert Ellis' work was expanded on by fellow American, psychiatrist Aaron Beck. The well-cited book *Cognitive therapy of depression* was written by Beck, American psychiatrist A. John Rush, Canadian psychologist Brian F. Shaw and American psychologist Gary Emery. It was released in 1979. It launched the Beck's cognitive triad explanation of depression, and lead to CBT becoming the main talking-therapy used to treat depression. Beck's cognitive therapy became popular, eventually becoming the most popular form of CBT and often being known by that name. In January 1980, Stanley Rachman published a well-cited working definition of "emotional processing", aiming to define the "certain psychological experiences" Freud had mentioned in his 1923 book (and had earlier referred to). ### DSM-III (1980-1994) The DSM replaced its "neurosis" category with an "anxiety disorders" category in 1980, with the release of the *DSM-III*. It did this because of a decision by its editors to provide descriptions of behavior rather than descriptions of hidden psychological mechanisms. This change was controversial. This edition of the book also included a condition named "post-traumatic stress disorder" for the first time. This was similar in definition to the "gross stress reaction" of the DSM-I. The anxiety disorders were defined as: * Phobic disorders (or phobic neuroses) + Agoraphobia with panic attacks + Agoraphobia without panic attacks + Social phobia + Simple phobia * Anxiety states (or anxiety neuroses) + Panic disorder + Generalised anxiety disorder + Obsessive compulsive disorder (or obsessive compulsive neuroses) + Post-traumatic stress disorder, acute + Post-traumatic stress disorder, chronic or delayed * Atypical anxiety disorder Adjustment disorder remained, and was defined separately. It's time-of-life based subtypes were abolished, replaced with combinations with co-morbid syndromes (such as "Adjustment Disorder with Depressed Mood" and "Adjustment Disorder with Anxious Mood"). Adjustment disorder returned to being a short-term condition. Somatoform disorders, disassociation, depression and hypochondria (all previously considered neuroses) were also treated separately. Neurasthenia (a neurosis that caused otherwise unexplainable fatigue) was loosely mapped to a mild form of depression. The Phobia Society of America was founded by psychologist Jerilyn Ross and others in 1980. In 1981, American psychologists Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman suggested that stress can be thought of as resulting from an "imbalance between demands and resources" or as occurring when "pressure exceeds one's perceived ability to cope". They developed the *transactional model* of stress. Also in 1981, American psychologists Christina Maslach and Susan E. Jackson published an instrument for assessing occupational burnout, the Maslach Burnout Inventory. The two researchers described burnout in terms of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization (feeling low empathy towards other people in an occupational setting), and reduced feelings of work-related personal accomplishment. The highly addictive benzodiazepine alprazolam (Xanax) was approved for medical use in the United States in 1981, (having been invented by American chemist Jackson Hester in 1971.) This and accounts of Valium addiction issues (particularly that of Barbara Gordon) led to the latter no longer being the most prescribed drug in the United States in 1982. Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) was started by American psychologist Steven C. Hayes in around 1982. The core conception of ACT is that psychological suffering is usually caused by experiential avoidance, cognitive entanglement, and resulting psychological rigidity that leads to a failure to take needed behavioral steps in accord with core values. American psychiatrist George F. Drinka released the history book *Birth of Neurosis: Myth, Malady, and the Victorians* in 1984. The 1984 book *Stress, Appraisal and Coping* by Lazarus and Folkman is the 17th most cited book in social science. The Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (STSS) was founded in the United States in March 1985 for professionals to share information about the effects of trauma. It later became the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (ISTSS). Stress inoculation training was developed to reduce anxiety in doctors during times of intense stress by American doctor Donald Meichenbaum in 1985. In 1986, "emotional processing theory" was first presented by psychologists Edna Foa (Israeli-American) and Michael J Kozak (American). This led to their development of prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD. It is characterized by two main treatment procedures. "Imaginal exposure" is repeated purposeful retelling of the trauma memory. "In vivo exposure" is gradually confronting situations, places, and things that are reminders of the trauma or feel dangerous (despite being objectively safe). The first selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) medication went on the market in Belgium in 1986. They became available in the United States in 1988, and in other places around this time. This class of drugs largely replaced MOAIs and TCAs, as they were much safer. In the United States, these drugs are most commonly known as Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, Luvox, Celexa and Lexapro. (The first SSRI was developed by chemists including the Scottish-American Bryan Molloy and Chinese-American David T Wong.) The SSRIs were soon supplemented with the similar SNRI class, which includes Effexor. Antidepressant discontinuation syndrome is a significant issue with the use of both classes. Azapirones are a group of drugs that work at the 5‐HT1A serotonin receptor, and are used to reduce anxiety. The first available azapirone buspirone (Buspar), was approved in the United States in 1986. (It was invented by a team at Mead Johnson in the US in 1968). The only other drug in this class that is widely used in tandospirone (Sediel), which is available in some Asian countries. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is a form of exposure therapy devised by American psychologist Francine Shapiro from 1987, with the first papers on it published in 1989. It involves focusing on traumatic memories while engaging in side-to-side eye movements or other similar distractions. (The technique became more broadly known after the release of Shapiro's book *Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing: Basic Principles, Protocols, and Procedures* in 2001.) Cognitive processing therapy (CPT) was developed by American psychologist Patricia Resick from 1988. The primary focus of the treatment is to help the client understand and reconceptualize their traumatic event in a way that reduces its ongoing negative effects on their current life. Decreasing avoidance of the trauma is crucial to this, since it is necessary for the client to examine and evaluate their meta-emotions and beliefs generated by the trauma. In 1988, the First European Conference on Traumatic Stress Studies was held in Lincoln, with the participation of the STSS. The European Trauma Network was formed at this time. This became the European Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (ESTSS) in 1993. The conservation of resources (COR) theory of stress was proposed by American psychologist Stevan Hobfoll in 1989. It is a heavily cited theory that describes the motivation that drives humans to both maintain their current resources and to pursue new resources. The world's main psychoanalysis bodies decided to admit people who weren't medical doctors in 1989, after a major lawsuit was made against them. In 1990, the Phobia Society of America became the Anxiety Disorders Association of America. *The Anxiety and Phobia Workbook* was first released in August 1990. It has since sold over a million copies, and had seven editions. It was written by American philosopher and behavioural scientist Edmund J. Bourne. The International Karen Horney Society was founded in 1991. After decades of development, the American psychologist Marsha M. Linehan published a defining paper for a new treatment for borderline personality disorder, called dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) in December 1991. This has come to be used to treat emotional dysregulation more broadly. The World Association of Psychoanalysis was founded in January 1992, and became the largest organisation devoted to the psychotherapy of Jacques Lacan. The first World Conference on Traumatic Stress was held in Amsterdam in June 1992, organised by the ISTSS. ### DSM-IV (1994-2013) The conditions acute stress reaction and acute stress disorder were added to the *DSM-IV* (1994), describing what had previously been considered some types of adjustment disorder. "Acute stress reaction" referred to the symptoms experienced immediately to 48 hours after exposure to a traumatic event. "Acute stress disorder" was defined by symptoms experienced 48 hours to one month following the event. Symptoms experienced for longer than one month were considered to be PTSD. The "anxiety disorders" were: * Panic attack * Agoraphobia * Panic disorder without agoraphobia * Panic disorder with agoraphobia * Agoraphobia without history of panic disorder * Specific phobia (formally simple phobia) * Social phobia (social anxiety disorder) * Obsessive-compulsive disorder * Posttraumatic stress disorder * Acute stress disorder * Generalised anxiety disorder (includes overanxious disorder of childhood) * Anxiety disorder due to a general medical condition * Substance-induced anxiety disorder * Anxiety disorder not otherwise specified "Adjustment disorder" remained in the DSM, and was largely unchanged. The Anxiety Disorders Association of Victoria was established in Melbourne in 1994. Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy (TF-CBT) was developed by American psychiatrists Anthony Mannarino, Judith Cohen, and Esther Deblinger in the mid-1990s to help children and adolescents with PTSD. There are 3 treatment phases: stabilization, trauma narration and processing, and integration and consolidation. Australia's "National Centre for War-Related PTSD" was founded in 1995. In 2000 it broadened its focus to include all post-traumatic mental health, and become "Phoenix Australia – Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health" in 2015. "Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey" is a very highly cited paper published in December 1995 by American sociologist Ronald C. Kessler and others. The popular book *Traumatic Stress: The Effects of Overwhelming Experience on Mind, Body, and Society* was edited by Dutch-American psychiatrist Bessel van der Kolk, Australian psychiatrist Alexander C. McFarlane and Norwegian psychiatrist Lars Weisaeth. It was released in 1996. The dual representation theory (DRT) of PTSD was developed by British psychologists Chris Brewin, Tim Dalgleish, and Stephen Joseph in July 1996. It proposes that certain symptoms of PTSD - such as nightmares, flashbacks, and emotional disturbance - may be attributed to memory processes that occur after exposure to a traumatic event. DRT proposes the existence of two separate memory systems that run in parallel during memory formation: the verbally accessible memory system (VAM) and situationally accessible memory system (SAM). The World Association for Person Centered & Experiential Psychotherapy & Counseling (WAPCEPC) was established in July 1996, furthering the work of Carl Rogers. The Deutschsprachige Gesellschaft für Psychotraumatologie (German-speaking Society for Psychotraumatology) was established in 1998. It was co-founded by German psychologist Andreas Maercker. "Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: the 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma" was a highly cited paper published in July 1998 by Israeli-American sociologist Naomi Breslau, Ronald C. Kessler and others. Edna Foa and EA Meadows published the well-cited paper "Psychosocial Treatments for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Critical Review" in February 1997. It examined CBT, EMDR and stress inoculation training; and treatment programs that combined these. Details of Foa's "Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale" were first published in December 1997 in a well-cited paper. Bestselling book *Change Your Brain, Change Your Life: The Breakthrough Program for Conquering Anxiety, Depression, Obsessiveness, Anger, and Impulsiveness* was released by American doctor Daniel G. Amen in December 1998. Anxiety Canada was established in 1999. In April 2000, the paper "A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder" was published by psychologists Anke Ehlers (German-British) and David M. Clark (British). They and others followed this with a publishing of a treatment method based on this model in 2005. The three components of this are to: modify negative appraisals of the trauma; reduce re-experiencing symptoms by discussing trauma memories and learning how to differentiate between types of trauma triggers; and reduce behaviors and thoughts that contribute to the maintenance of the "sense of current threat". The highly cited paper "Posttraumatic stress disorder: the burden to the individual and to society" was published by Ronald C. Kessler in 2000. The paper "Traumatic events and post-traumatic stress disorder in the community: prevalence, risk factors and comorbidity" was published by German psychologist Axel Perkonigg, Ronald C. Kessler, S. Storz and German psychologist Hans-Ulrich Wittchen in December 2001. Another highly cited paper, titled "Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder," was published by American psychiatrist Rachel Yehuda in January 2002. *The PTSD Workbook: Simple, Effective Techniques for Overcoming Traumatic Stress Symptoms* by American social worker Mary Beth Williams and Finnish psychologist Soili Poijula in March 2002. New editions were released in 2013 and 2016. It has been widely used. The highly cited paper "Psychological theories of posttraumatic stress disorder" was published by British psychologists Chris Brewin and Emily A Holmes in May 2003. It reviewed Foa's emotional processing theory, Brewin's dual representation theory, and Ehlers and Clark's cognitive theory; and found them to significantly overlap. "Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis." is a well-cited paper published in 2003 by American psychologists Emily J Ozer, Susan R Best, Tami L Lipsey, and Daniel S Weiss. It found that "peritraumatic psychological processes, not prior characteristics, are the strongest predictors of PTSD." In 2005, the Swedish Board of Health and Welfare adopted into that country's variation of the ICD a refined conceptualisation of severe burnout it described as "exhaustion disorder." The UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence released a PTSD guideline document in 2005. It received a major update in December 2018. The PTSD Association of Canada was founded in 2006. The American Psychiatric Association's Division 56, Division of Trauma Psychology, was founded in 2006 to increase discussion of trauma psychology by American psychiatrists. By 2009, it had more than 1200 members. "Prevalence of depression, anxiety, and adjustment disorder in oncological, haematological, and palliative-care settings: a meta-analysis of 94 interview-based studies" was a February 2011 paper that was highly cited. Its lead author was British psychiatrist Alex J Mitchell. In 2012, the Anxiety Disorders Association of America became the Anxiety and Depression Association of America. *Monkey Mind: A Memoir of Anxiety* was a popular book released by American journalist Daniel B Smith in July 2012. ### DSM-5 (2013-current) In 2013, the DSM-5 was released, separating out the "trauma and stress-related disorders" (Freud's etiology for neuroses) from the "anxiety disorders". The former category includes: * Reactive attachment disorder * Disinhibited social engagement disorder * Posttraumatic stress disorder * Acute stress disorder * Adjustment disorders * Other specified trauma- and stressor-related disorder + Adjustment-like disorders with a late onset + Ataque de nervios + Dhat syndrome + Khyâl cap + Kufungisisa + Maladi moun + Nervios + Shenjing shuairuo + Susto + Taijin kyofusho + Persistent complex bereavement disorder * Unspecified trauma- and stressor-related disorder The popular book *My Age of Anxiety: Fear, Hope, Dread, and the Search for Peace of Mind* was released in January 2014 by American journalist Scott Stossel. In 2014, the bestselling book *The Body Keeps the Score: Brain, Mind, and Body in the Healing of Trauma* was released by Bessel van der Kolk. It explained the author's experiences of psychological trauma, and its consequent effects on mental and physical health. *The Evil Hours: A Biography of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder* was a popular book released by American writer and PTSD-sufferer David J Morris in January 2015. Another popular book published that month was *Rewire Your Anxious Brain: How to Use the Neuroscience of Fear to End Anxiety, Panic, and Worry* by Americans Catherine M. Pittman (psychologist) and Elizabeth M. Karle (author). The afflicted support charity PTSD UK was established in 2015. *Declutter Your Mind: How to Stop Worrying, Relieve Anxiety, and Eliminate Negative Thinking* is a popular book released in August 2016 by Americans S.J. Scott (psychologist) and Barrie Davenport (coach). The popular book *First, We Make the Beast Beautiful: A New Story About Anxiety* was released by Australian journalist Sarah Wilson in February 2017. The American Psychological Association released it's *Clinical Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in Adults* in February 2017. The United States Department of Veterans Affairs released a major update of it's *Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of PTSD* in 2017. Another popular book, *Unfuck Your Brain: Using Science to Get Over Anxiety, Depression, Anger, Freak-Outs, and Triggers,* was released by American councillor Faith G Harper in October 2017. The British Psychological Society commissioned the creation of the "Power Threat Meaning Framework" by a committee over five years, with its first major release in January 2018. The framework aims to provide a complete understanding of psychological trauma, and the best way to treat it. Contrary to most psychological approaches, it includes a large focus on the patient's environment. The Association Française Pierre Janet was publicly inaugurated in March 2018. The United Kingdom Psychological Trauma Society (UKPTS) of psychological trauma treating professionals was formed in 2018 from the UK Trauma Group, and the British and Irish Chapter of ESTSS. Popular book *Welcome to the United States of Anxiety: Observations from a Reforming Neurotic* was released by American writer Jen Lancaster in October 2020. Another popular book, *Unwinding Anxiety: New Science Shows How to Break the Cycles of Worry and Fear to Heal Your Mind,* was released by American psychiatrist Judson Brewer in March 2021. The ICD-11 (first active in January 2022) included a substantial subset of the DSM-V conditions, and also complex post traumatic stress disorder. Prevention ---------- Stress inoculation training was developed to reduce anxiety in doctors during times of intense stress by Donald Meichenbaum in 1985. It is a combination of techniques including relaxation, negative thought suppression, and real-life exposure to feared situations used in PTSD treatment. The therapy is divided into four phases and is based on the principles of cognitive-behavioral therapy. The first phase identifies the individual's specific reaction to stressors and how they manifest into symptoms. The second phase helps teach techniques to regulate these symptoms using relaxation methods. The third phase deals with specific coping strategies and positive cognitions to work through the stressors. Finally, the fourth phase exposes the client to imagined and real-life situations related to the traumatic event. This training helps to shape the response to future triggers to diminish impairment in daily life. Patients with acute stress disorder have been found to benefit from another type of cognitive behavioral therapy in preventing PTSD, with clinically meaningful outcomes at six-month follow-up consultations. Supportive counseling was outperformed by a regimen of relaxation, cognitive restructuring, imaginal exposure, and in-vivo exposure. Programs based on mindfulness-based stress reduction also seem to be useful at managing stress. Playing Tetris shortly after a traumatic experience prevents the development of PTSD in some cases. The use of pharmaceuticals to mitigate the consequences of ASD has made some progress. The Alpha-1 blocker Prazosin, which controls sympathetic response, can be administered to patients to help them unwind and enable better sleep. It is unclear how it functions in this situation. Following a traumatic experience, hydrocortisone (cortisol) has demonstrated some promise as an early prophylactic intervention, frequently slowing the onset of PTSD. In a systematic literature review in 2014, the Swedish Agency for Health Technology Assessment and Assessment of Social Services (SBU) found that a number of work environment factors could affect the risk of developing exhaustion disorder or depressive symptoms: * People who experience a work situation with little opportunity to influence, in combination with too high demands, develop more depressive symptoms. * People who experience a lack of compassionate support in the work environment develop more symptoms of depression and exhaustion disorder than others. Those who experience bullying or conflict in their work develop more depressive symptoms than others, but it is not possible to determine whether there is a corresponding connection for symptoms of exhaustion disorder. * People who feel that they have urgent work or a work situation where the reward is perceived as small in relation to the effort develops more symptoms of depression and exhaustion disorder than others. This also applies to those who experience insecurity in the employment, for example concerns that the workplace will be closed down. * In some work environments, people have less trouble. People who experience good opportunities for control in their own work and those who feel that they are treated fairly develop less symptoms of depression and exhaustion disorder than others. * Women and men with similar working conditions develop symptoms of depression as much as exhaustion disorder. Etiology -------- ### Historic versions of the DSM and ICD The term "neurosis" is no longer used in a professional diagnostic sense, it having been eliminated from the DSM in 1980 with the publication of DSM III, and having the last remnants of being removed from the ICD with the enacting of the ICD-11 in 2022. (In the ICD-10 it was used in section F48.8 to describe certain minor conditions.) According to the "anxiety" concept of the term, there were many different neuroses, including: * obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) * obsessive–compulsive personality disorder * impulse control disorder * anxiety disorder * histrionic personality disorder * dissociative disorder * a great variety of phobias According to C. George Boeree, professor emeritus at Shippensburg University, the symptoms of neurosis may involve: > ... anxiety, sadness or depression, anger, irritability, mental confusion, low sense of self-worth, etc., behavioral symptoms such as phobic avoidance, vigilance, impulsive and compulsive acts, lethargy, etc., cognitive problems such as unpleasant or disturbing thoughts, repetition of thoughts and obsession, habitual fantasizing, negativity and cynicism, etc. Interpersonally, neurosis involves dependency, aggressiveness, perfectionism, schizoid isolation, socio-culturally inappropriate behaviors, etc. > > ### Psychoanalytic (Freudian) theory According to psychoanalytic theory, neuroses may be rooted in ego defense mechanisms, though the two concepts are not synonymous. Defense mechanisms are a normal way of developing and maintaining a consistent sense of self (i.e., an *ego*). However, only those thoughts and behaviors that produce difficulties in one's life should be called *neuroses*. A neurotic person experiences emotional distress and unconscious conflict, which are manifested in various physical or mental illnesses; the definitive symptom being anxiety. Neurotic tendencies are common and may manifest themselves as acute or chronic anxiety, depression, OCD, a phobia, or a personality disorder. Freud's typology of neuroses in "Introduction to Psychoanalysis" (1923) included: * Psychoneuroses + Transference neuroses - Hysteria * Anxiety hysteria + Various phobias * Conversion hysteria - Compulsion neuroses + Trauma neuroses + Narcistic neuroses * True neuroses + Neurasthenia + Anxiety neurosis + Hypochondria + Paraphrenia [schizophrenia spectrum] - Dementia praecox - Paranoia * Megalomania * Mania of persecution * Erotomania * Mania of jealousy ### Jungian theory Carl Jung found his approach particularly effective for patients who are well adjusted by social standards but are troubled by existential questions. Jung claims to have "frequently seen people become neurotic when they content themselves with inadequate or wrong answers to the questions of life". Accordingly, the majority of his patients "consisted not of believers but of those who had lost their faith". A contemporary person, according to Jung, > …is blind to the fact that, with all his rationality and efficiency, he is possessed by 'powers' that are beyond his control. His gods and demons have not disappeared at all; they have merely got new names. They keep him on the run with restlessness, vague apprehensions, psychological complications, an insatiable need for pills, alcohol, tobacco, food — and, above all, a large array of neuroses. > > Jung found that the unconscious finds expression primarily through an individual's inferior psychological function, whether it is thinking, feeling, sensation, or intuition. The characteristic effects of a neurosis on the dominant and inferior functions are discussed in his *Psychological Types*. Jung also found collective neuroses in politics: "Our world is, so to speak, dissociated like a neurotic." ### Horney's theory In her final book, *Neurosis and Human Growth*, Karen Horney lays out a complete theory of the origin and dynamics of neurosis. In her theory, neurosis is a distorted way of looking at the world and at oneself, which is determined by compulsive needs rather than by a genuine interest in the world as it is. Horney proposes that neurosis is transmitted to a child from their early environment and that there are many ways in which this can occur: > When summarized, they all boil down to the fact that the people in the environment are too wrapped up in their own neuroses to be able to love the child, or even to conceive of him as the particular individual he is; their attitudes toward him are determined by their own neurotic needs and responses. > > The child's initial reality is then distorted by their parents' needs and pretenses. Growing up with neurotic caretakers, the child quickly becomes insecure and develops basic anxiety. To deal with this anxiety, the child's imagination creates an idealized self-image: > Each person builds up his personal idealized image from the materials of his own special experiences, his earlier fantasies, his particular needs, and also his given faculties. If it were not for the personal character of the image, he would not attain a feeling of identity and unity. He idealizes, to begin with, his particular "solution" of his basic conflict: compliance becomes goodness, love, saintliness; aggressiveness becomes strength, leadership, heroism, omnipotence; aloofness becomes wisdom, self-sufficiency, independence. What—according to his particular solution—appear as shortcomings or flaws are always dimmed out or retouched. > > Once they identify themselves with their idealized image, a number of effects follow. They will make claims on others and on life based on the prestige they feel entitled to because of their idealized self-image. They will impose a rigorous set of standards upon themselves in order to try to measure up to that image. They will cultivate pride, and with that will come the vulnerabilities associated with pride that lacks any foundation. Finally, they will despise themselves for all their limitations. Vicious circles will operate to strengthen all of these effects. Eventually, as they grow to adulthood, a particular "solution" to all the inner conflicts and vulnerabilities will solidify. They will be either: * expansive, displaying symptoms of narcissism, perfectionism, or vindictiveness. * self-effacing and compulsively compliant, displaying symptoms of neediness or codependence. * resigned, displaying schizoid tendencies. In Horney's view, mild anxiety disorders and full-blown personality disorders all fall under her basic scheme of neurosis as variations in the degree of severity and in the individual dynamics. The opposite of neurosis is a condition Horney calls *self-realization*, a state of being in which the person responds to the world with the full depth of their spontaneous feelings, rather than with anxiety-driven compulsion. Thus, the person grows to actualize their inborn potentialities. Horney compares this process to an acorn that grows and becomes a tree: the acorn has had the potential for a tree inside it all along. See also -------- * Individuation * Treatments for PTSD

Neurosis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosis

The Wailers "One Love/People Get Ready" "One Love/People Get Ready" by The Wailers. This is a Ska version of the famous Bob Marley song. --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* **Ska** (/skɑː/; Jamaican: [skjæ]) is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1950s and was the precursor to rocksteady and reggae. It combined elements of Caribbean mento and calypso with American jazz and rhythm and blues. Ska is characterized by a walking bass line accented with rhythms on the off beat. It was developed in Jamaica in the 1960s when Stranger Cole, Prince Buster, Clement "Coxsone" Dodd, and Duke Reid formed sound systems to play American rhythm and blues and then began recording their own songs. In the early 1960s, ska was the dominant music genre of Jamaica and was popular with British mods and with many skinheads. Music historians typically divide the history of ska into three periods: the original Jamaican scene of the 1960s; the 2 Tone ska revival of the late 1970s in Britain, which fused Jamaican ska rhythms and melodies with the faster tempos and harder edge of punk rock forming ska-punk; and third wave ska, which involved bands from a wide range of countries around the world, in the late 1980s and 1990s. Etymology --------- There are multiple theories about the origins of the word *ska*. Ernest Ranglin claimed that the term was coined by musicians to refer to the "skat! skat! skat!" scratching guitar strum. Another explanation is that at a recording session in 1959 produced by Coxsone Dodd, double bassist Cluett Johnson instructed guitarist Ranglin to "play like ska, ska, ska", although Ranglin has denied this, stating "Clue couldn't tell me what to play!" A further theory is that it derives from Johnson's word *skavoovie*, with which he was known to greet his friends. Jackie Mittoo insisted that the musicians called the rhythm *Staya Staya*, and that it was Byron Lee who introduced the term "ska". Derrick Morgan said: "Guitar and piano making a ska sound, like 'ska, ska". History ------- ### Jamaican ska After World War II, Jamaicans purchased radios in increasing numbers and were able to hear rhythm and blues music from the Southern United States in cities such as New Orleans by artists such as Fats Domino, Barbie Gaye, Rosco Gordon and Louis Jordan whose early recordings all contain the seeds of the "behind-the-beat" feel of ska and reggae. The stationing of American military forces during and after the war meant that Jamaicans could listen to military broadcasts of American music, and there was a constant influx of records from the United States. To meet the demand for that music, entrepreneurs such as Prince Buster, Coxsone Dodd, and Duke Reid formed sound systems. As the supply of previously unheard tunes in the jump blues and more traditional R&B genres began to dry up in the late 1950s, Jamaican producers began recording their own version of the genres with local artists. These recordings were initially made to be played on "soft wax" (a lacquer on metal disc acetate later to become known as a "dub plate"), but as demand for them grew eventually sometime in the second half of 1959 (believed by most to be in the last quarter) producers such as Coxsone Dodd and Duke Reid began to issue these recording on 45rpm 7-inch discs. At this point, the style was a direct copy of the American "shuffle blues" style, but within two or three years it had morphed into the more familiar ska style with the off-beat guitar chop that could be heard in some of the more uptempo late-1950s American rhythm and blues recordings such as Domino's "Be My Guest" and Barbie Gaye's "My Boy Lollypop", both of which were popular on Jamaican sound systems of the late 1950s. Domino's rhythm, accentuating the offbeat, was a particular influence. This "classic" ska style was of bars made up of four triplets but was characterized by a guitar chop on the off beat—known as an upstroke or 'skank'—with horns taking the lead and often following the off-beat skank and piano emphasizing the bass line and, again, playing the skank. Drums kept **4** **4** time and the bass drum was accented on the third beat of each four-triplet phrase. The snare would play side stick and accent the third beat of each 4-triplet phrase. The upstroke sound can also be found in other Caribbean forms of music, such as mento and calypso. Ernest Ranglin asserted that the difference between R&B and ska beats is that the former goes "*chink*-ka" and the latter goes "ka-*chink*". Famous ska band the Skatalites recorded "Dynamite", "Ringo" and "Guns of Navarone". One theory about the origin of ska is that Prince Buster created it during the inaugural recording session for his new record label Wild Bells. The session was financed by Duke Reid, who was supposed to get half of the songs to release. The guitar began emphasizing the second and fourth beats in the bar, giving rise to the new sound. The drums were taken from traditional Jamaican drumming and marching styles. To create the ska beat, Prince Buster essentially flipped the R&B shuffle beat, stressing the offbeats with the help of the guitar. Prince Buster has explicitly cited American rhythm and blues as the origin of ska: specifically, Willis Jackson's song "Later for the Gator" (which was Coxsone Dodd's number one selection). The first ska recordings were created at facilities such as Federal Records, Studio One, and WIRL Records in Kingston, Jamaica with producers such as Dodd, Reid, Prince Buster, and Edward Seaga. The ska sound coincided with the celebratory feelings surrounding Jamaica's independence from the UK in 1962; an event commemorated by songs such as Derrick Morgan's "Forward March" and The Skatalites' "Freedom Sound". Until Jamaica ratified the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, the country did not honor international music copyright protection. This created many cover songs and reinterpretations. One such cover was Millie Small's version of the R&B/shuffle tune, "My Boy Lollypop", first recorded in New York in 1956 by 14-year-old Barbie Gaye. Small's rhythmically similar version, released in 1964, was Jamaica's first commercially successful international hit. With over seven million copies sold, it remains one of the best selling reggae/ska songs of all time. Many other Jamaican artists would have success recording instrumental ska versions of popular American and British music, such as Beatles songs, Motown and Atlantic soul hits, movie theme songs and instrumentals (007, Guns of Navarone). The Wailers covered the Beatles' "And I Love Her", and radically reinterpreted Bob Dylan's "Like a Rolling Stone". They also created their own versions of Latin-influenced music from artists such as Mongo Santamaría. The Skatalites , Lord Creator, Laurel Aitken, Roland Alphonso, Tommy McCook, Jackie Mittoo, Desmond Dekker, and Don Drummond also recorded ska. Byron Lee & the Dragonaires performed ska with Prince Buster, Eric "Monty" Morris, and Jimmy Cliff at the 1964 New York World's Fair. As music changed in the United States, so did ska. In 1965 and 1966, when American soul music became slower and smoother, ska changed its sound accordingly and evolved into rocksteady. However, rocksteady's heyday was brief, peaking in 1967. By 1968, ska evolved again into reggae. ### 2 Tone The 2 tone genre, which began in the late 1970s in the Coventry area of UK, was a fusion of Jamaican ska rhythms and melodies with punk rock's more aggressive guitar chords and lyrics. Compared to 1960s ska, 2 Tone music had faster tempos, fuller instrumentation, and a harder edge. The genre was named after 2 Tone Records, a record label founded by Jerry Dammers of the Specials. In many cases, the reworking of classic ska songs turned the originals into hits again in the United Kingdom. The Specials recorded "A Message to You Rudy" in 1979. The 2 tone movement promoted racial unity at a time when racial tensions were high in England. There were many Specials songs that raised awareness of the issues of racism, fighting and friendship. Riots in English cities were a feature during the summer that the Specials song "Ghost Town" was a hit, although this work was in a slower, reggae beat. Most of the 2 Tone bands had multiracial lineups, such as the Beat (known as the English Beat in North America and Australia), the Specials, and the Selecter. Although only on the 2 tone label for one single, Madness was one of the most effective bands at bringing the 2 tone genre into the mainstream. Madness recorded "One Step Beyond". The music of this era resonated with white working class youth and West Indian immigrants who experienced the struggles addressed in the lyrics. Another well-known ska hit by Madness was Night Boat to Cairo. ### Third Wave Ska (3rd Wave Ska) Ska historian Albino Brown (of the radio program *The Ska Parade*) coined the term "third-wave ska" (3rd Wave Ska) in 1989 and helped to catalyze such multi-platinum bands as No Doubt and Sublime. Third-wave ska originated in the punk scene in the late 1980s and became commercially successful in the 1990s. Although some third-wave ska has a traditional 1960s sound, most third-wave ska is characterized by dominating guitar riffs and large horn sections. Examples of third-wave ska bands include The Toasters, Fishbone, No Doubt, Big D and The Kids Table, The Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Streetlight Manifesto, The Hotknives, Hepcat, The Slackers, Desorden Público, Sublime, Suicide Machines, Voodoo Glow Skulls, Reel Big Fish, Less Than Jake, Bim Skala Bim, Mad Caddies, Catch 22, The Aquabats, Mustard Plug, Five Iron Frenzy, Buck-o-Nine, Suburban Legends, The Pietasters, Save Ferris, Bomb the Music Industry!, Goldfinger, Dance Hall Crashers, Mephiskapheles, Blue Meanies, MU330 and The O.C. Supertones. #### United Kingdom By the late 1980s, ska had experienced a minor resurgence of popularity in the United Kingdom, due to bands such as The Burial and The Hotknives, The manager of the aforementioned band Dick Crippen formerly of hit band Tenpole Tudor then teamed up with cult record producer and songwriter for Mod icon Eleanor Rigby, Russell C. Brennan to form Ministry of Ska who took elements of classic and Rudeboy Ska and added a new twist 'Ska Surf' which proved popular worldwide with their debut album *Rarin to Go* being called "refreshing" and "one step beyond" the many soundalike bands around at the time by the press. They also appeared on the best selling album *Ska Beats*. This made them one of the more popular bands going into the '90s and *Rarin to Go* sold out quickly. After a contribution to the Dr. Martens album *Generation to Generation* they released a *Best of Ministry of Ska* compilation on Future Legend Records and the single "Ska Surfin". The 1980s and 1990s also heralded many ska festivals, and a re-emergence of the traditional skinhead subculture. #### Europe The early 1980s saw a massive surge in ska's popularity in Germany, leading to the founding of many German ska bands like The Busters, record labels and festivals. In Spain, ska became relevant in the 1980s in the Basque Country due to the influence of Basque Radical Rock, with Kortatu and Potato being the most representatives bands. (Skalariak and Betagarri followed their footsteps in the early 1990s and their influence is visible outside the Basque Country in punk-rock bands like Ska-P, Boikot and many others that have gained importance in the Spanish rock and punk rock scene and festivals. #### Australia The Australian ska scene flourished in the mid-1980s, following the musical precedents set by 2 Tone, and spearheaded by bands such as Strange Tenants, No Nonsense and The Porkers. Some of the Australian ska revival bands found success on the national music charts, most notably The Allniters, who had a number 10 hit with a ska cover of "Montego Bay" in 1983. The 30 piece Melbourne Ska Orchestra has enjoyed success in recent years, touring internationally, including sets at Glastonbury and Montreux Jazz Festival. #### Russia and Japan A Russian (then-Soviet) ska scene was established in the mid-1980s in Saint Petersburg as a kind of anglophone opposition to more traditional Russian rock music. AVIA and N.O.M. were among the first bands of genre. Then bands like Spitfire, Distemper, Leningrad and Markscheider Kunst became popular and commercially successful in Russia and abroad in the late 1990s. Japan established its own ska scene, colloquially referred to as *J-ska*, in the mid-1980s. The Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra, formed in 1985, have been one of the most commercially successful progenitors of Japanese ska. #### The Americas Latin America's ska scene started developing in the mid-1980s. Latin American ska bands typically play traditional ska rhythms blended with strong influences from Latin music and rock en Español. The most prominent bands include the Grammy nominated Desorden Público from Venezuela and Grammy awarded Los Fabulosos Cadillacs from Argentina, who scored an international hit single with "El Matador" in 1994. By the early 1980s, 2 Tone-influenced ska bands began forming throughout the United States. The Uptones from Berkeley, California and The Toasters from New York City—both formed in 1981 — were among the first active ska bands in North America. They are both credited with laying the groundwork for American ska and establishing scenes in their respective regions. In Los Angeles around the same time, The Untouchables also formed. While many of the early American ska bands continued in the musical traditions set by 2 Tone and the mod revival, bands such as Fishbone, The Mighty Mighty Bosstones and Operation Ivy pioneered the American ska punk subgenre, a fusion of ska and punk rock that typically downplayed ska's R&B influence in favor of faster tempos and guitar distortion. In 1986,No Doubt a ska punk band was formed. They were one of the most main stream ska bands that set the stage for many up and coming bands. Two hotspots for the United States' burgeoning ska scenes were New York City and Orange County, California. In New York, Toasters frontman Robert "Bucket" Hingley formed independent record label Moon Ska Records in 1983. The label quickly became the largest independent ska label in the United States. The Orange County ska scene was a major breeding ground for ska punk and more contemporary pop-influenced ska music, personified by bands such as Reel Big Fish and Sublime. It was here that the term "third wave ska" was coined and popularized by Albino Brown and Tazy Phyllipz (hosts of the *Ska Parade* radio show) to describe the new wave of ska-influenced bands which were steadily gaining notoriety; and Brown wrote the first treatise on ska's third wave in 1994. The San Francisco Bay Area also contributed to ska's growing popularity, with Skankin' Pickle, Let's Go Bowling and the Dance Hall Crashers becoming known on the touring circuit. The mid-1990s saw a considerable rise in ska music's underground popularity, marked by the formation of many ska-based record labels, booking organizations and indie zines. While Moon Ska was still the largest of the United States' ska labels, other notable labels included Jump Up Records of Chicago, which covered the thriving midwest scene, and Steady Beat Recordings of Los Angeles, which covered Southern California's traditional ska revival. Stomp Records of Montreal was Canada's primary producer and distributor of ska music. Additionally, many punk and indie rock labels, such as Hellcat Records and Fueled by Ramen, broadened their scope to include both ska and ska punk bands. Asian Man Records (formerly Dill Records), founded in 1996, started out primarily releasing ska punk albums before branching out to other music styles. In 1993, The Mighty Mighty Bosstones signed with Mercury Records, becoming the first American ska punk band to find mainstream commercial success, with their 1994 album *Question the Answers* achieving gold record status and peaking at number 138 on the *Billboard* 200. In 1995, punk band Rancid, featuring former members of Operation Ivy, released the ska punk single "Time Bomb", which reached number 8 on the *Billboard* Modern Rock Tracks, becoming the first major ska punk hit of the 1990s and launching the genre into the public eye. Over the next few years, a string of notable ska and ska-influenced singles became hits on mainstream radio, including "Sell Out" by Reel Big Fish and "The Impression That I Get" by The Mighty Mighty Bosstones, all of whom would reach platinum status with each of their respective albums. By 1996, third wave ska was one of the most popular forms of alternative music in the United States. A sign of mainstream knowledge of third wave ska was the inclusion of the parody song "Your Horoscope for Today" on "Weird Al" Yankovic's 1999 album *Running with Scissors*. By the late 1990s, mainstream interest in third wave ska bands waned as other music genres gained momentum. Moon Ska Records folded in 2000, but Moon Ska Europe, a licensed affiliate based in Europe, continued operating in the 2000s and was later relaunched as Moon Ska World. In 2003, Hingley launched a new ska record label, Megalith Records. ### Post-third wave In the early 21st century, ska was mostly absent from the radio, though there were exceptions. In 2017, Captain SKA reached number 4 on the UK Singles Chart with "Liar Liar GE2017." In 2018, The Interrupters broke into the U.S. charts with their single "She's Kerosene." By 2019, several publications started wondering aloud whether a "fourth wave" of ska was about to emerge. See also -------- * Christian ska * List of ska musicians * Rude boy * Skank (dance) * The Skatalites Further reading --------------- * Du Noyer, Paul (2003). "Ska". *The Billboard Illustrated Encyclopedia of Music*. New York City: Billboard Books. pp. 350–351. ISBN 0-8230-7869-8. * Neville Staple (2009) *Original Rude Boy*, Aurum Press. ISBN 978-1-84513-480-8 * Augustyn, Heather (2013) *Ska: The Rhythm of Liberation.* Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-8449-6

Ska

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ska

**Oceania** (UK: /ˌoʊsiˈɑːniə, ˌoʊʃi-, -ˈeɪn-/, US: /ˌoʊʃiˈæniə/ (), /-ˈɑːn-/) is a geographical region that is described as a continent in some parts of the world. It includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Spanning the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, Oceania is estimated to have a land area of 8,525,989 square kilometres (3,291,903 sq mi) and a population of around 44.4 million as of 2022. Oceania is described as a geographical region in most of the English-speaking world, but outside of the English-speaking world, Oceania is described as one of the continents. In this model of the world, Australia is only seen as an island nation contained inside of the continent of Oceania, and not a continent by itself. When compared to the other continents, Oceania is the smallest in land area and the second least populated after Antarctica. Oceania has a diverse mix of economies from the highly developed and globally competitive financial markets of Australia, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Caledonia, and New Zealand, which rank high in quality of life and Human Development Index, to the much less developed economies of Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and Western New Guinea, while also including medium-sized economies of Pacific islands such as Fiji, Palau, and Tonga. The largest and most populous country in Oceania is Australia, and the largest city is Sydney. Puncak Jaya in Highland Papua, Indonesia, is the highest peak in Oceania at 4,884 m (16,024 ft). The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to the east arrived more than 60,000 years ago. Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onward. Portuguese explorers, between 1512 and 1526, reached the Tanimbar Islands, some of the Caroline Islands and west New Guinea. Spanish and Dutch explorers followed, then British and French. On his first voyage in the 18th century, James Cook, who later arrived at the highly developed Hawaiian Islands, went to Tahiti and followed the east coast of Australia for the first time. The arrival of European settlers in subsequent centuries resulted in a significant alteration in the social and political landscape of Oceania. The Pacific theatre saw major action during the Second World War, mainly between Allied powers the United States, Philippines (a U.S. Commonwealth at the time) and Australia, and Axis power Japan. The rock art of Aboriginal Australians is the longest continuously practiced artistic tradition in the world. Most Oceanian countries are multi-party representative parliamentary democracies, with tourism being a large source of income for the Pacific Islands nations. Definitions and extent ---------------------- ### Characteristics Definitions of Oceania vary. The broadest definition of Oceania encompasses the many islands between mainland Asia and the Americas; The island nation of Australia is the only piece of land in the area which is large enough to typically be considered a continent. The culture of the people who lived on these islands was often distinct from that of Asia and pre-Columbian America, hence a lack of association with either. Before Europeans arrived in the area, the sea shielded Australia and south central Pacific islands from cultural influences that spread through large continental landmasses and adjacent islands. The islands of the Malay archipelago, north of Australia, mainly lie on the continental shelf of Asia, and their inhabitants had more exposure to mainland Asian culture as a result of this closer proximity. The island of Taiwan similarly lies on the continental shelf of Asia, with their inhabitants historically having had exchange with mainland Asia. The geographer Conrad Malte-Brun coined the French expression *Terres océaniques* (Oceanic lands) c. 1804, then in 1814 another French cartographer, Adrien-Hubert Brué, coined from this expression the shorter "Océanie" putting it on a map, "*Océanie, ou cinquième partie du monde, comprenant l'archipel d'Asie, l'Australasie et la Polynésie (ou le continent de la Nouvelle Hollande et les îles du Grand Océan)*". *Océanie* derives from the Latin word *oceanus*, and this from the Greek word ὠκεανός (*ōkeanós*), "ocean". The term *Oceania* is used because, unlike the other continental groupings, it is the ocean that links the parts of the region together. John Eperjesi's 2005 book *The Imperialist Imaginary: Visions of Asia and the Pacific in American Culture* says that it has "been used by western cartographers since the mid-19th century to give order to the complexities of the Pacific area." The *Handbook of Religion* (2014) states that it was "introduced by westerners" and in the 19th century helped describe "a sociopolitical reality of the islands of the southwest Pacific and Australia." In the 19th century, many geographers divided up Oceania into mostly racially based subdivisions; *Australasia*, *Malesia* (encompassing the Malay archipelago), *Melanesia*, *Micronesia* and *Polynesia*. The 2011 book *Maritime Adaptations of the Pacific*, by Richard W. Casteel and Jean-Claude Passeron, states that, "for the purpose of anthropology, Oceania has long been a continent like Africa, Asia and America." Scottish geographer John Bartholomew wrote in 1873 that, "the New World consists of North America, and the peninsula of South America attached to it. These divisions [are] generally themselves spoken as continents, and to them has been added another, embracing the large island of Australia and numerous others in the [Pacific] Ocean, under the name of Oceania. There are thus six great divisions of the earth — Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America and Oceania." American author Samuel Griswold Goodrich wrote in his 1854 book *History of All Nations* that, "geographers have agreed to consider the island world of the Pacific Ocean as a third continent, under the name Oceania." In this book the other two continents were categorized as being the New World (consisting of the Americas) and the Old World (consisting of Afro-Eurasia). One study from 1884 describes Oceania as a continent, stating that "South of the continent of Asia is found a large island nearly as large as the continent of Europe. This, with a great number of small islands in the neighbourhood, is regarded as forming a fourth continent known as Oceania." Other studies from the early twentieth Century also described Oceania as a continent. In his 1879 book *Australasia*, British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace commented that, "Oceania is the word often used by continental geographers to describe the great world of islands we are now entering upon" and that "Australia forms its central and most important feature." He did not explicitly label Oceania a continent in the book, but did note that it was one of the six major divisions of the world. *The Oxford Handbook of World History* (2011) describes the areas encompassed in Oceania as being "afterthoughts in world history texts, lumped together and included at the end of global surveys as areas largely marginal to the main events of world history". In most non-English speaking countries Oceania is treated as a continent in the sense that it is "one of the parts of the world", and Australia is only seen as an island nation. While in other non-English speaking countries Australia and Eurasia are thought of as continents, while Asia, Europe, and Oceania are regarded as "parts of the world". Prior to the 1950s, before the popularization of the theory of plate tectonics, Antarctica, Australia and Greenland were sometimes described as island continents, but none were usually taught as one of the world's continents in English-speaking countries. In her 1961 book *The United States and the Southwest Pacific*, American author Clinton Hartley Grattan commented that, "the use of the word Oceania to cover Australia, New Zealand, and the [Pacific] islands now has a slightly old-fashioned flavor." Australia is a founding member of the Pacific Islands Forum in 1971, and at times has been interpreted as the largest Pacific island. For example, Tony deBrum, Foreign Minister for the Marshall Islands, stated in 2014, "not only [is Australia] our big brother down south, Australia is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum and Australia is a Pacific island, a big island, but a Pacific island." Some geographers group the Australian tectonic plate with others in the Pacific to form a geological continent. *National Geographic* states that the term Oceania "establishes the Pacific Ocean as the defining characteristic of the continent." Others have labelled it as the "liquid continent". The Pacific Ocean itself has been labelled as a "continent of islands", and contains approximately 25,000, which is more than all the other major oceans combined. In a 1991 article for the Submerged Resources Center, American archeologist Toni L. Carrell wrote, "the immensity of and great distances within the Pacific Basin often make it difficult to conceptualize the basin as a single earth feature." She adds that most islands in the Pacific are "close enough together to be easily clustered into archipelagos or groups. The notable exceptions, those islands more than 400 statute miles from any other, are: Clipperton Island, Easter Island, Salas y Gómez, Johnston Atoll, Norfolk Island, Marcus Island and Parece Vela." In his 2013 book *Reptiles and Amphibians of the Pacific Islands: A Comprehensive Guide*, American herpetologist George R. Zug [de] wrote, "what is and is not part of the Pacific—particularly the western Pacific—is variously delimited", adding that "a majority viewpoint accepts the landmasses of Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, New Guinea, and eastern Australia, which face the open waters of the Pacific, as its western edge." Islands in Indonesia's North Maluku and North Sulawesi regions are considered to border the open Pacific Ocean, with the rest of the Indonesian islands being located in marginal seas of the Pacific, or the Indian Ocean. Oceania's subregions of Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia cover two major plates; the Australian Plate (also known as the Indo-Australian Plate) and the Pacific Plate, in addition to two minor plates; the Nazca Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate. The Australian Plate includes Australia, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Vanuatu, and parts of New Zealand. The Pacific Plate covers the Solomon Islands and parts of New Zealand, as well as Micronesia (excluding the westernmost islands near the Philippine Sea Plate) and Polynesia (excluding Easter Island). The Nazca Plate, which includes Easter Island, neighbors the South American Plate, and is still considered to be a separate tectonic plate, despite only containing a handful of islands. The new terms Near Oceania and Remote Oceania were proposed in 1973 by anthropologists Roger Green and Andrew Pawley. By their definition, Near Oceania consists of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands, with the exception of Santa Cruz Islands. They are designed to dispel the outdated categories of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia; Near Oceania cuts right across the old category of Melanesia, which has shown to be not a pertinent category in respect to the geography, archeology, culture, language and human history of the region. The old categories have been in use since they were proposed in 1832 by French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville. Many scholars now replace those categories with Green's terms since the early 1990s, but the old categories are still used in science, popular culture and general usage. ### Boundaries Islands at the geographic extremes of Oceania are generally considered to be the Bonin Islands, a politically integral part of Japan; Hawaii, a state of the United States; Clipperton Island, a possession of France; the Juan Fernández Islands, belonging to Chile; and Macquarie Island, belonging to Australia. #### United Nations interpretation The United Nations (UN) has used its own geopolitical definition of Oceania since its foundation in 1947, which utilizes four of the five subregions from the 19th century; Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. This definition consists of discrete political entities, and so excludes the Bonin Islands, Hawaii, Clipperton Island and the Juan Fernández Islands, along with Easter Island — which was annexed by Chile in 1888. It is used in statistical reports, by the International Olympic Committee, and by many atlases. The UN categorizes Oceania, and by extension the Pacific area, as one of the major continental divisions of the world, along with Africa, Asia, Europe and the Americas. Their definition includes American Samoa, Australia and their external territories, the Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia, Fiji, Guam, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna, and the United States Minor Outlying Islands (Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Midway Atoll, Palmyra Atoll, and Wake Island). The original UN definition of Oceania from 1947 included these same countries and semi-independent territories, which were mostly still colonies at that point. Hawaii had not yet become a U.S. state in 1947, and as such was part of the original UN definition of Oceania. The island states of Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Singapore and Taiwan, all located within the bounds of the Pacific or associated marginal seas, are excluded from the UN definition. The states of Hong Kong and Malaysia, located in both mainland Asia and marginal seas of the Pacific, are also excluded, as is the nation of Brunei, which shares the island of Borneo with Indonesia and Malaysia. Further excluded are East Timor and Indonesian New Guinea/Western New Guinea, areas which are biogeographically or geologically associated with the Australian landmass. The CIA World Factbook also categorizes Oceania as one of the major continental divisions of the world, but the name "Australia and Oceania" is used. Their definition does not include all of Australia's external territories, but is otherwise the same as the UN's definition, and is also used for statistical purposes. In a 2008 article for the *India Quarterly* journal titled *Oceania and Security: A Perspective from New Zealand*, author Peter Cozens stated, "the region of Oceania is characterised by vast distances across the sea between continental land masses [...] It is difficult to be precise about the term Oceania and its exact delimitation", adding that "the principal regional political grouping is contained within the Pacific Island Forum (PIF) - the 16 states making up the Forum are: Australia, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu - in general terms this is the area referred to as Oceania by the United Nations and similar agencies." The Pacific Islands Forum expanded during the early 2010s, and areas that were already included in the UN definition of Oceania, such as French Polynesia, gained membership. #### Early interpretations French writer Gustave d'Eichthal remarked in 1844 that, "the boundaries of Oceania are in reality those of the great ocean itself." Conrad Malte-Brun in 1824 defined Oceania as covering Australia, New Zealand, the islands of Polynesia (which then included all the Pacific islands) and the Malay archipelago. American lexicographer Joseph Emerson Worcester wrote in 1840 that Oceania is "a term applied to a vast number of islands which are widely dispersed in the Pacific Ocean […] they are considered as forming a fifth grand division of the world." He also viewed Oceania as covering Australia, New Zealand, the Malay archipelago and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. In 1887, the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland referred to Australia as the area's westernmost land, while in 1870, British Reverend Alexander Mackay identified the Bonin Islands as its northernmost point, and Macquarie Island as its southernmost point. The Bonin Islands (adjacent to Micronesia) at that time were a possession of Britain; Macquarie Island, to the south of Tasmania, is a subantarctic island in the Pacific. It was politically associated with Australia and Tasmania by 1870. Alfred Russel Wallace believed in 1879 that Oceania extended to the Aleutian Islands, which are among the northernmost islands of the Pacific. The islands, now politically associated with Alaska, have historically had inhabitants that were related to Indigenous Americans, in addition to having non-tropical biogeography similar to that of Alaska and Siberia. Wallace insisted while the surface area of this wide definition was greater than that of Asia and Europe combined, the land area was only a little greater than that of Europe. American geographer Sophia S. Cornell claimed that the Aleutian Islands were not part of Oceania in 1857. She stated that Oceania was divided up into three groups; Australasia (which included Australia, New Zealand and the Melanesian islands), Malesia (which included all present-day countries within the Malay archipelago, not the modern country of Malaysia) and Polynesia (which included both the Polynesian and Micronesian islands in her definition). Aside from mainland Australia, areas that she identified as of high importance were Borneo, Hawaii, Indonesia's Java and Sumatra, New Guinea, New Zealand, the Philippines, French Polynesia's Society Islands, Tasmania, and Tonga. American geographer Jesse Olney's 1845 book *A Practical System of Modern Geography* stated that it "comprises the numerous isles of the Pacific, lying south east of Asia." Olney divided up Oceania into three groups; Australasia (which included Australia, New Guinea and New Zealand), Malesia and Polynesia (which included the combined islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia in his definition). Publication *Missionary Review of the World* claimed in 1895 that Oceania was divided up into five groups; Australasia, Malesia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. It did not consider Hawaii to be part of Polynesia, due to its geographic isolation, commenting that Oceania also included, "isolated groups and islands, such as the Hawaiian and Galápagos." In his 1876 book *The Earth and Its Inhabitants: Oceanica*, French geographer Élisée Reclus labelled Australia's flora as "one of the most characteristic on the globe", adding that "the Hawaiian archipelago also constitutes a separate vegetation zone; of all tropical insular groups it possesses the relatively largest number of endemic plants. In the Galápagos group also more than half of the species are of local origin." Rand McNally & Company, an American publisher of maps and atlases, claimed in 1892 that, "Oceania comprises the large island of Australia and the innumerable islands of the Pacific Ocean" and also that the islands of the Malay archipelago "should be grouped in with Asia." British linguist Robert Needham Cust argued in 1887 that the Malay archipelago should be excluded since it had participated in Asian civilization. Cust considered Oceania's four subregions to be Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. New Zealand were categorized by him as being in Polynesia; and the only country in his definition of Australasia was Australia. His definition of Polynesia included both Easter Island and Hawaii, which had not yet been annexed by either Chile or the United States. The *Journal of the Royal Statistical Society* stated in 1892 that Australia was a large island within Oceania rather than a small continent. It additionally commented, "it is certainly not necessary to consider the Hawaiian Islands and Australia as being in the same part of the world, it is however permissible to unite in one group all the islands which are scattered over the great ocean. It should be remarked that if we take the Malay archipelago away from Oceania, as do generally the German geographers, the insular world contained in the great ocean is cut in two, and the least populated of the five parts of the world is diminished in order to increase the number of inhabitants of the most densely populated continent." Regarding Australia and the Pacific, *Chambers's New Handy Volume American Encyclopædia* observed in 1885 that, "the whole region has sometimes been called Oceania, and sometimes Australasia—generally, however, in modern times, to the exclusion of the islands in the [Malay] archipelago, to which certain writers have given the name of Malesia." It added there was controversy over the exact limits of Oceania, saying that, "scarcely any two geographers appear to be quite agreed upon the subject". British physician and ethnologist James Cowles Prichard claimed in 1847 that the Aleutian Islands and the Kuril Islands form "the northern boundary of this fifth region of the world, and with the coasts of Asia and America completing its literal termination." However, he wrote that these islands "are not usually reckoned as belonging to it, because they are known to be inhabited by races of people who came immediately from the adjacent continents and are unconnected with those tribes of the human race who peopled the remote islands of this great ocean." He added that Hawaii was the most northerly area to be inhabited by races associated with Oceania. The 1926 book *Modern World History, 1776-1926: A Survey of the Origins and Development of Contemporary Civilization*, by Alexander Clarence Flick, considered Oceania to include all islands in the Pacific, and associated the term with the Malay archipelago, the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, the Aleutian Islands, Japan's Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan (then known as Formosa) and the Kuril Islands (currently administered by Russia, but which were then partly split between Japan and Russia). He further included in his definition Sakhalin, an island which is geologically part of the Japanese archipelago, but that has been administered by Russia since World War II. It is located within a marginal sea of the Pacific (the Sea of Okhotsk), unlike the rest of the Japanese archipelago and the neighboring Kuril Islands, which border the open Pacific Ocean. Hong Kong, partly located in another marginal sea of the Pacific (the South China Sea) was also included in his definition. Australia and New Zealand were grouped together by Flick as Australasia, and categorized as being in the same area of the world as the islands of Oceania. Flick estimated this definition of Oceania had a population of 70,000,000, and commented that, "brown and yellow races constitute the vast majority" and that the minority of whites were mainly "owners and rulers". He added, "through trade relations, the work of missionaries and teachers, and political control, western civilization is slowly penetrating these out of the way places either directly, or indirectly through Europeanized powers like Japan." Hutton Webster's 1919 book *Medieval and Modern History* also considered Oceania to encompass all islands in the Pacific, stating that, "the term Oceania, or Oceanica, in its widest sense applies to all the Pacific Islands." Webster broke Oceania up into two subdivisions; the continental group, which included Australia, the Japanese archipelago, the Malay archipelago and Taiwan, and the oceanic group, which included New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. In his 1846 book *A Universal Pronouncing Gazetteer*, author Thomas Baldwin wrote that Oceania includes Australia and Pacific islands which "are considered, from their proximity, not to belong to the continents of Asia or America." He defined Oceania as including the Malay archipelago, but not Japan or Taiwan, and noted that "its limits are somewhat indefinite." Charles Marion Tyler's 1885 book *The Island World of the Pacific Ocean* considered Oceania to ethnographically encompass Australia, New Zealand, the Malay archipelago and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. However, Tyler included other Pacific islands in his book as well, such as the Aleutian Islands, the Bonin Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Kuril Islands, the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, California's Channel Islands and Farallon Islands, Canada's Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte Islands (now known as Haida Gwaii), Chile's Chiloé Island, Ecuador's Galápagos Islands, Mexico's Guadalupe Island, Revillagigedo Islands, San Benito Islands and Tres Marías Islands, and Peru's Chincha Islands. Islands in marginal seas of the Pacific were also covered in the book, including Alaska's Pribilof Islands (located to the north of the Aleutian chain in the subarctic Bering Sea) and China's Hainan (located in the South China Sea). Tyler additionally profiled the Anson archipelago, which during the 19th century was a designation for a widely scattered group of purported islands in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean between Japan and Hawaii. The Anson archipelago included phantom islands such as Ganges Island and Los Jardines which were proven to not exist, as well as real islands such as Marcus Island and Wake Island. Tyler described Australia as "the leviathan of the island groups of the world", and stated that the Juan Fernández Islands "will always retain a marked prominence in island histories, being at one time the home of that celebrated castaway Alexander Selkirk, whose life and adventures have been made so intensely interesting to youthful minds, and older ones too, for that matter, by Defoe in his wonderful book *Robinson Crusoe*." In his 1857 book *A Treatise on Physical Geography*, Francis B. Fogg commented that "the Pacific and its dependencies may be said to contain that portion of the globe termed Oceanica or 'the Maritime World', which is divided into Australasia, Malesia and Polynesia." Fogg defined Polynesia as covering the combined islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, as well as the Ryukyu Islands. He added that, "besides the proceeding, the Pacific contains many other islands, of which the most important are Hainan and Formosa, on the coast of China, the Japan isles, the Kuriles, the Aleutian Islands (stretching from the New World to the Old), Vancouver Island, the Galápagos, Juan Fernández and Chiloé." Scottish academic John Merry Ross in 1879 considered Polynesia to cover the entire South and Central Pacific area, not just islands ethnographically within Polynesia. He wrote in *The Globe Encyclopedia of Universal Information* that, "literally interpreted, the name would include all the groups from Sumatra to the Galápagos, together with Australia." Ross further wrote, "and to this vast region the term Oceania has been applied. It is more usual at the present time, however, to exclude the [Malay] archipelago." #### Historical and contemporary interpretations In a 1972 article for the *Music Educators Journal* titled *Musics of Oceania*, author Raymond F. Kennedy wrote, "many meanings have been given to the word Oceania. The most inclusive–but not always the most useful–embraces about 25,000 land areas between Asia and the Americas. A more popular and practical definition excludes Indonesia, East Malaysia (Borneo), the Philippines, Taiwan, Japan and other islands closely related to the Asian mainland, as well as the Aleutians and the small island groups situated near the Americas. Thus, Oceania most commonly refers to the land areas of the South and Central Pacific." Kennedy defined Oceania as including Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. The U.S. Government Publishing Office's *Area Handbook for Oceania* from 1971 states that Australia and New Zealand are the principal large sovereignties of the area. It further states, "In its broadest definition Oceania embraces all islands and island groups of the Pacific Ocean that lie between Asia and the two American continents. In popular usage, however, the designation has a more restricted application. The islands of the North Pacific, such as the Aleutians and the Kuriles, usually are excluded. In addition, the series of sovereign island nations fringing Asia (Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, East Malaysia, the Republic of Indonesia) are not ordinarily considered to be part of the area." In 1948, American military journal *Armed Forces Talk* broke the islands of the Pacific up into five major subdivisions; Indonesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia and the non-tropical Islands. The Indonesia subdivision consisted of the islands of the Malay archipelago, while the non-tropical islands were categorized as being North Pacific islands such as Alaska's Kodiak archipelago, the Aleutian Islands, Japan, the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin. Japan's Bonin and Ryukyu Islands are also considered to be subtropical islands, with the main Japanese archipelago being non-tropical. The journal associated the term Oceania with the Melanesian, Micronesian and Polynesian subdivisions, but not with the Indonesian or non-tropical subdivisions. The *Pacific Islands Handbook* (1945), by Robert William Robson, stated that, "Pacific Islands generally are regarded as Pacific islands lying within the tropics. There are a considerable number of Pacific Islands outside the tropics. Most of them have little economic or political importance." He noted the political significance of the Aleutian Islands, which were invaded by the Japanese military in World War II, and categorized New Zealand's Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Campbell Islands, Chatham Island and Kermadec Islands as being non-tropical islands of the South Pacific, along with Australia's Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island. The Kermadec Islands, Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island are also considered to be subtropical islands. Other non-tropical areas below the equator, such as Chiloé Island, Macquarie Island, Tasmania, and the southern portions of mainland Australia and New Zealand, were not included in this category. According to the 1998 book *Encyclopedia of Earth and Physical Sciences*, Oceania refers to Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, and more than 10,000 islands scattered across the Pacific Ocean. It notes that, "the term [has] also come under scrutiny by many geographers. Some experts insist that Oceania encompasses even the cold Aleutian Islands and the islands of Japan. Disagreement also exists over whether or not Indonesia, the Philippines and Taiwan should be included in Oceania." The Japanese archipelago, the Malay archipelago and Taiwan and other islands near China are often deemed as a geological extension of Asia, since they do not have oceanic geology, instead being detached fragments of the Eurasian continent that were once physiologically connected. Certain Japanese islands off the main archipelago are not geologically associated with Asia. The book *The World and Its Peoples: Australia, New Zealand, Oceania* (1966) asserts that, "Japan, Taiwan, the Aleutian Islands, Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia [and] the Pacific archipelagos bordering upon the Far East Asian mainland are excluded from Oceania", and that "all the islands lying between Australia and the Americas, including Australia, are part of Oceania." Furthermore, the book adds that Hawaii is still within Oceania, despite being politically integrated into the U.S., and that the Pacific Ocean "gives unity to the whole" since "all these varied lands emerge from or border upon the Pacific." The 1876 book *The Countries of the World: Volume 4*, by British scientist and explorer Robert Brown, labelled the Malay archipelago as Northwestern Oceania, but Brown still noted that these islands belonged more to the Asian continent. They are now often referred to as Maritime Southeast Asia, with Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Singapore being founding members of the ASEAN regional organization for Southeast Asia in 1967 (Brunei and East Timor did not exist as independent nations at that point). Brown also categorized Japan and Taiwan as being in the same part of the world as the islands of Oceania, and excluded them from *The Countries of the World: Volume 5*, which covered mainland Asia and Hong Kong. However, Brown did not explicitly associate Japan or Taiwan with the term Oceania. He divided Oceania into two subregions; Eastern Oceania, which included the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, and Southwestern Oceania, which included Australia and New Zealand. The Galápagos Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands and the Revillagigedo Islands were identified as the easternmost areas of Oceania in the book. Brown wrote, "they lie nearest the American continent of all oceanic islands, and though rarely associated with Polynesia, and never appearing to have been inhabited by any aboriginal races, are, in many ways, remarkable and interesting." Brown went on to add, "the small islands lying off the continent, like the Queen Charlotte's in the North Pacific, the Farallones off California, and the Chinchas off Peru are — to all intents and purposes, only detached bits of the adjoining shores. But in the case of the Galápagos, at least, this is different." He also claimed that they are "often cited as illustrating the peculiar relation of such islands to continents. Mr. Darwin has, for instance, adducted them as an illustration of the fact that such islands are inhabited by plants and animals closely allied to those of the nearest mainland, without actually being the same." The Juan Fernández Islands and the neighboring Desventuradas Islands are today seen as the easternmost extension of the Indo-West Pacific biogeographic region. The islands lie on the Nazca Plate with Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands, and have a significant south central Pacific component to their marine fauna. According to scientific journal *PLOS One*, the Humboldt Current helps create a biogeographic barrier between the marine fauna of these islands and South America. Chile's government have occasionally considered them to be within Oceania along with Easter Island. Chile's government also categorize Easter Island, the Desventuradas Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands as being part of a region titled Insular Chile. They further include in this region Salas y Gómez, a small uninhabited island to the east of Easter Island. *PLOS One* describe Insular Chile as having "cultural and ecological connections to the broader insular Pacific." In her 1997 book *Australia and Oceania*, Australian historian Kate Darian-Smith defined the area as covering Australia, New Zealand and the islands of the Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. She excluded Hawaii from her definition, but not Easter Island. The International Union for Conservation of Nature stated in a 1986 report that they include Easter Island in their definition of Oceania "on the basis of its Polynesian and biogeographic affinities even though it is politically apart", further noting that other oceanic islands administered by Latin American countries had been included in definitions of Oceania. In 1987, *The Journal of Australasian Cave Research* described Oceania as being "the region from Irian Jaya (Western New Guinea, a province of New Guinea) in the west to Galápagos Islands (Equador) and Easter Island (Chile) in the east." In a 1980 report on venereal diseases in the South Pacific, the *British Journal of Venereal Diseases* categorized the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands as being in an eastern region of the South Pacific, along with areas such as Pitcairn Islands and French Polynesia, but noted that the Galápagos Islands were not a member of the South Pacific Commission, like other islands in the South Pacific. The South Pacific Commission is a developmental organization formed in 1947 and is currently known as the Pacific Community; its members include Australia and other Pacific Islands Forum members. In a 1947 article on the formation of the South Pacific Commission for the *Pacific Affairs* journal, author Roy E. James stated the organization's scope encompassed all non-self governing islands below the equator to the east of Papua New Guinea (which itself was included in the scope and then known as Dutch New Guinea). Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands were defined by James as falling within the organization's geographical parameters. The 2007 book *Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West*, by New Zealand Pacific scholar Ron Crocombe, defined the term "Pacific Islands" as being islands in the South Pacific Commission, and stated that such a definition "does not include Galápagos and other [oceanic] islands off the Pacific coast of the Americas; these were uninhabited when Europeans arrived, then integrated with a South American country and have almost no contact with other Pacific Islands." He adds, "Easter Island still participates in some Pacific Island affairs because its people are Polynesian." Thomas Sebeok's two volume 1971 book *Linguistics in Oceania* defines Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands, Costa Rica's Cocos Island and Colombia's Malpelo Island (all oceanic) as making up a Spanish language segment of Oceania. Cocos Island and Malpelo Island are the only landmasses located on the Cocos Plate, which is to the north of the Nazca Plate. The book observed that a native Polynesian language was still understood on Easter Island, unlike with the other islands, which were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans and mostly being used as prisons for convicts. Additionally, the book includes Taiwan and the entire Malay archipelago as part of Oceania. While not oceanic in nature, Taiwan and Malay archipelago countries like Indonesia and the Philippines share Austronesian ethnolinguistic origins with Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, hence their inclusion in the book. Hainan, which neighbors Taiwan, also has Austronesian ethnolinguistic origins, although it was not included in the book. The book defined Oceania's major subregions as being Australia, Indonesia (which included all areas associated with the Malay archipelago), Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. In 2010, Australian historian Bronwen Douglas claimed in *The Journal of Pacific History* that "a strong case could be made for extending Oceania to at least Taiwan, the homeland of the Austronesian language family whose speakers colonized significant parts of the region about 6,000 years ago." For political reasons, Taiwan was a member of the Oceania Football Confederation during the 1970s and 1980s, rather than the Asian Football Confederation. Ian Todd's 1974 book *Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama* also defines oceanic Latin American islands as making up a Spanish language segment of Oceania, and included the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands, Guadalupe Island, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Revillagigedo Islands and Salas y Gómez. Cocos Island and Malpelo Island were not explicitly referenced in the book, despite being areas which would fall within this range. All other islands associated with Latin American countries were excluded, as they are continental in nature, unlike Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands (both situated on the Pacific Plate) and the oceanic islands situated on the Cocos Plate and Nazca Plate. Todd defined the oceanic Bonin Islands as making up a Japanese language segment of Oceania, and excluded the main Japanese archipelago. Todd further included the Aleutian Islands in his definition of Oceania. The island chain borders both the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, and is geologically a partially submerged volcanic extension of the Aleutian Range on the Alaskan mainland, that stretches for another 1,600 kilometers. He did not include the volcanic Kuril Islands and Ryukyu Islands, which similarly border both the Eurasian Plate and the Pacific Plate, nor did he include the neighboring Kodiak archipelago in the North Pacific Ocean, which is firmly situated on the North American Plate. *The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies* stated in 1996 that Oceania was defined as Australia and an ensemble of various Pacific Islands, "particularly those in the central and south Pacific [but] never those in the extreme north, for example the Aleutian chain." In the *Pacific Ocean Handbook* (1945), author Eliot Grinnell Mears claimed, "it is customary to exclude the Aleutians of the North Pacific, the American coastal islands and the Netherlands East Indies", and that he included Australia and New Zealand in Oceania for "scientific reasons; Australia's fauna is largely continental in character, New Zealand's are clearly insular; and neither Commonwealth realm has close ties with Asia." In his 2002 book *Oceania: An Introduction to the Cultures and Identities of Pacific Islanders*, Andrew Strathern excluded Okinawa and the rest of the Ryukyu Islands from his definition of Oceania, but noted that the islands and their indigenous inhabitants "show many parallels with Pacific island societies." In his 1994 book *Familia Gekkonidae (Reptilia, Sauria). Part 1: Australia and Oceania*, German herpetologist Klaus Henle referred to the area as the Pacific region, and defined it as covering Australia, New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. Henle included the Indonesian half of New Guinea, but excluded the rest of Indonesia and the Malay archipelago, as well as all Japanese islands and oceanic Latin American islands (with the exception of Easter Island). In the 2006 book *Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds*, American paleontologist David Steadman wrote, "no place on earth is as perplexing as the 25,000 islands that make Oceania." Steadman viewed Oceania as encompassing Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia (including Easter Island and Hawaii). He excluded from his definition the larger islands of New Guinea and New Zealand, and argued that Cocos Island, the Galápagos Islands, the Revillagigedo Islands and other oceanic islands nearing the Americas were not part of Oceania, due to their biogeographical affinities with that area and lack of prehistoric indigenous populations. In his 2018 book *Regionalism in South Pacific*, Chinese author Yu Changsen wrote that some "stress a narrow vision of the Pacific as those Pacific Islands excluding Australia and even sometimes New Zealand", adding that the term Oceania "promotes a broader concept that has room for Australia and New Zealand." American marine geologist Anthony A. P. Koppers wrote in the 2009 book *Encyclopedia of Islands* that, "as a whole, the islands of the Pacific Region are referred to as Oceania, the tenth continent on earth. Inherent to their remoteness and because of the wide variety of island types, the Pacific Islands have developed unique social, biological and geological characteristics." Koppers considered Oceania to encompass the entire 25,000 islands of the Pacific Ocean. In this book, he included the Aleutian Islands, the Galápagos Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Kuril Islands and continental islands off the coast of the Americas such as the Channel Islands, the Farallon Islands and Vancouver Island; all of these islands lie in or close to the Pacific Ring of Fire, as is the case with New Guinea and New Zealand, which were also included. In the 2013 book *The Environments of the Poor in Southeast Asia, East Asia and the Pacific*, Paul Bullen critiqued the definition of Oceania in *Encyclopedia of Islands*, and wrote that since Koppers included areas such as Vancouver Island, it is "not clear what the referents of 'Pacific Region', 'Oceania' or 'Pacific Islands' are." Bullen added that, "Asia, Europe and the Maritime Continent are not literal geographic continents. The 'Asia-Pacific region' would comprise two quasi-continents. 'The Pacific' would not refer to the Pacific Ocean and everything in it e.g., the Philippines." *The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Place Names* (2017), by John Everett-Heath, states that Oceania is "a collective name for more than 10,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean" and that "it is generally accepted that Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, and the islands north of Japan (the Kurils and Aleutians) are excluded." In his 1993 book *A New Oceania: Rediscovering Our Sea of Islands*, New Guinea-born Fijian scholar Epeli Hauʻofa wrote that, "Pacific Ocean islands from Japan, through the Philippines and Indonesia, which are adjacent to the Asian mainland, do not have oceanic cultures, and are therefore not part of Oceania." *The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Oceania* (2018) defined Oceania as only covering Austronesian-speaking islands in Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, with this definition including New Guinea and New Zealand. Other Austronesian areas such as Indonesia and the Philippines were not included, due to their closer cultural proximity to mainland Asia. Australia was also not included, as it was settled several thousands of years before the arrival of Austronesian-speaking peoples in Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. The book stated, "this definition of Oceania might seem too restrictive: Why not include Australia, for example, or even too broad, for what does Highland New Guinea have to do with Hawai'i?", further noting that, "a few other islands in the Pacific such as those of Japan or the Channel Islands off the southern California coast are not typically considered Oceania as the indigenous populations of these places do not share a common ancestry with Oceanic groups, except for a time far before humans sailed Pacific waters." It has been theorized that the indigenous Jōmon people of the Japanese archipelago are related to Austronesians, along with the indigenous inhabitants of the Ryukyu Islands. Some also theorize that Indigenous Australians are related to the Ainu people, who are the original inhabitants of Japan's Hokkaido, the Kuril Islands and the southern part of Sakhalin. In their 2019 book *Women and Violence: Global Lives in Focus*, Kathleen Nadeau and Sangita Rayamajhi wrote that, "the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and most of Indonesia are not usually considered to be part of the region of Oceania as it is understood today. These regions are usually considered to be part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Although these regions, as well as the large East Asian islands of Taiwan, Hainan and the Japanese archipelago, have varying degrees of cultural connections." In *Reptiles and Amphibians of the Pacific Islands: A Comprehensive Guide* (2013), George R. Zug claimed that "a standard definition of Oceania includes Australia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, and New Zealand and the oceanic islands of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia." He went on to write that his preferred definition of Oceania emphasis islands with oceanic geology, stating that oceanic islands are, "islands with no past connections to a continental landmass" and that, "these boundaries encompass the Hawaiian and Bonin Islands in the north and Easter Island in the south, and the Palau Islands in the west to the Galápagos Islands in the east." Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand and New Caledonia (which is geologically associated with New Zealand) were all excluded, as these areas are descendants of the ancient Pangaea supercontinent, along with landmasses such as the Americas and Afro-Eurasia. Volcanic islands which are geologically associated with continental landmasses, such as the Aleutian Islands, Japan's Izu Islands, the Kuril Islands, the Ryukyu Islands and most of the Solomon Islands, were also excluded from his definition. Unlike the United Nations, the World Factbook defines the still-uninhabited Clipperton Island as being a discrete political entity, and they categorize it as part of North America, presumably due to its relative proximity (situated 1,200 kilometers off Mexico on the Pacific Plate). Clipperton is not politically associated with the Americas, as is the case with other oceanic islands nearing the Americas, having had almost no interaction with the continent throughout its history. From the early 20th century to 2007, the island was administratively part of French Polynesia, which itself was known as French Oceania up until 1957. In terms of marine fauna, Clipperton shares similarities with areas of the Pacific which are much farther removed from the Americas. Scottish author Robert Hope Moncrieff considered Clipperton to be the easternmost point of Oceania in 1907, while Ian Todd also included it in his definition of Oceania in *Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama*. Other uninhabited Pacific Ocean landmasses have been explicitly associated with Oceania, including the highly remote Baker Island and Wake Island (now administered by the U.S. military). This is due to their location in the center of the Pacific, their biogeography and their oceanic geology. Less isolated oceanic islands that were once uninhabited, such as the Bonin Islands, the Galápagos Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands, have since been sparsely populated by citizens of their political administrators. Archaeological evidence suggests that Micronesians may have lived on the Bonin Islands c. 2,000 years ago, but they were uninhabited at the time of European discovery in the 16th century. #### Boundaries between subregions Depending on the definition, New Zealand could be part of Polynesia, or part of Australasia with Australia. New Zealand was originally settled by the Polynesian Māori, and has long maintained a political influence over the subregion. Through immigration and high Māori birth rates, New Zealand has attained the largest population of Polynesians in the world, while Australia has the third largest Polynesian population (consisting entirely of immigrants). Modern-day Indigenous Australians are loosely related to Melanesians, and Australia maintains political influence over Melanesia, which is mostly located on the same tectonic plate. Despite this, Australia is rarely seen as a part of the subregion. As with Australia and New Zealand, Melanesia's New Caledonia has a significant non-indigenous European population, numbering around 71,000. Conversely, New Caledonia has still had a similar history to the rest of Melanesia, and their French-speaking Europeans make up only 27% of the total population. As such, it is not also culturally considered a part of the predominantly English-speaking Australasia. Some cultural and political definitions of Australasia include most or all of Melanesia, due to its geographical proximity to Australia and New Zealand, but these are rare. Australia, New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia are more commonly grouped together as part of the Australasian biogeographical realm. The UN's name for the Australasia subregion is "Australia and New Zealand"; their definition includes New Zealand, but places Papua New Guinea in Melanesia. Papua New Guinea is geographically the closest country to Australia, and is often geologically associated with Australia as it was once physiologically connected. The UN's definition of this subregion also includes Australia's Indian Ocean external territories of Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands. These tropical islands are situated within the bounds of the Australian Plate and have been geographically associated with Southeast Asia, due to their proximity to western Indonesia. Both were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans during the 17th century. Approximately half of the population on these islands are European Australian mainlanders (with smaller numbers being European New Zealanders), while the other half are immigrants from China or the nearby Malay archipelago. The UN further define the subregion as including Australia's Indian Ocean external territory Heard Island and McDonald Islands. These islands lie on the Antarctic Plate and are also thought of as being in Antarctica or no region at all, due to their extreme geographical isolation. The World Factbook define Heard Island and McDonald Islands as part of Antarctica, while placing Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands as the westernmost extent of Oceania. Norfolk Island, an external territory of Australia, was inhabited in prehistoric times by either Melanesians or Polynesians, and is geographically adjacent to the islands of Melanesia. The current inhabitants are mostly European Australians, and the UN categorize it as being in the Australasia subregion. The 1982 edition of the *South Pacific Handbook*, by David Stanley, groups Australia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Hawaiʻi together under an "Anglonesia" category. This is in spite of the geographical distance separating these areas from Hawaiʻi, which technically lies in the North Pacific. The 1985 edition of the *South Pacific Handbook* also groups the Galápagos Islands as being in Polynesia, while noting that they are not culturally a part of the subregion. The islands are typically grouped with others in the southeastern Pacific that were never inhabited by Polynesians. The Bonin Islands are in the same biogeographical realm as the geographically adjacent Micronesia, and are often grouped in with the subregion because of this. History ------- ### Australia Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands who migrated from Africa to Asia c. 70,000 years ago and arrived in Australia c. 50,000 years ago. They are believed to be among the earliest human migrations out of Africa. Although they likely migrated to Australia through Southeast Asia they are not demonstrably related to any known Asian or Polynesian population. There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north and the Austronesian peoples of modern-day New Guinea and the islands, but this may be the result of recent trade and intermarriage. They reached Tasmania c. 40,000 years ago by migrating across a land bridge from the mainland that existed during the last ice age. It is believed that the first early human migration to Australia was achieved when this landmass formed part of the Sahul continent, connected to the island of New Guinea via a land bridge. The Torres Strait Islanders are indigenous to the Torres Strait Islands, which are at the northernmost tip of Queensland near Papua New Guinea. The earliest definite human remains found in Australia are that of Mungo Man, which have been dated at c. 40,000 years old. ### Melanesia The original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day Papuan-speaking people. Migrating from South-East Asia, they appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands archipelago, including Makira and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east. Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the Austronesian people, who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000 years ago, came into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture among the peoples. ### Micronesia Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first settlers. There are numerous difficulties with conducting archaeological excavations in the islands, due to their size, settlement patterns and storm damage. As a result, much evidence is based on linguistic analysis. The earliest archaeological traces of civilization have been found on the island of Saipan, dated to 1500 BCE or slightly before. The ancestors of the Micronesians settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious culture centered on Yap and Pohnpei. The prehistories of many Micronesian islands such as Yap are not known very well. The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands navigated to the islands and discovered it at some period between 4000 BCE to 2000 BCE from South-East Asia. They became known as the Chamorros. Their language was named after them. The ancient Chamorro left a number of megalithic ruins, including Latte stone. The Refaluwasch or Carolinian people came to the Marianas in the 1800s from the Caroline Islands. Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BCE, with inter-island navigation made possible using traditional stick charts. ### Polynesia The Polynesian people are considered to be by linguistic, archaeological and human genetic ancestry a subset of the sea-migrating Austronesian people and tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan. Between c. 3000 and 1000 BCE, speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into Island South-East Asia, as tribes whose natives were thought to have arrived through South China c. 8,000 years ago to the edges of western Micronesia and on into Melanesia. In the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400 BCE, "Lapita Peoples", so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the Bismarck Archipelago of north-west Melanesia. Easter Islanders claimed that a chief Hotu Matuꞌa discovered the island in one or two large canoes with his wife and extended family. They are believed to have been Polynesian. Around 1200, Tahitian explorers discovered and began settling the area. This date range is based on glottochronological calculations and on three radiocarbon dates from charcoal that appears to have been produced during forest clearance activities. Moreover, a recent study which included radiocarbon dates from what is thought to be very early material suggests that the island was discovered and settled as recently as 1200. ### European exploration Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onwards. Portuguese navigators, between 1512 and 1526, reached the Maluku Islands (by António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão in 1512), Timor, the Aru Islands (Martim A. Melo Coutinho), the Tanimbar Islands, some of the Caroline Islands (by Gomes de Sequeira in 1525), and west Papua New Guinea (by Jorge de Menezes in 1526). In 1519, a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan sailed down the east coast of South America, found and sailed through the strait that bears his name and on 28 November 1520 entered the ocean which he named "Pacific". The three remaining ships, led by Magellan and his captains Duarte Barbosa and João Serrão, then sailed north and caught the trade winds which carried them across the Pacific to the Philippines where Magellan was killed. One surviving ship led by Juan Sebastián Elcano returned west across the Indian Ocean and the other went north in the hope of finding the westerlies and reaching Mexico. Unable to find the right winds, it was forced to return to the East Indies. The Magellan-Elcano expedition achieved the first circumnavigation of the world and reached the Philippines, the Mariana Islands, and other islands of Oceania. From 1527 to 1595 a number of other large Spanish expeditions crossed the Pacific Ocean, leading to the arrival in Marshall Islands and Palau in the North Pacific, as well as Tuvalu, the Marquesas Islands, the Solomon Islands archipelago, the Cook Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the quest for Terra Australis, Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, sailed to Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres. Willem Janszoon, made the first completely documented European landing in Australia (1606), in Cape York Peninsula. Abel Tasman circumnavigated and landed on parts of the Australian continental coast and discovered Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania), New Zealand in 1642, and Fiji. He was the first known European explorer to reach these islands. On 23 April 1770, British explorer James Cook made his first recorded direct observation of Aboriginal Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point. On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal. His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline of Australia. #### European settlement and colonisation In 1789, the mutiny on the Bounty against William Bligh led to several of the mutineers escaping the Royal Navy and settling on Pitcairn Islands, which later became a British colony. Britain also established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and Fiji in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming part of the British Empire. The Gilbert Islands (now known as Kiribati) and the Ellice Islands (now known as Tuvalu) came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century. French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed. The capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. On 24 September 1853, under orders from Napoleon III, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia and Port-de-France (Nouméa) was founded 25 June 1854. The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed in the Marshall Islands in 1529. They were named by Krusenstern, after English explorer John Marshall, who visited them together with Thomas Gilbert in 1788, en route from Botany Bay to Canton (two ships of the First Fleet). In 1905 the British government transferred some administrative responsibility over south-east New Guinea to Australia (which renamed the area "Territory of Papua"); and in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia. The Marshall Islands were claimed by Spain in 1874. Germany established colonies in New Guinea in 1884, and Samoa in 1900. The United States also expanded into the Pacific, beginning with Baker Island and Howland Island in 1857, and with Hawaiʻi becoming a U.S. territory in 1898. Disagreements between the US, Germany and UK over Samoa led to the Tripartite Convention of 1899. ### Modern history One of the first land offensives in Oceania was the Occupation of German Samoa in August 1914 by New Zealand forces. The campaign to take Samoa ended without bloodshed after over 1,000 New Zealanders landed on the German colony. Australian forces attacked German New Guinea in September 1914. A company of Australians and a British warship besieged the Germans and their colonial subjects, ending with a German surrender. The attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters, was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of 7 December 1941. The attack led to the United States' entry into World War II. The Japanese subsequently invaded New Guinea, Solomon Islands and other Pacific islands. The Japanese were turned back at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Kokoda Track campaign before they were finally defeated in 1945. Some of the most prominent Oceanic battlegrounds were the Battle of Bita Paka, the Solomon Islands campaign, the Air raids on Darwin, the Kokada Track, and the Borneo campaign. The United States fought the Battle of Guam from 21 July to 10 August 1944, to recapture the island from Japanese military occupation. Australia and New Zealand became dominions in the 20th century, adopting the Statute of Westminster Act in 1942 and 1947 respectively. In 1946, Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an overseas territory; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to *Polynésie Française* (French Polynesia). Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959. Fiji and Tonga became independent in 1970. On 1 May 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States recognized the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The South Pacific Forum was founded in 1971, which became the Pacific Islands Forum in 2000. Geography --------- Under a four subregion model, the islands of Oceania extend to New Guinea in the west, the Bonin Islands in the northwest, the Hawaiian Islands in the northeast, Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island in the east, and Macquarie Island in the south. Excluded under most definitions of Oceania are the Pacific landmasses of Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, and the Japanese archipelago, which are all on the margins of Asia, as well as the Aleutian Islands and other Alaskan or Canadian islands. In its periphery, Oceania's islands would sprawl 28 degrees north to the Bonin Islands in the Northern Hemisphere, and 55 degrees south to Macquarie Island in the Southern Hemisphere. Oceanian islands are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs and uplifted coral platforms. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaiʻi, and Solomon Islands. Oceania is one of eight terrestrial biogeographic realms, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. Related to these concepts are Near Oceania, that part of western Island Melanesia which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and Remote Oceania which is more recently settled. Although the majority of the Oceanian islands lie in the South Pacific, a few of them are not restricted to the Pacific Ocean – Kangaroo Island and Ashmore and Cartier Islands, for instance, are situated in the Southern Ocean and Indian Ocean, respectively, and Tasmania's west coast faces the Southern Ocean. The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the Great Barrier Reef off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia. ### Regions Micronesia, which lies north of the equator and west of the International Date Line, includes the Mariana Islands in the northwest, the Caroline Islands in the center, the Marshall Islands to the west and the islands of Kiribati in the southeast. Melanesia, to the southwest, includes New Guinea, the world's second largest island after Greenland and by far the largest of the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian groups from north to south are the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, the Santa Cruz Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji and New Caledonia. Polynesia, stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, also encompasses Tuvalu, Tokelau, Samoa, Tonga, and the Kermadec Islands to the west, the Cook Islands, Society Islands and Austral Islands in the center, and the Marquesas Islands, the Tuamotus, Mangareva Islands, and Easter Island to the east. Australasia comprises Australia, New Zealand, the island of New Guinea, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. Along with India most of Australasia lies on the Indo-Australian Plate with the latter occupying the Southern area. It is flanked by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Southern Ocean to the south. ### Geology The Pacific Plate, which makes up most of Oceania, is an oceanic tectonic plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At 103 million square kilometres (40,000,000 sq mi), it is the largest tectonic plate. The plate contains an interior hot spot forming the Hawaiian Islands. It is almost entirely oceanic crust. The oldest member disappearing by way of the plate tectonics cycle is early-Cretaceous (145 to 137 million years ago). Australia became part of the Indo-Australian plate 45 to 40 million years ago and this is in the process of separating again with the Australian Plate being relevant to Oceania. It is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, has occasional middle-sized earthquakes, and currently has no active volcanism (but some volcanoes in southeast Australia erupted within the last 10,000 years). The geology of New Zealand is noted for its volcanic activity, earthquakes, and geothermal areas because of its position on the boundary of the Australian Plate and Pacific Plates. Much of the basement rock of New Zealand was once part of the super-continent of Gondwana, along with South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Antarctica and Australia. The rocks that now form the continent of Zealandia were nestled between Eastern Australia and Western Antarctica. The Australia-New Zealand continental fragment of Gondwana split from the rest of Gondwana in the late Cretaceous time (95–90 Ma). By 75 Ma, Zealandia was essentially separate from Australia and Antarctica, although only shallow seas might have separated Zealandia and Australia in the north. The Tasman Sea, and part of Zealandia then locked together with Australia to form the Australian Plate (40 Ma), and a new plate boundary was created between the Australian Plate and Pacific Plate. Most islands in the Pacific are high islands (volcanic islands), such as, Easter Island, American Samoa and Fiji, among others, having peaks up to 1300 m rising abruptly from the shore. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands were formed c. 7 to 30 million years ago, as shield volcanoes over the same volcanic hotspot that formed the Emperor Seamounts to the north and the Main Hawaiian Islands to the south. Hawaii's tallest mountain Mauna Kea is 4,205 m (13,796 ft) above mean sea level. ### Flora The most diverse country of Oceania when it comes to the environment is Australia, with tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and dry desert in the centre. Desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land. The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland. The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested Cape York Peninsula. Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to aridity and fire which include scleromorphy and serotiny. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families Proteaceae (*Banksia*), Myrtaceae (*Eucalyptus* – gum trees), and Fabaceae (*Acacia* – wattle). The flora of Fiji, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia is tropical dry forest, with tropical vegetation that includes palm trees, premna protrusa, psydrax odorata, gyrocarpus americanus, and derris trifoliata. New Zealand's landscape ranges from the fjord-like sounds of the southwest to the tropical beaches of the far north. South Island is dominated by the Southern Alps. There are 18 peaks of more than 3000 metres (9800 ft) in the South Island. All summits over 2,900 m are within the Southern Alps, a chain that forms the backbone of the South Island; the highest peak of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook, at 3,754 metres (12,316 ft). Earthquakes are common, though usually not severe, averaging 3,000 per year. There is a wide variety of native trees, adapted to all the various micro-climates in New Zealand. In Hawaii, one endemic plant, *Brighamia*, now requires hand-pollination because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct. The two species of *Brighamia* – *B. rockii* and *B. insignis* – are represented in the wild by around 120 individual plants. To ensure these plants set seed, biologists rappel down 910-metre (3,000 ft) cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas. ### Fauna The aptly named Pacific kingfisher is found in the Pacific Islands, as is the Red-vented bulbul, Polynesian starling, Brown goshawk, Pacific Swallow and the Cardinal myzomela, among others. Birds breeding on Pitcairn include the fairy tern, common noddy, and red-tailed tropicbird. The Pitcairn reed warbler, endemic to Pitcairn Island, was added to the endangered species list in 2008. Native to Hawaii is the Hawaiian crow, which has been extinct in the wild since 2002. The brown tree snake is native to northern and eastern coasts of Australia, Papua New Guinea, Guam and Solomon Islands. Native to Australia, New Guinea and proximate islands are birds of paradise, honeyeaters, Australasian treecreeper, Australasian robin, kingfishers, butcherbirds, and bowerbirds. A unique feature of Australia's fauna is the relative scarcity of native placental mammals, and dominance of the marsupials – a group of mammals that raise their young in a pouch, including the macropods, possums, and dasyuromorphs. The passerines of Australia, also known as songbirds or perching birds, include wrens, the magpie group, thornbills, corvids, pardalotes, lyrebirds. Predominant bird species in the country include the Australian magpie, Australian raven, the pied currawong, crested pigeons and the laughing kookaburra. The koala, emu, platypus and kangaroo are national animals of Australia, and the Tasmanian devil is also one of the well-known animals in the country. The goanna is a predatory lizard native to the Australian mainland. The birds of New Zealand evolved into an avifauna that included a large number of endemic species. As an island archipelago New Zealand accumulated bird diversity and when Captain James Cook arrived in the 1770s he noted that the bird song was deafening. The mix includes species with unusual biology such as the kākāpō which is the world's only flightless, nocturnal, lek-breeding parrot, but also many species that are similar to neighboring land areas. Some of the more well known and distinctive bird species in New Zealand are the kiwi, kea, takahē, kakapo, mohua, tūī, and the bellbird. The tuatara is a notable reptile endemic to New Zealand. Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, Wallacea, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean collectively possess 42% of the world’s parrot species, including half of all Critically Endangered parrots, many of which are endemic to the region. ### Climate The Pacific Islands are ruled by a tropical rainforest and tropical savanna climate. In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) affects weather conditions. In the tropical western Pacific, the monsoon and the related wet season during the summer months contrast with dry winds in the winter which blow over the ocean from the Asian landmass. November is the only month in which all the tropical cyclone basins are active. To the southwest of the region, in the Australian landmass, the climate is mostly desert or semi-arid, with the southern coastal corners having a temperate climate, such as oceanic and humid subtropical climate in the east coast and Mediterranean climate in the west. The northern parts of the country have a tropical climate. Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania and in the Australian Capital Territory. Most regions of New Zealand belong to the temperate zone with a maritime climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) characterised by four distinct seasons. Conditions vary from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and subtropical in Northland. Snow falls in New Zealand's South Island and at higher altitudes in the North Island. It is extremely rare at sea level in the North Island. Hawaii, although being in the tropics, experiences many different climates, depending on latitude and its geography. The island of Hawaii for example hosts 4 (out of 5 in total) climate groups on a surface as small as 10,430 km2 (4,028 sq mi) according to the Köppen climate types: tropical, arid, temperate and polar. The Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April). A few islands in the northwest, such as Guam, are susceptible to typhoons in the wet season. The highest recorded temperature in Oceania occurred in Oodnadatta, South Australia (2 January 1960), where the temperature reached 50.7 °C (123.3 °F). The lowest temperature ever recorded in Oceania was −25.6 °C (−14.1 °F), at Ranfurly in Otago in 1903, with a more recent temperature of −21.6 °C (−6.9 °F) recorded in 1995 in nearby Ophir. Pohnpei of the Senyavin Islands in Micronesia is the wettest settlement in Oceania, and one of the wettest places on earth, with annual recorded rainfall exceeding 7,600 mm (300 in) each year in certain mountainous locations. The Big Bog on the island of Maui is the wettest place, receiving an average 10,271 mm (404.4 in) each year. Köppen climate classification of selected regions in Oceania* AustraliaAustralia * HawaiiHawaii * New ZealandNew Zealand * Papua New GuineaPapua New Guinea * Australasia and adjacent islandsAustralasia and adjacent islands Demographics ------------ The linked map below shows the exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of the islands of Oceania and neighbouring areas, as a guide to the following table (there are few land boundaries that can be drawn on a map of the Pacific at this scale). Australia New Zealand Chatham Hawaii Wake Federated States of Micronesia Palau Papua New Guinea Easter Island French Polynesia Cook Islands New Caledonia Fiji Tuvalu Kiribati (Gilberts) (Phoenix) (Line) Solomon Islands Tokelau Marshall Islands Nauru Vanuatu Tonga Pitcairn Guam Norfolk Northern Marianas Samoa AS WF Niue Cocos Christmas Ryukyu Islands Izu Bonin Iwo Okinotori shima Marcus Midway Johnston Clipperton Socorro Howland Baker Kingman Palmyra Jarvis Coral Sea Lord Howe Kermadec Bounties Three Kings Antipodes Aucklands Solander Snares Campbell Ashmore & Cartier Macquarie Indonesia Philippines Sarawak BN Sabah Maluku Papua East Timor Paracels Spratlys The demographic table below shows the subregions and countries of geopolitical Oceania. The countries and territories in this table are categorised according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations. The information shown follows sources in cross-referenced articles; where sources differ, provisos have been clearly indicated. These territories and regions are subject to various additional categorisations, depending on the source and purpose of each description. | Arms | Flag | Name of region, followed by countries | Area(km2) | Population(2021) | Population density(per km2) | Capital | ISO 3166-1 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Australasia** | | Australia | Ashmore and Cartier Islands | Ashmore and Cartier Islands (Australia) | 199 | | | | | | Australia | Australia | **Australia** | 7,686,850 | 25,921,089 | 3.1 | Canberra | AU | | Australia | Coral Sea Islands | Coral Sea Islands (Australia) | 10 | 4 | 0.4 | | | | New Zealand | New Zealand | **New Zealand** | 268,680 | 5,129,727 | 17.3 | Wellington | NZ | | Norfolk Island | Norfolk Island | Norfolk Island (Australia) | 35 | 2,302 | 65.8 | Kingston | NF | | | | Australasia (total) | 7,955,774 | 29,643,589 | 3.6 | | | | **Melanesia** | | Fiji | Fiji | **Fiji** | 18,270 | 924,610 | 49.2 | Suva | FJ | | | New Caledonia | New Caledonia (France) | 19,060 | 287,800 | 14.3 | Nouméa | NC | | Papua (province) | Indonesia | Papua (Indonesia) | 319,036 | 3,486,432 | 10.9 | Jayapura | | | West Papua (province) | Indonesia | West Papua (Indonesia) | 140,375 | 760,855 | 5.4 | Manokwari | | | | Papua New Guinea | **Papua New Guinea** | 462,840 | 9,949,437 | 17.5 | Port Moresby | PG | | Solomon Islands | Solomon Islands | **Solomon Islands** | 28,450 | 707,851 | 21.1 | Honiara | SB | | | Vanuatu | **Vanuatu** | 12,200 | 319,137 | 22.2 | Port Vila | VU | | | | Melanesia (total) | 1,000,231 | 14,373,536 | 14.4 | | | | **Micronesia** | | | Federated States of Micronesia | **Federated States of Micronesia** | 702 | 113,131 | 149.5 | Palikir | FM | | | Guam | Guam (United States) | 549 | 170,534 | 296.7 | Hagåtña | GU | | Kiribati | Kiribati | **Kiribati** | 811 | 128,874 | 141.1 | South Tarawa | KI | | | Marshall Islands | **Marshall Islands** | 181 | 42,050 | 293.2 | Majuro | MH | | Nauru | Nauru | **Nauru** | 21 | 12,511 | 540.3 | Yaren (*de facto*) | NR | | | Northern Mariana Islands | Northern Mariana Islands (United States) | 477 | 49,481 | 115.4 | Saipan | MP | | | | Ogasawara (Japan) | 104.35 | 3,026 | 26.5 | Chichijima | | | Palau | **Palau** | 458 | 18,024 | 46.9 | Ngerulmud | PW | | United States | Wake Island | Wake Island (United States) | 2 | 150 | 75 | Wake Island | UM | | | | Micronesia (total) | 3,307 | 526,343 | 163.5 | | | | **Polynesia** | | | American Samoa | American Samoa (United States) | 199 | 45,035 | 279.4 | Pago Pago, Fagatogo | AS | | Cook Islands | Cook Islands | Cook Islands (New Zealand) | 240 | 17,003 | 72.4 | Avarua | CK | | Easter Island | Easter Island | Easter Island (Chile) | 164 | 5,761 | 35.1 | Hanga Roa | CL | | French Polynesia | French Polynesia | French Polynesia (France) | 4,167 | 304,032 | 67.2 | Papeete | PF | | Hawaii | Hawaii | Hawaii (United States) | 16,636 | 1,360,301 | 81.8 | Honolulu | US | | United States | Johnston Atoll | Johnston Atoll (United States) | 276.6 | 0 | 0 | Johnston Atoll | UM | | United States | Midway Atoll | Midway Atoll (United States) | 2,355 | 39 | 6.37 | Midway Atoll | UM | | New Zealand | Niue | Niue (New Zealand) | 260 | 1,937 | 6.2 | Alofi | NU | | Pitcairn Islands | Pitcairn Islands | Pitcairn Islands (United Kingdom) | 47 | 47 | 1 | Adamstown | PN | | Samoa | Samoa | **Samoa** | 2,944 | 218,764 | 66.3 | Apia | WS | | | Tokelau | Tokelau (New Zealand) | 10 | 1,849 | 128.2 | Atafu (*de facto*) | TK | | Tonga | Tonga | **Tonga** | 748 | 106,017 | 143.2 | Nukuʻalofa | TO | | Tuvalu | Tuvalu | **Tuvalu** | 26 | 11,204 | 426.8 | Funafuti | TV | | | Wallis and Futuna | Wallis and Futuna (France) | 274 | 11,627 | 43.4 | Mata-Utu | WF | | | | Polynesia (total) | 25,715 | 2,047,444 | 79.6 | | | | Total | 8,919,530 | 50,099,312 | 5.1 | | | Total *minus mainland Australia* | 1,232,680 | 24,178,223 | 16.6 | ### Largest city for regions * Australasia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Sydney) * Melanesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Jayapura) * Micronesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Tarawa) * Polynesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Honolulu) ### Cities by metropolitan area |   Largest population centres of OceaniaJune 2022 estimate (SSGA18 boundaries) | | --- | | | Rank | City name | Country | Pop. | Rank | City name | Country | Pop. | | | Sydney Melbourne | 1 | **Sydney** | Australia | 5,131,326 | 11 | **Canberra** | Australia | 435,019 | Brisbane Perth | | 2 | **Melbourne** | Australia | 5,031,195 | 12 | **Christchurch** | New Zealand | 377,900 | | 3 | **Brisbane** | Australia | 2,408,223 | 13 | **Sunshine Coast, Queensland** | Australia | 317,404 | | 4 | **Perth** | Australia | 2,043,138 | 14 | **Wollongong** | Australia | 295,669 | | 5 | **Auckland** | New Zealand | 1,440,300 | 15 | **Port Moresby** | Papua New Guinea | 283,733 | | 6 | **Adelaide** | Australia | 1,333,927 | 16 | **Jayapura** | Indonesia | 256,705 | | 7 | **Honolulu** | United States | 953,207 | 17 | **Hobart** | Australia | 224,462 | | 8 | **Gold Coast, Queensland** | Australia | 646,983 | 18 | **Geelong** | Australia | 196,393 | | 9 | **Wellington** | New Zealand | 497,200 | 19 | **Sorong** | Indonesia | 190,515 | | 10 | **Newcastle, New South Wales** | Australia | 436,171 | 20 | **Hamilton, New Zealand** | New Zealand | 179,900 | ### Religion The predominant religion in Oceania is Christianity (73%). A 2011 survey found that 92% in Melanesia, 93% in Micronesia and 96% in Polynesia described themselves as Christians. Traditional religions are often animist, and prevalent among traditional tribes is the belief in spirits (*masalai* in Tok Pisin) representing natural forces. In the 2018 census, 37% of New Zealanders affiliated themselves with Christianity and 48% declared no religion. In the 2016 Census, 52% of the Australian population declared some variety of Christianity and 30% stated "no religion". In recent Australian and New Zealand censuses, large proportions of the population say they belong to "no religion" (which includes atheism, agnosticism, deism, secular humanism). In Tonga, everyday life is heavily influenced by Polynesian traditions and especially by the Christian faith. The Ahmadiyya mosque in Marshall Islands is the only mosque in Micronesia. Another one in Tuvalu belongs to the same sect. The Baháʼí House of Worship in Tiapapata, Samoa, is one of seven designations administered in the Baháʼí Faith. Other religions in the region include Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism, which are prominent minority religions in Australia and New Zealand. Judaism, Sikhism and Jainism are also present. Sir Isaac Isaacs was the first Australian-born Governor General of Australia and was the first Jewish vice-regal representative in the British Empire. Prince Philip Movement is followed around Yaohnanen village on the southern island of Tanna in Vanuatu. ### Languages Native languages of Oceania fall into three major geographic groups: * The large Austronesian language family, with such languages as Malay (Indonesian), and Oceanic languages such as Gilbertese, Fijian, Māori, and Hawaiʻian * The Aboriginal Australian languages, including the large Pama–Nyungan family * The Papuan languages of New Guinea and neighbouring islands, including the large Trans–New Guinea family Colonial languages include English in Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and many other territories; French in New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna; Japanese in the Bonin Islands; and Spanish on Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands. There are also Creoles formed from the interaction of Malay or the colonial languages with indigenous languages, such as Tok Pisin, Bislama, Chavacano, various Malay trade and creole languages, Hawaiian Pidgin, Norfuk, and Pitkern. Contact between Austronesian and Papuan resulted in several instances in mixed languages such as Maisin. Immigrants brought their own languages to the region, such as Mandarin, Tagalog, Hindi, Italian, Arabic, Portuguese, Polish, German, Spanish, Russian, Korean, Cantonese and Greek, among many others, namely in Australia and New Zealand, or Fiji Hindi in Fiji. ### Immigration The most multicultural areas in Oceania, which have a high degree of immigration, are Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii. Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European countries, making Australia a multicultural country. Sydney is the most multicultural city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken with about 40% of residents speaking a language other than English at home. Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, with top countries being Italy, Lebanon, Vietnam and Iraq, among others. Melbourne is also fairly multicultural, having the largest Greek-speaking population outside of Europe, and the second largest Asian population in Australia after Sydney. European migration to New Zealand provided a major influx following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. Subsequent immigration has been chiefly from the British Isles, but also from continental Europe, the Pacific, The Americas and Asia. Auckland is home to over half (51.6 percent) of New Zealand's overseas born population, including 72 percent of the country's Pacific Island-born population, 64 percent of its Asian-born population, and 56 percent of its Middle Eastern and African born population. Hawaii is a majority-minority state. Chinese workers on Western trading ships settled in Hawaii starting in 1789. In 1820, the first American missionaries arrived to preach Christianity and teach the Hawaiians Western ways. As of 2015[update], a large proportion of Hawaii's population have Asian ancestry – especially Filipino, Japanese, Korean and Chinese. Many are descendants of immigrants brought to work on the sugarcane plantations in the mid-to-late 19th century. Almost 13,000 Portuguese immigrants had arrived by 1899; they also worked on the sugarcane plantations. Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii began in 1899 when Puerto Rico's sugar industry was devastated by two hurricanes, causing a worldwide shortage of sugar and a huge demand for sugar from Hawaii. Between 2001 and 2007 Australia's Pacific Solution policy transferred asylum seekers to several Pacific nations, including the Nauru detention centre. Australia, New Zealand, and other nations took part in the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands between 2003 and 2017 after a request for aid. ### Archaeogenetics Archaeology, linguistics, and existing genetic studies indicate that Oceania was settled by two major waves of migration. The first migration of Australo-Melanesians took place c. 40 to 80 thousand years ago, and these migrants, Papuans, colonised much of Near Oceania. Approximately 3.5 thousand years ago, a second expansion of Austronesian speakers arrived in Near Oceania, and the descendants of these people spread to the far corners of the Pacific, colonising Remote Oceania. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies quantify the magnitude of the Austronesian expansion and demonstrate the homogenising effect of this expansion. With regards to Papuan influence, autochthonous haplogroups support the hypothesis of a long history in Near Oceania, with some lineages suggesting a time depth of 60 thousand years. Santa Cruz, a population located in Remote Oceania, is an anomaly with extreme frequencies of autochthonous haplogroups of Near Oceanian origin. Large areas of New Guinea are unexplored by scientists and anthropologists due to extensive forestation and mountainous terrain. Known indigenous tribes in Papua New Guinea have very little contact with local authorities aside from the authorities knowing who they are. Many remain preliterate and, at the national or international level, the names of tribes and information about them is extremely hard to obtain. The Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua on the island of New Guinea are home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups. Economy ------- ### Australia Australia and New Zealand are the only highly developed independent nations in the region, although the economy of Australia is by far the largest and most dominant economy in the region and one of the largest in the world. New Caledonia, Hawaiʻi, and French Polynesia are highly developed too but are not sovereign states. Australia's per-capita GDP is higher than that of the UK, Canada, Germany, and France in terms of purchasing power parity. New Zealand is also one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on international trade. The Australian Securities Exchange in Sydney is the largest stock exchange in Australia and in the South Pacific. In 2012, Australia was the 12th largest national economy by nominal GDP and the 19th-largest measured by PPP-adjusted GDP. Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranks Sydney tenth in the world in terms of quality of living, making it one of the most livable cities. It is classified as an Alpha+ World City by GaWC. Melbourne also ranked highly in the world's most liveable city list, and is a leading financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. The majority of people living in Australia work in health care, retail and education sectors. Australia boasts the largest amount of manufacturing in the region, producing cars, electrical equipment, machinery and clothes. ### New Zealand New Zealand's economy is the 53rd-largest in the world measured by nominal gross domestic product (GDP) and 68th-largest in the world measured by purchasing power parity (PPP). A major economic and cultural powerhouse of the Southern Hemisphere, Auckland is ranked as a Beta+ world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Auckland and Wellington are frequently ranked among the world's most liveable cities, with Auckland being ranked first in the world according to the Global Liveability Ranking. New Zealand has a large GDP for its population of 5.2 million, and sources of revenue are spread throughout the large island nation. The country has one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on international trade – mainly with Australia, Canada, China, the European Union, Japan, Singapore, South Korea and the United States. New Zealand's 1983 Closer Economic Relations agreement with Australia means that the economy aligns closely with that of Australia. In 2005, the World Bank praised New Zealand as the most business-friendly country in the world. The economy diversified and by 2008, tourism had become the single biggest generator of foreign exchange. The New Zealand dollar is the 10th-most traded currency in the world. ### Pacific Islands The overwhelming majority of people living in the Pacific islands work in the service industry which includes tourism, education and financial services. Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States and South Korea. The smallest Pacific nations rely on trade with Australia, New Zealand and the United States for exporting goods and for accessing other products. Australia and New Zealand's trading arrangements are known as Closer Economic Relations. Australia and New Zealand, along with other countries, are members of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the East Asia Summit (EAS), which may become trade blocs in the future particularly EAS. The main produce from the Pacific is copra or coconut, but timber, beef, palm oil, cocoa, sugar, and ginger are also commonly grown across the tropics of the Pacific. Fishing provides a major industry for many of the smaller nations in the Pacific, although many fishing areas are exploited by other larger countries, namely Japan. Natural Resources, such as lead, zinc, nickel, and gold, are mined in Australia and Solomon Islands. Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States, India, South Korea and the European Union. Endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, Fiji is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies, though it remains a developing country with a large subsistence agriculture sector. Agriculture accounts for 18% of gross domestic product, although it employed some 70% of the workforce as of 2001. Sugar exports and the growing tourist industry are the major sources of foreign exchange. Sugar cane processing makes up one-third of industrial activity. Coconuts, ginger, and copra are also significant. The history of Hawaii's economy can be traced through a succession of dominant industries; sandalwood, whaling, sugarcane, pineapple, the military, tourism and education. Hawaiian exports include food and clothing. These industries play a small role in the Hawaiian economy, due to the shipping distance to viable markets, such as the West Coast of the contiguous U.S. The state's food exports include coffee, macadamia nuts, pineapple, livestock, sugarcane and honey. As of 2015[update], Honolulu was ranked high on world livability rankings, and was also ranked as the 2nd safest city in the U.S. ### Tourism Tourists mostly come from Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. Fiji currently attracts almost half a million tourists each year, more than a quarter of whom come from Australia. This has contributed $1 billion or more to Fiji's economy since 1995, but the Government of Fiji likely underestimates these figures due to the invisible economy inside the tourism industry. Vanuatu is widely recognised as one of the premier vacation destinations for scuba divers wishing to explore coral reefs of the South Pacific region. Tourism has been promoted, in part, by Vanuatu being the site of several reality-TV shows. The ninth season of the reality TV series *Survivor* was filmed on Vanuatu, entitled *Survivor: Vanuatu – Islands of Fire*. Two years later, Australia's *Celebrity Survivor* was filmed at the same location used by the U.S. version. Tourism in Australia is an important component of the Australian economy. In the financial year 2014/15, tourism represented 3% of Australia's GDP contributing A$47.5 billion to the national economy. In 2015, there were 7.4 million visitor arrivals. Popular Australian destinations include the Sydney Harbour (Sydney Opera House, Sydney Harbour Bridge, Royal Botanic Garden, etc.), Gold Coast (theme parks such as Warner Bros. Movie World, Dreamworld and Sea World), Walls of Jerusalem National Park and Mount Field National Park in Tasmania, Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne, the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland, The Twelve Apostles in Victoria, Uluru (Ayers Rock) and the Australian outback. Tourism in New Zealand contributes NZ$7.3 billion (or 4%) of the country's GDP in 2013, as well as directly supporting 110,800 full-time equivalent jobs (nearly 6% of New Zealand's workforce). International tourist spending accounted for 16% of New Zealand's export earnings (nearly NZ$10 billion). International and domestic tourism contributes, in total, NZ$24 billion to New Zealand's economy every year. Tourism New Zealand, the country's official tourism agency, is actively promoting the country as a destination worldwide. Milford Sound in South Island is acclaimed as New Zealand's most famous tourist destination. In 2003 alone, according to state government data, there were over 6.4 million visitors to the Hawaiian Islands with expenditures of over $10.6 billion. Due to the mild year-round weather, tourist travel is popular throughout the year. In 2011, Hawaiʻi saw increasing arrivals and share of foreign tourists from Canada, Australia, and China increasing 13%, 24% and 21% respectively from 2010. Politics -------- ### Australia Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Charles III at its apex as the King of Australia, a role that is distinct from his position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms. The King is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of his ministers. There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party. Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left. The Australian Defence Force is by far the largest military force in Oceania. ### New Zealand New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy, although its constitution is not codified. Charles III is the King of New Zealand and the head of state. The King is represented by the Governor-General, whom he appoints on the advice of the Prime Minister. The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the King and the House of Representatives. A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election. New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states, with high government transparency and among the lowest perceived levels of corruption. ### Pacific Islands In Samoan politics, the Prime Minister of Samoa is the head of government. The 1960 constitution, which formally came into force with independence from New Zealand in 1962, builds on the British pattern of parliamentary democracy, modified to take account of Samoan customs. The national government (*malo*) generally controls the legislative assembly. Politics of Tonga takes place in a framework of a constitutional monarchy, whereby the King of Tonga is the Head of State. Fiji has a multiparty system with the Prime Minister of Fiji as head of government. The executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament of Fiji. Fiji's Head of State is the President. He is elected by Parliament of Fiji after nomination by the Prime Minister or the Leader of the Opposition, for a three-year term. In the politics of Papua New Guinea the Prime Minister is the head of government, and the head of state is the monarch of the United Kingdom, represented by a Governor-General. In Kiribati, a Parliamentary regime, the President of Kiribati is the head of state and government, and of a multi-party system. New Caledonia remains an integral part of the French Republic. Inhabitants of New Caledonia are French citizens and carry French passports. They take part in the legislative and presidential French elections. New Caledonia sends two representatives to the French National Assembly and two senators to the French Senate. Hawaii is dominated by the Democratic Party. As codified in the Hawaiian Constitution, there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The governor is elected statewide. The lieutenant governor acts as the Secretary of State. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee twenty agencies and departments from offices in the State Capitol. Culture ------- ### Australia Since 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been Anglo-Celtic Western culture, with some Indigenous influences. The divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture. Since the mid-20th century, American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema. Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations. *The Story of the Kelly Gang* (1906), the world's first feature length film, spurred a boom in Australian cinema during the silent film era. The Australian Museum in Sydney and the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne are the oldest and largest museums in Oceania. The city's New Year's Eve celebrations are the largest in Oceania. Australia is also known for its cafe and coffee culture in urban centres. Australia and New Zealand were responsible for the flat white coffee. Most Indigenous Australian tribal groups subsisted on a simple hunter-gatherer diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called bush tucker. The first settlers introduced British food to the continent, much of which is now considered typical Australian food, such as the Sunday roast. Multicultural immigration transformed Australian cuisine; post-World War II European migrants, particularly from the Mediterranean, helped to build a thriving Australian coffee culture, and the influence of Asian cultures has led to Australian variants of their staple foods, such as the Chinese-inspired dim sim and Chiko Roll. ### Hawaii The music of Hawaii includes traditional and popular styles, ranging from native Hawaiian folk music to modern rock and hip hop. Hawaii's musical contributions to the music of the United States are out of proportion to the state's small size. Styles such as slack-key guitar are well known worldwide, while Hawaiian-tinged music is a frequent part of Hollywood soundtracks. Hawaii also made a major contribution to country music with the introduction of the steel guitar. The Hawaiian religion is polytheistic and animistic, with a belief in many deities and spirits, including the belief that spirits are found in non-human beings and objects such as animals, the waves, and the sky. The cuisine of Hawaii is a fusion of many foods brought by immigrants to the Hawaiian Islands, including the earliest Polynesians and native Hawaiians, and American, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Polynesian, and Portuguese origins. Native Hawaiian musician and Hawaiian sovereignty activist Israel Kamakawiwoʻole, famous for his medley of "Somewhere Over the Rainbow/What a Wonderful World", was named "The Voice of Hawaii" by NPR in 2010 in its 50 great voices series. ### New Zealand New Zealand as a culture is a Western culture, which is influenced by the cultural input of the indigenous Māori and the various waves of multi-ethnic migration which followed the British colonisation of New Zealand. The Māori people constitute one of the major cultures of Polynesia. The country has been broadened by globalisation and immigration specifically from Oceania, Europe, and Asia. New Zealand marks two national days of remembrance, Waitangi Day and ANZAC Day, and also celebrates many holidays such as the Queen's Birthday, Labour Day, and Christmas Day, as well as public anniversaries of the founding dates of most regions. The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States. Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition-based art of *kapa haka* (song and dance) has made a resurgence. The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives, have encouraged some producers to film big budget movies in New Zealand, including *Avatar*, *The Lord of the Rings*, *The Hobbit*, *The Chronicles of Narnia*, *King Kong* and *The Last Samurai*. The national cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim, incorporating the native Māori cuisine and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia and Asia. New Zealand yields produce from land and sea – most crops and livestock, such as maize, potatoes and pigs, were gradually introduced by the early European settlers. Distinctive ingredients or dishes include lamb; salmon; koura (crayfish); whitebait; shellfish including dredge oysters, paua, mussels, scallops, pipi and tuatua; kumara (sweet potato); kiwifruit; tamarillo; and pavlova (considered a national dish). ### Samoa The fa'a Samoa, or traditional Samoan way, remains a strong force in Samoan life and politics. Despite centuries of European influence, Samoa maintains its historical customs, social and political systems, and language. Cultural customs such as the Samoa 'ava ceremony are significant and solemn rituals at important occasions including the bestowal of *matai* chiefly titles. Items of great cultural value include the finely woven *'ie toga*. The Samoan word for dance is *siva*, which consists of unique gentle movements of the body in time to music and which tell a story. Samoan male dances can be more snappy. The *sasa* is also a traditional dance where rows of dancers perform rapid synchronised movements in time to the rhythm of wooden drums *(pate)* or rolled mats. Another dance performed by males is called the *fa'ataupati* or the slap dance, creating rhythmic sounds by slapping different parts of the body. As with other Polynesian cultures (Hawaiian, Tahitian and Māori) with significant and unique tattoos, Samoans have two gender specific and culturally significant tattoos. ### Arts The artistic creations of native Oceanians varies greatly throughout the cultures and regions. The subject matter typically carries themes of fertility or the supernatural. Petroglyphs, tattooing, painting, wood carving, stone carving, and textile work are other common art forms. Art of Oceania properly encompasses the artistic traditions of the people indigenous to Australia and the Pacific Islands. These early peoples lacked a writing system, and made works on perishable materials, so few records of them exist from this time. Indigenous Australian rock art is the oldest and richest unbroken tradition of art in the world, dating as far back as 60,000 years and spread across hundreds of thousands of sites. These rock paintings served several functions. Some were used in magic, others to increase animal populations for hunting, while some were simply for amusement. Sculpture in Oceania first appears on New Guinea as a series of stone figures found throughout the island, but mostly in mountainous highlands. Establishing a chronological timeframe for these pieces in most cases is difficult, but one has been dated to c. 1500 BCE. By 1500 BCE the Lapita culture, descendants of the second wave, would begin to expand and spread into the more remote islands. At around the same time, art began to appear in New Guinea, including the earliest examples of sculpture in Oceania. Beginning c. 1100 CE, the people of Easter Island would begin construction of nearly 900 moai (large stone statues). At c. 1200 CE, the people of Pohnpei, a Micronesian island, would embark on another megalithic construction, building Nan Madol, a city of artificial islands and a system of canals. Hawaiian art includes wood carvings, feather work, petroglyphs, bark cloth (called kapa in Hawaiian and tapa elsewhere in the Pacific), and tattoos. Native Hawaiians had neither metal nor woven cloth. ### Sport Rugby union is one of the region's most prominent sports, and is the national sport of New Zealand, Samoa, Fiji and Tonga. The most popular overall sport in Australia is cricket, with their national team having won the Cricket World Cup a record five times. The most popular sport among Australian women is netball, while Australian rules football garners the highest spectatorship numbers and television ratings. Rugby union is the most popular sport among New Zealanders, and they are tied with South Africa for the most Rugby World Cup titles, having won the tournament three times. Australia's team the Wallabies have also managed to win the World Cup twice, despite Rugby union being less popular among Australians. In Papua New Guinea, the most popular sport is Rugby league. Fiji's sevens team is one of the most successful in the world, as is New Zealand's. Australian rules football is the national sport in Nauru. It has a large following in Papua New Guinea, where it is the second most popular sport after Rugby League. Additionally, it attracts significant attention across New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. The highest level of the sport is the Australian Football League (AFL), which was the fourth best attended sporting league in the world during the 2010s. Vanuatu is the only country in Oceania to call association football its national sport. However, it is also the most popular sport in Kiribati, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu, and has a significant (and growing) popularity in Australia. In 2006 Australia left the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) for the Asian Football Confederation (AFC), and their men's team the Socceroos have qualified for every subsequent FIFA World Cup as an Asian entrant. The sole Micronesian country with membership in the OFC is Kiribati, although they are not recognized by FIFA like the other OFC members. Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Nauru and Palau all have no presence, primarily due to lack of infrastructure and logistical difficulties related to Micronesia's remoteness. Like Australia, the Micronesian dependent territories of Guam and Northern Mariana Islands currently compete in the AFC instead of the OFC. The OFC was dominated by Australia for many years, and became known for one-sided results. These included a 31–0 defeat of American Samoa by Australia in 2001, which remains the biggest international victory in the history of the sport. It broke the previous record set two days earlier when Australia defeated Tonga 22–0. Australians view sport as an important part of their cultural identity, and the country performs well on the international stage, despite having a relatively small population. They have hosted two Summer Olympics: Melbourne 1956 and Sydney 2000, and the city of Brisbane is also set to host the 2032 edition. Australia (and New Zealand) were among the small handful of non-communist countries who decided to participate at Moscow 1980. Additionally, Australia has hosted five editions of the Commonwealth Games (Sydney 1938, Perth 1962, Brisbane 1982, Melbourne 2006, Gold Coast 2018). Meanwhile, New Zealand has hosted the Commonwealth Games three times: Auckland 1950, Christchurch 1974 and Auckland 1990. The Pacific Games (formerly known as the South Pacific Games) is a multi-sport event, much like the Olympics on a much smaller scale, with participation exclusively from countries around the Pacific. It is held every four years and began in 1963. Australia and New Zealand competed in the games for the first time in 2015. Melbourne hosts the Australian Open every year, considered one of the four major Grand Slam tournaments in tennis. It was held for the first time in 1905. See also -------- * Australasia * Europeans in Oceania * Festival of Pacific Arts * Flags of Oceania * Insular Chile * List of cities in Oceania * Oceania (journal) * Oceanic cuisine * Indigenous peoples of Oceania * Pacific Islander * Pacific Union * The Pacific Community * United Nations geoscheme for Oceania Further reading --------------- * Davison, Graeme; Hirst, John; Macintyre, Stuart (1998). *The Oxford Companion to Australian History*. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-553597-9. * Frank Harary & Per Hage (1991) *Exchange in Oceania: A Graph Theoretic Analysis*, Oxford Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology, Oxford University Press. * Frank Harary & Per Hage (2007) *Island Networks: Communication, Kinship, and Classification Structures in Oceania*, Structural Analysis in the Social Sciences, Cambridge University Press. * Jupp, James (2001). *The Australian people: an encyclopedia of the nation, its people, and their origins*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80789-0. * Lewis, Martin W.; Wigen, Kären E. (1997). *The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography*. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20743-1. * Teo, Hsu-Ming; White, Richard (2003). *Cultural history in Australia*. University of New South Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-86840-589-6.

Oceania

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceania

**Polygamy** (from Late Greek πολυγαμία (**polugamía**) "state of marriage to many spouses") is the practice of marrying multiple spouses. When a man is married to more than one wife at the same time, sociologists call this polygyny. When a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry. In contrast to polygamy, monogamy is marriage consisting of only two parties. Like "monogamy", the term "polygamy" is often used in a *de facto* sense, applied regardless of whether a state recognizes the relationship. In sociobiology and zoology, researchers use *polygamy* in a broad sense to mean any form of multiple mating. In many countries, the law only recognises monogamous marriages (a person can only have one spouse, and bigamy is illegal), but adultery is not illegal, leading to a situation of *de facto* polygamy being allowed without legal recognition for non-official "spouses". Worldwide, different societies variously encourage, accept or outlaw polygamy. In societies which allow or tolerate polygamy, polygyny is the accepted form in the vast majority of cases. According to the *Ethnographic Atlas Codebook* (1998), of 1,231 societies noted, 588 had frequent polygyny, 453 had occasional polygyny, 186 were monogamous, and 4 had polyandry – although more recent research suggests that polyandry may occur more commonly than previously thought. In cultures which practice polygamy, its prevalence among that population often correlates with social class and socioeconomic status. Polygamy (taking the form of polygyny) is most common in a region known as the "polygamy belt" in West Africa and Central Africa, with the countries estimated to have the highest polygamy prevalence in the world being Burkina Faso, Mali, Gambia, Niger and Nigeria. Forms ----- Polygamy exists in three specific forms: * Polygyny, where a man has multiple simultaneous wives * Polyandry, where a woman has multiple simultaneous husbands * Group marriage, where the family unit consists of multiple husbands and multiple wives of legal age ### Polygyny #### Incidence Polygyny, the practice wherein a man has more than one wife at the same time, is by far the most common form of polygamy. Many[*which?*] Muslim-majority countries and some countries with sizable Muslim minorities accept polygyny to varying extents both legally and culturally. In several countries, such as India, the law only recognizes polygamous marriages for the Muslim population. Islamic law or *sharia* is a religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition which allows polygyny. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the hadith. In Arabic, the term *sharīʿah* refers to God's (Arabic: الله Allāh) immutable divine law and is contrasted with *fiqh*, which refers to its human scholarly interpretations. Polygyny is more widespread in Africa than on any other continent, especially in West Africa, and some scholars see the slave trade's impact on the male-to-female sex ratio as a key factor in the emergence and fortification of polygynous practices in regions of Africa. In the region of sub-Saharan Africa, polygyny is common and deeply rooted in the culture, with 11% of the population of sub-Saharan Africa living in such marriages (25% of the Muslim population and 3% of the Christian population, as of 2019). According to Pew, polygamy is widespread in a cluster of countries in West and Central Africa, including Burkina Faso, (36%), Mali (34%) and Nigeria (28%). Anthropologist Jack Goody's comparative study of marriage around the world utilizing the Ethnographic Atlas demonstrated a historical correlation between the practice of extensive shifting horticulture and polygamy in the majority of sub-Saharan African societies. Drawing on the work of Ester Boserup, Goody notes that the sexual division of labour varies between the male-dominated intensive plough-agriculture common in Eurasia and the extensive shifting horticulture found in sub-Saharan Africa. In some of the sparsely-populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place in Africa, women do much of the work. This favours polygamous marriages in which men seek to monopolize the production of women "who are valued both as workers and as child bearers". Goody however, observes that the correlation is imperfect and varied, and also discusses more traditionally male-dominated though relatively extensive farming systems such as those traditionally common in much of West Africa, especially in the West African savanna, where more agricultural work is done by men, and where polygyny is desired by men more for the generation of male offspring whose labor is valued. Anthropologists Douglas R. White and Michael L. Burton discuss and support Jack Goody's observation regarding African male farming systems in "Causes of Polygyny: Ecology, Economy, Kinship, and Warfare" where these authors note: > Goody (1973) argues against the female contributions hypothesis. He notes Dorjahn's (1959) comparison of East and West Africa, showing higher female agricultural contributions in East Africa and higher polygyny rates in West Africa, especially the West African savanna, where one finds especially high male agricultural contributions. Goody says, "The reasons behind polygyny are sexual and reproductive rather than economic and productive" (1973:189), arguing that men marry polygynously to maximize their fertility and to obtain large households containing many young dependent males. > > An analysis by James Fenske (2012) found that child mortality and ecologically related economic shocks had a significant association with rates of polygamy in sub-Saharan Africa, rather than female agricultural contributions (which are typically relatively small in the West African savanna and sahel, where polygyny rates are higher), finding that polygyny rates decrease significantly with child mortality rates. #### Types of polygyny Polygynous marriages fall into two types: *sororal polygyny*, in which the co-wives are sisters, and *non-sororal*, where the co-wives are not related. Polygyny offers husbands the benefit of allowing them to have more children, may provide them with a larger number of productive workers (where workers are family), and allows them to establish politically useful ties with a greater number of kin groups. Senior wives can benefit as well when the addition of junior wives to the family lightens their workload. Wives', especially senior wives', status in a community can increase through the addition of other wives, who add to the family's prosperity or symbolize conspicuous consumption (much as a large house, domestic help, or expensive vacations operate in a western country). For such reasons, senior wives sometimes work hard or contribute from their own resources to enable their husbands to accumulate the bride price for an extra wife. Polygyny may also result from the practice of levirate marriage. In such cases, the deceased man's heir may inherit his assets and wife; or, more usually, his brothers may marry the widow. This provides support for the widow and her children (usually also members of the brothers' kin group) and maintains the tie between the husbands' and wives' kin groups. The sororate resembles the levirate, in that a widower must marry the sister of his dead wife. The family of the late wife, in other words, must provide a replacement for her, thus maintaining the marriage alliance. Both levirate and sororate may result in a man having multiple wives. In monogamous societies, wealthy and powerful men established enduring relationships with, and established separate household for, multiple female partners, aside from their legitimate wives; a practice accepted in Imperial China up until the Qing Dynasty of 1636–1912. This constitutes a form of *de facto* polygyny referred to as *concubinage*. #### Household organization Marriage is the moment at which a new household is formed, but different arrangements may occur depending upon the type of marriage and some polygamous marriages do not result in the formation of a single household. In many polygynous marriages the husband's wives may live in separate households. They can thus be described as a "series of linked nuclear families with a 'father' in common". ### Polyandry #### Incidence Polyandry, the practice of a woman having more than one husband at one time, is much less prevalent than polygyny. It is specifically provided in the legal codes of some countries, such as Gabon. Polyandry is believed to be more common in societies with scarce environmental resources, as it is believed to limit human population growth and enhance child survival. It is a rare form of marriage that exists not only among poor families, but also the elite. For example, in the Himalayan Mountains polyandry is related to the scarcity of land; the marriage of all brothers in a family to the same wife allows family land to remain intact and undivided. If every brother married separately and had children, family land would be split into unsustainable small plots. In Europe, this outcome was avoided through the social practice of impartible inheritance, under which most siblings would be disinherited. #### Types *Fraternal polyandry* was traditionally practiced among nomadic Tibetans in Nepal, parts of China and part of northern India, in which two or more brothers would marry the same woman. It is most common in societies marked by high male mortality. It is associated with *partible paternity*, the cultural belief that a child can have more than one father. *Non-fraternal polyandry* occurs when the wives' husbands are unrelated, as among the Nayar tribe of India, where girls undergo a ritual marriage before puberty, and the first husband is acknowledged as the father of all her children. However, the woman may never cohabit with that man, taking multiple lovers instead; these men must acknowledge the paternity of their children (and hence demonstrate that no caste prohibitions have been breached) by paying the midwife. The women remain in their maternal home, living with their brothers, and property is passed matrilineally. A similar form of matrilineal, de facto polyandry can be found in the institution of walking marriage among the Mosuo tribe of China. ### Serial monogamy Serial monogamy refers to remarriage after divorce or death of a spouse from a monogamous marriage, i.e. multiple marriages but only one legal spouse at a time (a series of monogamous relationships). According to Danish scholar Miriam K. Zeitzen, anthropologists treat serial monogamy, in which divorce and remarriage occur, as a form of polygamy as it also can establish a series of households that may continue to be tied by shared paternity and shared income. As such, they are similar to the household formations created through divorce and serial monogamy. Serial monogamy creates a new kind of relative, the "ex-". The "ex-wife", for example, can remain an active part of her "ex-husband's" life, as they may be tied together by legally or informally mandated economic support, which can last for years, including by alimony, child support, and joint custody. Bob Simpson, the British social anthropologist, notes that it creates an "extended family" by tying together a number of households, including mobile children. He says that Britons may have ex‑wives or ex‑brothers‑in‑law, but not an *ex‑child*. According to him, these "unclear families" do not fit the mold of the monogamous nuclear family. ### Group marriage Group marriage is a non-monogamous marriage-like arrangement where three or more adults live together, all considering themselves partners, sharing finances, children, and household responsibilities. Polyamory is on a continuum of family-bonds that includes group marriage. The term does not refer to bigamy as no claim to being married in formal legal terms is made. Scientific and Historical Perspectives -------------------------------------- Scientific studies originally classified the human mating system as primarily socially monogamous. A 1988 survey of 93 world populations found that the cultural practice of polygamy was in the minority. As mentioned above, the 1981 *Ethnographic Atlas Codebook* indicated the opposite. Subsequent 2012 evidence found that polygamy was prevalent in pre-history, is more common than previously believed, and is most common in egalitarian societies. A separate 1988 review examined the practices of 849 societies from before Western imperialism and colonization. The review found that 708 of the societies (83%) accepted polygyny. Only 16% were monogamous and 1% polyandrous. Even when polygyny was accepted in the community, however, pair-bonding was often monogamous in practice – while couples remained in a relationship. In many historical communities, serial monogamy may have been the accepted practice rather than a lifelong monogamous bond. Recent anthropological data suggest that the modern concept of life-long monogamy has been in place for only the last 1,000 years . Genetic evidence has demonstrated that more men began contributing to the genetic pool between 5,000-10,000 years ago, which suggests that reproductive monogamy became more common at that time. This would correspond to the neolithic agricultural revolution. During this time, formerly nomadic societies began to claim and settle land for farming, leading to the advent of property ownership and therefore inheritance. Men would therefore seek to ensure that their land would go to direct descendants and had a vested interest in limiting the sexual activities of their reproductive partners. It is possible that the concept of marriage and permanent monogamy evolved at this time. Other scientific arguments for monogamy prior to 2003 were based on characteristics of reproductive physiology, such as sperm competition, sexual selection in primates, and body size characteristics. A 2019 synthesis of these and other data found that the weight of the evidence supports a mating bond that may include polygyny or polyandry, but is most likely to be predominantly serial monogamy. More recent genetic data has clarified that, in most regions throughout history, a smaller proportion of men contributed to human genetic history compared to women. Assuming an equal number of men and women are born and survive to reproduce, this may indicates that historically, only a subset of men fathered children and did so with multiple women (and may suggest that many men either did not procreate or did not have children that survived to create modern ancestors). This observation could occur for several reasons. A frequent interpretation is a harem model, where one man will out-compete other men (presumably through acts of violence or power) for exclusive sexual access to a group of women. It may also suggest that some men had either more sex or more reproductive success with multiple women simultaneously (either outside of lifelong monogamous relationships or in the form of polygyny). It may also suggest that some men were more likely than other men to have a series of monogamous relationships that led to children with different women throughout the man’s life (serial monogamy). The serial monogamy interpretation of genetic history would be congruent with other findings, such as the fact that humans form pair bonds (although not necessarily for life) and that human fathers invest in at least the early upbringing of their children. Serial monogamy would also be consistent with "honeymoon period", a period of intense interest in a single sexual partner which may help to keep men invested in staying with the mother of their child for the duration of the period with less interest in other women. In most cases, this “honeymoon period” lasts 18 months to three years. This would correspond to the period necessary to bring a child to relative independence in the traditionally small, interdependent, communal societies of pre-neolithic humans, before they settled into agricultural communities. While genetic evidence typically displays a bias towards a smaller number of men reproducing with more women, some regions or time periods have shown the opposite. In a 2019 investigation, Musharoff et al. applied modern techniques to the 1000 Genomes Project Phase 3 high-coverage Complete Genomics whole-genome dataset. They found that the Southern Han Chinese had a male bias (45% female, indicating that women were likely to reproduce with multiple men). This region is known for its lack of a concept of paternity and for a sense of female equality or superiority. The Musharoff study found a more typical female bias in Yorubans (63% female), Europeans (84%), Punjabis (82%), and Peruvians (56%). Conversely, they found a male bias in Europeans (20% female) during an out-of-Africa migration event that may have increased the number of men successfully reproducing with women, perhaps by replenishing the genetic pool in Europe. Religious attitudes towards polygamy ------------------------------------ ### Buddhism Buddhism does not regard marriage as a sacrament; it is purely a secular affair. Normally Buddhist monks do not participate in it (though in some sects priests and monks do marry). Hence marriage receives no religious sanction. Forms of marriage, in consequence, vary from country to country. The Parabhava Sutta states that "a man who is not satisfied with one woman and seeks out other women is on the path to decline". Other fragments in the Buddhist scripture seem to treat polygamy unfavorably, leading some authors to conclude that Buddhism generally does not approve of it or alternatively regards it as a tolerated, but subordinate, marital model. Polygamy in Thailand was legally recognized until 1935. Polygamy in Myanmar was outlawed in 2015. In Sri Lanka, polyandry was legal in the kingdom of Kandy, but outlawed by British after conquering the kingdom in 1815. When the Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese, the concubines of others were added to the list of inappropriate partners. Polyandry in Tibet was traditionally common, as was polygyny, and having several wives or husbands was never regarded as having sex with inappropriate partners. Most typically, fraternal polyandry is practiced, but sometimes father and son have a common wife, which is a unique family structure in the world. Other forms of marriage are also present, like group marriage and monogamous marriage. Polyandry (especially fraternal polyandry) is also common among Buddhists in Bhutan, Ladakh, and other parts of the Indian subcontinent. ### Celtic traditions Some pre-Christian Celtic pagans were known to practice polygamy, although the Celtic peoples wavered between it, monogamy and polyandry depending on the time period and the area. In some areas this continued even after Christianization began, for instance the Brehon Laws of Gaelic Ireland explicitly allowed for polygamy, especially amongst the noble class. Some modern Celtic pagan religions accept the practice of polygamy to varying degrees, though how widespread the practice is within these religions is unknown. ### Christianity Although the Old Testament describes numerous examples of polygamy among devotees to God, most Christian groups have rejected the practice of polygamy and have upheld monogamy alone as normative. Nevertheless, some Christians groups in different periods have practiced, or currently do practice, polygamy. Some Christians actively debate whether the New Testament or Christian ethics allows or forbids polygamy. Although the New Testament is largely silent on the subject of polygamy, some point to Jesus's repetition of the earlier scriptures, noting that a man and a wife "shall become one flesh". However, some look to Paul's writings to the Corinthians: "Do you not know that he who is joined to a prostitute becomes one body with her? For, as it is written, 'The two will become one flesh.'" Supporters of polygamy claim that this verse indicates that the term refers to a physical, rather than a spiritual,[*clarification needed*] union. Some Christian theologians argue that in Matthew 19:3–9 and referring to Genesis 2:24, Jesus explicitly states a man should have only one wife: > Have ye not read, that he which made them at the beginning made them male and female, And said, For this cause shall a man leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife: and they twain shall be one flesh? > > 1 Timothy 3:2 states: > Now a bishop must be above reproach, married only once, temperate, sensible, respectable, hospitable, an apt teacher, > > See verse 12 regarding deacons having only one wife. Similar counsel is repeated in the first chapter of the Epistle to Titus. Periodically, Christian reform movements that have sought to rebuild Christian doctrine based on the Bible alone (*sola scriptura*) have temporarily accepted polygyny as a Biblical practice. For example, during the Protestant Reformation, in a document which was simply referred to as *"Der Beichtrat"* (or *"The Confessional Advice"* ), Martin Luther granted the Landgrave Philip of Hesse, who, for many years, had been living "constantly in a state of adultery and fornication", a dispensation to take a second wife. The double marriage was to be done in secret, however, to avoid public scandal. Some fifteen years earlier, in a letter to the Saxon Chancellor Gregor Brück, Luther stated that he could not "forbid a person to marry several wives, for it does not contradict Scripture." ("*Ego sane fateor, me non posse prohibere, si quis plures velit uxores ducere, nec repugnat sacris literis.*") In Sub-Saharan Africa, tensions have frequently erupted between advocates of the Christian insistence on monogamy and advocates of the traditional practice of polygamy. For instance, Mswati III, the Christian king of Eswatini, has 15 wives. In some instances in recent times, there have been moves for accommodation; in other instances, churches have strongly resisted such moves. African Independent Churches have sometimes referred to those parts of the Old Testament that describe polygamy in defense of the practice. The illegality of polygamy in certain areas creates, according to certain Bible passages, additional arguments against it. Paul the Apostle writes "submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also because of conscience" (Romans 13:5), for "the authorities that exist have been established by God." (Romans 13:1) St Peter concurs when he says to "submit yourselves for the Lord's sake to every authority instituted among men: whether to the king, as the supreme authority, or to governors, who are sent by him to punish those who do wrong and to commend those who do right." (1 Peter 2:13,14) Pro-polygamists argue that, as long as polygamists currently do not obtain legal marriage licenses nor seek "common law marriage status" for additional spouses, no enforced laws are being broken any more than when monogamous couples similarly co-habitate without a marriage license. #### Roman Catholic Church The Roman Catholic Church condemns polygamy; the *Catechism of the Catholic Church* lists it in paragraph 2387 under the head "Other offenses against the dignity of marriage" and states that it "is not in accord with the moral law." Also in paragraph 1645 under the head "The Goods and Requirements of Conjugal Love" states "The unity of marriage, distinctly recognized by our Lord, is made clear in the equal personal dignity which must be accorded to husband and wife in mutual and unreserved affection. Polygamy is contrary to conjugal love which is undivided and exclusive." Saint Augustine saw a conflict with Old Testament polygamy. He refrained from judging the patriarchs, but did not deduce from their practice the ongoing acceptability of polygyny. On the contrary, he argued that the polygamy of the Fathers, which was tolerated by the Creator because of fertility, was a diversion from His original plan for human marriage. Augustine wrote: "That the good purpose of marriage, however, is better promoted by one husband with one wife, than by a husband with several wives, is shown plainly enough by the very first union of a married pair, which was made by the Divine Being Himself." Augustine taught that the reason patriarchs had many wives was not because of fornication, but because they wanted more children. He supported his premise by showing that their marriages, in which husband was the head, were arranged according to the rules of good management: those who are *in command* (*quae principantur*) in their society were always singular, while *subordinates* (*subiecta*) were multiple. He gave two examples of such relationships: *dominus-servus* – master-servant (in older translation: *slave*) and *God-soul*. The Bible often equates worshiping multiple gods, i.e. idolatry to fornication. Augustine relates to that: "On this account there is no True God of souls, save One: but one soul by means of many false gods may commit fornication, but not be made fruitful." As tribal populations grew, fertility was no longer a valid justification of polygamy: it "was lawful among the ancient fathers: whether it be lawful now also, I would not hastily pronounce (utrum et nunc fas sit, non temere dixerim). For there is not now necessity of begetting children, as there then was, when, even when wives bear children, it was allowed, in order to a more numerous posterity, to marry other wives in addition, which now is certainly not lawful." Augustine saw marriage as a covenant between one man and one woman, which may not be broken. It was the Creator who established monogamy: "Therefore, the first natural bond of human society is man and wife." Such marriage was confirmed by the Saviour in the Gospel of Matthew (Mat 19:9) and by His presence at the wedding in Cana (John 2:2). In the Church—the City of God—marriage is a sacrament and may not and cannot be dissolved as long as the spouses live: "But a marriage once for all entered upon in the City of our God, where, even from the first union of the two, the man and the woman, marriage bears a certain sacramental character, can in no way be dissolved but by the death of one of them." In chapter 7, Augustine pointed out that the Roman Empire forbad polygamy, even if the reason of fertility would support it: "For it is in a man's power to put away a wife that is barren, and marry one of whom to have children. And yet it is not allowed; and now indeed in our times, and after the usage of Rome (nostris quidem iam temporibus ac more Romano), neither to marry in addition, so as to have more than one wife living." Further on he notices that the Church's attitude goes much further than the secular law regarding monogamy: It forbids remarrying, considering such to be a form of fornication: "And yet, save in the City of our God, in His Holy Mount, the case is not such with the wife. But, that the laws of the Gentiles are otherwise, who is there that knows not." The Council of Trent condemns polygamy: "If anyone saith, that it is lawful for Christians to have several wives at the same time, and that this is not prohibited by any divine law; let him be anathema." In modern times a minority of Roman Catholic theologians have argued that polygamy, though not ideal, can be a legitimate form of Christian marriage in certain regions, in particular Africa. The Roman Catholic Church teaches in its Catechism that: > > polygamy is not in accord with the moral law. [Conjugal] communion is radically contradicted by polygamy; this, in fact, directly negates the plan of God that was revealed from the beginning, because it is contrary to the equal personal dignity of men and women who in matrimony give themselves with a love that is total and therefore unique and exclusive. > > #### Lutheran Church The Lutheran World Federation hosted a regional conference in Africa, in which the acceptance of polygamists into full membership by the Lutheran Church in Liberia was defended as being permissible. The Lutheran Church in Liberia, however, does not permit polygamists who have become Christians to marry more wives after they have received the sacrament of Holy Baptism. Evangelical Lutheran missionaries in Maasai also tolerate the practice of polygamy and in Southern Sudan, some polygamists are becoming Lutheran Christians. #### Anglican Communion The 1988 Lambeth Conference of the Anglican Communion ruled that polygamy was permissible in certain circumstances: > The Conference upholds monogamy as God's plan, as the idea of relationship of love between husband and wife; nevertheless recommends that a polygamist who responds to the Gospel and wishes to join the Anglican Church may be baptized and confirmed with his believing wives and children on the following conditions: > > > * that the polygamist shall promise not to marry again as long as any of his wives at the time of his conversion are alive; > * that the receiving of such a polygamist has the consent of the local Anglican community; > * that such a polygamist shall not be compelled to put away any of his wives on account of the social deprivation they would suffer. > #### Latter Day Saint movement In accordance with what Joseph Smith indicated was a revelation, the practice of plural marriage, the marriage of one man to two or more women, was instituted among members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in the early 1840s. Despite Smith's revelation, the 1835 edition of the 101st Section of the *Doctrine and Covenants*, written after the doctrine of plural marriage began to be practiced, publicly condemned polygamy. This scripture was used by John Taylor in 1850 to quash Mormon polygamy rumors in Liverpool, England. Polygamy was made illegal in the state of Illinois during the 1839–44 Nauvoo era when several top Mormon leaders, including Smith, Brigham Young and Heber C. Kimball took multiple wives. Mormon elders who publicly taught that all men were commanded to enter plural marriage were subject to harsh discipline. On 7 June 1844 the *Nauvoo Expositor* criticized Smith for plural marriage. ##### The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) After Joseph Smith was killed by a mob on 27 June 1844, the main body of Latter Day Saints left Nauvoo and followed Brigham Young to Utah where the practice of plural marriage continued. In 1852, Brigham Young, the second president of the LDS Church, publicly acknowledged the practice of plural marriage through a sermon he gave. Additional sermons by top Mormon leaders on the virtues of polygamy followed. Controversy followed when polygamy became a social cause, writers began to publish works condemning polygamy. The key plank of the Republican Party's 1856 platform was "to prohibit in the territories those twin relics of barbarism, polygamy and slavery". In 1862, Congress issued the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act which clarified that the practice of polygamy was illegal in all US territories. The LDS Church believed that their religiously based practice of plural marriage was protected by the United States Constitution, however, the unanimous 1878 Supreme Court decision *Reynolds v. United States* declared that polygamy was not protected by the Constitution, based on the longstanding legal principle that "laws are made for the government of actions, and while they cannot interfere with mere religious belief and opinions, they may with practices." Increasingly harsh anti-polygamy legislation in the US led some Mormons to emigrate to Canada and Mexico. In 1890, LDS Church president Wilford Woodruff issued a public declaration (the Manifesto) announcing that the LDS Church had discontinued new plural marriages. Anti-Mormon sentiment waned, as did opposition to statehood for Utah. The Smoot Hearings in 1904, which documented that the LDS Church was still practicing polygamy spurred the LDS Church to issue a Second Manifesto again claiming that it had ceased performing new plural marriages. By 1910 the LDS Church excommunicated those who entered into, or performed, new plural marriages. Even so, many plural husbands and wives continued to cohabit until their deaths in the 1940s and 1950s. Enforcement of the 1890 Manifesto caused various splinter groups to leave the LDS Church in order to continue the practice of plural marriage. Polygamy among these groups persists today in Utah and neighboring states as well as in the spin-off colonies. Polygamist churches of Mormon origin are often referred to as "Mormon fundamentalist" churches even though they are not parts of the LDS Church. Such fundamentalists often use a purported 1886 revelation to John Taylor as the basis for their authority to continue the practice of plural marriage. *The Salt Lake Tribune* stated in 2005 that there were as many as 37,000 fundamentalists with less than half of them living in polygamous households. On 13 December 2013, US Federal Judge Clark Waddoups ruled in *Brown v. Buhman* that the portions of Utah's anti-polygamy laws which prohibit multiple cohabitation were unconstitutional, but also allowed Utah to maintain its ban on multiple marriage licenses.[*unreliable source?*] Unlawful cohabitation, where prosecutors did not need to prove that a marriage ceremony had taken place (only that a couple had lived together), had been the primary tool used to prosecute polygamy in Utah since the 1882 Edmunds Act. ##### Mormon fundamentalism The Council of Friends (also known as the Woolley Group and the Priesthood Council) was one of the original expressions of Mormon fundamentalism, having its origins in the teachings of Lorin C. Woolley, a dairy farmer excommunicated from the LDS Church in 1924. Several Mormon fundamentalist groups claim lineage through the Council of Friends, including but not limited to, the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (FLDS Church), the Apostolic United Brethren, the Centennial Park group, the Latter Day Church of Christ, and the Righteous Branch of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. ##### Community of Christ The Community of Christ, known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS Church) prior to 2001, has never sanctioned polygamy since its foundation in 1860. Joseph Smith III, the first Prophet-President of the RLDS Church following the reorganization of the Church, was an ardent opponent of the practice of plural marriage throughout his life. For most of his career, Smith denied that his father had been involved in the practice and insisted that it had originated with Brigham Young. Smith served many missions to the western United States, where he met with and interviewed associates and women claiming to be widows of his father, who attempted to present him with evidence to the contrary. Smith typically responded to such accusations by saying that he was "not positive nor sure that [his father] was innocent", and that if, indeed, the elder Smith had been involved, it was still a false practice. However, many members of the Community of Christ and some of the groups that were previously associated with it are not convinced that Joseph Smith practiced plural marriage and they believe that the evidence which indicates that he practiced it is flawed. ### Hinduism The *Rigveda* mentions that during the Vedic period, a man could have more than one wife. The practice is attested in epics like the *Ramayana* and the *Mahabharata*. The *Dharmashastra*s permit a man to marry women provided that the first wife agree to marry him.[*clarification needed*] Despite its existence, it was most usually practiced by men of higher status. Common people were only allowed a second marriage if the first wife could not bear a son or have some dispute because there is no law for divorce in Hinduism. According to the *Vishnu Smriti*, the number of wives one could have is linked to one's social class, referred to as *varna*: > Now a Brāhmaṇa may take many wives in the direct order of the (four) knowledge; > A Kshatriya means warrior knowledge, three; > A Vaishya means business knowledge, two; > A Shudra means cleaning knowledge, one only > > This linkage of the number of permitted wives to the varna system is also supported by the *Baudhayana* *Dharmasutra* and the *Paraskara Grihyasutra*. The *Apastamba Dharmasutra* and the *Manusmriti* allow marriage to a second wife if the first one is unable to discharge her religious duties or is unable to bear a child or have any dispute because in Hinduism there was no law for divorce. For a Brahmana, only one wife could rank as the chief consort who performed the religious rites (*dharma-patni*) along with the husband. The chief consort had to be of an equal knowledge. If a man married several women from the same knowledgeable, then the eldest wife held the position of the chief consort. Hindu kings commonly had more than one wife and are regularly attributed four wives by the scriptures. They were: Mahisi, who was the chief consort, Parivrkti, who had no son, Vaivata, who is considered the favorite wife and the Palagali, who was the daughter of the last of the court officials. Traditional Hindu law allowed polygamy if the first wife could not bear a child. The Hindu Marriage Act was enacted in 1955 by the Indian Parliament and made polygamy illegal for everyone in India except for Muslims. Prior to 1955, polygamy was permitted for Hindus. Marriage laws in India are dependent upon the religion of the parties in question. ### Islam In Islamic marital jurisprudence, under reasonable and warranted conditions, a Muslim man may have more than one wife at the same time, up to a total of four. Muslim women are not permitted to have more than one husband at the same time under any circumstances. Based on verse 30:21 of Quran the ideal relationship is the comfort that a couple find in each other's embrace: > And among His Signs is this, that He created for you mates from among yourselves, that ye may dwell in tranquillity with them, and He has put love and mercy between your (hearts): verily in that are Signs for those who reflect. > > — Quran, Sura 30 (Ar-Rum), Ayah 21 The polygyny that is allowed in the Quran is for special situations. There are strict requirements to marrying more than one woman, as the man must treat them fairly financially and in terms of support given to each wife, according to Islamic law. However, Islam advises monogamy for a man if he fears he cannot deal justly with his wives. This is based on verse 4:3 of Quran which says: > If ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly with the orphans, Marry women of your choice, Two or three or four; but if ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly (with them), then only one, or one that your right hands possess, that will be more suitable, to prevent you from doing injustice. > > — Quran, Sura 4 (An-Nisa), Ayah 3 Muslim women are not allowed to marry more than one husband at once. However, in the case of a divorce or their husbands' death they can remarry after the completion of Iddah, as divorce is legal in Islamic law. A non-Muslim woman who flees from her non-Muslim husband and accepts Islam has the option to remarry without divorce from her previous husband, as her marriage with non-Muslim husband is Islamically dissolved on her fleeing. A non-Muslim woman captured during war by Muslims, can also remarry, as her marriage with her non-Muslim husband is Islamically dissolved at capture by Muslim soldiers. This permission is given to such women in verse 4:24 of Quran. The verse also emphasizes on transparency, mutual agreement and financial compensation as prerequisites for matrimonial relationship as opposed to prostitution; it says: > Also (prohibited are) women already married, except those whom your right hands possess: Thus hath Allah ordained (Prohibitions) against you: Except for these, all others are lawful, provided ye seek (them in marriage) with gifts from your property,- desiring chastity, not lust, seeing that ye derive benefit from them, give them their dowers (at least) as prescribed; but if, after a dower is prescribed, agree Mutually (to vary it), there is no blame on you, and Allah is All-knowing, All-wise. > > — Quran, Sura 4 (An-Nisa), Ayah 24 Muhammad was monogamously married to Khadija, his first wife, for 25 years, until she died. After her death, he married multiple women. Muhammad had a total of 9 wives at the same time, even though Muslim men were limited to 4 wives. His total wives are 11. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, some Islamic scholars say the wife can set a condition, in the marriage contract, that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage. In such a case, the husband cannot marry another woman as long as he is married to his wife. However, other Islamic scholars state that this condition is not allowed. According to traditional Islamic law, each of those wives keeps their property and assets separate; and are paid Mahr separately by their husband. Usually the wives have little to no contact with each other and lead separate, individual lives in their own houses, and sometimes in different cities, though they all share the same husband. In most Muslim-majority countries, polygyny is legal with Kuwait being the only one where no restrictions are imposed on it. The practice is illegal in Muslim-majority Turkey, Tunisia, Albania, Kosovo, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brunei, Sierra Leone,Guinea, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan , Uzbekistan, Tajikistan. Countries that allow polygyny typically also require a man to obtain permission from his previous wives before marrying another, and require the man to prove that he can financially support multiple wives. In Malaysia and Morocco, a man must justify taking an additional wife at a court hearing before he is allowed to do so. In Sudan, the government encouraged polygyny in 2001 to increase the population. ### Judaism The Torah contains a few specific regulations that apply to polygamy, such as Exodus 21:10: "If he take another wife for himself; her food, her clothing, and her duty of marriage, shall he not diminish". Deuteronomy 21:15–17, states that a man must award the inheritance due to a first-born son to the son who was actually born first, even if he hates that son's mother and likes another wife more; and Deuteronomy 17:17 states that the king shall not have too many wives. Despite its prevalence in the Hebrew Bible, some scholars do not believe that polygyny was commonly practiced in the biblical era because it required a significant amount of wealth. Michael Coogan (and others), in contrast, states that "Polygyny continued to be practiced well into the biblical period, and it is attested among Jews as late as the second century CE". The Dead Sea Scrolls show that several smaller Jewish sects forbade polygamy before and during the time of Jesus. The Temple Scroll (11QT LVII 17–18) seems to prohibit polygamy. The rabbinical era that began with the destruction of the second temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE saw a continuation of some degree of legal acceptance for polygamy. In the Babylonian Talmud (BT), Kiddushin 7a, its states, "Raba said: [If a man declares,] 'Be thou betrothed to half of me,' she is betrothed: 'half of thee be betrothed to me,' she is not betrothed." The BT during a discussion of Levirate marriage in Yevamot 65a appears to repeat the precedent found in Exodus 21:10: "Raba said: a man may marry wives in addition to the first wife; provided only that he possesses the means to maintain them". The Jewish Codices began a process of restricting polygamy in Judaism. Most notable in the rabbinic period on the issue of polygamy, though more specifically for Ashkenazi Jews, was the synod of Rabbeinu Gershom. About 1000 CE he called a synod which decided the following particulars: (1) prohibition of polygamy; (2) necessity of obtaining the consent of both parties to a divorce; (3) modification of the rules concerning those who became apostates under compulsion; (4) prohibition against opening correspondence addressed to another. Some Sephardic Jews such as Abraham David Taroç, were known to have several wives. Polygamy was common among Jewish communities in the Levant, possibly due to the influence of Muslim society, with 17% of divorce claims by women being due to complaints over husbands taking additional wives. According to R. Joseph Karo (16th century author of the last great codification of Jewish law, the Shulchan Aruch), and many other rabbis from Safed, the ban of Rabbeinu Gershom had expired, and therefore even Ashkenazim could marry additional wives. Even in instances where the husband made prenuptial agreements not to marry additional wives, local rabbis found loopholes to allow them to do so anyway. The assembly led by Rabbeinu Gershom instituted a ban on polygamy, but this ban was not well received by the Sephardic communities. In addition to the ban, Gershon also introduced a law called Heter meah rabbanim which allows the men to remarry with the permission from one hundred rabbis from different countries. In the modern day, polygamy is generally not condoned by Jews. Ashkenazi Jews have continued to follow Rabbenu Gershom's ban since the 11th century. Some Mizrahi Jewish communities (particularly Yemenite Jews and Persian Jews) discontinued polygyny more recently, after they immigrated to countries where it was forbidden or illegal. Israel prohibits polygamy by law. In practice, however, the law is loosely enforced, primarily to avoid interference with Bedouin culture, where polygyny is practiced. Pre-existing polygynous unions among Jews from Arab countries (or other countries where the practice was not prohibited by their tradition and was not illegal) are not subject to this Israeli law. But Mizrahi Jews are not permitted to enter into new polygamous marriages in Israel. However polygamy may still occur in non-European Jewish communities that exist in countries where it is not forbidden, such as Jewish communities in Iran and Morocco. Former chief rabbi Ovadia Yosef has come out in favor of legalizing polygamy and the practice of pilegesh (concubine) by the Israeli government. Tzvi Zohar, a professor from the Bar-Ilan University, recently suggested that based on the opinions of leading halachic authorities, the concept of concubines may serve as a practical halachic justification for premarital or non-marital cohabitation. ### Zoroastrianism There is limited information about polygamy in Zoroastrian tradition. There is no passage in the Avesta that favors polygamy or monogamy. However, tradition holds that Zoroaster had three wives. Polygamy appears to have been a right of spiritual dignitaries and aristocrats. It is mentioned in foreign writings, such as the letter of Tansar. > For those who were the most virtuous and pious, he chose out princesses, that all might desire virtue and chastity. He was content with one or two wives for himself, and disapproved of having many children, saying: to have many children is fitting for the populace, but kings and nobles take pride in the smallness of their families > > — Tansar It was also written about in the 4th century CE by the Roman soldier and historian Ammianus Marcellinus, writing about Zoroastrian communities. > Each man according to his means contracts many or few marriages, whence their affection, divided as it is among various objects, grows cold. > > — Ammianus Marcellinus Legal status ------------ ### International law In 2000, the United Nations Human Rights Committee reported that polygamy violates the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), citing concerns that the lack of "equality of treatment with regard to the right to marry" meant that polygamy, restricted to polygyny in practice, violates the dignity of women and should be outlawed. Specifically, reports to UN Committees have noted violations of ICCPR due to these inequalities, and reports to the UN General Assembly have recommended it be outlawed. ICCPR does not apply to countries that have not signed it, which includes many Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Malaysia, Brunei, Oman, and South Sudan. ### Canada Canada has taken a strong stand against polygamy, and the Canadian Department of Justice has argued that polygyny is a violation of International Human Rights Law, as a form of gender discrimination. In Canada, the federal Criminal Code applies throughout the country. It extends the definition of polygamy to having any kind of conjugal union with more than one person at the same time. Also anyone who assists, celebrates, or is a part to a rite, ceremony, or contract that sanctions a polygamist relationship is guilty of polygamy. Polygamy is an offence punishable by up to five years in prison. In 2017, two Canadian religious leaders were found guilty of practicing polygamy by the Supreme Court of British Columbia. Both of them are former bishops of the Mormon denomination of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS). ### Russia Polygamous marriages are not recognized in the Russian Federation. The Family Code of Russia states that a marriage can only be contracted between a man and a woman, neither of whom is married to someone else. Furthermore, Russia does not recognize polygamous marriages that had been contracted in other countries. Under Russian law, *de facto* polygamy or multiple cohabitation in and of itself is not a crime. Due to the imbalance between urban educated women and men in predominantly Mongol-inhabited regions of Russia men sometimes may have multiple women as wives one report claims. This sometimes results in households that are openly *de facto* polygamous. ### United Kingdom Bigamy is illegal in the United Kingdom. *De facto* polygamy (having multiple partners at the same time) is not a criminal offence, provided the person does not register more than one marriage at the same time. In the UK, adultery is not a criminal offence (it is only a ground for divorce). In a written answer to the House of Commons, "In Great Britain, polygamy is only recognized as valid in law in circumstances where the marriage ceremony has been performed in a country whose laws permit polygamy and the parties to the marriage were domiciled there at the time. In addition, immigration rules have generally prevented the formation of polygamous households in this country since 1988." The 2010 UK government decided that Universal Credit (UC), which replaces means-tested benefits and tax credits for working-age people and will not be completely introduced until 2021, will not recognize polygamous marriages. A House of Commons briefing paper states "Treating second and subsequent partners in polygamous relationships as separate claimants could in some situations mean that polygamous households receive more under Universal Credit than they do under the current rules for means-tested benefits and tax credits. This is because, as explained above, the amounts which may be paid in respect of additional spouses are lower than those which generally apply to single claimants." There is currently no official statistics data on cohabiting polygamous couples who have arranged marriage in religious ceremonies. ### United States Polygamy is illegal in all 50 states in the U.S. In the state of Utah it currently remains a controversial issue that has been subject to legislative battles throughout the years. As of 2020 Utah is the only state where the practice is a designated as an infraction rather than the more serious designation as a crime. However, recognizing polygamous unions is still illegal under the Constitution of Utah. Federal legislation to outlaw the practice was endorsed as constitutional in 1878 by the Supreme Court in *Reynolds v. United States,* despite the religious objections of Mormonism's largest denomination the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). The LDS Church subsequently ended the practice of polygamy around the turn of the twentieth century; however, several smaller fundamentalist Mormon groups across the state (not associated with the mainstream Church) continue the practice. On 13 December 2013, a federal judge, spurred by the American Civil Liberties Union and other groups, struck down the parts of Utah's bigamy law that criminalized cohabitation, while also acknowledging that the state may still enforce bans on having multiple marriage licenses. This decision was overturned by the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit, thus effectively recriminalizing polygamy as a felony. In 2020, Utah voted to downgrade polygamy from a felony to an infraction, but it remains a felony if force, threats or other abuses are involved. Prosecutors in Utah have long had a policy of not pursuing polygamy in the absence of other associated crimes (e.g. fraud, abuse, marriage of underage persons, etc.). There are about 30,000 people living in polygamous communities in Utah. Individualist feminism and advocates such as Wendy McElroy and journalist Jillian Keenan support the freedom for adults to voluntarily enter polygamous marriages. Authors such as Alyssa Rower and Samantha Slark argue that there is a case for legalizing polygamy on the basis of regulation and monitoring of the practice, legally protecting the polygamous partners and allowing them to join mainstream society instead of forcing them to hide from it when any public situation arises. In an October 2004 op-ed for *USA Today*, George Washington University law professor Jonathan Turley argued that, as a simple matter of equal treatment under the law, polygamy ought to be legal. Acknowledging that underage girls are sometimes coerced into polygamous marriages, Turley replied that "banning polygamy is no more a solution to child abuse than banning marriage would be a solution to spousal abuse". Stanley Kurtz, a conservative fellow at the Hudson Institute, rejects the decriminalization and legalization of polygamy. He stated: > Marriage, as its ultramodern critics would like to say, is indeed about choosing one's partner, and about freedom in a society that values freedom. But that's not the only thing it is about. As the Supreme Court justices who unanimously decided Reynolds in 1878 understood, marriage is also about sustaining the conditions in which freedom can thrive. Polygamy in all its forms is a recipe for social structures that inhibit and ultimately undermine social freedom and democracy. A hard-won lesson of Western history is that genuine democratic self-rule begins at the hearth of the monogamous family. > > In January 2015, Pastor Neil Patrick Carrick of Detroit, Michigan, brought a case (*Carrick v. Snyder*) against the State of Michigan that the state's ban of polygamy violates the Free Exercise and Equal Protection Clause of the U.S. Constitution. The case was dismissed with prejudice on 10 February 2016, for lack of standing. ### Indonesia Indonesia is the most populous Muslim country. Most of the polygamy families come from Muslim family, also come from aristocrats, registered civil servants, Islamic students (santri), and wholesalers. Constitutionally, Indonesia (basically) only recognize monogamy. But, government allows polygamy in some conditions: * The wife cannot carry out her obligations as a wife. * The wife has a physical disability or an incurable disease. * The wife cannot bear children. There are other requirements for registered civil servants. Post-war Germany plans ---------------------- In Nazi Germany, there was an effort by Martin Bormann and Heinrich Himmler to introduce new legislation concerning plural marriage. The argument ran that after the war, 3 to 4 million women would have to remain unmarried due to the great number of soldiers fallen in battle. In order to make it possible for these women to have children, a procedure for application and selection for suitable men (i.e. decorated war heroes) to enter a marital relationship with an additional woman was planned. The privileged position of the first wife was to be secured by awarding her the title *Domina*. > The greatest fighter deserves the most beautiful woman ... If the German man is to be unreservedly ready to die as a soldier, he must have the freedom to love unreservedly. For struggle and love belong together. The philistine should be glad if he gets whatever is left > > — Adolf Hitler See also -------- * Polygyny * Polyandry * Bigamy * Polyamory * Conflict of marriage laws * Legal status of polygamy * List of polygamy court cases * More danico * Ménage à trois * Polyday * Serial monogamy * Types of marriages * Unicorn hunting * List of people with the most children

Polygamy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygamy

**Junagadh** () is the city and headquarters of Junagadh district in the Indian state of Gujarat. Located at the foot of the Girnar hills, 355 kilometres (221 mi) southwest of Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar (the state capital), it is the seventh largest city in the state. Literally translated, Junagadh means "Old Fort". Junagadh was a small princely state of Kathiawad district of Gujrat.Its ruler was Muslim and its population were predominantly Hindus.Its neighboring states viz.,Baroda and Bhavnagar were also Hindu states.It had no direct territorial link with Pakistan.Inspired by relegious sympathy,the Muslim ruler of Junagadh accorded to Pakistan.But the people rose to protest against the action of the ruler.The situation became greive and the ruler of Junagadh fled to Pakistan. Goverment Of India was forced to take administration of Junagadh by sending its troops.In 1948 a refrendum was held and the people of Junagadh favoured accesion to India.The merger finally took place on 29th January 1949. Initially Junagadh was a part of Saurashtra state and later Bombay state. In 1960, in consequence of the Maha Gujarat movement, it became part of the newly formed Gujarat state. History ------- ### Early history As per the legend, the founder of the Ror Dynasty Raja Dhaj, Ror Kumar, alias Rai Dyach, ruled over the principality of Jhunagarh in the fifth century BC. An early structure, Uparkot Fort, is located on a plateau in the middle of town. It was originally built in 319 BCE during the Mauryan dynasty by Chandragupta. The fort remained in use until the 6th century, when it was abandoned for about 300 years, then rediscovered by the Chudasama ruler Graharipu in 976 CE. The fort was subsequently besieged 16 times over a 1000-year period. One unsuccessful siege lasted twelve years. Within 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) of Uparkot Fort is an inscription with fourteen Edicts of Ashoka on a large boulder. The inscriptions are in Brahmi script in a language similar to Pali and date from 250 BCE. On the same rock there is a later inscription in Sanskrit, which was added around 150 CE by Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I, the Saka (Scythian) ruler of Malwa, and a member of the Western Kshatrapas dynasty, and which has been described as "the earliest known Sanskrit inscription of any extent". Another inscription dates from about 450 CE and refers to Skandagupta, the last Gupta emperor. Old rock-cut Buddhist caves in this area, dating from well before 500 CE, have stone carvings and floral work. There are also the Khapra Kodia Caves north of the fort, and the Bava Pyara Caves south of the fort. The Bava Pyara caves contain artworks of both Buddhism and Jainism. The Maitraka dynasty ruled Gujarat from 475 to 767 CE. The founder of the dynasty, General Bhatarka, military governor of Saurashtra peninsula under the Gupta empire, established himself as the independent ruler of Gujarat around the last quarter of the 5th century. ### Chudasama dynasty The early history of the Chudasama dynasty – which ruled Saurashtra from Junagadh – is almost lost. The bardic legends differ very much in the names, order, and numbers of early rulers; so they are not considered reliable. According to tradition, the dynasty is said to have been founded in the late 9th century by Chudachandra. Subsequent rulers – such as Graharipu, Navaghana, and Khengara – were in conflict with the Chaulukya rulers Mularaja and Jayasimha Siddharaja; and Saurashtra was briefly governed by Chaulukya governors during this period. These events are recorded in contemporary and later Jain chronicles. In 1350, Junagadh was conquered by Muhammad bin Tughluq with the help and forces of Koli chieftain Jesaji (Jesing) from Ra Khengar. After the end of the rule of the Chaulukyas and their successors, the Vaghela dynasty, in Gujarat, the Chudasamas ruled independently, or as vassals of successor states, the Delhi Sultanate and the Gujarat Sultanate. Mandalika I was the first Chudasama ruler known from inscriptions; and during his reign, Gujarat was invaded by the Khalji dynasty of Delhi. The last king of the dynasty, Mandalika III, was defeated, and forcibly converted to Islam, in 1472 by Gujarat Sultan Mahmud Begada, who annexed the state. The Uparkot Fort of Junagadh was occupied by the Chudasamas during the reign of Graharipu. It is said to have been later rebuilt by Navaghana, who had transferred his capital from Vamanasthali to Junagadh. He is also credited with construction of the stepwells Navghan Kuvo and Adi Kadi Vav in the fort. His descendant Khengara is attributed with building a stepwell, Ra Khengar Vav, on the way to Vanthali from Junagadh. ### Gujarat sultanate Sultan Mahmud Begada changed the name of Junagadh to Mustafabad and built the fortifications around the town and the mosque in Uparkot Fort. Under the Gujarat Sultanate, Junagadh was governed by an official, styled *thanadar* (commander), appointed directly by Ahmedabad. This official collected the tribute and revenue of the crown domain. The first *thanadar* was Tatar Khan, an adopted son of the Sultan and after him Mirza Khalil, the eldest son of the Sultan who afterwards succeeded him under the title of Sultan Muzaffar. Prince Khalil during his tenure of office founded the village called Khalilpur. The Sultan also installed Bhupatsingh, the son of the last Chudasama king, Mandalika III, in Junagadh as a *jagirdar* (feudal lord). The *jagir* allotted to Bhupatsingh was the Sil Bagasra Chovisi; and his descendants were known as Raizada. They continued to rule there. Bhupatsingh was succeeded by his son Khengar. After the accession of Sultan Muzafar, and indeed during the latter part of Sultan Mahmud's reign, the seat of government was removed from Junagadh to Diu owing to the importance of that island as a naval station and to check the ravages of the Portuguese. Tatarkhan Ghori was left at Junagadh by Malik Eiaz who himself resided at Diu. After the disgrace and death of Malik Eiaz, Tatarkhan Ghori became independent at Junagadh; and after the death of Sultan Bahadur, the Ghori family reigned independently at Junagadh, though still owing a nominal allegiance to the successive Sultans at Ahmadabad. This state of affairs continued until the first conquest of Gujarat by the Mughal emperor Akbar, when Aminkhan Ghori had succeeded his father Tatarkhan at Junagadh. When the Portuguese took over the ports of Diu and Daman in the 16th century, a fifteen-foot cannon, made in Egypt in 1531, was abandoned by a Turkish admiral opposing the Portuguese forces at Diu, which is now at Uparkot Fort. ### Under the Mughal Empire Ghori rule In 1525, Khengar was succeeded by his son Noghan. Tatarkhan Ghori had now become almost independent. In his time Jam Raval conquered Halar and built Navanagar. In 1551, Noghan was succeeded by his son Shrisingh, who lived till 1586. During this time, Tatarkhan Ghori died and was succeeded by his son Aminkhan Ghori. In his time, Akbar conquered Gujarat, although Sorath yet remained independent under the Ghori rule. The exact date of Tatarkhan Ghori's death is not known; but from the mention of Aminkhan as his successor, it must have been from about 1570 to 1575. On the return of Emperor Akbar to Agra in 1573, after the defeat and death of Muhammad Husain Mirzah and Ikhtiyar ul Mulk, he gave orders that Sorath should be conquered from Aminkhan Ghori. Vazir Khan attempted it but was unequal to the task. Great confusion existed now in Sorath. The Moghal conquest of Gujarat, the collapse of the power of the Gujarat Sultans, the encroachments of the Jam, and the assumption of independence by the Ghori all augmented the confusion afterwards increased by the escape of Sultan Muzaffar in 1583 and subsequent partisan warfare. During these disturbances Amin Khan Ghori and his son Daulat Khan Ghori espoused the cause of Muzafar, as did the Jam and Loma Khuman of Kherdi. The exact date of Amin Khan Ghori's death is not known but it was about 1589–90. Raizada Khengar also warmly espoused Mnzafar's side. After the siege and capture of Junagadh in 1591–92 by Naurang Khan, Syad Kasim, and Gnjar Khan; Khengar was dismissed to his estate of Sil Bagasra, and the Raizada ceased to rule at Junagadh. Daulat Khan Ghori died of his wounds during the siege, and henceforth Junagadh became the seat of the imperial *faujdar*s (garrison commanders) of Sorath in subordination to the imperial viceroy at Ahmedabad. Imperial rule The first *faujdar* of Junagad was Naurang Khan and, next, Syad Kasim. The most famous were (1) Mirzah Isa Tarkhan (2) Kutb ud din Kheshgi, and (3) Sardarkhan. Of these Mirzah Isa Tarkhan ruled Sorath from about 1633–34 to 1642, when he was appointed viceroy of Gujarat. On this occasion he left his son Inayat Ullah as *faujdar* at Junagadh while he himself conducted the government of Gujarat from its capital, Ahmedabad. In Mirzah Isa Tarkhan's time the fortifications of Junagadh were entirely repaired. Kutb ud din was another *faujdar*, and his tenure of office lasted from about 1653 to 1666. In about 1664, he conquered Navanagar and annexed it to the imperial domain. Sardarkhan also distinguished himself while *faujdar* of Sorath, both by the firmness of his rule and by his construction (1681, AH 1092) of the *Sardar Baug* (palace) and excavation of the *Sardar Talav* (main gate). He built a mausoleum for himself in the Sardar Baug, but he died at Thatta, in Sindh, and is said to have been buried there and not at Junagadh. He was *faujdar* from about 1666 to 1686, but in 1670 he went for a short time to Idar and was replaced by Syad Dilerkhan. The last of the *faujdar* s was Sherkhan Babi, who became independent and assumed the title of Nawab Bahadur Khan. ### Junagadh state In 1730, Mohammad Sher Khan Babi, who owed allegiance to the Mughal governor of Gujarat Subah, founded the state of Junagadh by declaring independence after the invasion by the Maratha Gaekwad dynasty. Babi founded the Babi Dynasty of Junagadh State. His descendants, the Babi Nawabs of Junagadh—who were Babi or Babai pashtuns from Afghanistan—conquered large territories in southern Saurashtra and ruled for the next two centuries, first as tributaries of Marathas, and later under the suzerainty of the British, who granted the honor of a 13-gun salute. * 1730–1758 – Mohammad Bahadur Khanji or Mohammad Sher khan Babi * 1758–1774 – Mohammad Mahabat Khanji I * 1774–1811 – Mohammad Hamid Khanji I * 1811–1840 – Mohammad Bahadur Khanji II * 1840–1851 – Mohammad Hamid Khanji II * 1851–1882 – Mohammad Mahabat Khanji II * 1882–1892 – Mohammad Bahadur Khanji III * 1892–1911 – Mohammad Rasul Khanji * 1911–1948 – Mohammad Mahabat Khanji III #### British period In 1807, Junagadh State became a British protectorate. The East India Company took control of the state by 1818, but the Saurashtra area was never directly administered by the British, who instead divided the territory into more than one hundred princely states, which remained in existence until 1947. The present old-town, developed during the 19th and 20th centuries, constituted one of those princely states. The Shri Swaminarayan Mandir temple in Junagadh was constructed on land presented by Jinabhai (Hemantsingh) Darbar of Panchala, and dedicated on 1 May 1828. Swaminarayan appointed Gunatitanand Swami as the first mahant (religious and administrative head of a temple), who served in this role and preached there for over 40 years. #### Annexation by India During the period just before the independence and partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, the 562 princely states that had existed outside British India, but under British suzerainty, were given the choice of acceding to either India or Pakistan, or to remaining apart. Although the states were theoretically free to choose, Earl Mountbatten stated that "geographic compulsions" meant that most of them would choose India. Mountbatten took the position that only states that shared a common border with Pakistan should choose to accede to it, but he had no power to impose this point of view on the states. On 15 September 1947, Nawab Mohammad Mahabat Khanji III of Junagadh – which, although located at the south-western end of Gujarat, had no common border with Pakistan – chose to accede to Pakistan, ignoring Mountbatten's views and arguing that Junagadh could access Pakistan by sea. The rulers of two states that were subject to the suzerainty of Junagadh — Mangrol and Babariawad — reacted by declaring their independence from Junagadh and acceding to India. In response, the nawab's forces militarily occupied the two states. Rulers of other neighbouring states reacted angrily, sent troops to the Junagadh frontier, and appealed to the government of India for assistance. A group of Junagadhis, led by Samaldas Gandhi, formed a government-in-exile, the *Aarzi Hukumat* ("temporary government"). India asserted that Junagadh was not contiguous to Pakistan and, believing that if Junagadh was permitted to accede to Pakistan communal tension already simmering in Gujarat would worsen, refused to accept the nawab's accession to Pakistan. The Indian government pointed out that the state was 96% Hindu, and called for a plebiscite to decide the question of accession. India cut off supplies of fuel and coal to Junagadh, severed air and postal links, sent troops to the frontier, and occupied the principalities of Mangrol and Babariawad, which had acceded to India. Pakistan agreed to discuss a plebiscite, subject to the withdrawal of Indian troops, a condition India rejected. On 26 October, the nawab and his family fled to Pakistan following clashes between Junagadhi and Indian troops. On 7 November, Junagadh's court, facing collapse, invited the government of India to take over the state's administration. The Dewan of Junagadh, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, the father of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, decided to invite the Government of India to intervene and wrote a letter to Mr. Buch, the regional commissioner of Saurashtra in the government of India to this effect. The government of India rejected the protests of Pakistan and accepted the invitation of the dewan to intervene. A plebiscite was conducted in February 1948, but it was not internationally monitored. Pakistan claims were not based on the plebiscite but on the logic of the Kashmir annexation, which went almost unanimously in favour of accession to India. Junagadh became a part of the Indian state of Saurashtra until 1 November 1956, when Saurashtra became part of Bombay state. In 1960, Bombay state was split into the linguistic states of Maharashtra and Gujarat, in which Junagadh was located. Pakistan's government has maintained its territorial claim on Junagadh, along with Manavadar and Sir Creek in Gujarat, on its official political map. ### Timelines #### Ruling dynasties | Various Rulers | Time Period | | --- | --- | | Maurya Dynasty ruled over Junagadh | in 319 BC | | Kalinga Dynasty ruled over Junagadh | in 185 BC | | Greeks ruled over Junagadh | in 73–70 BC | | Shaka (Scythians) ruled over Junagadh | 100–275 AD | | Kshatrapa ruled over Junagadh | 276–455 AD | | Gupta ruled over Junagadh | 456–770 AD | | The Chinese Traveller Hu-en-Tsang visited Junagadh | 640 AD | | Chudasama ruled over Junagadh | 875–1472 AD | | Turkic Rulers Mohammed Begada, Khalil Khan | 1472–1572 AD | | Mughals ruled over Junagadh | 1573–1730 AD | | Nawabs of Junagadh Khanji (Babi Pathan) ruled over | 1730–1949 | #### Accession to India * 15 Aug 1947 Accedes to Pakistan. * 15 Sep 1947 Accession to Pakistan accepted. * 9 Nov 1947 Occupied by India. * 10 Nov 1947 Rescinds accession to Pakistan, accedes to India. * 24 Feb 1948 Referendum approves accession to India. * 25 Feb 1948 Accession to India in effect. Geography --------- Junagadh city is located at 21°31′N 70°28′E / 21.52°N 70.47°E / 21.52; 70.47 at the foot of Mount Girnar, with the Arabian sea to the southwest, Porbandar to the north, and Amreli to the east. It has an average elevation of 107 metres (351 ft). Junagadh city has two rivers, the Sonrakh and the Kalwo, which is polluted from city sewers. The city has several lakes: Narsinh Mehta Sarovar, Damodarji, Sudarshan Lake, etc. Willingdon Dam, Hasnapur Dam, and Anandpur Weir are the main water sources for the city. Groundwater supply is widely available in the city, with wells throughout. Junagadh's soil is similar to that of the rest of Junagadh district. It is deep- to medium-black coastal alluvium, due to its proximity to the sea, long shoreline, and nearby mountain ridge. Because of many fault lines in the vicinity, Junagadh is in a seismically active zone. Junagadh lies in a Seismic Zone III region, which means earthquakes up to magnitude 6.5 on the Richter-scale may be expected. ### Climate Junagadh has a tropical wet and dry climate (Aw) bordering on a hot semi-arid climate (BSh), with two distinct seasons: a dry season from October to May, and a wet season from June to September. The close proximity of the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Cambay affect the climate. In the summer months, temperatures range from 28 to 38 °C (82 to 100 °F). In the winter, they range from 10 to 25 °C (50 to 77 °F). From June to September the city is drained by the southwest monsoon. Rainfall averages 800 to 1,200 millimetres (31 to 47 in) annually. The greatest rainfall in a calendar year—2,800 millimetres (110 in)—was recorded in 1983. | Climate data for Junagadh | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 27.2(81.0) | 28.3(82.9) | 31.4(88.5) | 32.7(90.9) | 33.4(92.1) | 32.9(91.2) | 30(86) | 29.3(84.7) | 30.1(86.2) | 32.5(90.5) | 31.6(88.9) | 28.7(83.7) | 30.7(87.2) | | Average low °C (°F) | 13.1(55.6) | 14.7(58.5) | 18.1(64.6) | 21.6(70.9) | 25.2(77.4) | 26.5(79.7) | 25.7(78.3) | 24.7(76.5) | 23.9(75.0) | 21.9(71.4) | 18.3(64.9) | 14.9(58.8) | 20.7(69.3) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 2(0.1) | 1(0.0) | 3(0.1) | 118(4.6) | 372(14.6) | 191(7.5) | 116(4.6) | 19(0.7) | 5(0.2) | 1(0.0) | 828(32.4) | | Source: Climate-Data.org | Demographics ------------ As of the[update] 2011 census, Junagadh municipality had a population of 319,462. The municipality had a sex ratio of 955 females per 1,000 males and 9% of the population were under six years old. The effective literacy rate was 88%; male literacy was 92.46% and female literacy was 83.38%. Junagadh has relatively low to medium housing and land costs in comparison to cities like Rajkot. The city is rapidly expanding, and available land inside the city limits is now limited. Total area under slums is 19.5 square kilometres (7.5 sq mi) (14.5% of the total municipal area) and the total slum population accounts for around 25% of the total population. | Religions in Junagadh | | --- | | Religion | | Percent | | Hinduism |   | 82.31% | | Islam |   | 16.46% | | Jainism |   | 0.67% | | Others |   | 0.56% | | Others include Christianity, Sikhism, Zoroastianism and Buddhism | The religions represented in Junagadh includes Hindus, Muslims, Jains, Christians, and Buddhists. Among these Hindus are the majority and Muslims are the largest minority group. Jains and Christians are present in considerable numbers. Sikhs and Parsis are very few in number. There are Tibetan migrants who practice Buddhism. The main language group is Gujarati. Others are Hindi and Sindhi. A small community of African origin, known as "Siddis", resides in and around the Gir Sanctuary, but some of them have moved to the city. There are around 8816 Siddi in the state and 65% of them reside in Junagadh. Swaminarayan Hinduism is also widely followed in the city. There are two Swaminarayan temples in the city: the old temple is managed by the Vadtal diocese and the new temple is managed by Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha. Administration -------------- The city is divided into the main city, which is centered on Mahatma Gandhi (M.G.) Road and Kalwa Chowk; Gandhigram; Zanzarda Road; Talaw Darwaza; the bus stand; Sakkar Baug; Timbawadi; Joshipara; and Girnar Taleti. The city is administered by the Junagadh Municipal Corporation. The politics of Junagadh city has always been closely contested between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Bharatiya Janta Party (BJP). Other national parties are the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), the Communist Party of India, and the Nationalist Congress Party. Regional parties active in Junagadh are the Mahagujarat Janta Party, the Samata Party, and the Republic Party of India. Junagadh has 194,196 registered voters, of which 100,050 are male and 94,146 female. Junagadh has one state-assembly constituency. The BJP won this seat in the 2007 election, with 52.36% of the 118,888 votes cast, with the next largest vote being 26.32% for the INC candidate. Election for the state assembly is held every 5 years. The Junagadh Municipal Corporation has 17 wards and total of 51 seats. In the 2009 municipal elections the INC won 26 seats, BJP 21 seats, BSP 3 seats and 1 went to an independent. While the majority of the seats went to the INC, the BJP candidates received more votes: 134,739, or 45.62% of the total, the INC receiving 120,533, 40.81%. The Mayor, Deputy Mayor has terms of 2 and a half years. Utilities --------- Junagadh's population of 320,250 requires 30 million litres (6,600,000 imp gal; 7,900,000 US gal) of water per day, which is supplied through 25,000 tap connections to three major surface water sources, namely Aanandpur Weir, Hasanapur Dam, and Wellingdon Dam, as well as to 32 wells. Junagadh has more than 1000 hand pumps and 200 stand posts situated throughout the city drawing from groundwater sources. In January 2004, Junagadh city increased its area from 13.47 square kilometres (5.20 sq mi) to 57 square kilometres (22 sq mi) by annexing eight grampanchayats and one municipality. The newly acquired area has its own groundwater supply system of bore wells. The city generates approximately 150 tonnes (150 long tons; 170 short tons) of solid waste daily, which is within the recommended limit, of 400 grams (14 oz) per capita, per day, for domestic waste. The waste is collected by deploying 400 wheel barrows (six containers) as per supreme court guidelines and Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) rule 2000. The municipal council has set up 800 community bins for solid waste collection. It covers 90% of city area. Junagadh's drainage system is 62 kilometres (39 mi) long but it serves only 67% of the total area and 60% of the population. The Paschim Gujarat Vij Company Ltd. (P.G.V.C.L.), a state-run electricity company, provides electric power. Telecom service is provided mainly by Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (B.S.N.L.); other service providers include Reliance and Tata. Cell-phone coverage is extensive and the main service providers are Vodafone, B.S.N.L., Airtel, Idea, and Tata Docomo. B.S.N.L. also provides broadband service. The city has a good network of street lights. There is a total of 12,545 tube lights and 1523 central sodium street lights. A Solar power project has been approved for Narsinh Mehta Sarovar. Transport --------- Junagadh is connected to Rajkot, Ahmedabad, and Veraval by National Highway 8D (NH8D). The city is connected to Mount Girnar by road, as well as to Bilkha and the Sasan Gir Lion Sanctuary in the south. Junagadh City Bypass on NH8D obviates the need for through-traffic to enter the city. Ferguson Bridge connects the parts of the city on either side of the Kalwo River. Another bridge spans the Sonrakh River in the northern outskirts of the city. Rickshaws are the generally preferred mode of transportation. The Girnar ropeway is a aerial tramway located in Bhavnath locality of Junagadh city. Economy ------- Due to its mountainous geography and forest reserves, Junagadh lacks major industries or plants. The main economic sectors are the mineral-based cement industry, agriculture-based industries, and the power sector. The presence of large reserves of limestone makes the cement industry a thriving industrial sector. Major crops produced in the district are wheat, oil seeds, cotton, mangoes, bananas, onions, and brinjal (eggplant). The total production of oilseeds in Junagadh in 2006–07 was 464,400 metric tons, which was the highest in the state. Junagadh is the largest producer of groundnut and garlic in the state, contributing 26% and 34%, respectively, of total production. Junagadh has Asia's largest ground-nut research laboratory. Mangoes and onions are grown in large quantities in the district. Some of the large-scale industry present in Junagadh are Mother Dairy Fruit & Vegetable Pvt Ltd (popularly known as Junagadh Dairy in the region), Agro Marine Exports, Creative Castings Ltd., and Austin Engineering. With an investment of INR 4,000 crore (US$975.6million), JSW Power Co. had proposed to set up a coal-based power plant at Simar Village, in Junagadh, but due to difficulties in establishing a port there, it has been shifted to the port of Dahej. Under the new government policy of encouraging biotechnology, Junagadh has been identified as an agriculture biotechnology zone. This will boost the establishment of agro-biotech industries in the district. Junagadh boasts of some of the best tourist destinations in the state, so tourism is considered to be a progressing sector. The state government has sanctioned the development of a Circuit Tourism project at Junagadh. Education --------- Junagadh is an education hub where people from nearby towns and villages come to study. Schools in Junagadh are either municipal schools run by the municipal council or private schools run by trusts or individuals, which in some cases receive financial aid from the government. The schools are affiliated either with the Gujarat Secondary and Higher Secondary Education Board, the Central Board of Secondary Education, or the International General Certificate of Secondary Education. English and Gujarati are the predominant languages of instruction. The city is home to Junagadh Agricultural University. Culture ------- Established in 1863, Junagadh's Sakkarbaug Zoological Garden, also known as the Sakkarbaug Zoo, is around 210 acre (84 hectares) in size. The zoo provides purebred Asiatic lions for the Indian and international critically endangered species captive breeding programs. Currently, it is the only zoo in the country to house African cheetahs. The zoo also has museum of natural history. Junagadh's many ruling dynasties—such as Babi Nawabs, Vilabhis, Kshatraps, Mauryas, Chudasamas, Gujarat Sultans—and its religious groups have influenced the architectural syles of Junagadh. The Junagadh Buddhist Cave Groups, with their intricately carved gateways, Chaitya halls, sculptured pillars, and sanctums are classic examples of rock-cut architecture. The Chudama Rajputs left specimens of their architectural style in Nabghan Kuvo and Adi Kadi Vav. Religious monuments such as the Jami Masjid remind us of Muslim architectural patterns. The Ashokan edicts is a classic example of old rock engraving styles. The Maqbaras and numerous age-old palaces in Junagadh tell the story of its rich historical and architectural past. About 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) east of Junagadh and 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) west of the foot of Girnar Hill is an edict of Emperor Ashoka, inscribed on an uneven rock and dating from the 3rd century BC. The Ashokan edicts impart moral instructions on dharma, harmony, tolerance, and peace. The rock has a circumference of seven metres (23 ft), a height of ten metres (33 ft), and bears inscriptions in Brāhmī script etched with an iron pen. The people of Junagadh celebrate both Western and Indian festivals. Diwali, Maha Shivaratri, Holi, Janmastami, Muharram, Navratri, Christmas, Good Friday, Dussera, Muharram, and Ganesh Chaturthi are some of the popular festivals in the city. The Shivaratri Mela is organized at the foot of Mount Girnar (Talati) in the month of Maha (9th day of the month of Maagha). The mela lasts for the next five days. About 500,000 people visit Junagadh on this occasion. The Girnar Parikrama is also organized annually. It starts in the month of Kartik and draws 1 to 1.5 million people. People walk the periphery of the Girnar Hills on foot (about 32 kilometres (20 mi)). Muharram is celebrated by Muslims. The *sej*, which belonged to the peers or gurus of the nawabs, has been taken out; and a fair has been organized. Apart from these religious and national festivals, Junagadh annually celebrates its accession to India on 9 November 1947 as the independence day of the city. 1 May is Gujarat day, to celebrate the formation of Gujarat state on 1 May 1960. Notable ------- * Bapu Velnath Thakor, Koli saint of the 17th century from Junagadh. See also -------- * Muhammad Junagarhi * Girnar * Gir Forest National Park * Damodar Kund * Radha Damodar Temple, Junagadh * Baradiya

Junagadh

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junagadh

A **tunicate** is a marine invertebrate animal, a member of the subphylum **Tunicata** (/ˌtjuːnɪˈkeɪtə/ *TEW-nih-KAY-tə*). It is part of the Chordata, a phylum which includes all animals with dorsal nerve cords and notochords (including vertebrates). The subphylum was at one time called **Urochordata**, and the term **urochordates** is still sometimes used for these animals. They are the only chordates that have lost their myomeric segmentation, with the possible exception of the 'seriation of the gill slits'. However, doliolids still display segmentation of the muscle bands. Some tunicates live as solitary individuals, but others replicate by budding and become colonies, each unit being known as a zooid. They are marine filter feeders with a water-filled, sac-like body structure and two tubular openings, known as siphons, through which they draw in and expel water. During their respiration and feeding, they take in water through the incurrent (or inhalant) siphon and expel the filtered water through the excurrent (or exhalant) siphon. Adult ascidian tunicates are sessile, immobile and permanently attached to rocks or other hard surfaces on the ocean floor. Thaliaceans (pyrosomes, doliolids, and salps) and larvaceans on the other hand, swim in the pelagic zone of the sea as adults. Various species of the subphylum tunicata are commonly known as ascidians, sea squirts, tunicates, sea pork, sea livers, or sea tulips. The earliest probable species of tunicate appears in the fossil record in the early Cambrian period. Despite their simple appearance and very different adult form, their close relationship to the vertebrates is evidenced by the fact that during their mobile larval stage, they possess a notochord or stiffening rod and resemble a tadpole. Their name derives from their unique outer covering or "tunic", which is formed from proteins and carbohydrates, and acts as an exoskeleton. In some species, it is thin, translucent, and gelatinous, while in others it is thick, tough, and stiff. Taxonomy -------- About 3,000 species of tunicate exist in the world's oceans, living mostly in shallow water. The most numerous group is the ascidians; fewer than 100 species of these are found at depths greater than 200 m (660 ft). Some are solitary animals leading a sessile existence attached to the seabed, but others are colonial and a few are pelagic. Some are supported by a stalk, but most are attached directly to a substrate, which may be a rock, shell, coral, seaweed, mangrove root, dock, piling, or ship's hull. They are found in a range of solid or translucent colours and may resemble seeds, grapes, peaches, barrels, or bottles. One of the largest is a stalked sea tulip, *Pyura pachydermatina*, which can grow to be over 1 metre (3.3 ft) tall. The Tunicata were established by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in 1816. In 1881, Francis Maitland Balfour introduced another name for the same group, "Urochorda", to emphasize the affinity of the group to other chordates. No doubt largely because of his influence, various authors supported the term, either as such, or as the slightly older "Urochordata", but this usage is invalid because "Tunicata" has precedence, and grounds for superseding the name never existed. Accordingly, the current (formally correct) trend is to abandon the name Urochorda or Urochordata in favour of the original Tunicata, and the name Tunicata is almost invariably used in modern scientific works. It is accepted as valid by the World Register of Marine Species but not by the Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Various common names are used for different species. Sea tulips are tunicates with colourful bodies supported on slender stalks. Sea squirts are so named because of their habit of contracting their bodies sharply and squirting out water when disturbed. Sea liver and sea pork get their names from the resemblance of their dead colonies to pieces of meat. ### Classification Tunicates are more closely related to craniates (including hagfish, lampreys, and jawed vertebrates) than to lancelets, echinoderms, hemichordates, *Xenoturbella* or other invertebrates. The clade consisting of tunicates and vertebrates is called Olfactores. The Tunicata contain roughly 3,051 described species, traditionally divided into these classes: * Ascidiacea (Aplousobranchia, Phlebobranchia, and Stolidobranchia) * Thaliacea (Pyrosomida, Doliolida, and Salpida) * Appendicularia (Copelata) Members of the Sorberacea were included in Ascidiacea in 2011 as a result of rDNA sequencing studies. Although the traditional classification is provisionally accepted, newer evidence suggests the Ascidiacea are an artificial group of paraphyletic status. A close reationship between Thaliacea and Ascidiacea, with the former possibly emerging from the latter, had already been proposed since the early 20th century under the name of Acopa. The following cladogram is based on the 2018 phylogenomic study of Delsuc and colleagues. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Tunicata** | | | | | --- | --- | | | Appendicularia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Thaliacea | | | | | --- | --- | | | Doliolida | | | | | Salpida | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Phlebobranchia | | | | | Aplousobranchia  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Stolidobranchia | | | | | --- | --- | | | Molgulidae | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Styelidae  | | | | | Pyuridae | | | | | | | | | | Ascidiacea | | | | | | | | | ### Fossil record Undisputed fossils of tunicates are rare. The best known and earliest unequivocally identified species is *Shankouclava shankouense* from the Lower Cambrian Maotianshan Shale at Shankou village, Anning, near Kunming (South China). There is also a common bioimmuration, (*Catellocaula vallata*), of a possible tunicate found in Upper Ordovician bryozoan skeletons of the upper midwestern United States. Three enigmatic species were also found from the Ediacaran period – *Ausia fenestrata* from the Nama Group of Namibia, the sac-like *Yarnemia ascidiformis*, and one from a second new *Ausia*-like genus from the Onega Peninsula of northern Russia, *Burykhia hunti*. Results of a new study have shown possible affinity of these Ediacaran organisms to the ascidians. *Ausia* and *Burykhia* lived in shallow coastal waters slightly more than 555 to 548 million years ago, and are believed to be the oldest evidence of the chordate lineage of metazoans. The Russian Precambrian fossil *Yarnemia* is identified as a tunicate only tentatively, because its fossils are nowhere near as well-preserved as those of *Ausia* and *Burykhia*, so this identification has been questioned. Fossils of tunicates are rare because their bodies decay soon after death, but in some tunicate families, microscopic spicules are present, which may be preserved as microfossils. These spicules have occasionally been found in Jurassic and later rocks, but, as few palaeontologists are familiar with them, they may have been mistaken for sponge spicules. ### Hybridization studies A multi-taxon molecular study in 2010 proposed that sea squirts are descended from a hybrid between a chordate and a protostome ancestor (before the divergence of panarthropods and nematodes). This study was based on a quartet partitioning approach designed to reveal horizontal gene transfer events among metazoan phyla. Anatomy ------- ### Body form Colonies of tunicates occur in a range of forms, and vary in the degree to which individual organisms, known as zooids, integrate with one another. In the simplest systems, the individual animals are widely separated, but linked together by horizontal connections called stolons, which grow along the seabed. Other species have the zooids growing closer together in a tuft or clustered together and sharing a common base. The most advanced colonies involve the integration of the zooids into a common structure surrounded by the tunic. These may have separate buccal siphons and a single central atrial siphon and may be organized into larger systems, with hundreds of star-shaped units. Often, the zooids in a colony are tiny but very numerous, and the colonies can form large encrusting or mat-like patches. ### Body structure By far the largest class of tunicates is the Ascidiacea. The body of an ascidiacean is surrounded by a test or tunic, from which the subphylum derives its name. This varies in thickness between species but may be tough, resembling cartilage, thin and delicate, or transparent and gelatinous. The tunic is composed of proteins and complex carbohydrates, and includes tunicin, a variety of cellulose. The tunic is unique among invertebrate exoskeletons in that it can grow as the animal enlarges and does not need to be periodically shed. Inside the tunic is the body wall or mantle composed of connective tissue, muscle fibres, blood vessels, and nerves. Two openings are found in the body wall: the buccal siphon at the top through which water flows into the interior, and the atrial siphon on the ventral side through which it is expelled. A large pharynx occupies most of the interior of the body. It is a muscular tube linking the buccal opening with the rest of the gut. It has a ciliated groove known as an endostyle on its ventral surface, and this secretes a mucous net which collects food particles and is wound up on the dorsal side of the pharynx. The gullet, at the lower end of the pharynx, links it to a loop of gut which terminates near the atrial siphon. The walls of the pharynx are perforated by several bands of slits, known as stigmata, through which water escapes into the surrounding water-filled cavity, the atrium. This is criss-crossed by various rope-like mesenteries which extend from the mantle and provide support for the pharynx, preventing it from collapsing, and also hold up the other organs. The Thaliacea, the other main class of tunicates, is characterised by free-swimming, pelagic individuals. They are all filter feeders using a pharyngeal mucous net to catch their prey. The pyrosomes are bioluminous colonial tunicates with a hollow cylindrical structure. The buccal siphons are on the outside and the atrial siphons inside. About 10 species are known, and all are found in the tropics. The 23 species of doliolids are small, mostly under 2 cm (0.79 in) long. They are solitary, have the two siphons at opposite ends of their barrel-shaped bodies, and swim by jet propulsion. The 40 species of salps are also small, under 4 cm (1.6 in) long, and found in the surface waters of both warm and cold seas. They also move by jet propulsion, and often form long chains by budding off new individuals. A third class, the Larvacea (or Appendicularia), is the only group of tunicates to retain their chordate characteristics in the adult state, a product of extensive neoteny. The 70 species of larvaceans superficially resemble the tadpole larvae of amphibians, although the tail is at right angles to the body. The notochord is retained, and the animals, mostly under 1 cm long, are propelled by undulations of the tail. They secrete an external mucous net known as a house, which may completely surround them and is very efficient at trapping planktonic particles. ### Physiology and internal anatomy Like all other chordates, tunicates have a notochord during their early development, but it is lost by the time they have completed their metamorphosis. As members of the Chordata, they are true Coelomata with endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm, but they do not develop very clear coelomic body cavities, if any at all. Whether they do or not, by the end of their larval development, all that remain are the pericardial, renal, and gonadal cavities of the adults. Except for the heart, gonads, and pharynx (or branchial sac), the organs are enclosed in a membrane called an epicardium, which is surrounded by the jelly-like mesenchyme. Ascidian tunicates begin life as a lecithotrophic (non-feeding) mobile larva that resembles a tadpole, with the exception of some members of the families Styelidae and Molgulidae which has direct development. The latter also have several species with tail-less larval forms. The ascidian larvae very rapidly settle down and attach themselves to a suitable surface, later developing into a barrel-like and usually sedentary adult form. The species in the class Appendicularia are pelagic, and the general larval form is kept throughout life. Also the class Thaliacea is pelagic throughout their lives and may have complex lifecycles. In this class a free living larval stage is absent: Doliolids and pyrosomatids are viviparous–lecithotrophic, and salpids are viviparous–matrotrophic. Only some species of doliolids still have a rudimentary tailed tadpole stage, which is never free-living and lacks a brain. Tunicates have a well-developed heart and circulatory system. The heart is a double U-shaped tube situated just below the gut. The blood vessels are simple connective tissue tubes, and their blood has several types of corpuscle. The blood may appear pale green, but this is not due to any respiratory pigments, and oxygen is transported dissolved in the plasma. Exact details of the circulatory system are unclear, but the gut, pharynx, gills, gonads, and nervous system seem to be arranged in series rather than in parallel, as happens in most other animals. Every few minutes, the heart stops beating and then restarts, pumping fluid in the reverse direction. Tunicate blood has some unusual features. In some species of Ascidiidae and Perophoridae, it contains high concentrations of the transitional metal vanadium and vanadium-associated proteins in vacuoles in blood cells known as vanadocytes. Some tunicates can concentrate vanadium up to a level ten million times that of the surrounding seawater. It is stored in a +3 oxidation form that requires a pH of less than 2 for stability, and this is achieved by the vacuoles also containing sulfuric acid. The vanadocytes are later deposited just below the outer surface of the tunic, where their presence is thought to deter predation, although it is unclear whether this is due to the presence of the metal or low pH. Other species of tunicates concentrate lithium, iron, niobium, and tantalum, which may serve a similar function. Other tunicate species produce distasteful organic compounds as chemical defenses against predators. Tunicates lack the kidney-like metanephridial organs typical of deuterostomes. Most have no excretory structures, but rely on the diffusion of ammonia across their tissues to rid themselves of nitrogenous waste, though some have a simple excretory system. The typical renal organ is a mass of large clear-walled vesicles that occupy the rectal loop, and the structure has no duct. Each vesicle is a remnant of a part of the primitive coelom, and its cells extract nitrogenous waste matter from circulating blood. They accumulate the wastes inside the vesicles as urate crystals, and do not have any obvious means of disposing of the material during their lifetimes. Adult tunicates have a hollow cerebral ganglion, equivalent to a brain, and a hollow structure known as a neural gland. Both originate from the embryonic neural tube and are located between the two siphons. Nerves arise from the two ends of the ganglion; those from the anterior end innervate the buccal siphon and those from the posterior end supply the rest of the body, the atrial siphon, organs, gut and the musculature of the body wall. There are no sense organs but there are sensory cells on the siphons, the buccal tentacles and in the atrium. Tunicates are unusual among animals in that they produce a large fraction of their tunic and some other structures in the form of cellulose. The production in animals of cellulose is so unusual that at first some researchers denied its presence outside of plants, but the tunicates were later found to possess a functional cellulose synthesizing enzyme, encoded by a gene horizontally transferred from a bacterium. When, in 1845, Carl Schmidt first announced the presence in the test of some ascidians of a substance very similar to cellulose, he called it "tunicine", but it is now recognized as cellulose rather than any alternative substance. * Oikopleura cophocerca in its "house". Arrows indicate water movement and (x) the lateral reticulated parts of the house.*Oikopleura cophocerca* in its "house". Arrows indicate water movement and (x) the lateral reticulated parts of the house. * Blue sea squirts from the genus Rhopalaea.Blue sea squirts from the genus *Rhopalaea*. * Fluorescent-colored sea squirts, Rhopalaea crassa. Fluorescent-colored sea squirts, *Rhopalaea crassa*. * Didemnum molle. *Didemnum molle*. Feeding ------- Nearly all adult tunicates are suspension feeders (the larval form usually does not feed), capturing planktonic particles by filtering sea water through their bodies. Ascidians are typical in their digestive processes, but other tunicates have similar systems. Water is drawn into the body through the buccal siphon by the action of cilia lining the gill slits. To obtain enough food, an average ascidian needs to process one body-volume of water per second. This is drawn through a net lining the pharynx which is being continuously secreted by the endostyle. The net is made of sticky mucus threads with holes about 0.5 µm in diameter which can trap planktonic particles including bacteria. The net is rolled up on the dorsal side of the pharynx, and it and the trapped particles are drawn into the esophagus. The gut is U-shaped and also ciliated to move the contents along. The stomach is an enlarged region at the lowest part of the U-bend. Here, digestive enzymes are secreted and a pyloric gland adds further secretions. After digestion, the food is moved on through the intestine, where absorption takes place, and the rectum, where undigested remains are formed into faecal pellets or strings. The anus opens into the dorsal or cloacal part of the peribranchial cavity near the atrial siphon. Here, the faeces are caught up by the constant stream of water which carries the waste to the exterior. The animal orientates itself to the current in such a way that the buccal siphon is always upstream and does not draw in contaminated water. Some ascidians that live on soft sediments are detritivores. A few deepwater species, such as *Megalodicopia hians*, are sit-and-wait predators, trapping tiny crustacea, nematodes, and other small invertebrates with the muscular lobes which surround their buccal siphons. Certain tropical species in the family Didemnidae have symbiotic green algae or cyanobacteria in their tunics, and one of these symbionts, *Prochloron*, is unique to tunicates. Excess photosynthetic products are assumed to be available to the host. Life cycle ---------- Ascidians are almost all hermaphrodites and each has a single ovary and testis, either near the gut or on the body wall. In some solitary species, sperm and eggs are shed into the sea and the larvae are planktonic. In others, especially colonial species, sperm is released into the water and drawn into the atria of other individuals with the incoming water current. Fertilization takes place here and the eggs are brooded through their early developmental stages. Some larval forms appear very much like primitive chordates with a notochord (stiffening rod) and superficially resemble small tadpoles. These swim by undulations of the tail and may have a simple eye, an ocellus, and a balancing organ, a statocyst. When sufficiently developed, the larva of the sessile species finds a suitable rock and cements itself in place. The larval form is not capable of feeding, though it may have a rudimentary digestive system, and is only a dispersal mechanism. Many physical changes occur to the tunicate's body during metamorphosis, one of the most significant being the reduction of the cerebral ganglion, which controls movement and is the equivalent of the vertebrate brain. From this comes the common saying that the sea squirt "eats its own brain". However, the adult does possess a cerebral ganglion adapted to lack of self-locomotion. In the Thaliacea, the larval stage is rudimentary or suppressed, and the adults are pelagic (swimming or drifting in the open sea). Colonial forms also increase the size of the colony by budding off new individuals to share the same tunic. Pyrosome colonies grow by budding off new zooids near the posterior end of the colony. Sexual reproduction starts within a zooid with an internally fertilized egg. This develops directly into an oozooid without any intervening larval form. This buds precociously to form four blastozooids which become detached in a single unit when the oozoid disintegrates. The atrial siphon of the oozoid becomes the exhalent siphon for the new, four-zooid colony. Doliolids have a very complex life cycle that includes various zooids with different functions. The sexually reproducing members of the colony are known as gonozooids. Each one is a hermaphrodite with the eggs being fertilised by sperm from another individual. The gonozooid is viviparous, and at first, the developing embryo feeds on its yolk sac before being released into the sea as a free-swimming, tadpole-like larva. This undergoes metamorphosis in the water column into an oozooid. This is known as a "nurse" as it develops a tail of zooids produced by budding asexually. Some of these are known as trophozooids, have a nutritional function, and are arranged in lateral rows. Others are **phorozooids**, have a transport function, and are arranged in a single central row. Other zooids link to the phorozooids, which then detach themselves from the nurse. These zooids develop into gonozooids, and when these are mature, they separate from the phorozooids to live independently and start the cycle over again. Meanwhile, the phorozooids have served their purpose and disintegrate. The asexual phase in the lifecycle allows the doliolid to multiply very rapidly when conditions are favourable. Salps also have a complex lifecycle with an alternation of generations. In the solitary life history phase, an oozoid reproduces asexually, producing a chain of tens or hundreds of individual zooids by budding along the length of a stolon. The chain of salps is the 'aggregate' portion of the lifecycle. The aggregate individuals, known as blastozooids, remain attached together while swimming and feeding and growing larger. The blastozooids are sequential hermaphrodites. An egg in each is fertilized internally by a sperm from another colony. The egg develops in a brood sac inside the blastozooid and has a placental connection to the circulating blood of its "nurse". When it fills the blastozooid's body, it is released to start the independent life of an oozooid. Larvaceans only reproduce sexually. They are protandrous hermaphrodites, except for *Oikopleura dioica* which is gonochoric, and a larva resembles the tadpole larva of ascidians. Once the trunk is fully developed, the larva undergoes "tail shift", in which the tail moves from a rearward position to a ventral orientation and twists through 90° relative to the trunk. The larva consists of a small, fixed number of cells, and grows by enlargement of these rather than cell division. Development is very rapid and only takes seven hours for a zygote to develop into a house-building juvenile starting to feed. During embryonic development, tunicates exhibit determinate cleavage, where the fate of the cells is set early on with reduced cell numbers and genomes that are rapidly evolving. In contrast, the amphioxus and vertebrates show cell determination relatively late in development and cell cleavage is indeterminate. The genome evolution of amphioxus and vertebrates is also relatively slow. ### Promotion of out-crossing *Ciona intestinalis* (class Ascidiacea) is a hermaphrodite that releases sperm and eggs into the surrounding seawater almost simultaneously. It is self-sterile, and thus has been used for studies on the mechanism of self-incompatibility. Self/non-self-recognition molecules play a key role in the process of interaction between sperm and the vitelline coat of the egg. It appears that self/non-self recognition in ascidians such as *C. intestinalis* is mechanistically similar to self-incompatibility systems in flowering plants. Self-incompatibility promotes out-crossing, and thus provides the adaptive advantage at each generation of the masking of deleterious recessive mutations (i.e. genetic complementation) and the avoidance of inbreeding depression. *Botryllus schlosseri* (class Ascidiacea) is a colonial tunicate, a member of the only group of chordates that are able to reproduce both sexually and asexually. *B. schlosseri* is a sequential (protogynous) hermaphrodite, and in a colony, eggs are ovulated about two days before the peak of sperm emission. Thus self-fertilization is avoided, and cross-fertilization is favored. Although avoided, self-fertilization is still possible in *B. schlosseri*. Self-fertilized eggs develop with a substantially higher frequency of anomalies during cleavage than cross-fertilized eggs (23% vs. 1.6%). Also a significantly lower percentage of larvae derived from self-fertilized eggs metamorphose, and the growth of the colonies derived from their metamorphosis is significantly lower. These findings suggest that self-fertilization gives rise to inbreeding depression associated with developmental deficits that are likely caused by expression of deleterious recessive mutations. ### A model tunicate *Oikopleura dioica* (class Appendicularia) is a semelparous organism, reproducing only once in its lifetime. It employs an original reproductive strategy in which the entire female germ-line is contained within an ovary that is a single giant multinucleate cell termed the "coenocyst". *O. dioica* can be maintained in laboratory culture, and is of growing interest as a model organism because of its phylogenetic position within the closest sister group to vertebrates. Invasive species ---------------- Over the past few decades, tunicates (notably of the genera *Didemnum* and *Styela*) have been invading coastal waters in many countries. The carpet tunicate (*Didemnum vexillum*) has taken over a 6.5 sq mi (17 km2) area of the seabed on the Georges Bank off the northeast coast of North America, covering stones, molluscs, and other stationary objects in a dense mat. *D. vexillum*, *Styela clava* and *Ciona savignyi* have appeared and are thriving in Puget Sound and Hood Canal in the Pacific Northwest. Invasive tunicates usually arrive as fouling organisms on the hulls of ships, but may also be introduced as larvae in ballast water. Another possible means of introduction is on the shells of molluscs brought in for marine cultivation. Current research indicates many tunicates previously thought to be indigenous to Europe and the Americas are, in fact, invaders. Some of these invasions may have occurred centuries or even millennia ago. In some areas, tunicates are proving to be a major threat to aquaculture operations. Use by humans ------------- ### Medical uses Tunicates contain a host of potentially useful chemical compounds, including: * Didemnins, effective against various types of cancer, as antivirals and as immunosuppressants * Aplidine, a didemnin effective against various types of cancer; as of late January 2021 undergoing Phase III trials as a treatment for COVID-19 * Trabectedin, another didemnin effective against various types of cancer Tunicates are able to correct their own cellular abnormalities over a series of generations, and a similar regenerative process may be possible for humans. The mechanisms underlying the phenomenon may lead to insights about the potential of cells and tissues to be reprogrammed and to regenerate compromised human organs. ### As food Various Ascidiacea species are consumed as food around the world. The *piure* (*Pyura chilensis*) is used in the cuisine of Chile, both raw and in seafood stews. In Japan and Korea, the sea pineapple (*Halocynthia roretzi*) is the main species eaten. It is cultivated on dangling cords made of palm fronds. In 1994, over 42,000 tons were produced, but since then, mass mortality events have occurred among the farmed sea squirts (the tunics becoming soft), and only 4,500 tons were produced in 2004. ### Other uses The use of tunicates as a source of biofuel is being researched. The cellulose body wall can be broken down and converted into ethanol, and other parts of the animal are protein-rich and can be converted into fish feed. Culturing tunicates on a large scale may be possible and the economics of doing so are attractive. As tunicates have few predators, their removal from the sea may not have profound ecological impacts. Being sea-based, their production does not compete with food production as does the cultivation of land-based crops for biofuel projects. Some tunicates are used as model organisms. *Ciona intestinalis* and *Ciona savignyi* have been used for developmental studies. Both species' mitochondrial and nuclear genomes have been sequenced. The nuclear genome of the appendicularian *Oikopleura dioica* appears to be one of the smallest among metazoans and this species has been used to study gene regulation and the evolution and development of chordates. See also -------- * Vetulicolia – crown-group chordates which are probably the sister group of modern tunicates * Donald I. Williamson – claimed hybridization

Tunicate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunicate

***Aglais io***, the **European peacock**, more commonly known simply as the **peacock butterfly**, is a colourful butterfly, found in Europe and temperate Asia as far east as Japan. It was formerly classified as the only member of the genus *Inachis* (the name is derived from Greek mythology, meaning Io, the daughter of Inachus). It should not be confused or classified with the "American peacocks" in the genus *Anartia*; while belonging to the same family as the European peacock, Nymphalidae, the American peacocks are not close relatives of the Eurasian species. The peacock butterfly is resident in much of its range, often wintering in buildings or trees. It therefore often appears quite early in spring. The peacock butterfly has figured in research in which the role of eyespots as an anti-predator mechanism has been investigated. The peacock is expanding its range and is not known to be threatened. Characteristics --------------- The butterfly has a wingspan of 50 to 55 mm. The base colour of the wings is a rusty red, and at each wingtip it bears a distinctive, black, blue and yellow eyespot. The underside is a cryptically coloured dark brown or black. There are two subspecies: *A. io caucasica* (Jachontov, 1912), found in Azerbaijan, and *A. io geisha* (Stichel, 1908), found in Japan and the Russian Far East. * Dorsal sideDorsal side * Ventral sideVentral side * Wing scalesWing scales * Wing scales at Scanning electron microscope (SEM)Wing scales at Scanning electron microscope (SEM) * Olfactory sensors (scales and holes) on the antenna, under the electron microscopeOlfactory sensors (scales and holes) on the antenna, under the electron microscope Natural history --------------- The peacock can be found in woods, fields, meadows, pastures, parks, and gardens, from lowlands up to 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) elevation. It is a relatively common butterfly, seen in many European parks and gardens. The peacock male exhibits territorial behaviour, in many cases territories being selected en route of the females to oviposition sites. The butterfly hibernates over winter before laying its eggs in early spring, in batches of up to 400 at a time. The eggs are ribbed, olive green, and laid on the upper parts and the undersides of leaves of nettle plants and hops. The caterpillars, which are shiny black with six rows of barbed spikes and a series of white dots on each segment, and which have a shiny black head, hatch after about a week. The chrysalis may be either grey, brown, or green in colour and may have a blackish tinge. The caterpillars grow up to 42 mm in length. The recorded food plants of the European peacock are stinging nettle (*Urtica dioica*), hop (*Humulus lupulus*), and the small nettle (*Urtica urens*). The adult butterflies drink nectar from a wide variety of flowering plants, including buddleia, willows, dandelions, wild marjoram, danewort, hemp agrimony, and clover; they also utilize tree sap and rotten fruits. Behaviour --------- ### Mating system and territorial behaviour *Aglais io* employs a monogamous mating system, which means that they only mate with one partner for a period of time. This is due to their life cycle in which females are receptive only during an eclosion period, after overwintering. The pairs only mate once after overwintering, as it is very difficult to find a receptive female after that period. In species where the range of the females is not defensible by a male, the males must defend a single desirable area that females will come through, such as dense food areas, watering holes, or favourable nesting sites. The males then attempt to mate with the females as they are passing through. Holding a desirable territory increases the male's likelihood of finding a mate and therefore increases his reproductive success. However, each individual needs to weigh the benefits of mating with the costs of defending a territory. *Aglais io* exhibits this type of territorial behaviour, and must defend a desirable territory from other males. If only one of the males knows the territory well, he will successfully chase off any intruders. On the other hand, if both males are familiar with the territory, there will be a contest between the two to determine which of them stays in the territory. The most desirable sites are those that will increase the male's quota of females. These sites are generally feeding and oviposition sites, which are sought after by females. This territorial behaviour is reinforced by the fact that these sites are all concentrated. If the valuable resources were dispersed, there would be less observable territorial behaviour. To find mates and defend their territory, *Aglais io* exhibits perching behaviour. The male butterflies will perch on an object at a specific height where they can observe passing flying objects. Every time they see a passing object of their own species or of a relevant species, they will fly straight towards the object until they are approximately 10 cm away. If they encounter a male, the resident male will chase him off his territory. If the resident male encounters a female, he will pursue her until she lands and mating will occur. The courtship is extended in this species. The male goes through a long chase before the female allows him to mate. He must demonstrate high performance flight. The monandrous mating system has caused the evolution of a shorter life span in males of this species. In polygynous butterflies, the male's reproductive success is largely dependent on life span. Therefore, the longer a male lives, the more he can reproduce, so he has a higher fitness. Therefore, males tend to live as long as the females. In *A. io* the synchronous eclosion at the end of winter cause males to only mate once. Their reproductive success is therefore not linked to how long they live, and there is no selective pressure to live longer. Therefore, the life span of males is shorter than the lifespan of the females. ### Anti-predator defense mechanisms Like many other butterflies that hibernate, the peacock butterfly exhibits many anti-predator defence mechanisms against would-be predators. The peacock butterfly's most obvious defense comes from the four large eyespots that it has on its wings. It also uses camouflage and can emit a hissing sound. The eyespots are brilliantly coloured concentric circles. Avian predators of the butterfly include blue tits, pied flycatchers and other small passerine birds. The first line of defence against these predators for many hibernating butterflies is crypsis, a process in which the butterflies blend into their environment by mimicking a leaf and staying immobile. Some hibernating butterflies such as the peacock have a second line of defence: when attacked, they open their wings and expose their eyespots in an intimidating threat display, which gives the butterfly a much better chance at escaping predators than butterflies that rely solely on leaf mimicry. While the main targets of these anti-predation measures are small passerine birds, even larger birds such as chickens have been shown to react to the stimuli and avoid the butterfly when exposed to eyespots. #### Avian predators Research has shown that avian predators attempting to attack a butterfly hesitate for a much longer time if they encounter butterflies that display their eyespots than if they encounter butterflies whose eyespots are covered. In addition, the predators delay their return to the butterfly if it displays eyespots and some predators even flee before attacking the butterfly. By intimidating the predator so that it delays or gives up its attack, the peacock butterfly has a much greater chance of escaping predation. According to the eye mimicry hypothesis, the eyespots serve an anti-predatory purpose by imitating the eyes of the avian predators' natural enemies. In contrast, the conspicuousness hypothesis posits that rather than recognition of the eyespots as belonging to an enemy, the conspicuous nature of the eyespots, which are typically large and bright, causes a response in the visual system of the predator that leads to avoidance of the butterfly. In one experiment, observed responses of the avian predators to the eyespots included increased vigilance, a delay in their return to the peacock butterfly, and the production of alarm calls associated with ground-based predators. These responses to the eyespot stimuli lend support to the eye mimicry hypothesis as they indicated that the avian predator sensed that the eyespots belonged to a potential enemy. When faced with avian predators like the blue tit, the peacock butterfly makes a hissing noise as well as threateningly displaying its eyespots. However, it is the eyespots that protect the butterfly the most; peacock butterflies that have had their sound production capability removed still defend themselves extremely well against avian predators if their eyespots are present. #### Rodent predators While hibernating in dark wintering areas, the peacock butterfly frequently encounters rodent predators such as small mice. Against these predators, however, the visual display of eyespots is ineffective due to the darkness of the environment. Instead, these rodent predators show a much stronger adverse reaction to the butterfly when it produces its auditory hissing signal. This indicates that for rodent predators, it is the auditory signal produced by the butterfly that serves as a deterrent. Etymology --------- Io is a figure in Greek mythology. She was a priestess of Hera in Argos. Gallery ------- * Underside patternUnderside pattern * EggsEggs * CaterpillarCaterpillar * FeedingFeeding * ChrysalisChrysalis * Achromatic form of eyespotsAchromatic form of eyespots See also -------- * Anglewing butterflies * Peacock butterflies (genus *Anartia*) * Peacock pansy (*Junonia almana*)

Aglais io

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aglais_io

**Plovdiv** (Bulgarian: Пловдив, pronounced [ˈpɫɔvdif]), is the second-largest city in Bulgaria, standing on the banks of the Maritsa river in the historical region of Thrace. It has a population of 346,893 as of 2018[update] and 675,000 in the greater metropolitan area. Plovdiv is a cultural hub in Bulgaria and was the European Capital of Culture in 2019. The city is an important economic, transport, cultural, and educational center. Plovdiv joined the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities in 2016. Plovdiv is situated in a fertile region of south-central Bulgaria on the two banks of the Maritsa River. The city has historically developed on seven syenite hills, some of which are 250 metres (820 feet) high. Because of these hills, Plovdiv is often referred to in Bulgaria as "The City of the Seven Hills". There is evidence of habitation in the area dating back to the 6th millennium BCE, when the first Neolithic settlements were established. The city was subsequently a local Thracian settlement, later being conquered and ruled also by Persians, Ancient Macedonians, Celts, Romans, Byzantines, Goths, Huns, Bulgarians (Thracians, Bulgars, Slavic tribes, etc.), Crusaders, and Ottoman Turks. Philippopolis (Greek: Φιλιππούπολις) was founded as a *polis* by the father of Alexander the Great, Philip the Great (r. 359–336 BCE), the king of ancient Macedonia, settling there both Thracians and 2,000 Macedonians and other Greeks in 342 BCE. Control of the city alternated between the Macedonian kingdom and the Thracian Odrysian kingdom during the Hellenistic period; the Macedonian king Philip V (r. 221–179 BCE) reoccupied the city in 183 BCE and his successor Perseus (r. 179–168 BCE) held the city with the Odrysians until the Roman Republic conquered the Macedonian kingdom in 168 BCE. Philippopolis became the capital of the Roman province of Thracia. The city was at the centre of the road network of inland Thrace, and the strategic *Via Militaris* was crossed by several other roads at the site, leading to the Danube, the Aegean Sea, and the Black Sea. The Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 CE) built a new wall around the city. In Late Antiquity, Philippopolis was an important stronghold, but was sacked in 250 during the Crisis of the Third Century, after the Siege of Philippopolis by the Goths led by Cniva. After this the settlement contracted, though it remained a major city, with the city walls rebuilt and new Christian basilicas and Roman baths constructed in the 4th century. The city was again sacked by the Huns in 441/442, and the walls were again rebuilt. Roman Philippopolis resisted another attack, by the Avars in the 580s, after the walls were renewed yet again by Justinian the Great (r. 527–565). In the Middle Ages, Philippopolis fell to the Bulgars of the First Bulgarian Empire in 863, during the reign of Boris I (r. 852–889), having been briefly abandoned by the Christian inhabitants in 813 during a dispute with the *khan* Krum (r. c. 803 – 814). During the Byzantine–Bulgarian wars, the emperor Basil the Bulgar-Slayer (r. 960–1025) used Philippopolis as a major strategic fortification, governed by the *protospatharios* Nikephoros Xiphias. In the middle 11th century, the city was attacked by the Pechenegs, who occupied it briefly around 1090. The city continued to prosper, with the walls restored in the 12th century, during which the historian and politician Niketas Choniates was its governor and the physician Michael Italikos was its metropolitan bishop. According to the Latin historian of the Fourth Crusade, Geoffrey of Villehardouin, Philippopolis was the third largest city in the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople (Istanbul) and Thessalonica (Thessaloniki). It suffered damage from the armies passing through the city during the Crusades as well as from sectarian violence between the Eastern Orthodox and the Armenian Orthodox and Paulician denominations. The city was destroyed by Kaloyan of Bulgaria (r. 1196–1207) in 1206 and rebuilt thereafter. In 1219, the city became the capital of the Crusader Duchy of Philippopolis, part of the Latin Empire. The Second Bulgarian Empire recovered the city in 1263, but lost it to Byzantine control before recapturing it in 1323. The Ottoman Empire conquered Philippopolis (Turkish: *Filibe*) in 1363 or 1364. During the 500 years of Ottoman rule, Filibe served as one of the important commercial and transportation nodes in the Ottoman Balkans. It also played a role as an administrative centre of various sanjaks and eyalets. On 4 January 1878, at the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), Plovdiv was taken away from Ottoman rule by the Russian army. It remained within the borders of Bulgaria until July of the same year, when it became the capital of the autonomous Ottoman region of Eastern Rumelia. In 1885, Plovdiv and Eastern Rumelia joined Bulgaria. There are many preserved ruins such as the ancient Plovdiv Roman theatre, a Roman odeon, a Roman aqueduct, the Plovdiv Roman Stadium, the archaeological complex Eirene, and others. Plovdiv is host to a huge variety of cultural events such as the International Fair Plovdiv, the international theatrical festival "A stage on a crossroad", the TV festival "The golden chest", and many more novel festivals, such as Night/Plovdiv in September, Kapana Fest, and Opera Open. The oldest American educational institution outside the United States, the American College of Sofia, was founded in Plovdiv in 1860 and later moved to Sofia. On 5 September 2014, Plovdiv was selected as the Bulgarian host of the European Capital of Culture 2019 alongside the Italian city of Matera. This happened with the help of the Municipal Foundation "Plovdiv 2019″, a non-government organization, which was established in 2011 by Plovdiv's City Council whose main objectives were to develop and to prepare Plovdiv's bid book for European Capital of Culture in 2019. Etymology --------- Plovdiv has been given various names throughout its long history. The Odrysian capital *Odryssa* (Greek: ΟΔΡΥΣΣΑ, Latin: *ODRYSSA*) is suggested to have been modern Plovdiv by numismatic research or Odrin. The Greek historian Theopompus mentioned it in the 4th century BCE as a town named *Poneropolis* (Greek: ΠΟΝΗΡΟΠΟΛΙΣ "town of villains") in pejorative relation to the conquest by king Philip II of Macedon who is said to have settled the town with 2,000 men who were false-accusers, sycophants, lawyers, and other possible disreputables. According to Plutarch, the town was named by this king after he had populated it with a crew of rogues and vagabonds, but this is possibly a folk name that did not actually exist. The names *Dulon polis* (Greek: ΔΟΥΛΩΝ ΠΟΛΙΣ "slaves' town") and possibly *Moichopolis* (Greek: ΜΟΙΧΟΠΟΛΙΣ "adulterer's town") likely have similar origins. The city has been called *Philippopolis* (ΦΙΛΙΠΠΟΠΟΛΙΣ pronounced [pʰilipopolis]; Greek: Φιλιππούπολη, in modern Greek, *Philippoupoli* pronounced [filipupoli]) or "the city of Philip", from Greek *Philippos* "horse-lover", most likely in honor of Philip II of Macedon after his death or in honor of Philip V, as this name was first mentioned in the 2nd century BCE by Polybius in connection with the campaign of Philip V. *Philippopolis* was identified later by Plutarch and Pliny as the former *Poneropolis*. Strabo identified Philip II's settlement of most "evil, wicked" (Gr. πονηροτάτους *ponerotatous*) as Calybe (Kabyle), whereas Ptolemy considered the location of Poneropolis different from the rest. *Kendrisia* (Greek: ΚΕΝΔΡΕΙϹΕΙΑ) was an old name of the city. Its earliest recorded use is on an artifact mentioning that king Beithys, priest of the Syrian goddess, brought gifts to Kendriso Apollo; the deity is recorded to be named multiple times after different cities. Later Roman coins mentioned the name which is possibly derived from Thracian god Kendriso who is equated with Apollo, the cedar forests, or from the Thracian tribe artifacts known as the kendrisi. Another assumed name is the 1st century CE *Tiberias* in honor of the Roman emperor Tiberius, under whom the Odrysian Kingdom was a client of Rome. After the Romans had taken control of the area, the city was named in Latin: *TRIMONTIUM*, meaning "The Three Hills", and mentioned in the 1st century by Pliny. At times the name was *Ulpia*, *Flavia*, *Julia* after the Roman families. Ammianus Marcellinus wrote in the 4th century CE that the then city had been the old *Eumolpias*/*Eumolpiada,* (Latin: *EVMOLPIAS, EVMOLPIADA*), the oldest name chronologically. It was named after the mythical Thracian king Eumolpos, son of Poseidon or Jupiter, who may have founded the city around 1200 BCE or 1350 BCE. It is also possible that it was named after the Vestal Virgins in the temples – evmolpeya. In the 6th century CE, Jordanes wrote that the former name of the city was *Pulpudeva* (Latin: *PVLPVDEVA*) and that Philip the Arab named the city after himself. This name is most likely a Thracian oral translation of the other as it kept all consonants of the name Philip + deva (city). Although the two names sound similar, they may not share the same origin as Odrin and Adrianople do, and *Pulpudeva* may have predated the other names meaning "lake city" in Thracian. Since the 9th century CE the Slavic name began to appear as *Papaldiv/n, Plo(v)div, Pladiv, Pladin, Plapdiv, Plovdin,* which originate from *Pulpudeva*. As a result, the name has lost any meaning. In British English the Bulgarian variant *Plòvdiv* has become prevalent after World War I. The Crusaders mentioned the city as *Prineople*, *Sinople* and *Phinepople*. The Ottomans called the city *Filibe*, a corruption of "Philip", in a document from 1448. Geography --------- Plovdiv is located on the banks of the Maritsa river, southeast of the Bulgarian capital Sofia. The city is in the southern part of the *Plain of Plovdiv*, an alluvial plain that forms the western portion of the Upper Thracian Plain. From there, the peaks of the Sredna Gora mountain range rise to the northwest, the Chirpan Heights to the east, and the Rhodope mountains to the south. Originally, Plovdiv's development occurred south of Maritsa, with expansion across the river taking place only within the last 100 years. Modern Plovdiv covers an area of 101 km2 (39 sq mi), less than 0.1% of Bulgaria's total area. It is the most densely populated city in Bulgaria, with 3,769 inhabitants per km2. Inside the city proper are six syenite hills. At the beginning of the 20th century, there were seven syenite hills, but one (Markovo tepe) was destroyed. Three of them are called the Three Hills (Bulgarian: Трихълмие *Trihalmie*), the others are called the Hill of the Youth (Bulgarian: Младежки хълм, *Mladezhki halm*), the Hill of the Liberators (Bulgarian: Хълм на освободителите, *Halm na osvoboditelite*), and the Hill of Danov (Bulgarian: Данов хълм, *Danov halm*). ### Climate Plovdiv has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification *Cfa*) with considerable humid continental influences. There are four distinct seasons with large temperature jumps between seasons. Summer (mid-May to late September) is hot, moderately dry and sunny, with July and August having an average high of 33 °C (91 °F). Plovdiv sometimes experiences very hot days which are typical in the interior of the country. Summer nights are mild. Autumn starts in late September; days are long and relatively warm in early autumn. The nights become chilly by September. The first frost usually occurs by November. Winter is normally cold and snow is common. The average number of days with snow coverage in Plovdiv is 15. The average depth of snow coverage is 2 to 4 cm (1 to 2 in), and the maximum is normally 6 to 13 cm (2 to 5 in), but some winters coverage can reach 70 cm (28 in) or more. The average January temperature is −0.4 °C (31 °F). Spring begins in March and is cooler than autumn. The frost season ends in March. The days are mild and relatively warm in mid-spring. The average relative humidity is 73% and is highest in December at 86% and the lowest in August at 62%. The total precipitation is 540 mm (21.26 in) and is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. The wettest months of the year are May and June, with an average precipitation of 66.2 mm (2.61 in), and the driest month is August, with an average precipitation of 31 mm (1.22 in). Gentle winds (0 to 5 m/s) are predominant in the city with wind speeds of up to 1 m/s, representing 95% of all winds during the year. Mists are common in the cooler months, especially along the banks of the Maritsa. On average there are 33 days with mist during the year. | Climate data for Plovdiv (1952–2000; extremes 1942–present) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 23.0(73.4) | 24.0(75.2) | 30.0(86.0) | 34.2(93.6) | 36.0(96.8) | 41.0(105.8) | 45.0(113.0) | 42.5(108.5) | 37.6(99.7) | 36.8(98.2) | 27.0(80.6) | 22.9(73.2) | 45.0(113.0) | | Average high °C (°F) | 5.2(41.4) | 8.3(46.9) | 13.0(55.4) | 18.4(65.1) | 23.7(74.7) | 28.0(82.4) | 30.7(87.3) | 30.3(86.5) | 26.0(78.8) | 19.4(66.9) | 11.9(53.4) | 6.4(43.5) | 18.5(65.3) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 0.9(33.6) | 3.2(37.8) | 7.2(45.0) | 12.3(54.1) | 17.3(63.1) | 21.5(70.7) | 23.9(75.0) | 23.2(73.8) | 19.0(66.2) | 13.1(55.6) | 6.9(44.4) | 2.3(36.1) | 12.7(54.9) | | Average low °C (°F) | −3.0(26.6) | −1.4(29.5) | 1.8(35.2) | 6.2(43.2) | 11.0(51.8) | 15.0(59.0) | 17.0(62.6) | 16.5(61.7) | 12.6(54.7) | 7.6(45.7) | 2.6(36.7) | −1.3(29.7) | 7.1(44.8) | | Record low °C (°F) | −31.5(−24.7) | −29.1(−20.4) | −17.5(0.5) | −4.0(24.8) | −0.3(31.5) | 6.0(42.8) | 8.2(46.8) | 5.6(42.1) | 0.7(33.3) | −5.9(21.4) | −9.1(15.6) | −22.7(−8.9) | −31.5(−24.7) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 27(1.1) | 34(1.3) | 37(1.5) | 41(1.6) | 77(3.0) | 57(2.2) | 39(1.5) | 43(1.7) | 35(1.4) | 37(1.5) | 36(1.4) | 39(1.5) | 502(19.8) | | Average precipitation days | 4.8 | 5.1 | 5.8 | 4.7 | 6.5 | 6.2 | 3.8 | 3.1 | 3.1 | 3.9 | 5.8 | 6.2 | 60.7 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 76 | 67 | 60 | 53 | 53 | 50 | 45 | 46 | 48 | 59 | 69 | 76 | 59 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 94 | 110 | 170 | 200 | 252 | 281 | 328 | 315 | 230 | 162 | 120 | 77 | 2,339 | | Source 1: Climatebase.ru | | Source 2: Danish Meteorological Institute (sun and relative humidity), | | Climate data for Plovidiv (2008-2021) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 7.3(45.1) | 10.2(50.4) | 16.2(61.2) | 19.3(66.7) | 25.2(77.4) | 28.7(83.7) | 32.1(89.8) | 31.8(89.2) | 26.9(80.4) | 21.5(70.7) | 15.3(59.5) | 8.8(47.8) | 21(70) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 2.2(36.0) | 4.5(40.1) | 8.5(47.3) | 14.3(57.7) | 19.3(66.7) | 23.4(74.1) | 25.6(78.1) | 25.5(77.9) | 21.6(70.9) | 16.3(61.3) | 10.7(51.3) | 4.6(40.3) | 14.0(57.2) | | Average low °C (°F) | −1.0(30.2) | −0.3(31.5) | 3.6(38.5) | 8.3(46.9) | 13.5(56.3) | 17.3(63.1) | 18.9(66.0) | 18.8(65.8) | 15.1(59.2) | 10.8(51.4) | 6.3(43.3) | 0.5(32.9) | 9.3(48.8) | | Source: Stringmeteo.com[*page needed*] | History ------- | History of Plovdiv | | --- | | Timeline of events | | 6000–5000 BC | Establishment of the earliest settlements on the territory of modern Plovdiv (Yasa Tepe 1 and Yasa Tepe 2) | | 5th century BC | Ancient Plovdiv was incorporated into the Odrysian kingdom | | 347–342 BC | The Thracian town was conquered by Philip II of Macedon who named it Philippopolis | | 46 | Philippopolis was incorporated into the Roman Empire by emperor Claudius | | 1st–3rd century | Philippopolis became the central city of the Roman province Thracia | | 250 | The whole city was burned down by the Goths | | 4th century | Philippopolis regained its previous size. The city was part of the Eastern Roman Empire | | 836 | Khan Malamir incorporated the city into the First Bulgarian Empire | | 976–1014 | Basil II based his army in Philippopolis during the war with Samuel of Bulgaria | | 1189 | The city was conquered by the crusader army of Frederick Barbarossa | | 1205 | Philippopolis was conquered and raided by the Latin Empire and Kaloyan of Bulgaria | | 1371 | Phillipopolis was conquered by the Ottomans. The city name was changed to Filibe | | January 1878 | Plovdiv was liberated from Ottoman rule during the Battle of Philippopolis | | July 1878 | Plovdiv became capital of Eastern Rumelia | | 1885 | Plovdiv is at the center of the events that led to the Bulgarian unification | | 1920–1960 | Period of industrialization | | 1970-1980 | Discovery of the archeological sights in Plovdiv, the Old town was restored | | 1999 | Plovdiv hosted European Cultural Month | | 2014 | Plovdiv was awarded the title European capital of culture 2019 | ### Antiquity The history of the region spans more than eight millennia. Numerous nations have left their traces on the twelve-metre-thick (39-foot) cultural layers of the city. The earliest signs of habitation in the territory of Plovdiv date as far back as the 6th millennium BCE. Plovdiv has settlement traces including necropolises dating from the Neolithic era (roughly 6000–5000 BCE) like the mounds Yasa Tepe 1 in the Philipovo district and Yasa Tepe 2 in Lauta park. Archaeologists have discovered fine pottery and objects of everyday life on Nebet Tepe from as early as the Chalcolithic era, showing that at the end of the 4th millennium BCE, there was already an established settlement there which was continuously inhabited since then. Thracian necropolises dating back to the 2nd–3rd millennium BCE have been discovered, while the Thracian town was established between the 2nd and the 1st millennium BCE. The town was a fort of the independent local Thracian tribe Bessi. In 516 BCE during the rule of Darius the Great, Thrace was included in the Persian empire. In 492 BCE, the Persian general Mardonius subjugated Thrace again, and it nominally became a vassal of Persia until 479 BCE and the early rule of Xerxes I. The town became part of the Odrysian kingdom (460 BCE – 46 CE), a Thracian tribal union. The town was conquered by Philip II of Macedon, and the Odrysian king was deposed in 342 BCE. Ten years after the Macedonian invasion, the Thracian kings started to exercise power again after the Odrysian Seuthes III had re-established their kingdom under Macedonian suzerainty as a result of a successful revolt against Alexander the Great's rule resulting in a stalemate. The Odrysian kingdom gradually overcame the Macedonian suzerainty, while the city was destroyed by the Celts as part of the Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe, most likely in the 270s BCE. In 183 BCE, Philip V of Macedon conquered the city, but shortly after, the Thracians re-conquered it. In 72 BCE, the city was seized by the Roman general Marcus Lucullus but was soon restored to Thracian control. In 46 CE, the city was finally incorporated into the Roman Empire by emperor Claudius; it served as the capital of the province of Thrace. Although it was not the capital of the Province of Thrace, the city was the largest and most important centre in the province. As such, the city was the seat of the Union of Thracians. In those times, the Via Militaris (or Via Diagonalis), the most important military road in the Balkans, passed through the city. The Roman times were a period of growth and cultural excellence. The ancient ruins tell a story of a vibrant, growing city with numerous public buildings, shrines, baths, theatres, a stadium, and the only developed ancient water supply system in Bulgaria. The city had an advanced water system and sewerage. In 179 a second wall was built to encompass Trimontium which had already extended out of the Three hills into the valley. Many of those are still preserved and can be seen by tourists. Today only a small part of the ancient city has been excavated. In 250 the city was captured and looted after the Battle of Philippopolis by the Goths, led by their ruler Cniva. Many of its citizens, 100,000 according to Ammianus Marcellinus, died or were taken captive. It took a century and hard work to recover the city. However, it was destroyed again by Attila's Huns in 441–442 and by the Goths of Teodoric Strabo in 471. An ancient Roman inscription written in Ancient Greek dated to 253 – 255 AD were discovered in the Great Basilica. The inscription refers to the Dionysian Mysteries and also mentions Roman Emperors Valerian and Gallienus. It has been found on a large stele which was used as construction material during the building of the Great Basilica. ### Middle Ages The Slavs had fully settled in the area by the middle of the 6th century. This was done peacefully as there are no records for their attacks. With the establishment of Bulgaria in 681, Philippoupolis, the name of the city then, became an important border fortress of the Byzantine Empire. It was captured by Khan Krum in 812, but the region was fully incorporated into the Bulgarian Empire in 834 during the reign of Khan Malamir. It was reconquered by the Byzantine Empire in 855–856 for a short time until it was returned to Boris I of Bulgaria. From Philippopolis, the influence of dualistic doctrines spread to Bulgaria forming the basis of the Bogomil heresy. The city remained in Bulgarian hands until 970. However, the city is described at the time of Constantine VII in the 10th century as being within the Byzantine province (theme of Macedonia). Philippopolis was captured by the Byzantines in 969, shortly before it was sacked by the ruler of Rus' Sviatoslav I of Kiev who impaled 20,000 citizens. Before and after the Rus' massacre, the city was settled by Paulician heretics transported from Syria and Armenia to serve as military settlers on the European frontier with Bulgaria. Aime de Varennes in 1180 encountered the singing of Byzantine songs in the city that recounted the deeds of Alexander the Great and his predecessors over 1300 years before. Byzantine rule was interrupted by the Third Crusade (1189–1192) when the army of the Holy Roman emperor Frederick Barbarossa conquered Philippopolis. Ivanko was appointed as the governor of the Byzantine Theme of Philippopolis in 1196, but between 1198 and 1200 separated it from Byzantium in a union with Bulgaria. The Latin Empire conquered Philippopolis in 1204, and there were two short interregnum periods as the city was twice occupied by Kaloyan of Bulgaria before his death in 1207. In 1208, Kaloyan's successor Boril was defeated by the Latins in the Battle of Philippopolis. Under Latin rule, Philippopolis was the capital of the Duchy of Philippopolis, which was governed by Renier de Trit and later on by Gerard de Strem. The city was possibly at times a vassal of Bulgaria or Venice. Ivan Asen II conquered the duchy finally in 1230 but the city had possibly been conquered earlier. Afterwards, Philippopolis was conquered by Byzantium. According to some information, by 1300 Philippopolis was a possession of Theodore Svetoslav of Bulgaria. It was conquered from Byzantium by George Terter II of Bulgaria in 1322. Andronikos III Palaiologos unsuccessfully besieged the city, but a treaty restored Byzantine rule once again in 1323. In 1344 the city and eight other cities were surrendered to Bulgaria by the regency for John V Palaiologos as the price for Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria's support in the Byzantine civil war of 1341–47. ### Ottoman rule In 1364 the Ottoman Turks under Lala Shahin Pasha seized Plovdiv. According to other data, Plovdiv was not an Ottoman possession until the Battle of Maritsa in 1371, after which, the citizens and the Bulgarian army fled leaving the city without resistance. Refugees settled in Stanimaka. During the Ottoman Interregnum in 1410, Musa Çelebi conquered the city killing and displacing inhabitants. The city was the centre of the Rumelia Eyalet from 1364 until 1443, when it was replaced by Sofia as the capital of Rumelia. Plovdiv served as a sanjak centre within Rumelia between 1443 and 1593, the sanjak centre in Silistra Eyalet between 1593 and 1826, the sanjak centre in Eyalet of Adrianople between 1826 and 1867, and the sanjak centre of Edirne Vilayet between 1867 and 1878. During that period, Plovdiv was one of the major economic centers in the Balkans, along with Istanbul (Constantinople), Edirne, Thessaloniki, and Sofia. The richer citizens constructed beautiful houses, many of which can still be seen in the architectural reserve of Old Plovdiv. From the early 15th century till the end of 17th century the city was predominantly inhabited by Muslims. #### National revival Under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, Filibe (as the city was known at that time) was a focal point for the Bulgarian national movement and survived as one of the major cultural centers for Bulgarian culture and tradition. Filibe was described as consisting of Turks, Bulgarians, Hellenized Bulgarians, Armenians, Jews, Vlachs, Arvanites, Greeks, and Roma people. In the 16–17 century a significant number of Sephardic Jews settled along with a smaller Armenian community from Galicia. The Paulicians adopted Catholicism or lost their identity. The abolition of Slavonic as the language of the Bulgarian Church as well as the complete abolition of the church in 1767 and the introduction of the Millet System led to ethnic division among people of different religions. Christian and Muslim Bulgarians were subjected to Hellenization and Turkification respectively. A major part of the inhabitants was fully or partly Hellenized due to the Greek patriarchate. The "Langeris" are described as Greeks from the area of the nearby Stenimachos. The process of Hellenization flourished until the 1830s but declined with the Tanzimat as the idea of the Hellenic nation of Christians grew and was associated with ethnic Greeks. The re-establishment of the Bulgarian Church in 1870 was a sign of ethnic and national consciousness. Thus, although there is a little doubt about the Bulgarian origin of the Gulidas, the city could be considered of Greek or Bulgarian majority in the 19th century. Raymond Detrez has suggested that when the Gudilas and Langeris claimed to be Greek it was more in the sense of "Romei than Ellines, in a cultural rather than an ethnic sense". According to the statistics by the Bulgarian and Greek authors, there were no Turks in the city; according to an alternative estimate the city was of Turkish majority. Filibe had an important role in the struggle for Church independence which was, according to some historians, a peaceful bourgeois revolution. Filibe became the center of that struggle with leaders such as Nayden Gerov, Dr Valkovich, Joakim Gruev, and whole families. In 1836 the first Bulgarian school was inaugurated, and in 1850, modern secular education began when the "St Cyrill and Methodius" school was opened. On 11 May 1858, the day of Saints Cyril and Methodius was celebrated for the first time; this later became a National holiday which is still celebrated today (but on 24 May due to Bulgaria's 1916 transition from the Old Style (Julian) to the New Style (Gregorian) calendar). In 1858 in the Church of Virgin Mary, the Christmas liturgy was served for the first time in the Bulgarian language since the beginning of the Ottoman occupation. Until 1906 there were Bulgarian and Greek bishops in the city. In 1868 the school expanded into the first grammar school. Some of the intellectuals, politicians, and spiritual leaders of the nation graduated that school. The city was conquered by the Russians under Aleksandr Burago for several hours during the Battle of Philippopolis on 17 January 1878. It was the capital of the Provisional Russian Administration in Bulgaria between May and October. According to the Russian census of the same year, Filibe had a population of 24,000 citizens, of which ethnic Bulgarians comprised 45.4%, Turks 23.1% and Greeks 19.9%. ### Eastern Rumelia According to the Treaty of San Stefano on 3 March 1878, the Principality of Bulgaria included the lands with predominantly Bulgarian population. Plovdiv which was the biggest and most vibrant Bulgarian city was selected as a capital of the restored country and for a seat of the Temporary Russian Government. Great Britain and Austria-Hungary, however, did not approve that treaty and the final result of the war was concluded in the Congress of Berlin which divided the newly liberated country into several parts. It separated the autonomous region of Eastern Rumelia from Bulgaria, and Plovdiv became its capital. The Ottoman Empire created a constitution and appointed a governor. In the spring of 1885, Zahari Stoyanov formed the Secret Bulgarian Central Revolutionary Committee in the city which actively conducted propaganda for the unification of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia. On 5 September, several hundred armed rebels from Golyamo Konare (now Saedinenie) marched to Plovdiv. In the night of 5–6 September, these men, led by Danail Nikolaev, took control of the city and removed from office the General-Governor Gavril Krastevich. A provisional government was formed led by Georgi Stranski, and universal mobilization was announced. After the Serbs were defeated in the Serbo-Bulgarian War, Bulgaria and Turkey reached an agreement that the Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia had a common government, Parliament, administration, and army. Today, 6 September is celebrated as the Unification Day and the Day of Plovdiv. ### Recent history After the unification, Plovdiv remained the second most populous city in Bulgaria after the capital Sofia. The first railway in the city was built in 1874 connecting it with the Ottoman capital, and in 1888, it was linked with Sofia. In 1892 Plovdiv became the host of the First Bulgarian Fair with international participation which was succeeded by the International Fair Plovdiv. After the liberation, the first brewery was inaugurated in the city. The noteworthy English travel writer Patrick Leigh Fermor visited Plovdiv in the late summer of 1934 and he was charmed by the town and a local woman name Nadjeda. In the beginning of the 20th century, Plovdiv grew as a significant industrial and commercial center with well-developed light and food industry. In 1927 the electrification of Plovdiv has started. German, French, and Belgian capital was invested in the city in the development of modern trade, banking, and industry. In 1939, there were 16,000 craftsmen and 17,000 workers in manufacturing factories, mainly for food and tobacco processing. During the Second World War, the tobacco industry expanded as well as the export of fruit and vegetables. In 1943, 1,500 Jews were saved from deportation in concentration camps by the archbishop of Plovdiv, Cyril, who later became the Bulgarian Patriarch. In 1944, the city was bombed by the British-American coalition. Tobacco Depot workers went on strike on 4 May 1953. On 6 April 1956 the first trolleybus line was opened and in the 1950s the Trimontsium Hotel was constructed. In the 1960s and 1970s, there was a construction boom and many of the modern neighborhoods took shape. In the 1970s and 1980s, antique remains were excavated and the Old Town was fully restored. In 1990 the sports complex "Plovdiv" was finished. It included the largest stadium and rowing canal in the country. In that period, Plovdiv became the birthplace of Bulgaria's movement for democratic reform, which by 1989 had garnered enough support to enter government. Plovdiv has hosted specialized exhibitions of the World's Fair in 1981, 1985, and 1991. Population ---------- The population by permanent address for the municipality of Plovdiv for 2007 is 380,682, which makes it the second in population in the nation. According to data from the National Institute of Statistics (NSI), the population of people who actually live in Plovdiv is 346,790. According to the 2012 census, 339,077 live within the city limits and 403,153 in the municipal triangle of Plovdiv, including Maritsa municipality and Rodopi municipality. Population of Plovdiv: | **Plovdiv** | | --- | | **Year** | 1887 | 1910 | 1934 | 1946 | 1956 | 1965 | 1975 | 1985 | 1992 | 2001 | 2005 | 2009 | 2011 | 2021 | | **Population** | 33,032 | 47,981 | 99,883 | 126,563 | 161,836 | 225,508 | 299,638 | 342,131 | 341,058 | 338,224 | 341,9 | 338,2 | 338,153 | 343,070 | | | Highest number **348,465** in **2009** | | Sources: National Statistical Institute, citypopulation.de, pop-stat.mashke.org, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences | At the first census after the Liberation of Bulgaria in 1880 with 24,053 citizens, Plovdiv was the third largest city behind Stara Zagora, which had 25,460 citizens prior to being burnt to the ground as well as Ruse, which had 26,163 citizens then, and ahead of the capital Sofia, which had 20,501 citizens then. As of the 1887 census, Plovdiv was the largest city in the country for several years with 33,032 inhabitants compared to 30,428 for Sofia. According to the 1946 census, Plovdiv was the second largest city with 126,563 inhabitants compared to 487,000 for the capital. ### Ethnicity and religion Households of the Ottoman city by ethnoreligious groups| Year | Muslims | Christians | Roma | Jews | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1472 | 81.7% | 18.3% | | | | 1489 | 87.1% | 8.2% | 3.5% | | | 1490 (households) | 796 | 78 | 33 | | | 1516 | 86.7% | 7% | 2.8% | 2.5% | | 1525 | 85.2% | 7.5% | 3.2% | 3% | | 1530 | 82.1% | 9.1% | 3.8% | 3.7% | | 1570 | 82% | 9.3% | 2.7% | 5.4% | | 1595 | 78.2% | 14% | 2.9% | 4.8% | | 1614 | 68.3% | 22.6% | 7.7% | 4.1% | | 1695 | 81% | 14% | | | | 1876 | 33% | | | | Population by ethnic groups under Russian administration, Eastern Rumelia and Bulgaria| Census | Total | Bulgarians | Turks | Jews | Greeks | Armenians | Roma | Others | Unspecified | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1878 | 24053 | 10909 (45.35%) | 5558 (23.10%) | 1134 (4.71%) | 4781 (19.88%) | 806 (3.35%) | 865 (3.60%) | 902 (3.75%) | | 1884 – | 33442 | 16752 (50.09%) | 7144 (21.36%) | 2168 (6.48%) | 5497 (16.44%) | 979 (2.93%) | 112 | 902 (2.70%) | | 1887 | 33032 | 19542 | 5615 | 2202 | 3930 | 903 | 348 | 492 | | 1892 | 36033 | 20854 | 6381 | 2696 | 3906 | 1024 | 237 | 935 | | 1900 | 43033 | 24170 | 4708 | 3602 | 3908 | 1844 | 1934 | 2869 | | 1910 | 47981 | 32727 | 2946 | 4436 | 1571 | 1794 | 3524 | 983 | | 1920 | 64415 | 46889 | 5605 | 5144 | 1071 | 3773 | 1342 | 591 | | 1926 | 84655 | 63268 | 4748 | 5612 | 549 | 5881 | 2746 | 1851 | | 1934 | 99883 | 77449 | 6102 | 5574 | 340 | 5316 | 2728 | 2374 | | 1939 | 105643 (100%) | 82012 (77.63%) | 6462 (6.12%) | 5960 (5,64%) | 200 (0.19%) | 6591 (6.24%) | 2982 (2.82%) | 1436 (1.36%) | | 2001 | 338224 | 302858 (89.5%) | 22501 (6.7%) | | | | 5192 (1.5%) | 5764 (1.7%) | 1909 | | 2011 | 338153 | 277804 (82.2%) | 16032 (4.7%) | | | 9438 (2.8%) | 1436 (0.4%) | 3105 (0.9%) | 31774 (9.4%) | In its ethnic character Plovdiv is the second or the third-largest cosmopolitan city inhabited by Bulgarians, after Sofia and possibly Varna. According to the 2001 census, out of a population of 338,224 inhabitants, the Bulgarians numbered 302,858 (90%). Stolipinovo in Plovdiv is the largest Roma neighbourhood in the Balkans, having a population of around 20,000 alone; further Roma ghettos are Hadji Hassan Mahala and Sheker Mahala. Therefore, the census number is a deflation of the number of Roma people, and they are most likely the second-largest group after the Bulgarians, most of all because the Muslim Roma in Plovdiv claim to be of Turkish ethnicity and Turkish-speaking at the census ("Xoraxane Roma"). For further information see the article Roma people in Plovdiv. Like elsewhere in the country, Roma people are subjected to discrimination and segregation (See the Bulgaria section of the article Antiziganism). After the Wars for National Union (Balkan Wars and World War I), the city became home for thousands of refugees from the former Bulgarian lands in Macedonia, Western and Eastern Thrace. Many of the old neighbourhoods are still referred to as *Belomorski*, *Vardarski*. Most of the Jews left the city after the foundation of Israel in 1948, as well as most of the Turks and Greeks. Prior to the population exchange, as of 1 January 1885, the city of Plovdiv had a population of 33,442, of which 16,752 were Bulgarians (50%), 7,144 Turks (21%), 5,497 Greeks (16%), 2,168 Jews (6%), 1,061 Armenians (3%), 151 Italians, 112 Germans, 112 Romani people, 80 French people, 61 Russians and 304 people of other nationalities. The vast majority of the inhabitants are Christians, mostly Eastern Orthodox, Catholics, Eastern Catholics, and Protestant trends (Adventists, Baptists and others). There are also some Muslims and Jews. In Plovdiv, there are many churches, two mosques and one synagogue (see Plovdiv Synagogue). Some Aromanians also inhabit Plovdiv. * The Virgin Mary Eastern Orthodox ChurchThe Virgin Mary Eastern Orthodox Church * The Plovdiv SynagogueThe Plovdiv Synagogue * A Protestant churchA Protestant church * The St Louis Roman Catholic CathedralThe St Louis Roman Catholic Cathedral * St George Armenian ChurchSt George Armenian Church * The Dzhumaya MosqueThe Dzhumaya Mosque * The Orthodox seminaryThe Orthodox seminary City government --------------- Plovdiv is the administrative center of Plovdiv Province which consists of the Municipality of Plovdiv, the Maritsa municipality, and the Rodopi municipality. The mayor of the Municipality of Plovdiv, Ivan Totev, with the six district mayors represent the local executive authorities. The Municipal Council which consists of 51 municipal counsellors, represents the legislative power, and is elected according to the proportional system by parties' lists. The executive government of the Municipality of Plovdiv consists of a mayor who is elected by majority representation, five deputy mayors, and one administrative secretary. All the deputy mayors and the secretary control their administrative structured units. According to the *Law for the territorial subdivision of the Capital municipality and the large cities,* the territory of Plovdiv Municipality is subdivided into six district administrations with their mayors being appointed following approval by the Municipal Council. Districts and neighbourhoods ---------------------------- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 | Number | Neighbourhood | Number | Neighbourhood | Number | Neighbourhood | Number | Neighbourhood | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Center | 12 | Sadiiski | 23 | Hristo Smirnenski | 34 | Sheker Mahala | | 2 | Old Town | 13 | Stochna Gara | 24 | Proslav | | 3 | Kamenitsa 1 | 14 | Kyutchuk Paris | 25 | Mladezhki Halm | | 4 | Kamenitsa 2 | 15 | Vastannicheski | 26 | Otdih i Kultura | | 5 | Izgrev | 16 | Belomorski | 27 | Marasha | | 6 | Stolipinovo | 17 | Institut po Ovoshtarstvo | 28 | Maritsa Sever | | 7 | Izgrev | 18 | Ostromila | 29 | Zaharna Fabrika | | 8 | Industrial zone – East | 19 | Yuzhen | 30 | Karshiaka | | 9 | Trakia | 20 | Tsentralna Gara | 31 | Gagarin | | 10 | Industrial zone – Trakia | 21 | Komatevo | 32 | Industrial Zone – North | | 11 | Industrial zone – South | 22 | Komatevski Vazel | 33 | Filipovo | | In 1969 the villages of Proslav and Komatevo were incorporated into the city. In 1987 the municipalities of Maritsa and Rodopi were separated from Plovdiv which remained their administrative center. In the last several years, the inhabitants from those villages had taken steps to rejoin the "urban" municipality. Main sights ----------- The city has more than 200 archaeological sites, 30 of which are of national importance. There are many remains from antiquity. Plovdiv is among the few cities with two ancient theatres; remains of the medieval walls and towers; Ottoman baths and mosques; a well-preserved old quarter from the National Revival period with beautiful houses; churches; and narrow paved streets. There are numerous museums, art, galleries and cultural institutions. Plovdiv is host to musical, theatrical, and film events. The Knyaz Alexander I Street is the main street in Plovdiv. The city is a starting point for trips to places in the region, such as the Bachkovo Monastery at 30 km (19 mi) to the south, the ski-resort Pamporovo at 90 km (56 mi) to the south or the spa resorts to the north Hisarya, Banya, Krasnovo, and Strelcha. ### Roman City Ancient monuments in PlovdivTheatreTheatreNebet TepeNebet TepeHisar KapiaHisar KapiaEastern GateEastern GateStadiumStadiumGreat BasilicaGreat BasilicaSmall BasilicaSmall BasilicaForumForumOdeonOdeonLibraryLibrarySynagogueSynagogueEirene ResidenceEirene Residenceclass=notpageimage| Ancient monuments in Plovdiv The Ancient theatre (Antichen teatur) is probably the best-known monument from antiquity in Bulgaria. During recent archaeological survey, an inscription was found on a postament of a statue at the theatre. It revealed that the site was constructed at the 90s of the 1st century CE. The inscription itself refers to Titus Flavius Cotis, the ruler of the ancient city during the reign of Emperor Domitian. The Ancient theatre is situated in the natural saddle between two of the Three Hills. It is divided into two parts with 14 rows each divided with a horizontal lane. The theatre could accommodate up to 7,000 people. The three-story scene is on the southern part and is decorated with friezes, cornices, and statues. The theatre was studied, conserved, and restored between 1968 and 1984. Many events are still held on the scene including the Opera Festival Opera Open, the Rock Festival Sounds of the Ages, and the International Folklore festival. The Roman Odeon was restored in 2004. It was built in the 2nd–5th centuries and is the second (and smaller) antique theatre of Philipopolis with 350 seats. It was initially built as a bulevterion, an edifice of the city council, and was later reconstructed as a theatre. The Ancient Stadium is another important monument of the ancient city. It was built in the 2nd century during the reign of the Roman Emperor Hadrian. It is situated between Danov Hill and one of the Three Hills, beneath the main street from Dzhumaya Square to Kamenitsa Square. It was modelled after the stadium in Delphi. It was approximately 240 metres (790 feet) long and 50 metres (160 feet) wide, and could seat up to 30,000 spectators. The athletic games at the stadium were organised by the General Assembly of the province of Thrace. In their honour, the royal mint of Philippopolis coined money featuring the face of the ruling emperor as well as the types of athletic events held in the stadium. Only a small part of the northern section with 14 seat rows can be seen today; the larger part lies under the main street and a number of buildings. The Roman forum dates from the reign of Vespasian in the 1st century and was finished in the 2nd century. It is near the modern post office next to the Odeon. It has an area of 11 hectares and was surrounded by shops and public buildings. The forum was a focal point of the streets of the ancient city. The Eirene Residence is in the southern part of the Three Hills on the northern part of an ancient street in the Archeological underpass. It includes remains of a public building from the 3rd–4th centuries which belonged to a noble citizen. Eirene is the Christian name for Penelopa, a maiden from Megadon, who was converted to Christianity in the 2nd century. There are colourful mosaics which have geometrical forms and figures. On Nebet hill are the remains of the first settlement which in 12th century BCE grew to the Thracian city of Eumolpias, one of the first cities in Southeastern Europe. Massive walls surrounding a temple and a palace have been excavated. The oldest part of the fortress was constructed from large syenite blocks, the so-called "cyclopean construction". * Ancient monuments * TheatreTheatre * Roman stadiumRoman stadium * OdeonOdeon * ForumForum * The Bishop's basilica of PhiippopolisThe Bishop's basilica of Phiippopolis * Bishop basilicaBishop basilica * Small basilicaSmall basilica * Small bacilicaSmall bacilica * 3rd century round tower3rd century round tower * Mosaics in Eirene residenceMosaics in Eirene residence * AqueductAqueduct * Nebet tepeNebet tepe ### Museums and protected sites The Archaeological Museum was established in 1882 as the People's Museum of Eastern Rumelia. In 1928 the museum was moved to a 19th-century edifice on Saedinenie Square built by Plovdiv architect Josef Schnitter. The museum contains a rich collection of Thracian art. The three sections "Prehistory", "Antiquity", and "Middle Ages" contain precious artifacts from the Paleolithic to the early Ottoman period (15th–16th centuries). The famous Panagyurishte treasure is part of the museum's collection. The Plovdiv Regional Historical Museum was founded in 1951 as a scientific and cultural institute for collecting, saving, and researching historical evidence about Plovdiv and the surrounding region from 16th to 20th centuries. The exhibition is situated in three buildings. The Plovdiv Regional Ethnographic Museum was inaugurated in 1917. On 14 October 1943, it was moved to a house in the Old Town. In 1949 the Municipal House-museum was reorganized as a People's Ethnographic Museum and in 1962 it was renovated. There are more than 40,000 objects. The Museum of Natural Science was inaugurated in 1955 in the old edifice of the Plovdiv Municipality built in 1880. It is among the most important museums in the country with rich collections in its Paleontology, Mineralogy, and Botanic sections. There are several rooms for wildlife and it contains Bulgaria's largest freshwater aquarium with 40 fish species. It has a collection of minerals from the Rhodope mountains. The Museum of Aviation was established on 21 September 1991 on the territory of the Krumovo airbase 12 km (7 mi) to the southeast of the city. The museum possesses 59 aircraft and indoor and outdoor exhibitions. The Old Town of Plovdiv is a historic preservation site known for its Bulgarian Renaissance architectural style. The Old Town covers the area of the three central hills (Трихълмие, *Trihalmie*). Almost every house in the Old Town has its characteristic exterior and interior decoration. * The Old Town * Balabanov houseBalabanov house * Lamartine HouseLamartine House * Church of St Constantine and HelenaChurch of St Constantine and Helena * Klianti HouseKlianti House * Old townOld town * Street of Old townStreet of Old town * Plovdiv Regional Ethnographic MuseumPlovdiv Regional Ethnographic Museum * Old townOld town * Old town - PlovdivOld town - Plovdiv * Plovdiv Regional Historical MuseumPlovdiv Regional Historical Museum * Hindliyan HouseHindliyan House * Hisar gate with the ethnographical museumHisar gate with the ethnographical museum ### Churches, mosques and temples There are a number of 19th-century churches, most of which follow the distinctive Eastern Orthodox construction style. They are the Saint Constantine and Saint Helena, the Saint Marina, the Saint Nedelya, the Saint Petka, and the Holy Mother of God Churches. As the city has been a gathering center for Orthodox Christians for a long period of time, Plovdiv is surrounded by several monasteries located at the foot of the Rhodope Mountains such as "St. George", "St. Kozma and Damian", St. Kirik, and Yulita (Ulita). They remain good examples of the late Middle Age Orthodox architecture and iconography masterpieces typical for the region. There are also Roman Catholic cathedrals in Plovdiv, the Cathedral of St Louis being the largest. There are several more modern Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian, and other Protestant churches, as well as older style Apostolic churches. Two mosques remain in Plovdiv from the time of Ottoman rule. The Djumaya Mosque is considered the oldest European mosque outside Moorish Spain. The Sephardic Plovdiv Synagogue is at Tsar Kaloyan Street 13 in the remnants of a small courtyard in what was once a large Jewish quarter. Dating to the 19th century, it is one of the best-preserved examples of the so-called "Ottoman-style" synagogues in the Balkans. According to author Ruth E. Gruber, the interior of the Plovdiv Synagogue is a "hidden treasure…a glorious, if run-down, burst of color." An exquisite Venetian glass chandelier hangs from the center of the ceiling, which has a richly painted dome. All surfaces are covered in elaborate, Moorish-style, geometric designs in once-bright greens and blues. Torah scrolls are kept in the gilded Aron-ha-Kodesh. Culture ------- ### Theatre and music The Plovdiv Drama Theatre is a successor of the first professional theatre group in Bulgaria founded in 1881. The Plovdiv Puppet Theatre, founded in 1948, remains one of the leading institutions in this genre. The Plovdiv Opera was established in 1953. Another pillar of Plovdiv's culture is the Philharmonic, founded in 1945. Soloists such as Dmitri Shostakovich, Sviatoslav Richter, Mstislav Rostropovich, Yuri Boukov, and Mincho Minchev have worked with the Plovdiv Philharmonic. The orchestra has toured in almost all of the European countries. The Trakiya Folklore Ensemble, founded in 1974, has performed thousands of concerts in Bulgaria and more than 42 countries. The Trakiya Traditional Choir was nominated for a Grammy Award. The Detska Kitka Choir is one of the oldest and best-known youth choirs in Bulgaria and the winner of numerous awards from international choral competitions. The Evmolpeya choir is another girls' choir from Plovdiv, whose establishing patron, Ivan Chomakov, became the then mayor in 2006. The choir was appointed a Goodwill Ambassador and a municipal choir. ### Literature Plovdiv is among the nation's primary literary centres. In 1855 Hristo G. Danov created the first Bulgarian publishing company and printing-press. The city's traditions as a literary centre are preserved by the first public library in Bulgaria, the Ivan Vazov National Library, the 19 *chitalishta* (cultural centres), and by numerous booksellers and publishers. The library was founded in 1879 and named after the famous Bulgarian writer and poet Ivan Vazov who worked in Plovdiv for five years creating some of his best works. Today the Ivan Vazov National Library is the second largest national library institution with more than 1.5 million books, owning rare Bulgarian and European publications. ### Arts The city has traditions in iconography since the Middle Ages. During the Period of National Revival, a number of notable icon-painters (called in Bulgarian *zografi*, *зографи*) from all regions of the country worked in Plovdiv such as – Dimitar Zograf, his son Zafir Zograf, Zahari Zograf, Georgi Danchov, and others. After the Liberation, the Bulgarian painter of Czech origin Ivan Mrkvička came to work in the city. The Painters' Society was established there by artists from southern Bulgaria in 1912 whose members included painters Zlatyu Boyadzhiev, Tsanko Lavrenov and Sirak Skitnik. Today the city has more than 40 art galleries with most of them being privately owned. The Art Gallery of Plovdiv was founded in the late 19th century. It possesses 5,000 pieces of art in four buildings. Since 1981, it has had a section for Mexican art donated by Mexican painters in honour of the 1,300-year anniversary of the Bulgarian State. ### European Capital of Culture On 5 September 2014, Plovdiv was selected as the Bulgarian host of European Capital of Culture in 2019. The city will co-host the event with Matera and another city (yet to be decided). After Plovdiv was elected as European Capital of Culture in 2019, an ambitious cultural program has started its realisation. According to this program, there will be an Island of Arts in the middle of the Maritsa River in Plovdiv. The "Kapana" area (the "Trap") will become a quarter of the arts where the creative industries are going to be developed and presented. This famous area, Kapana, was renovated in 2014, restoring its authentic outlook. It has been used for a number of festivals and art events. For 2019 the City Under the Hills is planning a number of concerts, including "Balkan Music in Plovdiv".The city will host the Plovdiv Biennale and a number of international forums, such as a meeting of collectors from Europe, a summer art school, dance projects, etc. Economy ------- GVA by sector (2013)   Agriculture (5%)  Industry (57%)  Services (38%) Employees by sector (2014)   Manufacturing (36%)  Commerce (16%)  Education (8%)  Healthcare (7%)  Transport (6%)  Other (27%) Although it is located in the middle of a rich agricultural region, Plovdiv's economy has shifted from agriculture to industry since the beginning of the 20th century. Food processing, tobacco, brewing, and textiles formed the pillars of the industrial economic shift. During Communist rule, the city's economy expanded and was dominated by heavy industry. After the fall of Communism in 1989 and the collapse of Bulgaria's planned economy, a number of industrial complexes were closed; production of lead and zinc, machinery, electronics, motor trucks, chemicals, and cosmetics have continued. Plovdiv is the economic capital of Bulgaria as it has the country's largest economy and contributes 7.5% of Bulgaria's GDP as of 2014[update]. In 2014, more than 35 thousand companies operate in the region which create jobs for 285,000 people. The advantages of Plovdiv include the central geographic location, good infrastructure, and large population. Plovdiv has an international airport, terminal for intermodal transport, several connections with Trakia motorway (connecting Sofia and Burgas), proximity to Maritsa motorway (the main corridor to Turkey), and well-developed road and rail infrastructure which all led to the development of the city as the leading city in terms of industrial output in Bulgaria. Established in 1970, the Toplofikatsiya Plovdiv company provides generation of electric power and heat and heat distribution for Plovdiv. The economy of Plovdiv has long tradition in manufacturing, commerce, transport, communications, and tourism. Apart from the industrial development of Plovdiv, there has been a significant surge in the IT and outsourcing service sector in the recent years, as well as a double-digit increase in the tourism growth in the city every year for the past 5 years. ### Economic Indicators | Indicator | Unit | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | GDP | BGN million | 5,539 | 6,062 | 6,178 | 6,374 | 6,273 | | Share in Bulgaria's GDP |  % | 7.5 | 7.6 | 7.6 | 7.8 | 7.5 | | GDP per capita | BGN | 7,924 | 8,888 | 9,087 | 9,394 | 9,268 | | Population | Number | 696,300 | 680,884 | 678,860 | 678,197 | 675,586 | | Average annual number of employees under labor contract | Number | 208,438 | 207,599 | 205,876 | 203,933 | 207,057 | | Average salary of employees under labor contract | BGN | 6,462 | 6,889 | 7,418 | 7,922 | 8,504 | | Economic activity rate |  % | 64.9 | 64.2 | 67.7 | 70.7 | 71.7 | | Unemployment rate |  % | 8.5 | 8.8 | 11.2 | 13.4 | 13.1 | | FDI | EUR million | 1.118 | 1.259 | 1.340 | 1.648 | 1.546 | Source: The National Statistical Institute ### Industry Industry has been the sole leader in attracting investment. Industry has been expanding since the late 1990s, with manufacturing plants being built in the city or in its outskirts mainly the municipality of Maritsa. In this period, some €500,000,000 has been invested in the construction of new factories. Trakia Economic Zone which is one of the largest industrial zones in Eastern Europe, is located around Plovdiv. Some of the biggest companies in the region include the Austrian utility company EVN, PIMK (transport), Insa Oil (fuels), Liebherr (refrigerator plant), Magna International (automotive industry), Bella Bulgaria (food manufacturing), Socotab (tobacco processing), ABB Group, Schneider Electric, Osram, Sensata Technologies, etc. ### Shopping and commerce The commercial sector is developing quickly. Shopping centers have been built mainly in the Central district and the district of Trakiya. Those include Shopping Center Grand, Market Center, and two more all on the Kapitan Raycho Street, Forum in Trakiya, Excelsior, and others. Plovdiv has three large shopping centers: the €40 million Mall of Plovdiv (opened 2009) with a shopping area of 22,000 m2 (236,806.03 sq ft), 11 cinema halls, and parking for 700 cars; Markovo tepe Mall (opened 2016); and Plovdiv Plaza Mall which is 6 stories high with 127 000 m2 area, half of which is the parking lot and the rest is shopping area. Due to the high demand for business office space, new office and commercial buildings have been built. Several hypermarkets have been built mainly on the outskirts of the city: Metro, Kaufland, Triumf, Praktiker, Billa, Mr. Bricolage, Baumax, Technopolis, Technomarket Europa, and others. The main shopping area is the central street with its shops, cafés, and restaurants. A number of cafés, craftsmen workshops, and souvenir shops are in the Old Town and the small streets in the centre, known among the locals as "The Trap" (Bulgarian: Капана). The Plovdiv International Fair, held annually since 1892, is the largest and oldest fair in the country and all of southeastern Europe, gathering companies from all over the world in an exhibition area of 138,000 m2 (1,485,419.64 sq ft) located on a territory of 352,000 m2 (3,788,896.47 sq ft) on the northern banks of the Maristsa river. It attracts more than 600,000 visitors from many countries. The city has had a duty-free zone since 1987. It has a customs terminal handling cargo from trucks and trains. * Mall Plovdiv PlazaMall Plovdiv Plaza * Mall Markovo tepeMall Markovo tepe * Mall PlovdivMall Plovdiv * Forum Trakia shopping centerForum Trakia shopping center Transport --------- Plovdiv's geographical position makes it an international transport hub. Three of the ten Pan-European corridors run into or near the city: Corridor IV (Dresden–Bucharest–Sofia-Plovdiv-Istanbul), Corridor VIII (Durrës-Sofia-Plovdiv-Varna/Burgas), and Corridor X (Salzburg–Belgrade-Plovdiv-Istanbul). A major tourist centre, Plovdiv lies at the foot of the Rhodope Mountains, and most people wishing to explore the mountains choose it as their trip's starting point. The city is a major road and railway hub in southern Bulgaria with the Trakia motorway (A1) only 5 km (3 mi) to the north. It lies on the important national route from Sofia to Burgas via Stara Zagora. First-class roads lead to Sofia to the west, Karlovo to the north, Asenovgrad, Kardzhali to the south, and Stara Zagora and Haskovo to the east. There are intercity buses which link Plovdiv with cities and towns all over the country and many European countries. They are based in three bus stations: South, Rodopi, and North. Railway transport in the city dates back to 1872 when it became a station on the Lyubimets–Belovo railway line. There are railway lines to Sofia, Panagyurishte, Karlovo, Peshtera, Stara Zagora, Dimitrovgrad, and Asenovgrad. There are three railway stations: – Plovdiv Central, Trakia, and Filipovo – as well as a freight station. Plovdiv has a large public transport system including around 29 main and 10 extra bus lines. However, there are no trams in the city, and the Plovdiv trolleybus system was closed in autumn 2012. Six bridges span the Maritsa river including a railway bridge and a covered bridge. There are important road junctions to the south, southwest, and north. Plovdiv has a well-developed cycling infrastructure which covers almost all districts of the city. The total length of the cycling roads is 60 kilometres (37 miles) (48 kilometres (30 miles) are completed and 12 kilometres (7.5 miles) are under construction). The city has a total of 690 bike parkings. * Cycling Infrastructure * * * * * * The number of registered private automobiles in the city increased from 178,104 in 2005 to 234,298 in 2009. There are around 658 cars per 1,000 inhabitants The Plovdiv International Airport is near the village of Krumovo, 5 km (3 mi) southeast of the city. It takes charter flights from Europe and has scheduled services with Ryanair to London Stansted and Dublin and S7 to Moscow. Wizz Air have services to London Luton, Dortmund, and Munich West.Many small airports are in the city's surroundings, including the Graf Ignatievo Air Base in Graf Ignatievo to the north of Plovdiv. The BIAF Airshow is held every two years on the Krumovo airbase and is one of the biggest airshows in the Balkans. Education --------- Around two thirds of the citizens (62,38%) have secondary, specialized, or higher education. That percentage increased from 1992 to 2001. Plovdiv has 78 schools including elementary, high, foreign language, mathematics, technical, and art schools. There are also 10 private schools and a seminary. The number of pupils in 2005 was 36,964 and has been constantly decreasing since the mid-1990 due to lower birth rate. Among the most prestigious schools are the English Language School, the High School of Mathematics, the Ivan Vazov Language School, the National Schools of Commerce – Plovdiv, the English Academy, the Academy of Music, Dance and Fine Arts Plovdiv, and the French High School of Plovdiv. The city has six universities and a number of state and private colleges and branches of other universities. Those include Plovdiv University, with 900 lecturers and employees and 13,000 students; the Plovdiv Medical University, with 2,600 students; the Medical College; the Technical University of Sofia – Branch Plovdiv; the Agricultural University – Plovdiv; the University of Food Technologies; the Academy for Music, Dance and Fine Arts; and others. The 2009 International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI) was held at the University of Plovdiv "Paisiy Hilendarski", between 8 and 15 August 2009. The 2009 IOI Honorary Patron was Bulgarian President Georgi Parvanov. Between 1875 and 1906, the Zariphios School was one of the local Greek educational institutions that provided elementary and secondary education. Sports and recreation --------------------- Plovdiv Sports Complex consists of Plovdiv Stadium with several additional football fields, tennis courts, swimming pools, a rowing base with a 2 km-long channel, restaurants, and cafés in a spacious park in the western part of the city just south of the Maritsa river. There are also playgrounds for children. It is popular among the citizens and guests of Plovdiv who use it for jogging, walking, and relaxation. Plovdiv Stadium (55,000 seats) is the largest football venue in Bulgaria. Other stadiums include Stadion Botev, Lokomotiv (10,000 seats), Maritsa Stadium (5,000 seats), and Todor Diev Stadium (7,000 seats). There are seven indoor sports halls: Kolodruma, University Hall, Olimpia, Lokomotiv, Dunav, Stroitel, Chaika, Akademik, and Total Sport. In 2006, Aqualand, a water park, was opened near the city centre. Several smaller water parks are in the city as well. * Sport Facilities * Plovdiv Stadium and sport complexPlovdiv Stadium and sport complex * Rowing baseRowing base * Lokomotiv StadiumLokomotiv Stadium * Hristo Botev StadiumHristo Botev Stadium * Plovdiv University sports hallPlovdiv University sports hall Football is the most popular sport in the city; Plovdiv has three professional teams. The city has PFC Botev Plovdiv, founded in 1912 and PFC Lokomotiv, founded in 1926. Both teams are a regular fixture in the top Bulgarian league. The rivalry between them is considered to be even more fierce than the one between Levski and CSKA of Sofia. There are two other football clubs in the city – Maritsa FC (founded in 1921) and Spartak Plovdiv (1947). Plovdiv is host of the international boxing tournament "Strandzha" which has taken place since 1949. In 2007, 96 boxers from 20 countries participated in the tournament. There is a horse racing club and a horse base near the city. Plovdiv has several volleyball and basketball teams. Three of the city's seven hills are protected natural territories since 1995. Two of the first parks in Bulgaria are located in the city center  – *Tsar Simeon garden – city garden*, where the very first work of the Italian sculptor Arnoldo Zocchi could be seen, and *Dondukov garden – old city garden*. Some of the larger parks include the *Botanical garden*, *Beli Brezi*, *Ribnitsa*, and *Lauta*. Notable people -------------- * Ahmad Hilmi of Filibe – (1865–1914), writer, thinker * Ivan Andonov – (1934–2011), actor * Vladimir Arabadzhiev – (born 1984), racing driver * Zlatyu Boyadzhiev – (1903–1976), painter * Boris Christoff – (1914–1993), basso * Hristo G. Danov – (1828–1911), publisher * Dimcho Debelyanov – (1887–1916), writer * Samuel Finzi – (born 1966), German actor * George Ganchev – (born 1939), actor, writer, politician and fencer * Nayden Gerov – (1823–1900), linguist, folklorist and writer * Ivan Evstratiev Geshov – (1849–1924), former Prime Minister of Bulgaria * Georgi Ivanov – (born 1940), cosmonaut * Todor Kableshkov – (1851–1876), a 19th-century Bulgarian revolutionary * Petko Karavelov – (1843–1903), revolutionary and former Prime Minister of Bulgaria * Asen Kisimov – (1936–2005), actor * Georgios Kleovoulos – (ca.1785-1828), Greek scholar and educator * Antonios Komizopoulos – (19th.C.), Greek merchant and the 4th member of Filiki Eteria * Milcho Leviev  – (1937–2019), musician * Andrey Lyapchev – (1866–1933), former Prime Minister of Bulgaria * Aleksandar Malinov – (1867–1938), former Prime Minister of Bulgaria * Stoika Milanova – (born 1945), classical violinist * Ivan Mrkvička  – (1856–1938), painter * Sava Mutkurov – (1852–1891), former Regent of Bulgaria, the chief architect of the Bulgarian unification * Kiril Petkov – (born 1980), acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria * Silvena Rowe – (born 1967), British chef, food writer, TV personality and restaurateur * Nanka Serkedzhieva  – (1925–2012), female military officer * Pencho Slaveykov – {1866–1912), writer and poet * Konstantin Stoilov – (1853–1901), former Prime Minister of Bulgaria * Petar Stoyanov – (born 1952), former President of Bulgaria * Slavik Tabakov – medical physicist, President IOMP * Emma Tahmizian – (born 1957), pianist * Nayden Todorov – (born 1974), conductor * Christos Tsigiridis – (1877-1947), Greek electrical engineer and technological pioneer * Ivan Vazov – (1850–1921), writer * Zhan Videnov – (born 1959), former Prime Minister of Bulgaria * Sonya Yoncheva – (born 1981), opera singer * Yordan Yovkov – (1880–1937), writer ### Sport * Miroslav Barnyashev – (born 1984), professional wrestler, performing under the name of Miro * Georgi Hristov – (born 1985), former professional footballer * Stefka Kostadinova – (born 1965), world-record holder in the women's high jump * Apostolos Nikolaidis – (1896–1980), Greek athlete * Tsvetana Pironkova – (born 1987), professional tennis player * Iva Prandzheva – (born 1972), long jumper and triple jumper * Hristo Stoichkov – (born 1966), football player * Serafim Todorov – (born 1969), boxer * Yordan Yovchev – (born 1973), gymnast International relations ----------------------- ### Twin towns – sister cities Plovdiv is twinned with: * Turkey Bursa, Turkey * China Changchun, China * United States Columbia, United States * South Korea Daegu, South Korea * Ukraine Donetsk, Ukraine * Armenia Gyumri, Armenia * Saudi Arabia Jeddah, Saudi Arabia * Turkey Istanbul, Turkey * Russia Ivanovo, Russia * Greece Kastoria, Greece * Slovakia Košice, Slovakia * North Macedonia Kumanovo, North Macedonia * Georgia (country) Kutaisi, Georgia * Serbia Leskovac, Serbia * China Luoyang, China * North Macedonia Ohrid, North Macedonia * Japan Okayama, Japan * Jordan Petra, Jordan * Italy Rome, Italy * Russia Saint Petersburg, Russia * Uzbekistan Samarkand, Uzbekistan * China Shenzhen, China * Greece Thessaloniki, Greece * Venezuela Valencia, Venezuela * Russia Yekaterinburg, Russia Honour ------ The asteroid (minor planet) 3860 Plovdiv is named after the city. It was discovered by the Belgian astronomer Eric W. Elst and the Bulgarian astronomer Violeta G. Ivanova on 8 August 1986. Plovdiv Peak (1,040 m or 3,412 ft) on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica, is also named after Plovdiv. Gallery ------- * A panoramic viewA panoramic view * Looking down one of the streets in Plovdiv.Looking down one of the streets in Plovdiv. * Plan of the medieval fortressPlan of the medieval fortress See also -------- * List of airports in Bulgaria * List of cities and towns in Bulgaria * List of mayors of Plovdiv 42°9′N 24°45′E / 42.150°N 24.750°E / 42.150; 24.750

Plovdiv

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plovdiv

The **toothed whales** (also called **odontocetes**, systematic name **Odontoceti**) are a parvorder of cetaceans that includes dolphins, porpoises, and all other whales possessing teeth, such as the beaked whales and sperm whales. 73 species of toothed whales are described. They are one of two living groups of cetaceans, the other being the baleen whales (Mysticeti), which have baleen instead of teeth. The two groups are thought to have diverged around 34 million years ago (mya). Toothed whales range in size from the 1.4 m (4.6 ft) and 54 kg (119 lb) vaquita to the 20 m (66 ft) and 55 t (61-short-ton) sperm whale. Several species of odontocetes exhibit sexual dimorphism, in that there are size or other morphological differences between females and males. They have streamlined bodies and two limbs that are modified into flippers. Some can travel at up to 20 knots. Odontocetes have conical teeth designed for catching fish or squid. They have well-developed hearing that is well adapted for both air and water, so much so that some can survive even if they are blind. Some species are well adapted for diving to great depths. Almost all have a layer of fat, or blubber, under the skin to keep warm in the cold water, with the exception of river dolphins. Toothed whales consist of some of the most widespread mammals, but some, as with the vaquita, are restricted to certain areas. Odontocetes feed largely on fish and squid, but a few, like the orca, feed on mammals, such as pinnipeds. Males typically mate with multiple females every year, making them polygynous. Females mate every two to three years. Calves are typically born in the spring and summer, and females bear the responsibility for raising them, but more sociable species rely on the family group to care for calves. Many species, mainly dolphins, are highly sociable, with some pods reaching over a thousand individuals. Once hunted for their products, cetaceans are now protected by international law. Some species are attributed with high levels of intelligence. At the 2012 meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, support was reiterated for a cetacean bill of rights, listing cetaceans as nonhuman persons. Besides whaling and drive hunting, they also face threats from bycatch and marine pollution. The baiji, for example, is considered functionally extinct by the IUCN, with the last sighting in 2004, due to heavy pollution to the Yangtze River. Whales occasionally feature in literature and film, as in the great white sperm whale of Herman Melville's *Moby-Dick*. Small odontocetes, mainly dolphins, are kept in captivity and trained to perform tricks. Whale watching has become a form of tourism around the world. Taxonomy -------- ### Research history > > The tube in the head, through which this kind fish takes its breath and spitting water, located in front of the brain and ends outwardly in a simple hole, but inside it is divided by a downward bony septum, as if it were two nostrils; but underneath it opens up again in the mouth in a void. > > > –John Ray, 1671, the earliest description of cetacean airways In Aristotle's time, the fourth century BC, whales were regarded as fish due to their superficial similarity. Aristotle, however, could already see many physiological and anatomical similarities with the terrestrial vertebrates, such as blood (circulation), lungs, uterus, and fin anatomy. His detailed descriptions were assimilated by the Romans, but mixed with a more accurate knowledge of the dolphins, as mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his *Natural history*. In the art of this and subsequent periods, dolphins are portrayed with a high-arched head (typical of porpoises) and a long snout. The harbor porpoise is one of the most accessible species for early cetologists, because it could be seen very close to land, inhabiting shallow coastal areas of Europe. Many of the findings that apply to all cetaceans were therefore first discovered in the porpoises. One of the first anatomical descriptions of the airways of the whales on the basis of a harbor porpoise dates from 1671 by John Ray. It nevertheless referred to the porpoise as a fish. ### Evolution | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Relationship of toothed whale families: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  **Toothed whales**  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Delphinoidea  | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | |  Belugas, narwhals (Monodontidae) | | | | |  Porpoises (Phocoenidae) | | | | | | | |  Oceanic dolphins (Delphinidae) | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | |  Iniidae | | | | |  Pontoporiidae | | | | | | | | | | |  Beaked whales (Ziphiidae) | | | | | | | |  South Asian river dolphins (Platanistidae) | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | |  Dwarf sperm whales (Kogiidae) | | | | |  Sperm whales (Physeteridae) | | | | | | | | | | | | Toothed whales, as well as baleen whales, are descendants of land-dwelling mammals of the artiodactyl order (even-toed ungulates). They are closely related to the hippopotamus, sharing a common ancestor that lived around 54 million years ago (mya). The primitive cetaceans, or archaeocetes, first took to the sea approximately 49 mya and became fully aquatic by 5–10 million years later. The ancestors of toothed whales and baleen whales diverged in the early Oligocene. This was due to a change in the climate of the southern oceans that affected where the environment of the plankton that these whales ate. The adaptation of echolocation and enhanced fat synthesis in blubber occurred when toothed whales split apart from baleen whales, and distinguishes modern toothed whales from fully aquatic archaeocetes. This happened around 34 mya. Unlike toothed whales, baleen whales do not have wax ester deposits nor branched fatty chain acids in their blubber. Thus, more recent evolution of these complex blubber traits occurred after baleen whales and toothed whales split, and only in the toothed whale lineage. Modern toothed whales do not rely on their sense of sight, but rather on their sonar to hunt prey. Echolocation also allowed toothed whales to dive deeper in search of food, with light no longer necessary for navigation, which opened up new food sources. Toothed whales (Odontocetes) echolocate by creating a series of clicks emitted at various frequencies. Sound pulses are emitted through their melon-shaped foreheads, reflected off objects, and retrieved through the lower jaw. Skulls of *Squalodon* show evidence for the first hypothesized appearance of echolocation. *Squalodon* lived from the early to middle Oligocene to the middle Miocene, around 33-14 mya. *Squalodon* featured several commonalities with modern Odontocetes. The cranium was well compressed, the rostrum telescoped outward (a characteristic of the modern parvorder Odontoceti), giving *Squalodon* an appearance similar to that of modern toothed whales. However, it is thought unlikely that squalodontids are direct ancestors of living dolphins. Biology ------- ### Anatomy Toothed whales have torpedo-shaped bodies with usually inflexible necks, limbs modified into flippers, nonexistent external ear flaps, a large tail fin, and bulbous heads (with the exception of sperm whales). Their skulls have small eye orbits, long beaks (with the exception sperm whales), and eyes placed on the sides of their heads. Toothed whales range in size from the 4.5 ft (1.4 m) and 120 lb (54 kg) vaquita to the 20 m (66 ft) and 55 t (61-short-ton) sperm whale. Overall, they tend to be dwarfed by their relatives, the baleen whales (Mysticeti). Several species have sexual dimorphism, with the females being larger than the males. One exception is with the sperm whale, which has males larger than the females. Odontocetes, such as the sperm whale, possess teeth with cementum cells overlying dentine cells. Unlike human teeth, which are composed mostly of enamel on the portion of the tooth outside of the gum, whale teeth have cementum outside the gum. Only in larger whales, where the cementum is worn away on the tip of the tooth, does enamel show. Except for the sperm whale, most toothed whales are smaller than the baleen whales. The teeth differ considerably among the species. They may be numerous, with some dolphins bearing over 100 teeth in their jaws. At the other extreme are the narwhals with their single long tusks and the almost toothless beaked whales with tusk-like teeth only in males. Not all species are believed to use their teeth for feeding. For instance, the sperm whale likely uses its teeth for aggression and showmanship. Breathing involves expelling stale air from their one blowhole, forming an upward, steamy spout, followed by inhaling fresh air into the lungs. Spout shapes differ among species, which facilitates identification. The spout only forms when warm air from the lungs meets cold air, so it does not form in warmer climates, as with river dolphins. Almost all cetaceans have a thick layer of blubber, with the exception of river dolphins. In species that live near the poles, the blubber can be as thick as 11 in (28 cm). This blubber can help with buoyancy, protection to some extent as predators would have a hard time getting through a thick layer of fat, energy for fasting during leaner times, and insulation from the harsh climates. Calves are born with only a thin layer of blubber, but some species compensate for this with thick lanugos. Toothed whales have also evolved the ability to store large amounts of wax esters in their adipose tissue as an addition to or in complete replacement of other fats in their blubber. They can produce isovaleric acid from branched chain fatty acids (BCFA). These adaptations are unique, are only in more recent, derived lineages and were likely part of the transition for species to become deeper divers as the families of toothed whales (Physeteridae, Kogiidae, and Ziphiidae) that have the highest quantities of wax esters and BCFAs in their blubber are also the species that dive the deepest and for the longest amount of time. Toothed whales have a two-chambered stomach similar in structure to terrestrial carnivores. They have fundic and pyloric chambers. ### Locomotion Cetaceans have two flippers on the front, and a tail fin. These flippers contain four digits. Although toothed whales do not possess fully developed hind limbs, some, such as the sperm whale, possess discrete rudimentary appendages, which may contain feet and digits. Toothed whales are fast swimmers in comparison to seals, which typically cruise at 5–15 knots, or 9–28 km/h (5.6–17.4 mph); the sperm whale, in comparison, can travel at speeds of up to 35 km/h (22 mph). The fusing of the neck vertebrae, while increasing stability when swimming at high speeds, decreases flexibility, rendering them incapable of turning their heads; river dolphins, however, have unfused neck vertebrae and can turn their heads. When swimming, toothed whales rely on their tail fins to propel them through the water. Flipper movement is continuous. They swim by moving their tail fin and lower body up and down, propelling themselves through vertical movement, while their flippers are mainly used for steering. Some species log out of the water, which may allow them to travel faster.[*further explanation needed*] Their skeletal anatomy allows them to be fast swimmers. Most species have a dorsal fin. Most toothed whales are adapted for diving to great depths, porpoises are one exception. In addition to their streamlined bodies, they can slow their heart rate to conserve oxygen; blood is rerouted from tissue tolerant of water pressure to the heart and brain among other organs; haemoglobin and myoglobin store oxygen in body tissue; and they have twice the concentration of myoglobin than haemoglobin. Before going on long dives, many toothed whales exhibit a behaviour known as sounding; they stay close to the surface for a series of short, shallow dives while building their oxygen reserves, and then make a sounding dive. ### Senses Toothed whale eyes are relatively small for their size, yet they do retain a good degree of eyesight. As well as this, the eyes are placed on the sides of its head, so their vision consists of two fields, rather than a binocular view as humans have. When a beluga surfaces, its lenses and corneas correct the nearsightedness that results from the refraction of light; they contain both rod and cone cells, meaning they can see in both dim and bright light. They do, however, lack short wavelength-sensitive visual pigments in their cone cells, indicating a more limited capacity for colour vision than most mammals. Most toothed whales have slightly flattened eyeballs, enlarged pupils (which shrink as they surface to prevent damage), slightly flattened corneas, and a tapetum lucidum; these adaptations allow for large amounts of light to pass through the eye, and, therefore, a very clear image of the surrounding area. In water, a whale can see around 10.7 m (35 ft) ahead of itself, but they have a smaller range above water. They also have glands on the eyelids and outer corneal layer that act as protection for the cornea. The olfactory lobes are absent in toothed whales, and unlike baleen whales, they lack the vomeronasal organ, suggesting they have no sense of smell. Toothed whales are not thought to have a good sense of taste, as their taste buds are atrophied or missing altogether. However, some dolphins have preferences between different kinds of fish, indicating some sort of attachment to taste. ### Sonar Diagram illustrating sound generation, propagation and reception in a toothed whale. Outgoing sounds are red and incoming ones are greenDiagram illustrating sound generation, propagation and reception in a toothed whale. Outgoing sounds are red and incoming ones are green Toothed whales are capable of making a broad range of sounds using nasal airsacs located just below the blowhole. Roughly three categories of sounds can be identified: frequency-modulated whistles, burst-pulsed sounds, and clicks. Dolphins communicate with whistle-like sounds produced by vibrating connective tissue, similar to the way human vocal cords function, and through burst-pulsed sounds, though the nature and extent of that ability is not known. The clicks are directional and are used for echolocation, often occurring in a short series called a click train. The click rate increases when approaching an object of interest. Toothed whale biosonar clicks are amongst the loudest sounds made by marine animals. The cetacean ear has specific adaptations to the marine environment. In humans, the middle ear works as an impedance equalizer between the outside air's low impedance and the cochlear fluid's high impedance. In whales, and other marine mammals, no great difference exists between the outer and inner environments. Instead of sound passing through the outer ear to the middle ear, whales receive sound through the throat, from which it passes through a low-impedance, fat-filled cavity to the inner ear. The ear is acoustically isolated from the skull by air-filled sinus pockets, which allow for greater directional hearing underwater. Odontocetes send out high-frequency clicks from an organ known as a melon. This melon consists of fat, and the skull of any such creature containing a melon will have a large depression. The melon size varies between species, the bigger it is, the more dependent they are on it. A beaked whale, for example, has a small bulge sitting on top of its skull, whereas a sperm whale's head is filled mainly with the melon. Odontocetes are well adapted to hear sounds at ultrasonic frequencies, as opposed to mysticetes who generally hear sounds within the range of infrasonic frequencies. Bottlenose dolphins have been found to have signature whistles unique to a specific individual. These whistles are used for dolphins to communicate with one another by identifying an individual. It can be seen as the dolphin equivalent of a name for humans. Because dolphins are generally associated in groups, communication is necessary. Signal masking is when other similar sounds (conspecific sounds) interfere with the original acoustic sound. In larger groups, individual whistle sounds are less prominent. Dolphins tend to travel in pods, in some instances including up to 600 members. Life history and behaviour -------------------------- ### Intelligence Cetaceans are known to communicate and therefore are able to teach, learn, cooperate, scheme, and grieve. The neocortex of many species of dolphins is home to elongated spindle neurons that, prior to 2007, were known only in hominids. In humans, these cells are involved in social conduct, emotions, judgement, and theory of mind. Dolphin spindle neurons are found in areas of the brain homologous to where they are found in humans, suggesting they perform a similar function. Brain size was previously considered a major indicator of the intelligence of an animal. Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for more complex cognitive tasks. Allometric analysis indicates that mammalian brain size scales around the two-thirds or three-quarters exponent of the body mass. Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an encephalisation quotient that can be used as another indication of animal intelligence. Sperm whales have the largest brain mass of any animal on earth, averaging 8,000 cm3 (490 in3) and 7.8 kg (17 lb) in mature males, in comparison to the average human brain which averages 1,450 cm3 (88 in3) in mature males. The brain to body mass ratio in some odontocetes, such as belugas and narwhals, is second only to humans. Dolphins are known to engage in complex play behaviour, which includes such things as producing stable underwater toroidal air-core vortex rings or "bubble rings". Two main methods of bubble ring production are: rapid puffing of a burst of air into the water and allowing it to rise to the surface, forming a ring, or swimming repeatedly in a circle and then stopping to inject air into the helical vortex currents thus formed. They also appear to enjoy biting the vortex rings, so that they burst into many separate bubbles and then rise quickly to the surface. Dolphins are known to use this method during hunting. Dolphins have also been known to use tools. In Shark Bay, a population of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins put sponges on their beak to protect them from abrasions and sting ray barbs while foraging in the seafloor. This behaviour is passed on from mother to daughter, and it is only observed in 54 female individuals. Self-awareness is seen, by some, to be a sign of highly developed, abstract thinking. Self-awareness, though not well-defined scientifically, is believed to be the precursor to more advanced processes like metacognitive reasoning (thinking about thinking) that are typical of humans. Research in this field has suggested that cetaceans, among others, possess self-awareness. The most widely used test for self-awareness in animals is the mirror test, in which a temporary dye is placed on an animal's body, and the animal is then presented with a mirror; then whether the animal shows signs of self-recognition is determined. In 1995, Marten and Psarakos used television to test dolphin self-awareness. They showed dolphins real-time footage of themselves, recorded footage, and another dolphin. They concluded that their evidence suggested self-awareness rather than social behavior. While this particular study has not been repeated since then, dolphins have since "passed" the mirror test. ### Vocalisations Dolphins are capable of making a broad range of sounds using nasal airsacs located just below the blowhole. Roughly three categories of sounds can be identified: frequency modulated whistles, burst-pulsed sounds and clicks. Dolphins communicate with whistle-like sounds produced by vibrating connective tissue, similar to the way human vocal cords function, and through burst-pulsed sounds, though the nature and extent of that ability is not known. The clicks are directional and are for echolocation, often occurring in a short series called a click train. The click rate increases when approaching an object of interest. Dolphin echolocation clicks are amongst the loudest sounds made by marine animals. Bottlenose dolphins have been found to have signature whistles, a whistle that is unique to a specific individual. These whistles are used in order for dolphins to communicate with one another by identifying an individual. It can be seen as the dolphin equivalent of a name for humans. These signature whistles are developed during a dolphin's first year; it continues to maintain the same sound throughout its lifetime. An auditory experience influences the whistle development of each dolphin. Dolphins are able to communicate to one another by addressing another dolphin through mimicking their whistle. The signature whistle of a male bottlenose dolphin tends to be similar to that of his mother, while the signature whistle of a female bottlenose dolphin tends to be more identifying. Bottlenose dolphins have a strong memory when it comes to these signature whistles, as they are able to relate to a signature whistle of an individual they have not encountered for over twenty years. Research done on signature whistle usage by other dolphin species is relatively limited. The research on other species done so far has yielded varied outcomes and inconclusive results. Sperm whales can produce three specific vocalisations: creaks, codas, and slow clicks. A creak is a rapid series of high-frequency clicks that sounds somewhat like a creaky door hinge. It is typically used when homing in on prey. A coda is a short pattern of 3 to 20 clicks that is used in social situations to identify one another (like a signature whistle), but it is still unknown whether sperm whales possess individually specific coda repertoires or whether individuals make codas at different rates. Slow clicks are heard only in the presence of males (it is not certain whether females occasionally make them). Males make a lot of slow clicks in breeding grounds (74% of the time), both near the surface and at depth, which suggests they are primarily mating signals. Outside breeding grounds, slow clicks are rarely heard, and usually near the surface. Characteristics of sperm whale clicks| Click type | Apparent source level (dB re 1µPa [Rms]) | Directionality | Centroid frequency (kHz) | Inter-click interval (s) | Duration of click (ms) | Duration of pulse (ms) | Range audible to sperm whale (km) | Inferred function | Audio sample | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Usual | 230 | High | 15 | 0.5–1.0 | 15–30 | 0.1 | 16 | Searching for prey | | | Creak | 205 | High | 15 | 0.005–0.1 | 0.1–5 | 0.1 | 6 | Homing in on prey | | | Coda | 180 | Low | 5 | 0.1–0.5 | 35 | 0.5 | ~2 | Social communication | | | Slow | 190 | Low | 0.5 | 5–8 | 30 | 5 | 60 | Communication by males | | ### Foraging and predation All whales are carnivorous and predatory. Odontocetes, as a whole, mostly feed on fish and cephalopods, and then followed by crustaceans and bivalves. All species are generalist and opportunistic feeders. Some may forage with other kinds of animals, such as other species of whales or certain species of pinnipeds. One common feeding method is herding, where a pod squeezes a school of fish into a small volume, known as a bait ball. Individual members then take turns plowing through the ball, feeding on the stunned fish. Coralling is a method where dolphins chase fish into shallow water to catch them more easily. Orcas and bottlenose dolphins have also been known to drive their prey onto a beach to feed on it, a behaviour known as beach or strand feeding. The shape of the snout may correlate with tooth number and thus feeding mechanisms. The narwhal, with its blunt snout and reduced dentition, relies on suction feeding. Sperm whales usually dive between 300 to 800 metres (980 to 2,620 ft), and sometimes 1 to 2 kilometres (3,300 to 6,600 ft), in search of food. Such dives can last more than an hour. They feed on several species, notably the giant squid, but also the colossal squid, octopuses, and fish like demersal rays, but their diet is mainly medium-sized squid. Some prey may be taken accidentally while eating other items. A study in the Galápagos found that squid from the genera *Histioteuthis* (62%), *Ancistrocheirus* (16%), and *Octopoteuthis* (7%) weighing between 12 and 650 grams (0.026 and 1.433 lb) were the most commonly taken. Battles between sperm whales and giant squid or colossal squid have never been observed by humans; however, white scars are believed to be caused by the large squid. A 2010 study suggests that female sperm whales may collaborate when hunting Humboldt squid. The orca is known to prey on numerous other toothed whale species. One example is the false killer whale. To subdue and kill whales, orcas continually ram them with their heads; this can sometimes kill bowhead whales, or severely injure them. Other times, they corral their prey before striking. They are typically hunted by groups of 10 or fewer orca, but they are seldom attacked by an individual. Calves are more commonly taken by orca, but adults can be targeted, as well. Groups even attack larger cetaceans such as minke whales, gray whales, and rarely sperm whales or blue whales. Other marine mammal prey species include nearly 20 species of seal, sea lion and fur seal. These cetaceans are targeted by terrestrial and pagophilic predators. The polar bear is well-adapted for hunting Arctic whales and calves. Bears are known to use sit-and-wait tactics, as well as active stalking and pursuit of prey on ice or water. Whales lessen the chance of predation by gathering in groups. This, however, means less room around the breathing hole as the ice slowly closes the gap. When out at sea, whales dive out of the reach of surface-hunting orca. Polar bear attacks on belugas and narwhals are usually successful in winter, but rarely inflict any damage in summer. For most of the smaller species of dolphins, only a few of the larger sharks, such as the bull shark, dusky shark, tiger shark, and great white shark, are a potential risk, especially for calves. Dolphins can tolerate and recover from extreme injuries (including shark bites) although the exact methods used to achieve this are not known. The healing process is rapid and even very deep wounds do not cause dolphins to hemorrhage to death. Even gaping wounds restore in such a way that the animal's body shape is restored, and infection of such large wounds are rare. ### Life cycle Toothed whales are fully aquatic creatures, which means their birth and courtship behaviours are very different from terrestrial and semiaquatic creatures. Since they are unable to go onto land to calve, they deliver their young with the fetus positioned for tail-first delivery. This prevents the calf from drowning either upon or during delivery. To feed the newborn, toothed whales, being aquatic, must squirt the milk into the mouth of the calf. Being mammals, they have mammary glands used for nursing calves; they are weaned around 11 months of age. This milk contains high amounts of fat which is meant to hasten the development of blubber; it contains so much fat, it has the consistency of toothpaste. Females deliver a single calf, with gestation lasting about a year, dependency until one to two years, and maturity around seven to 10 years, all varying between the species. This mode of reproduction produces few offspring, but increases the survival probability of each one. Females, referred to as "cows", carry the responsibility of childcare, as males, referred to as "bulls", play no part in raising calves. In orcas, false killer whales, short-finned pilot whales, narwhals, and belugas, there is an unusually long post-reproductive lifespan (menopause) in females. Older females, though unable to have their own children, play a key role in the rearing of other calves in the pod, and in this sense, given the costs of pregnancy especially at an advanced age, extended menopause is advantageous. Interaction with humans ----------------------- ### Threats #### Sperm whaling The head of the sperm whale is filled with a waxy liquid called spermaceti. This liquid can be refined into spermaceti wax and sperm oil. These were much sought after by 18th-, 19th-, and 20th-century whalers. These substances found a variety of commercial applications, such as candles, soap, cosmetics, machine oil, other specialized lubricants, lamp oil, pencils, crayons, leather waterproofing, rustproofing materials, and many pharmaceutical compounds. Ambergris, a solid, waxy, flammable substance produced in the digestive system of sperm whales, was also sought as a fixative in perfumery. Sperm whaling in the 18th century began with small sloops carrying only a pair of whaleboats (sometimes only one). As the scope and size of the fleet increased, so did the rig of the vessels change, as brigs, schooners, and finally ships and barks were introduced. In the 19th-century stubby, square-rigged ships (and later barks) dominated the fleet, being sent to the Pacific (the first being the British whaleship *Emilia*, in 1788), the Indian Ocean (1780s), and as far away as the Japan grounds (1820) and the coast of Arabia (1820s), as well as Australia (1790s) and New Zealand (1790s). Hunting for sperm whales during this period was a notoriously dangerous affair for the crews of the 19th-century whaleboats. Although a properly harpooned sperm whale generally exhibited a fairly consistent pattern of attempting to flee underwater to the point of exhaustion (at which point it would surface and offer no further resistance), it was not uncommon for bull whales to become enraged and turn to attack pursuing whaleboats on the surface, particularly if it had already been wounded by repeated harpooning attempts. A commonly reported tactic was for the whale to invert itself and violently thrash the surface of the water with its fluke, flipping and crushing nearby boats. The estimated historic worldwide sperm whale population numbered 1,100,000 before commercial sperm whaling began in the early 18th century. By 1880, it had declined an estimated 29%. From that date until 1946, the population appears to have recovered somewhat as whaling pressure lessened, but after the Second World War, with the industry's focus again on sperm whales, the population declined even further to only 33%. In the 19th century, between 184,000 and 236,000 sperm whales were estimated to have been killed by the various whaling nations, while in the modern era, at least 770,000 were taken, the majority between 1946 and 1980. Remaining sperm whale populations are large enough so that the species' conservation status is vulnerable, rather than endangered. However, the recovery from the whaling years is a slow process, particularly in the South Pacific, where the toll on males of breeding age was severe. #### Drive hunting Dolphins and porpoises are hunted in an activity known as dolphin drive hunting. This is accomplished by driving a pod together with boats and usually into a bay or onto a beach. Their escape is prevented by closing off the route to the ocean with other boats or nets. Dolphins are hunted this way in several places around the world, including the Solomon Islands, the Faroe Islands, Peru, and Japan, the most well-known practitioner of this method. By numbers, dolphins are mostly hunted for their meat, though some end up in dolphinariums. Despite the controversial nature of the hunt resulting in international criticism, and the possible health risk that the often polluted meat causes, thousands of dolphins are caught in drive hunts each year. In Japan, the hunting is done by a select group of fishermen. When a pod of dolphins has been spotted, they are driven into a bay by the fishermen while banging on metal rods in the water to scare and confuse the dolphins. When the dolphins are in the bay, it is quickly closed off with nets so the dolphins cannot escape. The dolphins are usually not caught and killed immediately, but instead left to calm down over night. The following day, the dolphins are caught one by one and killed. The killing of the animals used to be done by slitting their throats, but the Japanese government banned this method, and now dolphins may officially only be killed by driving a metal pin into the neck of the dolphin, which causes them to die within seconds according to a memo from Senzo Uchida, the executive secretary of the Japan Cetacean Conference on Zoological Gardens and Aquariums. A veterinary team's analysis of a 2011 video footage of Japanese hunters killing striped dolphins using this method suggested that, in one case, death took over four minutes. Since much of the criticism is the result of photos and videos taken during the hunt and slaughter, it is now common for the final capture and slaughter to take place on site inside a tent or under a plastic cover, out of sight from the public. The most circulated footage is probably that of the drive and subsequent capture and slaughter process taken in Futo, Japan, in October 1999, shot by the Japanese animal welfare organization Elsa Nature Conservancy. Part of this footage was, amongst others, shown on CNN. In recent years, the video has also become widespread on the internet and was featured in the animal welfare documentary *Earthlings*, though the method of killing dolphins as shown in this video is now officially banned. In 2009, a critical documentary on the hunts in Japan titled *The Cove* was released and shown amongst others at the Sundance Film Festival. #### Other threats Toothed whales can also be threatened by humans more indirectly. They are unintentionally caught in fishing nets by commercial fisheries as bycatch and accidentally swallow fishing hooks. Gillnetting and Seine netting are significant causes of mortality in cetaceans and other marine mammals. Porpoises are commonly entangled in fishing nets. Whales are also affected by marine pollution. High levels of organic chemicals accumulate in these animals since they are high in the food chain. They have large reserves of blubber, more so for toothed whales, as they are higher up the food chain than baleen whales. Lactating mothers can pass the toxins on to their young. These pollutants can cause gastrointestinal cancers and greater vulnerability to infectious diseases. They can also be poisoned by swallowing litter, such as plastic bags. Pollution of the Yangtze river has led to the extinction of the baiji. Environmentalists speculate that advanced naval sonar endangers some whales. Some scientists suggest that sonar may trigger whale beachings, and they point to signs that such whales have experienced decompression sickness. ### Conservation Currently, no international convention gives universal coverage to all small whales, although the International Whaling Commission has attempted to extend its jurisdiction over them. ASCOBANS was negotiated to protect all small whales in the North and Baltic Seas and in the northeast Atlantic. ACCOBAMS protects all whales in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. The global UNEP Convention on Migratory Species currently covers seven toothed whale species or populations on its Appendix I, and 37 species or populations on Appendix II. All oceanic cetaceans are listed in CITES appendices, meaning international trade in them and products derived from them is very limited. Numerous organisation are dedicated to protecting certain species that do not fall under any international treaty, such as the Committee for the Recovery of the Vaquita, and the Wuhan Institute of Hydrobiology (for the Yangtze finless porpoise). ### In captivity #### Species Various species of toothed whales, mainly dolphins, are kept in captivity, as well as several other species of porpoise such as harbour porpoises and finless porpoises. These small cetaceans are more often than not kept in theme parks, such as SeaWorld, commonly known as a dolphinarium. Bottlenose dolphins are the most common species kept in dolphinariums, as they are relatively easy to train, have a long lifespan in captivity, and have a friendly appearance. Hundreds if not thousands of bottlenose dolphins live in captivity across the world, though exact numbers are hard to determine. Orca are well known for their performances in shows, but the number kept in captivity is very small, especially when compared to the number of bottlenose dolphins, with only 44 captives being held in aquaria as of 2012. Other species kept in captivity are spotted dolphins, false killer whales, and common dolphins, Commerson's dolphins, as well as rough-toothed dolphins, but all in much lower numbers than the bottlenose dolphin. Also, fewer than ten pilot whales, Amazon river dolphins, Risso's dolphins, spinner dolphins, or tucuxi are in captivity. Two unusual and very rare hybrid dolphins, known as wolphins, are kept at the Sea Life Park in Hawaii, which is a cross between a bottlenose dolphin and a false killer whale. Also, two common/bottlenose hybrids reside in captivity: one at Discovery Cove and the other at SeaWorld San Diego. #### Controversy Organisations such as Animal Welfare Institute and the Whale and Dolphin Conservation campaign against the captivity of dolphins and orca. SeaWorld faced a lot of criticism after the documentary *Blackfish* was released in 2013. Aggression among captive orca is common. In August 1989, a dominant female orca, Kandu V, attempted to rake a newcomer whale, Corky II, with her mouth during a live show, and smashed her head into a wall. Kandu V broke her jaw, which severed an artery, and then bled to death. In November 2006, a dominant female killer whale, Kasatka, repeatedly dragged experienced trainer Ken Peters to the bottom of the stadium pool during a show after hearing her calf crying for her in the back pools. In February 2010, an experienced female trainer at SeaWorld Orlando, Dawn Brancheau, was killed by orca Tilikum shortly after a show in Shamu Stadium. Tilikum had been associated with the deaths of two people previously. In May 2012, Occupational Safety and Health Administration administrative law judge Ken Welsch cited SeaWorld for two violations in the death of Dawn Brancheau and fined the company a total of US$12,000. Trainers were banned from making close contact with the orca. In April 2014, the US Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia denied an appeal by SeaWorld. In 2013, SeaWorld's treatment of orca in captivity was the basis of the movie *Blackfish*, which documents the history of Tilikum, an orca captured by SeaLand of the Pacific, later transported to SeaWorld Orlando, which has been involved in the deaths of three people. In the aftermath of the release of the film, Martina McBride, 38 Special, REO Speedwagon, Cheap Trick, Heart, Trisha Yearwood, and Willie Nelson cancelled scheduled concerts at SeaWorld parks. SeaWorld disputes the accuracy of the film, and in December 2013 released an ad countering the allegations and emphasizing its contributions to the study of cetaceans and their conservation.

Toothed whale

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toothed_whale

The **cockatiel** (/ˌkɒkəˈtiːl/; ***Nymphicus hollandicus***), also known as the **weero**/**weiro** or **quarrion**, is a medium-sized parrot that is a member of its own branch of the cockatoo family endemic to Australia. They are prized as household pets and companion parrots throughout the world and are relatively easy to breed. As a caged bird, cockatiels are second in popularity only to the budgerigar. The cockatiel is the only member of the genus ***Nymphicus***. It was previously unclear whether the cockatiel is a crested parakeet or small cockatoo; however, more recent molecular studies have assigned it to its own subfamily, *Nymphicinae*. It is, therefore, now classified as the smallest subfamily of the Cacatuidae (cockatoo family). Cockatiels are native to Australia, favouring the Australian wetlands, scrublands, and bushlands. Taxonomy and etymology ---------------------- Originally described by Scottish writer and naturalist Robert Kerr in 1793 as *Psittacus hollandicus*, the cockatiel (or cockateel) was moved to its own genus, *Nymphicus*, by Wagler in 1832. Its genus name reflects the experience of one of the earliest groups of Europeans to see the birds in their native habitat; the travellers thought the birds were so beautiful that they named them after mythical nymphs. The specific name *hollandicus* refers to New Holland, a historic name for Australia. Its biological relationships were for a long time uncertain; it is now placed in a monotypic subfamily Nymphicinae, but was sometimes in the past classified among the Platycercinae, the broad-tailed parrots. This issue was settled with molecular studies. A 1984 study of protein allozymes signalled its closer relationship to cockatoos than to other parrots, and mitochondrial 12S rRNA sequence data places it among the Calyptorhynchinae (dark cockatoos) subfamily. The unique, parakeet (meaning long-tailed parrot) morphological feature is a consequence of the decrease in size and accompanying change of ecological niche. Sequence analysis of intron 7 of the nuclear *β*-fibrinogen gene, on the other hand, indicates that it may yet be distinct enough as to warrant recognition of the Nymphicinae rather than inclusion of the genus in the Calyptorhynchinae. The cockatiel is now biologically classified as a genuine member of Cacatuidae on account of sharing all of the cockatoo family's biological features, namely, the erectile crest, a gallbladder, powder down, suppressed cloudy-layer (which precludes the display of blue and green structural colours), and facial feathers covering the sides of the beak, all of which are rarely found outside the family Cacatuidae. This biological relation to other cockatoos is further supported by the existence of at least one documented case of a successful hybrid between a cockatiel and a galah, another cockatoo species. Description ----------- The cockatiel's distinctive crest expresses the animal's emotional state. The crest is dramatically vertical when the cockatiel is startled or excited, gently oblique in its neutral or relaxed state, and flattened close to the head when the animal is angry or defensive. The crest is also held flat but protrudes outward in the back when the cockatiel is trying to appear alluring or flirtatious. When the cockatiel is tired, the crest is seen positioned halfway upwards, with the tip of the crest usually curling upward. In contrast to most cockatoos, the cockatiel has long tail feathers roughly making up half of its total length. At 30 to 33 cm (12 to 13 in), the cockatiel is the smallest of the cockatoos, which are generally larger at between 30 and 60 cm (12 and 24 in). The "normal grey" or "wild-type" cockatiel's plumage is primarily grey with prominent white flashes on the outer edges of each wing. The face of the male is yellow or white, while the face of the female is primarily grey or light grey, and both sexes feature a round orange area on both ears, often referred to as "cheddar cheeks". This orange colouration is generally vibrant in adult males, and often quite muted in females. Visual sexing is often possible with this variant of the bird. Cockatiels are relatively vocal birds, the calls of the male being more varied than that of the female. Cockatiels can be taught to sing specific melodies, to the extent that some cockatiels have been demonstrated synchronizing their melodies with the songs of humans, and speak many words and phrases. They have also learned to imitate certain human or environmental sounds without being taught how to do so. ### Sexual dimorphism Most wild cockatiel chicks and juveniles look female, and are virtually indistinguishable from the time of hatching until their first moulting. They display horizontal yellow stripes or bars on the ventral surface of their tail feathers, yellow spots on the ventral surface of the primary flight feathers of their wings, a grey coloured crest and face, and a dull orange patch on each of their cheeks. However some modernday mutations are sexlinked and the male and female chicks are easily distinguishable as soon as their feathers come in. Adult cockatiels with common coloring (grey body with yellow head) are sexually dimorphic, though to a lesser degree than many other avian species. This is only evident after the first moulting, typically occurring about six to nine months after hatching: the male loses the white or yellow barring and spots on the underside of his tail feathers and wings. The grey feathers on his cheeks and crest are replaced by bright yellow feathers, while the orange cheek patch becomes brighter and more distinct. The face and crest of the female will typically remain mostly grey with a yellowish tint, and a less vibrant orange cheek patch. Additionally, the female commonly retains the horizontal barring on the underside of her tail feathers. The colour in cockatiels is derived from two pigments: melanin (which provides the grey colour in the feathers, eyes, beak, and feet), and psittacofulvins (which provide the yellow colour on the face and tail and the orange colour of the cheek patch). The grey colour of the melanin overrides the yellow and orange of the psittacofulvins when both are present. The melanin content decreases in the face of the males as they mature, allowing the yellow and orange psittacofulvins to be more visible, while an increase in melanin content in the tail causes the disappearance of the horizontal yellow tail bars. In addition to these visible characteristics, the vocalisation of adult males is typically louder and more complex than that of females. But like most things this isn't a hard and fast rule. ### Colour mutations Worldwide there are currently 22 cockatiel colour mutations established in aviculture, of which eight are exclusive to Australia. Mutations in captivity have emerged in various colours, some quite different from those observed in nature. Wild cockatiels are grey with visible differences between males and females. Male grey cockatiels typically have yellow heads while the female has a grey head. Juveniles tend to look like females with pinker beaks. The pied mutation first appeared in California in 1949. This mutation is a blotch of colour on an otherwise solid-coloured bird. For example, this may appear as a grey blotch on a yellow cockatiel. Lutino colouration was first seen in 1958. These birds lack the grey of their wild counterparts and are white to soft yellow. This is a popular colour; due to inbreeding, these cockatiels often have a small bald patch behind their crests. The cinnamon mutation, first seen in the 1950s, is very similar in appearance to the grey; however, these birds have a warmer, browner colouring. Pearling was first seen in 1967. This is seen as a feather of one colour with a different coloured edge, such as grey feathers with yellow tips. This distinctive pattern is on a bird's wings or back. The albino colour mutation is a lack of pigment. These birds are white with red eyes. Fallow cockatiels first appeared sometime in the 1970s. This mutation shows as a bird with cinnamon colouring with yellow sections. Other mutations include emerald/olive, dominant and recessive silver, and mutations exclusive to Australia: Australian fallow, faded (west coast silver), dilute/pastel silver (east coast silver), silver spangle (edged dilute), platinum, suffused (Australian olive), and pewter. Other mutations, such as face altering mutations, include whiteface, pastelface, dominant yellow cheek, sex-linked yellow cheek, gold cheek, cream face, and the Australian yellow cheek. Cockatiel colour mutations can become even more complex as one bird can have multiple colour mutations. For example, a yellow lutino cockatiel may have pearling – white spots on its back and wings. This is a double mutation. An example of a quadruple mutation would be cinnamon cockatiel with yellowface colouring with pearling and pied markings. * Female pearl cockatielFemale pearl cockatiel * Two different-coloured male cockatielsTwo different-coloured male cockatiels * Female lutino cockatielFemale lutino cockatiel * 1.5 year old male lutino cockatiel1.5 year old male lutino cockatiel * A male white-faced cockatiel restingA male white-faced cockatiel resting Distribution and habitat ------------------------ Cockatiels are native to Australia, where they are found largely in arid or semi-arid country but always close to water. Largely nomadic, the species will move to where food and water is available. They are typically seen in pairs or small flocks. Sometimes, hundreds will flock around a single body of water. Wild cockatiels typically eat seeds, particularly *Acacia*, wheat, sunflower and *Sorghum*. To many farmers' dismay, they often eat cultivated crops. Cockatiels may be observed in and around western New South Wales and Queensland, Alice Springs, The Kimberley region and the northwestern corner of Western Australia. They are absent from the most fertile southwest and southeast corners of the country, the deepest Western Australian deserts, and Cape York Peninsula. Breeding -------- Breeding is triggered by seasonal rainfall. Cockatiels nest in tree hollows near a source of fresh water, often choosing eucalyptus/gum trees. The hen lays 4-7 eggs, one every other day, which she incubates for 17–23 days. The chicks fledge after 5 weeks. Cockatiels are the only cockatoo species which may reproduce by the end of their first year. Life span --------- The cockatiel's average life span is 12 to 15 years, though in captivity and under appropriate living conditions, a cockatiel could be expected to live from 16 to 25 years. The oldest living and confirmed specimen of cockatiel was reportedly 36 years old. * Egg, Collection Museum WiesbadenEgg, Collection Museum Wiesbaden * One-day-old cockatiel chickOne-day-old cockatiel chick * Young fledged cockatielYoung fledged cockatiel * 4.5-year-old male cockatiel4.5-year-old male cockatiel See also -------- * Normal grey cockatiel * Cockatiel colour genetics * Companion parrot * Pied cockatiel * Lutino cockatiel * Budgerigar * White-faced cockatiel * Cockatoo Further reading --------------- * Astuti, Dwi (2004?): A phylogeny of cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes) inferred from DNA sequences of the seventh intron of nuclear *β*-fibrinogen gene. Doctoral work, Graduate School of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Japan. PDF fulltext * Dwi Astuti (2011). "Phylogenetic relationships within Cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes) Based on DNA Sequences of The Seventh intron of Nuclear β-fibrinogen gene" (PDF). *Jurnal Biologi Indonesia*. **7** (1): 1–11. ISSN 0854-4425. * Flegg, Jim (2002): *Photographic Field Guide: Birds of Australia*. Reed New Holland, Sydney & London. ISBN 1-876334-78-9 * Martin, Terry (2002). *A Guide To Colour Mutations and Genetics in Parrots*. ABK Publications. ISBN 978-0-9577024-6-2. * Hayward, Jim (1992). *The Manual of Colour Breeding*. The Aviculturist Publications. ISBN 978-0-9519098-0-5.

Cockatiel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockatiel

Seawater off San AndrésTemperature-salinity diagram of changes in density of waterOcean salinity at different latitudes in the Atlantic and Pacific **Seawater**, or **salt water**, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 35 ppt, 600 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of seawater has approximately 35 grams (1.2 oz) of dissolved salts (predominantly sodium (Na+ ) and chloride (Cl− ) ions). The average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/L. Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water (density 1.0 kg/L at 4 °C (39 °F)) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it freezes at about −2 °C (28 °F). The coldest seawater still in the liquid state ever recorded was found in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier: the measured temperature was −2.6 °C (27.3 °F). Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units. Properties ---------- ### Salinity Although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 and 38 g/kg, that is 3.1–3.8%, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with freshwater runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts of precipitation (e.g. Monsoon), seawater can be substantially less saline. The most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and low river run-off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still – about ten times higher in the case of the Dead Sea. Historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale was the "Practical Salinity Scale" where salinity was measured in "practical salinity units (PSU)". The current standard for salinity is the "Reference Salinity" scale with the salinity expressed in units of "g/kg". ### Density The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m3, depending on the temperature and salinity. At a temperature of 25 °C, the salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6 kg/m3. Deep in the ocean, under high pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m3 or higher. The density of seawater also changes with salinity. Brines generated by seawater desalination plants can have salinities up to 120 g/kg. The density of typical seawater brine of 120 g/kg salinity at 25 °C and atmospheric pressure is 1088 kg/m3. ### pH value The pH value at the surface of oceans in pre-industrial time (before 1850) was around 8.2. Since then, it has been decreasing due to a human-caused process called ocean acidification that is related to carbon dioxide emissions: Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05. The pH value of seawater is naturally as low as 7.8 in deep ocean waters as a result of degradation of organic matter in these waters. It can be as high as 8.4 in surface waters in areas of high biological productivity. Measurement of pH is complicated by the chemical properties of seawater, and several distinct pH scales exist in chemical oceanography. There is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units. ### Chemical composition Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater. However, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. For instance, although seawater contains about 2.8 times more bicarbonate than river water, the percentage of bicarbonate in seawater as a ratio of *all* dissolved ions is far lower than in river water. Bicarbonate ions constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0.14% for seawater. Differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes; sodium and chloride have very long residence times, while calcium (vital for carbonate formation) tends to precipitate much more quickly. The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate and calcium. Its osmolarity is about 1000 mOsm/L. Small amounts of other substances are found, including amino acids at concentrations of up to 2 micrograms of nitrogen atoms per liter, which are thought to have played a key role in the origin of life. Seawater elemental composition (salinity = 3.5%) | Element | Percent by mass | | --- | --- | | Oxygen | 85.84 | | Hydrogen | 10.82 | | Chlorine | 1.94 | | Sodium | 1.08 | | Magnesium | 0.1292 | | Sulfur | 0.091 | | Calcium | 0.04 | | Potassium | 0.04 | | Bromine | 0.0067 | | Carbon | 0.0028 | Total molar composition of seawater (salinity = 35)| Component | Concentration (mol/kg) | | --- | --- | | **H2O** | 53.6 | | **Cl−** | 0.546 | | **Na+** | 0.469 | | **Mg2+** | 0.0528 | | **SO2−4** | 0.0282 | | **Ca2+** | 0.0103 | | **K+** | 0.0102 | | **CT** | 0.00206 | | **Br−** | 0.000844 | | **BT** | 0.000416 | | **Sr2+** | 0.000091 | | **F−** | 0.000068 | ### Microbial components Research in 1957 by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography sampled water in both pelagic and neritic locations in the Pacific Ocean. Direct microscopic counts and cultures were used, the direct counts in some cases showing up to 10 000 times that obtained from cultures. These differences were attributed to the occurrence of bacteria in aggregates, selective effects of the culture media, and the presence of inactive cells. A marked reduction in bacterial culture numbers was noted below the thermocline, but not by direct microscopic observation. Large numbers of spirilli-like forms were seen by microscope but not under cultivation. The disparity in numbers obtained by the two methods is well known in this and other fields. In the 1990s, improved techniques of detection and identification of microbes by probing just small snippets of DNA, enabled researchers taking part in the Census of Marine Life to identify thousands of previously unknown microbes usually present only in small numbers. This revealed a far greater diversity than previously suspected, so that a litre of seawater may hold more than 20,000 species. Mitchell Sogin from the Marine Biological Laboratory feels that "the number of different kinds of bacteria in the oceans could eclipse five to 10 million." Bacteria are found at all depths in the water column, as well as in the sediments, some being aerobic, others anaerobic. Most are free-swimming, but some exist as symbionts within other organisms – examples of these being bioluminescent bacteria. Cyanobacteria played an important role in the evolution of ocean processes, enabling the development of stromatolites and oxygen in the atmosphere. Some bacteria interact with diatoms, and form a critical link in the cycling of silicon in the ocean. One anaerobic species, *Thiomargarita namibiensis*, plays an important part in the breakdown of hydrogen sulfide eruptions from diatomaceous sediments off the Namibian coast, and generated by high rates of phytoplankton growth in the Benguela Current upwelling zone, eventually falling to the seafloor. Bacteria-like Archaea surprised marine microbiologists by their survival and thriving in extreme environments, such as the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. Alkalotolerant marine bacteria such as *Pseudomonas* and *Vibrio* spp. survive in a pH range of 7.3 to 10.6, while some species will grow only at pH 10 to 10.6. Archaea also exist in pelagic waters and may constitute as much as half the ocean's biomass, clearly playing an important part in oceanic processes. In 2000 sediments from the ocean floor revealed a species of Archaea that breaks down methane, an important greenhouse gas and a major contributor to atmospheric warming. Some bacteria break down the rocks of the sea floor, influencing seawater chemistry. Oil spills, and runoff containing human sewage and chemical pollutants have a marked effect on microbial life in the vicinity, as well as harbouring pathogens and toxins affecting all forms of marine life. The protist dinoflagellates may at certain times undergo population explosions called blooms or red tides, often after human-caused pollution. The process may produce metabolites known as biotoxins, which move along the ocean food chain, tainting higher-order animal consumers. *Pandoravirus salinus*, a species of very large virus, with a genome much larger than that of any other virus species, was discovered in 2013. Like the other very large viruses *Mimivirus* and *Megavirus*, *Pandoravirus* infects amoebas, but its genome, containing 1.9 to 2.5 megabases of DNA, is twice as large as that of *Megavirus*, and it differs greatly from the other large viruses in appearance and in genome structure. In 2013 researchers from Aberdeen University announced that they were starting a hunt for undiscovered chemicals in organisms that have evolved in deep sea trenches, hoping to find "the next generation" of antibiotics, anticipating an "antibiotic apocalypse" with a dearth of new infection-fighting drugs. The EU-funded research will start in the Atacama Trench and then move on to search trenches off New Zealand and Antarctica. The ocean has a long history of human waste disposal on the assumption that its vast size makes it capable of absorbing and diluting all noxious material. While this may be true on a small scale, the large amounts of sewage routinely dumped has damaged many coastal ecosystems, and rendered them life-threatening. Pathogenic viruses and bacteria occur in such waters, such as *Escherichia coli*, *Vibrio cholerae* the cause of cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis E and polio, along with protozoans causing giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. These pathogens are routinely present in the ballast water of large vessels, and are widely spread when the ballast is discharged. ### Other parameters The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s (whereas the speed of sound is usually around 330 m/s in air at roughly 101.3 kPa pressure, 1 atmosphere), and varies with water temperature, salinity, and pressure. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C and a salinity of 35 g/kg. The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature. Origin and history ------------------ The water in the sea was thought to come from the Earth's volcanoes, starting 4 billion years ago, released by degassing from molten rock. More recent work suggests much of the Earth's water may come from comets. Scientific theories behind the origins of sea salt started with Sir Edmond Halley in 1715, who proposed that salt and other minerals were carried into the sea by rivers after rainfall washed it out of the ground. Upon reaching the ocean, these salts concentrated as more salt arrived over time (see Hydrologic cycle). Halley noted that most lakes that don't have ocean outlets (such as the Dead Sea and the Caspian Sea, see endorheic basin), have high salt content. Halley termed this process "continental weathering". Halley's theory was partly correct. In addition, sodium leached out of the ocean floor when the ocean formed. The presence of salt's other dominant ion, chloride, results from outgassing of chloride (as hydrochloric acid) with other gases from Earth's interior via volcanos and hydrothermal vents. The sodium and chloride ions subsequently became the most abundant constituents of sea salt. Ocean salinity has been stable for billions of years, most likely as a consequence of a chemical/tectonic system which removes as much salt as is deposited; for instance, sodium and chloride sinks include evaporite deposits, pore-water burial, and reactions with seafloor basalts. Human impacts ------------- Climate change, rising levels of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere, excess nutrients, and pollution in many forms are altering global oceanic geochemistry. Rates of change for some aspects greatly exceed those in the historical and recent geological record. Major trends include an increasing acidity, reduced subsurface oxygen in both near-shore and pelagic waters, rising coastal nitrogen levels, and widespread increases in mercury and persistent organic pollutants. Most of these perturbations are tied either directly or indirectly to human fossil fuel combustion, fertilizer, and industrial activity. Concentrations are projected to grow in coming decades, with negative impacts on ocean biota and other marine resources. One of the most striking features of this is ocean acidification, resulting from increased CO2 uptake of the oceans related to higher atmospheric concentration of CO2 and higher temperatures, because it severely affects coral reefs, mollusks, echinoderms and crustaceans (see coral bleaching). Human consumption ----------------- Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself. In normal circumstances, it would be considered ill-advised to consume large amounts of unfiltered seawater. The renal system actively regulates the levels of sodium and chloride in the blood within a very narrow range around 9 g/L (0.9% by mass). In most open waters concentrations vary somewhat around typical values of about 3.5%, far higher than the body can tolerate and most beyond what the kidney can process. A point frequently overlooked in claims that the kidney can excrete NaCl in Baltic concentrations of 2% (in arguments to the contrary) is that the gut cannot absorb water at such concentrations, so that there is no benefit in drinking such water. The salinity of Baltic surface water, however, is never 2%. It is 0.9% or less, and thus never higher than that of bodily fluids. Drinking seawater temporarily increases blood's NaCl concentration. This signals the kidney to excrete sodium, but seawater's sodium concentration is above the kidney's maximum concentrating ability. Eventually the blood's sodium concentration rises to toxic levels, removing water from cells and interfering with nerve conduction, ultimately producing fatal seizure and cardiac arrhythmia. Survival manuals consistently advise against drinking seawater. A summary of 163 life raft voyages estimated the risk of death at 39% for those who drank seawater, compared to 3% for those who did not. The effect of seawater intake on rats confirmed the negative effects of drinking seawater when dehydrated. The temptation to drink seawater was greatest for sailors who had expended their supply of fresh water and were unable to capture enough rainwater for drinking. This frustration was described famously by a line from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's *The Rime of the Ancient Mariner*: > Water, water, everywhere, > > And all the boards did shrink; > > Water, water, everywhere, > > Nor any drop to drink. > > Although humans cannot survive on seawater, some people claim that up to two cups a day, mixed with fresh water in a 2:3 ratio, produces no ill effect. The French physician Alain Bombard survived an ocean crossing in a small Zodiak rubber boat using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40% water (like most living tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean. His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation was not given. In his 1948 book *The Kon-Tiki Expedition*, Thor Heyerdahl reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in a 2:3 ratio during the 1947 expedition. A few years later, another adventurer, William Willis, claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply. During the 18th century, Richard Russell advocated the medical use of this practice in the UK, and René Quinton expanded the advocation of this practice to other countries, notably France, in the 20th century. Currently, it is widely practiced in Nicaragua and other countries, supposedly taking advantage of the latest medical discoveries. Most oceangoing vessels desalinate potable water from seawater using processes such as vacuum distillation or multi-stage flash distillation in an evaporator, or, more recently, reverse osmosis. These energy-intensive processes were not usually available during the Age of Sail. Larger sailing warships with large crews, such as Nelson's HMS *Victory*, were fitted with distilling apparatus in their galleys. Animals such as fish, whales, sea turtles, and seabirds, such as penguins and albatrosses, have adapted to living in a high-saline habitat. For example, sea turtles and saltwater crocodiles remove excess salt from their bodies through their tear ducts. Mineral extraction ------------------ Minerals have been extracted from seawater since ancient times. Currently the four most concentrated metals – Na, Mg, Ca and K – are commercially extracted from seawater. During 2015 in the US 63% of magnesium production came from seawater and brines. Bromine is also produced from seawater in China and Japan. Lithium extraction from seawater was tried in the 1970s, but the tests were soon abandoned. The idea of extracting uranium from seawater has been considered at least from the 1960s, but only a few grams of uranium were extracted in Japan in the late 1990s. The main issue is not one of technological feasibility but that current prices on the uranium market for uranium from other sources are about three to five times lower than the lowest price achieved by seawater extraction. Similar issues hamper the use of reprocessed uranium and are often brought forth against nuclear reprocessing and the manufacturing of MOX fuel as economically unviable. Standard -------- ASTM International has an international standard for artificial seawater: ASTM D1141-98 (Original Standard ASTM D1141-52). It is used in many research testing labs as a reproducible solution for seawater such as tests on corrosion, oil contamination, and detergency evaluation. See also -------- * Brine – Concentrated solution of salt in water * Brine mining – Extracting materials from saltwater * Brackish water – Water with salinity between freshwater and seawater * Fresh water – Naturally occurring water with low amounts of dissolved salts * Ocean color – Explanation of the color of oceans and ocean color remote sensing * Saline water – Water that contains a high concentration of dissolved salts * Sea ice – Ice formed from frozen seawater * Seawater pH – Measure of the level of acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution * Surface tension of seawater – Tendency of a liquid surface to shrink to reduce surface area * Thalassotherapy * Thermohaline circulation – Part of large-scale ocean circulation * CORA dataset – free global oceanographic temperature and salinity datasetPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback global ocean salinity Listen to this article (19 minutes) Spoken Wikipedia iconThis audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 16 August 2014 (2014-08-16), and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles) Tables * Tables and software for thermophysical properties of seawater, MIT * G. W. C Kaye, T. H. Laby (1995). "Physical properties of sea water". *Tables of physical and chemical constants* (16th ed.). Archived from the original on 8 May 2019.

Seawater

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater

The **World Health Organization** (**WHO**) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland and has six regional offices and 150 field offices worldwide. The WHO was established on 7 April 1948 and convened its first meeting on 24 July of that year. It incorporated the assets, personnel, and duties of the League of Nations' Health Organization and the Paris-based Office International d'Hygiène Publique, including the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). The agency's work began in earnest in 1951 after a significant infusion of financial and technical resources. The WHO's official mandate is to promote health and safety while helping the vulnerable worldwide. It provides technical assistance to countries, sets international health standards, collects data on global health issues, and serves as a forum for scientific or policy discussions related to health. Its official publication, the *World Health Report*, provides assessments of worldwide health topics. The WHO has played a leading role in several public health achievements, most notably the eradication of smallpox, the near-eradication of polio, and the development of an Ebola vaccine. Its current priorities include communicable diseases, particularly HIV/AIDS, Ebola, COVID-19, malaria and tuberculosis; non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and cancer; healthy diet, nutrition, and food security; occupational health; and substance abuse. The agency advocates for universal health care coverage, engagement with the monitoring of public health risks, coordinating responses to health emergencies, and promoting health and well-being generally. The WHO is governed by the World Health Assembly (WHA), which is composed of its 194 member states. The WHA elects and advises an executive board made up of 34 health specialists; selects the WHO's chief administrator, the director-general (currently Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus of Ethiopia); sets goals and priorities; and approves the budget and activities. The WHO is funded by primarily by contributions from member states (both assessed and voluntary), followed by private donors. Its total approved budget for 2020–2021 is over $7.2 billion. History ------- ### Origin and founding The International Sanitary Conferences (ISC), the first of which was held on 23 June 1851, were a series of conferences that took place until 1938, about 87 years. The first conference, in Paris, was almost solely concerned with cholera, which would remain the disease of major concern for the ISC for most of the 19th century. With the etiology (causation), even the communicability, of many epidemic diseases still uncertain and a matter of scientific argument, international agreement on appropriate measures was difficult to reach. Seven of these international conferences, spanning 41 years, were convened before any resulted in a multi-state international agreement. The seventh conference, in Venice in 1892, finally resulted in a convention. It was concerned only with the sanitary control of shipping traversing the Suez Canal, and was an effort to guard against importation of cholera. Five years later, in 1897, a convention concerning the bubonic plague was signed by sixteen of the 19 states attending the Venice conference. While Denmark, Sweden-Norway, and the US did not sign this convention, it was unanimously agreed that the work of the prior conferences should be codified for implementation. Subsequent conferences, from 1902 until the final one in 1938, widened the diseases of concern for the ISC, and included discussions of responses to yellow fever, brucellosis, leprosy, tuberculosis, and typhoid. In part as a result of the successes of the Conferences, the Pan-American Sanitary Bureau (1902), and the Office International d'Hygiène Publique (1907) were soon founded. When the League of Nations was formed in 1920, it established the Health Organization of the League of Nations. After World War II, the United Nations absorbed all the other health organizations, to form the WHO. ### Establishment During the 1945 United Nations Conference on International Organization, Szeming Sze, a delegate from China, conferred with Norwegian and Brazilian delegates on creating an international health organization under the auspices of the new United Nations. After failing to get a resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss, the secretary general of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organization. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for an international conference on health. The use of the word "world", rather than "international", emphasized the truly global nature of what the organization was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations, and by 10 other countries, on 22 July 1946. It thus became the first specialized agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, when it was ratified by the 26th member state. The first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million (then £1,250,000) for the 1949 year. G. Brock Chisholm was appointed director-general of the WHO, having served as executive secretary and a founding member during the planning stages, while Andrija Štampar was the assembly's first president. Its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections, and to improve maternal and child health, nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of accurate statistics on the spread and morbidity of disease. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing. In 1959, the WHO signed Agreement WHA 12–40 with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which says: > whenever either organization proposes to initiate a programme or activity on a subject in which the other organization has or may have a substantial interest, **the first party shall consult the other with a view to adjusting the matter by mutual agreement**. > > The nature of this statement has led some groups and activists including Women in Europe for a Common Future to claim that the WHO is restricted in its ability to investigate the effects on human health of radiation caused by the use of nuclear power and the continuing effects of nuclear disasters in Chernobyl and Fukushima. They believe WHO must regain what they see as independence. Independent WHO held a weekly vigil from 2007 to 2017 in front of WHO headquarters. However, as pointed out by Foreman in clause 2 it states: > In particular, and in accordance with the Constitution of the World Health Organization and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency and its agreement with the United Nations together with the exchange of letters related thereto, and taking into account the respective co-ordinating responsibilities of both organizations, it is recognized by the World Health Organization that the International Atomic Energy Agency has the primary responsibility for encouraging, assisting and co-ordinating research and development and practical application of atomic energy for peaceful uses throughout the world **without prejudice to the right of the World Health Organization to concern itself with promoting, developing, assisting and co-ordinating international health work, including research, in all its aspects**. > > The key text is highlighted in bold, the agreement in clause 2 states that the WHO is free to perform any health-related work. ### Operational history **1947**: The WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex. **1950**: A mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine gets under way. **1955**: The malaria eradication programme was launched, although objectives were later modified. (In most areas, the programme goals became control instead of eradication.) **1958**: Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake a global initiative to eradicate smallpox, resulting in Resolution WHA11.54. **1965**: The first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. **1966**: The WHO moved its headquarters from the Ariana wing at the Palace of Nations to a newly constructed headquarters elsewhere in Geneva. **1967**: The WHO intensified the global smallpox eradication campaign by contributing $2.4 million annually to the effort and adopted a new disease surveillance method, at a time when 2 million people were dying from smallpox per year. The initial problem the WHO team faced was inadequate reporting of smallpox cases. WHO established a network of consultants who assisted countries in setting up surveillance and containment activities. The WHO also helped contain the last European outbreak in Yugoslavia in 1972. After over two decades of fighting smallpox, a Global Commission declared in **1979** that the disease had been eradicated – the first disease in history to be eliminated by human effort. **1974**: The Expanded Programme on Immunization and the control programme of onchocerciasis was started, an important partnership between the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the World Bank. **1975**: The WHO launched the Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical diseases (the TDR). Co-sponsored by UNICEF, UNDP, and the World Bank, it was established in response to a 1974 request from the WHA for an intensive effort to develop improved control of tropical diseases. The TDR's goals are, firstly, to support and coordinate international research into diagnosis, treatment and control of tropical diseases; and, secondly, to strengthen research capabilities within endemic countries. **1976**: The WHA enacted a resolution on disability prevention and rehabilitation, with a focus on community-driven care **1977** and **1978**: The first list of essential medicines was drawn up, and a year later the ambitious goal of "Health For All" was declared. **1986**: The WHO began its global programme on HIV/AIDS. Two years later preventing discrimination against patients was attended to and in **1996** the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) was formed. **1988**: The Global Polio Eradication Initiative was established. **1995**: The WHO established an independent International Commission for the Certification of Dracunculiasis Eradication (Guinea worm disease eradication; ICCDE). The ICCDE recommends to the WHO which countries fulfil requirements for certification. It also has role in advising on progress made towards elimination of transmission and processes for verification. **1998**: The WHO's director-general highlighted gains in child survival, reduced infant mortality, increased life expectancy and reduced rates of "scourges" such as smallpox and polio on the fiftieth anniversary of WHO's founding. He, did, however, accept that more had to be done to assist maternal health and that progress in this area had been slow. **2000**: The Stop TB Partnership was created along with the UN's formulation of the Millennium Development Goals. **2001**: The measles initiative was formed, and credited with reducing global deaths from the disease by 68% by 2007. **2002**: The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria was drawn up to improve the resources available. **2005**: The WHO revises International Health Regulations (IHR) in light of emerging health threats and the experience of the 2002/3 SARS epidemic, authorizing WHO, among other things, to declare a health threat a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. **2006**: The WHO endorsed the world's first official HIV/AIDS Toolkit for Zimbabwe, which formed the basis for global prevention, treatment, and support the plan to fight the AIDS pandemic. **2016**: Following the perceived failure of the response to the West Africa Ebola outbreak, the World Health Emergencies programme was formed, changing the WHO from just being a "normative" agency to one that responds operationally to health emergencies. **2020**: The WHO helped in controlling the worldwide outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. **2022**: The WHO suggests formation of a Global Health Emergency Council, with new global health emergency workforce, and recommends revision of the International Health Regulations. Policies and objectives ----------------------- ### Overall focus The WHO's Constitution states that its objective "is the attainment by all people of the highest possible level of health". The WHO fulfils this objective through its functions as defined in its Constitution: (a) To act as the directing and coordinating authority on international health work; (b) To establish and maintain effective collaboration with the United Nations, specialized agencies, governmental health administrations, professional groups and such other organizations as may be deemed appropriate; (c) To assist Governments, upon request, in strengthening health services; (d) To furnish appropriate technical assistance and, in emergencies, necessary aid upon the request or acceptance of Governments; (e) To provide or assist in providing, upon the request of the United Nations, health services and facilities to special groups, such as the peoples of trust territories; (f) To establish and maintain such administrative and technical services as may be required, including epidemiological and statistical services; (g) To stimulate and advance work to eradicate epidemic, endemic and other diseases; (h) To promote, in co-operation with other specialized agencies where necessary, the prevention of accidental injuries; (i) To promote, in co-operation with other specialized agencies where necessary, the improvement of nutrition, housing, sanitation, recreation, economic or working conditions and other aspects of environmental hygiene; (j) To promote co-operation among scientific and professional groups which contribute to the advancement of health; (k) To propose conventions, agreements and regulations, and make recommendations with respect to international health matters and to perform. As of 2012[update], the WHO has defined its role in public health as follows: * providing leadership on matters critical to health and engaging in partnerships where joint action is needed; * shaping the research agenda and stimulating the generation, translation, and dissemination of valuable knowledge; * setting norms and standards and promoting and monitoring their implementation; * articulating ethical and evidence-based policy options; * providing technical support, catalysing change, and building sustainable institutional capacity; and * monitoring the health situation and assessing health trends. * CRVS (civil registration and vital statistics) to provide monitoring of vital events (birth, death, wedding, divorce). Since the late 20th century, the rise of new actors engaged in global health—such as the World Bank, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) and dozens of public-private partnerships for global health—have weakened the WHO's role as a coordinator and policy leader in the field; subsequently, there are various proposals to reform or reorient the WHO's role and priorities in public health, ranging from narrowing its mandate to strengthening its independence and authority. #### Communicable diseases The 2012–2013 WHO budget identified five areas among which funding was distributed. Two of those five areas related to communicable diseases: the first, to reduce the "health, social and economic burden" of communicable diseases in general; the second to combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis in particular. As of 2015[update], the World Health Organization has worked within the UNAIDS network and strives to involve sections of society other than health to help deal with the economic and social effects of HIV/AIDS. In line with UNAIDS, WHO has set itself the interim task between 2009 and 2015 of reducing the number of those aged 15–24 years who are infected by 50%; reducing new HIV infections in children by 90%; and reducing HIV-related deaths by 25%. In 2003, the WHO denounced the Roman Curia's health department's opposition to the use of condoms, saying: "These incorrect statements about condoms and HIV are dangerous when we are facing a global pandemic which has already killed more than 20 million people, and currently affects at least 42 million." As of 2009[update], the Catholic Church remains opposed to increasing the use of contraception to combat HIV/AIDS. At the time, the World Health Assembly president, Guyana's Health Minister Leslie Ramsammy, condemned Pope Benedict's opposition to contraception, saying he was trying to "create confusion" and "impede" proven strategies in the battle against the disease. During the 1970s, WHO had dropped its commitment to a global malaria eradication campaign as too ambitious, it retained a strong commitment to malaria control. WHO's Global Malaria Programme works to keep track of malaria cases, and future problems in malaria control schemes. As of 2012, the WHO was to report as to whether RTS,S/AS01, were a viable malaria vaccine. For the time being, insecticide-treated mosquito nets and insecticide sprays are used to prevent the spread of malaria, as are antimalarial drugs – particularly to vulnerable people such as pregnant women and young children. Between 1990 and 2010, WHO's help has contributed to a 40% decline in the number of deaths from tuberculosis, and since 2005, over 46 million people have been treated and an estimated 7 million lives saved through practices advocated by WHO. These include engaging national governments and their financing, early diagnosis, standardising treatment, monitoring of the spread and effect of tuberculosis, and stabilising the drug supply. It has also recognized the vulnerability of victims of HIV/AIDS to tuberculosis. In 1988, WHO launched the Global Polio Eradication Initiative to eradicate polio. It has also been successful in helping to reduce cases by 99% since WHO partnered with Rotary International, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and smaller organizations. As of 2011[update], it has been working to immunize young children and prevent the re-emergence of cases in countries declared "polio-free". In 2017, a study was conducted as to why Polio Vaccines may not be enough to eradicate the Virus & conduct new technology. Polio is now on the verge of extinction, thanks to a Global Vaccination Drive. The World Health Organization (WHO) stated the eradication programme has saved millions from deadly disease. In 2007, the WHO organized work on pandemic influenza vaccine development through clinical trials in collaboration with many experts and health officials. A pandemic involving the H1N1 influenza virus was declared by the then director-general Margaret Chan in April 2009. Margret Chan declared in 2010 that the H1N1 has moved into the post-pandemic period. By the post-pandemic period, critics claimed the WHO had exaggerated the danger, spreading "fear and confusion" rather than "immediate information". Industry experts countered that the 2009 pandemic had led to "unprecedented collaboration between global health authorities, scientists and manufacturers, resulting in the most comprehensive pandemic response ever undertaken, with a number of vaccines approved for use three months after the pandemic declaration. This response was only possible because of the extensive preparations undertaken during the last decade". #### Non-communicable diseases One of the thirteen WHO priority areas is aimed at the prevention and reduction of "disease, disability and premature deaths from chronic noncommunicable diseases, mental disorders, violence and injuries, and visual impairment which are collectively responsible for almost 71% of all deaths worldwide". The Division of Noncommunicable Diseases for Promoting Health through the Reproductive Health has published the magazine, *Entre Nous*, across Europe since 1983. WHO is mandated under two of the international drug control conventions (Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 and Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1971) to carry out scientific assessments of substances for international drug control. Through the WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence (ECDD), it can recommend changes to scheduling of substances to the United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs. The ECDD is in charge of evaluating "the impact of psychoactive substances on public health" and "their dependence producing properties and potential harm to health, as well as considering their potential medical benefits and therapeutic applications." #### Environmental health The WHO estimates that 12.6 million people died as a result of living or working in an unhealthy environment in 2012 – this accounts for nearly 1 in 4 of total global deaths. Environmental risk factors, such as air, water, and soil pollution, chemical exposures, climate change, and ultraviolet radiation, contribute to more than 100 diseases and injuries. This can result in a number of pollution-related diseases. * 2018 (30 October – 1 November) : 1 WHO's first global conference on air pollution and health (*Improving air quality, combatting climate change – saving lives*) ; organized in collaboration with UN Environment, World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and the secretariat of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) #### Life course and lifestyle WHO works to "reduce morbidity and mortality and improve health during key stages of life, including pregnancy, childbirth, the neonatal period, childhood and adolescence, and improve sexual and reproductive health and promote active and healthy aging for all individuals", for instance with the Special Programme on Human Reproduction. It also tries to prevent or reduce risk factors for "health conditions associated with use of tobacco, alcohol, drugs and other psychoactive substances, unhealthy diets and physical inactivity and unsafe sex". The WHO works to improve nutrition, food safety and food security and to ensure this has a positive effect on public health and sustainable development. In April 2019, the WHO released new recommendations stating that children between the ages of two and five should spend no more than one hour per day engaging in sedentary behaviour in front of a screen and that children under two should not be permitted any sedentary screen time. #### Surgery and trauma care The World Health Organization promotes road safety as a means to reduce traffic-related injuries. It has also worked on global initiatives in surgery, including emergency and essential surgical care, trauma care, and safe surgery. The WHO Surgical Safety Checklist is in current use worldwide in the effort to improve patient safety. #### Emergency work The World Health Organization's primary objective in natural and man-made emergencies is to coordinate with member states and other stakeholders to "reduce avoidable loss of life and the burden of disease and disability." On 5 May 2014, WHO announced that the spread of polio was a world health emergency – outbreaks of the disease in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East were considered "extraordinary". On 8 August 2014, WHO declared that the spread of Ebola was a public health emergency; an outbreak which was believed to have started in Guinea had spread to other nearby countries such as Liberia and Sierra Leone. The situation in West Africa was considered very serious. ##### Reform efforts following the Ebola outbreak Following the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa, the organization was heavily criticized for its bureaucracy, insufficient financing, regional structure, and staffing profile. An internal WHO report on the Ebola response pointed to underfunding and the lack of "core capacity" in health systems in developing countries as the primary weaknesses of the existing system. At the annual World Health Assembly in 2015, Director-General Margaret Chan announced a $100 million Contingency Fund for rapid response to future emergencies, of which it had received $26.9 million by April 2016 (for 2017 disbursement). WHO has budgeted an additional $494 million for its Health Emergencies Programme in 2016–17, for which it had received $140 million by April 2016. The program was aimed at rebuilding WHO capacity for direct action, which critics said had been lost due to budget cuts in the previous decade that had left the organization in an advisory role dependent on member states for on-the-ground activities. In comparison, billions of dollars have been spent by developed countries on the 2013–2016 Ebola epidemic and 2015–16 Zika epidemic. ##### Response to the COVID-19 pandemic The WHO created an Incident Management Support Team on 1 January 2020, one day after Chinese health authorities notified the organization of a cluster of pneumonia cases of unknown aetiology. On 5 January the WHO notified all member states of the outbreak, and in subsequent days provided guidance to all countries on how to respond, and confirmed the first infection outside China. On 14 January 2020, the WHO announced that preliminary investigations conducted by Chinese authorities had found no clear evidence of human-to-human transmission of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) identified in Wuhan. The same day, the organization warned of limited human-to-human transmission, and confirmed human-to-human transmission one week later. On 30 January the WHO declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC), considered a "call to action" and "last resort" measure for the international community and a pandemic on 11 March. While organizing the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic and overseeing "more than 35 emergency operations" for cholera, measles and other epidemics internationally, the WHO has been criticized for praising China's public health response to the crisis while seeking to maintain a "diplomatic balancing act" between the United States and China. David L. Heymann, professor of infectious disease epidemiology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, said that "China has been very transparent and open in sharing its data... and they opened up all of their files with the WHO present." The WHO faced criticism from the United States' Trump administration while "guid[ing] the world in how to tackle the deadly" COVID-19 pandemic. On 14 April 2020, United States president Donald Trump said that he would halt United States funding to the WHO while reviewing its role in "severely mismanaging and covering up the spread of the coronavirus." World leaders and health experts largely condemned President Trump's announcement, which came amid criticism of his response to the outbreak in the United States. WHO called the announcement "regrettable" and defended its actions in alerting the world to the emergence of COVID-19. On 8 May 2020, the United States blocked a vote on a U.N. Security Council resolution aimed at promoting nonviolent international cooperation during the pandemic, and mentioning the WHO. On 7 July 2020, President Trump formally notified the UN of his intent to withdraw the United States from the WHO. However, Trump's successor, President Joe Biden, cancelled the planned withdrawal and announced in January 2021 that the U.S. would resume funding the organization. In May 2023, the WHO announced that COVID-19 was no longer a world-wide health emergency. #### Health policy WHO addresses government health policy with two aims: firstly, "to address the underlying social and economic determinants of health through policies and programmes that enhance health equity and integrate pro-poor, gender-responsive, and human rights-based approaches" and secondly "to promote a healthier environment, intensify primary prevention and influence public policies in all sectors so as to address the root causes of environmental threats to health". The organization develops and promotes the use of evidence-based tools, norms and standards to support member states to inform health policy options. It oversees the implementation of the International Health Regulations, and publishes a series of medical classifications; of these, three are over-reaching "reference classifications": the International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD), the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) and the International Classification of Health Interventions (ICHI). Other international policy frameworks produced by WHO include the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes (adopted in 1981), Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (adopted in 2003) the Global Code of Practice on the International Recruitment of Health Personnel (adopted in 2010) as well as the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines and its pediatric counterpart. An international convention on pandemic prevention and preparedness is being actively considered. In terms of health services, WHO looks to improve "governance, financing, staffing and management" and the availability and quality of evidence and research to guide policy. It also strives to "ensure improved access, quality and use of medical products and technologies". WHO – working with donor agencies and national governments – can improve their reporting about use of research evidence. #### Digital Health On Digital Health topics, WHO has existing Inter-Agency collaboration with the International Telecommunication Union (the UN Specialized Agency for ICT), including the Be Health, Be Mobile initiate and the ITU-WHO Focus Group on Artificial Intelligence for Health. ### Governance and support The remaining two of WHO's thirteen identified policy areas relate to the role of WHO itself: * "to provide leadership, strengthen governance and foster partnership and collaboration with countries, the United Nations system, and other stakeholders in order to fulfil the mandate of WHO in advancing the global health agenda"; and * "to develop and sustain WHO as a flexible, learning organization, enabling it to carry out its mandate more efficiently and effectively". #### Partnerships The WHO along with the World Bank constitute the core team responsible for administering the International Health Partnership (IHP+). The IHP+ is a group of partner governments, development agencies, civil society, and others committed to improving the health of citizens in developing countries. Partners work together to put international principles for aid effectiveness and development co-operation into practice in the health sector. The organization relies on contributions from renowned scientists and professionals to inform its work, such as the WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization, the WHO Expert Committee on Leprosy, and the WHO Study Group on Interprofessional Education & Collaborative Practice. WHO runs the Alliance for Health Policy and Systems Research, targeted at improving health policy and systems. WHO also aims to improve access to health research and literature in developing countries such as through the HINARI network. WHO collaborates with The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, UNITAID, and the United States President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief to spearhead and fund the development of HIV programs. WHO created the Civil Society Reference Group on HIV, which brings together other networks that are involved in policymaking and the dissemination of guidelines. WHO, a sector of the United Nations, partners with UNAIDS to contribute to the development of HIV responses in different areas of the world. WHO facilitates technical partnerships through the Technical Advisory Committee on HIV, which they created to develop WHO guidelines and policies. In 2014, WHO released the *Global Atlas of Palliative Care at the End of Life* in a joint publication with the Worldwide Hospice Palliative Care Alliance, an affiliated NGO working collaboratively with the WHO to promote palliative care in national and international health policy. #### Public health education and action The practice of empowering individuals to exert more control over and make improvements to their health is known as health education, as described by the WHO. It shifts away from an emphasis on personal behaviour and toward a variety of societal and environmental solutions. Each year, the organization marks World Health Day and other observances focusing on a specific health promotion topic. World Health Day falls on 7 April each year, timed to match the anniversary of WHO's founding. Recent themes have been vector-borne diseases (2014), healthy ageing (2012) and drug resistance (2011). The other official global public health campaigns marked by WHO are World Tuberculosis Day, World Immunization Week, World Malaria Day, World No Tobacco Day, World Blood Donor Day, World Hepatitis Day, and World AIDS Day. As part of the United Nations, the World Health Organization supports work towards the Millennium Development Goals. Of the eight Millennium Development Goals, three – reducing child mortality by two-thirds, to reduce maternal deaths by three-quarters, and to halt and begin to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS – relate directly to the WHO's scope; the other five inter-relate and affect world health. ### Data handling and publications The World Health Organization works to provide the needed health and well-being evidence through a variety of data collection platforms, including the World Health Survey covering almost 400,000 respondents from 70 countries, and the *Study on Global Aging and Adult Health* (SAGE) covering over 50,000 persons over 50 years old in 23 countries. The Country Health Intelligence Portal (CHIP), has also been developed to provide an access point to information about the health services that are available in different countries. The information gathered in this portal is used by the countries to set priorities for future strategies or plans, implement, monitor, and evaluate it. The WHO has published various tools for measuring and monitoring the capacity of national health systems and health workforces. The Global Health Observatory (GHO) has been the WHO's main portal which provides access to data and analyses for key health themes by monitoring health situations around the globe. The *WHO Assessment Instrument for Mental Health Systems* (WHO-AIMS), the *WHO Quality of Life Instrument* (WHOQOL), and the *Service Availability and Readiness Assessment* (SARA) provide guidance for data collection. Collaborative efforts between WHO and other agencies, such as through the Health Metrics Network, also aim to provide sufficient high-quality information to assist governmental decision making. WHO promotes the development of capacities in member states to use and produce research that addresses their national needs, including through the Evidence-Informed Policy Network (EVIPNet). The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO/AMRO) became the first region to develop and pass a policy on research for health approved in September 2009. On 10 December 2013, a new WHO database, known as MiNDbank, went online. The database was launched on Human Rights Day, and is part of WHO's QualityRights initiative, which aims to end human rights violations against people with mental health conditions. The new database presents a great deal of information about mental health, substance abuse, disability, human rights, and the different policies, strategies, laws, and service standards being implemented in different countries. It also contains important international documents and information. The database allows visitors to access the health information of WHO member states and other partners. Users can review policies, laws, and strategies and search for the best practices and success stories in the field of mental health. The WHO regularly publishes a *World Health Report*, its leading publication, including an expert assessment of a specific global health topic. Other publications of WHO include the *Bulletin of the World Health Organization*, the *Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal* (overseen by EMRO), the *Human Resources for Health* (published in collaboration with BioMed Central), and the *Pan American Journal of Public Health* (overseen by PAHO/AMRO). In 2016, the World Health Organization drafted a global health sector strategy on HIV. In the draft, the World Health Organization outlines its commitment to ending the AIDS epidemic by 2030 with interim targets for the year 2020. To make achievements towards these targets, the draft lists actions that countries and the WHO can take, such as a commitment to universal health coverage, medical accessibility, prevention and eradication of disease, and efforts to educate the public. Some notable points made in the draft include addressing gender inequity where females are nearly twice as likely as men to get infected with HIV and tailoring resources to mobilized regions where the health system may be compromised due to natural disasters, etc. Among the points made, it seems clear that although the prevalence of HIV transmission is declining, there is still a need for resources, health education, and global efforts to end this epidemic. The WHO has a Framework Convention on Tobacco implementation database which is one of the few mechanisms to help enforce compliance with the FCTC. However, there have been reports of numerous discrepancies between it and national implementation reports on which it was built. As researchers Hoffman and Rizvi report "As of July 4, 2012, 361 (32·7%) of 1104 countries' responses were misreported: 33 (3·0%) were clear errors (e.g., database indicated 'yes' when report indicated 'no'), 270 (24·5%) were missing despite countries having submitted responses, and 58 (5·3%) were, in our opinion, misinterpreted by WHO staff". WHO has been moving toward acceptance and integration of traditional medicine and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). In 2022, the new International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, ICD-11, will attempt to enable classifications from traditional medicine to be integrated with classifications from evidence-based medicine. Though Chinese authorities have pushed for the change, this and other support of the WHO for traditional medicine has been criticized by the medical and scientific community, due to lack of evidence and the risk of endangering wildlife hunted for traditional remedies. A WHO spokesman said that the inclusion was "not an endorsement of the scientific validity of any Traditional Medicine practice or the efficacy of any Traditional Medicine intervention." #### International Agency for Research on Cancer The WHO sub-department, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), conducts and coordinates research into the causes of cancer. It also collects and publishes surveillance data regarding the occurrence of cancer worldwide. Its Monographs Programme identifies carcinogenic hazards and evaluates environmental causes of cancer in humans. Structure and governance ------------------------ The World Health Organization is a member of the United Nations Development Group. ### Membership As of January 2021[update], the WHO has 194 member states: all member states of the United Nations except for Liechtenstein (192 countries), plus the Cook Islands and Niue. A state becomes a full member of WHO by ratifying the treaty known as the Constitution of the World Health Organization. As of January 2021, it also had two associate members, Puerto Rico and Tokelau. The WHO two-year budget for 2022–2023 is paid by its 194 members and 2 associate members. Several other countries have been granted observer status. Palestine is an observer as a "national liberation movement" recognized by the League of Arab States under United Nations Resolution 3118. The Sovereign Military Order of Malta (or *Order of Malta*) also attends on an observer basis. The Holy See attends as an observer, and its participation as "non-Member State Observer" was formalized by an Assembly resolution in 2021. The government of Taiwan was allowed to participate under the designation "Chinese Taipei" as an observer from 2009 to 2016, but has not been invited again since. WHO member states appoint delegations to the World Health Assembly, the WHO's supreme decision-making body. All UN member states are eligible for WHO membership, and, according to the WHO website, "other countries may be admitted as members when their application has been approved by a simple majority vote of the World Health Assembly". The World Health Assembly is attended by delegations from all member states, and determines the policies of the organization. The executive board is composed of members technically qualified in health and gives effect to the decisions and policies of the World Health Assembly. In addition, the UN observer organizations International Committee of the Red Cross and International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies have entered into "official relations" with WHO and are invited as observers. In the World Health Assembly, they are seated alongside the other NGOs. #### Membership and participation of the Republic of China The Republic of China (ROC), which controlled mainland China from 1912 to 1949 and currently governs Taiwan since 1945 following World War II, was the founding member of WHO since its inception had represented "China" in the organization, but the representation was changed to the People's Republic of China (PRC), established in 1949 by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), in 1971 that expelled the ROC from both WHO and the UN organs. Since that time, per the One-China policy, both the ROC and PRC lay claims of sovereignty to each other's territory. In May 2009, the Department of Health of the Republic of China was invited by the WHO to attend the 62nd World Health Assembly as an observer under the name "Chinese Taipei". This was the ROC's first participation at WHO meetings since 1971, as a result of the improved cross-strait relations since Ma Ying-jeou became the president of the Republic of China a year before. Its participation with WHO ended due to diplomatic pressure from the PRC following the election in 2016 that brought the independence-minded Democratic Progressive Party back into power. Political pressure from the PRC has led to the ROC being barred from membership of the WHO and other UN-affiliated organizations, and in 2017 to 2020 the WHO refused to allow Taiwanese delegates to attend the WHO annual assembly. According to Taiwanese publication The News Lens, on multiple occasions Taiwanese journalists have been denied access to report on the assembly. In May 2018, the WHO denied access to its annual assembly by Taiwanese media, reportedly due to demands from the PRC. Later in May 172 members of the United States House of Representatives wrote to the director-general of the World Health Organization to argue for Taiwan's inclusion as an observer at the WHA. The United States, Japan, Germany, and Australia all support Taiwan's inclusion in WHO. Pressure to allow the ROC to participate in WHO increased as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic with Taiwan's exclusion from emergency meetings concerning the outbreak bringing a rare united front from Taiwan's diverse political parties. Taiwan's main opposition party, the Kuomintang (KMT, Chinese Nationalist Party), expressed their anger at being excluded arguing that disease respects neither politics nor geography. China once again dismissed concerns over Taiwanese inclusion with the foreign minister claiming that no-one cares more about the health and wellbeing of the Taiwanese people than central government of the PRC. During the outbreak Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau voiced his support for Taiwan's participation in WHO, as did Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe. In January 2020 the European Union, a WHO observer, backed Taiwan's participation in WHO meetings related to the coronavirus pandemic as well as their general participation. In a 2020 interview, Assistant Director-General Bruce Aylward appeared to dodge a question from RTHK reporter Yvonne Tong about Taiwan's response to the pandemic and inclusion in the WHO, blaming internet connection issues. When the video chat was restarted, he was asked another question about Taiwan. He responded by indicating that they had already discussed China and formally ended the interview. This incident led to accusations about the PRC's political influence over the international organization. Taiwan's effective response to the 2019–20 COVID-19 pandemic has bolstered its case for WHO membership. Taiwan's response to the outbreak has been praised by a number of experts. In early May 2020, New Zealand Foreign Minister Winston Peters expressed support for the ROC's bid to rejoin the WHO during a media conference. The New Zealand Government subsequently supporting Taiwan's bid to join the WHO, putting NZ alongside Australia and the United States who have taken similar positions. On 9 May, Congressmen Eliot Engel, the Democratic chairman of the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Michael McCaul, the House Committee's ranking Republican member, Senator Jim Risch, the Republican chairman of the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, and Senator Bob Menendez, the Senate Committee's ranking Democratic member, submitted a joint letter to nearly 60 "like-minded" countries including Canada, Thailand, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, and Australia, urging them to support ROC's participation in the World Health Organization. In November 2020, the word "Taiwan" was blocked in comments on a livestream on the WHO's Facebook page. ### World Health Assembly and Executive Board The World Health Assembly (WHA) is the legislative and supreme body of the WHO. Based in Geneva, it typically meets yearly in May. It appoints the director-general every five years and votes on matters of policy and finance of WHO, including the proposed budget. It also reviews reports of the executive board and decides whether there are areas of work requiring further examination. The Assembly elects 34 members, technically qualified in the field of health, to the executive board for three-year terms. The main functions of the board are to carry out the decisions and policies of the Assembly, to advise it, and to facilitate its work. As of June 2023, the chair of the executive board is Dr. Hanan Mohamed Al Kuwari of Qatar. ### Director-General The head of the organization is the director-general, elected by the World Health Assembly. The term lasts for five years, and directors-general are typically appointed in May, when the Assembly meets. The current director-general is Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, who was appointed on 1 July 2017. ### Global institutions Apart from regional, country, and liaison offices, the World Health Assembly has also established other institutions for promoting and carrying on research. * International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) ### Personnel The WHO employs 7,000 people in 149 countries and regions to carry out its principles. In support of the principle of a tobacco-free work environment, the WHO does not recruit cigarette smokers. The organization has previously instigated the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in 2003. ### Goodwill Ambassadors The WHO operates "Goodwill Ambassadors"; members of the arts, sports, or other fields of public life aimed at drawing attention to the WHO's initiatives and projects. There are currently five Goodwill Ambassadors (Jet Li, Nancy Brinker, Peng Liyuan, Yohei Sasakawa and the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra) and a further ambassador associated with a partnership project (Craig David). On 21 October 2017, the director-general Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus appointed the then Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe as a WHO Goodwill Ambassador to help promote the fight against non-communicable diseases. The appointment address praised Mugabe for his commitment to public health in Zimbabwe. The appointment attracted widespread condemnation and criticism in WHO member states and international organizations due to Robert Mugabe's poor record on human rights and presiding over a decline in Zimbabwe's public health. Due to the outcry, the following day the appointment was revoked. ### Medical Society of the World Health Organization Since the beginning, the WHO has had the *Medical Society of the World Health Organization*. It has conducted lectures by noted researchers and published findings, recommendations. The founder, Dr. S. William A. Gunn has been its president. In 1983, Murray Eden was awarded the WHO *Medical Society* medal, for his work as consultant on research and development for WHO's director-general. ### Financing and partnerships The WHO is financed by contributions from member states and outside donors. In 2020-21, the largest contributors were the Germany, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, United States, United Kingdom and European Commission. The WHO Executive Board formed a Working Group on Sustainable Financing in 2021, charged to rethink WHO's funding strategy and present recommendations. Its recommendations were adopted by the 2022 World Health Assembly, the key one being to raise compulsory member dues to a level equal to 50% of WHO's 2022-2023 base budget by the end of the 2020s. Top 10 contributors (biennium 2020–2021; updated until Q4-2021) in millions of US$| No. | Contributor | Assessed contributions | Voluntary contributions specified | Core voluntary contributions | Total(biennium) | Share | Source | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Germany | 58 | 953 | | 1,011 | 14.4% | | | 2 | United States of America | 232 | 448 | | 681 | 9.7% | | | 3 | Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation | | 592 | | 592 | 8.4% | | | 4 | United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland | 44 | 367 | 120 | 531 | 7.6% | | | 5 | GAVI Alliance | | 371 | | 371 | 5.3% | | | 6 | European Commission | | 310 | | 310 | 4.4% | | | 7 | Japan | 82 | 122 | | 204 | 2.9% | | | 8 | China | 115 | 63 | | 178 | 2.5% | | | 9 | World Bank | | 158 | | 158 | 2.2% | | | 10 | Rotary International | | 152 | | 152 | 2.2% | | | Others | 530 | 2,306 | 144 | 2,980 | 42.4% | | | Total | 957 | 5,824 | 264 | 7,031 | 100.0% | | * **Assessed contributions** are the dues the Member States pay depending on the states' wealth and population * **Voluntary contributions specified** are funds for specific programme areas provided by the Member States or other partners * **Core voluntary contributions** are funds for flexible uses provided by the Member States or other partners #### Past At the beginning of the 21st century, the WHO's work involved increasing collaboration with external bodies. As of 2002[update], a total of 473 nongovernmental organizations (NGO) had some form of partnership with WHO. There were 189 partnerships with international NGOs in formal "official relations" – the rest being considered informal in character. Partners include the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation. As of 2012[update], the largest annual assessed contributions from member states came from the United States ($110 million), Japan ($58 million), Germany ($37 million), United Kingdom ($31 million) and France ($31 million). The combined 2012–2013 budget proposed a total expenditure of $3,959 million, of which $944 million (24%) will come from assessed contributions. This represented a significant fall in outlay compared to the previous 2009–2010 budget, adjusting to take account of previous underspends. Assessed contributions were kept the same. Voluntary contributions will account for $3,015 million (76%), of which $800 million is regarded as highly or moderately flexible funding, with the remainder tied to particular programmes or objectives. According to The Associated Press, the WHO routinely spends about $200 million a year on travel expenses, more than it spends to tackle mental health problems, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria combined. In 2016, Margaret Chan, director-general of WHO from January 2007 to June 2017, stayed in a $1000-per-night hotel room while visiting West Africa. The biggest contributor used to be the United States, which gives over $400 million annually. U.S. contributions to the WHO are funded through the U.S. State Department's account for Contributions to International Organizations (CIO). In April 2020, U.S. President Donald Trump, with backing by members of his party, announced that his administration would halt funding to the WHO. Funds previously earmarked for the WHO were to be held for 60–90 days pending an investigation into the WHO's handling of the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly in respect to the organization's purported relationship with China. The announcement was immediately criticized by world leaders including António Guterres, the secretary general of the United Nations; Heiko Maas, the German foreign minister; and Moussa Faki Mahamat, African Union chairman. During the first two years of the pandemic, American funding of the WHO declined by a quarter, although it is expected to increase during 2022 and 2023. On 16 May 2020, the Trump Administration agreed to pay up to what China pays in assessed contributions, which is less than about one-tenth of its previous funding. Biennium 2018–2019 China paid in assessed contributions US$75,796K, in specified voluntary contributions US$10,184K, for a total US$85,980K. ### WHO Public Health Prizes and Awards World Health Organization Prizes and Awards are given to recognize major achievements in public health. The candidates are nominated and recommended by each prize and award selection panel. The WHO Executive Board selects the winners, which are presented during the World Health Assembly. World headquarters and offices ------------------------------ The seat of the organization is in Geneva, Switzerland. It was designed by Swiss architect Jean Tschumi and inaugurated in 1966. In 2017, the organization launched an international competition to redesign and extend its headquarters. ### Gallery of the WHO headquarters building * Stairwell, 1969Stairwell, 1969 * Internal courtyard, 1969Internal courtyard, 1969 * Reflecting pool, 1969Reflecting pool, 1969 * Exterior, 1969Exterior, 1969 * From southwest, 2013From southwest, 2013 * Entrance hall, 2013Entrance hall, 2013 * Main conference room, 2013Main conference room, 2013 ### Country and liaison offices The World Health Organization operates 150 country offices in six different regions. It also operates several liaison offices, including those with the European Union, United Nations and a single office covering the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. It also operates the International Agency for Research on Cancer in Lyon, France, and the WHO Centre for Health Development in Kobe, Japan. Additional offices include those in Pristina; the West Bank and Gaza; the US-Mexico Border Field Office in El Paso; the Office of the Caribbean Program Coordination in Barbados; and the Northern Micronesia office. There will generally be one WHO country office in the capital, occasionally accompanied by satellite-offices in the provinces or sub-regions of the country in question. The country office is headed by a WHO Representative (WR). As of 2010[update], the only WHO Representative outside Europe to be a national of that country was for the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ("Libya"); all other staff was international. WHO Representatives in the Region termed the Americas are referred to as PAHO/WHO Representatives. In Europe, WHO Representatives also serve as head of the country office, and are nationals except for Serbia; there are also heads of the country office in Albania, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Uzbekistan. The WR is a member of the UN system country team which is coordinated by the UN System Resident Coordinator. The country office consists of the WR, and several health and other experts, both foreign and local, as well as the necessary support staff. The main functions of WHO country offices include being the primary adviser of that country's government in matters of health and pharmaceutical policies. ### Regional offices The regional divisions of WHO were created between 1949 and 1952, following the model of the pre-existing Pan American Health Organization, and are based on article 44 of the WHO's constitution, which allowed the WHO to "establish a [single] regional organization to meet the special needs of [each defined] area". Many decisions are made at the regional level, including important discussions over WHO's budget, and in deciding the members of the next assembly, which are designated by the regions. Each region has a regional committee, which generally meets once a year, normally in the autumn. Representatives attend from each member or associative member in each region, including those states that are not full members. For example, Palestine attends meetings of the Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office. Each region also has a regional office. Each regional office is headed by a director, who is elected by the Regional Committee. The board must approve such appointments, although as of 2004, it had never over-ruled the preference of a regional committee. The exact role of the board in the process has been a subject of debate, but the practical effect has always been small. Since 1999, regional directors serve for a once-renewable five-year term, and typically take their position on 1 February. Each regional committee of the WHO consists of all the Health Department heads, in all the governments of the countries that constitute the Region. Aside from electing the regional director, the regional committee is also in charge of setting the guidelines for the implementation, within the region, of the health and other policies adopted by the World Health Assembly. The regional committee also serves as a progress review board for the actions of WHO within the Region. The regional director is effectively the head of WHO for his or her region. The RD manages and/or supervises a staff of health and other experts at the regional offices and in specialized centres. The RD is also the direct supervising authority – concomitantly with the WHO Director-General – of all the heads of WHO country offices, known as WHO Representatives, within the region. The strong position of the regional offices has been criticized in WHO history for undermining its effectiveness and led to unsuccessful attempts to integrate them more strongly within 'One WHO'. Disease specific programmes such as the smallpox eradication programme or the 1980s Global Programme on AIDS were set up with more direct, vertical structures that bypassed the regional offices. Regional offices of WHO| Region | Headquarters | Notes | Website | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Africa | Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo | AFRO includes most of Africa, with the exception of Egypt, Sudan, Djibouti, Tunisia, Libya, Somalia and Morocco (all fall under EMRO). The regional director is Matshidiso Moeti, a Botswana national. (Tenure: 2015 – present). | AFRO | | Europe | Copenhagen, Denmark | EURO includes all of Europe (except Liechtenstein), Israel, and all of the former USSR. The regional director is Hans Kluge, a Belgian national (Tenure: 2020 – present). | EURO | | South-East Asia | New Delhi, India | North Korea is served by SEARO. The regional director is Poonam Khetrapal Singh, an Indian national (Tenure: 2014 – present). | SEARO | | Eastern Mediterranean | Cairo, Egypt | The Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office serves the countries of Africa that are not included in AFRO, as well as all countries in the Middle East except for Israel. Pakistan is served by EMRO. The regional director is Ahmed Al-Mandhari, an Omani national (Tenure: 2018 – present). | EMRO | | Western Pacific | Manila, the Philippines | WPRO covers all the Asian countries not served by SEARO and EMRO, and all the countries in Oceania. South Korea is served by WPRO. The regional director is Shin Young-soo, a South Korean national (Tenure: 2009 – present). | WPRO | | The Americas | Washington, D.C., United States | Also known as the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), and covers the Americas. The WHO regional director is Carissa F. Etienne, a Dominican national (Tenure: 2013 – present). | AMRO | See also -------- * Alliance for Healthy Cities, an international alliance * Global mental health * Health promotion * Health Sciences Online, virtual learning resources * Healthy city * High 5s Project, a patient safety collaboration * International Labour Organization * List of most polluted cities in the world by particulate matter concentration * Open Learning for Development, virtual learning resources * Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction- HRP * The Partnership for Maternal, Newborn and Child Health * Timeline of global health * United Nations Interagency Task Force on the Prevention and Control of NCDs * WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control * WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality * WHO Pesticide Evaluation Scheme * World Hearing Day

World Health Organization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization

The **sperm whale** or **cachalot** (***Physeter macrocephalus***) is the largest of the toothed whales and the largest toothed predator. It is the only living member of the genus *Physeter* and one of three extant species in the sperm whale family, along with the pygmy sperm whale and dwarf sperm whale of the genus *Kogia*. The sperm whale is a pelagic mammal with a worldwide range, and will migrate seasonally for feeding and breeding. Females and young males live together in groups, while mature males (bulls) live solitary lives outside of the mating season. The females cooperate to protect and nurse their young. Females give birth every four to twenty years, and care for the calves for more than a decade. A mature sperm whale has no natural predators, although calves and weakened adults are sometimes killed by pods of killer whales (orcas). Mature males average 16 metres (52 ft) in length, with the head representing up to one-third of the animal's length. Plunging to 2,250 metres (7,382 ft), it is the third deepest diving mammal, exceeded only by the southern elephant seal and Cuvier's beaked whale. The sperm whale uses echolocation and vocalization with source level as loud as 236 decibels (re 1 µPa m) underwater. It has the largest brain on Earth, more than five times heavier than a human's. Sperm whales can live 70 years or more. Spermaceti (sperm oil), from which the whale derives its name, was a prime target of the whaling industry, and was sought after for use in oil lamps, lubricants, and candles. Ambergris, a solid waxy waste product sometimes present in its digestive system, is still highly valued as a fixative in perfumes, among other uses. Beachcombers look out for ambergris as flotsam. Sperm whaling was a major industry in the 19th century, depicted in the novel *Moby-Dick*. The species is protected by the International Whaling Commission moratorium, and is listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Taxonomy and naming ------------------- ### Etymology The name "sperm whale" is a clipping of "spermaceti whale". Spermaceti, originally mistakenly identified as the whales' semen, is the semi-liquid, waxy substance found within the whale's head. (*See "Spermaceti organ and melon" below.*) The sperm whale is also known as the "cachalot", which is thought to derive from the archaic French for 'tooth' or 'big teeth', as preserved for example in the word *caishau* in the Gascon dialect (a word of either Romance or Basque origin). The etymological dictionary of Corominas says the origin is uncertain, but it suggests that it comes from the Vulgar Latin *cappula* 'sword hilts'. The word *cachalot* came to English via French from Spanish or Portuguese *cachalote*, perhaps from Galician/Portuguese *cachola* 'big head'. The term is retained in the Russian word for the animal, *kashalot* (кашалот), as well as in many other languages. The scientific genus name *Physeter* comes from the Greek *physētēr* (φυσητήρ), meaning 'blowpipe, blowhole (of a whale)', or – as a *pars pro toto* – 'whale'. The specific name *macrocephalus* is Latinized from the Greek *makroképhalos* (μακροκέφαλος 'big-headed'), from *makros* (μακρός) + *kephalē* (κεφαλή). Its synonymous specific name *catodon* means 'down-tooth', from the Greek elements *cat(a)-* ('below') and *odṓn* ('tooth'); so named because it has visible teeth only in its lower jaw. (*See "Jaws and teeth" below.*) Another synonym *australasianus* ('Australasian') was applied to sperm whales in the Southern Hemisphere. ### Taxonomy The sperm whale belongs to the order Cetartiodactyla, the order containing all cetaceans and even-toed ungulates. It is a member of the unranked clade Cetacea, with all the whales, dolphins, and porpoises, and further classified into Odontoceti, containing all the toothed whales and dolphins. It is the sole extant species of its genus, *Physeter*, in the family Physeteridae. Two species of the related extant genus *Kogia*, the pygmy sperm whale *Kogia breviceps* and the dwarf sperm whale *K. sima*, are placed either in this family or in the family Kogiidae. In some taxonomic schemes the families Kogiidae and Physeteridae are combined as the superfamily Physeteroidea (see the separate entry on the sperm whale family). Swedish ichthyologist Peter Artedi described it as *Physeter catodon* in his 1738 work *Genera piscium*, from the report of a beached specimen in the Orkneys in 1693 and two beached in the Netherlands in 1598 and 1601. The 1598 specimen was near Berkhey. The sperm whale is one of the species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of *Systema Naturae*. He recognised four species in the genus *Physeter*. Experts soon realised that just one such species exists, although there has been debate about whether this should be named *P. catodon* or *P. macrocephalus*, two of the names used by Linnaeus. Both names are still used, although most recent authors now accept *macrocephalus* as the valid name, limiting *catodon*'s status to a lesser synonym. Until 1974, the species was generally known as *P. catodon*. In that year, however, Dutch zoologists Antonius M. Husson and Lipke Holthuis proposed that the correct name should be *P. macrocephalus*, the second name in the genus *Physeter* published by Linnaeus concurrently with *P. catodon*. This proposition was based on the grounds that the names were synonyms published simultaneously, and, therefore, the ICZN Principle of the First Reviser should apply. In this instance, it led to the choice of *P. macrocephalus* over *P. catodon*, a view re-stated in Holthuis, 1987. This has been adopted by most subsequent authors, although Schevill (1986 and 1987) argued that *macrocephalus* was published with an inaccurate description and that therefore only the species *catodon* was valid, rendering the principle of "First Reviser" inapplicable. The most recent version of ITIS has altered its usage from *P. catodon* to *P. macrocephalus*, following L. B. Holthuis and more recent (2008) discussions with relevant experts. Furthermore, The Taxonomy Committee of the Society for Marine Mammalogy, the largest international association of marine mammal scientists in the world, officially uses *Physeter macrocephalus* when publishing their definitive list of marine mammal species. Biology ------- ### External appearance Average sizes| | Length | Weight | | --- | --- | --- | | Male | 16 metres (52 ft) | 45 tonnes (50 short tons) | | Female | 11 metres (36 ft) | 15 tonnes (17 short tons) | | Newborn | 4 metres (13 ft) | 1 tonne (1.1 short tons) | The sperm whale is the largest toothed whale and is among the most sexually dimorphic of all cetaceans. Both sexes are about the same size at birth, but mature males are typically 30% to 50% longer and three times as massive as females. Newborn sperm whales are usually between 3.7 to 4.3 meters (12 to 14 ft) long. Female sperm whales are sexually mature at 8 to 9 meters (26 to 30 ft) in length, whilst males are sexually mature at 11 to 12 meters (36 to 39 ft). Female sperm whales are physically mature at about 10.6 to 11 meters (35 to 36 ft) in length and generally do not achieve lengths greater than 12 metres (39 ft). The largest female sperm whale measured up to 12.3 meters (40 ft) long, and an individual of such size would have weighed about 17 tonnes (19 short tons). Male sperm whales are physically mature at about 15 to 16 meters (49 to 52 ft) in length, and larger males can generally achieve 18 to 19 meters (59 to 62 ft). An 18 meters (59 ft) long male sperm whale is estimated to have weighed 57 tonnes (56 long tons; 63 short tons). By contrast, the second largest toothed whale (Baird's beaked whale) measures up to 12.8 meters (42 ft) and weighs up to 14 tonnes (15 short tons). There are occasional reports of individual sperm whales achieving even greater lengths, with some historical claims reaching or exceeding 80 feet (24 m). One example is the whale that sank the *Essex* (one of the incidents behind *Moby-Dick*), which was claimed to be 85 feet (26 m). However, there is disagreement as to the accuracy of some of these claims, which are often considered exaggerations or as being measured along the curves of the body. An individual measuring 20.7 metres (68 ft) was reported from a Soviet whaling fleet near the Kuril Islands in 1950 and is cited by some authors as the largest accurately measured. It has been estimated to weigh 80 tonnes (79 long tons; 88 short tons). In a review of size variation in marine megafauna, McClain and colleagues noted that the International Whaling Commission's data contained eight individuals larger than 20.7 metres (68 ft). The authors supported a 24-metre (79 ft) male from the South Pacific in 1933 as the largest recorded. However, sizes like these are rare, with 95% of recorded sperm whales below 15.85 metres (52.0 ft). In 1853, one sperm whale was reported at 62 feet (19 m) in length, with a head measuring 20 feet (6.1 m). Large lower jawbones are held in the British Natural History Museum and the Oxford University Museum of Natural History, measuring 5 metres (16 ft) and 4.7 metres (15 ft), respectively. The average size of sperm whales has decreased over the years, probably due to pressure from whaling. Another view holds that exploitation by overwhaling had virtually no effect on the size of the bull sperm whales, and their size may have actually increased in current times on the basis of density dependent effects. Old males taken at Solander Islands were recorded to be extremely large and unusually rich in blubbers. The sperm whale's unique body is unlikely to be confused with any other species. The sperm whale's distinctive shape comes from its very large, block-shaped head, which can be one-quarter to one-third of the animal's length. The S-shaped blowhole is located very close to the front of the head and shifted to the whale's left. This gives rise to a distinctive bushy, forward-angled spray. The sperm whale's flukes (tail lobes) are triangular and very thick. Proportionally, they are larger than that of any other cetacean, and are very flexible. The whale lifts its flukes high out of the water as it begins a feeding dive. It has a series of ridges on the back's caudal third instead of a dorsal fin. The largest ridge was called the 'hump' by whalers, and can be mistaken for a dorsal fin because of its shape and size. In contrast to the smooth skin of most large whales, its back skin is usually wrinkly and has been likened to a prune by whale-watching enthusiasts. Albinos have been reported. ### Skeleton The ribs are bound to the spine by flexible cartilage, which allows the ribcage to collapse rather than snap under high pressure. While sperm whales are well adapted to diving, repeated dives to great depths have long-term effects. Bones show the same pitting that signals decompression sickness in humans. Older skeletons showed the most extensive pitting, whereas calves showed no damage. This damage may indicate that sperm whales are susceptible to decompression sickness, and sudden surfacing could be lethal to them. Like that of all cetaceans, the spine of the sperm whale has reduced zygapophysial joints, of which the remnants are modified and are positioned higher on the vertebral dorsal spinous process, hugging it laterally, to prevent extensive lateral bending and facilitate more dorso-ventral bending. These evolutionary modifications make the spine more flexible but weaker than the spines of terrestrial vertebrates. Like many cetaceans, the sperm whale has a vestigial pelvis that is not connected to the spine. Like that of other toothed whales, the skull of the sperm whale is asymmetrical so as to aid echolocation. Sound waves that strike the whale from different directions will not be channeled in the same way. Within the basin of the cranium, the openings of the bony narial tubes (from which the nasal passages spring) are skewed towards the left side of the skull. ### Jaws and teeth The sperm whale's lower jaw is very narrow and underslung. The sperm whale has 18 to 26 teeth on each side of its lower jaw which fit into sockets in the upper jaw. The teeth are cone-shaped and weigh up to 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) each. The teeth are functional, but do not appear to be necessary for capturing or eating squid, as well-fed animals have been found without teeth or even with deformed jaws. One hypothesis is that the teeth are used in aggression between males. Mature males often show scars which seem to be caused by the teeth. Rudimentary teeth are also present in the upper jaw, but these rarely emerge into the mouth. Analyzing the teeth is the preferred method for determining a whale's age. Like the age-rings in a tree, the teeth build distinct layers of cementum and dentine as they grow. ### Brain The sperm whale brain is the largest known of any modern or extinct animal, weighing on average about 7.8 kilograms (17 lb) (with the smallest known weighing 6.4 kilograms (14 lb) and the largest known weighing 9.2 kilograms (20 lb)), more than five times heavier than a human's, and has a volume of about 8,000 cm3. Although larger brains generally correlate with higher intelligence, it is not the only factor. Elephants and dolphins also have larger brains than humans. The sperm whale has a lower encephalization quotient than many other whale and dolphin species, lower than that of non-human anthropoid apes, and much lower than humans'. The sperm whale's cerebrum is the largest in all mammalia, both in absolute and relative terms. The olfactory system is reduced, suggesting that the sperm whale has a poor sense of taste and smell. By contrast, the auditory system is enlarged. The pyramidal tract is poorly developed, reflecting the reduction of its limbs. ### Biological systems The sperm whale respiratory system has adapted to cope with drastic pressure changes when diving. The flexible ribcage allows lung collapse, reducing nitrogen intake, and metabolism can decrease to conserve oxygen. Between dives, the sperm whale surfaces to breathe for about eight minutes before diving again. Odontoceti (toothed whales) breathe air at the surface through a single, S-shaped blowhole, which is extremely skewed to the left. Sperm whales spout (breathe) 3–5 times per minute at rest, increasing to 6–7 times per minute after a dive. The blow is a noisy, single stream that rises up to 2 metres (6.6 ft) or more above the surface and points forward and left at a 45° angle. On average, females and juveniles blow every 12.5 seconds before dives, while large males blow every 17.5 seconds before dives. A sperm whale killed 160 km (100 mi) south of Durban, South Africa, after a 1-hour, 50-minute dive was found with two dogfish (Scymnodon sp.), usually found at the sea floor, in its belly. The sperm whale has the longest intestinal system in the world, exceeding 300 m in larger specimens. The sperm whale has a four-chambered stomach that is similar to ruminants. The first secretes no gastric juices and has very thick muscular walls to crush the food (since whales cannot chew) and resist the claw and sucker attacks of swallowed squid. The second chamber is larger and is where digestion takes place. Undigested squid beaks accumulate in the second chamber – as many as 18,000 have been found in some dissected specimens. Most squid beaks are vomited by the whale, but some occasionally make it to the hindgut. Such beaks precipitate the formation of ambergris. In 1959, the heart of a 22 metric-ton (24 short-ton) male taken by whalers was measured to be 116 kilograms (256 lb), about 0.5% of its total mass. The circulatory system has a number of specific adaptations for the aquatic environment. The diameter of the aortic arch increases as it leaves the heart. This bulbous expansion acts as a windkessel, ensuring a steady blood flow as the heart rate slows during diving. The arteries that leave the aortic arch are positioned symmetrically. There is no costocervical artery. There is no direct connection between the internal carotid artery and the vessels of the brain. Their circulatory system has adapted to dive at great depths, as much as 2,250 metres (7,382 ft) for up to 120 minutes. More typical dives are around 400 metres (1,310 ft) and 35 minutes in duration. Myoglobin, which stores oxygen in muscle tissue, is much more abundant than in terrestrial animals. The blood has a high density of red blood cells, which contain oxygen-carrying haemoglobin. The oxygenated blood can be directed towards only the brain and other essential organs when oxygen levels deplete. The spermaceti organ may also play a role by adjusting buoyancy (see below). The arterial retia mirabilia are extraordinarily well-developed. The complex arterial retia mirabilia of the sperm whale are more extensive and larger than those of any other cetacean. ### Senses #### Spermaceti organ and melon Atop the whale's skull is positioned a large complex of organs filled with a liquid mixture of fats and waxes called spermaceti. The purpose of this complex is to generate powerful and focused clicking sounds, the existence of which was proven by Valentine Worthington, and William Schevill when a recording was produced on a research vessel in May 1959. The sperm whale uses these sounds for echolocation and communication. The spermaceti organ is like a large barrel of spermaceti. Its surrounding wall, known as the *case*, is extremely tough and fibrous. The case can hold within it up to 1,900 litres of spermaceti. It is proportionately larger in males. This oil is a mixture of triglycerides and wax esters. The proportion of wax esters in the spermaceti organ increases with the age of the whale: 38–51% in calves, 58–87% in adult females, and 71–94% in adult males. The spermaceti at the core of the organ has a higher wax content than the outer areas. The speed of sound in spermaceti is 2,684 m/s (at 40 kHz, 36 °C), making it nearly twice as fast as in the oil in a dolphin's melon. Below the spermaceti organ lies the "junk" which consists of compartments of spermaceti separated by cartilage. It is analogous to the melon found in other toothed whales. The structure of the junk redistributes physical stress across the skull and may have evolved to protect the head during ramming. Running through the head are two air passages. The left passage runs alongside the spermaceti organ and goes directly to the blowhole, whilst the right passage runs underneath the spermaceti organ and passes air through a pair of phonic lips and into the distal sac at the very front of the nose. The distal sac is connected to the blowhole and the terminus of the left passage. When the whale is submerged, it can close the blowhole, and air that passes through the phonic lips can circulate back to the lungs. The sperm whale, unlike other odontocetes, has only one pair of phonic lips, whereas all other toothed whales have two, and it is located at the front of the nose instead of behind the melon. At the posterior end of this spermaceti complex is the frontal sac, which covers the concave surface of the cranium. The posterior wall of the frontal sac is covered with fluid-filled knobs, which are about 4–13 mm in diameter and separated by narrow grooves. The anterior wall is smooth. The knobbly surface reflects sound waves that come through the spermaceti organ from the phonic lips. The grooves between the knobs trap a film of air that is consistent whatever the orientation or depth of the whale, making it an excellent sound mirror. The spermaceti organs may also help adjust the whale's buoyancy. It is hypothesized that before the whale dives, cold water enters the organ, and it is likely that the blood vessels constrict, reducing blood flow, and, hence, temperature. The wax therefore solidifies and reduces in volume. The increase in specific density generates a down force of about 392 newtons (88 lbf) and allows the whale to dive with less effort. During the hunt, oxygen consumption, together with blood vessel dilation, produces heat and melts the spermaceti, increasing its buoyancy and enabling easy surfacing. However, more recent work has found many problems with this theory including the lack of anatomical structures for the actual heat exchange. Another issue is that if the spermaceti does indeed cool and solidify, it would affect the whale's echolocation ability just when it needs it to hunt in the depths. Herman Melville's fictional story *Moby-Dick* suggests that the "case" containing the spermaceti serves as a battering ram for use in fights between males. A few famous instances include the well-documented sinking of the ships *Essex* and *Ann Alexander* by attackers estimated to weigh only one-fifth as much as the ships. * The phonic lips.The phonic lips. * The frontal sac, exposed. Its surface is covered with fluid-filled knobs.The frontal sac, exposed. Its surface is covered with fluid-filled knobs. * A piece of the posterior wall of the frontal sac. The grooves between the knobs trap a consistent film of air, making it an excellent sound mirror.A piece of the posterior wall of the frontal sac. The grooves between the knobs trap a consistent film of air, making it an excellent sound mirror. #### Eyes and vision The sperm whale's eye does not differ greatly from those of other toothed whales except in size. It is the largest among the toothed whales, weighing about 170 g. It is overall ellipsoid in shape, compressed along the visual axis, measuring about 7×7×3 cm. The cornea is elliptical and the lens is spherical. The sclera is very hard and thick, roughly 1 cm anteriorly and 3 cm posteriorly. There are no ciliary muscles. The choroid is very thick and contains a fibrous *tapetum lucidum*. Like other toothed whales, the sperm whale can retract and protrude its eyes, thanks to a 2-cm-thick retractor muscle attached around the eye at the equator, but are unable to roll the eyes in their sockets. According to Fristrup and Harbison (2002), sperm whale's eyes afford good vision and sensitivity to light. They conjectured that sperm whales use vision to hunt squid, either by detecting silhouettes from below or by detecting bioluminescence. If sperm whales detect silhouettes, Fristrup and Harbison suggested that they hunt upside down, allowing them to use the forward parts of the ventral visual fields for binocular vision. ### Sleeping For some time researchers have been aware that pods of sperm whales may sleep for short periods, assuming a vertical position with their heads just below or at the surface, or head down. A 2008 study published in *Current Biology* recorded evidence that whales may sleep with both sides of the brain. It appears that some whales may fall into a deep sleep for about 7 percent of the time, most often between 6 p.m. and midnight. ### Genetics Sperm whales have 21 pairs of chromosomes (2n=42). The genome of live whales can be examined by recovering shed skin. Vocalization complex -------------------- After the discovery by Valentine Worthington and William Schevill confirmed the existence of whale vocalization further studies conducted found that sperm whales are capable of emitting sounds at a volume of 230 decibels – more than an airplane jet engine at takeoff – the sperm whale is the loudest animal in the world. Sperm whale vocalization is a learned behavior that is clan specific. ### Mechanism When echolocating, the sperm whale emits a directionally focused beam of broadband clicks. Clicks are generated by forcing air through a pair of phonic lips (also known as "monkey lips" or "museau de singe") at the front end of the nose, just below the blowhole. The sound then travels backwards along the length of the nose through the spermaceti organ. Most of the sound energy is then reflected off the frontal sac at the cranium and into the melon, whose lens-like structure focuses it. Some of the sound will reflect back into the spermaceti organ and back towards the front of the whale's nose, where it will be reflected through the spermaceti organ a third time. This back and forth reflection which happens on the scale of a few milliseconds creates a multi-pulse click structure. This multi-pulse click structure allows researchers to measure the whale's spermaceti organ using only the sound of its clicks. Because the interval between pulses of a sperm whale's click is related to the length of the sound producing organ, an individual whale's click is unique to that individual. However, if the whale matures and the size of the spermaceti organ increases, the tone of the whale's click will also change. The lower jaw is the primary reception path for the echoes. A continuous fat-filled canal transmits received sounds to the inner ear. The source of the air forced through the phonic lips is the right nasal passage. While the left nasal passage opens to the blow hole, the right nasal passage has evolved to supply air to the phonic lips. It is thought that the nostrils of the land-based ancestor of the sperm whale migrated through evolution to their current functions, the left nostril becoming the blowhole and the right nostril becoming the phonic lips. Air that passes through the phonic lips passes into the distal sac, then back down through the left nasal passage. This recycling of air allows the whale to continuously generate clicks for as long as it is submerged. ### Types of vocalization A creak is a rapid series of high-frequency clicks that sounds somewhat like a creaky door hinge. It is typically used when homing in on prey. A coda is a short pattern of 3 to 20 clicks that is used in social situations. They were once thought to be a way by which individuals identified themselves, but individuals have been observed producing multiple codas, and the same codas are used by multiple individuals. However, each click contains a physical signature which suggests that clicks can be used to identify individuals. Geographically separate pods exhibit distinct dialects. Large males are generally solitary and rarely produce codas. In breeding grounds, codas are almost entirely produced by adult females. Despite evidence that sperm whales share similar codas, it is still unknown whether sperm whales possess individually specific coda repertoires or whether individuals make codas at different rates. Slow clicks are heard only in the presence of males (it is not certain whether females occasionally make them). Males make a lot of slow clicks in breeding grounds (74% of the time), both near the surface and at depth, which suggests they are primarily mating signals. Outside breeding grounds, slow clicks are rarely heard, and usually near the surface. Characteristics of sperm whale clicks| Click type | Apparent source level (dB re 1 µPa m]) | Directionality | Centroidfrequency (kHz) | Inter-click interval (s) | Duration of click (ms) | Duration of pulse (ms) | Range audible to sperm whale (km) | Inferred function | Audio sample | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Usual | 230 | High | 15 | 0.5–1.0 | 15–30 | 0.1 | 16 | Searching for prey | | | Creak | 205 | High | 15 | 0.005–0.1 | 0.1–5 | 0.1 | 6 | Homing in on prey | | | Coda | 180 | Low | 5 | 0.1–0.5 | 35 | 0.5 | ~2 | Social communication | | | Slow | 190 | Low | 0.5 | 5–8 | 30 | 5 | 60 | Communication by males | | Ecology ------- ### Distribution Sperm whales are among the most cosmopolitan species. They prefer ice-free waters over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) deep. Although both sexes range through temperate and tropical oceans and seas, only adult males populate higher latitudes. Among several regions, such as along coastal waters of southern Australia, sperm whales have been considered to be locally extinct. They are relatively abundant from the poles to the equator and are found in all the oceans. They inhabit the Mediterranean Sea, but not the Black Sea, while their presence in the Red Sea is uncertain. The shallow entrances to both the Black Sea and the Red Sea may account for their absence. The Black Sea's lower layers are also anoxic and contain high concentrations of sulphur compounds such as hydrogen sulphide.[*What does being anoxic have to do with whales that don't breath under water? Lack of prey?*] The first ever sighting off the coast of Pakistan was made in 2017. The first ever record off the west coast of the Korean Peninsula (Yellow Sea) was made in 2005. followed by one near Ganghwa Island in 2009. Populations are denser close to continental shelves and canyons. Sperm whales are usually found in deep, off-shore waters, but may be seen closer to shore, in areas where the continental shelf is small and drops quickly to depths of 310 to 920 metres (1,020 to 3,020 ft). Coastal areas with significant sperm whale populations include the Azores and Dominica. In east Asian waters, whales are also observed regularly in coastal waters in places such as the Commander and Kuril Islands, Shiretoko Peninsula which is one of few locations where sperm whales can be observed from shores, off Kinkasan, vicinity to Tokyo Bay and the Bōsō Peninsula to the Izu and the Izu Islands, the Volcano Islands, Yakushima and the Tokara Islands to the Ryukyu Islands,Taiwan, the Northern Mariana Islands, and so forth. Historical catch records suggest there could have been smaller aggression grounds in the Sea of Japan as well. Along the Korean Peninsula, the first confirmed observation within the Sea of Japan, eight animals off Guryongpo, was made in 2004 since after the last catches of five whales off Ulsan in 1911, while nine whales were observed in the East China Sea side of the peninsula in 1999. Grown males are known to enter surprisingly shallow bays to rest (whales will be in a state of rest during these occasions). There are unique, coastal groups reported from various areas among the globe such as near the Scotland's coastal waters, and Shiretoko Peninsula, off Kaikoura, in Davao Gulf. Such coastal groups were more abundant in pre-whaling days. Genetic analysis indicates that the world population of sperm whales originated in the Pacific Ocean from a population of about 10,000 animals around 100,000 years ago, when expanding ice caps blocked off their access to other seas. In particular, colonization of the Atlantic was revealed to have occurred multiple times during this expansion of their range. ### Diet Sperm whales usually dive between 300 to 800 metres (980 to 2,620 ft), and sometimes 1 to 2 kilometres (3,300 to 6,600 ft), in search of food. Such dives can last more than an hour. They feed on several species, notably the giant squid, but also the colossal squid, octopuses, and fish such as demersal rays and sharks, but their diet is mainly medium-sized squid. Some prey may be taken accidentally while eating other items. Most of what is known about deep-sea squid has been learned from specimens in captured sperm whale stomachs, although more recent studies analysed faeces. One study, carried out around the Galápagos, found that squid from the genera *Histioteuthis* (62%), *Ancistrocheirus* (16%), and *Octopoteuthis* (7%) weighing between 12 and 650 grams (0.026 and 1.433 lb) were the most commonly taken. Battles between sperm whales and giant squid or colossal squid have never been observed by humans; however, white scars are believed to be caused by the large squid. One study published in 2010 collected evidence that suggests that female sperm whales may collaborate when hunting Humboldt squid. Tagging studies have shown that sperm whales hunt upside down at the bottom of their deep dives. It is suggested that the whales can see the squid silhouetted above them against the dim surface light. An older study, examining whales captured by the New Zealand whaling fleet in the Cook Strait region, found a 1.69:1 ratio of squid to fish by weight. Sperm whales sometimes take sablefish and toothfish from long lines. Long-line fishing operations in the Gulf of Alaska complain that sperm whales take advantage of their fishing operations to eat desirable species straight off the line, sparing the whales the need to hunt. However, the amount of fish taken is very little compared to what the sperm whale needs per day. Video footage has been captured of a large male sperm whale "bouncing" a long line, to gain the fish. Sperm whales are believed to prey on the megamouth shark, a rare and large deep-sea species discovered in the 1970s. In one case, three sperm whales were observed attacking or playing with a megamouth. Sperm whales have also been noted to feed on bioluminescent pyrosomes such as *Pyrosoma atlanticum*. It is thought that the foraging strategy of sperm whales for bioluminescent squids may also explain the presence of these light-emitting pyrosomes in the diet of the sperm whale. The sharp beak of a consumed squid lodged in the whale's intestine may lead to the production of ambergris, analogous to the production of pearls in oysters. The irritation of the intestines caused by squid beaks stimulates the secretion of this lubricant-like substance. Sperm whales are prodigious feeders and eat around 3% of their body weight per day. The total annual consumption of prey by sperm whales worldwide is estimated to be about 91 million tonnes (100 million short tons). In comparison, human consumption of seafood is estimated to be 115 million tonnes (127 million short tons). Sperm whales hunt through echolocation. Their clicks are among the most powerful sounds in the animal kingdom (see above). It has been hypothesised that it can stun prey with its clicks. Experimental studies attempting to duplicate this effect have been unable to replicate the supposed injuries, casting doubt on this idea. One study showing that sound pressure levels on the squid are more than an order of magnitude below levels required for debilitation, and therefore, precluding acoustic stunning to facilitate prey capture. It has been stated that sperm whales, as well as other large cetaceans, help fertilise the surface of the ocean by consuming nutrients in the depths and transporting those nutrients to the oceans' surface when they defecate, an effect known as the whale pump. This fertilises phytoplankton and other plants on the surface of the ocean and contributes to ocean productivity and the drawdown of atmospheric carbon. Life cycle ---------- Sperm whales can live 70 years or more. They are a prime example of a species that has been K-selected, meaning their reproductive strategy is associated with stable environmental conditions and comprises a low birth rate, significant parental aid to offspring, slow maturation, and high longevity. How they choose mates has not been definitively determined. Bulls will fight with each other over females, and males will mate with multiple females, making them polygynous, but they do not dominate the group as in a harem. Bulls do not provide paternal care to their offspring but rather play a fatherly role to younger bulls to show dominance. Females become fertile at around 9 years of age. The oldest pregnant female ever recorded was 41 years old. Gestation requires 14 to 16 months, producing a single calf. Sexually mature females give birth once every 4 to 20 years (pregnancy rates were higher during the whaling era). Birth is a social event, as the mother and calf need others to protect them from predators. The other adults may jostle and bite the newborn in its first hours. Lactation proceeds for 19 to 42 months, but calves, rarely, may suckle up to 13 years. Like that of other whales, the sperm whale's milk has a higher fat content than that of terrestrial mammals: about 36%, compared to 4% in cow milk. This gives it a consistency similar to cottage cheese, which prevents it from dissolving in the water before the calf can drink it. It has an energy content of roughly 3,840 kcal/kg, compared to just 640 kcal/kg in cow milk. Calves may be allowed to suckle from females other than their mothers. Males become sexually mature at 18 years. Upon reaching sexual maturity, males move to higher latitudes, where the water is colder and feeding is more productive. Females remain at lower latitudes. Males reach their full size at about age 50. Social behaviour ---------------- ### Relations within the species Like elephants, females and their young live in matriarchal groups called pods, while bulls live apart. Bulls sometimes form loose bachelor groups with other males of similar age and size. As they grow older, they typically live solitary lives, only returning to the pod to socialize or to breed. Bulls have beached themselves together, suggesting a degree of cooperation which is not yet fully understood. The whales rarely, if ever, leave their group. A *social unit* is a group of sperm whales who live and travel together over a period of years. Individuals rarely, if ever, join or leave a social unit. There is a huge variance in the size of social units. They are most commonly between six and nine individuals in size but can have more than twenty. Unlike orcas, sperm whales within a social unit show no significant tendency to associate with their genetic relatives. Females and calves spend about three-quarters of their time foraging and a quarter of their time socializing. Socializing usually takes place in the afternoon. When sperm whales socialize, they emit complex patterns of clicks called codas. They will spend much of the time rubbing against each other. Tracking of diving whales suggests that groups engage in herding of prey, similar to bait balls created by other species, though the research needs to be confirmed by tracking the prey. ### Relations with other species The most common natural predator of sperm whales is the orca (killer whale), but pilot whales and false killer whales sometimes harass them. Orcas prey on target groups of females with young, usually making an effort to extract and kill a calf. The females will protect their calves or an injured adult by encircling them. They may face inwards with their tails out (the 'marguerite formation', named after the flower). The heavy and powerful tail of an adult whale is potentially capable of delivering lethal blows. Alternatively, they may face outwards (the 'heads-out formation'). Other than sperm whales, southern right whales had been observed to perform similar formations. However, formations in non-dangerous situations have been recorded as well. Early whalers exploited this behaviour, attracting a whole unit by injuring one of its members. Such a tactic is described in *Moby-Dick*: > "Say you strike a Forty-barrel-bull—poor devil! all his comrades quit him. But strike a member of the harem school, and her companions swim around her with every token of concern, sometimes lingering so near her and so long, as themselves to fall a prey." > > If the killer whale pod is large, its members may sometimes be able to kill adult female sperm whales and can at least injure an entire pod of sperm whales. Bulls have no predators, and are believed to be too large, powerful and aggressive to be threatened by killer whales. Solitary bulls are known to interfere and come to the aid of vulnerable groups nearby. However, the bull sperm whale, when accompanying pods of female sperm whales and their calves as such, may be reportedly unable to effectively dissuade killer whales from their attacks on the group, although the killer whales may end the attack sooner when a bull is present. However, male sperm whales have been observed to attack and intimidate killer whale pods in competitive feeding instances. An incident was filmed from a long-line trawler: a killer whale pod was systematically taking fish caught on the trawler's long lines (as the lines were being pulled into the ship) when a male sperm whale appeared to repeatedly charge the killer whale pod in an attempt to drive them away; it was speculated by the film crew that the sperm whale was attempting to access the same fish. The killer whales employed a tail outward and tail-slapping defensive position against the bull sperm whale similar to that used by female sperm whales against attacking killer whales. However, at some potential feeding sites, the killer whales may prevail over sperm whales even when outnumbered by the sperm whales. Some authors consider the killer whales "usually" behaviorally dominant over sperm whales but express that the two species are "fairly evenly matched", with the killer whales' greater aggression, more considerable biting force for their size and predatory prowess more than compensating for their smaller size. Sperm whales are not known for forging bonds with other species, but it was observed that a bottlenose dolphin with a spinal deformity had been accepted into a pod of sperm whales. They are known to swim alongside other cetaceans such as humpback, fin, minke, pilot, and killer whales on occasion. ### Parasites Sperm whales can suffer from parasites. Out of 35 sperm whales caught during the 1976–1977 Antarctic whaling season, all of them were infected by *Anisakis physeteris* (in their stomachs) and *Phyllobothrium delphini* (in their blubber). Both whales with a placenta were infected with *Placentonema gigantissima*, potentially the largest nematode worm ever described. Evolutionary history -------------------- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Cetacea     | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Toothed whales | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Physeteroidea | | | | | --- | --- | | | Other Physeteroidea**†** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Kogiidae | | | | | --- | --- | | | Pygmy sperm whale | | | | | Dwarf sperm whale | | | | | | | Physeteridae | | | | | --- | --- | | | Other Physeteridae**†** | | | | | **Sperm whale** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | South Asian river dolphin | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Other river dolphins | | | | | Oceanic dolphins | | | | | Porpoises | | | | | Arctic whales | | | | | | | | Beaked whales | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Baleen whales | | | | | | | | Evolutionary family tree of sperm whales,including simplified summary of extinct groups (**†**) | ### Fossil record Although the fossil record is poor, several extinct genera have been assigned to the clade Physeteroidea, which includes the last common ancestor of the modern sperm whale, pygmy sperm whales, dwarf sperm whales, and extinct physeteroids. These fossils include *Ferecetotherium*, *Idiorophus*, *Diaphorocetus*, *Aulophyseter*, *Orycterocetus*, *Scaldicetus*, *Placoziphius*, *Zygophyseter* and *Acrophyseter*. *Ferecetotherium*, found in Azerbaijan and dated to the late Oligocene (about 28 to 23 million years ago), is the most primitive fossil that has been found, which possesses sperm whale-specific features, such as an asymmetric rostrum ("beak" or "snout"). Most sperm whale fossils date from the Miocene period, 23 to 5 million years ago. *Diaphorocetus*, from Argentina, has been dated to the early Miocene. Fossil sperm whales from the Middle Miocene include *Aulophyseter*, *Idiorophus* and *Orycterocetus*, all of which were found on the West Coast of the United States, and *Scaldicetus*, found in Europe and Japan. *Orycterocetus* fossils have also been found in the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, in addition to the west coast of the United States. *Placoziphius*, found in Europe, and *Acrophyseter*, from Peru, are dated to the late Miocene. Fossil sperm whales differ from modern sperm whales in tooth count and the shape of the face and jaws. For example, *Scaldicetus* had a tapered rostrum. Genera from the Oligocene and early and middle Miocene, with the possible exception of *Aulophyseter*, had teeth in their upper jaws. *Acrophyseter*, from the late Miocene, also had teeth in both the upper and lower jaws as well as a short rostrum and an upward curving mandible (lower jaw). These anatomical differences suggest that fossil species may not have necessarily been deep-sea squid eaters such as the modern sperm whale, but that some genera mainly ate fish. *Zygophyseter*, dated from the middle to late Miocene and found in southern Italy, had teeth in both jaws and appears to have been adapted to feed on large prey, rather like the modern killer whale (orca). Other fossil sperm whales with adaptations similar to this are collectively known as killer sperm whales. Two poorly known fossil species belonging to the modern genus *Physeter* have been recognized so far: *P. antiquus* (Neogene of France) and *P. vetus* (Neogene of eastern North America). *Physeter vetus* is very likely an invalid species, as the few teeth that were used to identify this species appear to be identical to those of another toothed whale, *Orycterocetus quadratidens*. ### Phylogeny The traditional view has been that Mysticeti (baleen whales) and Odontoceti (toothed whales) arose from more primitive whales early in the Oligocene period, and that the super-family Physeteroidea, which contains the sperm whale, dwarf sperm whale, and pygmy sperm whale, diverged from other toothed whales soon after that, over 23 million years ago. From 1993 to 1996, molecular phylogenetics analyses by Milinkovitch and colleagues, based on comparing the genes of various modern whales, suggested that the sperm whales are more closely related to the baleen whales than they are to other toothed whales, which would have meant that Odontoceti were not monophyletic; in other words, it did not consist of a single ancestral toothed whale species and all its descendants. However, more recent studies, based on various combinations of comparative anatomy and molecular phylogenetics, criticised Milinkovitch's analysis on technical grounds and reaffirmed that the Odontoceti are monophyletic. These analyses also confirm that there was a rapid evolutionary radiation (diversification) of the Physeteroidea in the Miocene period. The Kogiidae (dwarf and pygmy sperm whales) diverged from the Physeteridae (true sperm whales) at least 8 million years ago. Relationship with humans ------------------------ ### Sperm whaling Spermaceti, obtained primarily from the spermaceti organ, and sperm oil, obtained primarily from the blubber in the body, were much sought after by 18th, 19th, and 20th century whalers. These substances found a variety of commercial applications, such as candles, soap, cosmetics, machine oil, other specialised lubricants, lamp oil, pencils, crayons, leather waterproofing, rust-proofing materials and many pharmaceutical compounds. Ambergris, a highly expensive, solid, waxy, flammable substance produced in the digestive system of sperm whales, was also sought as a fixative in perfumery. Prior to the early eighteenth century, hunting was mostly by indigenous Indonesians. Legend has it that sometime in the early 18th century, around 1712, Captain Christopher Hussey, while cruising for right whales near shore, was blown offshore by a northerly wind, where he encountered a sperm whale pod and killed one. Although the story may not be true, sperm whales were indeed soon exploited by American whalers. Judge Paul Dudley, in his *Essay upon the Natural History of Whales* (1725), states that a certain Atkins, 10 or 12 years in the trade, was among the first to catch sperm whales sometime around 1720 off the New England coast. There were only a few recorded instances during the first few decades (1709–1730s) of offshore sperm whaling. Instead, sloops concentrated on the Nantucket Shoals, where they would have taken right whales or went to the Davis Strait region to catch bowhead whales. By the early 1740s, with the advent of spermaceti candles (before 1743), American vessels began to focus on sperm whales. The diary of Benjamin Bangs (1721–1769) shows that, along with the bumpkin sloop he sailed, he found three other sloops flensing sperm whales off the coast of North Carolina in late May 1743. On returning to Nantucket in the summer 1744 on a subsequent voyage, he noted that "45 spermacetes are brought in here this day," another indication that American sperm whaling was in full swing. American sperm whaling soon spread from the east coast of the American colonies to the Gulf Stream, the Grand Banks, West Africa (1763), the Azores (1765), and the South Atlantic (1770s). From 1770 to 1775 Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, and Rhode Island ports produced 45,000 barrels of sperm oil annually, compared to 8,500 of whale oil. In the same decade, the British began sperm whaling, employing American ships and personnel. By the following decade, the French had entered the trade, also employing American expertise. Sperm whaling increased until the mid-nineteenth century. Spermaceti oil was important in public lighting (for example, in lighthouses, where it was used in the United States until 1862, when it was replaced by lard oil, in turn replaced by petroleum) and for lubricating the machines (such as those used in cotton mills) of the Industrial Revolution. Sperm whaling declined in the second half of the nineteenth century, as petroleum came into broader use. In that sense, petroleum use may be said to have protected whale populations from even greater exploitation. Sperm whaling in the 18th century began with small sloops carrying only one or two whaleboats. The fleet's scope and size increased over time, and larger ships entered the fishery. In the late 18th century and early 19th century, sperm whaling ships sailed to the equatorial Pacific, the Indian Ocean, Japan, the coast of Arabia, Australia and New Zealand. Hunting could be dangerous to the crew, since sperm whales (especially bulls) will readily fight to defend themselves against attack, unlike most baleen whales. When dealing with a threat, sperm whales will use their huge head effectively as a battering ram. Arguably the most famous sperm whale counter-attack occurred on 20 November 1820, when a whale claimed to be about 25.9 metres (85 ft) long rammed and sank the Nantucket whaleship *Essex*. Only 8 out of 21 sailors survived to be rescued by other ships. The sperm whale's ivory-like teeth were often sought by 18th- and 19th-century whalers, who used them to produce inked carvings known as *scrimshaw.* 30 teeth of the sperm whale can be used for ivory. Each of these teeth, up to 20 cm (8 in) and 8 cm (3 in) across, are hollow for the first half of their length. Like walrus ivory, sperm whale ivory has two distinct layers. However, sperm whale ivory contains a much thicker inner layer. Though a widely practised art in the 19th century, scrimshaw using genuine sperm whale ivory declined substantially after the retirement of the whaling fleets in the 1880s. Modern whaling was more efficient than open-boat whaling, employing steam-powered ships and exploding harpoons. Initially, modern whaling activity focused on large baleen whales, but as these populations were taken, sperm whaling increased. Spermaceti, the fine waxy oil produced by sperm whales, was in high demand. In both the 1941–1942 and 1942–1943 seasons, Norwegian expeditions took over 3,000 sperm whales off the coast of Peru alone. After World War II, whaling continued unabated to obtain oil for cosmetics and high-performance machinery, such as automobile transmissions. The hunting led to the near-extinction of large whales, including sperm whales, until bans on whale oil use were instituted in 1972. The International Whaling Commission gave the species full protection in 1985, but hunting by Japan in the northern Pacific Ocean continued until 1988. It is estimated that the historic worldwide population numbered 1,100,000 before commercial sperm whaling began in the early 18th century. By 1880, it had declined by an estimated 29 percent. From that date until 1946, the population appears to have partially recovered as whaling activity decreased, but after the Second World War, the population declined even further, to 33 per cent of the pre-whaling population. Between 184,000 and 236,000 sperm whales were killed by the various whaling nations in the 19th century, while in the 20th century, at least 770,000 were taken, the majority between 1946 and 1980. Sperm whales increase levels of primary production and carbon export by depositing iron-rich faeces into surface waters of the Southern Ocean. The iron-rich faeces cause phytoplankton to grow and take up more carbon from the atmosphere. When the phytoplankton dies, it sinks to the deep ocean and takes the atmospheric carbon with it. By reducing the abundance of sperm whales in the Southern Ocean, whaling has resulted in an extra 2 million tonnes of carbon remaining in the atmosphere each year. Remaining sperm whale populations are large enough that the species' conservation status is rated as vulnerable rather than endangered. However, the recovery from centuries of commercial whaling is a slow process, particularly in the South Pacific, where the toll on breeding-age males was severe. ### Current conservation status The total number of sperm whales in the world is unknown, but is thought to be in the hundreds of thousands. The conservation outlook is brighter than for many other whales. Commercial whaling has ceased, and the species is protected almost worldwide, though records indicate that in the 11-year period starting from 2000, Japanese vessels have caught 51 sperm whales.[*needs update*] Fishermen do not target the creatures sperm whales eat, but long-line fishing operations in the Gulf of Alaska have complained about sperm whales stealing fish from their lines. Currently, entanglement in fishing nets and collisions with ships represent the greatest threats to the sperm whale population. Other threats include ingestion of marine debris, ocean noise, and chemical pollution. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) regards the sperm whale as being "vulnerable". The species is listed as endangered on the United States Endangered Species Act. Sperm whales are listed on Appendix I and Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). It is listed on Appendix I as this species has been categorized as being in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of their range and CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them. It is listed on Appendix II as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organised by tailored agreements. It is also covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS) and the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (Pacific Cetaceans MOU). The species is protected under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This makes commercial international trade (including in parts and derivatives) prohibited, with all other international trade strictly regulated through a system of permits and certificates. ### Cultural importance Rope-mounted teeth are important cultural objects throughout the Pacific. In New Zealand, the Māori know them as "rei puta"; such whale tooth pendants were rare objects because sperm whales were not actively hunted in traditional Māori society. Whale ivory and bone were taken from beached whales. In Fiji the teeth are known as *tabua*, traditionally given as gifts for atonement or esteem (called *sevusevu*), and were important in negotiations between rival chiefs. Friedrich Ratzel in *The History of Mankind* reported in 1896 that, in Fiji, whales' or cachalots' teeth were the most-demanded article of ornament or value. They occurred often in necklaces. Today the tabua remains an important item in Fijian life. The teeth were originally rare in Fiji and Tonga, which exported teeth, but with the Europeans' arrival, teeth flooded the market and this "currency" collapsed. The oversupply led in turn to the development of the European art of scrimshaw. Herman Melville's novel *Moby-Dick* is based on a true story about a sperm whale that attacked and sank the whaleship *Essex*. Melville associated the sperm whale with the Bible's Leviathan. The fearsome reputation perpetuated by Melville was based on bull whales' ability to fiercely defend themselves from attacks by early whalers, smashing whaling boats and, occasionally, attacking and destroying whaling ships. In Jules Verne's *Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea*, the Nautilus fights a group of "cachalots" (sperm whales) to protect a pod of southern right whales from their attacks. Verne portrays them as being savage hunters ("nothing but mouth and teeth"). The sperm whale was designated as the Connecticut state animal by the General Assembly in 1975. It was selected because of its specific contribution to the state's history and because of its present-day plight as an endangered species. ### Watching sperm whales Sperm whales are not the easiest of whales to watch, due to their long dive times and ability to travel long distances underwater. However, due to the distinctive look and large size of the whale, watching is increasingly popular. Sperm whale watchers often use hydrophones to listen to the clicks of the whales and locate them before they surface. Popular locations for sperm whale watching include the town of Kaikoura on New Zealand's South Island, Andenes and Tromsø in Arctic Norway; as well as the Azores, where the continental shelf is so narrow that whales can be observed from the shore, and Dominica where a long-term scientific research program, The Dominica Sperm Whale Project, has been in operation since 2005. ### Plastic waste The introduction of plastic waste to the ocean environment by humans is relatively new. From the 1970s, sperm whales have occasionally been found with pieces of plastic in their stomachs. See also -------- * List of sperm whale strandings * List of cetaceans * Marine biology Further reading --------------- * Whitehead, H. (2003). *Sperm Whales: Social Evolution in the Ocean*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-226-89518-5. * Perrin, William F.; Würsig, Bernd; Thewissen, J.G.M., eds. (2002). *Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals*. San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-551340-1. * Carwardine, Hoyt; Fordyce & Gill (1998). *Whales & Dolphins: The Ultimate Guide to Marine Mammals*. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-220105-6. * Heptner, V. G.; Nasimovich, A. A; Bannikov, Andrei Grigorevich; Hoffmann, Robert S, *Mammals of the Soviet Union*, Volume II, part 3 (1996). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation

Sperm whale

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_whale

**This article contains Mongolian script.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of text in Mongolian script. **Mongolian** is the official language of Mongolia and both the most widely spoken and best-known member of the Mongolic language family. The number of speakers across all its dialects may be 5.2 million, including the vast majority of the residents of Mongolia and many of the ethnic Mongol residents of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. In Mongolia, Khalkha Mongolian is predominant, and is currently written in both Cyrillic and the traditional Mongolian script. In Inner Mongolia, it is dialectally more diverse and written in the traditional Mongolian script. However, Mongols in both countries often use the Latin script for convenience on the Internet. In the discussion of grammar to follow, the variety of Mongolian treated is the standard written Khalkha formalized in the writing conventions and in grammar as taught in schools, but much of it is also valid for vernacular (spoken) Khalkha and other Mongolian dialects, especially Chakhar Mongolian. Some classify several other Mongolic languages like Buryat and Oirat as varieties of Mongolian, but this classification is not in line with the current international standard. Mongolian is a language with vowel harmony and a complex syllabic structure compared to other Mongolic languages, allowing clusters of up to three consonants syllable-finally. It is a typical agglutinative language that relies on suffix chains in the verbal and nominal domains. While there is a basic word order, subject–object–predicate, ordering among noun phrases is relatively free, as grammatical roles are indicated by a system of about eight grammatical cases. There are five voices. Verbs are marked for voice, aspect, tense and epistemic modality/evidentiality. In sentence linking, a special role is played by converbs. Modern Mongolian evolved from Middle Mongol, the language spoken in the Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries. In the transition, a major shift in the vowel-harmony paradigm occurred, long vowels developed, the case system changed slightly, and the verbal system was restructured. Mongolian is related to the extinct Khitan language. It was believed that Mongolian was related to Turkic, Tungusic, Korean and Japonic languages but this view is now seen as obsolete by a majority of (but not all) comparative linguists. These languages have been grouped under the Altaic language family and contrasted with the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area. However, instead of a common genetic origin, Clauson, Doerfer, and Shcherbak proposed that Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic languages form a language *Sprachbund*, rather than common origin. Mongolian literature is well attested in written form from the 13th century but has earlier Mongolic precursors in the literature of the Khitan and other Xianbei peoples. The Bugut inscription dated to 584 CE and the Inscription of Hüis Tolgoi dated to 604–620 CE appear to be the oldest substantial Mongolic or Para-Mongolic texts discovered. Name ---- Writers such as Owen Lattimore referred to Mongolian as "the Mongol language". Geographic distribution ----------------------- Mongolian is the official national language of Mongolia, where it is spoken (but not always written) by nearly 3.6 million people (2014 estimate), and the official provincial language (both spoken and written forms) of Inner Mongolia, China, where there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols. Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of the country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate) However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of Mongolian in Inner Mongolia, has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years. The language experienced a decline during the late Qing period, a revival between 1947 and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, a second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third decline between 1995 and 2012. However, in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia's urban areas and educational spheres, the ethnic identity of the urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to the presence of urban ethnic communities. The multilingual situation in Inner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct efforts by ethnic Mongols to preserve their language. Although an unknown number of Mongols in China, such as the Tumets, may have completely or partially lost the ability to speak their language, they are still registered as ethnic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as ethnic Mongols. The children of inter-ethnic Mongol-Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered as ethnic Mongols so they can benefit from the preferential policies for minorities in education, healthcare, family planning, school admissions, the hiring and promotion, the financing and taxation of businesses, and regional infrastructural support given to ethnic minorities in China. In 2020, the Chinese government required three subjects — language and literature, politics, and history — to be taught in Mandarin in Mongolian-language primary and secondary schools in the Inner Mongolia since September, which caused widespread protests among ethnic Mongol communities. These protests were quickly suppressed by the Chinese government. Classification and varieties ---------------------------- Mongolian belongs to the Mongolic languages. The delimitation of the Mongolian language within Mongolic is a much disputed theoretical problem, one whose resolution is impeded by the fact that existing data for the major varieties is not easily arrangeable according to a common set of linguistic criteria. Such data might account for the historical development of the Mongolian dialect continuum, as well as for its sociolinguistic qualities. Though phonological and lexical studies are comparatively well developed, the basis has yet to be laid for a comparative morphosyntactic study, for example between such highly diverse varieties as Khalkha and Khorchin. In Juha Janhunen's book titled *Mongolian*, he groups the Mongolic language family into four distinct linguistic branches: * the Dagur branch, made up of just the Dagur language, which is spoken in the northeast area of Manchuria in China, specifically in Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner of Hulunbuir, and in Meilisi Daur District of Qiqihar, Heilongjiang; * the Moghol branch, made up of just the Moghol language, spoken in Afghanistan, and is possibly extinct; * the Shirongolic (or Southern Mongolic) branch, made up of roughly seven languages, which are spoken in the Amdo region of Tibet; * the Common Mongolic (or Central Mongolic) branch, made up of roughly six language varieties, to which **Mongolian proper** belongs. The Common Mongolic branch is grouped in the following way: * Khalkha (*Halh*) is spoken in Mongolia, but some dialects (e.g. Cahar) are also spoken in the Inner Mongolia region of China. * Khorchin (*Horchin*) is spoken to the east in eastern Inner Mongolia and Manchuria. * Ordos is spoken to the south, in Ordos City in Inner Mongolia. * Oirat, is spoken to the west, in Dzungaria. * Khamnigan (*Hamnigan*) is spoken in northeast Mongolia and in northwest of Manchuria. * Buryat (*Buriad*) is spoken to the north, in the Republic of Buryatia of Russia, as well as in the Barga region of Hulun Buir League in Inner Mongolia. There is no disagreement that the Khalkha dialect of the Mongolian state is Mongolian. However, the status of certain varieties in the Common Mongolic group—whether they are languages distinct from Mongolian or just dialects of it—is disputed. There are at least three such varieties: Oirat (including the Kalmyk variety) and Buryat, both of which are spoken in Russia, Mongolia, and China; and Ordos, spoken around Inner Mongolia's Ordos City. The influential classification of Sanžeev (1953) proposed a "Mongolian language" consisting of just the three dialects Khalkha, Chakhar, and Ordos, with Buryat and Oirat judged to be independent languages. On the other hand, Luvsanvandan (1959) proposed a much broader "Mongolian language" consisting of a Central dialect (Khalkha, Chakhar, Ordos), an Eastern dialect (Kharchin, Khorchin), a Western dialect (Oirat, Kalmyk), and a Northern dialect (consisting of two Buryat varieties). Additionally, the *Language Policy in the People's Republic of China: Theory and Practice Since 1949*, states that Mongolian can be classified into four dialects: the Khalkha dialect in the middle, the Horcin-Haracin dialect in the East, Oriat-Hilimag in the west, and Bargu-Buriyad in the north. Some Western scholars propose that the relatively well researched Ordos variety is an independent language due to its conservative syllable structure and phoneme inventory. While the placement of a variety like Alasha, which is under the cultural influence of Inner Mongolia but historically tied to Oirat, and of other border varieties like Darkhad would very likely remain problematic in any classification, the central problem remains the question of how to classify Chakhar, Khalkha, and Khorchin in relation to each other and in relation to Buryat and Oirat. The split of [tʃ] into [tʃ] before \*i and [ts] before all other reconstructed vowels, which is found in Mongolia but not in Inner Mongolia, is often cited as a fundamental distinction, for example Proto-Mongolic \*tʃil, Khalkha /tʃiɮ/, Chakhar /tʃil/ 'year' versus Proto-Mongolic \*tʃøhelen, Khalkha /tsoːɮəŋ/, Chakhar /tʃoːləŋ/ 'few'. On the other hand, the split between the past tense verbal suffixes -/sŋ/ in the Central varieties v. -/dʒɛː/ in the Eastern varieties is usually seen as a merely stochastic difference. In Inner Mongolia, official language policy divides the Mongolian language into three dialects: Southern Mongolian, Oirat, and Barghu-Buryat. Southern Mongolian is said to consist of Chakhar, Ordos, Baarin, Khorchin, Kharchin, and Alasha. The authorities have synthesized a literary standard for Mongolian in whose grammar is said to be based on Southern Mongolian and whose pronunciation is based on the Chakhar dialect as spoken in the Plain Blue Banner. Dialectologically, however, western Southern Mongolian dialects are closer to Khalkha than they are to eastern Southern Mongolian dialects: e.g. Chakhar is closer to Khalkha than to Khorchin. ### List of dialects Juha Janhunen (2003: 179) lists the following Mongol dialects, most of which are spoken in Inner Mongolia. * **Tongliao** group + Horchin + Jasagtu + Jarut + Jalait + Dörbet + Gorlos * **Juu Uda** group + Aru Horchin + Baarin + Ongniut + Naiman + Aohan * **Josotu** group + Harachin + Tümet * **Ulan cab** group + Cahar + Urat + Darhan + Muumingan + Dörben Küüket + Keshigten * **Shilingol** group + Üdzümüchin + Huuchit + Abaga + Abaganar + Sönit * **Outer Mongolian** group + Halh + Hotogoit + Darhad + Congol + Sartul + Dariganga ### Standard varieties There are two standard varieties of Mongolian. #### Mongolia Standard Mongolian in the state of Mongolia is based on the northern Khalkha Mongolian dialects, which include the dialect of Ulaanbaatar, and is written in the Mongolian Cyrillic script. #### China Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia is based on the Chakhar Mongolian of the Khalkha dialect group, spoken in the Shuluun Huh/Zhènglán Banner, and is written in the traditional Mongolian script. The number of Mongolian speakers in China is still larger than in the state of Mongolia, where the majority of Mongolians in China speak one of the Khorchin dialects, or rather more than two million of them speak the Khorchin dialect itself as their mother tongue, so that the Khorchin dialect group has about as many speakers as the Khalkha dialect group in the State of Mongolia. Nevertheless, the Chakhar dialect, which today has only about 100,000 native speakers and belongs to the Khalkha dialect group, is the basis of standard Mongolian in China. #### Differences The characteristic differences in the pronunciation of the two standard varieties include the umlauts in Inner Mongolia and the palatalized consonants in Mongolia (see below) as well as the splitting of the Middle Mongol affricates \*ʧ (ᠴ *č*) and \*ʤ (ᠵ *ǰ*) into ʦ (ц *c*) and ʣ (з *z*) versus ʧ (ч *č*) and ʤ (ж *ž*) in Mongolia: | Middle Mongol | Inner Mongolia | Mongolia | Meaning | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | \*ʧisu ᠴᠢᠰᠤ *čisu* | [ʧʊs] ᠴᠢᠰᠤ *čisu* | [ʦʊs] цус *cus* | blood | | \*ʤam ᠵᠠᠮ *ǰam* | [ʤɑm] ᠵᠠᠮ *ǰam* | [dzɑm] зам *zam* | street | | \*oʧixu ᠣᠴᠢᠬᠤ *očiqu* | [ɔʧɪx] ᠣᠴᠢᠬᠤ *očiqu* | [ɔʧɪx] очих *očix* | to go | | \*ʤime ᠵᠢᠮ ᠡ *ǰim-e* | [ʤim] ᠵᠢᠮ ᠡ *ǰim-e* | [ʤim] жим *žim* | path | Aside from these differences in pronunciation, there are also differences in vocabulary and language use: in the state of Mongolia more loanwords from Russian are being used, while in Inner Mongolia more loanwords from Chinese have been adopted. History ------- The earliest surviving Mongolian text may be the Stele of Yisüngge [ru], a report on sports composed in Mongolian script on stone, which is most often dated at 1224 or 1225. The Mongolian-Armenian wordlist of 55 words compiled by Kirakos of Gandzak (13th century) is the first written record of Mongolian words. From the 13th to the 15th centuries, Mongolian language texts were written in four scripts (not counting some vocabulary written in Western scripts): Uyghur Mongolian (UM) script (an adaptation of the Uyghur alphabet), 'Phags-pa script (Ph) (used in decrees), Chinese (SM) (*The Secret History of the Mongols*), and Arabic (AM) (used in dictionaries). While they are the earliest texts available, these texts have come to be called "Middle Mongol" in scholarly practice. The documents in UM script show some distinct linguistic characteristics and are therefore often distinguished by terming their language "Preclassical Mongolian". The Yuan dynasty referred to the Mongolian language in Chinese as "Guoyu" (Chinese: 國語), which means "National language", a term also used by other non-Han dynasties to refer to their languages such as the Manchu language during the Qing dynasty, the Jurchen language during the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), the Khitan language during the Liao dynasty, and the Xianbei language during the Northern Wei period. The next distinct period is Classical Mongolian, which is dated from the 17th to the 19th century. This is a written language with a high degree of standardization in orthography and syntax that sets it quite apart from the subsequent Modern Mongolian. The most notable documents in this language are the Mongolian Kangyur and Tengyur as well as several chronicles. In 1686, the Soyombo alphabet (Buddhist texts) was created, giving distinctive evidence on early classical Mongolian phonological peculiarities. Phonology --------- Mongolians speaking Khalkh Modern day Mongolians speaking Khalkh, the dominant dialect of Mongolian. Recorded in Tavan Har, Mongolia --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* The following description is based primarily on the Khalkha dialect as spoken in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia's capital. The phonologies of other varieties such as Ordos, Khorchin, and even Chakhar, differ considerably. This section discusses the phonology of Khalkha Mongolian with subsections on Vowels, Consonants, Phonotactics and Stress. ### Vowels The standard language has seven monophthong vowel phonemes. They are aligned into three vowel harmony groups by a parameter called ATR (advanced tongue root); the groups are −ATR, +ATR, and neutral. This alignment seems to have superseded an alignment according to oral backness. However, some scholars still describe Mongolian as being characterized by a distinction between front vowels and back vowels, and the front vowel spellings 'ö' and 'ü' are still often used in the West to indicate two vowels which were historically front. The Mongolian vowel system also has rounding harmony. Length is phonemic for vowels, and each of the seven phonemes occurs short or long. Phonetically, short /o/ has become centralized to the central vowel [ɵ]. In the following table, the seven vowel phonemes, with their length variants, are arranged and described phonetically. The vowels in the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet are: | Mongolian Cyrillic | IPA | Romanization | | --- | --- | --- | | а, аа | [a, aː] | a, aa | | и, ий/ы | [i, iː] | i, ii | | о, оо | [ɔ, ɔː] | o, oo | | ө, өө | [ɵ, oː] /o, oː/ | ö, öö | | у, уу | [ʊ, ʊː] | u, uu | | ү, үү | [u, uː] | ü, üü | | э, ээ | [e, eː] | e, ee | | | Front | Central | Back | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Short | Long | Short | Long | Short | Long | | Close | i | iː | | | u | uː | | Near-Close | | | | | ʊ | ʊː | | Close-Mid | e | eː | ɵ | | | oː | | Open-mid | | | | | ɔ | ɔː | | Open | | | a | aː | | | Khalkha also has four diphthongs: historically /ui, ʊi, ɔi, ai/ but are pronounced more like [ʉe̯, ʊe̯, ɞe̯, æe̯]; e.g. ой in нохой (*nohoi*) [nɔ̙ˈχɞe̯] 'dog', ай in далай (*dalai*) [taˈɮæe̯] sea', уй in уйлах (*uilah*) [ˈʊe̯ɮɐχ] 'to cry', үй in үйлдвэр (*üildver*) [ˈʉe̯ɮtw̜ɘr] 'factory', эй in хэрэгтэй (*heregtei*) [çiɾɪxˈtʰe] 'necessary'. There are three additional rising diphthongs /ia/ (иа), /ʊa/ (уа) /ei/ (эй); e.g. иа in амиараа (*amiaraa*) [aˈmʲæɾa] 'individually', уа in хуаран (*huaran*) [ˈχʷaɾɐɴ] 'barracks'. #### Allophones This table below lists vowel allophones (note that short vowels allophones in non-initial positions are used interchangeably with schwa): | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Short | Initial positions | [a] | [e] | [i] | [ɔ] | [o] | [ʊ] | [u] | | Non-initial positions | [ă] | [ĕ] | [ĭ] | [ɔ̆] | [ŏ] | [ʊ̆] | [ŭ] | | [ə] | | Long | Initial positions | [aː] | [eː] | [iː] | [ɔː] | [oː] | [ʊː] | [uː] | | Non-initial positions | [a] | [e] | [i] | [ɔ] | [o] | [ʊ] | [u] | #### ATR harmony Mongolian divides vowels into three groups in a system of vowel harmony: | | +ATR ("front") | −ATR ("back") | Neutral | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | IPA | e, u, o | a, ʊ, ɔ | i | | Cyrillic | э, ү, ө | а, у, о | и, ы and й | For historical reasons, these have been traditionally labeled as "front" vowels and "back" vowels, as /o/ and /u/ developed from /ø/ and /y/, while /ɔ/ and /ʊ/ developed from /o/ and /u/ in Middle Mongolian. Indeed, in Mongolian romanizations, the vowels /o/ and /u/ are often conventionally rendered as ⟨ö⟩ and ⟨ü⟩, while the vowels /ɔ/ and /ʊ/ are expressed as ⟨o⟩ and ⟨u⟩. However, for modern Mongolian phonology, it is more appropriate to instead characterize the two vowel-harmony groups by the dimension of tongue root position. There is also one neutral vowel, /i/, not belonging to either group. All the vowels in a noncompound word, including all its suffixes, must belong to the same group. If the first vowel is −ATR, then every vowel of the word must be either /i/ or a −ATR vowel. Likewise, if the first vowel is a +ATR vowel, then every vowel of the word must be either /i/ or a +ATR vowel. In the case of suffixes, which must change their vowels to conform to different words, two patterns predominate. Some suffixes contain an archiphoneme /A/ that can be realized as /a, ɔ, e, o/; e.g. * /orx/ 'household' + -Ar (instrumental) → /orxor/ 'by a household' * /xarʊɮ/ 'sentry' + -Ar (instrumental) → /xarʊɮar/ 'by a sentry' Other suffixes can occur in /U/ being realized as /ʊ, u/, in which case all −ATR vowels lead to /ʊ/ and all +ATR vowels lead to /u/; e.g. * /aw/ 'to take"l' + -Uɮ (causative) → /awʊɮ/ If the only vowel in the word stem is /i/, the suffixes will use the +ATR suffix forms. #### Rounding harmony Mongolian also has rounding harmony, which does not apply to close vowels. If a stem contains /o/ (or /ɔ/), a suffix that is specified for an open vowel will have [o] (or [ɔ], respectively) as well. However, this process is blocked by the presence of /u/ (or /ʊ/) and /ei/; e.g. /ɔr-ɮɔ/ 'came in', but /ɔr-ʊɮ-ɮa/ 'inserted'. #### Vowel length The pronunciation of long and short vowels depends on the syllable's position in the word. In word-initial syllables, there is a phonemic contrast in vowel length. A long vowel has about 208% the length of a short vowel. In word-medial and word-final syllables, formerly long vowels are now only 127% as long as short vowels in initial syllables, but they are still distinct from initial-syllable short vowels. Short vowels in noninitial syllables differ from short vowels in initial syllables by being only 71% as long and by being centralized in articulation. As they are nonphonemic, their position is determined according to phonotactic requirements. ### Consonants The following table lists the consonants of Khalkha Mongolian. The consonants enclosed in parentheses occur only in loanwords. | | Labial | Dental | Velar | Uvular | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | plain | pal. | plain | pal. | plain | pal. | | Nasal | m | mʲ | n | nʲ | ŋ | | | | Plosive | unaspirated | p | pʲ | t | tʲ | ɡ | ɡʲ | ɢ | | aspirated | (pʰ) | (pʲʰ) | tʰ | tʲʰ | (kʰ) | (kʲʰ) | | | Affricate | unaspirated | | | ts | tʃ | | | | | aspirated | | | tsʰ | tʃʰ | | | | | Fricative | central | (f) | | s | ʃ | x | xʲ | | | lateral | | | ɮ | ɮʲ | | | | | Trill | | | r | rʲ | | | | | Approximant | w̜ | w̜ʲ | | j | | | | A rare feature among the world's languages, Mongolian lacks the voiced lateral approximant, [l] and the voiceless velar plosive [k]; instead, it has a voiced alveolar lateral fricative, /ɮ/, which is often realized as voiceless [ɬ]. In word-final position, /n/ (if not followed by a vowel in historical forms) is realized as [ŋ]. The occurrence of palatalized consonant phonemes seems to be restricted to words that contain [−ATR] vowels. Aspirated consonants are preaspirated in medial and word-final contexts, devoicing preceding consonants and vowels. Devoiced short vowels are often deleted. ### Syllable structure and phonotactics The maximal syllable is CVVCCC, where the last C is a word-final suffix. A single short vowel rarely appears in syllable-final position. If a word was monosyllabic historically, \*CV has become CVV. [ŋ] is restricted to codas (else it becomes [n]), and /p/ and /pʲ/ do not occur in codas for historical reasons. For two-consonant clusters, the following restrictions obtain: * a palatalized consonant can be preceded only by another palatalized consonant or sometimes by /ɢ/ and /ʃ/ * /ŋ/ may precede only /ʃ, x, ɡ, ɡʲ/ and /ɢ/ * /j/ does not seem to appear in second position * /p/ and /pʲ/ do not occur as first consonant and as second consonant only if preceded by /m/ or /ɮ/ or their palatalized counterparts. Clusters that do not conform to these restrictions will be broken up by an epenthetic nonphonemic vowel in a syllabification that takes place from right to left. For instance, *hoyor* 'two', *azhil* 'work', and *saarmag* 'neutral' are, phonemically, /xɔjr/, /atʃɮ/, and /saːrmɡ/ respectively. In such cases, an epenthetic vowel is inserted to prevent disallowed consonant clusters. Thus, in the examples given above, the words are phonetically [ˈxɔjɔ̆r], [ˈatʃĭɮ], and [ˈsaːrmăɢ]. The phonetic form of the epenthetic vowel follows from vowel harmony triggered by the vowel in the preceding syllable. Usually it is a centralized version of the same sound, with the following exceptions: preceding /u/ produces [e]; /i/ will be ignored if there is a nonneutral vowel earlier in the word; and a postalveolar or palatalized consonant will be followed by an epenthetic [i], as in [ˈatʃĭɮ]. ### Stress Stress in Mongolian is nonphonemic (does not distinguish different meanings) and thus is considered to depend entirely on syllable structure. But scholarly opinions on stress placement diverge sharply. Most native linguists, regardless of which dialect they speak, claim that stress falls on the first syllable. Between 1941 and 1975, several Western scholars proposed that the leftmost heavy syllable gets the stress. Yet other positions were taken in works published between 1835 and 1915. Walker (1997) proposes that stress falls on the rightmost heavy syllable unless this syllable is word-final: | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | H**ˈH**LL | бай**гуу**лагдах | [pæ.ˈɢʊ.ɮəɢ.təx] | 'to be organized' | | LH**ˈH**L | хөндий**рүү**лэн | [xɵn.ti.ˈɾu.ɮəŋ] | 'separating' (adverbial) | | LHH**ˈH**L | Улаанбаат**рын**хан | [ʊ.ɮan.paːtʰ.ˈrin.xəŋ] | 'the residents of Ulaanbaatar' | | H**ˈH**H | уур**тай**гаар | [ʊːr.ˈtʰæ.ɢar] | 'angrily' | | **ˈH**LH | **уйт**гартай | [ˈʊɪtʰ.ɢər.tʰæ] | 'sad' | A "heavy syllable" is defined as one that is at least the length of a full vowel; short word-initial syllables are thereby excluded. If a word is bisyllabic and the only heavy syllable is word-final, it gets stressed anyway. In cases where there is only one phonemic short word-initial syllable, even this syllable can get the stress: | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | L**ˈH** | га**луу** | [ɢa.ˈɮʊ] | 'goose' | | **ˈL**L | **унш**сан | [ˈʊnʃ.səɴ] | 'having read' | More recently, the most extensive collection of phonetic data so far in Mongolian studies has been applied to a partial account of stress placement in the closely related Chakhar dialect. The conclusion is drawn that di- and trisyllabic words with a short first syllable are stressed on the second syllable. But if their first syllable is long, then the data for different acoustic parameters seems to support conflicting conclusions: intensity data often seems to indicate that the first syllable is stressed, while F0 seems to indicate that it is the second syllable that is stressed. Grammar ------- The grammar in this article is also based primarily on Khalkha Mongolian. Unlike the phonology, most of what is said about morphology and syntax also holds true for Chakhar, while Khorchin is somewhat more diverse. ### Morphology Modern Mongolian is an agglutinative—almost exclusively suffixing—language, with the only exception being reduplication. Mongolian also does not have gendered nouns, or definite articles like "the". Most of the suffixes consist of a single morpheme. There are many derivational morphemes. For example, the word *baiguullagiinh* consists of the root *bai* 'to be', an epenthetic ‑*g*‑, the causative ‑*uul*‑ (hence 'to find'), the derivative suffix ‑*laga* that forms nouns created by the action (like -*ation* in *organisation*) and the complex suffix ‑*iinh* denoting something that belongs to the modified word (‑*iin* would be genitive). Nominal compounds are quite frequent. Some derivational verbal suffixes are rather productive, e.g. *yarih* 'to speak', *yarilc* 'to speak with each other'. Formally, the independent words derived using verbal suffixes can roughly be divided into three classes: final verbs, which can only be used sentence-finally, i.e. ‑*na* (mainly future or generic statements) or ‑*ö* (second person imperative); participles (often called "verbal nouns"), which can be used clause-finally or attributively, i.e. ‑*san* (perfect-past) or ‑*maar* 'want to'; and converbs, which can link clauses or function adverbially, i.e. ‑*zh* (qualifies for any adverbial function or neutrally connects two sentences) or ‑*tal* (the action of the main clause takes place until the action expressed by the suffixed verb begins). ### Nouns Roughly speaking, Mongolian has between seven and nine cases: nominative (unmarked), genitive, dative-locative, accusative, ablative, instrumental, comitative, privative and directive, though the final two are not always considered part of the case paradigm. If a direct object is definite, it must take the accusative, while it must take the nominative if it is indefinite. In addition to case, a number of postpositions exist that usually govern the genitive, dative-locative, comitative and privative cases, including a marked form of the nominative (which can itself then take further case forms). There is also a possible attributive case (when a noun is used attributively), which is unmarked in most nouns but takes the suffix ‑н (‑*n*) when the stem has an unstable nasal. Nouns can also take a reflexive-possessive suffix, indicating that the marked noun is possessed by the subject of the sentence: *bi najz-aa avar-san* I friend-reflexive-possessive save-perfect "I saved my friend". However, there are also somewhat noun-like adjectives to which case suffixes seemingly cannot be attached directly unless there is ellipsis. | | | Mongolian noun cases| Case | Suffix | English preposition | Example (Cyrillic) | Transliteration | Translation | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | nominative | – | – | ном | *nom* | book | | accusative | * ‑г (‑*g*) * ‑ыг (‑*iig*), ‑ийг (‑*iig*) | – | номыг | *nomiig* | the book (as object) | | genitive | * ‑н (‑*n*) * ‑ы (‑*ii*), ‑ий (‑*ii*) * ‑ын (‑*iin*), ‑ийн (‑*iin*) * ‑гийн (‑*giin*) * ‑ны (‑*nii*), ‑ний (‑*nii*) * ‑ины (‑*inii*), ‑иний (‑*inii*) | of | номын | *nomiin* | of (a) book; book's | | dative-locative | * ‑д (‑*d*) * ‑т (‑*t*) * ‑ад (‑*ad*), ‑од (‑*od*), ‑өд (‑*öd*), ‑эд (‑*ed*) * ‑ид (‑*id*) * ‑нд (‑*nd*) * ‑анд (‑*and*), ‑онд (‑*ond*), ‑өнд (‑*önd*), ‑энд (‑*end*) * ‑инд (‑*ind*) | on, to, at, in | номд | *nomd* | in (a) book | | ablative | * ‑аас (‑*aas*), ‑оос (‑*oos*), ‑өөс (‑*öös*), ‑ээс (‑*ees*) * ‑иас (‑*ias*), ‑иос (‑*ios*), ‑иөс (‑*iös*), ‑иэс (‑*ies*) * ‑наас (‑*naas*), ‑ноос (‑*noos*), ‑нөөс (‑*nöös*), ‑нээс (‑*nees*) | from | номоос | *nomoos* | from (a) book | | instrumental | * ‑аар (‑*aar*), ‑оор (‑*oor*), ‑өөр (‑*öör*), ‑ээр (‑*eer*) * ‑иар (‑*iar*), ‑иор (‑*ior*), ‑иөр (‑*iör*), ‑иэр (‑*ier*) | with, using | номоор | *nomoor* | with (e.g. by means of a) book | | comitative | * ‑тай (‑*tay*), ‑той (‑*toy*), ‑тэй (‑*tey*) | together with | номтой | *nomtoi* | with (e.g. alongside a) book | | privative | * ‑гүй (‑*güy*) | without | номгүй | *nomgüy* | without (a) book | | directive | * руу (*ruu*), рүү (*rüü*) * луу (*luu*), лүү (*lüü*) | towards | ном руу | *nom ruu* | towards (a) book | *Note: the rules governing the morphology of Mongolian case endings are intricate, and so the rules given below are only indicative. In many situations, further (more general) rules must also be taken into account in order to produce the correct form: these include the presence of an unstable nasal or unstable velar, as well as the rules governing when a penultimate vowel should be deleted from the stem with certain case endings (e.g.* цэрэг*(*tsereg*) →* цэргийн*(*tsergiin*)). The additional morphological rules specific to loanwords are not covered.* #### Nominative case The nominative case is used when a noun (or other part of speech acting as one) is the subject of the sentence, and the agent of whatever action (not just physically) takes place in the sentence. In Mongolian, the nominative case does not have an ending. #### Accusative case The accusative case is used when a noun acts as a direct object (or just "object"), and receives action from a transitive verb. It is formed by: 1. ‑г (‑*g*) after stems ending in long vowels or diphthongs, or when a stem ending in н (*n*) has an unstable velar (unstable g). 2. ‑ыг (‑*iig*) after back vowel stems ending in unpalatalized consonants (except г and к), short vowels (except и) or iotated vowels. 3. ‑ийг (‑*iig*) after front vowel stems ending in consonants, short vowels or iotated vowels; and after all stems ending in the palatalized consonants ж (*j*), ч (*ch*) and ш (*sh*), as well as г (*g*), к (*k*), и (*i*) or ь (*i*). *Note: If the stem ends in a short vowel or* ь*(*i*), it is replaced by the suffix.* #### Genitive case The genitive case is used to show possession of something. * For regular stems, it is formed by: 1. ‑н (‑*n*) after stems ending in the diphthongs ай (*ai*), ой (*oi*), эй (*ei*), яй (*yai*), ёй (*yoi*) or ей (*yei*), or the long vowel ий (*ii*). 2. ‑ы (‑*ii*) after back vowel stems ending in н (*n*). 3. ‑ий (‑*ii*) after front vowel stems ending in н (*n*). 4. ‑ын (‑*iin*) after back vowel stems ending in unpalatalized consonants (except н, г and к), short vowels (except и) or iotated vowels. 5. ‑ийн (‑*iin*) after front vowel stems ending in consonants (other than н), short vowels or iotated vowels; and after all stems ending in the palatalized consonants ж (*j*), ч (*ch*) and ш (*sh*), as well as г (*g*), к (*k*), и (*i*) or ь (*i*). 6. ‑гийн (‑*giin*) after stems ending in a long vowel (other than ий), or after the diphthongs иа (*ia*), ио (*io*) or иу (*iu*).*Note: If the stem ends in a short vowel or* ь*(*i*), it is replaced by the suffix.* * For stems with an unstable nasal (unstable n), it is formed by: 1. ‑ны (‑*nii*) after back vowel stems (other than those ending in и or ь). 2. ‑ний (‑*nii*) after front vowel stems (other than those ending in и or ь). 3. ‑ины (‑*inii*) after back vowel stems ending in и (*i*) or ь (*i*). 4. ‑иний (‑*inii*) after front vowel stems ending in и (*i*) or ь (*i*).*Note: If the stem ends in* и*(*i*) or* ь*(*i*), it is replaced by the suffix.* * For stems with an unstable velar (unstable g), it is formed by ‑гийн (‑*giin*). #### Dative-locative case The dative-locative case is used to show the location of something, or to specify that something is in something else. * For regular stems or those with an unstable velar (unstable g), it is formed by: 1. ‑д (‑*d*) after stems ending in vowels or the vocalized consonants л (*l*), м (*m*) and н (*n*), and a small number of stems ending in в (*v*) and р (*r*). 2. ‑т (‑*t*) after stems ending in г (*g*) and к (*k*), most stems ending in в (*v*) and р (*r*), and stems ending in с (*s*) when it is preceded by a vowel. 3. ‑ид (‑*id*) after stems ending in the palatalized consonants ж (*j*), ч (*ch*) and ш (*sh*). 4. ‑ад (‑*ad*), ‑од (‑*od*), ‑өд (‑*öd*) or ‑эд (‑*ed*) after all other stems (depending on the vowel harmony of the stem). * For stems with an unstable nasal (unstable n), it is formed by: 1. ‑нд (‑*nd*) after stems ending in vowels. 2. ‑инд (‑*ind*) after stems ending in the palatalized consonants ж (*j*), ч (*ch*) and ш (*sh*). 3. ‑анд (‑*and*), ‑онд (‑*ond*), ‑өнд (‑*önd*) or ‑энд (‑*end*) after all other stems (depending on the vowel harmony of the stem). #### Plurals Source: Plurality may be left unmarked, but there are overt plurality markers, some of which are restricted to humans. A noun that is modified by a numeral usually does not take any plural affix. There are four ways of forming plurals in Mongolian: 1. Some plurals are formed by adding -нууд *-nuud* or -нүүд *-nüüd*. If the last vowel of the previous word is a (a), o (y), or ɔ (o), then -нууд is used; e.g. харx *harh* 'rat' becomes xapхнууд *harhnuud* 'rats'. If the last vowel of the previous word is e (э), ʊ (ө), ü (ү), or i (и) then нүүд is used; e.g. нүд *nüd* 'eye' becomes нүднүүд *nüdnüüd* 'eyes'. 2. In other plurals, just -ууд *-uud* or -үүд *-üüd* is added without the "n"; e.g. хот *hot* 'city' becomes хотууд *hotuud* 'cities', and ээж *eezh* 'mother' becomes ээжүүд *eezhüüd* 'mothers'. 3. Another way of forming plurals is by adding -нар *-nar*; e.g. багш *bagsh* 'teacher' becomes багш нар *bagsh nar* 'teachers'. 4. The final way is an irregular form used: хүн *hün* 'person' becomes хүмүүс *hümüüs* 'people'. ### Pronouns Personal pronouns exist for the first and second person, while the old demonstrative pronouns have come to form third person (proximal and distal) pronouns. Other word (sub-)classes include interrogative pronouns, conjunctions (which take participles), spatials, and particles, the last being rather numerous. Personal Pronouns| | Nominative(subject) | Accusative(object) | Genitive(possession) | Oblique stem(all other cases) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1st person | singular | БиbiБиbi | НамайгnamaigНамайгnamaig | МинийminiiМинийminii | Над-nad-Над-nad- | | plural | exclusive | БидbidБидbid | БиднийгbidniigБиднийгbidniig | БиднийbidniiБиднийbidnii | Бидн-bidn-Бидн-bidn- | | inclusive | МанайmanaiМанайmanai | Ман-man-Ман-man- | | 2nd person | singular | familiar | ЧиchiЧиchi | ЧамайгchamaigЧамайгchamaig | ЧинийchiniiЧинийchinii | Чам-cham-Чам-cham- | | polite | ТаtaТаta | ТаныгtaniigТаныгtaniig | ТаныtaniiТаныtanii | | | plural | ТаtaНарnarТа Нарta nar | – | Танай/Tanai/ТаTaНарынNariinТанай/ Та НарынTanai/ Ta Nariin | Тан-tan-Тан-tan- | | 3rd person | singular | ТэрterТэрter | ТүүнийгtüüniigТүүнийгtüüniig | ТүүнийtüüniiТүүнийtüünii | – | | plural | ТэдtedНарnarТэд Нарted nar | ТэднийгtedniigТэднийгtedniig | ТэдtedНарынnariinТэд Нарынted nariin | – | ### Negation Negation is mostly expressed by *-güi* (-гүй) after participles and by the negation particle *bish* (биш) after nouns and adjectives; negation particles preceding the verb (for example in converbal constructions) exist, but tend to be replaced by analytical constructions. ### Numbers Pronunciation and writing of numbers in text| N | Text in Mongolian | N | Text in Mongolian | N | Text in Mongolian | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 0 | тэг *teg* | 10 | арав *arav* | 20 | хорь, *hori* | | 1 | нэг *neg* | 11 | арван нэг *arvan neg* | 30 | гуч *guch* | | 2 | хоёр *hoyor* | 12 | арван хоёр *arvan hoyor* | 40 | дөч *döch* | | 3 | гурав *gurav* | 13 | арван гурав *arvan gurav* | 50 | тавь *tavi* | | 4 | дөрөв *döröv* | 14 | арван дөрөв *arvan döröv* | 60 | жар *zhar* | | 5 | тав *tav* | 15 | арван тав *arvan tav* | 70 | дал *dal* | | 6 | зургаа *zurgaa* | 16 | арван зургаа *arvan zurgaa* | 80 | ная *naya* | | 7 | долоо *doloo* | 17 | арван долоо *arvan doloo* | 90 | ер *yer* | | 8 | найм *naim* | 18 | арван найм *arvan naim* | 100 | нэг зуу *neg zuu* | | 9 | ес *yös* | 19 | арван ес *arvan yös* | 200 | хоёр зуу *hoyor zuu* | ### Forming questions When asking questions in Mongolian, a question marker is used to show a question is being asked. There are different question markers for yes/no questions and for information questions. For yes/no questions, уу and үү are used when the last word ends in a short vowel or a consonant, and their use depends on the vowel harmony of the previous word. When the last word ends in a long vowel or a diphthong, then юу and юү are used (again depending on vowel harmony). For information questions (questions asking for information with an interrogative word like who, what, when, where, why, etc.), the question particles are вэ and бэ, depending on the last sound in the previous word. 1. Yes/No Question Particles -уу/үү/юу/юү (*uu/üü/yuu/yuü*) 2. Open Ended Question Particles -бэ/вэ (*be/ve*) **Basic interrogative pronouns** -юу (*yuu* 'what'), -хаана (*haana* 'where'), хэн (*hen* 'who'), яагаад (*yaagaad* 'why'), яаж (*yaazh* 'how'), хэзээ (*hezee* 'when'), ямар (*yamar* 'what kind') ### Verbs In Mongolian, verbs have a stem and an ending. For example, the stems бай- *bai-*, сур- *sur-*, and үзэ- *üze-* are suffixed with -х *-h*, -ах *-ah*, and -х *-h* respectively: байx *baih*, сурax *surah*, and үзэx *üzeh*. These are the infinitive or dictionary forms. The present/future tense is formed by adding either -на *-na*, -но *-no*, -нэ *-ne*, or -нө *-nö* to the stem. These do not change for different pronouns, so сурна *surna* 'I/you/he/she/we/you all/they study' will always be сурна *surna*. байна *baina* is the present/future tense verb for 'to be'; likewise, уншина *unshina* is 'to read', and үзнэ *üzne* is 'to see'. The final vowel is barely pronounced and is not pronounced at all if the word after begins with a vowel, so сайн байна уу *sain bain uu* is pronounced [sæe̯m‿pæe̯n‿ʊː] 'hello, how are you?'. 1. Past Tense -сан/-сон/-сэн/-сөн (*-san/-son/-sen/-sön*) 2. Informed Past Tense (any point in past) -в (*-v*) 3. Informed Past Tense (not long ago) -лаа/-лоо/-лээ/-лөө (*-laa/-loo/-lee/-löö*) 4. Non-Informed Past Tense (generally a slightly to relatively more distant past) -жээ/-чээ (*-zhee/-chee*) 5. Present Perfect Tense -даг/-дог/-дэг/-дөг (*-dag/-dog/-deg/-dög*) 6. Present Progressive Tense -ж/-ч байна (*-zh/-ch baina*) 7. (Reflective) Present Progressive Tense -аа/-оо/-ээ/-өө (*-aa/-oo/-ee/-öö*) 8. Simple Present Tense -на/-но/-нэ/-нө (*-na/-no/-ne/-nö*) 9. Simple Future -х (болно) (*-h (bolno)*) 10. Infinitive -х (*-h*) ### Negative form There are several ways to form negatives in Mongolian. For example: 1. биш (*bish*) – the negative form of the verb 'to be' (байх *baih*) – биш means 'is/are not'. 2. -гүй (*güi*). This suffix is added to verbs, so явах (*yawah* 'go/will go') becomes явахгүй (*yawahgüi* 'do not go/will not go'). 3. үгүй (*ügüi*) is the word for 'no'. 4. битгий (*bitgii*) is used for negative imperatives; e.g. битгий яваарай (*bitgii yawaarai* 'don't go') 5. бүү (*büü*) is the formal version of битгий. Syntax ------ ### Differential case marking Mongolian uses differential case marking, being a regular differential object marking (DOM) language. DOM emerges from a complicated interaction of factors such as referentiality, animacy and topicality. Mongolian also exhibits a specific type of differential subject marking (DSM), in which the subjects of embedded clauses (including adverbial clauses) occur with accusative case. ### Phrase structure The noun phrase has the order: demonstrative pronoun/numeral, adjective, noun. Attributive sentences precede the whole NP. Titles or occupations of people, low numerals indicating groups, and focus clitics are put behind the head noun. Possessive pronouns (in different forms) may either precede or follow the NP. Examples: bid-nii we-GEN uulz-san meet-PRF ter that saihan beautiful zaluu-gaas young.man-ABL ch FOC bid-nii uulz-san ter saihan zaluu-gaas ch we-GEN meet-PRF that beautiful young.man-ABL FOC 'even from that beautiful young man that we have met' Dorzh Dorj bagsh teacher maan our Dorzh bagsh maan Dorj teacher our 'our teacher Dorj' The verbal phrase consists of the predicate in the center, preceded by its complements and by the adverbials modifying it and followed (mainly if the predicate is sentence-final) by modal particles, as in the following example with predicate *bichsen*: ter s/he hel-eh-güi-geer without:saying üün-iig it-ACC bich-sen write-PRF shüü PTC ter hel-eh-güi-geer üün-iig bich-sen shüü s/he without:saying it-ACC write-PRF PTC 's/he wrote it without saying [so] [i.e. without saying that s/he would do so, or that s/he had done so], I can assure you.' In this clause the adverbial, *helehgüigeer* 'without saying [so]' must precede the predicate's complement, *üüniig* 'it-accusative' in order to avoid syntactic ambiguity, since *helehgüigeer* is itself derived from a verb and hence an *üüniig* preceding it could be construed as its complement. If the adverbial was an adjective such as *hurdan* 'fast', it could optionally immediately precede the predicate. There are also cases in which the adverb must immediately precede the predicate. For Khalkha, the most complete treatment of the verbal forms is by Luvsanvandan (ed.) (1987). However, the analysis of predication presented here, while valid for Khalkha, is adapted from the description of Khorchin. Most often, of course, the predicate consists of a verb. However, there are several types of nominal predicative constructions, with or without a copula. Auxiliaries that express direction and aktionsart (among other meanings) can with the assistance of a linking converb occupy the immediate postverbal position; e.g. uuzh drink-CVB orhison leave-PERF uuzh orhison drink-CVB leave-PERF 'drank up' The next position is filled by converb suffixes in connection with the auxiliary, *baj-* 'to be', e.g. ter s/he güizh run-CVB baina be-NPAST ter güizh baina s/he run-CVB be-NPAST 'she is running' Suffixes occupying this position express grammatical aspect; e.g. progressive and resultative. In the next position, participles followed by *baj-* may follow, e.g., ter s/he irsen come-PERF baina be-NPAST ter irsen baina s/he come-PERF be-NPAST 'he has come' Here, an explicit perfect and habituality can be marked, which is aspectual in meaning as well. This position may be occupied by multiple suffixes in a single predication, and it can still be followed by a converbal Progressive. The last position is occupied by suffixes that express tense, evidentiality, modality, and aspect. ### Clauses Unmarked phrase order is subject–object–predicate. While the predicate generally has to remain in clause-final position, the other phrases are free to change order or to wholly disappear. The topic tends to be placed clause-initially, new information rather at the end of the clause. Topic can be overtly marked with *bol*, which can also mark contrastive focus, overt additive focus ('even, also') can be marked with the clitic *ch*, and overt restrictive focus with the clitic *l* ('only'). The inventory of voices in Mongolian consists of passive, causative, reciprocal, plurative, and cooperative. In a passive sentence, the verb takes the suffix -*gd*- and the agent takes either dative or instrumental case, the first of which is more common. In the causative, the verb takes the suffix -*uul*-, the causee (the person caused to do something) in a transitive action (e.g. 'raise') takes dative or instrumental case, and the causee in an intransitive action (e.g. 'rise') takes accusative case. Causative morphology is also used in some passive contexts: Bi I tüün-d that.one-DAT huurt-san fool-CAUS-PRF Bi tüün-d huurt-san I that.one-DAT fool-CAUS-PRF 'I was fooled by her/him'. The semantic attribute of animacy is syntactically important: thus the sentence, 'the bread was eaten by me', which is acceptable in English, would not be acceptable in Mongolian. The reciprocal voice is marked by -*ld*-, the plurative by -*cgaa*-, and the cooperative by -*lc*-. Mongolian allows for adjectival depictives that relate to either the subject or the direct object, e.g. *Liena nücgen untdag* 'Lena sleeps naked', while adjectival resultatives are marginal. ### Complex sentences One way to conjoin clauses is to have the first clause end in a converb, as in the following example using the converb *-bol*: bid we üün-iig it-ACC ol-bol find-COND.CVB cham-d you.FAM-DAT ög-nö give-FUT bid üün-iig ol-bol cham-d ög-nö we it-ACC find-COND.CVB you.FAM-DAT give-FUT 'if we find it we'll give it to you' Some verbal nouns in the dative (or less often in the instrumental) function very similar to converbs: e.g. replacing *olbol* in the preceding sentence with *olohod* find-imperfective-dative yields 'when we find it we'll give it to you'. Quite often, postpositions govern complete clauses. In contrast, conjunctions take verbal nouns without case: yadar-san become.tired-PRF uchraas because unt-laa sleep-WIT.PAST yadar-san uchraas unt-laa become.tired-PRF because sleep-WIT.PAST 'I slept because I was tired' Finally, there is a class of particles, usually clause-initial, that are distinct from conjunctions but that also relate clauses: bi I olson, find-PRF harin but chamd you-DAT ögöhgüi give-IPFV-NEG bi olson, harin chamd ögöhgüi I find-PRF but you-DAT give-IPFV-NEG 'I've found it, but I won't give it to you'. Mongolian has a complementizer auxiliary verb *ge*- very similar to Japanese *to iu*. *ge*- literally means 'to say' and in converbal form *gezh* precedes either a psych verb or a verb of saying. As a verbal noun like *gedeg* (with *ni*) it can form a subset of complement clauses. As *gene* it may function as an evidentialis marker. Mongolian clauses tend to be combined paratactically, which sometimes gives rise to sentence structures which are subordinative despite resembling coordinative structures in European languages: ter that.one ir-eed come-CVB namaig I.ACC üns-sen kiss-PRF ter ir-eed namaig üns-sen that.one come-CVB I.ACC kiss-PRF 'S/he came and kissed me.' In the subordinate clause the subject, if different from the subject of main clause, sometimes has to take accusative or genitive case. There is marginal occurrence of subjects taking ablative case as well. Subjects of attributive clauses in which the head has a function (as is the case for all English relative clauses) usually require that if the subject is not the head, then it take the genitive, e.g. *tüünii idsen hool* that.one-genitive eat-perfect meal 'the meal that s/he had eaten'. Loanwords and coined words -------------------------- Mongolian first adopted loanwords from many languages including Old Turkic, Sanskrit (these often via Uyghur), Persian, Arabic, Tibetan, Tungusic, and Chinese. However, more recent loanwords come from Russian, English, and Mandarin Chinese (mainly in Inner Mongolia). Language commissions of the Mongolian state continuously translate new terminology into Mongolian, so as the Mongolian vocabulary now has *yerönhiilögch* 'president' ('generalizer') and *shar airah* 'beer' ('yellow kumys'). There are several loan translations, e.g. *galt tereg* 'train' ('fire-having cart') from Chinese *huǒchē* (火车 'fire cart') 'train'. Other loan translations include *mön chanar* 'essence' from Chinese *shízhì* (实质 'true quality'), *hün am* 'population' from Chinese *rénkǒu* (人口 'person mouth'), *erdene shish* 'corn, maize' from Chinese *yùmǐ* (玉米 'jade rice') and *bügd nairamdah uls* 'republic' from Chinese *gònghéguó* (共和国 'public collaboration nation'). * Sanskrit loanwords include *shashin* (शशन *sasana* 'religion'), *sansar* (सँसार *sansāra* 'space'), *awiyas* (अभ्यास *abhyasa* 'talent'), *buyan* (पुण्य *punya* 'good deeds'), *agshin* (क्षण *kšana* 'instant'), *tiw* (द्वीप *dvipa* 'continent'), *garig* (ग्रह *graha* 'planet'), *cadig* (जातक *jātaka* 'tales, stories'), *shüleg* (श्लोक *šloka* 'poems, verses'), *badag* (पदक *padaka* 'strophe'), *arshan* (रसायन *rašayana* 'mineral water, nectar'), *shastir* (शास्त्र *shastra* 'chronicle'), *bud* (बुध *budh* 'Mercury'), *sugar* (शुक्र *shukra* 'Venus'), *barhasvadi* (वृहस्पति *vrihaspati* 'Jupiter'), and *sanchir* (शनि *shani* 'Saturn'). * Persian loanwords include *anar* (*anar* 'amethyst'), *arhi* (*araq* 'brandy', ultimately from Arabic), *baishin* (*pishivân* 'building'), *bars* (*fars* 'tiger'), *bers* (*farzin* 'chess queen/female tiger'), *bold* (*pulâd* 'steel'), *bolor* (*bolur* 'crystal'), *gunzhid* (*konjod* 'sesame'), *gindan* (*zendân* 'prison'), *dari* (*dâru* 'powder/gunpowder, medicine'), *duran* (*dur* 'telescope'), *duranbai* (*durbin* 'telescope/microscope'), *dewter* (*daftar* 'notebook'), *hurmast* (*Ohrmazd* 'high God'), *sawan* (*sâbun* 'soap'), *sandal* (*sandali* 'stool'), and *com* (*jâm* 'cup'). * Chinese loanwords include *banz* (板子 *bǎnzi* 'board'), *laa* (蜡 *là* 'candle'), *luuwan* (萝卜 *lúobo* 'radish'), *huluu* (葫芦 *húlu* 'gourd'), *denlüü* (灯路 *dēnglù* 'lamp'), *chiiden* (汽灯 *qìdēng* 'electric lamp'), *biir* (笔儿 *bǐr* 'paintbrush'), *gambanz* (斩板子 *zhǎnbǎnzi* 'cutting board'), *chinzhuu* (青椒 *qīngjiāo* 'pepper'), *zhuucai* (韭菜 *jiǔcài* 'leek'), *moog* (蘑菇 *mógu* 'mushroom'), *cuu* (醋 *cù* 'vinegar, soy sauce'), *baicaa* (白菜 *báicài* 'cabbage'), *mantuu* (馒头 *mántou* 'steamed bun'), *naimaa/maimaa* (买卖 *mǎimài* 'trade'), *goimon* (挂面 *gùamiàn* 'noodles'), *dan* (单 *dān* 'single'), *gan* (钢 *gāng* 'steel'), *lantuu* (榔头 *lángtou* 'sledgehammer'), *conh* (窗户 *chūanghu* 'window'), *buuz* (包子 *bāozi* 'dumplings'), *huushuur* (火烧儿 *hǔoshāor* 'fried dumpling'), *zutan* (乳脂汤 *rǔzhītāng* 'cream soup'), *bantan* (粉汤 *fěntāng* 'flour soup'), *zhan* (酱 *jiàng* 'soy'), *wan* (王 *wáng* 'king'), *günzh* (公主 *gōngzhǔ* 'princess'), *gün* (公 *gōng* 'duke'), *zhanzhin* (将军 *jiāngjūn* 'general'), *taigan* (太监 *tàijiàn* 'eunuch'), *pyanz* (片子 *piànzi* 'recorded disc'), *guanz* (馆子 *guǎnzi* 'restaurant'), *lianhua* (莲花 *liánhuā* 'lotus'), *huar* (花儿 *huār* 'flower'), *toor* (桃儿 *táor* 'peach'), *intoor* (樱桃儿 *yīngtáor* 'cherry'), *zeel* (借 *jiè* 'borrow, lend'), *wandui* (豌豆 *wāndòu* 'pea'), *yanz* (样子 *yàngzi* 'manner, appearance'), *shinzh* (性质 *xìngzhì* 'characteristic'), *liir* (梨儿 *lír* 'pear'), *bai* (牌 *páizi* 'target'), *zhin(g)* (斤 *jīn* 'weight'), *bin(g)* (饼 *bǐng* 'pancake'), *huanli* (皇历 *huángli* 'calendar'), *shaazan* (烧瓷 *shāocí* 'porcelain'), *hantaaz* (砍兜肚 *kǎndōudu* 'sleeveless vest'), *püntüüz* (粉条子 *fěntiáozi* 'potato noodles'), and *cai* (茶 *chá* 'tea'). In the 20th century, many Russian loanwords entered the Mongolian language, including *doktor* 'doctor', *shokolad* 'chocolate', *wagon* 'train wagon', *kalendar* 'calendar', *sistem* 'system', *podwoolk* (from *futbolka* 'T-shirt'), and *mashin* 'car'. In more recent times, due to socio-political reforms, Mongolian has loaned various words from English; some of which have gradually evolved as official terms: *menezhment* 'management', *komputer* 'computer', *fail* 'file', *marketing* 'marketing', *kredit* 'credit', *onlain* 'online', and *mesezh* 'message'. Most of these are confined to the Mongolian state. Other languages have borrowed words from Mongolian. Examples (Mongolian in brackets) include Persian کشيكچى *kešikci* (from *heshig* 'royal guard'), قرقاول *qarqâvol* (from *girgawl* 'pheasant'), جیبه *jibe* (from *zhebseg* 'iron armour'), داروغه *dâruqe* (from *darga* 'chief of commandant'), قیچی *qeyci* (from *kayichi* 'scissors'); Uzbek *orol* (from *aral* 'island'); Chinese 衚衕 *hutong* (from *gudum* 'passageway'), 站赤 *zhanchi* (from *zhamchi* 'courier/post station'); Middle Chinese 犢 *duk* (from *tugul* 'calf'); Korean 수라 *sura* (from *shüle* 'royal meal'), 악대 *akdae* (from *agta* 'castrated animal'), 업진 *eobjin* (from *ebchigün* 'chest of an animal'); Old English *cocer* (from *köküür* 'container'); Old French *quivre* (from *köküür* 'container'); Old High German *Baldrian* (from *balchirgan-a* 'valerian plant'). *Köküür* and *balchirgan-a* are thought to have been brought to Europe by the Huns or Pannonian Avars. Despite having a diverse range of loanwords, Mongolian dialects such as Khalkha and Khorchin, within a comparative vocabulary of 452 words of Common Mongolic vocabulary, retain as many as 95% of these native words, contrasting e.g. with Southern Mongolic languages at 39–77% retentions. Writing systems --------------- Mongolian has been written in a variety of alphabets, making it a language with one of the largest number of scripts used historically. The earliest stages of Mongolian (Xianbei, Wuhuan languages) may have used an indigenous runic script as indicated by Chinese sources. The Khitan large script adopted in 920 CE is an early Mongol (or according to some, para-Mongolic) script. The traditional Mongolian script was first adopted by Temüjin in 1204, who recognized the need to represent his own people's language. It developed from the Uyghur script when several members of the Uyghur elite who were brought into the Mongol confederation early on shared their knowledge of their written language with the Mongol imperial clan. Among the Uyghurs sharing that knowledge were Tata-tonga (Chinese: 塔塔統阿), Bilge Buqa (比俚伽普華), Kara Igach Buyruk (哈剌亦哈赤北魯), and Mengsus (孟速思). From that time, the script underwent some minor disambiguations and supplementation. Between 1930 and 1932, a short-lived attempt was made to introduce the Latin script in the Mongolian state. In 1941, the Latin alphabet was adopted, though it lasted only two months. The Mongolian Cyrillic script was the result of the spreading of Russian influence following the expansion of Russian Empire. The establishment of Soviet Union helped the influence continue, and the Cyrillic alphabet was slowly introduced with the effort by Russian/Soviet linguists in collaboration with their Mongolian counterparts. It was made mandatory by government decree in 1941. It has been argued that the introduction of the Cyrillic script, with its smaller discrepancy between written and spoken form, contributed to the success of the large-scale government literacy campaign, which increased the literacy rate from 17.3% to 73.5% between 1941 and 1950. Earlier government campaigns to eradicate illiteracy, employing the traditional script, had only managed to raise literacy from 3.0% to 17.3% between 1921 and 1940. From 1991 to 1994, an attempt at reintroducing the traditional alphabet failed in the face of popular resistance. In informal contexts of electronic text production, the use of the Latin alphabet is common. In the People's Republic of China, Mongolian is the official language along with Mandarin Chinese in some regions, notably the entire Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. The traditional alphabet has always been used there, although Cyrillic was considered briefly before the Sino-Soviet split. There are two types of written Mongolian used in China: the traditional Mongolian script, which is official among Mongols nationwide, and the Clear Script, used predominantly among Oirats in Xinjiang. In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to use both Cyrillic and the traditional Mongolian script in official documents by 2025. Example text ------------ Article 1 of the *Universal Declaration of Human Rights* in Mongolian, written in the Cyrillic alphabet: Хүн бүр төрж мэндлэхэд эрх чөлөөтэй, адилхан нэр төртэй, ижил эрхтэй байдаг. Оюун ухаан, нандин чанар заяасан хүн гэгч өөр хоорондоо ахан дүүгийн үзэл санаагаар харьцах учиртай. Article 1 of the *Universal Declaration of Human Rights* in Mongolian, written in the Mongolian Latin alphabet: *Hün bür törzh mendlehed erh chölöötei, adilhan ner törtei, izhil erhtei baidag. Oyuun uhaan nandin chanar zayaasan hün gegch öör hoorondoo ahan düügiin üzel sanaagaar haricah uchirtai.* Article 1 of the *Universal Declaration of Human Rights* in Mongolian, written in the Mongolian script: ᠬᠦᠮᠦᠨ ᠪᠦᠷ ᠲᠥᠷᠥᠵᠦ ᠮᠡᠨᠳᠡᠯᠡᠬᠦ ᠡᠷᠬᠡ ᠴᠢᠯᠥᠭᠡ ᠲᠡᠢ᠂ ᠠᠳᠠᠯᠢᠬᠠᠨ ᠨᠡᠷ᠎ᠡ ᠲᠥᠷᠥ ᠲᠡᠢ᠂ ᠢᠵᠢᠯ ᠡᠷᠬᠡ ᠲᠡᠢ ᠪᠠᠢᠠᠭ᠃ ᠣᠶᠤᠨ ᠤᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ᠂ ᠨᠠᠨᠳᠢᠨ ᠴᠢᠨᠠᠷ ᠵᠠᠶᠠᠭᠠᠰᠠᠨ ᠬᠦᠮᠦᠨ ᠬᠡᠭᠴᠢ ᠥᠭᠡᠷ᠎ᠡ ᠬᠣᠭᠣᠷᠣᠨᠳᠣ᠎ᠨ ᠠᠬᠠᠨ ᠳᠡᠭᠦᠦ ᠢᠨ ᠦᠵᠢᠯ ᠰᠠᠨᠠᠭᠠ ᠥᠠᠷ ᠬᠠᠷᠢᠴᠠᠬᠥ ᠤᠴᠢᠷ ᠲᠠᠢ᠃ Article 1 of the *Universal Declaration of Human Rights* in English: *All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.* See also -------- * Mongolian writing systems + Mongolian script - Galik alphabet - Todo alphabet + ʼPhags-pa script - Horizontal square script + Soyombo script + Mongolian Latin alphabet - SASM/GNC romanization § Mongolian + Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet + Mongolian transliteration of Chinese characters - Sino–Mongolian Transliterations [zh] + Mongolian Braille * Mongolian Sign Language * Mongolian name References ---------- ### Sources *For some Mongolian authors, the Mongolian version of their name is also given in square brackets, e.g., "Harnud [Köke]". Köke is the author's native name. It is a practice common among Mongolian scholars, for purposes of publishing and being cited abroad, to adopt a surname based on one's patronymic, in this example "Harnud"; compare Mongolian name.* *Some library catalogs write Chinese language titles with each syllable separate, even syllables belonging to a single word.* List of abbreviations used *TULIP* is in official use by some librarians; the remainder have been contrived for this listing. Journals * *KULIP* = *Kyūshū daigaku gengogaku ronshū* [Kyushu University linguistics papers] * *MKDKH* = *Muroran kōgyō daigaku kenkyū hōkoku* [Memoirs of the Muroran Institute of Technology] * *TULIP* = *Tōkyō daigaku gengogaku ronshū* [Tokyo University linguistics papers] Publishers * ÖMAKQ = Öbür mongγul-un arad-un keblel-ün qoriy-a [Inner Mongolia People's Publishing House] * ÖMSKKQ = Öbür mongγul-un surγan kümüǰil-ün keblel-ün qoriy-a [Inner Mongolia Education Press] * ÖMYSKQ = Öbür mongγul-un yeke surγaγuli-yin keblel-ün qoriy-a [Inner Mongolia University Press] * ŠUA = [Mongol Ulsyn] Šinžleh Uhaany Akademi [Mongolian Academy of Sciences (MAS)] * (in Mongolian) Amaržargal, B. 1988. *BNMAU dah' Mongol helnij nutgijn ajalguuny tol' bichig: halh ajalguu*. Ulaanbaatar: ŠUA. * Apatóczky, Ákos Bertalan. 2005. On the problem of the subject markers of the Mongolian language. In Wú Xīnyīng, Chén Gānglóng (eds.), *Miànxiàng xīn shìjìde ménggǔxué* [The Mongolian studies in the new century : review and prospect]. Běijīng: Mínzú Chūbǎnshè. 334–343. ISBN 7-105-07208-3. * (in Japanese) Ashimura, Takashi. 2002. Mongorugo jarōto gengo no -lɛː no yōhō ni tsuite. *TULIP*, 21: 147–200. * (in Mongolian) Bajansan, Ž. and Š. Odontör. 1995. *Hel šinžlelijn ner tom"joony züjlčilsen tajlbar toli*. Ulaanbaatar. * (in Mongolian) Bayančoγtu. 2002. *Qorčin aman ayalγun-u sudulul*. Kökeqota: ÖMYSKQ. ISBN 7-81074-391-0. * (in Mongolian) Bjambasan, P. 2001. Mongol helnij ügüjsgeh har'caa ilerhijleh hereglüürüüd. *Mongol hel, sojolijn surguul: Erdem šinžilgeenij bičig*, 18: 9–20. * Bosson, James E. 1964. *Modern Mongolian; a primer and reader*. Uralic and Altaic series; 38. Bloomington: Indiana University. * Brosig, Benjamin. 2009. Depictives and resultatives in Modern Khalkh Mongolian. *Hokkaidō gengo bunka kenkyū*, 7: 71–101. * Chuluu, Ujiyediin. 1998. *Studies on Mongolian verb morphology* Archived 2023-01-05 at the Wayback Machine. Dissertation, University of Toronto. * (in Mongolian) Činggeltei. 1999. *Odu üj-e-jin mongγul kelen-ü ǰüi*. Kökeqota: ÖMAKQ. ISBN 7-204-04593-9. * (in Mongolian) Coloo, Ž. 1988. *BNMAU dah' mongol helnij nutgijn ajalguuny tol' bichig: ojrd ajalguu*. Ulaanbaatar: ŠUA. * (in English) Djahukyan, Gevork. (1991). Armenian Lexicography. In Franz Josef Hausmann (Ed.), *An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography* (pp. 2367–2371). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. * (in Chinese) [Dobu] Dàobù. 1983. *Ménggǔyǔ jiǎnzhì. Běijīng: Mínzú.* * (in Mongolian) Garudi. 2002. *Dumdadu üy-e-yin mongγul kelen-ü bütüče-yin kelberi-yin sudulul*. Kökeqota: ÖMAKQ. * Georg, Stefan, Peter A. Michalove, Alexis Manaster Ramer, Paul J. Sidwell. 1999. 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Moskva: Akademija Nauk USSR. * (in Mongolian) Sečen. 2004. *Odu üy-e-yin mongγul bičig-ün kelen-ü üge bütügekü daγaburi-yin sudulul*. Kökeqota: ÖMASKKQ. ISBN 7-5311-4963-X. * Sechenbaatar [Sečenbaγatur], Borjigin. 2003. *The Chakhar dialect of Mongol: a morphological description*. Helsinki: Finno-Ugrian society. ISBN 952-5150-68-2. * (in Mongolian) Sečenbaγatur, Qasgerel, Tuyaγ-a [Туяa], Bu. Jirannige, Wu Yingzhe, Činggeltei. 2005. *Mongγul kelen-ü nutuγ-un ayalγun-u sinǰilel-ün uduridqal* [A guide to the regional dialects of Mongolian]. Kökeqota: ÖMAKQ. ISBN 7-204-07621-4. * (in Chinese) Siqinchaoketu [=Sečenčoγtu]. 1999). *Kangjiayu yanjiu*. Shanghai: Shanghai Yuandong Chubanshe. * Slater, Keith. 2003. *A grammar of Mangghuer*. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978-0-7007-1471-1. * Starostin, Sergei A., Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak. 2003. *Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages*, 3 volumes. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-13153-1. * Street, John C. 1957. *The language of the Secret History of the Mongols*. New Haven: American Oriental Society. American Oriental series; 42. * Street, John C. 2008. Middle Mongolian Past-tense *-BA* in the Secret History. *Journal of the American Oriental Society 128 (3)*: 399–422. * Svantesson, Jan-Olof. 2003. Khalkha. In Janhunen 2003: 154–176. * Svantesson, Jan-Olof, Anna Tsendina, Anastasia Karlsson, Vivan Franzén. 2005. *The Phonology of Mongolian*. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926017-6. * (in Mongolian) Temürcereng, J̌. 2004. Mongγul kelen-ü üge-yin sang-un sudulul. Kökeqota: ÖMASKKQ. ISBN 7-5311-5893-0. * (in Mongolian) Toγtambayar, L. 2006. *Mongγul kelen-ü kele ǰüiǰigsen yabuča-yin tuqai sudulul*. Liyuuning-un ündüsüten-ü keblel-ün qoriy-a. ISBN 7-80722-206-9. * (in Mongolian) Tömörtogoo, D. 1992. *Mongol helnij tüühen helzüj*. Ulaanbaatar. * (in Mongolian) Tömörtogoo, D. 2002. *Mongol dörvölžin üsegijn durashalyn sudalgaa*. Ulaanbaatar: IAMS. ISBN 99929-56-24-0. * (in Mongolian) Tsedendamba, Ts. and Sürengiin Möömöö (eds.). 1997. *Orčin cagijn mongol hel*. Ulaanbaatar. * Tserenpil, D. and R. Kullmann. 2005. *Mongolian grammar*. Ulaanbaatar: Admon. ISBN 99929-0-445-3. * (in Mongolian) Tümenčečeg. 1990. Dumdadu ǰaγun-u mongγul kelen-ü toγačin ögülekü tölüb-ün kelberi-nügüd ba tegün-ü ularil kögǰil. *Öbür mongγul-un yeke surγaγuli*, 3: 102–120. * Vovin, Alexander (2005). "The end of the Altaic controversy (review of Starostin *et al.* 2003)". *Central Asiatic Journal*. **49** (1): 71–132. * Walker, Rachel. 1997. *Mongolian stress, licensing, and factorial typology* Archived 2011-09-27 at the Wayback Machine. Rutgers Optimality Archive, ROA-172. * (in German) Weiers, Michael. 1969. *Untersuchungen zu einer historischen Grammatik des präklassischen Schriftmongolisch*. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Asiatische Forschungen, 28. (Revision of 1966 dissertation submitted to the Universität Bonn.) * Yu, Wonsoo. 1991. *A study of Mongolian negation* (Ph.D. thesis). Bloomington: Indiana University. Further reading --------------- * Janhunen, Juha A. (2012): *Mongolian.* (London Oriental and African Language Library, 19.) Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISSN 1382-3485. ISBN 978-90-272-3820-7 Traditional Mongolian script * (ru) Schmidt, Isaak Jakob, *Грамматика монгольскaго языка (Grammatika mongolʹskago i︠a︡zyka)*, Saint-Petersburg, 1832 * (ru) Bobrovnikov, Aleksieĭ Aleksandrovich *Грамматика монгольско-калмыцкого языка (Grammatika mongolʹsko-kalmyt͡skago i͡azyka)*, Kazan, 1849 * (de) Schmidt, Isaak Jakob, *Grammatik der mongolischen Sprache*, St. Petersburg, 1831 * (fr) Rémusat, Abel *Récherches sur les langues tartares*, Paris, 1820 * (fr, ru) Kovalevskiĭ, Osip Mikhaĭlovich, *Dictionnaire Mongol-Russe-Franca̧is*, Volumes 1-3, Kazan 1844-46-49 * (fr) Soulié, Charles Georges, *Éléments de grammaire mongole (dialecte ordoss)*, Paris, 1903 * (it) Puini, Carlo, *Elementi della grammatica mongolica*, Firenze, 1878

Mongolian language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_language

**Rambutan** (/ræmˈbuːtən/; taxonomic name: *Nephelium lappaceum*) is a medium-sized tropical tree in the family Sapindaceae. The name also refers to the edible fruit produced by this tree. The rambutan is native to Southeast Asia. It is closely related to several other edible tropical fruits including the lychee, longan, pulasan and guinep. Description ----------- It is an evergreen tree growing to a height of 15–24 metres (49–79 ft). The leaves are alternate, 14–30 cm long, pinnate, with three to 11 leaflets, each leaflet 5–15 cm wide and 3–10 cm broad, with an entire margin. The flowers are small, 2.5–5 mm, apetalous, discoidal and borne in erect terminal panicles 15–30 cm wide. Rambutan trees can be male (producing only staminate flowers and, hence, produce no fruit), female (producing flowers that are only functionally female) or hermaphroditic (producing flowers that are female with a small percentage of male flowers). ### Fruit The fruit is a round to oval single-seeded drupe, 3–6 cm (rarely to 8 cm) long and 3–4 cm broad, borne in a loose pendant cluster of 10–20 together. The leathery skin is reddish (rarely orange or yellow) and covered with fleshy pliable spines, hence the name, which means 'hairs'. The spines (also known as "spinterns") contribute to the transpiration of the fruit, which can affect the fruit's quality. The fruit flesh, the aril, is translucent, whitish or very pale pink, with a sweet, mildly acidic flavor reminiscent of grapes. The single seed is glossy brown, 1–1.3 cm, with a white basal scar. Soft and containing equal portions of saturated and unsaturated fats, the seed may be cooked and eaten, but is bitter and has narcotic properties. History ------- Around the 13th to 15th centuries, Arab traders, who played a major role in Indian Ocean trade, introduced rambutans to Zanzibar and Pemba of East Africa. There are limited rambutan plantings in some parts of India. In the 19th century, the Dutch introduced rambutans from Indonesia in Southeast Asia, to Suriname in South America. Subsequently, the plants spread to tropical Americas, planted in the coastal lowlands of Colombia, Ecuador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Trinidad and Cuba. In 1912, rambutans were introduced to the Philippines from Indonesia. Further introductions were made in 1920 (from Indonesia) and 1930 (from Malaya), but until the 1950s its distribution was limited. There was an attempt to introduce rambutans to the Southeastern United States, with seeds imported from Java, Indonesia in 1906, but the species proved to be unsuccessful, except in Puerto Rico. ### Etymology The name "rambutan" is derived from the Malay word *rambut* meaning 'hair' referring to the numerous hairy protuberances of the fruits, together with the noun-building suffix *-an*. Similarly, in Vietnam, they are called *chôm chôm* (meaning 'messy hair'). Composition ----------- ### Nutrients Rambutan fruit is 78% water, 21% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and has negligible fat (table; data are for canned fruit in syrup; raw fruit data are unpublished). In terms of nutritional content, the canned fruit contains only manganese at a moderate level (16% of the Daily Value), while providing 82 calories in a 100 gram reference amount (table). Other micronutrients are at a low level. ### Phytochemicals As an unpigmented fruit flesh, rambutan does not contain significant polyphenol content, but its colorful rind displays diverse phenolic acids, such as syringic, coumaric, gallic, caffeic, and ellagic acids. Rambutan seeds contain equal proportions of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, where arachidic (34%) and oleic (42%) acids, respectively, are highest in fat content. The pleasant fragrance of rambutan fruit derives from numerous volatile organic compounds, including beta-damascenone, vanillin, phenylacetic acid, and cinnamic acid. Ecology ------- ### Pollination Aromatic rambutan flowers are highly attractive to many insects, especially bees. Flies (Diptera), bees (Hymenoptera) and ants (*Solenopsis*) are the main pollinators. Among the Diptera, *Lucilia* spp. are abundant and among the Hymenoptera, honey bees (*Apis dorsata* and *A. cerana*) and the stingless bee genus *Trigona* are the major visitors. *A. cerana* colonies foraging on rambutan flowers produce large quantities of honey. Bees foraging for nectar routinely contact the stigma of female flowers and gather significant quantities of the sticky pollen from male blossoms. Little pollen has been seen on bees foraging female flowers. Although male flowers open at 06:00, foraging by *A. cerana* is most intense between 07:00 and 11:00, tapering off rather abruptly thereafter. In Thailand, *A. cerana* is the preferred species for small-scale pollination of rambutan. Its hair is also helpful in pollination where pollen can be hooked on and transported to female flowers. Varieties --------- Well over 200 cultivars were developed from selected clones available throughout tropical Asia. Most of the cultivars are also selected for compact growth, reaching a height of only 3–5 m for easier harvesting. Compared to propagated rambutan clones, rambutans taken from the wild have a higher acidity and potential for various food purposes. In Indonesia, 22 rambutan cultivars were identified with good quality, with five as leading commercial cultivars: 'Binjai', 'Lebak Bulus', 'Rapiah', 'Cimacan' and 'Sinyonya', with other popular cultivars including 'Simacan', 'Silengkeng', 'Sikonto' and 'Aceh kuning'. In the Malay peninsula, commercial varieties include 'Chooi Ang', 'Peng Thing Bee', 'Ya Tow', 'Azimat', and 'Ayer Mas'. In Nicaragua, a joint World Relief–European Union team distributed seedlings to organizations such as Ascociación Pueblos en Acción Comunitaria in 2001 to more than 100 farmers. Some of these farmers saw the first production of rambutans from their trees in 2005–2006 with development directed at the local market. In the Philippines, two cultivars of rambutans are distinguished by their seed. The common rambutan seed and fruit are difficult to separate, while the 'Maharlika Rambutan' fruit separates cleanly from its seed. The fruit taste and size of these two cultivars are identical, but the 'Maharlika Rambutan' is more popular with a higher price. Uses ---- ### Culinary The fruit of the rambutan tree may be eaten raw by removing the peel, eating the pulp, and discarding the seed. A few recipes for rambutan include making a "rambutan smoothie", "rambutan sorbet", "rambutan marshmallow sugar cookies", "dragon fruit and rambutan mojito cocktail", "red curry with tofu, rambutans and sweet basil", "tropical rambutan smoothie with silk cashew milk", and "tropical pineapple, coconut, banana smoothie with rambutan." Other delicious recipes are "tropical coconut milk rice pudding with dragon fruit & rambutan", "peach green iced tea infused with fruit rambutan", and "summer rambutan curry". Another recipe is "mango and rambutan crumbles with cardamom ice cream". In certain recipes, because of rambutan's similiarity in composition, taste, and texture to lychee, both are substitutes for one another. Cultivation ----------- Rambutans are adapted to warm tropical climates, around 22–30 °C, and are sensitive to temperatures below 10 °C. It is grown commercially within 12–15° of the equator. The trees grows well at elevations up to 500 m (1,600 ft) above sea level, and does best in deep soil, clay loam or sandy loam rich in organic matter. They grow on hilly terrain where there is good drainage. Rambutans are propagated by grafting, air-layering, and budding. Budded trees may fruit after two to three years with optimum production occurring after eight to 10 years. Trees grown from seed bear after five to six years. The aril is attached to the seed in some commercial cultivars, but "freestone" cultivars are available and in high demand. Usually, a single light brown seed is found, which is high in certain fats and oils (primarily oleic acid and arachidic acid) valuable to industry, and used in cooking and the manufacture of soap. Rambutan roots, bark, and leaves have various uses in traditional medicine and in the production of dyes. Rambutan cut open Rambutan cut open In some areas, rambutan trees can bear fruit twice annually, once in late fall and early winter, with a shorter season in late spring and early summer. Other areas, such as Costa Rica, have a single fruit season, with the start of the rainy season in April stimulating flowering, and the fruit is usually ripe in August and September. The fragile fruit must ripen on the tree, then they are harvested over a four- to seven-week period. The fresh fruit are easily bruised and have a limited shelf life. An average tree may produce 5,000–6,000 or more fruit (60–70 kg or 130–155 lb per tree). Yields begin at 1.2 tonnes per hectare (0.5 tons/acre) in young orchards and may reach 20 tonnes per hectare (8 tons per acre) on mature trees. In Hawaii, 24 of 38 cultivated hectares (60 of 95 acres) were harvested producing 120 tonnes of fruit in 1997. Yields could be increased by improved orchard management, including pollination, and by planting high-yielding compact cultivars. Most commercial cultivars are hermaphroditic; cultivars that produce only functionally female flowers require the presence of male trees. Male trees are seldom found, as vegetative selection has favored hermaphroditic clones that produce a high proportion of functionally female flowers and a much lower number of flowers that produce pollen. Over 3,000 greenish-white flowers occur in male panicles, each with five to seven anthers and a nonfunctional ovary. Male flowers have yellow nectaries and five to seven stamens. About 500 greenish-yellow flowers occur in each hermaphroditic panicle. Each flower has six anthers, usually a bilobed stigma, and one ovule in each of its two sections (locules). The flowers are receptive for about one day, but may persist if pollinators are excluded. In Thailand, rambutan trees were first planted in Surat Thani in 1926 by the Chinese Malay K. Vong in Ban Na San. An annual rambutan fair is held during August harvest time. In Malaysia, rambutan flowers from March to July and again between June and November, usually in response to rain following a dry period. Flowering periods differ for other localities. Most, but not all, flowers open early in the day. Up to 100 flowers in each female panicle may be open each day during peak bloom. Initial fruit set may approach 25 percent, but a high abortion level contributes to a much lower level of production at harvest (1 to 3 percent). The fruit matures 15–18 weeks after flowering. Rambutan cultivation in Sri Lanka mainly consists of small home gardens. Malwana, a village in the Kelani River Valley, is popular for its rambutan orchards. Their production comes to market in May, June, and July, when it is very common to observe seasonal traders along the streets of Colombo. Sri Lanka also has some off-season rambutan production in January and February in areas such as Bibile, Medagama, and Monaragala. Both male and female flowers are faintly sweet-scented and have functional nectaries at the ovary base. Female flowers produce two to three times more nectar than male flowers. Nectar sugar concentration ranges between 18–47 percent and is similar between the flower types. Rambutans are an important nectar source for bees in Malaysia. Cross-pollination is a necessity because the anther is absent in most functionally female flowers. Although apomixis may occur in some cultivars, rambutans, like lychee, are dependent upon insects for pollination. In Malaysia, where only about one percent of the female flowers set fruit, no fruit is set on bagged flowers while hand pollination resulted in a 13 percent fruit set. Pollinators may maintain a fidelity to either male or hermaphroditic flowers (trees), thus limiting pollination and fruit set under natural conditions where crossing between male and female flowers is required. ### Production Rambutan is a fruit tree cultivated in humid tropical Southeast Asia. It is a common garden fruit tree and propagated commercially in small orchards. It is one of the best-known fruits of Southeast Asia and is also widely cultivated elsewhere in the tropics including Africa, southern Mexico, the Caribbean islands, Costa Rica, Honduras, Panama, India, Vietnam, Philippines, and Sri Lanka. It is also produced in Ecuador where it is known as *achotillo,* and on the island of Puerto Rico. As of 2014[update], Thailand was the largest producer of rambutans (Thai: เงาะ, RTGS: *ngo*), growing 450,000 tonnes, followed by Indonesia at 100,000 tonnes, and Malaysia, 60,000 tonnes. In Thailand, major cultivation centers are Chanthaburi Province, followed by Chumphon Province and Surat Thani Province. In Indonesia, the production center of rambutan is in the western parts of Indonesia, which includes Java, Sumatra, and Kalimantan. In Java, the orchards and *pekarangan* (habitation yards) in the villages of Greater Jakarta and West Java have been known as rambutan production centers since colonial era, with a trading center in Pasar Minggu, South Jakarta. During 2017 and years before, imports of rambutan to the European Union were about 1,000 tonnes annually, enabling a year-round supply from numerous tropical suppliers. The fruits are usually sold fresh and have a short shelf-life, and are commonly used in making jams and jellies, or canned. Evergreen rambutan trees with their abundant colored fruit make attractive landscape specimens. In India, rambutan is imported from Thailand, as well as grown in Pathanamthitta District of the southern state of Kerala. Rambutans are not a climacteric fruit — that is, they ripen only on the tree and appear not to produce a ripening agent, such as the plant hormone ethylene, after being harvested. However, at post-harvest, the quality of the fruit is affected by storage factors. Low humidity levels, storage time, and incidences of mechanical damage can severely affect the quality of the fruit which would negatively affect the demand for such. In general, the fruit has a short shelf life in ambient conditions but implementing methods that can extend such is a productional advantage. Certain treatments like irradiation and the use of hot-forced air can help in fruit preservation although the former has seen more success. ### Distribution The center of genetic diversity for rambutans is the Indonesian region. They have been widely cultivated in southeast Asia areas, such as Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Singapore, and the Philippines. It has spread from there to parts of Asia, Africa, Oceania and Central America. Gallery ------- * Young rambutan fruit in MalaysiaYoung rambutan fruit in Malaysia * Ripe yellow rambutan fruit in MalaysiaRipe yellow rambutan fruit in Malaysia * Unripe rambutan fruits in the PhilippinesUnripe rambutan fruits in the Philippines * 'Rambutan Binjai', one of the leading cultivars in Indonesia'Rambutan Binjai', one of the leading cultivars in Indonesia * Three colors of rambutanThree colors of rambutan See also -------- * List of culinary fruits * Pomology * Pulasan

Rambutan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambutan

The national flag of France (French: *drapeau français*) is a tricolour featuring three vertical bands coloured blue (hoist side), white, and red. It is known to English speakers as the *Tricolour* (French: *Tricolore*), although the flag of Ireland and others are also so known. The design was adopted after the French Revolution, where the revolutionaries were influenced by the horizontally striped red-white-blue flag of the Netherlands. While not the first tricolour, it became one of the most influential flags in history. The tricolour scheme was later adopted by many other nations in Europe and elsewhere, and, according to the *Encyclopædia Britannica* has historically stood "in symbolic opposition to the autocratic and clericalist royal standards of the past". Before the tricolour was adopted the royal government used many flags, the best known being a blue shield and gold fleur-de-lis (the Royal Arms of France) on a white background, or state flag. Early in the French Revolution, the Paris militia, which played a prominent role in the storming of the Bastille, wore a cockade of blue and red, the city's traditional colours. According to French general Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, white was the "ancient French colour" and was added to the militia cockade to form a tricolour, or national, cockade of France. This cockade became part of the uniform of the National Guard, which succeeded the militia and was commanded by Lafayette. The colours and design of the cockade are the basis of the Tricolour flag, adopted in 1790, originally with the red nearest to the flagpole and the blue farthest from it. A modified design by Jacques-Louis David was adopted in 1794. The royal white flag was used during the Bourbon Restoration from 1815 to 1830; the tricolour was brought back after the July Revolution and has been used since then, except for an interruption for a few days in 1848. Since 1976, there have been two versions of the flag in varying levels of use by the state: the original (identifiable by its use of navy blue) and one with a lighter shade of blue. Since 2020, France has used the older variant by default, including at the Élysée Palace. Design ------ Article 2 of the French constitution of 1958 states that "the national emblem is the tricolour flag, blue, white, red". No law has specified the shades of these official colours. In English blazon, the flag is described as *tierced in pale azure, argent and gules.* The blue stripe has usually been a dark navy blue; a lighter blue (and slightly lighter red) version was introduced in 1974 by President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. Both versions were used from then; town halls, public buildings and barracks usually fly the darker version of the flag, but the lighter version was sometimes used even on official State buildings. On 13 July 2020, President Emmanuel Macron reverted, without any statement and with no orders for other institutions to use a specific version, to the darker hue for the presidential Élysée Palace, as a symbol of the French Revolution. The move was met with comments both in favour of and against the change, but it was noted that both the darker and lighter flags have been in use for decades. | Authority | Scheme | Blue | White | Red | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Ministry of Defense | AFNORNFX 08002 | A 503 | A 665 | An 805 | | Embassy to Germany(lighter colours) | Pantone | Reflex blue | Safe | Red 032 | | CMYK | 100.80.0.0 | 0.0.0.0 | 0.100.100.0 | | RGB | (0,85,164) | (255,255,255) | (239,65,53) | | HEX | #0055A4 | #FFFFFF | #EF4135 | Currently, the flag is one and a half times wider than its height (i.e. in the proportion 2:3) and, except in the French Navy, has stripes of equal width. Initially, the three stripes of the flag were not equally wide, being in the proportions 30 (blue), 33 (white) and 37 (red). Under Napoleon I, the proportions were changed to make the stripes' width equal, but by a regulation dated 17 May 1853, the navy went back to using the 30:33:37 proportions, which it now continues to use, as the flapping of the flag makes portions farther from the halyard seem smaller. On French television interviews a flag with a much narrower white stripe is often used as a backdrop; a standard flag would show, close up, as only white. Symbolism --------- Blue and red are the traditional colours of Paris, used on the city's coat of arms. Blue is identified with Saint Martin, red with Saint Denis. At the storming of the Bastille in 1789, the Paris militia wore blue and red cockades on their hats. White had long featured prominently on French flags and is described as the "ancient French colour" by Lafayette. White was added to the "revolutionary" colours of the militia cockade to "nationalise" the design, thus forming the cockade of France. Although Lafayette identified the white stripe with the nation, other accounts identify it with the monarchy. Lafayette denied that the flag contains any reference to the red-and-white livery of the Duc d'Orléans. Despite this, Orléanists adopted the tricolour as their own. Blue and red are associated with the Virgin Mary, the patroness of France, and were the colours of the oriflamme. The colours of the French flag may also represent the three main estates of the Ancien Régime (the clergy: white, the nobility: red and the bourgeoisie: blue). Blue, as the symbol of class, comes first and red, representing the nobility, comes last. Both extreme colours are situated on each side of white referring to a superior order. Lafayette's cockade of France was adopted in July 1789, a moment of national unity that soon faded. Royalists began wearing white cockades and flying white flags, while the Jacobins, and later the Socialists, flew the red flag. The tricolour, which combines royalist white with republican red, came to be seen as a symbol of moderation and of a nationalism that transcended factionalism. The French government website states that the white field was the colour of the king, while blue and red were the colours of Paris. The three colours are occasionally taken to represent the three elements of the revolutionary motto, *liberté* (freedom: blue), *égalité* (equality: white), *fraternité* (brotherhood: red); this symbolism was referenced in Krzysztof Kieślowski's three colours film trilogy, for example. In the aftermath of the November 2015 Paris attacks, many famous landmarks and stadiums were illuminated in the flag colours to honour the victims. History ------- ### Kingdom of France During the early Middle Ages, the oriflamme, the flag of Saint Denis, was used—red, with two, three, or five spikes. Originally, it was the royal banner under the Capetians. It was stored in Saint-Denis abbey, where it was taken when war broke out. French kings went forth into battle preceded either by Saint Martin's red cape, which was supposed to protect the monarch, or by the red banner of Saint Denis. Later during the Middle Ages, these colours came to be associated with the reigning house of France. In 1328, the coat-of-arms of the House of Valois was blue with gold fleurs-de-lis bordered in red. From this time on, the kings of France were represented in vignettes and manuscripts wearing a red gown under a blue coat decorated with gold fleurs-de-lis. During the Hundred Years' War, England was recognised by a red cross; Burgundy, a red saltire; and France, a white cross. This cross could figure either on a blue or a red field. The blue field eventually became the common standard for French armies. The French regiments were later assigned the white cross as standard, with their proper colours in the cantons. The French flag of a white cross on a blue field is still seen on some flags derived from it, such as those of Quebec and Martinique. The flag of Joan of Arc during the Hundred Years' War is described in her own words, "I had a banner of which the field was sprinkled with lilies; the world was painted there, with an angel at each side; it was white of the white cloth called 'boccassin'; there was written above it, I believe, 'JHESUS MARIA'; it was fringed with silk." Joan's standard led to the prominent use of white on later French flags. From the accession of the Bourbons to the throne of France, the green ensign of the navy became a plain white flag, the symbol of purity and royal authority. The merchant navy was assigned "the old flag of the nation of France", the white cross on a blue field. There also was a red jack for the French galleys. A variant of the plain white Bourbon banner, a white field strewn with gold fleur de lis, was also sometimes seen. * The Oriflamme, the banner of the CapetiansThe Oriflamme, the banner of the Capetians * Flag of France under the Capetian dynasty since the twelfth centurySmall vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of France under the Capetian dynasty since the twelfth century * Flag of France under the Capetian dynasty since the fourteenth centurySmall vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of France under the Capetian dynasty since the fourteenth century * The Royal Banner of France or "Bourbon Flag". The House of Bourbon ruled France from 1589 to 1792 and again from 1815 to 1848.Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag The Royal Banner of France or "Bourbon Flag". The House of Bourbon ruled France from 1589 to 1792 and again from 1815 to 1848. * The Royal Standard of France (1643 design)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag The Royal Standard of France (1643 design) * Variant royal standard of France (1643 design)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Variant royal standard of France (1643 design) * Variant royal standard of France (1643 design)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Variant royal standard of France (1643 design) ### The *Tricolore* The horizontally striped red-white-blue flag of the Netherlands originally inspired the colour scheme used by the French revolutionaries after the French Revolution in 1789. Consequently, the French tricolour flag is derived from the cockade of France used during the French Revolution. These were circular rosette-like emblems attached to the hat. Camille Desmoulins asked his followers to wear green cockades on 12 July 1789. The Paris militia, formed on 13 July, adopted a blue and red cockade. Blue and red are the traditional colours of Paris, and they are used on the city's coat of arms. Cockades with various colour schemes were used during the storming of the Bastille on 14 July. The blue and red cockade was presented to King Louis XVI at the Hôtel de Ville on 17 July. Lafayette argued for the addition of a white stripe to "nationalise" the design. On 27 July, a tricolour cockade was adopted as part of the uniform of the National Guard, the national police force that succeeded the militia. A *drapeau tricolore* with vertical red, white and blue stripes was approved by the Constituent Assembly on 24 October 1790. Simplified designs were used to illustrate how the revolution had broken with the past. The order was reversed to blue-white-red, the current design, by a resolution passed on 15 February 1794. When the Bourbon dynasty was restored following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the *tricolore*—with its revolutionary connotations—was replaced by a white flag, the pre-revolutionary naval flag. However, following the July Revolution of 1830, the "citizen-king", Louis-Philippe, restored the *tricolore*, and it has remained France's national flag since that time. Following the overthrow of Napoleon III, voters elected a royalist majority to the National Assembly of the new Third Republic. This parliament then offered the throne to the Bourbon pretender, Henri, Comte de Chambord. However, he insisted that he would accept the throne only on the condition that the tricolour be replaced by the white flag. As the tricolour had become a cherished national symbol, this demand proved impossible to accommodate. Plans to restore the monarchy were adjourned and ultimately dropped, and France has remained a republic, with the tricolour flag, ever since. The Vichy régime, which dropped the word "republic" in favour of "the French state", maintained the use of the *tricolore*, but Philippe Pétain used as his personal standard a version of the flag with, in the white stripe, an axe made with a star-studded marshal's baton. This axe is called the "Francisque" in reference to the ancient Frankish throwing axe. During this same period, the Free French Forces used a *tricolore* with, in the white stripe, a red Cross of Lorraine. The constitutions of 1946 and 1958 instituted the "blue, white, and red" flag as the national emblem of the Republic. The colours of the national flag are occasionally said to represent different flowers; blue represents cornflowers, white represents marguerites, and red represents poppies. * The flag of Paris, source of the tricolour's blue and red stripesThe flag of Paris, source of the tricolour's blue and red stripes * The cockade of France, designed in July 1789. White was added to "nationalise" an earlier blue and red design.The cockade of France, designed in July 1789. White was added to "nationalise" an earlier blue and red design. * The flag of France used from 1790 until 1794Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag The flag of France used from 1790 until 1794 * The flag of France used from 1794 (interrupted in 1815–1830 and in 1848)The flag of France used from 1794 (interrupted in 1815–1830 and in 1848) * The French Second Republic adopted a variant of the tricolour for a few days between 24 February and 5 March 1848.Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag The French Second Republic adopted a variant of the tricolour for a few days between 24 February and 5 March 1848. * The French tricolore with the royal crown and fleur-de-lys was possibly designed by the Henri, Count of Chambord, in his younger years as a compromise, but which was never made official, and which he himself rejected when offered the throne in 1870.Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag The French *tricolore* with the royal crown and fleur-de-lys was possibly designed by the Henri, Count of Chambord, in his younger years as a compromise, but which was never made official, and which he himself rejected when offered the throne in 1870. * From 1912 onwards, the French Air Force originated the use of roundels on military aircraft shortly before World War I. Similar national cockades, with different ordering of colours, were later adopted as aircraft roundels by their allies.From 1912 onwards, the French Air Force originated the use of roundels on military aircraft shortly before World War I. Similar national cockades, with different ordering of colours, were later adopted as aircraft roundels by their allies. * Personal standard of Philippe Pétain, as Chief of the Vichy France.Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Personal standard of Philippe Pétain, as Chief of the Vichy France. * Flag used by the Free French Forces during World War II; in the centre is the Cross of Lorraine; later, the personal standard of President Charles de Gaulle, as Chief of the Free France.Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag used by the Free French Forces during World War II; in the centre is the Cross of Lorraine; later, the personal standard of President Charles de Gaulle, as Chief of the Free France. * The flag of France, darker red and blue variant.The flag of France, darker red and blue variant. * The flag of France, lighter red and blue variant.The flag of France, lighter red and blue variant. Regimental flags ---------------- * The French soldiers started to use white crosses, during the Hundred Years' War, to distinguish themselves from the English soldiers wearing red crosses.The French soldiers started to use white crosses, during the Hundred Years' War, to distinguish themselves from the English soldiers wearing red crosses. * A white-crossed regimental flag during the Ancien Régime (here, Régiment d'Auvergne)A white-crossed regimental flag during the *Ancien Régime* (here, **Régiment d'Auvergne**) * La Sarre Regiment (Régiment de la Sarre)*La Sarre* Regiment (**Régiment de la Sarre**) * King's Regiment (Régiment du Roi)King's Regiment (**Régiment du Roi**) * Queen's Regiment (Régiment de la Reine)Queen's Regiment (**Régiment de la Reine**) * General Lévis' Regiment Flag in North America. Now official flag of the city of Lévis, QuebecGeneral *Lévis*' Regiment Flag in North America. Now official flag of the city of Lévis, Quebec * The pre-revolutionary regimental flags inspired the flag of Quebec (here, the Compagnies Franches de la Marine).The pre-revolutionary regimental flags inspired the flag of Quebec (here, the **Compagnies Franches de la Marine**). * Regimental flag of the 1st Regiment of Grenadiers of the French Imperial Guard (1812)Regimental flag of the 1st Regiment of Grenadiers of the French Imperial Guard (1812) * Current regimental flags of the 1st and 2nd Regiments of the Légion étrangère.Current regimental flags of the 1st and 2nd Regiments of the Légion étrangère. Naval flags ----------- * Naval ensign prior to 1789 and 1814–1830.Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Naval ensign prior to 1789 and 1814–1830. * The merchant flag of France (1689 design)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag The merchant flag of France (1689 design) * The present ensign of France introduced on 17 May 1853.Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Reverse side is mirror image of obverse side The present ensign of France introduced on 17 May 1853. Colonial flags -------------- Most French colonies either used the regular tricolour or a regional flag without the French flag. There were some exceptions: * Flag of Tonkin (French protectorate) and Annam in French IndochinaSmall vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of Tonkin (French protectorate) and Annam in French Indochina * Flag of Laos in French IndochinaSmall vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of Laos in French Indochina * Flag of the Sip Song Chau Tai, French Indochina (1948–1955)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of the Sip Song Chau Tai, French Indochina (1948–1955) * Flag of French Sudan (1958–1959), present-day MaliSmall vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of French Sudan (1958–1959), present-day Mali * Flag of French Togoland (1916–1960), present-day TogoSmall vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of French Togoland (1916–1960), present-day Togo * Flag of Gabon (1959–1960)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of Gabon (1959–1960) * Flag of Madagascar under French protection (1885–1895)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of Madagascar under French protection (1885–1895) * Merchant flag of the French protectorate of Morocco (1912–1956)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Merchant flag of the French protectorate of Morocco (1912–1956) * Flag used by some military units based in the French protectorate of TunisiaSmall vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag used by some military units based in the French protectorate of Tunisia * Briefly used flag of the French Mandate of Syria and the Lebanon in 1920Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Briefly used flag of the French Mandate of Syria and the Lebanon in 1920 * Flag of the State of Aleppo, in the French Mandate of Syria (1920–1924)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of the State of Aleppo, in the French Mandate of Syria (1920–1924) * Flag of the State of Damascus, in the French Mandate of Syria (1920–1924)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of the State of Damascus, in the French Mandate of Syria (1920–1924) * Flag of the State of Syria, in the French Mandate of Syria (1924–1930)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of the State of Syria, in the French Mandate of Syria (1924–1930) * Flag of the State of Alawites, in the French Mandate of SyriaSmall vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of the State of Alawites, in the French Mandate of Syria * Flag of Jabal ad-Druze, in the French Mandate of SyriaSmall vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of Jabal ad-Druze, in the French Mandate of Syria * Flag of the State of Greater Lebanon during the French mandate 1920–1943Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of the State of Greater Lebanon during the French mandate 1920–1943 * Flag of Republic of Independent Guyana (1886–1887)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of Republic of Independent Guyana (1886–1887) * Unofficial flag of Saint BarthélemySmall vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Unofficial flag of Saint Barthélemy * Flag of New Hebrides (Vanuatu) under the Anglo-French Joint Naval Commission (1887–1906)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of New Hebrides (Vanuatu) under the Anglo-French Joint Naval Commission (1887–1906) * Flag of the French Protectorate of Wallis and Futuna (Uvea) (1860–1886)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of the French Protectorate of Wallis and Futuna (Uvea) (1860–1886) * Present unofficial flag of Wallis and FutunaSmall vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Present unofficial flag of Wallis and Futuna * Flag of the Kingdom of Tahiti under the Protectorate of France (1845–1880)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of the Kingdom of Tahiti under the Protectorate of France (1845–1880) * Flag of the French protectorate of Rurutu in French Polynesia (1858–1889)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of the French protectorate of Rurutu in French Polynesia (1858–1889) * Flag of French PolynesiaSmall vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of French Polynesia * Flag of the French protectorate of Saar (1947–1956)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of the French protectorate of Saar (1947–1956) * Flag of the French colonial governorSmall vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of the French colonial governor * Flag of the French Southern and Antarctic LandsFlag of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands * Unofficial flag of Louisiana (1861)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Unofficial flag of Louisiana (1861) Other ----- Many provinces and territories in Canada have French-speaking communities with flags representing their communities: * The Acadian flag used in Canada is based on the tricolour flag of France, but this flag was never used during French rule of Acadia. It was adopted in 1884. Acadians live mainly in New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia.The Acadian flag used in Canada is based on the tricolour flag of France, but this flag was never used during French rule of Acadia. It was adopted in 1884. Acadians live mainly in New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia. * The current flag of Quebec. The use of blue and white is a characteristic of pre-revolutionary flags.The current flag of Quebec. The use of blue and white is a characteristic of pre-revolutionary flags. * Flag of Franco-NewfoundlandersFlag of Franco-Newfoundlanders * Proposed flag of the French Congo (pre-1959)Proposed flag of the French Congo (pre-1959) Many areas in North America have substantial French-speaking and ancestral communities: * Flag of AcadianaFlag of Acadiana * Flag of United Franco-AmericansFlag of United Franco-Americans * Flag of New England Franco-AmericansFlag of New England Franco-Americans * Flag of Aroostook county Franco-AmericansFlag of Aroostook county Franco-Americans * Flag of Androscoggin county Franco-AmericansFlag of Androscoggin county Franco-Americans * Flag of Illinois Country Franco-AmericansFlag of Illinois Country Franco-Americans * Flag of IowaFlag of Iowa * Flag of New Orleans, LouisianaFlag of New Orleans, Louisiana * Flag of Mobile, AlabamaFlag of Mobile, Alabama New Hebrides used several flags incorporating both the British Union Flag and the French flag. * Flag attested as being used in the 1963 South Pacific GamesFlag attested as being used in the 1963 South Pacific Games * Flag attested as being used in the 1966 and 1971 South Pacific GamesFlag attested as being used in the 1966 and 1971 South Pacific Games * Dark blue version attested at the time of the 1969 South Pacific GamesDark blue version attested at the time of the 1969 South Pacific Games In the Shanghai International Settlement, the flag of Shanghai Municipal Council has a shield incorporating the French tricolour. * Flag of the Shanghai Municipal Council, Shanghai International SettlementFlag of the Shanghai Municipal Council, Shanghai International Settlement Two territories of Vietnam used flags based on the tricolour flag of France. * Montagnard country (1946–1950)Montagnard country (1946–1950) * Tai Autonomous Territory (1946–1950)Tai Autonomous Territory (1946–1950) Gallery ------- * French regimental flag, Paris, autochrome dated 1918French regimental flag, Paris, autochrome dated 1918 * Flag of France, color photography dated 1930Flag of France, color photography dated 1930 * Multiple French flags as commonly flown from public buildingsMultiple French flags as commonly flown from public buildings See also -------- * List of French flags * Flags of the regions of France * National emblem of France * Armorial of France * Cockade of France * Flag of Madriz Department, Nicaragua, similar design * Flag of Haiti (based on French Republican flag) Further reading --------------- * *Flags Through the Ages and Across the World*, Smith, Whitney, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Ltd, England, 1975. ISBN 0-07-059093-1.

Flag of France

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_France

**Mainz**, previously known in English as **Mentz** or **Mayence**, is the capital and largest city of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Mainz is on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite the place where the Main joins the Rhine. Downstream of the confluence, the Rhine flows to the north-west, with Mainz on the left bank, and Wiesbaden, the capital of the neighbouring state Hesse, on the right bank. Mainz is an independent city with a population of 218,578 (as of 2019) and forms part of the Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region. Mainz was founded by the Romans in the 1st century BC as a military fortress on the northernmost frontier of the empire and provincial capital of Germania Superior. Mainz became an important city in the 8th century AD as part of the Holy Roman Empire, capital of the Electorate of Mainz and seat of the Archbishop-Elector of Mainz, the Primate of Germany. Mainz is famous as the birthplace of Johannes Gutenberg, the inventor of a movable-type printing press, who in the early 1450s manufactured his first books in the city, including the Gutenberg Bible. Mainz was heavily damaged in World War II; more than 30 air raids destroyed most of the historic buildings in the city centre, but many were rebuilt post-war. Mainz is notable as a transport hub, for wine production, and for its many rebuilt historic buildings. One of the ShUM-cities, Mainz and its Jewish cemetery is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site. Alternative names ----------------- Mainz has a number of different names in other languages and dialects. In Latin it is known as *Mogontiacum* (pronounced [mɔɡɔnˈti.akũː]) or *Moguntiacum* and, in the local Hessian dialect, it is *Määnz* [mɛːnt͡s] or *Meenz* [meːnt͡s]. It is known as *Mayence* [majɑ̃s] in French, *Magonza* [maˈɡontsa] in Italian, *Maguncia* [maˈɣunθja] in Spanish, *Mogúncia* [muˈɣũsjɐ] in Portuguese, *Moguncja* [mɔˈɡunt͡sja] in Polish, *Magentza* (מגנצא) in Yiddish, and *Mohuč* in Czech and Slovakian (Czech pronunciation: [ˈmoɦutʃ]). Before the 20th century, Mainz was commonly known in English as *Mentz* or by its French name of *Mayence*. It is the namesake of two American cities named Mentz. Geography --------- ### Topography Mainz is on the 50th latitude north, on the left bank of the Rhine. The east of the city is opposite where the Main falls into it. As of 2021[update], the population was 217,272. The city is part of the FrankfurtRheinMain area of 5.9 million people. Mainz can easily be reached from Frankfurt International Airport in 30 minutes by commuter railway or regional trains RE 2 RE 3 RB 31. The river port of Mainz is located on the Rhine and thus on one of the most important waterways in Germany. The container port hub is north of the town centre. After the last ice age, sand dunes were deposited in the Rhine valley at what was to become the western edge of the city. The Mainz Sand Dunes area is now a nature reserve with a unique landscape and rare *steppe* vegetation for this area. While the Mainz legion camp was founded in 13/12 BC on the Kästrich hill, the associated vici and canabae (civilian settlements) were erected towards the Rhine. Historical sources and archaeological findings both prove the importance of the military and civilian Mogontiacum as a port city on the Rhine. View north along the Rhine with the old Winterhafen in the lower left and the former port facilities further northView north along the Rhine with the old Winterhafen in the lower left and the former port facilities further north Satellite view of Mainz (south of the Rhine) and WiesbadenSatellite view of Mainz (south of the Rhine) and WiesbadenLine showing 50° north latitude on the GutenbergplatzLine showing 50° north latitude on the Gutenbergplatz ### Climate Mainz experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification *Cfb*). | Climate data for Mainz | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 3.4(38.1) | 5.3(41.5) | 9.7(49.5) | 14.2(57.6) | 19(66) | 22.0(71.6) | 24(75) | 23.6(74.5) | 20.1(68.2) | 14.3(57.7) | 8(46) | 4.5(40.1) | 14.0(57.2) | | Average low °C (°F) | −1.2(29.8) | −0.6(30.9) | 1.9(35.4) | 4.8(40.6) | 8.7(47.7) | 11.9(53.4) | 13.4(56.1) | 13.2(55.8) | 10.3(50.5) | 6.6(43.9) | 2.5(36.5) | −0.1(31.8) | 5.9(42.7) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 38(1.5) | 36(1.4) | 38(1.5) | 38(1.5) | 51(2) | 58(2.3) | 56(2.2) | 53(2.1) | 41(1.6) | 43(1.7) | 48(1.9) | 46(1.8) | 550(21.5) | | Source: *Intellicast* | History ------- ### Roman Mogontiacum The Roman stronghold or *castrum **Mogontiacum***, the precursor to Mainz, was founded by the Roman general Drusus perhaps as early as 13/12 BC. As related by Suetonius the existence of *Mogontiacum* is well established by four years later (the account of the death and funeral of Nero Claudius Drusus). Although the city is situated opposite the mouth of the Main, the name of Mainz is not from *Main*, the similarity being perhaps reinforced by folk-etymological reanalysis. *Main* is from Latin *Moenis* (also *Moenus* or *Menus*), the name the Romans used for the river. Linguistic analysis of the many forms that the name "Mainz" has taken on make it clear that it is a simplification of *Mogontiacum*. The name appears to be Celtic, however, it had also become Roman and was selected by them with a special significance. The Roman soldiers defending Gallia had adopted the Gallic god Mogons (Mogounus, Moguns, Mogonino), for the meaning of which etymology offers two basic options: "the great one", similar to Latin magnus, which was used in aggrandizing names such as *Alexander magnus*, "Alexander the Great" and *Pompeius magnus*, "Pompey the great", or the god of "might" personified as it appears in young servitors of any type whether of noble or ignoble birth. Mogontiacum was an important military town throughout Roman times, probably due to its strategic position at the confluence of the Main and the Rhine. The town of *Mogontiacum* grew up between the fort and the river. The castrum was the base of Legio XIV *Gemina* and XVI *Gallica* (AD 9–43), XXII *Primigenia*, IV *Macedonica* (43–70), I *Adiutrix* (70–88), XXI *Rapax* (70–89), and XIV *Gemina* (70–92), among others. Mainz was also a base of a Roman river fleet, the Classis Germanica. Remains of Roman troop ships (navis lusoria) and a patrol boat from the late 4th century were discovered in 1982/86 and may now be viewed in the *Museum für Antike Schifffahrt*. A temple dedicated to Isis Panthea and Magna Mater was discovered in 2000 and is open to the public. The city was the provincial capital of Germania Superior, and had an important funeral monument dedicated to Drusus, to which people made pilgrimages for an annual festival from as far away as Lyon. Among the famous buildings were the largest theatre north of the Alps and a bridge across the Rhine. The city was also the site of the assassination of emperor Severus Alexander in 235. Alemanni forces under Rando sacked the city in 368. From the last day of 405 or 406, the Siling and Asding Vandals, the Suebi, the Alans, and other Germanic tribes crossed the Rhine, possibly at Mainz. Christian chronicles relate that the bishop, Aureus, was put to death by the Alemannian Crocus. Throughout the changes of time, the Roman castrum never seems to have been permanently abandoned as a military installation, which is a testimony to Roman military judgement. Different structures were built there at different times. The current citadel originated in 1660, but it replaced previous forts. It was used in World War II. One of the sights at the citadel is still the cenotaph raised by legionaries to commemorate their general, Drusus. ### Frankish Mainz In the 4th century, Alemans repeatedly invaded the neighborhood of Mogontiacum. In 357, the city was liberated by the Emperor Julian. The last emperor to station troops serving the western empire at Mainz was Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), who relied heavily on his *Magister militum per Gallias*, Flavius Aëtius. In 451, Attila's Huns sacked the city. The Franks from the middle and upper Rhine area took Mainz shortly before 460. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the Franks under the rule of Clovis I gained control over western Europe by the year 496. Clovis, son of Childeric, became king of the Salians in 481, ruling from Tournai. He converted from paganism to Catholic Christianity. Theudebert I (c. 500–547 or 548) had installed Sidonius [de] as bishop of Mainz. Dagobert I (605/603–639) reinforced the walls of Mainz. Charlemagne (768–814), through a succession of wars against other tribes, built a vast Frankish empire in Europe. Mainz from its central location became important to the empire and to Christianity. Meanwhile, language change was gradually working to divide the Franks. Mainz spoke a dialect termed Ripuarian. After the death of Charlemagne, distinctions between France and Germany began to be made. The Rhine roughly formed the border of their territories, whereby the three important episcopal cities of Mainz, Worms and Speyer with their counties to the left of the Rhine were assigned to East Francia. ### Christian Mainz In the early Middle Ages, Mainz was a centre for the Christianisation of the German and Slavic peoples. The first archbishop in Mainz, Boniface, was killed in 754 while trying to convert the Frisians to Christianity and is buried in Fulda. Boniface held a personal title of archbishop; Mainz became a regular archbishopric see in 781, when Boniface's successor Lullus was granted the pallium by Pope Adrian I. Harald Klak, king of Jutland, his family and followers, were baptized at Mainz in 826, in the abbey of St. Alban's. Other early archbishops of Mainz include Rabanus Maurus, the scholar and author, and Willigis (975–1011), who began construction on the current building of the Mainz Cathedral and founded the monastery of St. Stephan. From the time of Willigis until the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Archbishops of Mainz were archchancellors of the Empire and the most important of the seven Electors of the Holy Roman Emperor. Besides Rome, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mainz today is the only diocese in the world with an episcopal see that is called a Holy See (*sancta sedes*). The Archbishops of Mainz traditionally were *primas germaniae*. In 1244, Archbishop Siegfried III granted Mainz a city charter, which included the right of the citizens to establish and elect a city council. The city saw a feud between two archbishops in 1461, namely Diether von Isenburg, who was elected Archbishop by the cathedral chapter and supported by the citizens, and Adolf II von Nassau, who had been named archbishop of Mainz by the pope. In 1462, Archbishop Adolf raided the city of Mainz, plundering and killing 400 inhabitants. At a tribunal, those who had survived lost all their property, which was then divided between those who promised to follow Adolf. Those who would not promise to follow Adolf (amongst them Johannes Gutenberg) were driven out of the town or thrown into prison. The new archbishop revoked the city charter of Mainz and put the city under his direct rule. Ironically, after the death of Adolf II his successor was again Diether von Isenburg, now legally elected by the chapter and named by the Pope. * Mainz Cathedral, western main towerMainz Cathedral, western main tower * Monument to St. Boniface before Mainz CathedralMonument to St. Boniface before Mainz Cathedral * St. Martin's Cathedral in Mainz, by Wenzel Hollar; pen-and-ink drawing 1632St. Martin's Cathedral in Mainz, by Wenzel Hollar; pen-and-ink drawing 1632 ### Early Jewish community The Jewish community of Mainz dates to the 10th century CE. It is noted for its religious education. Rabbi Gershom ben Judah (960–1040) taught there, among others. He concentrated on the study of the Talmud, creating a German Jewish tradition. Mainz is also the legendary home of the martyred Rabbi Amnon of Mainz, composer of the Unetanneh Tokef prayer. From the late 12th century rabbis met in synods. The city of Mainz responded to the Jewish population in a variety of ways, behaving in a capricious manner towards them. Sometimes they were allowed freedom and were protected; at other times, they were persecuted. The Jews were expelled in 1438, 1462 (after which they were invited to return), and in 1470. Jews were attacked in the Rhineland massacres of 1096 and by mobs in 1283. Outbreaks of the Black Death were usually blamed on the Jews, at which times they were massacred, such as the burning of 11 Jews alive in 1349. Outside of the medieval city centre, there is a Jewish cemetery, with over 1500 headstones dating from the 11th through the 19th centuries. The earliest known gravestone is date to 1062 or 1063, and these early gravestones resemble those found in Italy in the 8th-9th centuries. Nowadays the Jewish community is growing rapidly, and a new synagogue by the architect Manuel Herz was constructed in 2010 on the site of the one destroyed by the Nazis on *Kristallnacht* in 1938. As of 2021[update], the Jewish community Mainz has 985 members. ### Republic of Mainz During the French Revolution, the French Revolutionary army occupied Mainz in 1792; the Archbishop-elector of Mainz, Friedrich Karl Josef von Erthal, had already fled to Aschaffenburg by the time the French marched in. On 18 March 1793, the Jacobins of Mainz, with other German democrats from about 130 towns in the Rhenish Palatinate, proclaimed the 'Republic of Mainz'. Led by Georg Forster, representatives of the Mainz Republic in Paris requested political affiliation of the Mainz Republic with France, but too late: Prussia was not entirely happy with the idea of a democratic free state on German soil (although the French dominated Mainz was neither free nor democratic). Prussian troops had already occupied the area and besieged Mainz by the end of March 1793. After a siege of 18 weeks, the French troops in Mainz surrendered on 23 July 1793; Prussians occupied the city and ended the Republic of Mainz. It came to the Battle of Mainz in 1795 between Austria and France. Members of the Mainz Jacobin Club were mistreated or imprisoned and punished for treason. In 1797, the French returned. The army of Napoleon Bonaparte occupied the German territory to the west of the Rhine, and the Treaty of Campo Formio awarded France this entire area, initially as the Cisrhenian Republic. On 17 February 1800, the French *Département du Mont-Tonnerre* was founded here, with Mainz as its capital, the Rhine being the new eastern frontier of la Grande Nation. Austria and Prussia could not but approve this new border with France in 1801. However, after several defeats in Europe during the War of the Sixth Coalition, the weakened Napoleon and his troops had to leave Mainz in May 1814. ### Rhenish Hesse In 1816, the part of the former French Département which is known today as Rhenish Hesse (German: *Rheinhessen*) was awarded to the Hesse-Darmstadt, Mainz being the capital of the new Hessian province of Rhenish Hesse. From 1816 to 1866, a part of the German Confederation, Mainz was the most important fortress in the defence against France, and had a strong garrison of Austrian, Prussian and Bavarian troops. On the afternoon of 18 November 1857, a huge explosion rocked Mainz when the city's powder magazine, the *Pulverturm*, exploded. Approximately 150 people were killed and at least 500 injured; 57 buildings were destroyed and a similar number severely damaged in what was to be known as the *Powder Tower Explosion* or *Powder Explosion*. During the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, Mainz was declared a neutral zone. After the founding of the German Empire in 1871, Mainz no longer was as important a stronghold, because in the Franco-Prussian War France had lost the territory of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany (which France had occupied bit by bit from 1630 to 1795), and this defined the new border between the two countries. ### Industrial expansion For centuries the inhabitants of the fortress of Mainz had suffered from a severe shortage of space which led to disease and other inconveniences. In 1872 Mayor Carl Wallau and the council of Mainz persuaded the military government to sign a contract to expand the city. Beginning in 1874, the city of Mainz assimilated the *Gartenfeld*, an idyllic area of meadows and fields along the banks of the Rhine to the north of the rampart. The city expansion more than doubled the urban area which allowed Mainz to participate in the industrial revolution which had previously avoided the city for decades. Eduard Kreyßig [de] was the man who made this happen. Having been the master-builder of the city of Mainz since 1865, Kreyßig had the vision for the new part of town, the *Neustadt*. He also planned the first sewer system for the old part of town since Roman times and persuaded the city government to relocate the railway line from the Rhine side to the west end of the town. The main station was built from 1882 to 1884 according to the plans of Philipp Johann Berdellé [de]. Kreyßig constructed a number of state-of-the-art public buildings, including the Mainz town hall – which was the largest of its kind in Germany at that time – as well a synagogue, the Rhine harbour and a number of public baths and school buildings. Kreyßig's last work was Christ Church (*Christuskirche*), the largest Protestant church in the city and the first building constructed solely for the use of a Protestant congregation. In 1905 the demolition of the entire circumvallation and the Rheingauwall was taken in hand, according to the imperial order of Wilhelm II. ### 20th century During the German Revolution of 1918 the Mainz Workers' and Soldiers' Council was formed which ran the city from 9 November until the arrival of French troops under the terms of the occupation of the Rhineland agreed in the Armistice. The French occupation was confirmed by the Treaty of Versailles which went into effect 28 June 1919. The Rhineland (in which Mainz is located) was to be a demilitarized zone until 1935 and the French garrison, representing the *Triple Entente*, was to stay until reparations were paid. In 1923 Mainz participated in the Rhineland separatist movement that proclaimed a Rhenish Republic. It collapsed in 1924. The French withdrew was on 30 June 1930. Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany in January 1933 and his political opponents, especially those of the Social Democratic Party, were either incarcerated or murdered. Some were able to move away from Mainz in time. One was the political organizer for the SPD, Friedrich Kellner, who went to Laubach, where, as the chief justice inspector of the district court, he continued his opposition against the Nazis by recording their misdeeds in a 900-page diary. In March 1933, a detachment from the National Socialist Party in Worms brought the party to Mainz. They hoisted the swastika on all public buildings and began to denounce the Jewish population in the newspapers. In 1936, the Nazis remilitarized the Rhineland with great fanfare, the first move of Nazi Germany's meteoric expansion. The former Triple Entente took no action. During World War II the citadel at Mainz hosted the Oflag XII-B prisoner of war camp. During World War II, several air raids destroyed about 80 per cent of the city's centre, including most of the historic buildings. Mainz was captured on 22 March 1945 against uneven German resistance (staunch in some sectors and weak in other parts of the city) by the 90th Infantry Division under William A. McNulty, a formation of the XII Corps under Third Army commanded by General George S. Patton, Jr. From 1945 to 1949, the city was part of the French zone of occupation. When the state of Rhineland-Palatinate was founded on 30 August 1946 by the commander of the French army on the French occupation zone Marie Pierre Kœnig, Mainz became the capital of the new state. In 1962, the diarist, Friedrich Kellner, returned to spend his last years in Mainz. His life in Mainz, and the impact of his writings, is the subject of the Canadian documentary *My Opposition: The Diaries of Friedrich Kellner*. Following the withdrawal of French forces from Mainz, the United States Army Europe occupied the military bases in Mainz. Today United States Army Europe and Africa only occupies McCulley Barracks in Wackernheim and the Mainz Sand Dunes for the training areas. Mainz is home to the headquarters of the *Bundeswehr*'s *Landeskommando Rhineland-Palatinate [de]* and other units. Cityscape --------- Mainz skyline May 2007, from South Railway bridge over the Rhine looking northMainz skyline May 2007, from South Railway bridge over the Rhine looking north Mainz May 2011, Schillerplatz, looking southeastMainz May 2011, Schillerplatz, looking southeast Market square and cathedralMarket square and cathedral ### Architecture The destruction caused by the bombing of Mainz during World War II led to the most intense phase of building in the history of the town. During the last war in Germany, more than 30 air raids destroyed about 80 per cent of the city's centre, including most of the historic buildings. The attack on the afternoon of 27 February 1945 remains the most destructive of all 33 bombings that Mainz has suffered in World War II in the collective memory of most of the population living then. The air raid caused most of the dead and made an already hard-hit city largely levelled. Nevertheless, the post-war reconstruction took place very slowly. While cities such as Frankfurt had been rebuilt fast by a central authority, only individual efforts were initially successful in rebuilding Mainz. The reason for this was that the French wanted Mainz to expand and become a model city. Mainz lay within the French-controlled sector of Germany and it was a French architect and town-planner, Marcel Lods, who produced a Le Corbusier-style plan of an ideal architecture. But the very first interest of the inhabitants was the restoration of housing areas. Even after the failure of the model city plans it was the initiative of the French (founding of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, elevation of Mainz to the state capital of Rhineland-Palatinate, the early resumption of the Mainz carnival) driving the city in a positive development after the war. The City Plan of 1958 by Ernst May allowed a regulated reconstruction for the first time. In 1950, the seat of the government of Rhineland-Palatinate had been transferred to the new Mainz and in 1963 the seat of the new ZDF, notable architects were Adolf Bayer, Richard Jörg and Egon Hartmann. At the time of the two-thousand-years-anniversary in 1962 the city was largely reconstructed. During the 1950s and 1960s, the Oberstadt had been extended, Münchfeld and Lerchenberg added as suburbs, the Altstadttangente (intersection of the old town), new neighbourhoods as Westring and Südring contributed to the extension. By 1970 there remained only a few ruins. The new town hall of Mainz had been designed by Arne Jacobsen and finished by Dissing+Weitling. The town used Jacobsens activity for the Danish Novo company erecting a new office and warehouse building to contact him. The urban renewal of the old town changed the inner city. In the framework of the preparation of the cathedrals millennium, pedestrian zones were developed around the cathedral, in northern direction to the Neubrunnenplatz and in a southern direction across the Leichhof to the Augustinerstraße and Kirschgarten. The 1980s brought the renewal of the façades on the Markt and a new inner-city neighbourhood on the Kästrich. During the 1990s the Kisselberg and the "Fort Malakoff Center" at the site of the old police barracks were built. Town Hall by JacobsenTown Hall by Jacobsen Main sights ----------- * Romano-Germanic Central Museum (*Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum*). It is home to Roman, Medieval, and earlier artifacts. * Museum of Ancient Seafaring (*Museum für Antike Schifffahrt*). It houses the remains of five Roman boats from the late 4th century, discovered in the 1980s. * Roman remains, including Jupiter's column, Drusus' mausoleum, the ruins of the theatre and the aqueduct. * Mainz Cathedral of St. Martin (*Mainzer Dom*), over 1,000 years old. * St. John's Church, 7th-century church building * Staatstheater Mainz * The Iron Tower (*Eisenturm*, tower at the former iron market), a 13th-century gate-tower. * The Wood Tower (*Holzturm*, tower at the former wood market), a 15th-century gate tower. * The Gutenberg Museum – exhibits an original Gutenberg Bible amongst many other printed books from the 15th century and later. * The Mainz Old Town – what's left of it, the quarter south of the cathedral survived World War II. * The old arsenal, the central arsenal of the fortress Mainz during the 17th and 18th century * The Electoral Palace (*Kurfürstliches Schloss*), residence of the prince-elector. * The Marktbrunnen, one of the largest Renaissance fountains in Germany. * *Domus Universitatis* (1615), for centuries the tallest edifice in Mainz. * Christ Church (*Christuskirche*), built 1898–1903, bombed in 1945 and rebuilt in 1948–1954. * The Church of St. Stephan, with post-war windows by Marc Chagall. * Citadel. * The ruins of the church St. Christoph, a World War II memorial * *Schönborner Hof* (1668). * Rococo churches of St. Augustin (the Augustinerkirche, Mainz) and St. Peter (the Peterskirche, Mainz). * Churches of St. Ignatius (1763) and St. Quintin. * Erthaler Hof (1743) * The Baroque Bassenheimer Hof (1750) * The Botanischer Garten der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, a botanical garden maintained by the university * Landesmuseum Mainz, state museum with archaeology and art. * Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (ZDF) – one of the largest public German TV-Broadcaster. * New synagogue in Mainz * Old Jewish Cemetery Mainz (*Judensand*) – ShUM city of Mainz, UNESCO World Heritage Site * Kunsthalle Mainz – museum for contemporary art * Humbrechthof, later called Schöfferhof, the building in which Johannes Gutenberg developed his technique of printing Administration -------------- The city of Mainz is divided into 15 local districts according to the main statute of the city of Mainz. Each local district has a district administration of 13 members and a directly elected mayor, who is the chairman of the district administration. This local council decides on important issues affecting the local area, however, the final decision on new policies is made by Mainz's municipal council. In accordance with section 29 paragraph 2 Local Government Act of Rhineland-Palatinate, which refers to municipalities of more than 150,000 inhabitants, the city council has 60 members. Districts of the town are: | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | * Altstadt * Bretzenheim * Drais * Ebersheim * Finthen | * Gonsenheim * Hartenberg-Münchfeld * Hechtsheim * Laubenheim * Lerchenberg [de] | * Marienborn * Mombach * Neustadt * Oberstadt * Weisenau | Until 1945, the districts of Bischofsheim (now an independent town), Ginsheim-Gustavsburg (which together are an independent town) belonged to Mainz. The former districts Amöneburg, Kastel, and Kostheim – (in short, *AKK*) are now administrated by the city of Wiesbaden (on the north bank of the river). The AKK was separated from Mainz when the Rhine was designated the boundary between the French occupation zone (the later state of Rhineland-Palatinate) and the U.S. occupation zone (Hesse) in 1945. ### Coat of arms The coat of arms of Mainz is derived from the coat of arms of the Archbishops of Mainz and features two six-spoked silver wheels connected by a silver cross on a red background. Population ---------- Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 50 | 16,000 | —     | | 750 | 5,000 | −68.8% | | 1300 | 24,000 | +380.0% | | 1545 | 10,000 | −58.3% | | 1700 | 20,000 | +100.0% | | 1816 | 25,251 | +26.3% | | 1871 | 53,902 | +113.5% | | 1900 | 84,251 | +56.3% | | 1910 | 110,634 | +31.3% | | 1925 | 108,552 | −1.9% | | 1933 | 142,627 | +31.4% | | 1939 | 158,333 | +11.0% | | 1945 | 40,000 | −74.7% | | 1951 | 96,005 | +140.0% | | 1956 | 115,812 | +20.6% | | 1961 | 135,192 | +16.7% | | 1966 | 149,387 | +10.5% | | 1971 | 178,639 | +19.6% | | 1981 | 187,564 | +5.0% | | 1991 | 182,867 | −2.5% | | 2001 | 185,293 | +1.3% | | 2006 | 196,425 | +6.0% | | 2011 | 200,957 | +2.3% | | 2016 | 213,528 | +6.3% | | 2019 | 218,578 | +2.4% | | Population size may be affected by changes in administrative divisions. | Mainz has a population of about 220,000 and is the largest city in Rhineland-Palatinate. Mainz passed 100,000 in 1908. In 1945, After WWII, right side of the Rhine river, which were a part of Mainz, became a part of Wiesbaden and other part of Hesse due to its occupation zone where Mainz and Rhineland-Palatinate were French occupation zone and Wiesbaden and Hesse were American occupation zone where both cities became its state capital in 1946. Mainz lost 21.1% of population at this time. Mainz and Wiesbaden has rivalries who the better city on the Rhine river are even today. Mainz became an attractive city, especially for young people due to its radio and television broadcasters, Universities and good workplaces. Mainz's population grow normally and Mainz passed 200,000 in 2011. ### Foreign populations The following list shows the largest foreign populations in Mainz as of 2022[update]: | Rank | Nationality | Population (2022) | | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Turkey | 5,424 | | 2 |  Italy | 3,875 | | 3 |  Poland | 3,300 | | 4 |  Serbia | 2,739 | | 5 |  Ukraine | 2,587 | | 6 |  Bulgaria | 2,126 | | 7 |  Portugal | 1,920 | | 8 |  Russia | 1,790 | | 9 |  Syria | 1,612 | | 10 |  Morocco | 1,325 | | 11 |  Spain | 1,106 | | 12 |  France | 942 | Politics -------- ### Mayor The mayor of Mainz was Michael Ebling of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) until he was promoted State Minister of the Interior in the government of Rhineland-Palatinate in 2022. The new mayoral election was held on 12 February 2023, with a runoff after Mainz carnival. The final election took place 5 March 2023. The new elected is Nino Haase, independent. Election 2019 of the council:[*needs update*] | Candidate | Party | First round | Second round | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Votes |  % | Votes |  % | | | Michael Ebling | Social Democratic Party | 30,278 | 41.0 | 35,752 | 55.2 | | | Nino Haase | Independent (CDU, ÖDP, FW) | 23,968 | 32.4 | 29,029 | 44.8 | | | Tabea Rößner | Alliance 90/The Greens | 16,621 | 22.5 | | | Martin Malcherek | The Left | 2,063 | 2.8 | | | Martin Ehrhardt | Die PARTEI | 999 | 1.4 | | Valid votes | 73,929 | 99.6 | 64,781 | 99.4 | | Invalid votes | 289 | 0.4 | 372 | 0.6 | | Total | 74,218 | 100.0 | 65,153 | 100.0 | | Electorate/voter turnout | 161,967 | 45.8 | 162,030 | 40.2 | | Source: City of Mainz (1st round, 2nd round) | ### City council The Mainz city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 26 May 2019, and the results were as follows: | Party | Votes |  % | +/- | Seats | +/- | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne) | 1,582,459 | 27.7 | Increase 7.5 | 17 | Increase 5 | | | Christian Democratic Union (CDU) | 1,339,561 | 23.5 | Decrease 6.9 | 14 | Decrease 4 | | | Social Democratic Party (SPD) | 1,151,572 | 20.2 | Decrease 7.2 | 12 | Decrease 5 | | | Free Democratic Party (FDP) | 340,501 | 6.0 | Increase 0.9 | 4 | Increase 1 | | | The Left (Die Linke) | 335,459 | 5.9 | Increase 1.3 | 4 | Increase 1 | | | Alternative for Germany (AfD) | 302,604 | 5.3 | Increase 2.3 | 3 | Increase 1 | | | Ecological Democratic Party (ÖDP) | 238,727 | 4.2 | Increase 0.2 | 2 | ±0 | | | Die PARTEI | 127,581 | 2.2 | New | 1 | New | | | Free Voters (FW) | 108,701 | 1.9 | Increase 0.9 | 1 | ±0 | | | Pirate Party (Piraten) | 78,595 | 1.4 | Decrease 0.4 | 1 | ±0 | | | Volt Germany (Volt) | 67,376 | 1.2 | New | 1 | New | | | Alliance for Innovation and Justice (BIG) | 31,419 | 0.6 | Increase 0.1 | 0 | ±0 | | Total votes | 5,704,555 | 100.0 | | | | | Total ballots | 100,522 | 100.0 | | 60 | ±0 | | Electorate/voter turnout | 162,321 | 61.9 | Increase 11.0 | | | | Source: City of Mainz | Culture ------- Mainz is home to a Carnival, the *Mainzer Fassenacht* or *Fastnacht*, which has developed since the early 19th century. Carnival in Mainz has its roots in the criticism of social and political injustices under the shelter of cap and bells. Today, the uniforms of many traditional Carnival clubs still imitate and caricature the uniforms of the French and Prussian troops of the past. The height of the carnival season is on Rosenmontag ("rose Monday"), when there is a large parade in Mainz, with more than 500,000 people celebrating in the streets. The first-ever Katholikentag, a festival-like gathering of German Catholics, was held in Mainz in 1848. Johannes Gutenberg, credited with the invention of a modern printing press with movable type, was born here and died here. Since 1968 the Mainzer Johannisnacht commemorates the person Johannes Gutenberg in his native city. The Mainz University, which was refounded in 1946, is named after Gutenberg; the earlier University of Mainz that dated back to 1477 had been closed down by Napoleon's troops in 1798. Mainz was one of three important centres of Jewish theology and learning in Central Europe during the Middle Ages. Known collectively as *Shum*, the cities of Speyer, Worms and Mainz played a key role in the preservation and propagation of Talmudic scholarship. The city is the seat of Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (literally, "Second German Television", ZDF), one of two federal nationwide TV broadcasters. There are also a couple of radio stations based in Mainz. The Mainzer Stadtschreiber (City clerk in Mainz) is an annual German literature award. Other cultural aspects of the city include: * As city in the Greater Region, Mainz participated in the program of the year of European Capital of Culture 2007. * The Walk of Fame of Cabaret may be found nearby the Schillerplatz. * The music publisher Schott Music is located in Mainz. * One of the oldest brass instrument manufacturers in the world, Gebr. Alexander is located in Mainz. * Fans of Gospel music enjoy the yearly performances of Colours of Gospel. * Every one or two years a festival for improvised music between jazz, avant-garde and rock with a line-up of international renowned musicians takes place, the Akut-Festival. Education --------- * University of Mainz * University of Applied Sciences Mainz * Catholic University of Applied Sciences Mainz Sports ------ The local football club 1. FSV Mainz 05 has a long history in the German football leagues. Since 2004 it has competed in the Bundesliga (First German soccer league) except a break in second level in 2007–08 season. Mainz is closely associated with renowned coach Jürgen Klopp, who spent the vast majority of his playing career at the club and was also the manager for seven years, leading the club to Bundesliga football for the first time. After leaving Mainz Klopp went on to win two Bundesliga titles and reaching a Champions League final with Borussia Dortmund. In the summer of 2011, the club opened its new stadium called Coface Arena, which was later renamed Opel Arena. Further relevant football clubs are TSV Schott Mainz, SV Gonsenheim, Fontana Finthen, FC Fortuna Mombach and FVgg Mombach 03. Mewa ArenaMewa Arena The local wrestling club ASV Mainz 1888 is currently in the top division of team wrestling in Germany, the Bundesliga. In 1973, 1977 and 2012 the ASV Mainz 1888 won the German championship. In 2007 the Mainz Athletics won the German Men's Championship in baseball. As a result of the 2008 invasion of Georgia by Russian troops, Mainz acted as a neutral venue for the Georgian Vs Republic of Ireland football game. The biggest basketball club in the city is the ASC Theresianum Mainz. Its men's team is playing in the Regionalliga and its women's team is playing in the 2.DBBL. ### USC Mainz **Universitäts-Sportclub Mainz** (University Sports Club Mainz) is a German sports club based in Mainz (Germany). It was founded on 9 September 1959 by Berno Wischmann primarily for students of the University of Mainz. It is considered one of the most powerful Athletics Sports clubs in Germany. 50 athletes of USC have distinguished themselves in a half-century in club history at Olympic Games, World and European Championships. In particular in the decathlon dominated USC athletes for decades: Already at the European Championships in Budapest in 1966, Mainz won three (Werner von Moltke, Jörg Mattheis and Horst Beyer) all decathlon medals. In the all-time list of the USC, there are nine athletes who have achieved more than 8,000 points – at the head of Siegfried Wentz (8762 points in 1983) and Guido Kratschmer (1980 world record with 8667 points). The most successful athlete of the association is more fighter, sprinter and long jumper Ingrid Becker (Olympic champion in 1968 in the pentathlon and Olympic champion in 1972 in the 4 × 100 Metres Relay and European champion in 1971 in the long jump). The most famous athletes of the present are the sprinter Marion Wagner (world champion in 2001 in the 4 × 100 Metres Relay) and the pole vaulters Carolin Hingst (Eighth of the 2008 Olympics in Beijing) and Anna Battke. Three world titles adorn the balance of USC Mainz. For the discus thrower, Lars Riedel attended (1991 and 1993) and the already mentioned sprinter Marion Wagner (2001). Added to 5 titles at the European Championships, a total of 65 international medals and 260 victories at the German Athletics Championships. The players of USC's basketball section played from the season 1968/69 to the season 1974/75 in the National Basketball League (BBL) of the German Basketball Federation (DBB). As a finalist to winning the DBB Cup in 1971 USC Mainz played in the 1971–72 FIBA European Cup Winners' Cup against the Italian Cup winners of Fides Napoli. ### Mainz Athletics The **Baseball and Softball Club Mainz Athletics** is a German baseball and softball club located in the city of Mainz in Rhineland-Palatinate. The Athletics is one of the largest clubs in the Baseball-Bundesliga Süd in terms of membership, claiming to have hundreds of active players. The club has played in the Baseball-Bundesliga for more than two decades and has won the German Championship in 2007 and 2016. Economy ------- ### Wine centre Mainz has been a wine-growing region since Roman times and is one of the centres of the German wine industry. Since 2008, the city is a member of the Great Wine Capitals Global Network (GWC), an association of well-known wineculture-cities of the world. Many wine traders work in the city. The sparkling wine producer Kupferberg produced in Mainz-Hechtsheim and Henkell – now located on the other side of the river Rhine – were once founded in Mainz. The famous Blue Nun, one of the first branded wines, was marketed by the Sichel family. The *Haus des Deutschen Weines* (House of German Wine), is located in the city. The Mainzer Weinmarkt (wine market) is one of the great wine fairs in Germany. ### Other industries The Schott AG, one of the world's largest glass manufactures, as well as the Werner & Mertz, a large chemical factory, are based in Mainz. Other companies such as IBM, QUINN Plastics, or Novo Nordisk have their German administration in Mainz as well. BioNTech, a biotechnology company developing immunotherapies including a vaccine against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was founded in 2008 in Mainz by scientists Uğur Şahin, and Özlem Türeci, with the Austrian oncologist Christoph Huber. Johann-Joseph Krug [de], founder of France's famous Krug champagne house in 1843, was born in Mainz in 1800. Transport --------- View to the Rheinreede, container cranes 2007, laid down in 2010View to the Rheinreede, container cranes 2007, laid down in 2010 Mainz is a major transport hub in southern Germany. It is an important component in European distribution, as it has the fifth largest inter-modal port in Germany. The Port of Mainz, now handling mainly containers, is a sizable industrial area to the north of the city, along the banks of the Rhine. In order to open up space along the city's riverfront for residential development, it was shifted further northwards in 2010. ### Rail Mainz Central Station or *Mainz Hauptbahnhof*, is frequented by 80,000 travelers and visitors each day and is therefore one of the busiest 21 stations in Germany. It is a stop for the S-Bahn line S8 of the Rhein-Main-Verkehrsverbund. Additionally, the Mainbahn line to Frankfurt Hbf starts at the station. It is served by 440 daily local and regional trains (StadtExpress, RE and RB) and 78 long-distance trains (IC, EC and ICE). Intercity-Express lines connect Mainz with Frankfurt (Main), Karlsruhe Hbf, Worms Hauptbahnhof and Koblenz Hauptbahnhof. It is a terminus of the West Rhine Railway and the Mainz–Ludwigshafen railway, as well as the Alzey–Mainz Railway erected by the Hessische Ludwigsbahn in 1871. Access to the East Rhine Railway is provided by the Kaiserbrücke, a railway bridge across the Rhine at the north end of Mainz. #### Operational usage | In brief | | --- | | Number of passenger tracksabove ground: | 7 main line,1 branch,1 tramway station,2 tracks each | | Trains(daily): | 78 long-distance440 regional | ### Public transportation The Mainz Central Station is an interchange point for the Mainz tramway network, and an important bus junction for the city and region (RNN, ORN and MVG). ### Cycling Mainz offers a wide array of bicycle transportation facilities and events, including several miles of on-street bike lanes. The Rheinradweg (Rhine Cycle Route) is an international cycle route, running from the source to the mouth of the Rhine, traversing four countries at a distance of 1,300 km (810 mi). Another cycling tour runs towards Bingen and further to the Middle Rhine, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2002). ### Air transportation Mainz is served by Frankfurt Airport, the busiest airport by passenger traffic in Germany by far, the third busiest in Europe and the ninth busiest worldwide in 2009. Located about 10 miles (16 kilometres) east of Mainz, it is connected to the city by an S-Bahn line. The small Mainz Finthen Airport, located just 3 miles (5 km) southwest of Mainz, is used by general aviation only. Another airport, Frankfurt-Hahn Airport located about 50 miles (80 km) west of Mainz, is served by a few low-cost carriers. Notable people -------------- * List of people related to Mainz * Archbishops of Mainz * List of mayors of Mainz Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Mainz is twinned with: * United Kingdom Watford, United Kingdom (1956) * France Dijon, France (1957) * Croatia Zagreb, Croatia (1967) * Spain Valencia, Spain (1978) * Israel Haifa, Israel (1981) * Germany Erfurt, Germany (1988) * United States Louisville, United States (1994) * France Longchamp, France (1966, with Mainz-Laubenheim) * Italy Rodeneck, Italy (1977, with Mainz-Finthen) Mainz has friendly relations with: * Rwanda Kigali, Rwanda (1982) * Azerbaijan Baku, Azerbaijan (1984) See also -------- * Johann Fust * Johannes Gutenberg * Peter Schöffer, apprentice of Gutenberg and early printer References ---------- * Hope, Valerie. *Constructing Identity: The Roman Funerary Monuments of Aquelia, Mainz and Nîmes*; British Archaeological Reports (16 July 2001) ISBN 978-1-84171-180-5 * Imhof, Michael and Simone Kestin: *Mainz City and Cathedral Guide.* Petersberg: Michael Imhof Verlag, 2004. ISBN 978-3-937251-93-6 * *Mainz* ("Vierteljahreshefte für Kultur, Politik, Wirtschaft, Geschichte"), since 1981 * Saddington, Denis. *The stationing of auxiliary regiments in Germania Superior in the Julio-Claudian period* * Stanton, Shelby, *World War II Order of Battle: An Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from Battalion through Division, 1939–1946* (Revised Edition, 2006), Stackpole Books ISBN 978-0-8117-0157-0 Further reading --------------- * "Rede: UNESCO-Welterbe-Urkunde für die SchUM-Stätten". *Der Bundespräsident* (in German). Retrieved 1 February 2023.

Mainz

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainz

**Kharkiv** (Ukrainian: Ха́рків, IPA: [ˈxɑrkiu̯] ()), also known as **Kharkov** (Russian: Харькoв, IPA: [ˈxarʲkəf] ()), is the second-largest city and municipality in Ukraine. Located in the northeast of the country, it is the largest city of the historic region of Sloboda Ukraine. Kharkiv is the administrative centre of Kharkiv Oblast and of the surrounding Kharkiv Raion. It has a population of 1,421,125 (2022 est.). Kharkiv was founded in 1654 as a fortress, and grew to become a major centre of industry, trade, and Ukrainian culture in the Russian Empire. At the beginning of the 20th century, the city was predominantly Russian in population, but as industrial expansion drew in further labor from the distressed countryside, and as the Soviet Union moderated previous restrictions on Ukrainian cultural expression, Ukrainians became the largest ethnic group in the city by the eve of World War II. From December 1919 to January 1934, Kharkiv was the first capital of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Kharkiv is a major cultural, scientific, educational, transport and industrial centre of Ukraine, with numerous museums, theatres and libraries, including the Annunciation and Dormition cathedrals, the Derzhprom building in Freedom Square, and the National University of Kharkiv. Industry plays a significant role in Kharkiv's economy, specialised primarily in machinery and electronics. There are hundreds of industrial facilities throughout the city, including the Morozov Design Bureau, the Malyshev Factory, Khartron, Turboatom, and Antonov. In March and April 2014, security forces and counter-demonstrators defeated efforts by Russian-backed separatists to seize control of the city and regional administration. Kharkiv was a major target for Russian forces in the northeastern Ukraine campaign during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine before they were pushed back to the Russia-Ukraine border. The city remains under intermittent Russian fire. History ------- ### Early history The earliest historical references to the region are to Scythian and Sarmatian settlement in the 2nd century BCE. Between the 2nd to the 6th centuries CE there is evidence of Chernyakhov culture, a multiethnic mix of the Geto-Dacian, Sarmatian, and Gothic populations. In the 8th to 10th centuries the Khazar fortress of *Verkhneye Saltovo* stood about 25 miles (40 km) east of the modern city, near Staryi Saltiv. During the 12th century, the area was part of the territory of the Cumans, and then from the mid 13th century of the Mongol/Tartar Golden Horde. By the early 17th century, the area was a contested frontier region with renegade populations that had begun to organise in Cossack formations and communities defined by a common determination to resist both Tatar slavery, and Polish-Lithuanian and Russian serfdom. Mid-century, the Khmelnytsky Uprising against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth saw the brief establishment of an independent Cossack Hetmanate. ### Kharkiv Fortress In 1654, in the midst of this period of turmoil for Right-bank Ukraine, groups of people came onto the banks of Lopan and Kharkiv rivers where they resurrected and fortified an abandoned settlement. There is a folk etymology that connects the name of both the settlement and the river to a legendary cossack founder named *Kharko* (a diminutive form of the name Chariton, Ukrainian: Харитон, romanized: *Khariton*, or Zechariah, Ukrainian: Захарій, romanized: *Zakharii*). But the river's name is attested earlier than the foundation of the fortress. The settlement reluctantly accepted the protection and authority of a Russian voivode from Chuhuiv 40 kilometres (25 mi) to the east. The first appointed voivode from Moscow was Voyin Selifontov in 1656, who began to build a local ostrog (fort). In 1658, a new voivode, Ivan Ofrosimov, commanded the locals to kiss the cross in a demonstration of loyalty to Tsar Alexis. Led by their otaman Ivan Kryvoshlyk, the refused refused. However, with the election of a new otaman, Tymish Lavrynov, relations appear to have been repaired, the Tsar in Moscow granting the community's request (signed by the deans of the new Assumption Cathedral and parish churches of Annunciation and Trinity) to establish a local market. At that time the population of Kharkiv was just over 1000, half of whom were local cossacks. Selifontov had brought with him a Moscow garrison of only 70 soldiers. Defence rested with a local sloboda cossack regiment under the jurisdiction of the Razryad Prikaz, a military agency commanded from Belgorod. The original walls of Kharkiv enclosed today's streets: vulytsia Kvitky-Osnovianenko, Constitution Square, Rose Luxemburg Square, Proletarian Square, and Cathedral Descent. There were 10 towers of which the tallest, Vestovska, was some 16 metres (52 ft) high. In 1689 the fortress was expanded to include the Intercession Cathedral and Monastery, which became a seat of a local church hierarch, the Protopope. ### Russian Empire Administrative reforms led to Kharkiv being governed from 1708 from Kyiv, and from 1727 from Belgorod. In 1765 Kharkiv was established as the seat of a separate Sloboda Ukraine Governorate. Kharkiv University was established in 1805 in the Palace of Governorate-General. Alexander Mikolajewicz Mickiewicz, brother of the Polish national poet Adam Mickiewicz, was a professor of law in the university, while another celebrity, Goethe, searched for instructors for the school. One of its later graduates was In Ivan Franko to whom it awarded a doctorate in Russian linguistics in 1906. The streets were first cobbled in the city centre in 1830. In 1844 the 90 metres (300 ft) tall Alexander Bell Tower, commemorating the victory over Napoleon I in 1812, was built next to the first Assumption Cathedral (later to be transformed by the Soviet authorities into a radio tower). A system of running water was established in 1870. In the course of the 19th century, although predominantly Russian speaking, Kharkiv became a centre of Ukrainian culture. The first Ukrainian newspaper was published in the city in 1812. Soon after the Crimean War, in 1860–61, a hromada was established in the city, one of a network of secret societies that laid the groundwork for the appearance of a Ukrainian national movement. Its most prominent member was the philosopher, linguist and pan-slavist activist Oleksandr Potebnia. Members of a student hromada in the city included the future national leaders Borys Martos and Dmytro Antonovych, and reputedly were the first to employ the slogan "Glory to Ukraine!" and its response "Glory on all of earth!". In 1900, the student hromada founded the Revolutionary Ukrainian Party (RUP), which sought to unite all Ukrainian national elements, including the growing number of socialists. Following the revolutionary events 1905 in which Kharkiv distinguished itself by avoiding a reactionary pogrom against its Jewish population, the RUP in Kharkiv, Poltava, Kyiv, Nizhyn, Lubny, and Yekaterinodar repudiated the more extreme elements of Ukrainian nationalism. Adopting the Erfurt Program of German Social Democracy, they restyled themselves the Ukrainian Social Democratic Labour Party (USDLP). This was to remain independent of, and opposed by, the Bolshevik faction of the Russian SDLP. After the February Revolution of 1917, the USDLP was the main party in the first Ukrainian government, the General Secretariat of Ukraine. The Tsentralna Rada (central council) of Ukrainian parties in *Kyiv* authorised the Secretariat to negoitate national autonomy with the Russian Provisional Government. In the succeeding months, as wartime conditions deteriorated, the USDLP lost support in Kharkiv and elsewhere to the Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionary Party (SR) which organised both in peasant communities and in disaffected military units. ### Soviet era #### Capital of Soviet Ukraine In the Russian Constituent Assembly election held in November 1917, the Bolsheviks who had seized power in Petrograd and Moscow received just 10.5 percent of the vote in the Governorate, compared to 73 percent for a bloc of Russian and Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionaries. Commanding worker, rather than peasant, votes, within the city itself the Bolsheviks won a plurality. When in Petrograd Lenin's Council of People's Commissars disbanded the Constituent Assembly after its first sitting, the Tsentralna Rada in Kyiv proclaimed the independence of the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR). Bolsheviks withdrew from Tsentralna Rada and formed their own Rada (national council) in Kharkiv. By February 1918 their forces had captured much of Ukraine. They made Kharkiv the capital of the Donetsk-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic. Six weeks later, under the treaty terms agreed with the Central Powers at Brest-Litovsk, they abandoned the city and ceded the territory to the German-occupied Ukrainian State. After the German withdrawal, the Red Army returned but, in June 1919, withdrew again before the advancing forces of Anton Denikin's White movement Volunteer. By December 1919 Soviet authority was restored. The Bolsheviks established Kharkiv as the capital of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and, in 1922, this was formally incorporated as a constituent republic of the Soviet Union. A number of prestige construction projects in new officially-approved Constructivist style were completed, among them Derzhprom (Palace of Industry) then the tallest building in the Soviet Union (and the second tallest in Europe), the Red Army Building, the Ukrainian Polytechnic Institute of Distance Learning (UZPI), the City Council building, with its massive asymmetric tower, and the central department store that was opened on the 15th Anniversary of the October Revolution. As new buildings were going up, many of city's historic architectural monuments were being torn down. These included most of the baroque churches: Saint Nicholas's Cathedral of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church, the Church of the Myrrhophores, Saint Demetrius's Church, and the Cossack fortified Church of the Nativity. Under Stalin's First Five Year Plan, the city underwent intensified industrialisation, led by a number of national projects. Chief among these were the Kharkiv Tractor Factory (HTZ), described by Stalin as "a steel bastion of the collectivisation of agriculture in the Ukraine", and the Malyshev Factory, an enlargement of the old Kharkiv Locomotive Factory, which at its height employed 60,000 workers in the production of heavy equipment. By 1937 the output of Kharkiv's industries was reported as being 35 times greater than in 1913. Since turn of the century, the influx of new workers from the countryside changed the ethnic composition of Kharkiv. According to census returns, by 1939 the Russian share of the population had fallen from almost two thirds to one third, while the Ukrainian share rose from a quarter to almost half. The Jewish population rose from under 6 percent of the total, to over 15 percent (sustaining a Hebrew secondary school, a popular Jewish university and extensive publication in Yiddish and Hebrew). In the 1920s, the Ukrainian SSR promoted the use of the Ukrainian language, mandating it for all schools. In practice the share of secondary schools teaching in the Ukrainian language remained lower than the ethnic Ukrainian share of the Kharkiv Oblasts population. The Ukrainization policy was reversed, with the prosecution in Kharkiv in 1930 of the Union for the Freedom of Ukraine. Hundreds of Ukrainian intellectuals were arrested and deported. In 1932 and '33, the combination of grain seizures and the forced collectivisation of peasant holdings created famine conditions, the Holodomor, driving people off the land and into Kharkiv, and other cities, in search of food. Eye-witness accounts by westerners—among them those of American Communist Fred Beal employed in the Kharkiv Tractor Factory —were cited in the international press but, until the era of *Glasnost* were consistently denounced in the Soviet Union as fabrications. In 1934 hundreds of Ukrainian writers, intellectuals and cultural workers were arrested and executed in the attempt to eradicate all vestiges of Ukrainian nationalism. The purges continued into 1938. Blind Ukrainian street musicians Kobzars were also rounded up in Kharkiv and murdered by the NKVD. Confident in his control over Ukraine, in January 1934 Stalin had the capital of the Ukrainian SSR moved from Kharkiv to Kyiv. During April and May 1940 about 3,900 Polish prisoners of Starobelsk camp were executed in the Kharkiv NKVD building, later secretly buried on the grounds of an NKVD pansionat in Pyatykhatky forest (part of the Katyn massacre) on the outskirts of Kharkiv. The site also contains the numerous bodies of Ukrainian cultural workers who were arrested and shot in the 1937–38 Stalinist purges. #### German occupation During World War II, Kharkiv was the focus of major battles. The city was captured by Nazi Germany on 24 October 1941. A disastrous Red Army offensive failed to recover the city in May 1942. It was retaken (Operation Star) on 16 February 1943, but lost again to the Germans on 15 March 1943. 23 August 1943 saw a final liberation. On the eve of the occupation, Kharkiv's prewar population of 700,000 had been doubled by the influx of refugees. What remained of the pre-war Jewish population of 130,000, were slated by the Germans for "special treatment": between December 1941 and January 1942, they killed and buried an estimated 15,000 Jews in a ravine outside of town named Drobytsky Yar. Over their 22 months occupation they executed a further 30,000 residents, among them suspected Soviet partisans and, after a brief period of toleration, Ukrainian nationalists. 80,000 people died of hunger, cold and disease. 60,000 were forcibly transported to Germany as slave workers (Ostarbeiter). (Among these was Boris Romanchenko. The 96-year old survivor of forced labor at the Buchenwald, Peenemünde, Dora and Bergen Belsen concentration camps was killed when Russian fire hit his apartment bloc on 18 March 2022). By the time of Kharkiv's liberation in August 1943, the surviving population had been reduced to under 200,000. Seventy percent of the city had been destroyed. #### Post-World War II Before the occupation, Kharkiv's tank industries had been evacuated to the Urals with all their equipment, and became the heart of Red Army's tank programs (particularly, producing the T-34 tank earlier designed in Kharkiv). These enterprises returned to Kharkiv after the war, and became central elements of the post-war Soviet military industrial complex. Houses and factories were rebuilt, and much of the city's center was reconstructed in the style of Stalinist Classicism. In the Brezhnev-era, Kharkiv was promoted as a "model Soviet city". Propaganda made much of its “youthfulness”, a designation broadly used to suggest the relative absence in the city of "material and spiritual relics" from the pre-revolutionary era, and its commitment to the new frontiers of Soviet industry and science. The city's machine-and-weapons building prowess was attributed to a forward-looking collaboration between its large-scale industrial enterprises and new research institutes and laboratories. The last Communist Party chief of Ukraine, Vladimir Ivashko, appointed in 1989, trained as a mining engineer and served as a party functionary in Kharkiv. He led the Communists to victory in Kharkiv and across the country in the parliamentary election held in the Ukrainian SSR in March 1990. The election was relatively free, but occurred well before organised political parties had time to form, and did not arrest the decline in the CPSU's legitimacy. This was accelerated by the intra-party coup attempt against President Mikhail Gorbachev and his reforms on August 18, 1991, during which Ivashko temporarily replaced by Gorbachev as CPSU General Secretary. The National University of Kharkiv was at the forefront of democratic agitation. In October 1991, a call from Kyiv for an all-Ukrainian university strike to protest Gorbachev's new Union Treaty and to call for new multi-party elections was met with a rally at the entrance to the university attended not only by students and university teachers, but also by a range of public and cultural figures. The protests—the so-called the Revolution on Granite—ended on October 17 with a resolution of the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian SSR promising further democratic reform. In the event, the only demand fulfilled was the removal of the Communist Prime Minister. #### Jewish community Kharkiv's Jewish community revived after World War II: by 1959 there were 84,000 Jews living in the city. Soviet anti-Zionism restricted expressions of Jewish religion and culture, and was sustained until the final Gorbachev years (the confiscated Kharkiv Choral Synagogue reopened as a synagogue in 1990). The city's Jewish population, 62,800 in 1970, had dropped to 50,000 by the end of the century. During the 1990s post-Soviet aliyah, many Jews from Kharkiv emigrated to Israel or to Western countries. ### Independent Ukraine In the 1 December 1991 Referendum on the Act of Declaration of Independence, on a turnout of 76 percent 86 percent of the Kharkiv Oblast approved separate Ukrainian statehood. The collapse of the Soviet Union disrupted, but did not sever, the ties that bound Kharkiv heavy's industries to the integrated Soviet market and supply chains, and did not diminish dependency on Russian oil, minerals, and gas. In Kharkiv and elsewhere in eastern Ukraine, the limited prospects for securing new economic partners in the West, and concern for the rights of Russian-speakers in the new national state, combined to promote the interests of political parties and candidates emphasising understanding and cooperation with the Russian Federation. In the new century, these were represented by the Party of Regions and by the presidential ambitions of Victor Yanukovych, which in Kharkiv triumphed in the city council elections of 2006, in the parliamentary elections of 2007 and in the presidential elections of 2010. Although never attaining the level of protest witnessed in Kyiv and in communities further west, following the disputed 2012 Parliamentary elections public opposition to President Yanukovych and his party surfaced in Kharkiv amid accusations of systematic corruption and of sabotaging prospects for new ties to the European Union. #### 2014 pro-Russian unrest The Euromaidan protests in the winter of 2013–2014 against then president Viktor Yanukovych consisted of daily gatherings of about 200 protestors near the statue of Taras Shevchenko and were predominantly peaceful. Disappointed at the turnout, an activist at Kharkiv University suggested that his fellow students "proved to be as much of an inert, grey and cowed mass as Kharkiv’s ‘*biudzhetniki*’ " (those whose income derives from the state budget, mostly public servants). But Pro-Yanukovych demonstrations, held near the statue of Lenin in Freedom (previously Dzerzhinsky) Square, were similarly small. In the wake Yanukovych's ouster in February, there were attempts in Kharkiv to follow the example of separatists in neighbouring Donbas. On 2 March 2014, a Russian "tourist" from Moscow replaced the Ukrainian flag with a Russian flag on the Kharkiv Regional State Administration Building. On 6 April 2014 pro-Russian protestors occupied the building and unilaterally declared independence from Ukraine as the "Kharkiv People's Republic". Doubts arose about their local origin as they had initially targeted the city's Opera and Ballet Theatre before recognising their mistake. Kharkiv's mayor, Hennadiy "Gepa" Kernes, elected in 2010 as the nominee of the Party of Regions, was placed under house arrest. Claiming to have been "prisoner of Yanukovych's system", he now declared his loyalty to acting President Oleksandr Turchynov. In a televised address on April 7, Turchynov had announced that "a second wave of the Russian Federation's special operation against Ukraine [has] started" with the "goal of destabilising the situation in the country, toppling Ukrainian authorities, disrupting the elections, and tearing our country apart". Kernes persuaded the police to storm the regional administration building and push out the separatists. He was allowed to return to his mayoral duties. Police action against the separatists was reinforced by a special forces unit from Vinnytsia directed by Ukrainian Interior Minister Arsen Avakov and Stepan Poltorak the acting commander of the Ukrainian Internal Forces. On 13 April, some pro-Russian protesters again made it inside the Kharkiv regional state administration building, but were quickly evicted. Violent clashes resulted in the severe beating of at least 50 pro-Ukrainian protesters in attacks by pro-Russian protesters. On 28 April, Kernes was shot by a sniper, a victim, commentators suggested, of his former pro-Russian allies. Relatively peaceful demonstrations continued to be held, with "pro-Russian" rallies gradually diminishing and "pro-Ukrainian unity" demonstrations growing in numbers. On 28 September, activists dismantled Ukraine's largest monument to Lenin at a pro-Ukrainian rally in the central square. Polls conducted from September to December 2014 found little support in Kharkiv for joining Russia. From early November until mid-December, Kharkiv was struck by seven non-lethal bomb blasts. Targets of these attacks included a rock pub known for raising money for Ukrainian forces, a hospital for Ukrainian forces, a military recruiting centre, and a National Guard base. According to SBU investigator Vasyliy Vovk, Russian covert forces were behind the attacks, and had intended to destabilise the otherwise calm city of Kharkiv. On 8 January 2015 five men wearing balaclavas broke into an office of Station Kharkiv, a volunteer group aiding refugees from Donbas. On 22 February an improvised explosive device killed four people and wounded nine during a march commemorating the Euromaidan victims. The authorities launched an 'anti-terrorist operation'. Further bombings targeted army fuel tanks, an unoccupied passenger train and a Ukrainian flag in the city centre. On 23 September 2015, 200 people in balaclavas and camouflage picketed the house of former governor Mykhailo Dobkin, and then went to Kharkiv town hall, where they tried to force their way through the police cordon. At least one tear gas grenade was used. The rioters asked the mayor, Hennadiy Kernes, a supporter of the president, to come out. Following recovery from his wounds, Kernes had been re-elected mayor, and was so again in 2020. He died of COVID-19 related complication in December 2020. He was succeeded by Ihor Terekhov of the "Kernes Bloc — Successful Kharkiv". After the Euromaidan events and Russian actions in the Crimea and Donbas ruptured relations with Moscow, the Kharkiv region experienced a sharp fall in output and employment. Once a hub of cross border trade, Kharkiv was turned into a border fortress. A reorientation to new international markets, increased defense contracts (after Kyiv, the region contains the second-largest umber of military-related enterprises) and export growth in the economy's services sector helped fuel a recovery, but people's incomes did not return to pre-2014 levels. By 2018 Kharkiv officially has the lowest unemployment rate in Ukraine, 6 percent. But in part this reflected labor shortages caused by the steady outflow of young and skilled workers to Poland and other European countries. #### 2022 Russian invasion During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Kharkiv was the site of heavy fighting between the Ukrainian and Russian forces. On 27 February, the governor of Kharkiv Oblast Oleh Synyehubov claimed that Russian troops were repelled from Kharkiv. According to a 28 February 2022, report from Agroportal 24h, the Kharkiv Tractor Plant (KhTZ), in the south east of the city, was destroyed and “engulfed in fire” by “massive shelling” from Russian forces. Video purported to record explosions and fire at the plant on 25 and 27 February 2022. UNESCO has confirmed that in the first three weeks of bombardment the city experienced the loss or damage of at least 27 major historical buildings. On 4 March 2022, Human Rights Watch reported that on the fourth day of the invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation, 28 February 2022, Federation forces used cluster munitions in the KhTZ , the Moskovskyi and Shevchenkivskyi districts of the city. The rights group—which noted the "inherently indiscriminate nature of cluster munitions and their foreseeable effects on civilians"—based its assessment on interviews and an analysis of 40 videos and photographs. In March 2022, during the Battle of Kharkiv, the city was designated as a Hero City of Ukraine. In May 2022, Ukrainian forces began a counter-offensive to drive Russian forces away from the city and towards the international border. By 12 May, the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence reported that Russia had withdrawn units from the Kharkiv area. Russian artillery and rockets remain within range of the city, and it continues to suffer shelling and missile strikes. Geography --------- Kharkiv is located at the banks of the Kharkiv, Lopan, and Udy rivers, where they flow into the Seversky Donets watershed in the north-eastern region of Ukraine. Historically, Kharkiv lies in the Sloboda Ukraine region (*Slobozhanshchyna* also known as *Slobidshchyna*) in Ukraine, in which it is considered to be the main city. The approximate dimensions of city of Kharkiv are: from the North to the South — 24.3 km; from the West to the East — 25.2 km. Based on Kharkiv's topography, the city can be conditionally divided into four lower districts and four higher districts. The highest point above sea level, in Pyatikhatky, is 202m, and the lowest is Novoselivka in Kharkiv is 94m. Kharkiv lies in the large valley of rivers of Kharkiv, Lopan', Udy, and Nemyshlya. This valley lies from the North West to the South East between the Mid Russian highland and Donetsk lowland. All the rivers interconnect in Kharkiv and flow into the river of Northern Donets. A special system of concrete and metal dams was designed and built by engineers to regulate the water level in the rivers in Kharkiv. Kharkiv has a large number of green city parks with a long history of more than 100 years with very old oak trees and many flowers. Gorky park, or Maxim Gorky Central Park for Culture and Recreation, is Kharkiv's largest public garden. The park has nine areas: children, extreme sports, family entertainment, a medieval area, entertainment center, French park, cable car, sports grounds, retro park. ### Climate Kharkiv's climate is humid continental (Köppen climate classification *Dfa*/*Dfb*) with long, cold, snowy winters and warm to hot summers. The average rainfall totals 519 mm (20 in) per year, with the most in June and July. | Climate data for Kharkiv, Ukraine (1991−2020, extremes 1936–present) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 11.1(52.0) | 14.6(58.3) | 21.8(71.2) | 30.5(86.9) | 34.5(94.1) | 39.8(103.6) | 38.4(101.1) | 39.8(103.6) | 34.5(94.1) | 29.3(84.7) | 20.3(68.5) | 13.4(56.1) | 39.8(103.6) | | Average high °C (°F) | −2.1(28.2) | −0.8(30.6) | 5.2(41.4) | 14.7(58.5) | 21.4(70.5) | 25.2(77.4) | 27.4(81.3) | 26.8(80.2) | 20.5(68.9) | 12.6(54.7) | 4.3(39.7) | −0.7(30.7) | 12.9(55.2) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −4.5(23.9) | −3.8(25.2) | 1.4(34.5) | 9.7(49.5) | 16.1(61.0) | 20.0(68.0) | 22.0(71.6) | 21.1(70.0) | 15.1(59.2) | 8.2(46.8) | 1.6(34.9) | −2.9(26.8) | 8.7(47.7) | | Average low °C (°F) | −6.8(19.8) | −6.6(20.1) | −1.9(28.6) | 4.8(40.6) | 10.7(51.3) | 14.7(58.5) | 16.6(61.9) | 15.4(59.7) | 10.2(50.4) | 4.4(39.9) | −0.8(30.6) | −5.1(22.8) | 4.6(40.3) | | Record low °C (°F) | −35.6(−32.1) | −29.8(−21.6) | −32.2(−26.0) | −11.4(11.5) | −1.9(28.6) | 2.2(36.0) | 5.7(42.3) | 2.2(36.0) | −2.9(26.8) | −9.1(15.6) | −20.9(−5.6) | −30.8(−23.4) | −35.6(−32.1) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 37(1.5) | 33(1.3) | 36(1.4) | 32(1.3) | 54(2.1) | 58(2.3) | 63(2.5) | 39(1.5) | 44(1.7) | 44(1.7) | 39(1.5) | 40(1.6) | 519(20.4) | | Average extreme snow depth cm (inches) | 8(3.1) | 11(4.3) | 8(3.1) | 1(0.4) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 1(0.4) | 4(1.6) | 11(4.3) | | Average rainy days | 10 | 8 | 10 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 13 | 10 | 12 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 143 | | Average snowy days | 19 | 18 | 12 | 2 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.03 | 2 | 9 | 18 | 80 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 85.6 | 83.0 | 77.3 | 65.7 | 60.9 | 65.2 | 65.3 | 62.9 | 70.2 | 77.6 | 85.7 | 86.5 | 73.8 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 41.5 | 63.3 | 123.5 | 166.7 | 252.9 | 266.6 | 278.0 | 262.4 | 176.6 | 112.8 | 51.0 | 31.4 | 1,826.7 | | Source 1: Pogoda.ru.net | | Source 2: World Meteorological Organization (humidity and sun 1981–2010) | A panoramic view of the central district in Kharkiv Governance ---------- ### Legal status and local government The mayor of Kharkiv and the city council govern all the business and administrative affairs in the City of Kharkiv. The mayor of Kharkiv has the executive powers; the city council has the administrative powers as far as the government issues are concerned. The mayor of Kharkiv is elected by direct public election in Kharkiv every four years. The city council is composed of elected representatives, who approve or reject the initiatives on the budget allocation, tasks priorities and other issues in Kharkiv. The representatives to the city council are elected every four years. The mayor and city council hold their regular meetings in the City Hall in Kharkiv. ### Administrative divisions While Kharkiv is the administrative centre of the Kharkiv Oblast (province), the city affairs are managed by the Kharkiv Municipality. Kharkiv is a city of oblast subordinance. | 1. Kholodnohirskyi District 2. Shevchenkivskyi District 3. Kyivskyi District 4. Saltivskyi District 5. Nemyshlyanskyi District 6. Industrialnyi District 7. Slobidskyi District 8. Osnovianskyi District 9. Novobavarskyi District | | | The territory of Kharkiv is divided into 9 administrative raions (districts), until February 2016 they were named for people, places, events, and organizations associated with early years of the Soviet Union but many were renamed in February 2016 to comply with decommunization laws. Also, owing to this law, over 200 streets have been renamed in Kharkiv since 20 November 2015. The raions are named: 1. Kholodnohirskyi (Ukrainian: Холодногірський район, *Cold Mountain*; namesake: the historic name of the neighbourhood) (formerly Leninskyi; namesake: Vladimir Lenin) 2. Shevchenkivskyi (Ukrainian: Шевченківський район); namesake: Taras Shevchenko (formerly Dzerzhynskyi; namesake Felix Dzerzhinsky) 3. Kyivskyi (Ukrainian: Київський район); namesake: Kyiv (formerly Kahanovychskyi; namesake: Lazar Kaganovich) 4. Saltivskyi (Ukrainian: Салтівський район); namesake: Saltivka residential area (formerly Moskovskyi; namesake: Moscow) 5. Nemyshlianskyi (Ukrainian: Немишлянський район) (formerly Frunzensky: namesake: Mikhail Frunze); 6. Industrialnyi (Ukrainian: Індустріальний район) (formerly Ordzhonikidzevskyi; namesake: Sergo Ordzhonikidze) 7. Slobidskyi (Ukrainian: Слобідський район) (formerly Kominternіvsky); namesake: Sloboda Ukraine 8. Osnovianskyi (Ukrainian: Основ'янський район) (formerly Chervonozavodsky); namesake: Osnova, a city neighborhood 9. Novobavarskyi (Ukrainian: Новобаварський район) (formerly Zhovtnevy); namesake: Nova Bavaria, a city neighborhood Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | | --- | --- | | 1660 | 1,000 | | 1788 | 10,742 | | 1850 | 41,861 | | 1861 | 50,301 | | 1901 | 198,273 | | 1916 | 352,300 | | 1917 | 382,000 | | 1920 | 285,000 | | 1926 | 417,000 | | 1939 | 833,000 | | 1941 | 902,312 | | 1941 | 1,400,000 | | 1941 | 456,639 | | 1943 | 170,000 | | 1959 | 930,000 | | 1962 | 1,000,000 | | 1976 | 1,384,000 | | 1982 | 1,500,000 | | 1989 | 1,593,970 | | 1999 | 1,510,200 | | 2001 | 1,470,900 | | 2014 | 1,430,885 | According to the 1989 Soviet Union Census, the population of the city was 1,593,970. In 1991, it decreased to 1,510,200, including 1,494,200 permanent residents. Kharkiv is the second-largest city in Ukraine after the capital, Kyiv. The first independent all-Ukrainian population census was conducted in December 2001, and the next all-Ukrainian population census is decreed to be conducted in 2020. As of 2001, the population of the Kharkiv region is as follows: 78.5% living in urban areas, and 21.5% living in rural areas. ### Ethnicity | Ethnic group | 1897 | 1926 | 1939 | 1959 | 1989 | 2001[*dubious – discuss*] | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Ukrainians | 25.9% | 38.6% | 48.5% | 48.4% | 50.4% | 62.8% | | Russians | 63.2% | 37.2% | 32.9% | 40.4% | 43.6% | 33.2% | | Jews | 5.7% | 19.5% | 15.6% | 8.7% | 3.0% | 0.7% | Religion -------- Kharkiv is an important religious centre in Eastern Ukraine. There are many old and new religious buildings, associated with various denominations in Kharkiv. The St. Assumption Orthodox Cathedral was built in Kharkiv in the 1680s and re-built in 1820s-1830s. The St. Trinity Orthodox Church was built in Kharkiv in 1758–1764 and re-built in 1857–1861. The St. Annunciation Orthodox Cathedral, one of the tallest Orthodox churches in the world, was completed in Kharkiv on 2 October 1888. Recently built churches include the St. Valentine Orthodox Church and the St. Tamara Orthodox Church. Kharkiv's Jewish population is estimated to be around 8,000 people. It is served by the old Kharkiv Choral Synagogue, which was fully renovated in Kharkiv in 1991–2016. There are two mosques including the Kharkiv Cathedral Mosque and one Islamic center in Kharkiv. Economy ------- The 2016–2020 economic development strategy: "Kharkiv Success Strategy", is created in Kharkiv. Kharkiv has a diversified service economy, with employment spread across a wide range of professional services, including financial services, manufacturing, tourism, and high technology. ### International Economic Forum The International Economic Forum: Innovations. Investments. Kharkiv Innitiatives! is being conducted in Kharkiv every year. In 2015, the International Economic Forum: Innovations. Investments. Kharkiv Innitiatives! was attended by the diplomatic corps representatives from 17 world countries, working in Ukraine together with top-management of trans-national corporations and investment funds; plus Ukrainian People's Deputies; plus Ukrainian Central government officials, who determine the national economic development strategy; plus local government managers, who perform practical steps in implementing that strategy; plus managers of technical assistance to Ukraine; plus business and NGO's representatives; plus media people. The key topics of the plenary sessions and panel discussions of the International Economic Forum: Innovations. Investments. Kharkiv Innitiatives! are the implementation of Strategy for Sustainable Development "Ukraine – 2020", the results achieved and plan of further actions to reform the local government and territorial organization of power in Ukraine, export promotion and attraction of investments in Ukraine, new opportunities for public-private partnerships, practical steps to create "electronic government", issues of energy conservation and development of oil and gas industry in the Kharkiv Region, creating an effective system of production and processing of agricultural products, investment projects that will receive funding from the State Fund for Regional Development, development of international integration, preparation for privatization of state enterprises. ### International Industrial Exhibitions The international industrial exhibitions are usually conducted at the Radmir Expohall exhibition center in Kharkiv. ### Industrial corporations During the Soviet era, Kharkiv was the capital of industrial production in Ukraine and a large centre of industry and commerce in the USSR. After the collapse of the Soviet Union the largely defence-systems-oriented industrial production of the city decreased significantly. In the early 2000s, the industry started to recover and adapt to market economy needs. The enterprises form machine-building, electro-technology, instrument-making, and energy conglomerates. State-owned industrial giants, such as Turboatom and Elektrotyazhmash occupy 17% of the heavy power equipment construction (e.g., turbines) market worldwide. Multipurpose aircraft are produced by the Antonov aircraft manufacturing plant. The Malyshev factory produces not only armoured fighting vehicles, but also harvesters. Khartron is the leading designer of space and commercial control systems in Ukraine and the former CIS. ### IT industry As of April 2018, there were 25,000 specialists in IT industry of the Kharkiv region, 76% of them were related to computer programming. Thus, Kharkiv accounts for 14% of all IT specialists in Ukraine and makes the second largest IT location in the country, right after the capital Kyiv. Also, the number of active IT companies in the region to be 445, five of them employing more than 601 people. Besides, there are 22 large companies with the workers' number ranging from 201 to 600. More than half of IT-companies located in the Kharkiv region fall into "extra small" category with less than 20 persons engaged. The list is compiled with 43 medium (81-200 employers) and 105 small companies (21-80). Due to the comparably narrow market for IT services in Ukraine, the majority of Kharkiv companies are export-oriented with more than 95% of total sales generated overseas in 2017. Overall, the estimated revenue of Kharkiv IT companies will more than double from $800 million in 2018 to $1.85 billion by 2025. The major markets are North America (65%) and Europe (25%). ### Finance industry Kharkiv is also the headquarters of one of the largest Ukrainian banks, UkrSibbank, which has been part of the BNP Paribas group since December 2005. ### Trade industry There are many large modern shopping malls in Kharkiv. There are a large number of markets: * Barabashovo market is the largest market in Ukraine and one of the largest markets in Europe. * Blagoveshinskiy market. * Konniy "horse" market. * Sumskoi market * Raiskiy book market. Science and education --------------------- Main building of V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University.Northern building of V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University.Il'ya I. Mechnikov, Lev D. Landau, Simon A. Kuznets Nobel Laureates Monuments at V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University. ### Higher education The Vasyl N. Karazin Kharkiv National University is the most prestigious reputable classic university, which was founded due to the efforts by Vasily Karazin in Kharkiv in 1804–1805. On 29 January [O.S. 17 January] 1805, the Decree on the Opening of the Imperial University in Kharkiv came into force. The Roentgen Institute opened in 1931. It was a specialist cancer treatment facility with 87 research workers, 20 professors, and specialist medical staff. The facilities included chemical, physiology, and bacteriology experimental treatment laboratories. It produced x-ray apparatus for the whole country. The city has 13 national universities and numerous professional, technical and private higher education institutions, offering its students a wide range of disciplines. These universities include Kharkiv National University (12,000 students), National Technical University "KhPI" (20,000 students), Kharkiv National University of Radioelectronics (12,000 students), Kharkiv National Aerospace University "KhAI", Kharkiv National University of Economics, Kharkiv National University of Pharmacy, and Kharkiv National Medical University. More than 17,000 faculty and research staff are employed in the institutions of higher education in Kharkiv. ### Scientific research The city has a high concentration of research institutions, which are independent or loosely connected with the universities. Among them are three national science centres: Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology, Institute of Meteorology, Institute for Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine and 20 national research institutions of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine, such as the B Verkin Institute for Low Temperature Physics and Engineering, Institute for Problems of Cryobiology and Cryomedicine, State Scientific Institution "Institute for Single Crystals", Usikov Institute of Radiophysics and Electronics (IRE), Institute of Radio Astronomy (IRA), and others. A total number of 26,000 scientists are working in research and development. A number of world-renowned scientific schools appeared in Kharkiv, such as the theoretical physics school and the mathematical school. There is the Kharkiv Scientists House in the city, which was built by A. N. Beketov, architect in Kharkiv in 1900. All the scientists like to meet and discuss various scientific topics at the Kharkiv Scientists House in Kharkiv. ### Public libraries In addition to the libraries affiliated with the various universities and research institutions, the Kharkiv State Scientific V. Korolenko-library is a major research library. ### Secondary schools Kharkiv has 212 (secondary education) schools, including 10 lyceums and 20 gymnasiums. ### Education centers There is the educational "Landau Center", which is named after Prof. L.D. Landau, Nobel laureate in Kharkiv. Culture ------- Kharkiv is one of the main cultural centres in Ukraine. It is home to 20 museums, over 10 theatres and a number of art galleries. Large music and cinema festivals are hosted in Kharkiv almost every year. ### Theatres The Kharkiv National Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre named after N. V. Lysenko is the biggest theatre in Kharkiv. Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre named after T. G. Shevchenko is popular among Ukrainian speaking people The Kharkiv Academic Russian Drama Theatre named after A.S. Pushkin was recently renovated, and it is quite popular among locals. The Kharkiv Theatre of the Young Spectator (now the Theatre for Children and Youth) is one of the oldest theatres for children. The Kharkiv Puppet Theatre (The Kharkiv State Academic Puppet Theatre named after VA Afanasyev) is the first puppet theatre in the territory of Kharkiv. It was created in 1935. The Kharkiv Academic Theatre of Musical Comedy is a theatre founded on 1 November 1929 in Kharkiv. ### Literature In the 1930s Kharkiv was referred to as a Literary Klondike. It was the centre for the work of literary figures such as: Les Kurbas, Mykola Kulish, Mykola Khvylovy, Mykola Zerov, Valerian Pidmohylny, Pavlo Filipovych, Marko Voronny, Oleksa Slisarenko. Over 100 of these writers were repressed during the Stalinist purges of the 1930s. This tragic event in Ukrainian history is called the "Executed Renaissance" (Rozstrilene vidrodzhennia). Today, a literary museum located on Frunze Street marks their work and achievements. Today, Kharkiv is often referred to as the "capital city" of Ukrainian science fiction and fantasy. It is home to a number of popular writers, such as H. L. Oldie, Alexander Zorich, Andrey Dashkov, Yuri Nikitin and Andrey Valentinov; most of them write in Russian and are popular in both Russia and Ukraine. The annual science fiction convention "Star Bridge" (Звёздный мост) has been held in Kharkiv since 1999. ### Music There is the Kharkiv Philharmonic Society in the city. The leading group active in the Philharmonic is the Academic Symphony Orchestra. It has 100 musicians of a high professional level, many of whom are prize-winners in international and national competitions. There is the Organ Music Hall in the city. The Organ Music Hall is situated at the Assumption Cathedral presently. The Rieger–Kloss organ was installed in the building of the Organ Music Hall back in 1986. The new Organ Music Hall will be opened at the extensively renovated building of Kharkiv Philharmonic Society in Kharkiv in November 2016. The Kharkiv Conservatory is in the city. The Kharkiv National University of Arts named after I.P. Kotlyarevsky is situated in the city. Kharkiv sponsors the prestigious Hnat Khotkevych International Music Competition of Performers of Ukrainian Folk Instruments, which takes place every three years. Since 1997 four tri-annual competitions have taken place. The 2010 competition was cancelled by the Ukrainian Ministry of Culture two days before its opening. The music festival: "Kharkiv - City of Kind Hopes" is conducted in Kharkiv. From Kharkiv comes also black metal band Drudkh. ### Films From 1907 to 2008, at least 86 feature films were shot in the city's territory and its region. The most famous is *Fragment of an Empire* (1929). Arriving in Leningrad, the main character, in addition to the usual pre-revolutionary buildings, sees the Gosprom - a symbol of a new era. ### Film festivals The Kharkiv Lilacs international film festival is very popular among movie stars, makers and producers in Ukraine, Eastern Europe, Western Europe and North America. The annual festival is usually conducted in May. There is a special alley with metal hand prints by popular movies actors at Shevchenko park in Kharkiv. ### Visual arts Kharkiv has been a home for many famous painters, including Ilya Repin, Zinaida Serebryakova, Henryk Siemiradzki, and Vasyl Yermilov. There are many modern arts galleries in the city: the Yermilov Centre, Lilacs Gallery, the Kharkiv Art Museum, the Kharkiv Municipal Gallery, the AC Gallery, Palladium Gallery, the Semiradsky Gallery, AVEK Gallery, and Arts of Slobozhanshyna Gallery among others. ### Museums There are around 147 museums in the Kharkiv's region. Museums in the city include: * The M. F. Sumtsov Kharkiv Historical Museum * The Kharkiv Art Museum * The Natural History Museum at V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University was founded in Kharkiv on 2 April 1807. The museum is visited by 40000 visitors every year. * The V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University History Museum was established in Kharkiv in 1972. * The V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University Archeology Museum was founded in Kharkiv on 20 March 1998. * The National Technical University "Kharkiv Polytechnical Institute" Museum was created in Kharkiv on 29 December 1972. * The National Aerospace University "Kharkiv Aviation Institute" Museum was founded on 29 May 1992. * The "National University of Pharmacy" Museum was founded in Kharkiv on 15 September 2010. * The Kharkiv Maritime Museum - a museum dedicated to the history of shipbuilding and navigation. * The Kharkiv Puppet Museum is the oldest museum of dolls in Ukraine. * Memorial museum-apartment of the family Grizodubov. * Club-Museum of Claudia Shulzhenko. * The Museum of "First Aid". * The Museum of Urban Transport. * The Museum of Sexual Cultures. ### Landmarks Of the many attractions of the Kharkiv city are the: Dormition Cathedral, Annunciation Cathedral, Derzhprom building, Freedom Square, Taras Shevchenko Monument, Mirror Stream, Historical Museum, Choral Synagogue, T. Shevchenko Gardens, Zoo, Children's narrow-gauge railroad, World War I Tank Mk V, Memorial Complex, and many more. After the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea the monument to Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny in Sevastopol was removed and handed over to Kharkiv. ### Parks Kharkiv contains numerous parks and gardens such as the Gor'ky park, Shevchenko park, Hydro park, Strelka park, Sarzhyn Yar and Feldman ecopark. The Gor'ky park is a common place for recreation activities among visitors and local people. The Shevchenko park is situated in close proximity to the V.N. Karazin National University. It is also a common place for recreation activities among the students, professors, locals and foreigners. The Ecopark is situated at circle highway around Kharkiv. It attracts kids, parents, students, professors, locals and foreigners to undertake recreation activities. Sarzhyn Yar is a natural ravine three minutes walk from "Botanichniy Sad" station. It is an old girder that now - is a modern park zone more than 12 km length. There is also a mineral water source with cupel and a sporting court. Media ----- There are a large number of broadcast and internet TV channels, AM/FM/PM/internet radio-stations, and paper/internet newspapers in Kharkiv. Some are listed below. ### Newspapers * *Slobidskyi Krai* * *Vremya* * *Vecherniy Kharkov* * *Segodnya* * *Vesti* * *Kharkovskie Izvestiya* ### Magazines * *Guberniya* ### TV stations * "7 kanal" channel * "А/ТВК" channel * "Simon" channel * "ATN Kharkov" channel * "UA: Kharkiv" channel ### Radio stations * Promin * Ukrainske Radio * Radio Kharkiv * Kharkiv Oblastne Radio * Russkoe Radio Ukraina * Shanson * Retro FM ### Online news in English * *The Kharkiv Times* * *Kharkiv Observer* Transport --------- Kharkiv's Metro. The city of Kharkiv is one of the largest transportation centres in Ukraine, which is connected to numerous other cities of the world by air, rail and road traffic. There are about 250 thousand cars in the city. Kharkiv is one out of four Ukrainian cities with a subway system. ### Local transport Being an important transportation centre of Ukraine, many different means of transportation are available in Kharkiv. Kharkiv's Metro is the city's rapid transit system operating since 1975. It includes three different lines with 30 stations in total. The Kharkiv buses carry about 12 million passengers annually. Trolleybuses, trams (which celebrated its 100-year anniversary of service in 2006), and *marshrutkas* (private minibuses) are also important means of transportation in the city. ### Railways The first railway connection of Kharkiv was opened in 1869. The first train to arrive in Kharkiv came from the north on 22 May 1869, and on 6 June 1869, traffic was opened on the Kursk–Kharkiv–Azov line. Kharkiv's passenger railway station was reconstructed and expanded in 1901, to be later destroyed in the Second World War. A new Kharkiv railway station was built in 1952. Kharkiv is connected with all main cities in Ukraine and abroad by regular railway services. Regional trains known as elektrichkas connect Kharkiv with nearby towns and villages. ### Air Kharkiv is served by Kharkiv International Airport. Charter flights are also available. The former largest carrier of the Kharkiv Airport — Aeromost-Kharkiv — is not serving any regular destinations as of 2007[update]. The Kharkiv North Airport is a factory airfield and was a major production facility for Antonov aircraft company. Sport ----- ### Kharkiv International Marathon The Kharkiv International Marathon is considered as a prime international sportive event, attracting many thousands of professional sportsmen, young people, students, professors, locals and tourists to travel to Kharkiv and to participate in the international event. ### Football (soccer) The most popular sport is football. The city has several football clubs playing in the Ukrainian national competitions. The most successful is *FC Dynamo Kharkiv* that won eight national titles back in the 1920s–1930s. * FC Metalist Kharkiv, which plays at the Metalist Stadium * FC Metalist 1925 Kharkiv, which plays at the Metalist Stadium * FC Helios Kharkiv, a defunct club, which played at the Helios Arena * FC Kharkiv, a defunct club, which played at the Dynamo Stadium * FC Arsenal Kharkiv, which played at the Arsenal-Spartak Stadium (participates in regional competitions) * FC Shakhtar Donetsk also play at the Metalist Stadium since 2017, due to the war in Donbas There is also a female football club WFC Zhytlobud-1 Kharkiv, which represented Ukraine in the European competitions and constantly is the main contender for the national title. Metalist Stadium hosted three group matches at UEFA Euro 2012. ### Other sports Kharkiv also had some ice hockey clubs, MHC Dynamo Kharkiv, Vityaz Kharkiv, Yunost Kharkiv, HC Kharkiv, who competed in the Ukrainian Hockey Championship. Avangard Budy is a bandy club from Kharkiv, which won the Ukrainian championship in 2013. There are a men's volleyball teams, Lokomotyv Kharkiv and Yurydychna Akademiya Kharkiv, which performed in Ukraine and in European competitions. RC Olymp is the city's rugby union club. They provide many players for the national team. Tennis is also a popular sport in Kharkiv. There are many professional tennis courts in the city. Elina Svitolina is a tennis player from Kharkiv. There is a golf club in Kharkiv. Horseriding as a sport is also popular among locals. There are large stables and horse riding facilities at Feldman Ecopark in Kharkiv. There is a growing interest in cycling among locals. There is a large bicycles producer, Kharkiv Bicycle Plant within the city. Presently, the modern bicycle highway is under construction at the "Leso park" (Лісопарк) district in Kharkiv. People ------ * Anastasia Afanasieva (born 1982) - psychiatrist, poet, writer, translator * Nikolai P. Barabashov (1894–1971) – astronomer, co-author of the first pictures of the far side of the moon * Pavel Batitsky (1910–1984) – Soviet military leader * Vladimir Bobri (1898–1986) – illustrator, author, composer, educator and guitar historian * Inna Bohoslovska (born 1960) – lawyer, politician and leader of the Ukrainian public organization Viche * Sergei Bortkiewicz (1877–1952) – Russian Romantic composer and pianist * Maria Burmaka (born 1970) – Ukrainian singer, musician and songwriter * Leonid Bykov (1928–1979) – Soviet actor, film director, and script writer * Cassandre (1901–1968) – Ukrainian-French painter, commercial poster artist, and typeface designer * Juliya Chernetsky (born 1982) – TV host, actress, model, and music promoter in the US. *(Mistress Juliya)* * Andrey Denisov (born 1952) a Russian diplomat in China * Vladimir Drinfeld (born 1954) – mathematician, awarded Fields Medal in 1990 * Isaak Dunayevsky (1900–1955) – Soviet composer and conductor * Konstanty Gorski (1859–1924) – Polish composer, violist, organist and music teacher * Valentina Grizodubova (1909–1993) – one of the first female pilots in the Soviet Union * Lyudmila Gurchenko (1935–2011) – Soviet and Russian actress, singer and entertainer * Mikhail Gurevich (1892–1976) – Soviet aircraft designer, a partner (with Artem Mikoyan) of the MiG military aviation bureau * Diana Harkusha (born 1994) – Miss Ukraine Universe 2014 and Miss Universe 2014's 2nd Runner-up * Leonid Haydamaka (1898–1991) – bandurist and conductor * Vasily Karazin (1773–1842) – founder of National University of Kharkiv, which bears his name * Hnat Khotkevych (1877–1938) – writer, ethnographer, composer, bandurist * Mikhail Koshkin (1898–1940)– chief designer of Soviet tank T-34 * Olga Krasko (born 1981) – Russian actress * Mykola Kulish (1892–1937) – Ukrainian prose writer, playwright and pedagogue * Les Kurbas (1887–1937) - a Ukrainian movie and theatre director and dramatist * Simon Kuznets (1901–1985) – Russian-American economist * Evgeny Lifshitz (1915–1985) – Soviet physicist * Eduard Limonov (1943–2020) – writer, poet and controversial politician * Gleb Lozino-Lozinskiy (1909–2001) – lead developer of Soviet Shuttle Buran program * Aleksandr Lyapunov (1857–1918) – Russian mathematician and physicist, invented motion stability theory * Boris Mikhailov (born 1938) – photographer and artist * Mykola Mikhnovsky (1873–1924) – Ukrainian political leader and activist * T-DJ Milana (born 1989) – DJ, composer, dancer and model, lives in Kharkiv * Yuri Nikitin (born 1939) – a Russian science fiction and fantasy writer. * H. L. Oldie (Dmitry Gromov and Oleg Ladyzhensky) (both born 1963)– writers * Justine Pasek (born 1979) – Miss Universe 2002 * Valerian Pidmohylny (1901-1937) – poet, novelist and literary critic * Olga Rapay-Markish (1929–2012) – ceramicist * Serafina Schachova – nephrologist * Eugen Schauman (1875–1904) – Finnish nationalist, killed Russian general NA Bobrikov * Alexander Shchetynsky (born 1960) – composer of solo, orchestral and choral pieces. * George Shevelov (1908–2002) – linguist, essayist, literary historian and literary critic * Elena Sheynina (born 1965) – children's author * Lev Shubnikov (1901–1937) – Soviet experimental physicist, worked in the Netherlands and USSR * Klavdiya Shulzhenko (1906–1984) – Soviet and Russian popular female singer and actress. * Alexander Siloti (1863–1945) – Russian pianist, conductor and composer * Hryhorii Skovoroda (1722–1794) – poet, philosopher and composer * Karina Smirnoff (born 1978) – world champion dancer, starring on *Dancing with the Stars* * Jura Soyfer (1912–1939) – Austrian political journalist and cabaret writer * Otto Struve (1897–1963) – Russian-American astronomer * Sergei Sviatchenko (born 1952) Danish-Ukrainian artist, photographer and architect. * Mark Taimanov (1926–2016) – concert pianist and chess player * Nikolai Tikhonov (1905–1997) - a Soviet Russian-Ukrainian statesman during the Cold War. * Yevgeniy Timoshenko (born 1988) – poker player in the US * Andriy Tsaplienko (born 1968) - Ukrainian journalist, presenter, filmmaker and writer. * Anna Tsybuleva (born 1990) – classical pianist, winner of the Leeds International Piano Competition * Anna Ushenina (born 1985) – women's world chess champion * Vladimir Vasyutin (1952–2002) – Soviet cosmonaut of Ukrainian descent * Vitali Vitaliev (born 1954) – journalist and author * Alexander Voevodin (born 1949) – biomedical scientist and educator * Yevgania Yosifovna Yakhina (1918 – 1983) – composer * Vasyl Yermylov (1894–1968) - Ukrainian and Soviet painter, avant-garde artist and designer. * Serhiy Zhadan (born 1974) - Ukrainian poet, novelist, essayist and translator. * Valentine Yanovna Zhubinskaya (1926–2013) Ukrainian composer, concertmistress and pianist * Irina Zhurina (born 1946) Russian operatic coloratura soprano. * Alexander Zorich (Dmitry Gordevsky and Yana Botsman) (both born 1973) – writers ### Sport * Leonid Buryak (born 1953) – football coach and former footballer * Valentina Chepiga (born 1962) – female bodybuilder and 2000 Ms. Olympia champion * Olga Danilov (born 1973) – Israeli Olympic speed skater * Alexander Davidovich (born 1967) – Israeli Olympic wrestler * Mikhail Gurevich – (born 1959) a Belgian chess player. * Oleksandr Gvozdyk (born 1987) – boxer * Pavlo Ishchenko (born 1992) – Olympic Ukrainian-Israeli boxer * Oleksandr Kachorenko (born 1980) – professional footballer * Maksym Kalynychenko (born 1979) – footballer * Igor Olshanetskyi (born 1986) – Israeli Olympic weightlifter * Gennady Orlov (born 1945) - Russian sports journalist and former footballer * Ivan Pravilov (1963–2012) - ice hockey coach, sexually abused a teenage student, committed suicide by hanging in prison * Irina Press (1939–2004) – athlete who won two Olympic gold medals * Tamara Press (1937–2021) – Soviet shot putter and discus thrower * Oleh Ptachyk (born 1981) – retired Ukrainian footballer * Igor Rybak (1934–2005) – Olympic champion lightweight weightlifter * Elina Svitolina (born 1994) – tennis player * Ievgeniia Tetelbaum (born 1991) – Israeli Olympic synchronized swimmer * Artem Tsoglin (born 1997) – Israeli pair skater * Yury Vengerovsky (1938–1998) – Olympic gold medal-winning volleyball player * Igor Vovchanchyn (born 1973) – Mixed martial artist * Oleksandr Zhdanov (born 1984) – Ukrainian-Israeli footballer ### Nobel and Fields prize winners * Élie Metchnikoff (1845–1916) - a Russian/French zoologist; researched immunology; jointly awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine * Simon Kuznets (1901–1985) - an American economist and statistician; received the 1971 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences * Lev Landau (1908–1968) - a Soviet physicist, made fundamental contributions to theoretical physics; Nobel Prize in Physics 1962 * Vladimir Drinfeld (born 1954) - a mathematician now in the United States; awarded the Fields Medal in 1990 Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Kharkiv is twinned with: * Italy Bologna, Italy (1966) * Czech Republic Brno, Czech Republic (2005) * Montenegro Cetinje, Montenegro (2011) * United States Cincinnati, United States (1989) * South Korea Daejeon, South Korea (2013) * Latvia Daugavpils, Latvia (2006) * Hungary Debrecen, Hungary (2016) * Turkey Gaziantep, Turkey (2011) * Cyprus Geroskipou, Cyprus (2018) * China Jinan, China (2004) * Lithuania Kaunas, Lithuania (2001) * Georgia (country) Kutaisi, Georgia (2005) * France Lille, France (1978) * Slovenia Maribor, Slovenia (2012) * Germany Nuremberg, Germany (1990) * Cyprus Polis, Cyprus (2018) * Poland Poznań, Poland (1998) * Israel Rishon LeZion, Israel (2008) * Georgia (country) Tbilisi, Georgia (2012) * China Tianjin, China (1993) * Albania Tirana, Albania (2017) * Slovakia Trnava, Slovakia (2013) * Bulgaria Varna, Bulgaria (1995) See also -------- * Grigoriev Institute for Medical Radiology * Kharkiv fortress [uk; ru] Sources ------- Listen to this article (2 minutes) Spoken Wikipedia iconThis audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 7 January 2016 (2016-01-07), and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles)

Kharkiv

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharkiv

***David*** is a masterpiece of Italian Renaissance sculpture, created from 1501 to 1504 by Michelangelo. With a height of 5.17 metres (17 ft 0 in), the *David* was the first colossal marble statue after antiquity, a precedent for the 16th century and beyond. *David* was originally commissioned as one of a series of statues of prophets to be positioned along the roofline of the east end of Florence Cathedral (*Duomo di Firenze*), but was instead placed in the public square in front of the Palazzo della Signoria, the seat of civic government in Florence, where it was unveiled on 8 September 1504. In 1873, the statue was moved to the Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence, and in 1910 replaced at the original location by a replica. The biblical figure David was a favoured subject in the art of Florence. Because of the nature of the figure it represented, the statue soon came to symbolize the defence of civil liberties embodied in the Republic of Florence, an independent city-state threatened on all sides by more powerful rival states and by the hegemony of the Medici family. History ------- ### Commission The history of the statue begins before Michelangelo's work on it from 1501 to 1504. The Cathedral's Overseers of the Office of Works, known as the *Operai del Duomo*, was a 12-member committee that organised competitions, chose the best entries, commissioned the prevailing artists, and paid for the finished work. Consisting mostly of members of the influential woolen cloth guild, the Arte della Lana, it had plans to commission a series of twelve large sculptures for the buttresses of the cathedral prior to Michelangelo's involvement. In 1410, Donatello made the first of the statues, a figure of Joshua in terracotta. A figure of Hercules, also in terracotta, was commissioned from the Florentine sculptor Agostino di Duccio in 1463 and was made perhaps under Donatello's direction. Eager to continue their project, in 1464, the *Operai* contracted Agostino to create a sculpture of David. A block of marble was provided from a quarry in Carrara, a town in the Apuan Alps in northern Tuscany. Agostino only got as far as beginning to shape the legs, feet, torso, roughing out some drapery, and probably gouging a hole between the legs. His association with the project ceased, for reasons unknown, with the death of Donatello in 1466, and ten years later Antonio Rossellino was commissioned to take up where Agostino had left off. Rossellino's contract was terminated soon thereafter, and the block of marble remained neglected for 26 years, all the while exposed to the elements in the yard of the cathedral workshop. This was of great concern to the *Opera* authorities, as such a large piece of marble was not only costly, but represented a large amount of labour and difficulty in its transportation to Florence. In 1500, an inventory of the cathedral workshops described the piece as "a certain figure of marble called David, badly blocked out and supine." A year later, documents showed that the *Operai* were determined to find an artist who could take this large piece of marble and turn it into a finished work of art. They ordered the block of stone, which they called *il gigante* (the giant), "raised on its feet" so that a master experienced in this kind of work might examine it and express an opinion. Though Leonardo da Vinci among others were consulted, and Andrea Sansovino was also keen to get the commission, it was Michelangelo, at 26 years of age, who convinced the *Operai* that he deserved the commission. On 16 August 1501, Michelangelo was given the official contract to undertake this challenging new task. It said: > ... the Consuls of the *Arte della Lana* and the Lords Overseers being met Overseers, have chosen as sculptor to the said Cathedral the worthy master, Michelangelo, the son of Lodovico Buonarrotti, a citizen of Florence, to the end that he may make, finish and bring to perfection the male figure known as the Giant, nine *braccia* in height, already blocked out in marble by Maestro Agostino *grande*, of Florence, and badly blocked; and now stored in the workshops of the Cathedral. The work shall be completed within the period and term of two years next ensuing, beginning from the first day of September ... > > He began carving the statue early in the morning on 13 September, a month after he was awarded the contract. The contract provided him a workspace behind the *Duomo* in the Opera di Santa Maria del Fiore, paid him a salary of six *fiorini* per month, and allowed him two years to complete the sculpture. When the finished statue was moved from the Opera del Duomo to the Piazza della Signoria, as reported by the chronicler Luca Landucci, a guard was placed to protect it from violence by other artists in Florence who had hoped for the commission. They were hostile to Michelangelo because of his bold request to the wardens of the Cathedral and the governor of the city, Piero Soderini. Despite the precaution, the sculpture was damaged by stones, leaving still visible marks on the upper part of its back. ### Process The Operai del Duomo had raised the massive block of marble to an upright position prior to the first inspection of their purchase, but a scaffolding had to be built so that Michelangelo could reach every part. The artist began cutting the stone with the *subbia*, a heavy, pointed iron tool used to rough out the main mass, before he employed the two-toothed shorter blade called the *calcagnuolo*. By the time he began to use the three-toothed *gradina*, a serrated claw chisel whose marks are seen in his unfinished sculptures, the basic form of the statue was emerging from the matrix. When he sculpted David's hair and the pupils of his eyes, he used a drill like the ancient sculptors. Michelangelo did without flat chisels in his sculpturing, and brought his pieces to the state of *non finito* almost entirely with toothed chisels. During the 2003 restoration of *David*, Italian researchers observed marks of the *subbia*, the sharpened *subbia da taglio*, the slightly flattened *unghietto* (fingernail), and the *gradina*, as well as marks from a smaller-toothed chisel, the *dente di cane* (dog's tooth). They found no evidence of Michelangelo using flat chisels in the work. ### Placement On 25 January 1504, when the sculpture was nearing completion, Florentine authorities had to acknowledge there would be little possibility of raising the 5.17 metre high statue weighing approximately more than six tons to the roof of the cathedral. They convened a committee of 30 Florentine citizens that included many artists, including Leonardo da Vinci and Sandro Botticelli, to decide on an appropriate site for *David*. While nine different locations for the statue were discussed, the majority of members seem to have been closely split between two sites. One group, led by Giuliano da Sangallo and supported by Leonardo and Piero di Cosimo, among others, believed that, due to the imperfections in the marble, the sculpture should be placed under the roof of the Loggia dei Lanzi on Piazza della Signoria; the other group thought it should stand at the entrance to the Palazzo della Signoria, the city's town hall (now known as Palazzo Vecchio). Another opinion, supported by Botticelli, was that the sculpture should be situated on or near the cathedral. In June 1504, *David* was installed next to the entrance to the Palazzo Vecchio, replacing Donatello's bronze sculpture of *Judith and Holofernes*, which embodied a comparable theme of heroic resistance. It took four days to move the statue the half mile from the cathedral's workshop into the Piazza della Signoria. Later that summer, the sling and tree-stump support were gilded, and the figure was given a gilded loin-garland. ### Later history In the mid-1800s, small cracks were noticed on the left leg on *David*, which can possibly be attributed to an uneven sinking of the ground under the massive statue. In 1873, the statue of *David* was removed from the piazza, to protect it from damage, and displayed in the Accademia Gallery, Florence, where it attracted many visitors. A replica was placed in the Piazza della Signoria in 1910. In 1991, Piero Cannata, an artist whom the police described as deranged, attacked the statue with a hammer he had concealed beneath his jacket. He later said that a 16th-century Venetian painter's model ordered him to do so. Cannata was restrained as he was in the process of damaging the toes of the left foot. On 12 November 2010, a fiberglass replica of *David* was installed on the roofline of Florence Cathedral, for one day only. Photographs of the installation reveal the statue the way the *Operai* who commissioned the work originally expected it to be seen. In 2010, a dispute over the ownership of *David* arose when, based on a legal review of historical documents, the municipality of Florence claimed ownership of the statue in opposition to the Italian Culture Ministry, which disputes the municipal claim. Interpretation -------------- Its slender profile and elegant lines of the arms from the leftThe free leg of the *contraposto* in back viewBack view with the sling running down his spine into his right handA sling handle or a stone in his right hand*David*'s gazeModelling of his chest and bellyComposition of parallel lines The pose of Michelangelo's *David* is unlike that of earlier Renaissance depictions of David. The bronze statues by Donatello and Verrocchio represented the hero standing victorious over the head of Goliath, and the painter Andrea del Castagno had shown the boy in mid-swing, even as Goliath's head rested between his feet, but no earlier Florentine artist had omitted the giant altogether. According to such scholars as Howard Hibbard, David is depicted *before* his battle with Goliath. Rather than being shown victorious over a foe much larger than he, David looks tense and ready for battle after he has made the decision to fight Goliath, but, before the battle has actually taken place. His brow is drawn, his neck tense, and the veins bulge out of his lowered right hand. His left hand holds a sling that is draped over his shoulder and down to his right hand, which holds the handle of the sling. The nudity reflects the story of David as stated in the Bible, I Samuel 17:38–39: "And Saul armed David with his armour, and he put an helmet of brass upon his head; also he armed him with a coat of mail. And David girded his sword upon his armour, and he assayed to go; for he had not proved it. And David said unto Saul, I cannot go with these; for I have not proved them. And David put them off him." The twist of his body effectively conveys to the viewer the feeling that he is about to move; an impression heightened with *contrapposto*. The statue is a Renaissance interpretation of a common ancient Greek theme of the standing heroic male nude. In the Renaissance, contrapposto poses were thought of as a distinctive feature of antique sculpture, initially materialised in the Doryphoros of Polykleitos (c. 440 BC). This is typified in *David*, as the figure stands with one leg holding its full weight and the other leg forward. This classic pose causes both hips and shoulders to rest at opposing angles, giving a slight s-curve to the entire torso. The contrapposto is emphasized by the turn of the head to the left, and by the contrasting positions of the arms. Michelangelo's *David* has become one of the most recognized works of Renaissance sculpture; a symbol of strength and youthful beauty. The colossal size of the statue alone impressed Michelangelo's contemporaries. Vasari described it as "certainly a miracle that of Michelangelo, to restore to life one who was dead", and then listed all of the largest and most grand of the ancient statues that he had ever seen, concluding that Michelangelo's work surpassed "all ancient and modern statues, whether Greek or Latin, that have ever existed." The proportions of the *David* are atypical of Michelangelo's work as well as antique models; the figure has an unusually large head and hands (particularly apparent in the right hand). The small size of the genitals, though, is in line with his other works and with Renaissance conventions in general, perhaps referencing the ancient Greek ideal of pre-pubescent male nudity. These enlargements may be due to the fact that the statue was originally intended to be placed on the cathedral roofline, where the important parts of the sculpture may have been accentuated in order to be visible from below. The statue is unusually slender (front to back) in comparison to its height, which may be a result of the work done on the block before Michelangelo began carving it. Certainly, David the giant-killer had long been seen as a political symbol in Florence, and images of the biblical hero already carried political implications there. Donatello's bronze *David,* made for the Medici family, perhaps c. 1440, had been appropriated by the Signoria in 1494, when the Medici were exiled from Florence, and the statue was installed in the courtyard of the Palazzo della Signoria, where it stood for the Republican government of the city. By placing Michelangelo's statue in the same general location, it is not likely that the *David* was conceived as a political statue before Michelangelo began work on it, as well as an artistic response to that earlier work. But while the original place for the *David* was high up on the religious building, in the reports of the commission consisting of the most prominent artists of the day, only the best placement for the collossal figure to be seen and appreciated was discussed with an installation on the cathedral was still in question. These political overtones led to the statue being attacked twice in its early days. Protesters pelted it with stones the year it debuted, and, in 1527, an anti-Medici riot resulted in its left arm being broken into three pieces. Commentators have noted the presence of foreskin on *David*'s penis, which may appear at odds with the Judaic practice of circumcision. The artistic deviation from what very likely would have been accurately portrayed as a circumcised penis though, is in keeping with the conventions of Renaissance art. Moreover, these commentators have failed to distinguish between the more recent development of *periah --* which ablates the entirety of the inner and outer foreskin -- with pre-*periah* circumcision, as practiced by Jews before the early centuries AD. Circumcision without *periah* only removes the portion of the prepuce that extends past the glans, leaving a larger portion of the foreskin intact. Conservation ------------ During World War II, *David* was entombed in brick to protect it from damage from airborne bombs. In 1991, the foot of the statue was damaged by a man with a hammer. The samples obtained from that incident allowed scientists to determine that the marble used was obtained from the Fantiscritti quarries in Miseglia, the central of three small valleys in Carrara. The marble in question contains many microscopic holes that cause it to deteriorate faster than other marbles. Because of the marble's degradation, on the eve of the 500th anniversary of the sculpture's unveiling in 2004 the statue was given its first major cleaning since 1843. The original restorer, Agnese Parronchi, opposed the pre-specified method to clean the statue, fearing further deterioration, and quit. Under the direction of Franca Falleti, senior restorers Monica Eichmann and Cinzia Parnigoni undertook the job of restoring the statue. In 2008, plans were proposed to insulate the statue from the vibration of tourists' footsteps at Florence's Galleria dell'Accademia, to prevent damage to the marble. ### Replicas *David* has stood on display at Florence's Galleria dell'Accademia since 1873. In addition to the full-sized replica occupying the spot of the original in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, a bronze version overlooks Florence from the Piazzale Michelangelo. The plaster cast of *David* at the Victoria and Albert Museum has a detachable plaster fig leaf which is displayed nearby. Legend claims that the fig leaf was created in response to Queen Victoria's shock upon first viewing the statue's nudity, and was hung on the figure prior to royal visits, using two strategically placed hooks. *David* has often been reproduced, in plaster and imitation marble fiberglass, signifying an attempt to lend an atmosphere of culture even in some unlikely settings such as beach resorts, gambling casinos and model railroads. See also -------- * List of works by Michelangelo * List of tallest statues * Sculpture in the Renaissance period 43°46′36.13″N 11°15′34.02″E / 43.7767028°N 11.2594500°E / 43.7767028; 11.2594500

David (Michelangelo)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_(Michelangelo)

The **First Epistle to Timothy** is one of three letters in the New Testament of the Bible often grouped together as the pastoral epistles, along with Second Timothy and Titus. The letter, traditionally attributed to the Apostle Paul, consists mainly of counsels to his younger colleague and delegate Timothy regarding his ministry in Ephesus (1:3). These counsels include instructions on the organization of the Church and the responsibilities resting on certain groups of leaders therein as well as exhortations to faithfulness in maintaining the truth amid surrounding errors. Most modern scholars consider the pastoral epistles to have been written after Paul's death, although "a small and declining number of scholars still argue for Pauline authorship". Authorship ---------- The authorship of First Timothy was traditionally attributed to the Apostle Paul, although in pre-Nicene Christianity this attribution was often in dispute. He is named as the author of the letter in the text (1:1). Nineteenth- and twentieth-century scholarship questioned the authenticity of the letter, with many scholars suggesting that First Timothy, along with Second Timothy and Titus, are not the work of Paul, but to an unidentified Christian writing some time in the late-first to mid-second centuries. Most scholars now affirm this view. As evidence for this perspective, they put forward that the pastoral epistles contain 306 words that Paul does not use in his unquestioned letters, that their style of writing is different from that of his unquestioned letters, that they reflect conditions and a church organization not current in Paul's day, and that they do not appear in early lists of his canonical works. Modern scholars who support Pauline authorship nevertheless stress their importance regarding the question of authenticity: I. H. Marshall and P. H. Towner wrote that "the key witness is Polycarp, where there is a high probability that 1 and 2 Tim were known to him". Similarly M. W. Holmes argued that it is "virtually certain or highly probable" that Polycarp used 1 and 2 Timothy. Marcion, an orthodox bishop later excommunicated for heresy, formed an early canon of scripture c. 140 around the Gospel of Luke and ten of the canonical Pauline epistles excluding 1–2 Timothy and Titus. The reasons for these exclusions are unknown, and so speculation abounds, including the hypotheses that they were not written until after Marcion's time, or that he knew of them, but regarded them as inauthentic. Proponents of Pauline authorship argue that he had theological grounds for rejecting the pastorals, namely their teaching about the goodness of creation (cf. 1 Timothy 4:1 *ff*.). The question remains whether Marcion knew these three letters and rejected them as Tertullian says, since in 1 Timothy 6:20 "false opposing arguments" are referred to, with the word for "opposing arguments" being "antithesis", the name of Marcion's work, and so a subtle hint of Marcion's heresy. However, the structure of the Church presupposed is less developed than the one Ignatius of Antioch (who wrote c. 110) presupposes, as well as the fact that not only is "antithesis" itself a Greek word which simply means "opposing arguments" but as it has been noted, the attack on the heretics is not central to the three letters. Late in the 2nd century there are a number of quotations from all three pastoral epistles in Irenaeus' work *Against Heresies*. The *Muratorian Canon* (c. 170–180) lists the books of the New Testament and ascribes all three pastoral epistles to Paul. Eusebius (c. 330) calls it, along with the other thirteen canonical Pauline epistles, "undisputed". Exceptions to this positive witness include Tatian, as well as the gnostic Basilides. Possible earlier allusions are found in the letters from Clement of Rome to the Corinthians (c. 95), Ignatius to the Ephesians (c. 110) and Polycarp to the Philippians (c. 130), although it is difficult to determine the nature of any such literary relationships. Date ---- Modern scholars generally place its composition some time in the late 1st century or first half of the 2nd century AD, with a wide margin of uncertainty. The term Gnosis ("knowledge") itself occurs in 1 Timothy 6:20. If the parallels between 1 Timothy and Polycarp's epistle are understood as a literary dependence by the latter on the former, as is generally accepted, this would constitute a *terminus ante quem* of 130–155 AD. Likewise, there are a series of verbal agreements between Ignatius and 1 Timothy which cluster around a 14 verse section in 1 Timothy 1. If these parallels between Ignatius and 1 Timothy represent a literary dependence by Ignatius, this would move the date of 1 Timothy even earlier. However, Irenaeus (writing c. 180 AD) is the earliest author to clearly and unequivocally describe the Pastorals. The earliest known writing of 1 Timothy has been found on Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 5259, designated P133, in 2017. It comes from a leaf of a codex which is dated to the 3rd century. Outline ------- 1. Salutation (1:1–2) 2. Negative Instructions: Stop the False Teachers (1:3–20) 1. Warning against False Teachers (1:3–11) 1. The Charge to Timothy Stated (1:3) 2. Their Wrong Use of the Law (1:4–7) 3. The Right Use of the Law (1:8–11) 2. Paul's Experience of Grace (1:12–17) 3. The Charge to Timothy Repeated (1:18–20) 3. Positive Instructions: Repair the Church (2:1–6:10) 1. Restoring the Conduct of the Church (2:1–3:16) 1. Instructions on Public Worship (2:1–15) 1. Concerning Prayer (2:1–7) 2. Concerning the Role of Men and Women (2:8–15) 1. Men: Pray in a Holy Manner (2:8) 2. Women: Quiet Conduct (2:9–15) 2. Instructions on Church Leadership (3:1–13) 1. Qualifications of Overseers (Elders) (3:1–7) 2. Qualifications of Deacons (3:8–13) 3. Summary (3:14–16) 1. Conduct of the Church (3:14–15) 2. Hymn to Christ (3:16) 2. Guarding the Truth in the Church (4:1–16) 1. In the Face of Apostasy (4:1–5) 2. Timothy's Personal Responsibilities (4:6–16) 3. Spiritual Exercises (4:7–9) 3. Dealing with Groups in the Church (5:1–6:10) 1. Men and Women, Young and Old (5:1–2) 2. Widows (5:3–16) 1. Older Widows (5:3–10) 2. Younger Widows (5:11–16) 3. Elders (5:17–25) 1. The Reward of Elders (5:17–18) 2. The Reputation of Elders (5:19–20) 1. The Reputation of Elders Protected (5:19) 2. The Sins of Elders Publicly Rebuked (5:20) 3. The Recognition of Prospective Elders (5:21–25) 4. Slaves (6:1–2) 5. False Teachers (6:3–10) 4. Personal Instructions: Pursue Godliness (6:11–21) 1. Fight the Good Fight (6:11–16) 2. A Final Word to the Wealthy (6:17–19) 3. Guard What has been Entrusted (6:20–21) Content ------- The epistle opens by stating that it was written by Paul, to Timothy. Paul reminds Timothy that he has asked Timothy to stay in Ephesus and prevent false teaching of the law by others. Paul says that law is to be applied to sinners like rebels, murderers, and the sexually immoral. The list of lawbreakers includes the Greek word ἀρσενοκοίτης, which is sometimes translated to mean "homosexual men". The epistle is well known for what it says about the roles of men and women in its second chapter, particularly the verse 1 Timothy 2:12. In the NIV translation this verse reads: > I do not permit a woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she must be silent. > > The epistle justifies this by saying that Adam was formed before Eve, and that Eve was tricked by the serpent. Leaders of the church are to conduct themselves in a manner worthy of respect, avoiding overindulgence in wine and managing their affairs well. Timothy is advised to avoid false teachings and focus on the truth. The author discusses a list of widows to be supported by the church, setting restrictions on the types of women to help: only old widows who never remarry and who prioritize their family are to receive help. Widows younger than sixty have sensual desires that may cause them to remarry. Slaves should respect their masters, especially if their masters are believers. People should avoid envy and avoid the temptation to focus on becoming rich because "the love of money is the root of all kinds of evil." In closing, Timothy is told he should continue to "fight the good fight of the faith" by helping others to be virtuous and by running his church well. Music ----- Several composers, including Johann Sebastian Bach, set a line from the epistle as a Christmas cantata, including Stölzel's *Kündlich groß ist das gottselige Geheimnis* beginning with 1 Timothy 3:16. See also -------- * 1 Timothy 2:12 * *An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture* * Pseudepigrapha * Second Epistle to Timothy * Textual variants in the New Testament#First Epistle to Timothy | | | --- | | First Epistle to Timothy **Pauline Pastoral Epistle** | | Preceded bySecond Thessalonians | **New TestamentBooks of the Bible** | Succeeded bySecond Timothy |

First Epistle to Timothy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Epistle_to_Timothy

**Dundalk** (/dʌnˈdɔː(l)k/ *dun-DAW(L)K*; Irish: *Dún Dealgan* [ˌd̪ˠuːn̪ˠ ˈdʲalˠɡənˠ]), meaning "the fort of Dealgan", is the county town (the administrative centre) of County Louth, Ireland. The town is on the Castletown River, which flows into Dundalk Bay on the east coast of Ireland. It is halfway between Dublin and Belfast, close to the border with Northern Ireland. It is the eighth largest urban area in Ireland, with a population of 39,004 as of the 2016 census. Having been inhabited since the Neolithic period, Dundalk was established as a Norman stronghold in the 12th century following the Norman invasion of Ireland, and became the northernmost outpost of The Pale in the Late Middle Ages. The town came to be nicknamed the "Gap of the North" where the northernmost point of the province of Leinster meets the province of Ulster. The modern street layout dates from the early 18th century and owes its form to James Hamilton (later 1st Earl of Clanbrassil). The legends of the mythical warrior hero Cú Chulainn are set in the district and the motto on the town's coat of arms is *Mé do rug Cú Chulainn cróga*  (Irish) "I gave birth to brave Cú Chulainn". The town developed brewing, distilling, tobacco, textile, and engineering industries during the nineteenth century. It became prosperous and its population grew as it became an important manufacturing and trading centre—both as a hub on the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) network and with its maritime link to Liverpool from the Port of Dundalk. It later suffered from high unemployment and urban decay after these industries closed or scaled back operations both in the aftermath of the Partition of Ireland in 1921 and following the accession of Ireland to the European Economic Community in 1973. New industries have been established in the early part of the 21st century, including pharmaceutical, technology, financial services, and specialist foods. There is one third-level education institute—Dundalk Institute of Technology. The largest theatre in the town, *An Táin* Arts Centre (named after the legend of the same name), is housed in the Town Hall, and the restored buildings of the nearby former Dundalk Distillery house both the County Museum Dundalk and the Louth County Library. Sporting clubs include Dundalk Football Club (who play at Oriel Park), Dundalk Rugby Club, Dundalk Golf Club, and several clubs competing in Gaelic games. Dundalk Stadium is a horse and greyhound racing venue and is Ireland's only all-weather horse racing track. History ------- ### Early history and legend Archaeological studies at Rockmarshall indicate that the Dundalk area was first inhabited circa 3700 BC following the end of the last Ice Age, during the Neolithic period. Visible evidence of this early presence can be seen in the form of the Proleek Dolmen, a portal tomb in the Ballymascanlon area, north of Dundalk, which dates to around 3000 BC. A wedge-shaped gallery grave (known as the "Giant's Grave") is nearby. Other pre-Christian archaeological sites in the Dundalk Municipal District are Rockmarshall Court Tomb, a court cairn, and Aghnaskeagh Cairns, a chambered cairn and portal tomb. The legends of Cú Chulainn, including the *Táin Bó Cúailnge* (The Cattle Raid of Cooley), an epic of early Irish literature, are set in the first century AD, before the arrival of Christianity to Ireland. *Clochafarmore*, the menhir that Cú Chulainn reputedly tied himself to before he died, is located to the west of the town, near Knockbridge. According to the *Annals of the Four Masters*, a battle was fought at Faughart (a townland 6 km north of the centre of Dundalk, near the Moyry Pass) between Cormac mac Airt, High King of Ireland and Storno (or Starno), King of Lochlin, in 248. The story is folklore and both characters are ahistorical. Evidence of settlements from early Christian Ireland are to be found in the high concentration of souterrains in north Louth. The high concentration of souterrains indicates that the area was regularly subject to raids, and the discovery of a type of pottery known as 'souterrain ware', which has only been found in north Louth, County Down and County Antrim, indicates that these areas shared cultural ties separate from the rest of early historic Ireland. The concentration of souterrains drops significantly on crossing the River Fane to the south, indicating that the district was a border area between separate kingdoms. Saint Brigid is reputed to have been born in 451 AD in Faughart. A shrine to her is located at Faughart. St Brigid's Church in Kilcurry holds what worshippers believe is a relic of the saint—a fragment of her skull, which was brought to the church in 1905 by Sister Mary Agnes of the Dundalk Convent of Mercy. ### Middle Ages Most of what is recorded about the Dundalk area between the fifth century and the foundation of the town as a Norman stronghold in the 12th century comes from the *Annals of the Four Masters* and the *Annals of Tigernach*, which were both written hundreds of years after the events they record. According to the annals, the plains of North Louth incorporating what is now Dundalk were known as *Magh Muirthemne* (the Plain of the Dark Sea). The area, bordered to the northeast by *Cuailgne* (the Cooley peninsula) and to the south by the *Ciannachta*, was ruled by a Cruthin kingdom known as *Conaille Muirtheimne* (who were aligned to the *Ulaid*) in the early Christian period. According to the annals, a battle was fought at Faughart in 732 by Áed Allán, High King of Ireland against the *Ulaid*, for which there is no contemporary evidence. The *Annals of Ulster* record that in 851, Danish Vikings (the Dubhgall) attempted to attack the Norwegian Viking (Fingall) settlement at Annagassan at the southern end of Dundalk Bay and were heavily defeated. The following year, Norwegian Vikings based in Scotland were sent to attack the Danes in Carlingford Lough but their expedition was unsuccessful. D'Alton's *History of Dundalk* recounts an apocryphal tale of the "Battle of Dundalk": Sitric, son of Turgesius, ruler of the Danes in Ireland, had offered Callaghan, the King of Munster, his sister in marriage. But it was a trick to take the king prisoner and he was captured and held hostage in Armagh. An army was raised in Munster and marched on Armagh to free the king, but he had been removed to Sitric's ship in Dundalk Bay. However, a fleet from Munster attacked the Danes in the bay from the south. During the sea battle, the Munster admiral, Failbhe Fion, boarded Sitric's ship and freed the king, but was killed by Sitric who put Failbhe Fion's head on a pole. Failbhe Fion's second in command, Fingal, enraged, seized Sitric by the neck and jumped into the sea where they both drowned. Two more Irish captains, seeing this, each grabbed one of Sitric's two brothers and did the same, and the Danes subsequently surrendered. Prior to the arrival of the Normans, the district can be said to have entirely comprised rural settlements, although there are historical references to a pre-Norman town called *Traghbaile* (anglicised as Traghbally: Seatown), the name of which could originate from the legend of the death of Baile Mac Buain—hence *Traghbaile*, meaning 'Baile's Strand'. By the time of the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169, *Magh Muirthemne* had been absorbed into the kingdom of *Airgíalla* (Oriel) under the Ó Cearbhaills. In about 1185, the Norman nobleman Bertram de Verdun erected a manor house at Castletown Mount on the ancient site of *Dún Dealgan* *(Dún* being the Irish language term for a type of medieval fort and *Dealga* being the name of a mythical Fir Bolg Chieftain. De Verdon founded his settlement seemingly without resistance from *Airgíalla* (the Ó Cearbhaills are recorded as having submitted to Henry II), and in 1187 he founded an Augustinian friary under the patronage of St Leonard. He was awarded the lands around what is now Dundalk by Prince John on the death of Murchadh Ó Cearbhaill in 1189. On de Verdun's death in Jaffa in 1192, his lands at Dundalk passed to his son Thomas and then to his second son, Nicholas, when Thomas died. In 1236, Nicholas's daughter Roesia commissioned Castle Roche 10 km north-west of the present-day town, on a large rocky outcrop with a commanding view of the surrounding countryside. It was completed by her son, John, in the 1260s. The Ulster Irish sided with Edward Bruce, brother of the Scottish king Robert the Bruce after he landed at Larne on 26 May 1315. As his army made its way south through Ulster, they destroyed the de Verdun fortress at Castle Roche and attacked Dundalk on 29 June. The town was almost totally destroyed and its population, both Anglo-Irish and Gaelic, massacred. After taking possession of the town, Bruce proclaimed himself King of Ireland. Following three more years of battles across the north-eastern part of the island, Bruce was killed and his army defeated at the Battle of Faughart by a force led by John de Birmingham, who was created the 1st Earl of Louth as a reward. Later generations of de Verduns continued to own lands at Dundalk into the 14th century. Following the death of Theobald de Verdun, 2nd Baron Verdun in 1316 without a male heir, the family's landholdings were split. One of Theobold de Verdun's daughters, Joan, married the second Baron Furnivall, Thomas de Furnivall, and his family subsequently acquired much of the de Verdun land at Dundalk. The de Furnivall family's coat of arms formed the basis of the seal of the 'New Town of Dundalk'—a 14th-century seal discovered in the early 20th century, which became the town's coat of arms in 1968. The 'new town' that was established in the 13th century is the present-day town centre; the 'old town of the Castle of Dundalk' being the original de Verdun settlement at Castletown Mount some 2 km to the west. The de Furnivalls then sold their holdings to the Bellew family, another Norman family long established in County Meath. The town was granted its first formal charter as a 'New Town' in the late 14th century under the reign of Richard II of England. Effectively a frontier town as the northernmost outpost of The Pale, Dundalk continued to grow as the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries progressed. The town was heavily fortified, as it was regularly attacked—with at least 14 separate assaults, sieges or demands for tribute by a resurgent native Irish population recorded between 1300 and 1600 (with more than that number being likely). The O'Neills and O'Donnells of Ulster ransacked the town at least twice and threatened it on at least three other occasions between 1423 and 1444. ### English rule In advance of crowning himself 'King of Ireland' in 1542, Henry VIII extended his policy of Dissolution of the Monasteries to Ireland, and in 1540 the Priory of St Leonard, founded by Bertram de Verdun, was surrendered. During the subsequent Tudor conquest of Ireland, Dundalk remained the northern outpost of English rule. When the conquest was over, it was recorded that the lands and property of Dundalk were in the hands of Sir John Bellew and Sir John Draycot. The town was later used as a base of operations for the English, led by Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy, for their push into Ulster through the 'Gap of the North' (the Moyry Pass) in 1600, during the Nine Years' War. Following the Flight of the Earls, the subsequent Plantation of Ulster (and the associated suppression of Catholicism) resulted in the Irish Rebellion of 1641. After only token resistance, Dundalk was occupied by an Ulster Irish Catholic army on 31 October. They subsequently tried and failed to take Drogheda and retreated to Dundalk. The Royal Irish Army, who were led by the Duke of Ormond (and known as Ormondists), in turn, laid siege to Dundalk and overran and plundered the town in March 1642, killing many inhabitants. The Royalists continued to occupy the town, during which time they maintained a truce with the Irish Catholic Confederation who had succeeded the rebels of 1641, as the English Civil War developed. In 1647, the town was occupied by the Northern Parliamentary Army of George Monck, who held it for two years before surrendering it back to the Ormondists. It was quickly retaken by the forces of Oliver Cromwell, who had landed in Ireland in August 1649 and sacked Drogheda. After the massacre in Drogheda, Cromwell wrote to the Ormondist commander in Dundalk warning him that his garrison would suffer the same fate if it did not surrender. The Duke of Ormond ordered the commander to have his men burn the town before his retreat but they did not do so, such was their haste to leave. For the remainder of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, the town was again used as a base for operations against the Irish in Ulster. The Corporation of Dundalk was granted a new charter by Charles II on 4 March 1673, after the Restoration of the monarchy. The forfeiture of property and settlements carried out during the Restoration saw much of the land of Dundalk granted to Marcus Trevor, 1st Viscount Dungannon, who had fought for both sides in the war. Even though the Bellews were seen as Papists, Sir John Bellew appears to have held on to much of his family's land. English politics were soon impacting Ireland again, and in 1689 the Williamite commander, Schomberg landed in Belfast and marched unopposed to Dundalk, but, as the bulk of his forces were raw and undisciplined as well as inferior in numbers to the Jacobite Irish Army, he decided against risking a battle. He entrenched himself at Dundalk and declined to be drawn beyond the circle of his defences. With poor logistics and struck by disease, over 5,000 of his troops died and an opportunity to end the war by taking Dundalk from the Jacobites was missed. After the end of the Williamite War, the third Viscount Dungannon, Mark Trevor, sold the Dundalk estate to James Hamilton of Tollymore, County Down. Hamilton's son, also James, was created Viscount Limerick in 1719 and then the first Earl of Clanbrassil in 1756. The modern town of Dundalk largely owes its form to Hamilton. The military activity of the 17th century had left much of the town's walls in ruins. With the collapse of the Gaelic aristocracy and the total takeover of the country by the English, Dundalk was no longer a frontier town and no longer had a need for its 15th-century fortifications. Hamilton commissioned the construction of streets leading to the town centre; his ideas stemming from his visits to Continental Europe. In addition to the demolition of the old walls and castles, he had new roads laid out eastwards of the principal streets. When the first Earl died in 1758, the estates passed to his son, again James, the second Earl of Clanbrassil, who died without an heir in 1798. The second Earl's sister, Lady Anne Hamilton, had married Robert Jocelyn in 1752. The Jocelyns were originally landowners in County Tipperary and Robert Jocelyn was created first Earl of Roden in 1771. On the death of the second Earl of Clanbrassil, the Earls of Roden succeeded to the Dundalk estate. Several portions of the Roden Dundalk estate were sold off under the auspices of the various land acts of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, culminating in the Irish Free State government lands purchase acts of the 1920s. The residue of the estate, mainly freeholds and ground rents, was sold in 2006, thus finally severing the links between the Earls of Roden and the town of Dundalk. During the 18th century, Ireland was controlled by the minority Anglican Protestant Ascendancy via the Penal Laws, which discriminated against both the majority Irish Catholic population and Dissenters. Mirroring other boroughs around the country, Dundalk Corporation was a 'closed shop', consisting of an electorate of 'freemen', most of whom were absentee landlords of the Ascendancy. The Earl of Clanbrassil controlled the procedures for both the nomination of new freemen and the nomination of parliamentary candidates, therefore disenfranchising the local populace. In the late 18th century, the United Irishmen movement, inspired by the American and French revolutions, led to the Rebellion of 1798. In north Louth, the authorities had successfully suppressed the activities of the United Irishmen prior to the rebellion with the help of informants, and several local leaders had been rounded up and imprisoned in Dundalk Gaol. An attack on the military barracks and gaol was planned for 21 June 1798, in order to free prisoners. The attack failed because of a thunderstorm, which dispersed the gathered United Irish volunteers, and two of the jailed leaders - Anthony Marmion and John Hoey - were subsequently tried for treason and hanged. ### After the Acts of Union Following the Act of Union, which came into force on 1 January 1801, The 19th century saw industrial expansion in the town (see Economy) and the construction of several buildings that are landmarks in the town. The first railway links arrived when the Dundalk and Enniskillen Railway opened a line from Quay Street to Castleblayney in 1849, and by 1860 the company operated a route northwest to Derry. Also in 1849, the Dublin and Belfast Junction Railway opened Dundalk railway station. Following a series of mergers, both lines were incorporated into the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) in 1876. The established and merchant classes prospered alongside a general population that suffered from poverty. A typhus epidemic struck in the 1810s, potato-crop failures in the 1820s caused famine, and a cholera epidemic struck in the 1830s. During the Great Famine of the 1840s, the town did not suffer to the same extent as the west and south of Ireland. Cereal-based agriculture, new industries, construction projects, and the arrival of the railway all contributed to sparing the town of its worst effects. Nevertheless, so many people died in the Dundalk Union Workhouse that the graveyard was quickly filled. A second graveyard was opened on the Ardee Road—the Dundalk Famine Graveyard—which is known to contain approximately 4,000 bodies. It was closed in 1905 and was left derelict until the 21st century when local volunteers worked to restore it. In 1858, a ship, the *Mary Stoddart*, was wrecked in Dundalk Bay during a storm. In attempting to rescue the crew, Captain James Joseph Kelly and three volunteer crew drowned when the storm overturned their boat. Five of the *Mary Stoddart* crew were also lost, while 11 were eventually rescued. The Kelly Monument in Roden Place was erected 20 years later as a memorial. The latter part of the 19th century was dominated by the Irish Home Rule movement and Dundalk became a focal point of the politics of the time. The Irish National Land League held a demonstration in Dundalk on New Year's Day, 1881, stated by the local press to be the largest gathering ever seen in the town. The town by this point had become increasingly and overtly nationalistic—for example, the *Dundalk Democrat & People's Journal* newspaper, founded in 1849, had the motto "Ireland for the Irish" on its masthead, and the 'Maid of Erin' monument was erected in the Market Square outside the courthouse to commemorate the centenary of the 1798 rebellion. As the Home Rule movement developed, the sitting Home Rule League MP, Philip Callan, fell afoul of party leader Charles Stewart Parnell, who travelled to Dundalk to oversee efforts to have Callan unseated. Parnell's candidate, Joseph Nolan, defeated Callan in the election of 1885, after a campaign of voter suppression and intimidation on both sides. Following the split in the Irish Parliamentary Party, the leading anti-Parnellite, Tim Healy, won the North Louth seat in 1892, defeating Nolan (who had stayed loyal to Parnell). The campaign, predicted by Healy to be "the nastiest fight in Ireland", saw running battles and mass brawls in the streets between Parnellites, 'Healyites', and 'Callanites'—supporters of Philip Callan, who was trying to regain his seat. The local Sinn Féin cumann was founded in 1907 by Patrick Hughes. It struggled to grow beyond a handful of members owing to the existing political factions. In 1910, on the accession of George V to the English throne, the local High Sheriff, accompanied by police and soldiers, led a proclamation to the new king at the Market Square. The ceremony was interrupted by the local Sinn Féin members, who raised a tricolour beside the Maid of Erin monument and chanted "God Save Ireland" during a rendition of "God Save the King"—giving the party visibility in the town for the first time. Approximately 2,500 men from Louth volunteered for Allied regiments in World War I and it is estimated that 307 men from the Dundalk district died during the war. In the months before the outbreak of the war, the G.N.R. converted nine of its carriages into a mobile 'ambulance train', which could hold 100 wounded soldiers. *Ambulance Train 13* was kept in service for the duration of the war before being decommissioned in 1919. The war came to Dundalk right at its end, when the *S.S. Dundalk* was sunk by a German U-boat on 14 October 1918 on a voyage from Liverpool back to Dundalk. 20 crew-members were killed, while 12 were rescued. Meanwhile, the Easter Rising had changed the political landscape. 80 members of the Irish Volunteers had left Dundalk to take part in the Rising, with orders to destroy the bridge at Slane and take up position in Blanchardstown, outside Dublin. The countermanding order of Eoin MacNeill, followed by the realisation that the Rising had commenced anyway, caused confusion. Members of the unit ended up in Castlebellingham, trying to evade the Dundalk RIC. There, they held several RIC men and a British Army officer at gunpoint until one of the Volunteers, believing the army officer was reaching for a hidden weapon, fired, killing RIC constable Charles McGee. The unit subsequently made their way to North County Dublin until the Rising had ended. They went on the run and most were captured. Four were sentenced to death for the murder of Constable McGee but were released in the general amnesty of 1917. ### Independence In the 1918 Irish general election, Louth elected its first Sinn Féin MP when John J. O'Kelly defeated the sitting MP, Richard Hazleton of the Irish Parliamentary Party, in the closest contest of the election—O'Kelly winning by 255 votes. In the run-up to the election, the local newspapers had supported the Irish Party over Sinn Féin and complained afterwards that the area of Drogheda in County Meath that was included in the Louth constituency had tipped the contest in Sinn Féin's favour. Again, the campaign saw reports of widespread violence and intimidation tactics. There was no strategic military action in north Louth during the Irish War of Independence. Activity consisted of attacks on RIC stations and patrols to seize arms, and acts of sabotage. Arson attacks were a feature of the period in particular. Crown forces committed reprisal attacks in response, hardening support for Sinn Féin. In the aftermath of a shooting of an RIC auxiliary on 17 June 1921, brothers John and Patrick Watters were taken from their home at the Windmill Bar and shot dead. The British authorities subsequently suppressed the *Dundalk Examiner* newspaper for reporting on the incident, and smashed its printing presses. Volunteers from the area led by Frank Aiken were more active in Ulster, and were responsible for the derailing of a military train at Adavoyle railway station, 14 km north of Dundalk, which killed three soldiers, the train's guard, and dozens of horses. The Anglo-Irish Treaty turned Dundalk, once again, into a frontier town. Aiken's Fourth Northern Division continued a guerrilla campaign against the new Northern Ireland government and its Ulster Special Constabulary, with sectarian attacks and reprisals carried out by both sides. In the new Irish Free State, the split over the treaty led to the Irish Civil War. Before the outbreak of hostilities, Éamon de Valera toured Ireland making a series of anti-treaty speeches. In the Market Square on 2 April 1922, before a large crowd, he said that those who had negotiated the treaty "had run across to Lloyd George to be spanked like little boys." Aiken attempted to keep his division neutral during the split over the treaty but events in Dublin overtook his border war. On 16 July 1922, Aiken and all of the anti-treaty elements among his men were arrested and imprisoned at Dundalk military barracks and Dundalk Gaol in a surprise move by the pro-treaty Fifth Northern Division, now part of the National Army. Eleven days later, anti-treaty 'Irregulars' blew a hole in the outer wall of the gaol, freeing Aiken and his men. At 4am on 14 August, Aiken led an attack on the barracks that resulted in its capture with five National Army and two Irregular soldiers killed. Aiken's men killed another dozen National Army soldiers in guerrilla attacks before the town was retaken without resistance on 26 August. Before withdrawing, Aiken called for a truce at a meeting in the centre of Dundalk. From that point, north Louth ceased to be an area of strategic importance in the war. Guerrilla attacks continued—mainly acts of sabotage, particularly against the railway. In January 1923, six anti-treaty prisoners were executed by firing squad in Dundalk for bearing arms against the state. ### Border town The partition of Ireland turned Dundalk into a border town and the Dublin–Belfast main line into an international railway. On 1 April 1923, the Free State government began installing border posts for the purpose of collecting customs duties. Almost immediately, the town started to suffer economic problems. A global post-war slump had been exacerbated by the introduction of the border and tariffs. Businesses in the town saw their trade with the new cross-border areas greatly reduced, and Carroll's tobacco company set about opening a new factory in Liverpool. The Dundalk Distillery was closed within weeks, as its products became nonviable. It reopened temporarily but was closed again in 1926 because its owners, Scottish Distillers, no longer needed the production capacity. The same year, the G.N.R. works reduced its workforce by several hundred; and the Dundalk and Newry Steam Packet Company went into voluntary liquidation and was taken over by B&I. It had been beset by strikes because of wage cuts imposed in both Dundalk and Liverpool by management. With a population of 14,000 at the time, unemployment was reported to be nearly 2,000 and it was reported that: "Up to a few years ago, Dundalk was one of the most prosperous and go-ahead towns in Ireland... [but] it is a matter of common local knowledge that distress to an acute degree is prevalent." The Anglo-Irish trade war, in the midst of a global depression, made things more difficult still. The industrial situation stabilised, however, as the need for self-sufficiency and the protectionist policies adopted allowed local industries to increase employment and prosper. After the election of Fianna Fáil in 1932, two years of violence and intimidation followed as former Civil War foes in the IRA and National Army clashed at political rallies. The latter formed the Army Comrades Association, and became known as the Blueshirts. A member of the Blueshirts carrying money from a collection in Dundalk was robbed at gunpoint by the IRA. Two local men were subsequently convicted of the robbery. One of the witnesses for the prosecution was a Joseph McGrory from Chapel Sreet. Unidentified men, presumed by Gardaí to be members of the IRA, later threw a bomb into his house, destroying it and seriously injuring his mother who was inside, and two children playing outside. The woman later died from her injuries. Five suspects charged with her murder were later acquitted due to lack of evidence. One of these, IRA Volunteer Richard Goss, was interned at the start of World War II and was released following a successful habeas corpus legal challenge. He was later executed in 1941 for shooting at Gardaí and Defence Forces while trying to evade arrest. There were three aeroplane crashes in what is now the municipal district during the war. A British Hudson bomber crashed with three fatalities in 1941, and a P-51 Mustang fighter of the US Army Air Forces crashed in September 1944, killing its pilot. The worst of the wartime air crashes occurred on 16 March 1942. 15 allied airmen died when their Consolidated B-24 Liberator bomber crashed into Slieve na Glogh, which rises above the townland of Jenkinstown. On 24 July 1941, the Luftwaffe dropped bombs near the town. There were no casualties and only minor damage was caused. The town continued to grow in size—in terms of area, population and employment—after "the Emergency" (as World War II was called in Ireland), despite economic shocks such as the dissolution of the G.N.R. in 1958 and the closure of the Rawson shoe factory after a fire in 1967. The accession of Ireland to the European Economic Community in 1973 caused difficulties, however. Subsequent factory closures and job losses in businesses that struggled due to competition, collapsing consumer confidence, and unfavourable exchange rates with cross-border competitors, resulted in an unemployment rate of 26% by 1986. In addition, the outbreak of the Troubles in Northern Ireland in 1968 and the town's position close to the border saw the town's population swell, as nationalists/Catholics fleeing the violence in Northern Ireland settled in the area. As a result of the ongoing sectarianism in the north, there was sympathy for the cause of the Provisional Irish Republican Army and Sinn Féin, and the town was home to numerous IRA operatives. It was in this period that Dundalk earned the nickname 'El Paso', after the Texan border town of the same name on the border with Mexico. On 1 September 1973, the 27 Infantry Battalion of the Irish Army was established, with its headquarters in Dundalk barracks, as a result of the ongoing violence in the border region of North Louth / South Armagh. The barracks was renamed Aiken Barracks in 1986 in honour of Frank Aiken. 'The Battle of Courtbane' took place on Sunday 29 August 1971, when a British army patrol consisting of two armoured Ferret Scout cars crossed the Irish border into Co. Louth near the village of Courtbane close to Dundalk. Angry locals blocked their retreat and set one of the vehicles on fire. As this was happening, an IRA unit arrived on the scene and a British soldier was killed and another wounded after an exchange of gunfire. The Ulster Volunteer Force carried out the 'Christmas Bombing' on 19 December 1975, when a car bomb killed two people and injured 15. The town was also the scene of several killings connected to the INLA and its propensity to engage in internal feuds and criminal activity. After the start of the Northern Ireland peace process, and the subsequent Good Friday Agreement, then U.S. president, Bill Clinton chose Dundalk to make an open-air address in December 2000 in support of the peace process. In his speech in the Market Square, witnessed by an estimated 60,000 people, Clinton spoke of "a new day in Dundalk and a new day in Ireland". ### 21st century The town was slow to benefit from a 'peace dividend', and in the first decade of the new millennium the remaining shoe factory, the two Diageo-owned breweries, and the Carroll's tobacco factory were among several factories to close—finally severing the links to the town's industrial past. By 2012, the town was being painted as one of Ireland's "most deprived areas" after the global downturn following the Financial crisis of 2007–2008. Indigenous industry started to recover, with the Great Northern Brewery being reopened as 'the Great Northern Distillery' in 2015 by John Teeling, who had established and later sold the Cooley Distillery; and locally-driven initiatives led to a flurry of foreign direct investment announcements in the latter half of the 2010s, particularly in the technology and pharmaceutical sectors. The town's association football club, Dundalk F.C., first formed in 1903 by the workers of the Great Northern Railway, received European-wide recognition when it became the first Irish side to win points in the group stage of European competition in the 2016–17 UEFA Europa League. The club again qualified for the group stage in the 2020–21 season. In April 2023, Joe Biden, who has ancestry in North Louth, became the second sitting U.S. President to visit the town. Geography --------- Dundalk lies on the 54th parallel north circle of latitude. It is situated where the Castletown River flows into Dundalk Bay on the east coast of Ireland, with the town centre on the south side of the river. It is in County Louth, which shares borders with County Armagh to the north (in Northern Ireland), County Monaghan to the west, and County Meath to the south. It is near the border with Northern Ireland (which is 7 km (4.3 mi) from the town centre by road and 3.5 km (2.2 mi) at the nearest points by air), and is equidistant between Dublin and Belfast (80 km (50 mi) from both). The town came to be nicknamed the 'Gap of the North' where the northernmost point of the province of Leinster meets the province of Ulster, although the actual 'gap' is the Moyry Pass 8 km to the north at the border with Northern Ireland. Following the abolition of 'legal towns' under the Local Government Reform Act 2014, Dundalk is part of the wider Dundalk Municipal District for the purposes of local government, which is approximately equivalent to the pre-1898 baronies of Dundalk Lower and Dundalk Upper, i.e. roughly the northern one-third of the county by area including the Cooley peninsula. The former legal town and its environs (approximately the area north of the River Fane (including Blackrock), south of Exit 18 on the M1, bordered by the M1 to the west and the Irish Sea to the east; and incorporating Knockbridge to the west of the M1) is now the 'census town'. ### Landscape The main part of the census town lies at sea level. Dún Dealgan Motte at Castletown is the highest point in the urban area at an elevation of 60 m (200 ft). The municipal district includes the Cooley Mountains, with Slieve Foy the highest of the peaks at an elevation of 589 m (1,932 ft). The urban area straddles two geographical areas. A landscape of drumlins and undulating farmland form a crescent around the town's outer limits. This area contains contorted Ordovician and Silurian slates and shales. The flat, low-lying coastal plain of the main part of the urban area consists of alluvial clays, laid down as the sea retreated following the last Ice Age. The subsequent land reclamation was both a natural process and a man-made one—in particular as a result of the drainage schemes undertaken in the eighteenth century by James Hamilton, the first Earl of Clanbrassil. This has meant that the topography of the district has changed extensively since the area was first inhabited and also since the formation of the original Norman settlements. ### Street layout The layout of Dundalk is based around three principal street systems leading to the open, central Market Square. Running north from the square to the bridge over the Castletown River is Clanbrassil Street and Bridge Street; with the Castletown Road running west from Bridge Street towards Castletown Mount—the original Norman settlement of Dundalk. Running east from the square towards the old Quay Street railway station, the army barracks and the Port of Dundalk is Jocelyn Street, Seatown Place and Barrack Street. Running south out of the town to the Dublin Road is Park Street, Dublin Street, and Hill Street. ### Climate Similar to much of northwest Europe, Dundalk experiences an oceanic climate and does not suffer from the extremes of temperature experienced by many other locations at similar latitude. Summers are typically cool and partly cloudy and the winter is typically cold, wet, windy, and mostly cloudy. Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from 2 to 19 °C (36 to 66 °F) and is rarely below −2 °C (28 °F) or above 23 °C (73 °F). | Climate data for Dundalk, Leinster | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 7.3(45.1) | 7.6(45.7) | 9.5(49.1) | 11.6(52.9) | 14.4(57.9) | 16.9(62.4) | 18.5(65.3) | 17.9(64.2) | 16.1(61.0) | 12.9(55.2) | 9.5(49.1) | 7.6(45.7) | 12.5(54.5) | | Average low °C (°F) | 3.0(37.4) | 2.8(37.0) | 3.6(38.5) | 5.3(41.5) | 8.0(46.4) | 10.8(51.4) | 12.5(54.5) | 12.3(54.1) | 10.8(51.4) | 8.3(46.9) | 5.4(41.7) | 3.5(38.3) | 7.2(44.9) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 78(3.1) | 64(2.5) | 65(2.6) | 71(2.8) | 76(3.0) | 82(3.2) | 83(3.3) | 88(3.5) | 71(2.8) | 85(3.3) | 85(3.3) | 79(3.1) | 927(36.5) | | Source: | Demography ---------- Dundalk is the eighth largest urban area in Ireland and the third largest town (behind Drogheda and Swords), with a population of 39,004 as of the 2016 census. Dundalk is the biggest town in Louth, however, because approximately 15% of the population of Drogheda is in County Meath. The population density of the census town of Dundalk was measured at 1,651/km2 (4,280/sq mi) in 2016. ### Population statistics Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1821 | 9,256 | —     | | 1831 | 10,078 | +8.9% | | 1841 | 10,782 | +7.0% | | 1851 | 9,842 | −8.7% | | 1861 | 10,360 | +5.3% | | 1871 | 11,327 | +9.3% | | 1881 | 11,913 | +5.2% | | 1891 | 12,449 | +4.5% | | 1901 | 13,076 | +5.0% | | 1911 | 13,128 | +0.4% | | 1926 | 13,996 | +6.6% | | 1936 | 14,684 | +4.9% | | 1946 | 18,562 | +26.4% | | 1951 | 19,678 | +6.0% | | 1956 | 21,687 | +10.2% | | 1961 | 21,228 | −2.1% | | 1966 | 21,678 | +2.1% | | 1971 | 23,816 | +9.9% | | 1981 | 29,135 | +22.3% | | 1986 | 30,695 | +5.4% | | 1991 | 30,061 | −2.1% | | 1996 | 30,195 | +0.4% | | 2002 | 32,505 | +7.7% | | 2006 | 35,090 | +8.0% | | 2011 | 37,816 | +7.8% | | 2016 | 39,004 | +3.1% | | | Population by place of birth | Location | 2006 | 2011 | 2016 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Ireland | 28,095 | 29,114 | 29,430 | | UK | 3,488 | 3,839 | 3,791 | | Poland | 252 | 555 | 602 | | Lithuania | 421 | 633 | 657 | | Rest of EU | 692 | 1,119 | 1,508 | | Rest of World | 1,804 | 2,269 | 2,652 | Population by ethnic or cultural background | Ethnicity or culture | 2006 | 2011 | 2016 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | White Irish | 29,840 | 30,645 | 29,872 | | White Irish Traveller | 325 | 441 | 535 | | Other White | 1,802 | 2,987 | 3,572 | | Black or Black Irish | 1,276 | 1,669 | 1,785 | | Asian or Asian Irish | 372 | 687 | 988 | | Other | 380 | 389 | 682 | | Not stated | 757 | 711 | 1,206 | Population by religion | Religion | 2006 | 2011 | 2016 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Roman Catholic | 30,677 | 31,790 | 30,187 | | Other stated religions | 2,472 | 3,350 | 4,248 | | No religion | 1,158 | 1,971 | 3,331 | | Not stated | 778 | 705 | 1,238 | Population by principal economic status | Economic status | 2006 | 2011 | 2016 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | At work | 14,301 | 12,875 | 14,312 | | Looking for first regular job | 424 | 412 | 463 | | Unemployed | 1,892 | 4,238 | 3,308 | | Student | 2,985 | 3,747 | 3,842 | | Looking after home / family | 3,036 | 2,634 | 2,453 | | Retired | 3,204 | 3,903 | 4,332 | | Unable to work | 1,483 | 1,536 | 1,552 | | Other | 95 | 121 | 112 | ### Language The first language of the majority of 'white Irish' residents of Dundalk is English (a.k.a. Hiberno-English). Approximately 4% of the population speak the Irish language on a daily basis outside of the education system. The Omeath area in Cooley, within the municipal district, was a small Gaeltacht area, with the last speaker of a 'Louth Irish' dialect dying in 1960. Politics and government ----------------------- ### National and European Dundalk is the county town (the administrative centre) of the county of Louth in Ireland. It is represented at the national level in Dáil Éireann as part the Louth parliamentary constituency, which was created under the terms of the Electoral Act 1923, and first used at the 1923 general election. Prior to the Act of Union, which came into force on 1 January 1801, Dundalk was a Parliament of Ireland constituency. Following the Act of Union, Dundalk was a UK Parliament constituency until 1885. In 1885, the constituency was combined with the northern part of the County Louth constituency to become North Louth. In 1918, the North Louth constituency was combined with South Louth to form a single County Louth constituency for the whole county—the precursor of the constituency formed following the creation of Dáil Éireann. Dundalk is represented in the European Parliament within the Midlands–North-West constituency. ### Local government Louth County Council (Irish: *Comhairle Contae Lú*) is the authority responsible for local government in Dundalk. As a county council, it is governed by the Local Government Act 2001. For administrative purposes, the council is sub-divided into three areas, centred around the three main towns in the county—Dundalk, Drogheda and Ardee. The Dundalk Municipal District comprises all of the county to the north of a line running approximately east-to-north west, from the coast to the Monaghan border, across the villages of Castlebellingham and Knockbridge. The county council has 29 elected members, 13 of whom are from the Dundalk region. Elections are held every five years and are by single transferable vote. For the purpose of elections, the Dundalk Municipal District is sub-divided into two local electoral areas: Dundalk-Carlingford (6 Seats) and Dundalk South (7 Seats). ### Coat of arms The coat of arms of Dundalk was officially granted by the Office of the Chief Herald at the National Library of Ireland in 1968, and is a replication of the *seal matrix* of the 'New Town of Dundalk', which itself dates to the 14th century. The seal is based on the coat of arms of the de Furnivall family. Thomas de Furnivall had obtained a large part of the land and property of Dundalk and district in about 1309 by marriage to Joan de Verdun, the daughter of Theobald de Verdun (2nd Baron Verdun) and Matilda Mortimer. A bend between six martlets forms the shield. The ermine boar supporter is derived from the arms of the Ó hAnluain (O'Hanlon) family, Kings of Airthir, the main Gaelic Irish family in the area. The exact origins of the lion *passant guardant* and the foot soldier with his spear and sword are not known. The lion is represented in the style of those on the Royal Arms adopted by Richard I of England. It has been said that it comes from the Mortimer family, but a lion is not incorporated in the Mortimer family arms. The soldier is presumably related to the town's origins as a Norman stronghold. Previously, the town's coat of arms was a simpler three gold martlets on an azure field. The earliest recorded use of this coat of arms is when the Corporation of Dundalk was granted a charter by Charles II in 1673. It appears as the Corporation Seal in a town plan dated 1675. It cannot be stated definitively if there is a link between the 14th century seal and the 17th century seal. However, another Anglo-Norman family, the Dowdalls, were also influential landowners in Dundalk in the Middle Ages, having moved to Louth in the 13th century, and their family coat of arms contains three martlets on a field. The townland of Dowdallshill lies to the north of the Castletown River. The Corporation Seal can be seen carved in stone on the Town Hall, which was built in the mid-1800s. In December 1929, the town council proposed to remove the "three black crows" seal because it had supposedly been imposed by King Henry VIII, a historically inaccurate claim that met widespread derision. The majority on the town council pressed ahead and the old seal was replaced by a seal depicting Saint Patrick, Saint Brigid and Saint Colmcille in the form of a shamrock. The shield with three martlets continued to be used as the logo of several companies and organisations in the town. Examples include the Dundalk Race Company Limited (the company that ran Dundalk Racecourse), the Macardle Moore and Company brewery, and Dealgan Milk Products (a dairy company formed in the town in 1960). It also became the crest of Dundalk Football Club in 1927. The club's current crest retains the three martlets but on a red shield. Economy ------- ### Industry Linen was the first industry established in Dundalk in the mid 18th century, but the cambric and damask businesses had failed by the end of the century, with the factories becoming derelict. It would be the next century before new industries established themselves: mills, tanneries, a foundry, a distillery, and breweries. During James Hamilton's improvements to the town during the 18th century, the Port of Dundalk was established and became the eighth largest in Ireland in terms of exports. The latter half of the nineteenth century saw the population of Dundalk increase by 30% (despite the population of Ireland as a whole dropping in the same period) as the town's industries thrived prior to the partition of Ireland. The Malcolm Brown & Co. Dundalk Distillery was established c.1780 at Roden Place and operated successfully throughout the 19th century. Brewing was also a key industry in the town, with eight breweries in operation by the end of the 1830s. The famine of the 1840s left just two breweries in operation, which merged to become the Macardle Moore & Co. brewery at Cambricville. The Great Northern Brewery opened later, in 1896. The Dundalk Iron Works was established in 1821 and by the end of the century had expanded to become a leading employer in the town under the ownership of A.E. Manisty. The P.J. Carroll tobacco factory, started on a small scale in the 1820s, grew throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Great Northern Railway (Ireland) works established in 1881 became the "backbone of the town". The town's industries suffered after partition and again from the Anglo-Irish trade war. The imposition of tariffs and duties in April 1923 and the establishment of customs checks on the border affected exports and trade with the Newry district, which was now in a different jurisdiction. The distillery, which the Distillers Company of Scotland had acquired in 1912, was the first major Dundalk industry to close. It reopened temporarily, before it was closed permanently in 1926. The Dundalk Iron Works, also known as A.E. Manisty & Co., went into liquidation in 1928. Protectionism gave the town's industries breathing space, and by 1950 they had recovered from the effects of partition and the trade war. The two breweries were successful, the Dundalk Linen Company was expanding for the first time in decades, and there were 1,800 people working in shoe manufacturing in three factories—Rawson's, Halliday's and Connolly's. 2,000 jobs were by this point dependant on the railway works and 500 jobs were dependent on the Carroll's tobacco factory. The town was also a thriving commercial centre, as the increase in bus traffic brought shoppers in from a wide radius. This was a peak period, however. The Northern Ireland government's decision to close many of the G.N.R. lines north of the border made the company nonviable, and it was dissolved in 1958. With it went the works in Dundalk. It was replaced by *Dundalk Engineering Works Ltd* (DEW)—a government-backed initiative to keep the 980 remaining workers in employment. Against that backdrop, Clarks, who had formed a partnership with Halliday's and would take full control of the company in 1971, demanded in 1959 that the town's Athletic Grounds be sold to them for a new factory, or they would pull out of the town altogether. Afraid of the potential loss of 900 jobs, the council agreed to the sale, over considerable opposition. Carroll's also continued to expand and modernise, opening a new factory on the Dublin Road in 1970, which was designed by Ronnie Tallon of Michael Scott & Partners, which subsequently won architectural awards for its design. As late as 1969, the town was still in a position to boast of its industrial prowess, with the engineering companies at the DEW prospering. The pressures of trade liberalisation introduced by Ireland's accession to the EEC in 1973 caused many of them to falter during the 1970s and 1980s. The most at-risk industry proved to be shoe manufacturing. Rawson's had already gone into liquidation in 1967 after the factory was destroyed by fire, with the loss of 500 jobs. Lower-cost imports made the Clark's factory unprofitable and after years of cutbacks it closed in 1985 with the loss of the remaining 370 jobs. Also closing permanently in 1985 was the Weyenberg Shoe Company factory, which had opened in 1969 and hired many ex-Rawson workers but had never reached full productivity. Only the smallest of the manufacturers—Connolly's, re-branded as Blackthorn—managed to stay in business by specialising its products. It eventually closed in 2001. 1985 proved to be the nadir, also seeing the closure of the Engineering Works. By this stage unemployment in the town had reached 26%, and would reach 27.9% by 1991. Pleas to government for assistance were unsuccessful. The town was slow to benefit from the Celtic Tiger economy that saw an economic boom in Ireland from the mid-1990s and seemed to stagnate with more closures and job losses. In addition to the surviving breweries and Carroll's, the ECCO (Electronics Components Company Overseas) factory opened by General Electric in 1966 had become the town's leading employer in the 1970s, employing around 1,500 people at its peak with many thousands more working in companies providing goods and services to it. It, too, succumbed to competition and following a long period of decline, closed in 2006. Diageo decided to close both of the town's breweries—Cambricville in 2001, then the Great Northern in 2013 after a decade-long wind down. Also after a long decline, the Carroll's factory closed in 2005. By 2012, the town was being painted as one of Ireland's "most deprived areas" after the global downturn following the Financial crisis of 2007–2008. Indigenous industry started to recover, with the Great Northern Brewery being reopened as 'the Great Northern Distillery' in 2015 by John Teeling, who had established the Cooley Distillery. Locally-driven initiatives led to a flurry of Foreign Direct Investment announcements in the latter half of the 2010s, particularly in the technology and pharmaceutical sectors. ### Tourism Historically, the border region has not seen the same level of tourism as Dublin or the Atlantic coast regions of Ireland, which was primarily the result of the Troubles and an associated lack of marketing. This began to change in the mid-1990s because of the start of the Northern Ireland peace process, and the increase in government investment in tourism made possible by the 'Celtic Tiger' period of economic expansion. The area has since seen a growth in visitor numbers, with 172,000 foreign and 179,000 domestic visitors to Louth recorded in 2017. The Dundalk / North Louth region is marketed as part of the 'Ireland's Ancient East' campaign. The 'ancient east' encompasses Ireland's coast from the border with Northern Ireland at Carlingford Lough to Kinsale in County Cork; inland as far as the River Shannon. In contrast to the Wild Atlantic Way, which focuses on landscape, the 'Ireland's Ancient East' campaign is more focused on history and heritage. Louth is marketed as the 'Land of Legends', a campaign which also refers to a "rich and ancient history and heritage" and seeks to increase the number of visitors to the region "by capitalising on Co Louth's unique location within Ireland's Ancient East, as the hub for the Boyne Valley and the Cooley, Mourne and Gullion Regions". Transport --------- ### Shipping Dundalk Port is a cargo import and export facility. There is no passenger traffic. Shipping services to Liverpool were provided from 1837 by the Dundalk Steam Packet Company. It took over its rivals to become the Dundalk and Newry Steam Packet Company, which shipped cargo, live animals and passengers. It was forced to go into liquidation and allow itself to be taken over by B&I in 1926 following a series of strikes. B&I maintained the Dundalk to Liverpool route as a weekly service until 1968. ### Railway Dundalk is the first station on the southern side of the border along the Belfast–Dublin line. The first railway links arrived when the Dundalk and Enniskillen Railway opened a line from Quay Street to Castleblayney in 1849, and by 1860 the company operated a route northwest to Derry. The line to Quay Street was extended to Newry and Greenore by the Dundalk, Newry and Greenore Railway, owned by the London and North Western Railway, who operated a hotel in Greenore and from where a ferry service operated to Holyhead. It was opened between Greenore and Dundalk in 1873, and extended to Newry in 1876. Also in 1849, the Dublin and Belfast Junction Railway opened its first station in Dundalk. Following a series of mergers, both the Dublin and Belfast and Dundalk and Enniskillen lines were incorporated into the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) in 1876. After partition, the G.N.R. had a border running through its network, with lines crisscrossing it several times, and the Northern Ireland government wanted to close many of the lines in favour of bus transport. By the 1950s, the G.N.R. company had ceased to be profitable and Dundalk saw its secondary routes closed—first the line to Greenore and Newry in 1951, and then the line to Derry in 1957. The G.N.R. was nationalised on both sides of the border in 1953, and the company was finally dissolved in 1958. The closure of the G.N.R. left Dundalk with only one operational line—the Dublin–Belfast "Enterprise" service (as well as Commuter services to and from Dublin). The G.N.R. built the current Dundalk railway station in 1894. It was renamed Clarke Station in 1966, in commemoration of Tom Clarke, one of the executed leaders of the Easter Rising of 1916. It houses a small museum in the old first-class waiting room, and has been called, "the finest station on the main Dublin–Belfast line". It was used as a filming location for the Walt Disney Pictures film, *Disenchanted* in May 2021. ### Bus Dundalk's Bus Station is operated by Bus Éireann and is located on the Long Walk near the town centre. The company runs a town service—Route 174. The company also operates routes from Dundalk to Dublin, Galway, Newry, Clones, Cavan, and towns in between. The Dundalk-Blackrock route was one of very few bus routes not compulsorily purchased by CIÉ under the Transport Acts of 1932 and 1933. It has been operated by Halpenny Travel since 1920. ### Road The M1–N1/A1 connects Dundalk to Dublin and Belfast. Exits 16, 17, and 18 service Dundalk South, Dundalk Centre and Dundalk North, respectively. The National Secondary Road N52 from Nenagh, County Tipperary travels through the junction for Exit 16 on the M1, runs through the east side of the town, and terminates at the junction for Exit 18 of the M1. The N53 from Castleblayney, County Monaghan, which crosses the border twice, terminates at the junction for Exit 17 on the M1. The R173, which starts and finishes at the junction for Exit 18 of the M1, connects the town to the Cooley peninsula. The R171 connects the town to Ardee, the R177 and A29 connect the town to Armagh, and the R178 connects the town to Virginia, County Cavan via Carrickmacross, Shercock, and Bailieborough. Architecture ------------ Many of the buildings of architectural note in the town were built during the 19th century. Several buildings on the streets off the Market Square are described as being in the "Dundalk style" —ornate buildings, "testifying to the confidence of Dundalk's merchant class in the latter part of the nineteenth-century". The Courthouse (completed in 1819) was designed by Edward Parke and John Bowden in the Neoclassical style and modelled on the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens. The Maid of Erin statue, erected in 1898, is located in the Market Square in front of the Court House. The adjacent Town Hall (completed in 1865), is an elaborate Italianate Palazzo Townhall, originally designed by John Murray as a corn exchange. It was sold to the Town Commissioners on completion and now houses *An Táin* Arts Centre, which comprises a 350-seat main theatre, a 55-seat studio theatre, a visual arts gallery, and two workshop spaces. The Kelly Monument is located in nearby Roden Place, in front of St Patrick's Church. It was erected in 1879 to commemorate the sinking of the *Mary Stoddart* in Dundalk Bay in 1858 and those who drowned in attempting a rescue. The Louth County Library is located off Roden Place, in a restored building of what was the Dundalk Distillery. Further up Jocelyn Street, the County Museum Dundalk, documenting the history of County Louth, is housed in another restored building of the former distillery. Dundalk Gaol was completed in 1855 and closed as a gaol in the 1930s. It was designed by John Neville, who was the county engineer at the time. The Governor's House to the front of the Gaol became the Garda Station, and the two prison wings were later restored and divided between the 'Oriel Centre' and the Louth County Archive. The neighbouring Louth County Infirmary (completed in 1834) was designed by English architect Thomas Smith in a neo-Tudor style with a central entrance-way flanked by two recessed ground floor arcades. It was purchased by Dundalk Grammar School in 2000. The two oldest buildings in the town centre are Saint Nicholas's Church of Ireland church and Seatown Castle. Saint Nicholas's was originally built c. 1400. It comprises elements of fourteenth- seventeenth- and eighteenth-century church buildings, having been extended, damaged, rebuilt over the centuries, and finally reworked by Francis Johnston. It is known locally as the Green Church due to its green copper spire. It contains an epitaph erected to the memory of Scotland's National Bard, Robert Burns. His sister, Agnes Burns, is buried in the church's graveyard. Seatown Castle is at the junction of Mill Street and Castle Street. It is part of what was a Franciscan friary originally founded in the 13th century. A baptismal font in St. Nicholas's is reputed to have come from the friary. Further out from the town centre are Dún Dealgan Motte and Castle Roche. The former is also known as Cú Chulainn Castle and Byrne's Folly. It sits on the site of the manor house built in the late 12th century by Bertram de Verdun when the Normans reached the area. The castellated house now located on the site was built in 1780 by a local pirate named Patrick Byrne. It is a National Monument. Castle Roche was built by Bertram's granddaughter, Roesia, and completed by her son, John, in the late 13th century. A 20th century construction, which has won architectural awards, is the Carroll's tobacco factory on the Dublin Road. It was called "a ground breaking Irish factory design". The design, by Ronnie Tallon, is in the Miesian idiom. The first of the Louis le Brocquy Táin illustrations was commissioned for the factory. It became part of the Dundalk Institute of Technology campus in the 2010s. The 'sails' sculpture to the front was designed by Gerda Frömel. Many of the churches in the town were also built in the 19th century, including the Presbyterian church (1839), the former Methodist church (1834), and the Roman Catholic churches of St Patrick (1847), St Malachy (1862), St Nicholas (1860), and St Joseph (1890). St Patrick's was designed by Thomas Duff, and modelled on King's College Chapel, Cambridge. It was completed in 1847. Duff also designed the Presbyterian church on Jocelyn Street. The bell tower at St Patrick's was added in 1903, modelled by George Ashlin on that of another English church, Gloucester Cathedral. Ashlin also designed the granite-built St Joseph's Redemptorist monastery and church (finished in 1880 and 1892, respectively). ### Public spaces The largest park in the town centre is Ice House Hill. It is approximately 8 hectares (20 acres). The site was once part of Dundalk House demesne (the stately home of the Earl of Clanbrassil). Dundalk House itself was demolished in the early 20th century to make way for an extension of the original P.J. Carroll tobacco factory. The original Ice House, built c. 1780, remains in the park and can be viewed from the outside. The smaller St. Helena Park is approximately 0.7 hectares (1.7 acres) and was first laid out in the 1800s. The bandstand was erected in the early 1920s. Most of the land which the park is on was reclaimed from the Castletown River. St Leonard's Garden in Seatown is a small park restored in the 1960s from a cemetery that was closed in 1896 and allowed to become overgrown. Within the park are the ruined remains of stone walls from the friary founded by Bertram de Verdun in the 12th century. The Navvy Bank (from 'navigator') is an artificial embankment constructed in the 1840s to facilitate the entry of shipping to Dundalk Port. It is approximately two km (1.2 mi) long and runs from Soldiers Point at the entrance to Dundalk Harbour, to near the present-day quay. It is now a public walkway. Along its route, there is a memorial to those who died in the sinking of the *S.S. Dundalk* during World War I. At Soldiers Point there is a bronze sculpture called *The Sea God Managuan and Voyagers* after a Celtic god of the sea. Adjacent to the town of Dundalk is the village of Blackrock (five km (3.1 mi) from the town centre), which has three public beaches. Blackrock was a fishing village before it became popular as a resort destination in the late 19th century. The promenade and sea wall, originally built in 1851, run along the length of the main beach and main street of the village. There are wetlands on both the north and south sides of the village, which are wildlife sanctuaries. In 2000, to mark the millennium year, a sundial / statue was erected in Blackrock on the promenade. The 3 m (10 ft) high gnomon is a bronze sculpture of a female diving figure, which was subsequently named 'Aisling'. Seven km (4.3 mi) to the south-west of the town, between Haggardstown and Knockbridge, is Stephenstown Pond—a nature park. It was originally commissioned by Matthew Fortescue, owner of the nearby Stephenstown House, which is in ruins. It was designed by William Galt, husband of Agnes Burns. Eleven km (6.8 mi) to the north of the town, within the municipal district, is Ravensdale forest. It is mixed woodland rising steeply to the summit of Black Mountain, rising 510 m (1,670 ft), with many kilometres of forest roads and tracks. There are three way-marked trails in the forest, the *Táin Trail*, the *Ring of Gullion* and the shorter *Ravensdale Loop*. It is managed by the Irish Forestry Service, *Coillte*. Education --------- ### Primary schools Primary schools in Dundalk include some Irish language-medium schools (*Gaelscoileanna*) like *Gaelscoil Dhún Dealgan*. There are approximately 20 English-medium national schools in the area, the largest of which include Muire na nGael National School (also known as Bay Estate National School) and Saint Joseph's National School, which (as of early 2020) had an enrollment of over 670 and 570 pupils respectively. ### Secondary schools Secondary schools in the town include Coláiste Lú (an Irish medium secondary school or *Gaelcholáiste*), De la Salle College, Dundalk Grammar School, St. Mary's College (also known as the Marist), O'Fiaich College, Coláiste Rís, St. Vincent's Secondary School, St. Louis Secondary School, and Coláiste Chú Chulainn. ### Tertiary education Dundalk Institute of Technology (abbreviated to DkIT) is the focal point for higher education and research on the Belfast-Dublin corridor, serving the North Leinster, South Ulster region. It was established in 1970 as the Regional Technical College, offering primarily technician and apprenticeship courses. The Ó Fiaich Institute of Further Education also offers further education courses. Culture ------- ### Music and arts Dundalk has two centres for the arts—*An Táin* Arts Centre, an independent arts space in the former *Táin* Theatre, Town Hall, Crowe Street; and The Oriel Centre in the former Dundalk Gaol, a regional centre for *Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann*. The Oriel Centre is a resource centre and performance space, and has facilities for teaching, archives, recording, rehearsal, and performance. The Spirit Store, located at George's Quay in the Port of Dundalk, is a gig venue in the town. Dundalk Institute of Technology Department of Creative Arts, Media and Music has several groups and ensembles, including the *Ceol Oirghiallla* Traditional Music Ensemble, the DkIT Choir, the Music Theatre Group, the Oriel Traditional Orchestra, and the Fr. McNally Chamber Orchestra. The Cross Border Orchestra of Ireland (CBOI) is a youth orchestra based at Coláiste Chu Chulainn, Dundalk. It was started as a peace initiative. Since 1996, it has toured internationally and has played at venues such as Carnegie Hall and the Royal Albert Hall. The Dundalk Brass Band was established in 1976 and comprises 25-30 members who perform a cross-section of big band and brass music. The town has two photography clubs, Dundalk Photographic Society and the Táin Photographic Club. ### Festivals The Dundalk Show (also known as the Dundalk Agricultural Show and the Co. Louth Agricultural Show) has run since the 19th century at a number of locations. It was originally held at the Dundalk racecourse in Dowdallshill, before moving to the Fair Green, the grounds of St Mary's College, Bellingham Castle, and latterly Bellurgan Park. In 2019, the town had its inaugural urban art festival, 'Seek Dundalk'. The street murals painted included Edward Bruce, the engineer Peter Rice, and *Cú Chulainn*. Other festivals include the Frostival Winter Festival, held at the end of November, and the St. Gerard Majella Annual Novena, an annual religious festival held over nine days in St. Joseph's Redemptorist Church in Dundalk. It runs from 8 to 16 October. A patron takes place on 15 August at Ladywell Shrine, during the Feast of the Assumption. The Knockbridge Vintage Club also run public events during the year. The Seatown Patron is held annually on 29 June (the feast day of Saint Peter, who is the patron saint of Seatown). The patron is celebrated by nighttime bonfires, which is a tradition believed to have originated in medieval times. St. Peter's Well (Irish: *Tobar Pheadair*) is located under the now derelict Dundalk Windmill in Seatown. The Dundalk Maytime Festival was the town's largest festival and ran for 40 years starting in 1965. It started out as a 'Grape and Grain' festival before later centring around amateur drama. It eventually ceased because of difficulties in securing sponsorship. Within the wider Dundalk Municipal District, festivals and events include: the Arcadian Field Music and Arts Festival—a three-day boutique festival begun in 2016 on the grounds of Bellurgan Park, the Táin March festival, established in 2011—a walking festival held in June, which seeks to commemorate the legendary Cattle Raid of Cooley (*Táin Bó Cúailnge*), the All-Ireland Poc Fada Championship held every year since 1960 on Annaverna Mountain on the Cooley Peninsula, and the Brigid of Faughart Festival (held annually in the first week of February). The town of Carlingford also has several festivals and events during the year. ### Twin towns Dundalk is twinned with the following towns: * France Rezé, France (1990). * United States Pikeville, Kentucky, United States (2015) Sport ----- Dundalk Football Club is a professional association football club. The club competes in the League of Ireland Premier Division, the top tier of Irish football. The club was founded in 1903 as Dundalk G.N.R., the works-team of the Great Northern Railway. They were a junior club until they joined the Leinster Senior League in 1922–23. They were then elected to the Free State League (which later became the League of Ireland) in 1926–27. The club has played at Oriel Park since moving from its original home at the Dundalk Athletic Grounds in 1936. Gaelic football clubs in the town include Dundalk Gaels GFC, Seán O'Mahony's GFC, Clan na Gael, Na Piarsaigh, Dowdallshill and Dundalk Young Irelands. Young Irelands (representing Louth) contested the first All-Ireland football final in 1888, losing to the Commercials club, representing Limerick. The two hurling clubs in the town are Knockbridge GAA and Naomh Moninne H.C., who are the leading club in Louth with 22 county titles as of 2020. A founding member of Naomh Moninne, Father Pól Mac Sheáin, introduced the All-Ireland Poc Fada Championship in 1960. Dundalk R.F.C. is an amateur Irish Rugby football club who compete in Division 1A of the Leinster League. The club first formed in 1877 and became founder members of the Provincial Towns Union, which then merged into what became the Northern Branch of the Irish Rugby Football Union. They moved to their present home ground at Mill Road in 1967. The Dundalk Racecourse was reopened as Dundalk Stadium in 2007 and now holds both horse racing and greyhound racing meetings. It is Ireland's first all-weather horse racing track. The stadium also hosts the Dundalk International greyhound race. Golf was first played in Dundalk when a nine-hole course was laid out at Deer Park in 1893. The Dundalk Golf Club was founded in December 1904 at Deer Park, then moved to its present location in Blackrock in 1922. The current layout was designed by Peter Alliss and completed in 1980. The Ballymascanlon Hotel also has a parkland course. Greenore Golf Club (which is within the municipal district) was opened in October 1896 by the London and North Western Railway company, who owned a hotel in Greenore and the Dundalk, Newry and Greenore Railway. The members bought the club when the railway company closed the line and pulled out of Ireland. The modern course layout was designed by Eddie Hackett. Dundalk has several game angling waters including the Dee, Glyde, Fane, Ballymascanlan and Castletown rivers. All of these rivers flow into the Irish sea at Dundalk Bay. These rivers contain good stocks of wild brown trout as well as salmon and sea trout. There is a Salmon Anglers Association and a Brown Trout Anglers Association. Sea Angling is available in several locations in the wider Municipal District and there is also a Sea Angling Club. The Dundalk Lawn Tennis and Badminton Club was established in 1913. It is located at the Ramparts in the town centre. The club has nine tennis courts, two Olympic-standard badminton courts and two squash courts. A Dundalk and District Snooker League has been active since the 1940s. It was re-branded as the Dundalk Snooker League in 2010 and plays in the Commercial Club in the town centre. The amateur boxing club, Dealgan ABC, was founded in 1938. The current Dundalk Cricket Club was established in 2009. They play in Hiney Park, the former Dundalk F.C. training ground. There are several athletics clubs, including St. Gerards A.C., St. Peter's A.C, Dun Dealgan A.C. and Blackrock A.C., and a triathlon club (Setanta Triathlon Club). Cuchulainn Cycling Club was formed in 1935. The Louth Mavericks American Football Club is based in Dundalk and was established in 2012. They play in AFI Division 1, train at DKIT, and play their matches at Dundalk Rugby Club. Media ----- Dundalk's local newspapers are the *Dundalk Democrat* (established as the *Dundalk Democrat and People's Journal* in 1849), *The Argus* (established as the *Drogheda Argus and Leinster Journal* in 1835), and the *Dundalk Leader*, a freely distributed newspaper. Online-only news media include *Louth Now*. Older long-established publications no longer in print include the *Dundalk Examiner and Louth Advertiser* (1880–1960), and *The Dundalk Herald* (1868–1918). There are no local or regional television services. In radio, Dundalk is serviced by regional stations LMFM (Louth-Meath FM) on 96.5 FM, and iRadio (NE and Midlands) on 106.2 FM. The local radio station is Dundalk FM, broadcasting on 97.7 FM. 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Dundalk

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dundalk

The **Indian Ocean** is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2 (27,240,000 sq mi) or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by the Southern Ocean or Antarctica depending on the definition in use. Along its core, the Indian Ocean has some large marginal or regional seas such as the Arabian Sea, Laccadive Sea, Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea. Etymology --------- The Indian Ocean has been known by its present name since at least 1515 when the Latin form *Oceanus Orientalis Indicus* ("Indian Eastern Ocean") is attested, named after India, which projects into it. It was earlier known as the *Eastern Ocean*, a term that was still in use during the mid-18th century (see map), as opposed to the *Western Ocean* (Atlantic) before the Pacific was surmised. Conversely, Chinese explorers in the Indian Ocean during the 15th century called it the Western Oceans. In Ancient Greek geography, the Indian Ocean region known to the Greeks was called the Erythraean Sea. Geography --------- The ocean-floor of the Indian Ocean is divided by spreading ridges and crisscrossed by aseismic structuresA composite satellite image centred on the Indian Ocean ### Extent and data The borders of the Indian Ocean, as delineated by the International Hydrographic Organization in 1953 included the Southern Ocean but not the marginal seas along the northern rim but in 2000 the IHO delimited the Southern Ocean separately, which removed waters south of 60°S from the Indian Ocean but included the northern marginal seas. Meridionally, the Indian Ocean is delimited from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20° east meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas, and from the Pacific Ocean by the meridian of 146°49'E, running south from the southernmost point of Tasmania. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean (including marginal seas) is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf. The Indian Ocean covers 70,560,000 km2 (27,240,000 sq mi), including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf but excluding the Southern Ocean, or 19.5% of the world's oceans; its volume is 264,000,000 km3 (63,000,000 cu mi) or 19.8% of the world's oceans' volume; it has an average depth of 3,741 m (12,274 ft) and a maximum depth of 7,906 m (25,938 ft). All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere, the 90th meridian east, passes through the Ninety East Ridge. ### Coasts and shelves In contrast to the Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is enclosed by major landmasses and an archipelago on three sides and does not stretch from pole to pole, and can be likened to an embayed ocean. It is centered on the Indian Peninsula. Although this subcontinent has played a significant role in its history, the Indian Ocean has foremostly been a cosmopolitan stage, interlinking diverse regions by innovations, trade, and religion since early in human history. The active margins of the Indian Ocean have an average width (horizontal distance from land to shelf break) of 19 ± 0.61 km (11.81 ± 0.38 mi) with a maximum width of 175 km (109 mi). The passive margins have an average width of 47.6 ± 0.8 km (29.58 ± 0.50 mi). The average width of the slopes (horizontal distance from shelf break to foot of slope) of the continental shelves are 50.4–52.4 km (31.3–32.6 mi) for active and passive margins respectively, with a maximum width of 205.3–255.2 km (127.6–158.6 mi). In correspondence of the Shelf break, also known as Hinge zone, the Bouguer gravity ranges from 0 to 30 mGals that is unusual for a continental region of around 16 km thick sediments. It has been hypothesized that the "Hinge zone may represent the relict of continental and proto-oceanic crustal boundary formed during the rifting of India from Antarctica." Australia, Indonesia, and India are the three countries with the longest shorelines and exclusive economic zones. The continental shelf makes up 15% of the Indian Ocean. More than two billion people live in countries bordering the Indian Ocean, compared to 1.7 billion for the Atlantic and 2.7 billion for the Pacific (some countries border more than one ocean). #### Rivers The Indian Ocean drainage basin covers 21,100,000 km2 (8,100,000 sq mi), virtually identical to that of the Pacific Ocean and half that of the Atlantic basin, or 30% of its ocean surface (compared to 15% for the Pacific). The Indian Ocean drainage basin is divided into roughly 800 individual basins, half that of the Pacific, of which 50% are located in Asia, 30% in Africa, and 20% in Australasia. The rivers of the Indian Ocean are shorter on average (740 km (460 mi)) than those of the other major oceans. The largest rivers are (order 5) the Zambezi, Ganges-Brahmaputra, Indus, Jubba, and Murray rivers and (order 4) the Shatt al-Arab, Wadi Ad Dawasir (a dried-out river system on the Arabian Peninsula) and Limpopo rivers. After the breakup of East Gondwana and the formation of the Himalayas, the Ganges-Brahmaputra rivers flow into the world's largest delta known as the Bengal delta or Sunderbans. ### Marginal seas Marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include: Along the east coast of Africa, the Mozambique Channel separates Madagascar from mainland Africa, while the Sea of Zanj is located north of Madagascar. On the northern coast of the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Aden is connected to the Red Sea by the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. In the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Tadjoura is located in Djibouti and the Guardafui Channel separates Socotra island from the Horn of Africa. The northern end of the Red Sea terminates in the Gulf of Aqaba and Gulf of Suez. The Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea without ship lock through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. The Arabian Sea is connected to the Persian Gulf by the Gulf of Oman and the Strait of Hormuz. In the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Bahrain separates Qatar from the Arabic Peninsula. Along the west coast of India, the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambat are located in Gujarat in the northern end while the Laccadive Sea separates the Maldives from the southern tip of India. The Bay of Bengal is off the east coast of India. The Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait separates Sri Lanka from India, while the Adam's Bridge separates the two. The Andaman Sea is located between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Islands. In Indonesia, the so-called Indonesian Seaway is composed of the Malacca, Sunda and Torres Straits. The Gulf of Carpentaria of located on the Australian north coast while the Great Australian Bight constitutes a large part of its southern coast. 1. Arabian Sea - 3.862 million km2 2. Bay of Bengal - 2.172 million km2 3. Andaman Sea - 797,700 km2 4. Laccadive Sea - 786,000 km2 5. Mozambique Channel - 700,000 km2 6. Timor Sea - 610,000 km2 7. Red Sea - 438,000 km2 8. Gulf of Aden - 410,000 km2 9. Persian Gulf - 251,000 km2 10. Flores Sea - 240,000 km2 11. Molucca Sea - 200,000 km2 12. Oman Sea - 181,000 km2 13. Great Australian Bight - 45,926 km2 14. Gulf of Aqaba - 239 km2 15. Gulf of Khambhat 16. Gulf of Kutch 17. Gulf of Suez Climate ------- Several features make the Indian Ocean unique. It constitutes the core of the large-scale Tropical Warm Pool which, when interacting with the atmosphere, affects the climate both regionally and globally. Asia blocks heat export and prevents the ventilation of the Indian Ocean thermocline. That continent also drives the Indian Ocean monsoon, the strongest on Earth, which causes large-scale seasonal variations in ocean currents, including the reversal of the Somali Current and Indian Monsoon Current. Because of the Indian Ocean Walker circulation there are no continuous equatorial easterlies. Upwelling occurs near the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula in the Northern Hemisphere and north of the trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere. The Indonesian Throughflow is a unique Equatorial connection to the Pacific. The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In the Arabian Sea, the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are generally milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be severe. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Some 80% of the total annual rainfall in India occurs during summer and the region is so dependent on this rainfall that many civilisations perished when the Monsoon failed in the past. The huge variability in the Indian Summer Monsoon has also occurred pre-historically, with a strong, wet phase 33,500–32,500 BP; a weak, dry phase 26,000–23,500 BC; and a very weak phase 17,000–15,000 BP, corresponding to a series of dramatic global events: Bølling-Allerød, Heinrich, and Younger Dryas. The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, at about 1.2 °C (34.2 °F) (compared to 0.7 °C (33.3 °F) for the warm pool region) during 1901–2012. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency and magnitude of El Niño (or the Indian Ocean Dipole), events are a trigger to this strong warming in the Indian Ocean. South of the Equator (20–5°S), the Indian Ocean is gaining heat from June to October, during the austral winter, while it is losing heat from November to March, during the austral summer. In 1999, the Indian Ocean Experiment showed that fossil fuel and biomass burning in South and Southeast Asia caused air pollution (also known as the Asian brown cloud) that reach as far as the Intertropical Convergence Zone at 60°S. This pollution has implications on both a local and global scale. Oceanography ------------ Forty percent of the sediment of the Indian Ocean is found in the Indus and Ganges fans. The oceanic basins adjacent to the continental slopes mostly contain terrigenous sediments. The ocean south of the polar front (roughly 50° south latitude) is high in biologic productivity and dominated by non-stratified sediment composed mostly of siliceous oozes. Near the three major mid-ocean ridges the ocean floor is relatively young and therefore bare of sediment, except for the Southwest Indian Ridge due to its ultra-slow spreading rate. The ocean's currents are mainly controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise (including the Agulhas Current and Agulhas Return Current), constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon (November–February), however, circulation is reversed north of 30°S and winds are weakened during winter and the transitional periods between the monsoons. The Indian Ocean contains the largest submarine fans of the world, the Bengal Fan and Indus Fan, and the largest areas of slope terraces and rift valleys. The inflow of deep water into the Indian Ocean is 11 Sv, most of which comes from the Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW). The CDW enters the Indian Ocean through the Crozet and Madagascar basins and crosses the Southwest Indian Ridge at 30°S. In the Mascarene Basin the CDW becomes a deep western boundary current before it is met by a re-circulated branch of itself, the North Indian Deep Water. This mixed water partly flows north into the Somali Basin whilst most of it flows clockwise in the Mascarene Basin where an oscillating flow is produced by Rossby waves. Water circulation in the Indian Ocean is dominated by the Subtropical Anticyclonic Gyre, the eastern extension of which is blocked by the Southeast Indian Ridge and the 90°E Ridge. Madagascar and the Southwest Indian Ridge separate three cells south of Madagascar and off South Africa. North Atlantic Deep Water reaches into the Indian Ocean south of Africa at a depth of 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft) and flows north along the eastern continental slope of Africa. Deeper than NADW, Antarctic Bottom Water flows from Enderby Basin to Agulhas Basin across deep channels (<4,000 m (13,000 ft)) in the Southwest Indian Ridge, from where it continues into the Mozambique Channel and Prince Edward Fracture Zone. North of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C (72 °F), exceeding 28 °C (82 °F) to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly. The Bay of Bengal contributes more than half (2,950 km3 or 710 cu mi) of the runoff water to the Indian Ocean. Mainly in summer, this runoff flows into the Arabian Sea but also south across the Equator where it mixes with fresher seawater from the Indonesian Throughflow. This mixed freshwater joins the South Equatorial Current in the southern tropical Indian Ocean. Sea surface salinity is highest (more than 36 PSU) in the Arabian Sea because evaporation exceeds precipitation there. In the Southeast Arabian Sea salinity drops to less than 34 PSU. It is the lowest (c. 33 PSU) in the Bay of Bengal because of river runoff and precipitation. The Indonesian Throughflow and precipitation results in lower salinity (34 PSU) along the Sumatran west coast. Monsoonal variation results in eastward transportation of saltier water from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal from June to September and in westerly transport by the East India Coastal Current to the Arabian Sea from January to April. It is found that Arabian Sea warming is in response to the reduction in lower monsoon circulation in recent decades. An Indian Ocean garbage patch was discovered in 2010 covering at least 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles). Riding the southern Indian Ocean Gyre, this vortex of plastic garbage constantly circulates the ocean from Australia to Africa, down the Mozambique Channel, and back to Australia in a period of six years, except for debris that gets indefinitely stuck in the centre of the gyre. The garbage patch in the Indian Ocean will, according to a 2012 study, decrease in size after several decades to vanish completely over centuries. Over several millennia, however, the global system of garbage patches will accumulate in the North Pacific. There are two amphidromes of opposite rotation in the Indian Ocean, probably caused by Rossby wave propagation. Icebergs drift as far north as 55° south latitude, similar to the Pacific but less than in the Atlantic where icebergs reach up to 45°S. The volume of iceberg loss in the Indian Ocean between 2004 and 2012 was 24 Gt. Since the 1960s, anthropogenic warming of the global ocean combined with contributions of freshwater from retreating land ice causes a global rise in sea level. Sea level also increases in the Indian Ocean, except in the south tropical Indian Ocean where it decreases, a pattern most likely caused by rising levels of greenhouse gases. Marine life ----------- A dolphin off Western Australia and a swarm of surgeonfish near Maldives Islands represents the well-known, exotic fauna of the warmer parts of the Indian Ocean. King Penguins on a beach in the Crozet Archipelago near Antarctica attract fewer tourists. Among the tropical oceans, the western Indian Ocean hosts one of the largest concentrations of phytoplankton blooms in summer, due to the strong monsoon winds. The monsoonal wind forcing leads to a strong coastal and open ocean upwelling, which introduces nutrients into the upper zones where sufficient light is available for photosynthesis and phytoplankton production. These phytoplankton blooms support the marine ecosystem, as the base of the marine food web, and eventually the larger fish species. The Indian Ocean accounts for the second-largest share of the most economically valuable tuna catch. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Research indicates that increasing ocean temperatures are taking a toll on the marine ecosystem. A study on the phytoplankton changes in the Indian Ocean indicates a decline of up to 20% in the marine plankton in the Indian Ocean, during the past six decades. The tuna catch rates have also declined 50–90% during the past half-century, mostly due to increased industrial fisheries, with the ocean warming adding further stress to the fish species. Endangered and vulnerable marine mammals and turtles: | Name | Distribution | Trend | | --- | --- | --- | | Endangered | | Australian sea lion(*Neophoca cinerea*) | Southwest Australia | Decreasing | | Blue whale(*Balaenoptera musculus*) | Global | Increasing | | Sei whale(*Balaenoptera borealis*) | Global | Increasing | | Irrawaddy dolphin(*Orcaella brevirostris*) | Southeast Asia | Decreasing | | Indian Ocean humpback dolphin(*Sousa plumbea*) | Western Indian Ocean | Decreasing | | Green sea turtle(*Chelonia mydas*) | Global | Decreasing | | Vulnerable | | Dugong(*Dugong dugon*) | Equatorial Indian Ocean and Pacific | Decreasing | | Sperm whale(*Physeter macrocephalus*) | Global | Unknown | | Fin whale(*Balaenoptera physalus*) | Global | Increasing | | Australian snubfin dolphin(*Orcaella heinsohni*) | Northern Australia, New Guinea | Decreasing | | Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin(*Sousa chinensis*) | Southeast Asia | Decreasing | | Indo-Pacific finless porpoise(*Neophocaena phocaenoides*) | Northern Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia | Decreasing | | Australian humpback dolphin(*Sousa sahulensis*) | Northern Australia, New Guinea | Decreasing | | Leatherback(*Dermochelys coriacea*) | Global | Decreasing | | Olive ridley sea turtle(*Lepidochelys olivacea*) | Global | Decreasing | | Loggerhead sea turtle(*Caretta caretta*) | Global | Decreasing | 80% of the Indian Ocean is open ocean and includes nine large marine ecosystems: the Agulhas Current, Somali Coastal Current, Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Gulf of Thailand, West Central Australian Shelf, Northwest Australian Shelf and Southwest Australian Shelf. Coral reefs cover c. 200,000 km2 (77,000 sq mi). The coasts of the Indian Ocean includes beaches and intertidal zones covering 3,000 km2 (1,200 sq mi) and 246 larger estuaries. Upwelling areas are small but important. The hypersaline salterns in India covers between 5,000–10,000 km2 (1,900–3,900 sq mi) and species adapted for this environment, such as *Artemia salina* and *Dunaliella salina*, are important to bird life. Left: Mangroves (here in East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia) are the only tropical to subtropical forests adapted for a coastal environment. From their origin on the coasts of the Indo-Malaysian region, they have reached a global distribution. Right: The coelacanth (here a model from Oxford), thought extinct for million years, was rediscovered in the 20th century. The Indian Ocean species is blue whereas the Indonesian species is brown. Coral reefs, sea grass beds, and mangrove forests are the most productive ecosystems of the Indian Ocean — coastal areas produce 20 tones per square kilometre of fish. These areas, however, are also being urbanised with populations often exceeding several thousand people per square kilometre and fishing techniques become more effective and often destructive beyond sustainable levels while the increase in sea surface temperature spreads coral bleaching. Mangroves covers 80,984 km2 (31,268 sq mi) in the Indian Ocean region, or almost half of the world's mangrove habitat, of which 42,500 km2 (16,400 sq mi) is located in Indonesia, or 50% of mangroves in the Indian Ocean. Mangroves originated in the Indian Ocean region and have adapted to a wide range of its habitats but it is also where it suffers its biggest loss of habitat. In 2016, six new animal species were identified at hydrothermal vents in the Southwest Indian Ridge: a "Hoff" crab, a "giant peltospirid" snail, a whelk-like snail, a limpet, a scaleworm and a polychaete worm. The West Indian Ocean coelacanth was discovered in the Indian Ocean off South Africa in the 1930s and in the late 1990s another species, the Indonesian coelacanth, was discovered off Sulawesi Island, Indonesia. Most extant coelacanths have been found in the Comoros. Although both species represent an order of lobe-finned fishes known from the Early Devonian (410 mya) and though extinct 66 mya, they are morphologically distinct from their Devonian ancestors. Over millions of years, coelacanths evolved to inhabit different environments — lungs adapted for shallow, brackish waters evolved into gills adapted for deep marine waters. Biodiversity ------------ Of Earth's 36 biodiversity hotspot nine (or 25%) are located on the margins of the Indian Ocean. * Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean (Comoros, Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrigues, the Seychelles, and Socotra), includes 13,000 (11,600 endemic) species of plants; 313 (183) birds; reptiles 381 (367); 164 (97) freshwater fishes; 250 (249) amphibians; and 200 (192) mammals. The origin of this diversity is debated; the break-up of Gondwana can explain vicariance older than 100 mya, but the diversity on the younger, smaller islands must have required a Cenozoic dispersal from the rims of the Indian Ocean to the islands. A "reverse colonisation", from islands to continents, apparently occurred more recently; the chameleons, for example, first diversified on Madagascar and then colonised Africa. Several species on the islands of the Indian Ocean are textbook cases of evolutionary processes; the dung beetles, day geckos, and lemurs are all examples of adaptive radiation. Many bones (250 bones per square metre) of recently extinct vertebrates have been found in the Mare aux Songes swamp in Mauritius, including bones of the Dodo bird (*Raphus cucullatus*) and *Cylindraspis* giant tortoise. An analysis of these remains suggests a process of aridification began in the southwest Indian Ocean began around 4,000 years ago. * Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany (MPA); 8,100 (1,900 endemic) species of plants; 541 (0) birds; 205 (36) reptiles; 73 (20) freshwater fishes; 73 (11) amphibians; and 197 (3) mammals. Mammalian megafauna once widespread in the MPA was driven to near extinction in the early 20th century. Some species have been successfully recovered since then — the population of white rhinoceros (*Ceratotherium simum simum*) increased from less than 20 individuals in 1895 to more than 17,000 as of 2013. Other species still depend on fenced areas and management programs, including black rhinoceros (*Diceros bicornis minor*), African wild dog (*Lycaon pictus*), cheetah (*Acynonix jubatus*), elephant (*Loxodonta africana*), and lion (*Panthera leo*). * Coastal forests of eastern Africa; 4,000 (1,750 endemic) species of plants; 636 (12) birds; 250 (54) reptiles; 219 (32) freshwater fishes; 95 (10) amphibians; and 236 (7) mammals. This biodiversity hotspot (and namesake ecoregion and "Endemic Bird Area") is a patchwork of small forested areas, often with a unique assemblage of species within each, located within 200 km (120 mi) from the coast and covering a total area of c. 6,200 km2 (2,400 sq mi). It also encompasses coastal islands, including Zanzibar and Pemba, and Mafia. * Horn of Africa; 5,000 (2,750 endemic) species of plants; 704 (25) birds; 284 (93) reptiles; 100 (10) freshwater fishes; 30 (6) amphibians; and 189 (18) mammals. This area, one of the only two hotspots that are entirely arid, includes the Ethiopian Highlands, the East African Rift valley, the Socotra islands, as well as some small islands in the Red Sea and areas on the southern Arabic Peninsula. Endemic and threatened mammals include the dibatag (*Ammodorcas clarkei*) and Speke's gazelle (*Gazella spekei*); the Somali wild ass (*Equus africanus somaliensis*) and hamadryas baboon (*Papio hamadryas*). It also contains many reptiles. In Somalia, the centre of the 1,500,000 km2 (580,000 sq mi) hotspot, the landscape is dominated by Acacia-Commiphora deciduous bushland, but also includes the Yeheb nut (*Cordeauxia edulus*) and species discovered more recently such as the Somali cyclamen (*Cyclamen somalense*), the only cyclamen outside the Mediterranean. Warsangli linnet (*Carduelis johannis*) is an endemic bird found only in northern Somalia. An unstable political situation and mismanagement has resulted in overgrazing which has produced one of the most degraded hotspots where only c. 5 % of the original habitat remains. * The Western Ghats–Sri Lanka; 5,916 (3,049 endemic) species of plants; 457 (35) birds; 265 (176) reptiles; 191 (139) freshwater fishes; 204 (156) amphibians; and 143 (27) mammals. Encompassing the west coast of India and Sri Lanka, until c. 10,000 years ago a landbridge connected Sri Lanka to the Indian Subcontinent, hence this region shares a common community of species. * Indo-Burma; 13.500 (7,000 endemic) species of plants; 1,277 (73) birds; 518 (204) reptiles; 1,262 (553) freshwater fishes; 328 (193) amphibians; and 401 (100) mammals. Indo-Burma encompasses a series of mountain ranges, five of Asia's largest river systems, and a wide range of habitats. The region has a long and complex geological history, and long periods rising sea levels and glaciations have isolated ecosystems and thus promoted a high degree of endemism and speciation. The region includes two centres of endemism: the Annamite Mountains and the northern highlands on the China-Vietnam border. Several distinct floristic regions, the Indian, Malesian, Sino-Himalayan, and Indochinese regions, meet in a unique way in Indo-Burma and the hotspot contains an estimated 15,000–25,000 species of vascular plants, many of them endemic. * Sundaland; 25,000 (15,000 endemic) species of plants; 771 (146) birds; 449 (244) reptiles; 950 (350) freshwater fishes; 258 (210) amphibians; and 397 (219) mammals. Sundaland encompasses 17,000 islands of which Borneo and Sumatra are the largest. Endangered mammals include the Bornean and Sumatran orangutans, the proboscis monkey, and the Javan and Sumatran rhinoceroses. * Wallacea; 10,000 (1,500 endemic) species of plants; 650 (265) birds; 222 (99) reptiles; 250 (50) freshwater fishes; 49 (33) amphibians; and 244 (144) mammals. * Southwest Australia; 5,571 (2,948 endemic) species of plants; 285 (10) birds; 177 (27) reptiles; 20 (10) freshwater fishes; 32 (22) amphibians; and 55 (13) mammals. Stretching from Shark Bay to Israelite Bay and isolated by the arid Nullarbor Plain, the southwestern corner of Australia is a floristic region with a stable climate in which one of the world's largest floral biodiversity and an 80% endemism has evolved. From June to September it is an explosion of colours and the Wildflower Festival in Perth in September attracts more than half a million visitors. Geology ------- Left: The oldest ocean floor of the Indian Ocean formed c. 150 Ma when the Indian Subcontinent and Madagascar broke-up from Africa. Right: The India–Asia collision c. 40 Ma completed the closure of the Tethys Ocean (grey areas north of India). Geologically, the Indian Ocean is the ocean floor that opened up south of India. As the youngest of the major oceans, the Indian Ocean has active spreading ridges that are part of the worldwide system of mid-ocean ridges. In the Indian Ocean these spreading ridges meet at the Rodrigues Triple Point with the Central Indian Ridge, including the Carlsberg Ridge, separating the African Plate from the Indian Plate; the Southwest Indian Ridge separating the African Plate from the Antarctic Plate; and the Southeast Indian Ridge separating the Australian Plate from the Antarctic Plate. The Central Indian Ridge is intercepted by the Owen Fracture Zone. Since the late 1990s, however, it has become clear that this traditional definition of the Indo-Australian Plate cannot be correct; it consists of three plates — the Indian Plate, the Capricorn Plate, and Australian Plate — separated by diffuse boundary zones. Since 20 Ma the African Plate is being divided by the East African Rift System into the Nubian and Somalia plates. There are only two trenches in the Indian Ocean: the 6,000 km (3,700 mi)-long Java Trench between Java and the Sunda Trench and the 900 km (560 mi)-long Makran Trench south of Iran and Pakistan. A series of ridges and seamount chains produced by hotspots pass over the Indian Ocean. The Réunion hotspot (active 70–40 million years ago) connects Réunion and the Mascarene Plateau to the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge and the Deccan Traps in north-western India; the Kerguelen hotspot (100–35 million years ago) connects the Kerguelen Islands and Kerguelen Plateau to the Ninety East Ridge and the Rajmahal Traps in north-eastern India; the Marion hotspot (100–70 million years ago) possibly connects Prince Edward Islands to the Eighty Five East Ridge. These hotspot tracks have been broken by the still active spreading ridges mentioned above. There are fewer seamounts in the Indian Ocean than in the Atlantic and Pacific. These are typically deeper than 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and located north of 55°S and west of 80°E. Most originated at spreading ridges but some are now located in basins far away from these ridges. The ridges of the Indian Ocean form ranges of seamounts, sometimes very long, including the Carlsberg Ridge, Madagascar Ridge, Central Indian Ridge, Southwest Indian Ridge, Chagos-Laccadive Ridge, 85°E Ridge, 90°E Ridge, Southeast Indian Ridge, Broken Ridge, and East Indiaman Ridge. The Agulhas Plateau and Mascarene Plateau are the two major shallow areas. The opening of the Indian Ocean began c. 156 Ma when Africa separated from East Gondwana. The Indian Subcontinent began to separate from Australia-Antarctica 135–125 Ma and as the Tethys Ocean north of India began to close 118–84 Ma the Indian Ocean opened behind it. History ------- The Indian Ocean, together with the Mediterranean, has connected people since ancient times, whereas the Atlantic and Pacific have had the roles of barriers or *mare incognitum*. The written history of the Indian Ocean, however, has been Eurocentric and largely dependent on the availability of written sources from the European colonial era. This history is often divided into an ancient period followed by an Islamic period; the subsequent periods are often subdivided into Portuguese, Dutch, and British periods. A concept of an "Indian Ocean World" (IOW), similar to that of the "Atlantic World", exists but emerged much more recently and is not well established. The IOW is, nevertheless, sometimes referred to as the "first global economy" and was based on the monsoon which linked Asia, China, India, and Mesopotamia. It developed independently from the European global trade in the Mediterranean and Atlantic and remained largely independent from them until European 19th-century colonial dominance. The diverse history of the Indian Ocean is a unique mix of cultures, ethnic groups, natural resources, and shipping routes. It grew in importance beginning in the 1960s and 1970s and, after the Cold War, it has undergone periods of political instability, most recently with the emergence of India and China as regional powers. ### First settlements Pleistocene fossils of *Homo erectus* and other pre–*H. sapiens* hominid fossils, similar to *H. heidelbergensis* in Europe, have been found in India. According to the Toba catastrophe theory, a supereruption c. 74,000 years ago at Lake Toba, Sumatra, covered India with volcanic ashes and wiped out one or more lineages of such archaic humans in India and Southeast Asia. The *Out of Africa* theory states that *Homo sapiens* spread from Africa into mainland Eurasia. The more recent *Southern Dispersal* or *Coastal hypothesis* instead advocates that modern humans spread along the coasts of the Arabic Peninsula and southern Asia. This hypothesis is supported by mtDNA research which reveals a rapid dispersal event during the Late Pleistocene (11,000 years ago). This coastal dispersal, however, began in East Africa 75,000 years ago and occurred intermittently from estuary to estuary along the northern perimeter of the Indian Ocean at a rate of 0.7–4.0 km (0.43–2.49 mi) per year. It eventually resulted in modern humans migrating from Sunda over Wallacea to Sahul (Southeast Asia to Australia). Since then, waves of migration have resettled people and, clearly, the Indian Ocean littoral had been inhabited long before the first civilisations emerged. 5000–6000 years ago six distinct cultural centres had evolved around the Indian Ocean: East Africa, the Middle East, the Indian Subcontinent, South East Asia, the Malay World and Australia; each interlinked to its neighbours. Food globalisation began on the Indian Ocean littoral c. 4.000 years ago. Five African crops — sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, cowpea and hyacinth bean — somehow found their way to Gujarat in India during the Late Harappan (2000–1700 BCE). Gujarati merchants evolved into the first explorers of the Indian Ocean as they traded African goods such as ivory, tortoise shells, and slaves. Broomcorn millet found its way from Central Asia to Africa, together with chicken and zebu cattle, although the exact timing is disputed. Around 2000 BCE black pepper and sesame, both native to Asia, appear in Egypt, albeit in small quantities. Around the same time the black rat and the house mouse emigrate from Asia to Egypt. Banana reached Africa around 3000 years ago. At least eleven prehistoric tsunamis have struck the Indian Ocean coast of Indonesia between 7400 and 2900 years ago. Analysing sand beds in caves in the Aceh region, scientists concluded that the intervals between these tsunamis have varied from series of minor tsunamis over a century to dormant periods of more than 2000 years preceding megathrusts in the Sunda Trench. Although the risk for future tsunamis is high, a major megathrust such as the one in 2004 is likely to be followed by a long dormant period. A group of scientists have argued that two large-scale impact events have occurred in the Indian Ocean: the Burckle Crater in the southern Indian Ocean in 2800 BCE and the Kanmare and Tabban craters in the Gulf of Carpentaria in northern Australia in 536 CE. Evidences for these impacts, the team argue, are micro-ejecta and Chevron dunes in southern Madagascar and in the Australian gulf. Geological evidences suggest the tsunamis caused by these impacts reached 205 m (673 ft) above sea level and 45 km (28 mi) inland. The impact events must have disrupted human settlements and perhaps even contributed to major climate changes. ### Antiquity The history of the Indian Ocean is marked by maritime trade; cultural and commercial exchange probably date back at least seven thousand years. Human culture spread early on the shores of the Indian Ocean and was always linked to the cultures of the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. Before c. 2000 BCE, however, cultures on its shores were only loosely tied to each other; bronze, for example, was developed in Mesopotamia c. 3000 BCE but remained uncommon in Egypt before 1800 BCE. During this period, independent, short-distance oversea communications along its littoral margins evolved into an all-embracing network. The début of this network was not the achievement of a centralised or advanced civilisation but of local and regional exchange in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the Arabian Sea. Sherds of Ubaid (2500–500 BCE) pottery have been found in the western Gulf at Dilmun, present-day Bahrain; traces of exchange between this trading centre and Mesopotamia. The Sumerians traded grain, pottery, and bitumen (used for reed boats) for copper, stone, timber, tin, dates, onions, and pearls. Coast-bound vessels transported goods between the Indus Valley civilisation (2600–1900 BCE) in the Indian subcontinent (modern-day Pakistan and Northwest India) and the Persian Gulf and Egypt. The Red Sea, one of the main trade routes in Antiquity, was explored by Egyptians and Phoenicians during the last two millennia BCE. In the 6th century, BCE Greek explorer Scylax of Caryanda made a journey to India, working for the Persian king Darius, and his now-lost account put the Indian Ocean on the maps of Greek geographers. The Greeks began to explore the Indian Ocean following the conquests of Alexander the Great, who ordered a circumnavigation of the Arabian Peninsula in 323 BCE. During the two centuries that followed the reports of the explorers of Ptolemaic Egypt resulted in the best maps of the region until the Portuguese era many centuries later. The main interest in the region for the Ptolemies was not commercial but military; they explored Africa to hunt for war elephants. The Rub' al Khali desert isolates the southern parts of the Arabic Peninsula and the Indian Ocean from the Arabic world. This encouraged the development of maritime trade in the region linking the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to East Africa and India. The monsoon (from *mawsim*, the Arabic word for season), however, was used by sailors long before being "discovered" by Hippalus in the 1st century. Indian wood have been found in Sumerian cities, there is evidence of Akkad coastal trade in the region, and contacts between India and the Red Sea dates back to 2300 B.C. The archipelagoes of the central Indian Ocean, the Laccadive and Maldive islands, were probably populated during the 2nd century B.C. from the Indian mainland. They appear in written history in the account of merchant Sulaiman al-Tajir in the 9th century but the treacherous reefs of the islands were most likely cursed by the sailors of Aden long before the islands were even settled. *Periplus of the Erythraean Sea*, an Alexandrian guide to the world beyond the Red Sea — including Africa and India — from the first century CE, not only gives insights into trade in the region but also shows that Roman and Greek sailors had already gained knowledge about the monsoon winds. The contemporaneous settlement of Madagascar by Austronesian sailors shows that the littoral margins of the Indian Ocean were being both well-populated and regularly traversed at least by this time. Albeit the monsoon must have been common knowledge in the Indian Ocean for centuries. The Indian Ocean's relatively calmer waters opened the areas bordering it to trade earlier than the Atlantic or Pacific oceans. The powerful monsoons also meant ships could easily sail west early in the season, then wait a few months and return eastwards. This allowed ancient Indonesian peoples to cross the Indian Ocean to settle in Madagascar around 1 CE. In the 2nd or 1st century BCE, Eudoxus of Cyzicus was the first Greek to cross the Indian Ocean. The probably fictitious sailor Hippalus is said to have learnt the direct route from Arabia to India around this time. During the 1st and 2nd centuries AD intensive trade relations developed between Roman Egypt and the Tamil kingdoms of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas in Southern India. Like the Indonesian people above, the western sailors used the monsoon to cross the ocean. The unknown author of the *Periplus of the Erythraean Sea* describes this route, as well as the commodities that were traded along various commercial ports on the coasts of the Horn of Africa and India circa 1 CE. Among these trading settlements were Mosylon and Opone on the Red Sea littoral. ### Age of Discovery Preferred sailing routes across the Indian Ocean Unlike the Pacific Ocean where the civilization of the Polynesians reached most of the far-flung islands and atolls and populated them, almost all the islands, archipelagos and atolls of the Indian Ocean were uninhabited until colonial times. Although there were numerous ancient civilizations in the coastal states of Asia and parts of Africa, the Maldives were the only island group in the Central Indian Ocean region where an ancient civilization flourished. Maldivians, on their annual trade trip, took their oceangoing trade ships to Sri Lanka rather than mainland India, which is much closer, because their ships were dependent of the Indian Monsoon Current. Arabic missionaries and merchants began to spread Islam along the western shores of the Indian Ocean from the 8th century, if not earlier. A Swahili stone mosque dating to the 8th–15th centuries has been found in Shanga, Kenya. Trade across the Indian Ocean gradually introduced Arabic script and rice as a staple in Eastern Africa. Muslim merchants traded an estimated 1000 African slaves annually between 800 and 1700, a number that grew to c. 4000 during the 18th century, and 3700 during the period 1800–1870. Slave trade also occurred in the eastern Indian Ocean before the Dutch settled there around 1600 but the volume of this trade is unknown. From 1405 to 1433 admiral Zheng He said to have led large fleets of the Ming Dynasty on several treasure voyages through the Indian Ocean, ultimately reaching the coastal countries of East Africa. The Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope during his first voyage in 1497 and became the first European to sail to India. The Swahili people he encountered along the African east coast lived in a series of cities and had established trade routes to India and to China. Among them, the Portuguese kidnapped most of their pilots in coastal raids and on board ships. A few of the pilots, however, were gifts by local Swahili rulers, including the sailor from Gujarat, a gift by a Malindi ruler in Kenya, who helped the Portuguese to reach India. In expeditions after 1500, the Portuguese attacked and colonised cities along the African coast. European slave trade in the Indian Ocean began when Portugal established Estado da Índia in the early 16th century. From then until the 1830s, c. 200 slaves were exported from Mozambique annually and similar figures has been estimated for slaves brought from Asia to the Philippines during the Iberian Union (1580–1640). The Ottoman Empire began its expansion into the Indian Ocean in 1517 with the conquest of Egypt under Sultan Selim I. Although the Ottomans shared the same religion as the trading communities in the Indian Ocean the region was unexplored by them. Maps that included the Indian Ocean had been produced by Muslim geographers centuries before the Ottoman conquests; Muslim scholars, such as Ibn Battuta in the 14th century, had visited most parts of the known world; contemporarily with Vasco da Gama, Arab navigator Ahmad ibn Mājid had compiled a guide to navigation in the Indian Ocean; the Ottomans, nevertheless, began their own parallel era of discovery which rivalled the European expansion. The establishment of the Dutch East India Company in the early 17th century lead to a quick increase in the volume of the slave trade in the region; there were perhaps up to 500,000 slaves in various Dutch colonies during the 17th and 18th centuries in the Indian Ocean. For example, some 4000 African slaves were used to build the Colombo fortress in Dutch Ceylon. Bali and neighbouring islands supplied regional networks with c. 100,000–150,000 slaves 1620–1830. Indian and Chinese slave traders supplied Dutch Indonesia with perhaps 250,000 slaves during the 17th and 18th centuries. The East India Company (EIC) was established during the same period and in 1622 one of its ships carried slaves from the Coromandel Coast to Dutch East Indies. The EIC mostly traded in African slaves but also some Asian slaves purchased from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. The French established colonies on the islands of Réunion and Mauritius in 1721; by 1735 some 7,200 slaves populated the Mascarene Islands, a number which had reached 133,000 in 1807. The British captured the islands in 1810, however, and because the British had prohibited the slave trade in 1807 a system of clandestine slave trade developed to bring slaves to French planters on the islands; in all 336,000–388,000 slaves were exported to the Mascarene Islands from 1670 until 1848. In all, European traders exported 567,900–733,200 slaves within the Indian Ocean between 1500 and 1850 and almost that same amount were exported from the Indian Ocean to the Americas during the same period. Slave trade in the Indian Ocean was, nevertheless, very limited compared to c. 12,000,000 slaves exported across the Atlantic. ### Late modern era Scientifically, the Indian Ocean remained poorly explored before the International Indian Ocean Expedition in the early 1960s. However, the *Challenger* expedition 1872–1876 only reported from south of the polar front. The *Valdivia* expedition 1898–1899 made deep samples in the Indian Ocean. In the 1930s, the John Murray Expedition mainly studied shallow-water habitats. The Swedish Deep Sea Expedition 1947–1948 also sampled the Indian Ocean on its global tour and the Danish *Galathea* sampled deep-water fauna from Sri Lanka to South Africa on its second expedition 1950–1952. The Soviet research vessel *Vityaz* also did research in the Indian Ocean. The Suez Canal opened in 1869 when the Industrial Revolution dramatically changed global shipping – the sailing ship declined in importance as did the importance of European trade in favour of trade in East Asia and Australia. The construction of the canal introduced many non-indigenous species into the Mediterranean. For example, the goldband goatfish (*Upeneus moluccensis*) has replaced the red mullet (*Mullus barbatus*); since the 1980s huge swarms of scyphozoan jellyfish (*Rhopilema nomadica*) have affected tourism and fisheries along the Levantian coast and clogged power and desalination plants. Plans announced in 2014 to build a new, much larger Suez Canal parallel to the 19th-century canal will most likely boost the economy in the region but also cause ecological damage in a much wider area. Throughout the colonial era, islands such as Mauritius were important shipping nodes for the Dutch, French, and British. Mauritius, an inhabited island, became populated by slaves from Africa and indenture labour from India. The end of World War II marked the end of the colonial era. The British left Mauritius in 1974 and with 70% of the population of Indian descent, Mauritius became a close ally of India. In the 1980s, during the Cold War, the South African regime acted to destabilise several island nations in the Indian Ocean, including the Seychelles, Comoros, and Madagascar. India intervened in Mauritius to prevent a coup d'état, backed up by the United States who feared the Soviet Union could gain access to Port Louis and threaten the U.S. base on Diego Garcia. Iranrud is an unrealised plan by Iran and the Soviet Union to build a canal between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. Testimonies from the colonial era are stories of African slaves, Indian indentured labourers and white settlers. But, while there was a clear racial line between free men and slaves in the Atlantic World, this delineation is less distinct in the Indian Ocean — there were Indian slaves and settlers as well as black indentured labourers. There were also a string of prison camps across the Indian Ocean, such as Cellular Jail in the Andamans, in which prisoners, exiles, POWs, forced labourers, merchants and people of different faiths were forcefully united. On the islands of the Indian Ocean, therefore, a trend of creolisation emerged. On 26 December 2004, fourteen countries around the Indian Ocean were hit by a wave of tsunamis caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The waves radiated across the ocean at speeds exceeding 500 km/h (310 mph), reached up to 20 m (66 ft) in height, and resulted in an estimated 236,000 deaths. In the late 2000s, the ocean evolved into a hub of pirate activity. By 2013, attacks off the Horn region's coast had steadily declined due to active private security and international navy patrols, especially by the Indian Navy. Malaysian Airlines Flight 370, a Boeing 777 airliner with 239 persons on board, disappeared on 8 March 2014 and is alleged to have crashed into the southern Indian Ocean about 2,500 km (1,600 mi) from the coast of southwest Western Australia. Despite an extensive search, the whereabouts of the remains of the aircraft is unknown. The Sentinelese people of North Sentinel Island, which lies near South Andaman Island in the Bay of Bengal, have been called by experts the most isolated people in the world. The sovereignty of the Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean is disputed between the United Kingdom and Mauritius. In February 2019, the International Court of Justice in The Hague issued an advisory opinion stating that the UK must transfer the Chagos Archipelago to Mauritius. Trade ----- The sea lanes in the Indian Ocean are considered among the most strategically important in the world with more than 80 percent of the world's seaborne trade in oil transits through the Indian Ocean and its vital chokepoints, with 40 percent passing through the Strait of Hormuz, 35 percent through the Strait of Malacca and 8 percent through the Bab el-Mandab Strait. The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oil fields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, India, and Western Australia. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals, and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, Pakistan, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. In particular, the maritime part of the Silk Road leads through the Indian Ocean on which a large part of the global container trade is carried out. The Silk Road runs with its connections from the Chinese coast and its large container ports to the south via Hanoi to Jakarta, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur through the Strait of Malacca via the Sri Lankan Colombo opposite the southern tip of India via Malé, the capital of the Maldives, to the East African Mombasa, from there to Djibouti, then through the Red Sea over the Suez Canal into the Mediterranean, there via Haifa, Istanbul and Athens to the Upper Adriatic to the northern Italian junction of Trieste with its international free port and its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe. The Silk Road has become internationally important again on the one hand through European integration, the end of the Cold War and free world trade and on the other hand through Chinese initiatives. Chinese companies have made investments in several Indian Ocean ports, including Gwadar, Hambantota, Colombo and Sonadia. 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Alpers, eds. *Connectivity in Motion: Island Hubs in the Indian Ocean World* (2017). * Schottenhammer, Angela, ed. *Early Global Interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean World, Volume I: Commercial Structures and Exchanges* (2019). * Schottenhammer, Angela, ed. *Early Global Interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean World, Volume II: Exchange of Ideas, Religions, and Technologies* (2019). * Serels, Steven, ed. *The Impoverishment of the African Red Sea Littoral, 1640–1945* (2018).

Indian Ocean

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean

**Thiruvananthapuram** (/ˌtɪruːvəˌnʌntəˈpʊərəm/; Malayalam: [t̪iɾuʋɐnɐn̪d̪ɐpuɾɐm] ()), formerly known as **Trivandrum** (/trɪˈvændrəm/), is the capital of the Indian state of Kerala. It is the most populous city in Kerala with a population of 2,891,000 as of 2023. The encompassing urban agglomeration population is around 2.9 million. Located on the west coast of India near the extreme south of the mainland, Thiruvananthapuram is a major information technology hub in Kerala and contributes 55% of the state's software exports as of 2016. Referred to by Mahatma Gandhi as the "Evergreen city of India", the city is characterised by its undulating terrain of low coastal hills. The present regions that constitute Thiruvananthapuram were ruled by the Ays who were feudatories of the Chera dynasty. In the 12th century, it was conquered by the Kingdom of Venad. In the 18th century, the king Marthanda Varma expanded the territory, founded the princely state of Travancore, and made Thiruvananthapuram its capital. Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755. Following India's independence in 1947, Thiruvananthapuram became the capital of Travancore–Cochin state and remained so until the new Indian state of Kerala was formed in 1956. Thiruvananthapuram is a notable academic and research hub and home to the University of Kerala, APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, the regional headquarters of Indira Gandhi National Open University, and many other schools and colleges. Thiruvananthapuram is also home to research centers such as the National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Indian Space Research Organisation's Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology, National Centre for Earth Science Studies and a campus of the Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research. The city is home to media institutions like Toonz India Ltd and Tata Elxsi Ltd, and is also home to Chitranjali Film Studio, one of the first film studios in Malayalam Cinema, and Kinfra Film and Video Park at Kazhakoottom, which is India's first Infotainment industrial park. Being India's largest city in the deep south, it is strategically prominent and hosts the Southern Air Command headquarters of the Indian Air Force, the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station and the upcoming Vizhinjam International Seaport. Thiruvananthapuram is a major tourist centre, known for the Padmanabhaswamy Temple, the beaches of Kovalam and Varkala, the backwaters of Poovar and Anchuthengu and its Western Ghats tracts of Ponmudi and the Agastya Mala. In 2012, Thiruvananthapuram was named the best Kerala city to live in, by a field survey conducted by *The Times of India*. In 2013, the city was ranked the fifteenth best city to live in India, in a survey conducted by *India Today*. Thiruvananthapuram was ranked the best Indian city for two consecutive years, 2015 and 2016, according to the Annual Survey of India's City-Systems (ASICS) conducted by the Janaagraha Centre for Citizenship and Democracy. The city was also selected as the best governed city in India in a survey conducted by Janaagraha Centre for citizenship and democracy in 2017. Etymology --------- The city takes its name from Malayalam/Tamil word *thiru-anantha-puram* (തിരുവനന്തപുരം [t̪iɾuʋɐnɐn̪d̪ɐpuɾɐm] ()), meaning "The City of Lord Ananta", referring to the deity of the Sri Padmanabhaswamy Temple located in the city. Thiruvananthapuram is also known in literature, and popular reference as *Ananthapuri*, derived from the Sanskrit word *Syanandurapuram*, meaning "The City of Bliss" in Carnatic kirtanas composed by Swathi Thirunal, erstwhile Maharaja of Travancore. The city was officially referred to as *Trivandrum* until 1991 (Trivandrum being the anglicised name of the town), when the government decided to reinstate the city's original name Thiruvananthapuram. History ------- Thiruvananthapuram is a relatively modern region with trading traditions dating back to 1000 BCE. It is believed that the ships of King Solomon landed in a port called Ophir (now Poovar) in Thiruvananthapuram in 1036 BCE. The city was the trading post of spices, sandalwood and ivory. However, the ancient political and cultural history of the city was almost entirely independent from that of the rest of Kerala. The Chera dynasty governed the area of Malabar Coast between Alappuzha in the south to Kasaragod in the north. This included Palakkad Gap, Coimbatore, Salem, and Kolli Hills. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c. first and the fourth centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu. However the southern region of present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between Thiruvananthapuram and Alappuzha) was under Ay dynasty, who was more related to the Pandya dynasty of Madurai. The early rulers of the city were the Ays. Vizhinjam, which is now a region in the present-day Thiruvananthapuram, was the capital of the Ay dynasty. Vizhinjam was an important port city from as early as the second century BC. During the Ay dynasty's rule, Thiruvananthapuram witnessed many battles in which the Chola and Pandyan dynasties attempted to capture the port town. After the death of king Vikramaditya Varaguna in 925 AD, the glory of the Ays departed and almost all their territories became part of the Chera dynasty. During the tenth century, the Cholas attacked and sacked Vizhinjam and surrounding regions. The port in Vizhinjam and the historic education center of Kanthalloor Sala were also destroyed by Cholas during this period. A branch of the Ay family, which had controlled the Padmanabhaswamy Temple, merged with the Kingdom of Venad in the 12th century. Present-day Thiruvananthapuram city, district, and Kanyakumari district, were parts of the Ay dynasty during ancient and medieval ages, which was a Tamil kingdom based in the southernmost part of the Indian subcontinent. Ay kingdom had experienced attacks and conquests by Cholas and Pandyas in various periods. Later it became a part of Venad in late Middle Ages, which was eventually expanded as the powerful kingdom of Travancore in 18th century CE. The Tamil-Dravidian kind of architecture is also found in Padmanabhaswamy temple, which makes it distinct and unique from the architectural style of temples in northern and central parts of Kerala. Modern-day Southern Kerala (The districts like Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Pathanamthitta, etc.) had been ruled by Tamil dynasties such as the Ay kingdom, the Pandya dynasty, and the Chola dynasty, for a long time until 16th–17th century CE. The official language of Venad, based at Kollam, was also identified as Tamil, by the natives of Venad in those times. The place names, the dialects of Malayalam spoken, and the customs that exist in the southern parts of Kerala still reveal a close relationship with Tamil heritage. Malayalam became more prevalent with the expansion of Venad into Travancore by annexing the regions up to present-day Ernakulam district. In the early 18th century CE, the Travancore royal family adopted some members from the royal family of Kolathunadu based at Kannur, and Parappanad based in present-day Malappuram district. Then, Marthanda Varma who inherited the Kingdom of Venad expanded the kingdom by conquering the kingdoms of Attingal, Kollam, Kayamkulam, Kottarakara, Kottayam, Changanassery, Meenachil, Poonjar and Ambalapuzha. In 1729, Marthanda Varma founded the princely state of Thiruvithamkoor and Thiruvananthapuram was made the capital in 1795 after shifting the capital from Padmanabhapuram in Kanyakumari district. Thiruvananthapuram became a prominent city in Kerala under Marthanda Varma. As a result of the annexation of neighbouring chiefdoms, the artists and scholars from these places migrated to Thiruvananthapuram, turning it into a cultural center. Marthanda Varma gave patronage to different temple art forms including *Koothu*, *Padhakam*, *Kathakali*, *Thullal*, and *Koodiyattam*. Noted artists such as Ramapurathu Warrier and Kunchan Nambiar amongst others served as his court poets. Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755. The city developed into a significant intellectual and artistic centre during this period. The city's golden age was during the mid-19th century under the reign of Maharaja Swathi Thirunal and Maharaja Ayilyam Thirunal. This era saw the establishment of the first English school (1834), the Observatory (1837), the General Hospital (1839), the Oriental Research Institute & Manuscripts Library and the University College (1873). The first mental hospital in the state was started during the same period. Sanskrit College, Ayurveda College, Law College and a second-grade college for women were started by Moolam Thirunal (1885–1924). The early 20th century was an age of tremendous political and social changes in the city. The Sree Moolam Popular Assembly, established in 1904, was the first democratically elected legislative council in any Indian state. Despite not being under the direct control of the British Empire at any time, the city featured prominently in India's freedom struggle. The Indian National Congress had a very active presence in Thiruvananthapuram. A meeting of the Indian National Congress presided by Dr Pattabhi Sitaramaiah was held here in 1938. The Thiruvananthapuram Municipality came into existence in 1920 as the first municipality in the Travancore region. The municipality was converted into a corporation on 30 October 1940, during the period of Chitra Thirunal Bala Rama Varma, who took over in 1931. The city witnessed multi-faceted progress during his period. The promulgation of the "Temple Entry Proclamation" (1936) was an act that underlined social emancipation. This era also saw the establishment of the University of Travancore in 1937, which later became Kerala University. With the end of British rule in 1947, Travancore chose to join the Indian union. The first popularly elected ministry, headed by Pattom Thanu Pillai, was installed in office on 24 March 1948. In 1949, Thiruvananthapuram became the capital of Thiru-Kochi, the state formed by the integration of Travancore with its northern neighbour, the Kochi. The king of Travancore, Chitra Thirunal Bala Rama Varma, became the Rajpramukh of the Travancore-Cochin Union from 1 July 1949 until 31 October 1956. When the state of Kerala was formed on 1 November 1956, Thiruvananthapuram became its capital. With the establishment of Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in 1962, Thiruvananthapuram became the cradle of India's ambitious space programme. The first Indian space rocket was developed and launched from the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) in the outskirts of the city in 1963. Several establishments of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) were later established in Thiruvananthapuram. A significant milestone in the city's recent history was the establishment of Technopark—India's first IT park—in 1995. Technopark has developed into the largest IT park in the geographical area, employing around 62,000 people in 450 companies. Geography and climate --------------------- ### Geography View of Pattom, the north eastern part of the city. The Western Ghats mountain range is seen in the background Thiruvananthapuram is built on seven hills by the seashore and is at 8°30′N 76°54′E / 8.5°N 76.9°E / 8.5; 76.9 on the west coast, near the southern tip of mainland India. The city is on the west coast of India and is bounded by the Laccadive Sea to its west and the Western Ghats to its east. The average elevation of the city is 16 ft (4.9 m) above sea level. The Geological Survey of India has identified Thiruvananthapuram as a moderately earthquake-prone urban centre and categorised the metropolis in the Seismic III Zone. Thiruvananthapuram lies on the shores of Karamana and Killi rivers. Vellayani, Thiruvallam and Aakulam backwaters lie in the city. The soil type in the middle part of the city is a dark brown loamy laterite soil high in phosphates. Laterisation is a result of the heavy rainfall and humid conditions. In western coastal regions of the city, sandy loam soil is found, and on hilly eastern parts of the district, rich dark brown loam of granite origin is found. The Thiruvananthapuram Corporation is spread over 214.86 km2 (82.96 sq mi). The wider Thiruvananthapuram metropolitan area comprises Thiruvananthapuram corporation, three municipalities and 27 panchayats, as of 2011. Being the largest city in India's southern tip region, it is essential for both military logistics and civil aviation in the southern part of the country. Thiruvananthapuram is the headquarters of the Southern Air Command (SAC) of the Indian Air Force. ### Climate The city has a climate that lies on the border between a tropical savanna climate (Köppen *Aw*) and a tropical monsoon climate (*Am*). As a result, its only distinct seasons relate to rainfall rather than temperature. The mean maximum temperature is 34 °C (93 °F) and the mean minimum temperature is 21 °C (70 °F). The humidity is high and rises to about 90% during the monsoon season. Thiruvananthapuram is the first city along the path of the south-west monsoons and gets its first showers in early June. The city receives heavy rainfall of around 1,835 mm (72.2 in) per year. The city also gets rain from the receding north-east monsoons which hit the city by October. The dry season sets in by December. The lowest temperature recorded in the city core was 17.8 °C (64.0 °F) on 6 January 1974 and the highest temperature was 38.2 °C (100.8 °F) on 21 February 2019. At the airport, the lowest temperature recorded was 16.4 °C (61.5 °F) on 15 January 1975 and the highest temperature was 36.3 °C (97.3 °F) on 5 May 1998. | Climate data for Thiruvananthapuram City (1991–2020, extremes 1901–2020) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 36.0(96.8) | 38.2(100.8) | 37.7(99.9) | 38.0(100.4) | 36.7(98.1) | 35.8(96.4) | 34.0(93.2) | 34.6(94.3) | 35.4(95.7) | 35.2(95.4) | 34.8(94.6) | 35.5(95.9) | 38.2(100.8) | | Mean maximum °C (°F) | 34.4(93.9) | 34.8(94.6) | 35.4(95.7) | 35.1(95.2) | 34.6(94.3) | 32.8(91.0) | 32.1(89.8) | 32.3(90.1) | 33.0(91.4) | 32.8(91.0) | 33.1(91.6) | 34.1(93.4) | 35.9(96.6) | | Average high °C (°F) | 32.4(90.3) | 32.8(91.0) | 33.5(92.3) | 33.3(91.9) | 32.6(90.7) | 30.4(86.7) | 30.1(86.2) | 30.3(86.5) | 30.9(87.6) | 30.9(87.6) | 31.0(87.8) | 32.0(89.6) | 31.7(89.1) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 27.4(81.3) | 27.8(82.0) | 28.9(84.0) | 29.2(84.6) | 28.9(84.0) | 27.1(80.8) | 26.7(80.1) | 26.9(80.4) | 27.2(81.0) | 27.2(81.0) | 27.1(80.8) | 27.3(81.1) | 27.6(81.7) | | Average low °C (°F) | 22.3(72.1) | 22.9(73.2) | 24.3(75.7) | 25.1(77.2) | 25.1(77.2) | 23.8(74.8) | 23.3(73.9) | 23.4(74.1) | 23.5(74.3) | 23.5(74.3) | 23.2(73.8) | 22.6(72.7) | 23.6(74.5) | | Mean minimum °C (°F) | 20.2(68.4) | 20.9(69.6) | 22.1(71.8) | 23.0(73.4) | 22.6(72.7) | 22.0(71.6) | 21.7(71.1) | 21.8(71.2) | 22.1(71.8) | 22.1(71.8) | 21.6(70.9) | 20.3(68.5) | 19.7(67.5) | | Record low °C (°F) | 17.8(64.0) | 18.1(64.6) | 20.2(68.4) | 20.0(68.0) | 20.1(68.2) | 20.0(68.0) | 20.2(68.4) | 18.2(64.8) | 20.8(69.4) | 20.1(68.2) | 18.9(66.0) | 18.2(64.8) | 17.8(64.0) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 17.9(0.70) | 21.7(0.85) | 30.6(1.20) | 122.3(4.81) | 213.8(8.42) | 307.8(12.12) | 185.2(7.29) | 161.0(6.34) | 196.7(7.74) | 297.2(11.70) | 212.8(8.38) | 68.4(2.69) | 1,835.3(72.26) | | Average rainy days | 0.9 | 1.4 | 2.2 | 6.9 | 9.1 | 16.0 | 13.3 | 9.9 | 10.4 | 13.0 | 9.8 | 4.0 | 96.9 | | Average relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST) | 64 | 63 | 66 | 73 | 75 | 80 | 79 | 77 | 77 | 80 | 78 | 69 | 73 | | Average dew point °C (°F) | 21(70) | 22(72) | 23(73) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 23(73) | 23(74) | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 260.4 | 248.6 | 254.2 | 201.0 | 192.2 | 129.0 | 136.4 | 164.3 | 180.0 | 173.6 | 165.0 | 217.0 | 2,321.7 | | Mean daily sunshine hours | 8.4 | 8.8 | 8.2 | 6.7 | 6.2 | 4.3 | 4.4 | 5.3 | 6.0 | 5.6 | 5.5 | 7.0 | 6.4 | | Average ultraviolet index | 11 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 11 | 10 | 12 | | Source 1: India Meteorological Department (sun 1971–2000) Time and Date (dewpoints, 2005-2015) | | Source 2: Tokyo Climate Center (mean temperatures 1981–2010) Weather Atlas | Demographics ------------ Others include Sikhism, Buddhism & Other religions (0.06%) | Religion in Thiruvananthapuram City (2011) | | --- | | Religion | | Percent | | Hinduism |   | 68.51% | | Christianity |   | 16.79% | | Islam |   | 13.77% | | Not stated |   | 0.85% | | Others |   | 0.09% | According to provisional results of the 2011 national census, the Corporation of Thiruvananthapuram, which occupies an area of 214 km2 (83 sq mi), had a population of 957,730. The city's population density was 4,454/km2 (11,540/sq mi). The Urban Agglomeration had a population of 1,687,406 in 2011. The sex ratio is 1,040 females for every 1,000 males, which is higher than the national average. Thiruvananthapuram's literacy rate of 93.72% exceeds the all-India average of 74%. Malayalees form the vast majority of Thiruvananthapuram's population. Thiruvananthapuram's smaller communities are the Tamils and North Indians. According to the 2011 census, 68.5% of the population is Hindu, 16.7% Christian and 13.7% Muslims. The remainder of the community includes Jains, Jews, Sikhs, Buddhists and other religions which account for 0.06% of the population; 0.85% did not state a belief in the census. Malayalam, the official state language, is the dominant language in Thiruvananthapuram City: English is also used, mainly by the white-collar workforce. Tamil has the most speakers after Malayalam. The city also has a few Tulu, Kannada, Konkani, Dhivehi, Telugu and Hindi speakers. As per the 2001 census, the population below the poverty line in the city was 11,667. Thiruvananthapuram has witnessed massive immigration of workers from northern India, mainly Punjab, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh, and Eastern India, mainly West Bengal and Bihar, and from neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Nepal and Bangladesh. Administration -------------- The Corporation of Thiruvananthapuram or TMC oversees and manages the civic infrastructure of the city's 100 wards. Each ward elects a councillor to the Corporation of Thiruvananthapuram. TMC has the power to act as the local government of the city. TMC is headed by the Mayor, who is elected from among the councillors. The Mayor is responsible for the overall supervision and control of the administrative functions of the TMC. The corporation discharges its services through standing committees. The corporation secretary is an officer appointed by the government, who serves as the administrative head of the TMC and implements the council's decisions based on the resolutions adopted by the council. The functions of the Municipal Corporation are managed by seven departments—engineering, health, general administration, council, accounts and revenue. For the decentralised role of TMC, eleven Zonal Offices are created. The zonal offices are in Fort, Kadakampally, Nemom, Ulloor, Attipra, Thiruvallom, Kazhakkuttom, Sreekaryam, Kudappanakunnu, Vattiyoorkavu and Vizhinjam. The functions of the TMC include water supply, drainage and sewerage, sanitation, solid-waste management, and building regulation. The Thiruvananthapuram Development Authority is responsible for the statutory planning and development of the greater Thiruvananthapuram region. As the seat of the Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram is home to not only the offices of the local governing agencies but also the Kerala Legislative Assembly and the state secretariat, which is housed in the Kerala Government Secretariat complex. Thiruvananthapuram has two parliamentary constituencies—Attingal and Thiruvananthapuram—and elects five Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) to the state legislature. ### Law and order The Thiruvananthapuram City Police is the main law-enforcement agency in the city. It is headed by a commissioner of police. The Thiruvananthapuram city police is a division of the Kerala Police, and the administrative control lies with the Kerala Home Ministry. Thiruvananthapuram city police are the largest police division in Kerala, and it consists of ten Circle offices and 21 police stations and a sanctioned strength of 3,500 police personnel. The Central Prison is the oldest prison in Kerala and the headquarters of Kerala prisons and correctional services. ### Military and diplomatic establishments The Southern Air Command of the Indian Air Force is headquartered in the city. There are two state armed police battalions and a unit of the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) based in Thiruvananthapuram. The CRPF has a Group Headquarters (GHQ) located at Pallipuram. In addition to this, three units of the Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) and Sector Headquarters (SHQ) of the Border Security Force (BSF) are also present. Thiruvananthapuram also houses a large army cantonment in Pangode which houses some regiments of the Indian Army. In the city there is a Consulate of the United Arab Emirates, a Consulate of the Maldives, and Honorary Consulates of Sri Lanka, Russia and Germany. ### Utility services The Kerala Water Authority supplies the city with water that is sourced from the Karamana River; most of it is drawn from the Aruvikkara and Peppara reservoirs, and it is treated and purified at the Aruvikkara pumping stations. The Wellington Water Works, commissioned in 1933, is one of the oldest city water supply schemes in India. The sewage water is treated at Muttathara sewage-treatment plant, which handles 32 million litres per day. The city area is divided into seven blocks for the execution of the sewage system. Electricity is supplied by the Kerala State Electricity Board. Fire services are handled by the Kerala Fire And Rescue Services. Economy ------- View of Technovalley, in the north western part of the city at night.View of Technovalley, in the northwestern part of the city at night. Thiruvananthapuram's economy comprises Information Technology, education, plantations, aerospace, commerce and tourism. Thiruvananthapuram district contributes 10.31%, of the state's GDP. With an economic growth rate of 13.83%, Thiruvananthapuram is the fastest-growing district in Kerala. Thiruvananthapuram was listed as one of the top ten cities in India on Vibrancy and Consumption Index by a study conducted by global financial services firm Morgan Stanley. State- and central-government employees make up a large percentage of the city's workforce. Thiruvananthapuram is a major aerospace research centre in India. The Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, the most significant and leading centre of ISRO, and several space-related, state-owned ISRO centres such as Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station, Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre, and ISRO Inertial Systems Unit are based in Thiruvananthapuram. The BrahMos Aerospace Trivandrum Limited is one of the leading missile integration and defence production units in India. Other enterprises include Travancore Titanium Products, Kerala Automobiles Limited, MILMA, English Indian Clays, Keltron, Trivandrum Rubber Works and HLL Lifecare Limited. Thiruvananthapuram is a major IT and ITES hub in India. The city contributes around 55% of Kerala's total software exports. Thiruvananthapuram houses major multinational Technology companies like Oracle Corporation, Nissan, Allianz Technology, Envestnet, Tata Consultancy Services, Infosys, Toonz Animation India, UST Global, Ernst & Young, Flytxt, Navigant, Tata Elxsi, McKinsey & Company, RR Donnelly and Quest Global. Technopark is the largest information-technology park in India in terms of built-up area. It is the largest employment base campus in Kerala with 52,000 IT/ITES professionals and about 400 companies. Other IT, media and industrial campuses include Kinfra Film and Video Park, Kinfra Apparel Park, B-HUB and Chithranjali Film Complex. Other major IT, biotechnology and industrial campuses include Technocity, Bio 360 Life sciences park and Digital Science Park. Tourism is a significant economic sector. The presence of natural attractions like beaches, backwaters, hills, and plantations and attractions like heritage, history, Ayurveda, medical tourism and knowledge centres attract many tourists. The city experienced a surge of investment in the real estate, infrastructure and retail sectors in 2016–17. Port-related activity is low mainly due to the underdevelopment of ports. Vizhinjam International Seaport is a transhipment port under construction. Vizhinjam port's location is close to the international shipping routes and, it is just 10–12 nautical miles from the busy Persian Gulf-Malacca shipping lane. The port also has a natural depth of 18 to 20 metres which can accommodate huge container ships. The berths at Vizhinjam port are designed to cater to vessels of up to 24,000 TEU. Tourism ------- Thiruvananthapuram is a major tourist hub in India. Kovalam and Varkala are popular beach towns near the city. Other important beaches include Poovar, Shankumugham Beach, Azhimala Beach, Vizhinjam Beach and Veli Beach. The Padmanabhaswamy Temple located at the heart of the city is known as the richest place of worship in the world. Other places of interest include Agasthyamala rain forests, Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kallar, Braemore, Ponmudi hills, Poovar, Anchuthengu backwaters, Varkala Cliffs and Kappil-Edava lakes. The city is also known for its unique style of architecture involving Kerala Architecture with British and Dravidian influences. Napier museum, Thiruvanathapuram Zoo, Padmanabha Swamy temple, Kuthira Malika palace, Kilimanoor palace and The Thiruvananthapuram Golf Club heritage building are examples of this. The main museums include Kerala Science and Technology Museum (with its attached Priyadarsini Planetarium), Napier Museum, Kerala Soil Museum and Koyikkal Palace Museum. Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve is listed in UNESCO's World Network of Biosphere Reserves. Culture ------- Thiruvananthapuram is known as the "Evergreen City of India" because of its green landscapes and the presence of many public parks. Thiruvananthapuram has historically been a cultural hub in South India due to the development of arts, architecture and liberal customs by the rulers of erstwhile Thiruvananthapuram. As a testimony to this, renowned artists like Maharaja Swathi Thirunal and Raja Ravi Varma hail from the city. Prominent social reformers such as Sri Narayana Guru, Chattampi Swamikal, Ayyankali, Vakkom Moulavi and C. V. Raman Pillai also are from Thiruvananthapuram. Two of the three Malayalam triumvirate poets, Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer and Kumaran Asan are from Thiruvananthapuram. Annual literature festivals like the Kovalam Literary Festival, are held in the city. Literary development is further aided by state institutions such as the State Central Library, one of the oldest public libraries in India, which was established in 1829, and other major libraries including the Thiruvananthapuram Corporation Central library, and the Kerala University Library. Thiruvananthapuram has been a hub of classical music since the days of Maharaja of Travancore, Swathi Thirunal. Thiruvananthapuram is known for many music festivals like the Navarathri Music Festival, one of the oldest festivals of its kind in South India, Swathi Sangeethotsavam, Soorya Music fest, Neelakanta Sivan Music Fest and many other music festivals are organised by various cultural groups. The 111-day-long Soorya Festival is the biggest art and cultural event in Kerala. The Soorya Festival features film festivals, theatre festivals, dance, music, painting and photography exhibitions. The Malayalam film Industry was started in Thiruvananthapuram. The first Malayalam feature film, Vigathakumaran directed by J. C. Daniel was released in Thiruvananthapuram. J. C. Daniel is considered the father of Malayalam film industry. He also established the first film studio in Kerala, the Travancore National Pictures at Thiruvananthapuram in 1926. The International Film Festival of Kerala (IFFK), which is held every year in December, is one of Asia's largest film festivals in terms of viewer participation. In addition to various film festivals, the presence of the Central Board of Film Certification's regional office, many movie studios and production facilities like the Uma Studio, Chitranjali Studio, Merryland Studio, Kinfra Film and Video Park and Vismayas Max contribute to the growth of Thiruvananthapuram as a centre of cinema. Apart from the famous Padmanabhaswamy Temple, the city's architecture is championed by the Napier Museum and Thiruvananthapuram Zoo, one of the oldest zoos in India. Other architectural landmarks include Kuthira Malika Palace, Kowdiar Palace, Attukal temple, Beemapally Mosque, Connemara Market, and the Mateer Memorial Church. Thiruvananthapuram was the main centre of Laurie Baker's architecture. Along with the major festivals of Onam, Vishu, Deepavali, and Navaratri, Christian and Islamic festivals like Christmas, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakrid and Milad-e-sheriff, the diverse ethnic populace of the city celebrates several local festivals like Attukal Pongala, Beemapally Uroos, Vettukaad Church Festival, Padmanabhaswamy Temple Aaraattu and Lakshadeepam festival. During the Onam festival, the state government conducts several cultural events for a week in the city. The Attukal Pongala festival attracts millions of women devotees from across India and abroad. It is the largest gathering of women in the world. Germany's Goethe Zentrum, France's Alliance Française and Russia's Gorky Bhavan centres host a wide range of events and programmes throughout the year. The general cuisine of the people is Keralite cuisine, which is generally characterised by an abundance of coconut and spices. Other South Indian cuisines, as well as Chinese and North Indian cuisines, are popular. Thiruvananthapuram has many restaurants offering Arabic, Italian, Thai and Mexican cuisines. Transport --------- Kowdiar road; also known as the royal road or "Raja Veedhi", as it leads to the Kowdiar PalaceAnother road in the city ### Public transport The majority of bus services are conducted by government operators. There are also private operators. The city buses operated by Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) are an important and reliable means of public transport available in the city. The main bus stations in the city are the Central Bus Station in Thampanoor, where most of the long-distance buses ply from, and the city bus station in East Fort, where most city buses ply from. Three-wheeled, yellow and black auto-rickshaws and taxis, are other popular forms of public transport. Thiruvananthapuram Light Metro is a fully elevated metro rail – rapid transit system planned to ease the congestion in the city. ### Road Thiruvananthapuram has a well-developed road transport infrastructure. The roads in the city are maintained by the Thiruvananthapuram Roads Development Company Limited (TRDCL) and Kerala PWD. TRDCL manages the 42 km city roads which come under the Thiruvananthapuram City Roads Improvement Project (TRCIP), which is the first urban road project in India. TRCIP is a Public-private partnership project to improve and maintain the existing road network in the city to cater to the needs of rapid urbanisation. TRCIP has won the International Road Federation's Global Road Achievement Awards in 2015. TCRIP has also been selected by United Nations as a replicable Public Private Partnership model. It was one of the 12 Public-private partnership project case studies from across the world which fulfil the Sustainable Development Goals of the UN Agenda 2030. Thiruvananthapuram is served by National Highway 66 of India's National Highways system. The city is connected to the North-South Corridor of the National Highway system at Aralvaimozhi, which is 80 km south of the city. The State Highway 1, which commonly known as the Main Central Road is an arterial highway in the city. Other major highways in the city are State Highway 2 and State Highway 45. The Mahatma Gandhi Road is the main arterial road in the city. Another important road is the Kowdiar Road, which is also known as the Royal Road, as it leads to the Kowdiar Palace. ### Rail Thiruvananthapuram is a divisional headquarters in the Southern Railway zone of the Indian Railways. Long-distance trains originate from Thiruvananthapuram Central and Kochuveli railway terminals. Kochuveli railway terminal is developed to ease congestion on the central station and it acts as a satellite station to Thiruvananthapuram Central. Thiruvananthapuram Central is the busiest railway station in Kerala. Other railway stations in the city are Thiruvananthapuram Pettah, Nemom railway station, Veli railway station and Kazhakoottam railway station. Being the southernmost municipal corporation in India, many long train services of Indian Railways originate from Thiruvananthapuram like Trivandrum Rajdhani Express, Thiruvananthapuram - Silchar Superfast Express and Kochuveli - Amritsar Weekly Express. There are plans to develop a railway terminal at Nemom railway station to reduce congestion at Thiruvananthapuram Central. ### Air Thiruvananthapuram is served by the Thiruvananthapuram International Airport, located at Chakai, only 6.7 km (4.2 mi) from the city centre. The airport started operations in 1935 and is the first airport in Kerala. Being one of the gateways to the state, it has direct connectivity to all the major cities in India as well as the Middle East, Malaysia, Singapore, the Maldives and Sri Lanka. As the city is headquarters of the Southern Air Command (SAC) of the Indian Air Force, Thiruvananthapuram International Airport caters to the Indian Air Force (IAF) and the Coast Guard for their strategic operations. IAF has an exclusive apron to handle all their operations. The airport also caters to the Rajiv Gandhi Academy for Aviation Technology which carries out pilot-training activities. ### Sea Small cruise ships often dock at Vizhinjam Harbour. A cruise terminal is under construction at Vizhinjam Transshipment Terminal. Vizhinjam seaport has been designated by the government as an authorised immigration check-post for entry and exit from India for international ships and cruises. Education --------- ### Primary and secondary education Schools in Thiruvananthapuram are classified as aided, unaided and Government schools. The government schools are run directly by the Kerala State Education Board and follow the syllabus prescribed by the state government. The aided schools also follow the state syllabus. Malayalam and English are the primary languages of instruction; Tamil and Hindi are also used. The schools are affiliated with The State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT), Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) and National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). In the National Achievement Survey conducted by the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), Thiruvananthapuram is ranked as the best city in Kerala. The notable schools in the city include St. Mary's Higher Secondary School, which is considered one of the largest schools in Asia, with the total number of students exceeding 12,000, Government Model Boys Higher Secondary School, Government Higher Secondary School for Girls, Holy Angel's Convent Trivandrum, SMV School, Trivandrum International School, Chinmaya Vidyalayas, Kendriya Vidyalaya, Loyola School, Christ Nagar School, Thiruvananthapuram, Sarvodaya Vidyalaya, Nirmala Bhavan Higher Secondary School, Arya Central School, Jyothi Nilayam School, St. Joseph's Higher Secondary School, St. Thomas Residential School, The Oxford School and VSSC Central School. ### Higher education and research Thiruvananthapuram is a major educational and research hub with various institutions in the fields of space science, information technology, physical science, biotechnology, engineering and medicine. There are three universities in Thiruvananthapuram: two state universities and one deemed university. The state universities are the University of Kerala and APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University. Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), is a government-aided institute and deemed university. IIST is the first of its kind in the country, to offer graduate courses and research in space sciences, space technology and space applications. The city also houses two Institutes of National Importance; Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology (SCTIMST) and Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER). Thiruvananthapuram is one of the regional headquarters of Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU). The Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram is the first and a premier medical school in Kerala, founded in 1951. Other notable medical schools apart from SCTIMST (which provides super-specialty courses in cardiac and neuroscience) and Regional Cancer Centre, Thiruvananthapuram (which provides PG courses in radiotherapy and pathology, and super-specialty courses) includes SUT Academy of Medical Sciences, Sree Gokulam Medical College and Government Ayurveda College. The city houses several prominent legal education institutions. The Government Law College, formed in 1875, is one of the oldest legal education institutions in India. The Kerala Law Academy is another major legal education institution. The major Business schools include Asian School of Business, CET School of Management and Institute of Management in Kerala (IMK). There are over 23 engineering education institutions in Thiruvananthapuram. Apart from IIST and IISER, the other major engineering education institutions include College of Engineering, Trivandrum (CET), which is the first engineering college in Kerala, Government Engineering College BartonHill (GEC), Sree Chitra Thirunal College of Engineering (SCT), ER & DCI Institute of Technology, University College of Engineering, Mohandas college of Engineering and Technology and Mar Baselios College of Engineering and Technology. The University College Thiruvananthapuram established in 1866 and H.H. The Maharaja's College for Women established in 1864 are two of the oldest institutions of higher education in India. Other prominent undergraduate and postgraduate colleges include the Government Arts College, Mahatma Gandhi College, Mar Ivanios College, Government Sanskrit College, Loyola College of Social Sciences, St. Xavier's College and All Saints College. Major fine arts colleges are Swathi Thirunal College of Music, which is the first music academy in Kerala and College of Fine Arts Trivandrum. The Lakshmibai National College of Physical Education is one of the two physical education academic institutes of the Sports Authority of India (SAI). The premier research institutes in Thiruvananthapuram include: Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management, Kerala (IIITMK), National Institute of Speech and Hearing (NISH), Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Centre for Development of Imaging Technology (C-Dit), Centre for Development Studies (CDS), Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, National Centre for Earth Science Studies (NCESS), Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) and Oriental Research Institute & Manuscripts Library. Kerala University is ranked as the best university in Kerala according to the MHRD's National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF). Kerala University also ranked top in overall institution rankings in Kerala. In engineering, Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) is ranked as the best in Kerala and College of Engineering, Trivandrum (CET) is ranked third in Kerala. College of Engineering, Trivandrum is also ranked fourth in India and first in Kerala in architecture institution rankings. The University College is listed as the best college in Kerala. Media ----- Thiruvananthapuram has numerous newspaper publications, television and radio stations. Most of the media houses in Kerala are based in Thiruvananthapuram. The first Malayalam channel, Doordarshan Malayalam began broadcasting from the city in 1981. Asianet, the first private channel in Malayalam, also started its telecasting from the city in 1993. The other Malayalam channels based in the city include Asianet News, Amrita TV, Kappa TV, Kairali TV, Kairali We, Mathrubhumi News, Kaumudy TV, JaiHind TV, News18 Kerala and People TV. All major Malayalam channels, including Asianet, Janam TV, Jeevan TV, MediaOne TV and Manorama News have production facilities or offices in the city. TV channels are accessible via cable subscription, direct-broadcast satellite services, or internet-based television. Prominent Direct-to-Home (DTH) entertainment services in Thiruvananthapuram include Sun Direct DTH, DD Direct+, Videocon d2h, Dish TV, Reliance Digital TV, Airtel digital TV and Tata Play. Major Malayalam newspapers available are *Mathrubhumi*, *Malayala Manorama*, *Kerala Kaumudi*, *Deshabhimani*, Madhyamam, *Janmabhumi*, *Chandrika*, *Thejas*, *Siraj Daily*, *Deepika* and *Rashtra Deepika*. The English language newspapers with editions from Thiruvananthapuram are *The New Indian Express*, *The Hindu*, *The Deccan Chronicle* and *The Times of India*. All India Radio, the national state-owned radio broadcaster, airs Medium wave and Shortwave radio stations in the city. The Vividh Bharati of All India Radio also airs an FM radio station known as Ananthapuri FM. Other FM radio channels broadcast from Thiruvananthapuram are Big FM 92.7 MHz, Club FM 94.3 MHz, Radio Mirchi 98.3 MHz, Red FM 93.5 MHz and Radio DC 90.4 MHz. Sports ------ A football match in CSN StadiumBadminton at TOSS Academy The most popular sports in Thiruvananthapuram are cricket and football. The city hosted the first international cricket match in Kerala at the University Stadium in 1984. The city also hosted the first Twenty20 International cricket match in Kerala. The Kerala Cricket Association is headquartered in Thiruvananthapuram. Prominent cricketers from Thiruvananthapuram include Sanju Samson, Raiphi Gomez, Ryan Ninan, Aneil Nambiar, K. N. Ananthapadmanabhan, Rohan Prem, Udiramala Subramaniam, P. M. K. Mohandas, Bhaskar Pillai and Padmanabhan Prasanth. The Sports Hub, University Stadium, St Xavier's College Ground, KCA Cricket Stadium Mangalapuram, Medical College ground and Vellyani Agricultural College Ground are the main cricket grounds in the city. The Sports Hub, Trivandrum, commonly known as Greenfield Stadium is one of the largest cricket and football stadiums in India. Thiruvananthapuram hosted the 2015 SAFF Championship at the Greenfield Stadium. SBI Kerala, Titanium FC, KSEB, Kovalam FC and Travancore Royals FC are the major football clubs based in Thiruvananthapuram. Football is usually played in the Greenfield International Stadium(The Sports Hub), Chandrasekharan Nair Stadium and University Stadium. Prominent football players from Thiruvananthapuram include Jobby Justin, Vinu Jose, Thomas Sebastian, M Rajeev Kumar and Ganeshan. The city has facilities to host most types of sports. Thiruvananthapuram was one of the main venues for the 2015 National Games of India. Athletic competitions are usually held at the University Stadium, Chandrasekharan Nair Stadium and Central Stadium. The Trivandrum Marathon is a marathon organised by the Trivandrum runners club every year. There will be two main races; a half marathon of 21 km and a full marathon of 42.19 km. A special 2 km fun run is also organised for public participation. Trivand Run is another marathon conducted every January in the city. Jimmy George Indoor Stadium is a major indoor stadium in the state. It is used for conducting basketball, volleyball, table tennis, gymnastics, aquatics and martial arts. The stadium has the first altitude-simulated training facility in South India, known as Astra. The major sports training and coaching institutions include the Lakshmibai National College of Physical Education (LNCPE), TOSS Academy and the Tenvic Sports Coaching Academy at the Sports Hub. Basketball tournaments are usually conducted by the schools in the city. Thiruvananthapuram hosted the 61st National Shooting Championship at the Vattiyoorkavu Shooting Range. Surfing is also a popular sport on the beaches. Many surfing and standup paddleboarding tournaments are held in the city. The surf competitions are usually held on Kovalam Beach and Varkala Beach. Paragliding is another adventure sport usually seen on Varkala Beach. The SAI Trivandrum golf club, established in 1850, is one of the oldest golf courses in India. It is leased to the Sports Authority of India. See also -------- * List of people from Thiruvananthapuram * List of Railway Stations in Trivandrum Further reading --------------- * *The Indian encyclopaedia: biographical, historical, religious, administrative, ethnological, commercial and scientific. Archery-Banog, Volume 2*. Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd. 2002. p. 7063. ISBN 9788177552577. * *Heritage of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram*. Information & Public Relations Department, Government of Kerala, 2008. 2008. Retrieved 28 March 2018.

Thiruvananthapuram

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram

**Orchids** are plants that belong to the family **Orchidaceae** (/ˌɔːrkɪˈdeɪsi.iː, -si.aɪ/), a diverse and widespread group of flowering plants with blooms that are often colourful and fragrant. Orchidaceae is one of the two largest families of flowering plants, along with the Asteraceae. It contains about 28,000 currently accepted species, distributed across 763 genera. Which of the two families is larger is still unclear, because new members of both of these enormous families are continually discovered. Regardless, the number of orchid species is nearly equal to the number of bony fishes, more than twice the number of bird species, and about four times the number of mammal species. The family encompasses about 6–11% of all species of seed plants. The largest genera are *Bulbophyllum* (2,000 species), *Epidendrum* (1,500 species), *Dendrobium* (1,400 species) and *Pleurothallis* (1,000 species). It also includes *Vanilla* (the genus of the vanilla plant), the type genus *Orchis*, and many commonly cultivated plants such as *Phalaenopsis* and *Cattleya*. Moreover, since the introduction of tropical species into cultivation in the 19th century, horticulturists have produced more than 100,000 hybrids and cultivars. Description ----------- Orchids are easily distinguished from other plants, as they share some very evident derived characteristics or synapomorphies. Among these are: bilateral symmetry of the flower (zygomorphism), many resupinate flowers, a nearly always highly modified petal (labellum), fused stamens and carpels, and extremely small seeds. ### Stem and roots All orchids are perennial herbs that lack any permanent woody structure. They can grow according to two patterns: * **Monopodial**: The stem grows from a single bud, leaves are added from the apex each year, and the stem grows longer accordingly. The stem of orchids with a monopodial growth can reach several metres in length, as in *Vanda* and *Vanilla*. * **Sympodial**: Sympodial orchids have a front (the newest growth) and a back (the oldest growth). The plant produces a series of adjacent shoots, which grow to a certain size, bloom and then stop growing and are replaced. Sympodial orchids grow horizontally, rather than vertically, following the surface of their support. The growth continues by development of new leads, with their own leaves and roots, sprouting from or next to those of the previous year, as in *Cattleya*. While a new lead is developing, the rhizome may start its growth again from a so-called 'eye', an undeveloped bud, thereby branching. Sympodial orchids may have visible pseudobulbs joined by a *rhizome*, which creeps along the top or just beneath the soil. Terrestrial orchids may be rhizomatous or form corms or tubers. The root caps of terrestrial orchids are smooth and white. Some sympodial terrestrial orchids, such as *Orchis* and *Ophrys*, have two subterranean tuberous roots. One is used as a food reserve for wintry periods, and provides for the development of the other one, from which visible growth develops. In warm and constantly humid climates, many terrestrial orchids do not need pseudobulbs. Epiphytic orchids, those that grow upon a support, have modified aerial roots that can sometimes be a few meters long. In the older parts of the roots, a modified spongy epidermis, called a velamen, has the function of absorbing humidity. It is made of dead cells and can have a silvery-grey, white or brown appearance. In some orchids, the velamen includes spongy and fibrous bodies near the passage cells, called tilosomes. The cells of the root epidermis grow at a right angle to the axis of the root to allow them to get a firm grasp on their support. Nutrients for epiphytic orchids mainly come from mineral dust, organic detritus, animal droppings and other substances collecting among on their supporting surfaces. The base of the stem of sympodial epiphytes, or in some species essentially the entire stem, may be thickened to form a pseudobulb that contains nutrients and water for drier periods. The pseudobulb has a smooth surface with lengthwise grooves, and can have different shapes, often conical or oblong. Its size is very variable; in some small species of *Bulbophyllum*, it is no longer than two millimeters, while in the largest orchid in the world, *Grammatophyllum speciosum* (giant orchid), it can reach three meters. Some *Dendrobium* species have long, canelike pseudobulbs with short, rounded leaves over the whole length; some other orchids have hidden or extremely small pseudobulbs, completely included inside the leaves. With ageing the pseudobulb sheds its leaves and becomes dormant. At this stage it is often called a backbulb. Backbulbs still hold nutrition for the plant, but then a pseudobulb usually takes over, exploiting the last reserves accumulated in the backbulb, which eventually dies off, too. A pseudobulb typically lives for about five years. Orchids without noticeable pseudobulbs are also said to have growths, an individual component of a sympodial plant. ### Leaves Like most monocots, orchids generally have simple leaves with parallel veins, although some Vanilloideae have reticulate venation. Leaves may be ovate, lanceolate, or orbiculate, and very variable in size on the individual plant. Their characteristics are often diagnostic. They are normally alternate on the stem, often folded lengthwise along the centre ("plicate"), and have no stipules. Orchid leaves often have siliceous bodies called stegmata in the vascular bundle sheaths (not present in the Orchidoideae) and are fibrous. The structure of the leaves corresponds to the specific habitat of the plant. Species that typically bask in sunlight, or grow on sites which can be occasionally very dry, have thick, leathery leaves and the laminae are covered by a waxy cuticle to retain their necessary water supply. Shade-loving species, on the other hand, have long, thin leaves. The leaves of most orchids are perennial, that is, they live for several years, while others, especially those with plicate leaves as in *Catasetum*, shed them annually and develop new leaves together with new pseudobulbs. The leaves of some orchids are considered ornamental. The leaves of *Macodes sanderiana*, a semiterrestrial or rock-hugging ("lithophyte") orchid, show a sparkling silver and gold veining on a light green background. The cordate leaves of *Psychopsis limminghei* are light brownish-green with maroon-puce markings, created by flower pigments. The attractive mottle of the leaves of lady's slippers from tropical and subtropical Asia (*Paphiopedilum*), is caused by uneven distribution of chlorophyll. Also, *Phalaenopsis schilleriana* is a pastel pink orchid with leaves spotted dark green and light green. The jewel orchid (*Ludisia discolor*) is grown more for its colorful leaves than its white flowers. Some orchids, such as *Dendrophylax lindenii* (ghost orchid), *Aphyllorchis* and *Taeniophyllum* depend on their green roots for photosynthesis and lack normally developed leaves, as do all of the heterotrophic species. Orchids of the genus *Corallorhiza* (coralroot orchids) lack leaves altogether and instead wrap their roots around the roots of mature trees and use specialized fungi to harvest sugars. ### Flowers Orchid flowers have three sepals, three petals and a three-chambered ovary. The three sepals and two of the petals are often similar to each other but one petal is usually highly modified, forming a "lip" or labellum. In most orchid genera, as the flower develops, it undergoes a twisting through 180°, called resupination, so that the labellum lies below the column. The labellum functions to attract insects, and in resupinate flowers, also acts as a landing stage, or sometimes a trap. The reproductive parts of an orchid flower are unique in that the stamens and style are joined to form a single structure, the column. Instead of being released singly, thousands of pollen grains are contained in one or two bundles called pollinia that are attached to a sticky disc near the top of the column. Just below the pollinia is a second, larger sticky plate called the stigma. Reproduction ------------ ### Pollination The complex mechanisms that orchids have evolved to achieve cross-pollination were investigated by Charles Darwin and described in *Fertilisation of Orchids* (1862). Orchids have developed highly specialized pollination systems, thus the chances of being pollinated are often scarce, so orchid flowers usually remain receptive for very long periods, rendering unpollinated flowers long-lasting in cultivation. Most orchids deliver pollen in a single mass. Each time pollination succeeds, thousands of ovules can be fertilized. Pollinators are often visually attracted by the shape and colours of the labellum. However, some *Bulbophyllum* species attract male fruit flies (*Bactrocera* and *Zeugodacus* spp.) solely via a floral chemical which simultaneously acts as a floral reward (e.g. methyl eugenol, raspberry ketone, or zingerone) to perform pollination. The flowers may produce attractive odours. Although absent in most species, nectar may be produced in a spur of the labellum (**8** in the illustration above), or on the point of the sepals, or in the septa of the ovary, the most typical position amongst the Asparagales. In orchids that produce pollinia, pollination happens as some variant of the following sequence: when the pollinator enters into the flower, it touches a viscidium, which promptly sticks to its body, generally on the head or abdomen. While leaving the flower, it pulls the pollinium out of the anther, as it is connected to the viscidium by the caudicle or stipe. The caudicle then bends and the pollinium is moved forwards and downwards. When the pollinator enters another flower of the same species, the pollinium has taken such position that it will stick to the stigma of the second flower, just below the rostellum, pollinating it. In horticulture, artificial orchid pollination is achieved by removing the pollinia with a small instrument such as a toothpick from the pollen parent and transferring them to the seed parent. Some orchids mainly or totally rely on self-pollination, especially in colder regions where pollinators are particularly rare. The caudicles may dry up if the flower has not been visited by any pollinator, and the pollinia then fall directly on the stigma. Otherwise, the anther may rotate and then enter the stigma cavity of the flower (as in *Holcoglossum amesianum*). The slipper orchid *Paphiopedilum parishii* reproduces by self-fertilization. This occurs when the anther changes from a solid to a liquid state and directly contacts the stigma surface without the aid of any pollinating agent or floral assembly. The labellum of the Cypripedioideae is poke bonnet-shaped, and has the function of trapping visiting insects. The only exit leads to the anthers that deposit pollen on the visitor. In some extremely specialized orchids, such as the Eurasian genus *Ophrys*, the labellum is adapted to have a colour, shape, and odour which attracts male insects via mimicry of a receptive female. Pollination happens as the insect attempts to mate with flowers. Many neotropical orchids are pollinated by male orchid bees, which visit the flowers to gather volatile chemicals they require to synthesize pheromonal attractants. Males of such species as *Euglossa imperialis* or *Eulaema meriana* have been observed to leave their territories periodically to forage for aromatic compounds, such as cineole, to synthesize pheromone for attracting and mating with females. Each type of orchid places the pollinia on a different body part of a different species of bee, so as to enforce proper cross-pollination. A rare achlorophyllous saprophytic orchid growing entirely underground in Australia, *Rhizanthella slateri*, is never exposed to light, and depends on ants and other terrestrial insects to pollinate it. *Catasetum*, a genus discussed briefly by Darwin, actually launches its viscid pollinia with explosive force when an insect touches a seta, knocking the pollinator off the flower. After pollination, the sepals and petals fade and wilt, but they usually remain attached to the ovary. In 2011, *Bulbophyllum nocturnum* was discovered to flower nocturnally. ### Asexual reproduction Some species, such as in the genera *Phalaenopsis*, *Dendrobium*, and *Vanda*, produce offshoots or plantlets formed from one of the nodes along the stem, through the accumulation of growth hormones at that point. These shoots are known as keiki. ### Fruits and seeds The ovary typically develops into a capsule that is dehiscent by three or six longitudinal slits, while remaining closed at both ends. The seeds are generally almost microscopic and very numerous, in some species over a million per capsule. After ripening, they blow off like dust particles or spores. Most orchid species lack endosperm in their seed and must enter symbiotic relationships with various mycorrhizal basidiomyceteous fungi that provide them the necessary nutrients to germinate, so almost all orchid species are mycoheterotrophic during germination and reliant upon fungi to complete their lifecycles. Only a handful of orchid species have seed that can germinate without mycorrhiza, namely the species within the genus *Disa* with hydrochorous seeds. As the chance for a seed to meet a suitable fungus is very small, only a minute fraction of all the seeds released grow into adult plants. In cultivation, germination typically takes weeks. Horticultural techniques have been devised for germinating orchid seeds on an artificial nutrient medium, eliminating the requirement of the fungus for germination and greatly aiding the propagation of ornamental orchids. The usual medium for the sowing of orchids in artificial conditions is agar gel combined with a carbohydrate energy source. The carbohydrate source can be combinations of discrete sugars or can be derived from other sources such as banana, pineapple, peach, or even tomato puree or coconut water. After the preparation of the agar medium, it is poured into test tubes or jars which are then autoclaved (or cooked in a pressure cooker) to sterilize the medium. After cooking, the medium begins to gel as it cools. Taxonomy -------- The taxonomy of this family is in constant flux, as new studies continue to clarify the relationships between species and groups of species, allowing more taxa at several ranks to be recognized. The Orchidaceae is currently placed in the order Asparagales by the APG III system of 2009. Five subfamilies are recognised. The cladogram below was made according to the APG system of 1998. It represents the view that most botanists had held up to that time. It was supported by morphological studies, but never received strong support in molecular phylogenetic studies. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | **Apostasioideae**: 2 genera and 16 species, south-eastern Asia | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | **Cypripedioideae**: 5 genera and 130 species, from the temperate regions of the world, as well as tropical America and tropical Asia | | | |  Monandrae  | | | | | --- | --- | | | **Vanilloideae**: 15 genera and 180 species, humid tropical and subtropical regions, eastern North America | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | **Epidendroideae**: more than 500 genera and more or less 20,000 species, cosmopolitan | | | | | **Orchidoideae**: 208 genera and 3,630 species, cosmopolitan | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | In 2015, a phylogenetic study showed strong statistical support for the following topology of the orchid tree, using 9 kb of plastid and nuclear DNA from 7 genes, a topology that was confirmed by a phylogenomic study in the same year. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | **Apostasioideae** | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | **Vanilloideae** | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | **Cypripedioideae** | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | **Epidendroideae** | | | | | **Orchidoideae** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ### Evolution A study in the scientific journal *Nature* has hypothesised that the origin of orchids goes back much longer than originally expected. An extinct species of stingless bee, *Proplebeia dominicana*, was found trapped in Miocene amber from about 15-20 million years ago. The bee was carrying pollen of a previously unknown orchid taxon, *Meliorchis caribea*, on its wings. This find is the first evidence of fossilised orchids to date and shows insects were active pollinators of orchids then. This extinct orchid, *M. caribea*, has been placed within the extant tribe Cranichideae, subtribe Goodyerinae (subfamily Orchidoideae). An even older orchid species, *Succinanthera baltica*, was described from the Eocene Baltic amber by Poinar & Rasmussen (2017). Genetic sequencing indicates orchids may have arisen earlier, 76 to 84 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous. According to Mark W. Chase *et al.* (2001), the overall biogeography and phylogenetic patterns of Orchidaceae show they are even older and may go back roughly 100 million years. Using the molecular clock method, it was possible to determine the age of the major branches of the orchid family. This also confirmed that the subfamily Vanilloideae is a branch at the basal dichotomy of the monandrous orchids, and must have evolved very early in the evolution of the family. Since this subfamily occurs worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, from tropical America to tropical Asia, New Guinea and West Africa, and the continents began to split about 100 million years ago, significant biotic exchange must have occurred after this split (since the age of *Vanilla* is estimated at 60 to 70 million years). Genome duplication occurred prior to the divergence of this taxon. ### Genera There are around 800 genera of orchids. The following are amongst the most notable genera of the orchid family: * *Aa* * *Abdominea* * *Acampe* * *Acanthophippium* * *Aceratorchis* * *Acianthus* * *Acineta* * *Acrorchis* * *Ada* * *Aerangis* * *Aeranthes* * *Aerides* * *Aganisia* * *Agrostophyllum* * *Anacamptis* * *Ancistrochilus* * *Angraecum* * *Anguloa* * *Ansellia* * *Aorchis* * *Aplectrum* * *Arachnis* * *Arethusa* * *Armodorum* * *Ascoglossum* * *Australorchis* * *Auxopus* * *Baptistonia* * *Barkeria* * *Bartholina* * *Beloglottis* * *Biermannia* * *Bletilla* * *Brassavola* * *Brassia* * *Bulbophyllum* * *Calanthe* * *Calypso* * *Catasetum* * *Cattleya* * *Chiloschista* * *Cirrhopetalum* * *Cleisostoma* * *Clowesia* * *Coelogyne* * *Coryanthes* * *Cycnoches* * *Cymbidium* * *Cyrtopodium* * *Cypripedium* * *Dactylorhiza* * *Dendrobium* * *Disa* * *Dracula* * *Encyclia* * *Epidendrum* * *Epipactis* * *Eria* * *Eulophia* * *Gastrochilus* * *Gongora* * *Goodyera* * *Grammatophyllum* * *Gymnadenia* * *Habenaria* * *Herschelia* * *Ionopsis* * *Laelia* * *Lepanthes* * *Liparis* * *Ludisia* * *Lycaste* * *Masdevallia* * *Maxillaria* * *Meliorchis* * *Mexipedium* * *Miltonia* * *Mormodes* * *Odontoglossum* * *Oeceoclades* * *Oncidium* * *Ophrys* * *Orchis* * *Paphiopedilum* * *Papilionanthe* * *Paraphalaenopsis* * *Peristeria* * *Phaius* * *Phalaenopsis* * *Pholidota* * *Phragmipedium* * *Platanthera* * *Platystele* * *Pleione* * *Pleurothallis* * *Pomatocalpa* * *Promenaea* * *Pterostylis* * *Renanthera* * *Restrepia* * *Restrepiella* * *Rhynchostylis* * *Roezliella* * *Saccolabium* * *Sarcochilus* * *Satyrium* * *Seidenfadenia* * *Selenipedium* * *Serapias* * *Sobralia* * *Spiranthes* * *Stanhopea* * *Stelis* * *Thrixspermum* * *Tolumnia* * *Trias* * *Trichocentrum* * *Trichoglottis* * *Vanda* * *Vanilla* * *Yoania* * *Zeuxine* * *Zygopetalum* ### Etymology The type genus (i.e. the genus after which the family is named) is *Orchis*. The genus name comes from the Ancient Greek ὄρχις (**órkhis**), literally meaning "testicle", because of the shape of the twin tubers in some species of *Orchis*. The term "orchid" was introduced in 1845 by John Lindley in *School Botany*, as a shortened form of *Orchidaceae*. In Middle English, the name *bollockwort* was used for some orchids, based on "bollock" meaning testicle and "wort" meaning plant. ### Hybrids Orchid species hybridize readily in cultivation, leading to a large number of hybrids with complex naming. Hybridization is possible across genera, and therefore many cultivated orchids are placed into nothogenera. For instance, the nothogenus × *Brassocattleya* is used for all hybrids of species from the genera *Brassavola* and *Cattleya*. Nothogenera based on at least three genera may have names based on a person's name with the suffix *-ara*, for instance × *Colmanara* = *Miltonia* × *Odontoglossum* × *Oncidium*. (The suffix is obligatory starting at four genera.) Cultivated hybrids in the orchid family are also special in that they are named by using grex nomenclature, rather than nothospecies. For instance, hybrids between *Brassavola nodosa* and *Brassavola acaulis* are placed in the grex *Brassavola* Guiseppi. The name of the grex ("Guiseppi" in this example) is written in a non-italic font without quotes. ### Abbreviations As a unique feature of the orchid family, a system of abbreviations exists that applies to names of genera and nothogenera. The system is maintained by the Royal Horticultural Society. These abbreviations consist of at least one character, but may be longer. As opposed to the usual one-letter abbreviations used for names of genera, orchid abbreviations uniquely determine the (notho)genus. They are widely used in cultivation. Examples are *Phal* for *Phalaenopsis*, *V* for *Vanda* and *Cleis* for *Cleisostoma*. Distribution ------------ Orchidaceae are cosmopolitan, occurring in almost every habitat apart from glaciers. The world's richest diversity of orchid genera and species is found in the tropics, but they are also found above the Arctic Circle, in southern Patagonia, and two species of *Nematoceras* on Macquarie Island at 54° south. The following list gives a rough overview of their distribution: * Oceania: 50 to 70 genera * North America: 20 to 26 genera * tropical America: 212 to 250 genera * tropical Asia: 260 to 300 genera * tropical Africa: 230 to 270 genera * Europe and temperate Asia: 40 to 60 genera Ecology ------- A majority of orchids are perennial epiphytes, which grow anchored to trees or shrubs in the tropics and subtropics. Species such as *Angraecum sororium* are lithophytes, growing on rocks or very rocky soil. Other orchids (including the majority of temperate Orchidaceae) are terrestrial and can be found in habitat areas such as grasslands or forest. Some orchids, such as *Neottia* and *Corallorhiza*, lack chlorophyll, so are unable to photosynthesise. Instead, these species obtain energy and nutrients by parasitising soil fungi through the formation of orchid mycorrhizae. The fungi involved include those that form ectomycorrhizas with trees and other woody plants, parasites such as *Armillaria*, and saprotrophs. These orchids are known as myco-heterotrophs, but were formerly (incorrectly) described as saprophytes as it was believed they gained their nutrition by breaking down organic matter. While only a few species are achlorophyllous holoparasites, all orchids are myco-heterotrophic during germination and seedling growth, and even photosynthetic adult plants may continue to obtain carbon from their mycorrhizal fungi. The symbiosis is typically maintained throughout the lifetime of the orchid because they depend on the fungus for nutrients, sugars and minerals. Uses ---- ### Perfumery The scent of orchids is frequently analysed by perfumers (using headspace technology and gas-liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry) to identify potential fragrance chemicals. ### Horticulture The other important use of orchids is their cultivation for the enjoyment of the flowers. Most cultivated orchids are tropical or subtropical, but quite a few that grow in colder climates can be found on the market. Temperate species available at nurseries include *Ophrys apifera* (bee orchid), *Gymnadenia conopsea* (fragrant orchid), *Anacamptis pyramidalis* (pyramidal orchid) and *Dactylorhiza fuchsii* (common spotted orchid). Orchids of all types have also often been sought by collectors of both species and hybrids. Many hundreds of societies and clubs worldwide have been established. These can be small, local clubs, or larger, national organisations such as the American Orchid Society. Both serve to encourage cultivation and collection of orchids, but some go further by concentrating on conservation or research. The term "botanical orchid" loosely denotes those small-flowered, tropical orchids belonging to several genera that do not fit into the "florist" orchid category. A few of these genera contain enormous numbers of species. Some, such as *Pleurothallis* and *Bulbophyllum*, contain approximately 1700 and 2000 species, respectively, and are often extremely vegetatively diverse. The primary use of the term is among orchid hobbyists wishing to describe unusual species they grow, though it is also used to distinguish naturally occurring orchid species from horticulturally created hybrids. New orchids are registered with the International Orchid Register, maintained by the Royal Horticultural Society. ### Food The dried seed pods of one orchid genus, *Vanilla* (especially *Vanilla planifolia*), are commercially important as a flavouring in baking, for perfume manufacture and aromatherapy. The underground tubers of terrestrial orchids [mainly *Orchis mascula* (early purple orchid)] are ground to a powder and used for cooking, such as in the hot beverage *salep* or in the Turkish mastic ice cream *dondurma*. The name *salep* has been claimed to come from the Arabic expression **ḥasyu al-tha‘lab**, "fox testicles", but it appears more likely the name comes directly from the Arabic name **saḥlab**. The similarity in appearance to testes naturally accounts for *salep* being considered an aphrodisiac. The dried leaves of *Jumellea fragrans* are used to flavour rum on Reunion Island. Some saprophytic orchid species of the group *Gastrodia* produce potato-like tubers and were consumed as food by native peoples in Australia and can be successfully cultivated, notably *Gastrodia sesamoides*. Wild stands of these plants can still be found in the same areas as early Aboriginal settlements, such as Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in Australia. Aboriginal peoples located the plants in habitat by observing where bandicoots had scratched in search of the tubers after detecting the plants underground by scent. Cultural symbolism ------------------ Orchids have many associations with symbolic values. For example, the orchid is the City Flower of Shaoxing, China. *Cattleya mossiae* is the national Venezuelan flower, while *Cattleya trianae* is the national flower of Colombia. *Vanda* Miss Joaquim is the national flower of Singapore, *Guarianthe skinneri* is the national flower of Costa Rica and *Rhyncholaelia digbyana* is the national flower of Honduras. *Prosthechea cochleata* is the national flower of Belize, where it is known as the *black orchid*. *Lycaste skinneri* has a white variety (alba) that is the national flower of Guatemala, commonly known as *Monja Blanca* (White Nun). Panama's national flower is the *Holy Ghost orchid* (*Peristeria elata*), or 'the flor del Espiritu Santo'. *Rhynchostylis* *retusa* is the state flower of the Indian state of Assam where it is known as *Kopou Phul.* Orchids native to the Mediterranean are depicted on the *Ara Pacis* in Rome, until now the only known instance of orchids in ancient art, and the earliest in European art. A French writer and agronomist, Louis Liger, invented a classical myth in his book *Le Jardinier Fleuriste et Historiographe* published in 1704, attributing it to the ancient Greeks and Romans, in which Orchis the son of a nymph and a satyr rapes a priestess of Bacchus during one of his festivals the Bacchanalia and is then killed and transformed into an orchid flower as punishment by the gods, paralleling the various myths of youths dying and becoming flowers, like Adonis and Narcisuss; this myth however does not appear any earlier than Liger, and is not part of traditional Greek and Roman mythologies. * Some cultivars * Cattleya Mrs. Mahler 'Mem. Fred Tompkins'*Cattleya* Mrs. Mahler 'Mem. Fred Tompkins' * Cattleya Queen Sirikit 'Diamond Crown'*Cattleya* Queen Sirikit 'Diamond Crown' * Cattleya Hawaiian Wedding Song 'Virgin'*Cattleya* Hawaiian Wedding Song 'Virgin' * Rhyncholaeliocattleya Chia Lin*Rhyncholaeliocattleya* Chia Lin * Cattleya Hawaiian Variable 'Prasan'*Cattleya* Hawaiian Variable 'Prasan' * Cattlianthe Barbara Belle*Cattlianthe* Barbara Belle * Cattleya Beaumesnil 'Parme'*Cattleya* Beaumesnil 'Parme' * Cattlianthe Chocolate Drop x Cattleya Pão de Açúcar*Cattlianthe* Chocolate Drop x *Cattleya* Pão de Açúcar * Cattleya mossiae 'Empress Frederick'*Cattleya mossiae* 'Empress Frederick' * 'Hermine''Hermine' * Cattleya Little Angel*Cattleya* Little Angel * Cattleya Marjorie Hausermann 'York'*Cattleya* Marjorie Hausermann 'York' * 'Miva Breeze Alize''Miva Breeze Alize' * Rhyncholaeliocattleya 'Nobile's carnival'*Rhyncholaeliocattleya* 'Nobile's carnival' * Cattleya Pernel George Barnett 'Yankee Clipper'*Cattleya* Pernel George Barnett 'Yankee Clipper' * Cattlianthe Portia*Cattlianthe* Portia Conservation ------------ Almost all orchids are included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning that international trade (including in their parts/derivatives) is regulated by the CITES permit system. A smaller number of orchids such as *Paphiopedilum* sp. are listed in CITES Appendix I meaning that commercial international trade in wild-sourced specimens is prohibited and all other trade is strictly controlled. ### Assisted migration as conservation tool In 2006 the Longtan Dam was constructed at the Hongshui River, near the Yachang Orchid Nature Reserve. In response to threats of inundation of wild orchids at lower altitudes (350-400 m above sea level), 1000 endangered orchid plants of 16 genera and 29 species were translocated to higher elevation (approximately 1000 m above sea level). After relocation the 5 year survival of low and wide elevation species did not significantly differ and the mortality due to transplant shock was at only 10%. From this it was concluded that assisted migration might be a viable conservation tool for orchid species endangered by climate change. See also -------- * *Adaptation* (film), based on *The Orchid Thief* * Distribution of orchid species * Orchid Conservation Coalition * Orchid Pavilion Gathering * Orchidelirium, the Victorian era of flower madness in which collecting and discovering orchids reached extraordinary levels * Orchids of the Philippines * Orchids of Western Australia * Shangsi Festival * Black rot on orchids * List of taxa named after human genitals Bibliography ------------ * RHS (2016). "Search The International Orchid Register". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 28 November 2017. Documentaries ------------- * 2017: *Hidden Beauty – The Orchids of the Saale Valley*, directed by David Cebulla

Orchid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchid

In geometry, a **pentagon** (from the Greek πέντε *pente* meaning *five* and γωνία *gonia* meaning *angle*) is any five-sided polygon or 5-gon. The sum of the internal angles in a simple pentagon is 540°. A pentagon may be simple or self-intersecting. A self-intersecting *regular pentagon* (or *star pentagon*) is called a pentagram. Regular pentagons ----------------- A *regular pentagon* has Schläfli symbol {5} and interior angles of 108°. A *regular pentagon* has five lines of reflectional symmetry, and rotational symmetry of order 5 (through 72°, 144°, 216° and 288°). The diagonals of a convex regular pentagon are in the golden ratio to its sides. Given its side length t , {\displaystyle t,} t, its height H {\displaystyle H} H (distance from one side to the opposite vertex), width W {\displaystyle W} W (distance between two farthest separated points, which equals the diagonal length D {\displaystyle D} D) and circumradius R {\displaystyle R} R are given by: H = 5 + 2 5 2   t ≈ 1.539   t , W = D = 1 + 5 2   t ≈ 1.618   t , W = 2 − 2 5 ⋅ H ≈ 1.051   H , R = 5 + 5 10 t ≈ 0.8507   t , D = R   5 + 5 2 = 2 R cos ⁡ 18 ∘ = 2 R cos ⁡ π 10 ≈ 1.902   R . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}H&={\frac {\sqrt {5+2{\sqrt {5}}}}{2}}~t\approx 1.539~t,\\W=D&={\frac {1+{\sqrt {5}}}{2}}~t\approx 1.618~t,\\W&={\sqrt {2-{\frac {2}{\sqrt {5}}}}}\cdot H\approx 1.051~H,\\R&={\sqrt {\frac {5+{\sqrt {5}}}{10}}}t\approx 0.8507~t,\\D&=R\ {\sqrt {\frac {5+{\sqrt {5}}}{2}}}=2R\cos 18^{\circ }=2R\cos {\frac {\pi }{10}}\approx 1.902~R.\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}H&={\frac {\sqrt {5+2{\sqrt {5}}}}{2}}~t\approx 1.539~t,\\W=D&={\frac {1+{\sqrt {5}}}{2}}~t\approx 1.618~t,\\W&={\sqrt {2-{\frac {2}{\sqrt {5}}}}}\cdot H\approx 1.051~H,\\R&={\sqrt {\frac {5+{\sqrt {5}}}{10}}}t\approx 0.8507~t,\\D&=R\ {\sqrt {\frac {5+{\sqrt {5}}}{2}}}=2R\cos 18^{\circ }=2R\cos {\frac {\pi }{10}}\approx 1.902~R.\end{aligned}}} The area of a convex regular pentagon with side length t {\displaystyle t} t is given by A = t 2 25 + 10 5 4 = 5 t 2 tan ⁡ 54 ∘ 4 = 5 ( 5 + 2 5 ) t 2 4 ≈ 1.720   t 2 . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}A&={\frac {t^{2}{\sqrt {25+10{\sqrt {5}}}}}{4}}={\frac {5t^{2}\tan 54^{\circ }}{4}}\\&={\frac {{\sqrt {5(5+2{\sqrt {5}})}}\;t^{2}}{4}}\approx 1.720~t^{2}.\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}A&={\frac {t^{2}{\sqrt {25+10{\sqrt {5}}}}}{4}}={\frac {5t^{2}\tan 54^{\circ }}{4}}\\&={\frac {{\sqrt {5(5+2{\sqrt {5}})}}\;t^{2}}{4}}\approx 1.720~t^{2}.\end{aligned}}} If the circumradius R {\displaystyle R} R of a regular pentagon is given, its edge length t {\displaystyle t} t is found by the expression t = R   5 − 5 2 = 2 R sin ⁡ 36 ∘ = 2 R sin ⁡ π 5 ≈ 1.176   R , {\displaystyle t=R\ {\sqrt {\frac {5-{\sqrt {5}}}{2}}}=2R\sin 36^{\circ }=2R\sin {\frac {\pi }{5}}\approx 1.176~R,} {\displaystyle t=R\ {\sqrt {\frac {5-{\sqrt {5}}}{2}}}=2R\sin 36^{\circ }=2R\sin {\frac {\pi }{5}}\approx 1.176~R,} and its area is A = 5 R 2 4 5 + 5 2 ; {\displaystyle A={\frac {5R^{2}}{4}}{\sqrt {\frac {5+{\sqrt {5}}}{2}}};} {\displaystyle A={\frac {5R^{2}}{4}}{\sqrt {\frac {5+{\sqrt {5}}}{2}}};} since the area of the circumscribed circle is π R 2 , {\displaystyle \pi R^{2},} \pi R^{2}, the regular pentagon fills approximately 0.7568 of its circumscribed circle. ### Derivation of the area formula The area of any regular polygon is: A = 1 2 P r {\displaystyle A={\frac {1}{2}}Pr} A = \frac{1}{2}Pr where *P* is the perimeter of the polygon, and *r* is the inradius (equivalently the apothem). Substituting the regular pentagon's values for *P* and *r* gives the formula A = 1 2 ⋅ 5 t ⋅ t tan ⁡ ( 3 π 10 ) 2 = 5 t 2 tan ⁡ ( 3 π 10 ) 4 {\displaystyle A={\frac {1}{2}}\cdot 5t\cdot {\frac {t\tan {\mathord {\left({\frac {3\pi }{10}}\right)}}}{2}}={\frac {5t^{2}\tan {\mathord {\left({\frac {3\pi }{10}}\right)}}}{4}}} {\displaystyle A={\frac {1}{2}}\cdot 5t\cdot {\frac {t\tan {\mathord {\left({\frac {3\pi }{10}}\right)}}}{2}}={\frac {5t^{2}\tan {\mathord {\left({\frac {3\pi }{10}}\right)}}}{4}}} with side length *t*. ### Inradius Similar to every regular convex polygon, the regular convex pentagon has an inscribed circle. The apothem, which is the radius *r* of the inscribed circle, of a regular pentagon is related to the side length *t* by r = t 2 tan ⁡ ( π 5 ) = t 2 5 − 20 ≈ 0.6882 ⋅ t . {\displaystyle r={\frac {t}{2\tan {\mathord {\left({\frac {\pi }{5}}\right)}}}}={\frac {t}{2{\sqrt {5-{\sqrt {20}}}}}}\approx 0.6882\cdot t.} {\displaystyle r={\frac {t}{2\tan {\mathord {\left({\frac {\pi }{5}}\right)}}}}={\frac {t}{2{\sqrt {5-{\sqrt {20}}}}}}\approx 0.6882\cdot t.} ### Chords from the circumscribed circle to the vertices Like every regular convex polygon, the regular convex pentagon has a circumscribed circle. For a regular pentagon with successive vertices A, B, C, D, E, if P is any point on the circumcircle between points B and C, then PA + PD = PB + PC + PE. ### Point in plane For an arbitrary point in the plane of a regular pentagon with circumradius R {\displaystyle R} R, whose distances to the centroid of the regular pentagon and its five vertices are L {\displaystyle L} L and d i {\displaystyle d\_{i}} d_{i} respectively, we have ∑ i = 1 5 d i 2 = 5 ( R 2 + L 2 ) , ∑ i = 1 5 d i 4 = 5 ( ( R 2 + L 2 ) 2 + 2 R 2 L 2 ) , ∑ i = 1 5 d i 6 = 5 ( ( R 2 + L 2 ) 3 + 6 R 2 L 2 ( R 2 + L 2 ) ) , ∑ i = 1 5 d i 8 = 5 ( ( R 2 + L 2 ) 4 + 12 R 2 L 2 ( R 2 + L 2 ) 2 + 6 R 4 L 4 ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\textstyle \sum \_{i=1}^{5}d\_{i}^{2}&=5\left(R^{2}+L^{2}\right),\\\textstyle \sum \_{i=1}^{5}d\_{i}^{4}&=5\left(\left(R^{2}+L^{2}\right)^{2}+2R^{2}L^{2}\right),\\\textstyle \sum \_{i=1}^{5}d\_{i}^{6}&=5\left(\left(R^{2}+L^{2}\right)^{3}+6R^{2}L^{2}\left(R^{2}+L^{2}\right)\right),\\\textstyle \sum \_{i=1}^{5}d\_{i}^{8}&=5\left(\left(R^{2}+L^{2}\right)^{4}+12R^{2}L^{2}\left(R^{2}+L^{2}\right)^{2}+6R^{4}L^{4}\right).\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\textstyle \sum _{i=1}^{5}d_{i}^{2}&=5\left(R^{2}+L^{2}\right),\\\textstyle \sum _{i=1}^{5}d_{i}^{4}&=5\left(\left(R^{2}+L^{2}\right)^{2}+2R^{2}L^{2}\right),\\\textstyle \sum _{i=1}^{5}d_{i}^{6}&=5\left(\left(R^{2}+L^{2}\right)^{3}+6R^{2}L^{2}\left(R^{2}+L^{2}\right)\right),\\\textstyle \sum _{i=1}^{5}d_{i}^{8}&=5\left(\left(R^{2}+L^{2}\right)^{4}+12R^{2}L^{2}\left(R^{2}+L^{2}\right)^{2}+6R^{4}L^{4}\right).\end{aligned}}} If d i {\displaystyle d\_{i}} d_{i} are the distances from the vertices of a regular pentagon to any point on its circumcircle, then 3 ( ∑ i = 1 5 d i 2 ) 2 = 10 ∑ i = 1 5 d i 4 . {\displaystyle 3\left(\textstyle \sum \_{i=1}^{5}d\_{i}^{2}\right)^{2}=10\textstyle \sum \_{i=1}^{5}d\_{i}^{4}.} {\displaystyle 3\left(\textstyle \sum _{i=1}^{5}d_{i}^{2}\right)^{2}=10\textstyle \sum _{i=1}^{5}d_{i}^{4}.} ### Geometrical constructions The regular pentagon is constructible with compass and straightedge, as 5 is a Fermat prime. A variety of methods are known for constructing a regular pentagon. Some are discussed below. #### Richmond's method One method to construct a regular pentagon in a given circle is described by Richmond and further discussed in Cromwell's *Polyhedra*. The top panel shows the construction used in Richmond's method to create the side of the inscribed pentagon. The circle defining the pentagon has unit radius. Its center is located at point *C* and a midpoint *M* is marked halfway along its radius. This point is joined to the periphery vertically above the center at point *D*. Angle *CMD* is bisected, and the bisector intersects the vertical axis at point *Q*. A horizontal line through *Q* intersects the circle at point *P*, and chord *PD* is the required side of the inscribed pentagon. To determine the length of this side, the two right triangles *DCM* and *QCM* are depicted below the circle. Using Pythagoras' theorem and two sides, the hypotenuse of the larger triangle is found as 5 / 2 {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\sqrt {5}}/2} \scriptstyle \sqrt{5}/2. Side *h* of the smaller triangle then is found using the half-angle formula: tan ⁡ ( ϕ / 2 ) = 1 − cos ⁡ ( ϕ ) sin ⁡ ( ϕ )   , {\displaystyle \tan(\phi /2)={\frac {1-\cos(\phi )}{\sin(\phi )}}\ ,} {\displaystyle \tan(\phi /2)={\frac {1-\cos(\phi )}{\sin(\phi )}}\ ,} where cosine and sine of *ϕ* are known from the larger triangle. The result is: h = 5 − 1 4   . {\displaystyle h={\frac {{\sqrt {5}}-1}{4}}\ .} h = \frac{\sqrt 5 - 1}{4} \ . If DP is truly the side of a regular pentagon, m ∠ C D P = 54 ∘ {\displaystyle m\angle \mathrm {CDP} =54^{\circ }} {\displaystyle m\angle \mathrm {CDP} =54^{\circ }}, so DP = 2 cos(54°), QD = DP cos(54°) = 2cos2(54°), and CQ = 1 − 2cos2(54°), which equals −cos(108°) by the cosine double angle formula. This is the cosine of 72°, which equals ( 5 − 1 ) / 4 {\displaystyle \left({\sqrt {5}}-1\right)/4} {\displaystyle \left({\sqrt {5}}-1\right)/4} as desired. #### Carlyle circles The Carlyle circle was invented as a geometric method to find the roots of a quadratic equation. This methodology leads to a procedure for constructing a regular pentagon. The steps are as follows: 1. Draw a circle in which to inscribe the pentagon and mark the center point *O*. 2. Draw a horizontal line through the center of the circle. Mark the left intersection with the circle as point *B*. 3. Construct a vertical line through the center. Mark one intersection with the circle as point *A*. 4. Construct the point *M* as the midpoint of *O* and *B*. 5. Draw a circle centered at *M* through the point *A*. Mark its intersection with the horizontal line (inside the original circle) as the point *W* and its intersection outside the circle as the point *V*. 6. Draw a circle of radius *OA* and center *W*. It intersects the original circle at two of the vertices of the pentagon. 7. Draw a circle of radius *OA* and center *V*. It intersects the original circle at two of the vertices of the pentagon. 8. The fifth vertex is the rightmost intersection of the horizontal line with the original circle. Steps 6–8 are equivalent to the following version, shown in the animation: 6a. Construct point F as the midpoint of O and W. 7a. Construct a vertical line through F. It intersects the original circle at two of the vertices of the pentagon. The third vertex is the rightmost intersection of the horizontal line with the original circle. 8a. Construct the other two vertices using the compass and the length of the vertex found in step 7a. #### Euclid's method A regular pentagon is constructible using a compass and straightedge, either by inscribing one in a given circle or constructing one on a given edge. This process was described by Euclid in his *Elements* circa 300 BC. ### Physical construction methods * A regular pentagon may be created from just a strip of paper by tying an overhand knot into the strip and carefully flattening the knot by pulling the ends of the paper strip. Folding one of the ends back over the pentagon will reveal a pentagram when backlit. * Construct a regular hexagon on stiff paper or card. Crease along the three diameters between opposite vertices. Cut from one vertex to the center to make an equilateral triangular flap. Fix this flap underneath its neighbor to make a pentagonal pyramid. The base of the pyramid is a regular pentagon. ### Symmetry The *regular pentagon* has Dih5 symmetry, order 10. Since 5 is a prime number there is one subgroup with dihedral symmetry: Dih1, and 2 cyclic group symmetries: Z5, and Z1. These 4 symmetries can be seen in 4 distinct symmetries on the pentagon. John Conway labels these by a letter and group order. Full symmetry of the regular form is **r10** and no symmetry is labeled **a1**. The dihedral symmetries are divided depending on whether they pass through vertices (**d** for diagonal) or edges (**p** for perpendiculars), and **i** when reflection lines path through both edges and vertices. Cyclic symmetries in the middle column are labeled as **g** for their central gyration orders. Each subgroup symmetry allows one or more degrees of freedom for irregular forms. Only the **g5** subgroup has no degrees of freedom but can be seen as directed edges. ### Regular pentagram A pentagram or pentangle is a regular star pentagon. Its Schläfli symbol is {5/2}. Its sides form the diagonals of a regular convex pentagon – in this arrangement the sides of the two pentagons are in the golden ratio. Equilateral pentagons --------------------- An equilateral pentagon is a polygon with five sides of equal length. However, its five internal angles can take a range of sets of values, thus permitting it to form a family of pentagons. In contrast, the regular pentagon is unique up to similarity, because it is equilateral and it is equiangular (its five angles are equal). Cyclic pentagons ---------------- A cyclic pentagon is one for which a circle called the circumcircle goes through all five vertices. The regular pentagon is an example of a cyclic pentagon. The area of a cyclic pentagon, whether regular or not, can be expressed as one fourth the square root of one of the roots of a septic equation whose coefficients are functions of the sides of the pentagon. There exist cyclic pentagons with rational sides and rational area; these are called Robbins pentagons. It has been proven that the diagonals of a Robbins pentagon must be either all rational or all irrational, and it is conjectured that all the diagonals must be rational. General convex pentagons ------------------------ For all convex pentagons, the sum of the squares of the diagonals is less than 3 times the sum of the squares of the sides. Pentagons in tiling ------------------- A regular pentagon cannot appear in any tiling of regular polygons. First, to prove a pentagon cannot form a regular tiling (one in which all faces are congruent, thus requiring that all the polygons be pentagons), observe that 360° / 108° = 31⁄3 (where 108° Is the interior angle), which is not a whole number; hence there exists no integer number of pentagons sharing a single vertex and leaving no gaps between them. More difficult is proving a pentagon cannot be in any edge-to-edge tiling made by regular polygons: The maximum known packing density of a regular pentagon is ( 5 − 5 ) / 3 ≈ 0.921 {\displaystyle (5-{\sqrt {5}})/3\approx 0.921} {\displaystyle (5-{\sqrt {5}})/3\approx 0.921}, achieved by the double lattice packing shown. In a preprint released in 2016, Thomas Hales and Wöden Kusner announced a proof that this double lattice packing of the regular pentagon (known as the "pentagonal ice-ray" Chinese lattice design, dating from around 1900) has the optimal density among all packings of regular pentagons in the plane. As of 2022[update], their proof had not yet been published in a peer-reviewed journal. There are no combinations of regular polygons with 4 or more meeting at a vertex that contain a pentagon. For combinations with 3, if 3 polygons meet at a vertex and one has an odd number of sides, the other 2 must be congruent. The reason for this is that the polygons that touch the edges of the pentagon must alternate around the pentagon, which is impossible because of the pentagon's odd number of sides. For the pentagon, this results in a polygon whose angles are all (360 − 108) / 2 = 126°. To find the number of sides this polygon has, the result is 360 / (180 − 126) = 62⁄3, which is not a whole number. Therefore, a pentagon cannot appear in any tiling made by regular polygons. There are 15 classes of pentagons that can monohedrally tile the plane. None of the pentagons have any symmetry in general, although some have special cases with mirror symmetry. 15 monohedral pentagonal tiles| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | | | | | | | | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | | | | | | | Pentagons in polyhedra ---------------------- | Ih | Th | Td | O | I | D5d | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | Dodecahedron | Pyritohedron | Tetartoid | Pentagonal icositetrahedron | Pentagonal hexecontahedron | Truncated trapezohedron | Pentagons in nature ------------------- ### Plants * Pentagonal cross-section of okra.Pentagonal cross-section of okra. * Morning glories, like many other flowers, have a pentagonal shape.Morning glories, like many other flowers, have a pentagonal shape. * Perigone tube of Rafflesia flower.Perigone tube of *Rafflesia* flower. * The gynoecium of an apple contains five carpels, arranged in a five-pointed starThe gynoecium of an apple contains five carpels, arranged in a five-pointed star * Starfruit is another fruit with fivefold symmetry.Starfruit is another fruit with fivefold symmetry. ### Animals * A sea star. Many echinoderms have fivefold radial symmetry.A sea star. Many echinoderms have fivefold radial symmetry. * Another example of echinoderm, a sea urchin endoskeleton.Another example of echinoderm, a sea urchin endoskeleton. * An illustration of brittle stars, also echinoderms with a pentagonal shape.An illustration of brittle stars, also echinoderms with a pentagonal shape. ### Minerals * A Ho-Mg-Zn icosahedral quasicrystal formed as a pentagonal dodecahedron. The faces are true regular pentagons.A Ho-Mg-Zn icosahedral quasicrystal formed as a pentagonal dodecahedron. The faces are true regular pentagons. * A pyritohedral crystal of pyrite. A pyritohedron has 12 identical pentagonal faces that are not constrained to be regular.A pyritohedral crystal of pyrite. A pyritohedron has 12 identical pentagonal faces that are not constrained to be regular. Other examples -------------- * The Pentagon, headquarters of the United States Department of Defense.The Pentagon, headquarters of the United States Department of Defense. * Home plate of a baseball fieldHome plate of a baseball field See also -------- * Associahedron; A pentagon is an order-4 associahedron * Dodecahedron, a polyhedron whose regular form is composed of 12 pentagonal faces * Golden ratio * List of geometric shapes * Pentagonal numbers * Pentagram * Pentagram map * Pentastar, the Chrysler logo * Pythagoras' theorem#Similar figures on the three sides * Trigonometric constants for a pentagon In-line notes and references ---------------------------- 1. ↑ "pentagon, adj. and n." OED Online. Oxford University Press, June 2014. Web. 17 August 2014. 2. 1 2 Meskhishvili, Mamuka (2020). "Cyclic Averages of Regular Polygons and Platonic Solids". *Communications in Mathematics and Applications*. **11**: 335–355. 3. ↑ Richmond, Herbert W. (1893). "A Construction for a Regular Polygon of Seventeen Sides". *The Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics*. **26**: 206–207. 4. ↑ Peter R. Cromwell (22 July 1999). *Polyhedra*. p. 63. ISBN 0-521-66405-5. 5. ↑ Eric W. Weisstein (2003). *CRC concise encyclopedia of mathematics* (2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 329. ISBN 1-58488-347-2. 6. ↑ DeTemple, Duane W. (Feb 1991). "Carlyle circles and Lemoine simplicity of polygon constructions" (PDF). *The American Mathematical Monthly*. **98** (2): 97–108. doi:10.2307/2323939. JSTOR 2323939. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-12-21. 7. ↑ George Edward Martin (1998). *Geometric constructions*. Springer. p. 6. ISBN 0-387-98276-0. 8. ↑ Fitzpatrick, Richard (2008). *Euklid's Elements of Geometry, Book 4, Proposition 11* (PDF). Translated by Richard Fitzpatrick. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-615-17984-1. 9. ↑ John H. Conway, Heidi Burgiel, Chaim Goodman-Strauss, (2008) The Symmetries of Things, ISBN 978-1-56881-220-5 (Chapter 20, Generalized Schaefli symbols, Types of symmetry of a polygon pp. 275-278) 10. ↑ Weisstein, Eric W. "Cyclic Pentagon." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. 11. ↑ Robbins, D. P. (1994). "Areas of Polygons Inscribed in a Circle". *Discrete and Computational Geometry*. **12** (2): 223–236. doi:10.1007/bf02574377. 12. ↑ Robbins, D. P. (1995). "Areas of Polygons Inscribed in a Circle". *The American Mathematical Monthly*. **102** (6): 523–530. doi:10.2307/2974766. JSTOR 2974766. 13. ↑ * Buchholz, Ralph H.; MacDougall, James A. (2008), "Cyclic polygons with rational sides and area", *Journal of Number Theory*, **128** (1): 17–48, doi:10.1016/j.jnt.2007.05.005, MR 2382768. 14. ↑ *Inequalities proposed in “Crux Mathematicorum”*, . 15. ↑ Hales, Thomas; Kusner, Wöden (September 2016), *Packings of regular pentagons in the plane*, arXiv:1602.07220 | | | --- | | Family | *A**n* | *B**n* | *I*2(p) / *D**n* | *E*6 / *E*7 / *E*8 / *F*4 / *G*2 | Hn | | Regular polygon | Triangle | Square | p-gon | Hexagon | Pentagon | | Uniform polyhedron | Tetrahedron | Octahedron • Cube | Demicube | | Dodecahedron • Icosahedron | | Uniform polychoron | Pentachoron | 16-cell • Tesseract | Demitesseract | 24-cell | 120-cell • 600-cell | | Uniform 5-polytope | 5-simplex | 5-orthoplex • 5-cube | 5-demicube | | | | Uniform 6-polytope | 6-simplex | 6-orthoplex • 6-cube | 6-demicube | 122 • 221 | | | Uniform 7-polytope | 7-simplex | 7-orthoplex • 7-cube | 7-demicube | 132 • 231 • 321 | | | Uniform 8-polytope | 8-simplex | 8-orthoplex • 8-cube | 8-demicube | 142 • 241 • 421 | | | Uniform 9-polytope | 9-simplex | 9-orthoplex • 9-cube | 9-demicube | | | | Uniform 10-polytope | 10-simplex | 10-orthoplex • 10-cube | 10-demicube | | | | Uniform *n*-polytope | *n*-simplex | *n*-orthoplex • *n*-cube | *n*-demicube | 1k2 • 2k1 • k21 | *n*-pentagonal polytope | | Topics: Polytope families • Regular polytope • List of regular polytopes and compounds |

Pentagon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagon

**Pe** (П п; italics: *П п*) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It commonly represents the unaspirated voiceless bilabial plosive /p/, like the pronunciation of ⟨p⟩ in "s**p**in". History ------- The Cyrillic letter Pe was derived from the Greek letter Pi (Π π). The name of Pe in the Early Cyrillic alphabet was покои (*pokoi*), meaning "peaceful state". In the Cyrillic numeral system, Pe had a value of 80. Form ---- The capital Cyrillic letter Pe looks exactly like the Greek capital Pi from which it is derived, and small Pe looks like a smaller version of the same, though with a less prominent horizontal bar (Greek Π π > Cyrillic П п). Pe is not to be confused with the Cyrillic letter El (Л л; italics: *Л л*), which has a hook on its left leg in some fonts (in others El resembles the Greek Lambda (Λ)). In italics and handwriting, capital Pe looks identical to the Greek capital Pi in these forms. The lowercase forms, however, differ among the languages that use the Cyrillic alphabet. Small italic Cyrillic Pe ⟨*п*⟩ in the majority of fonts or handwritten styles looks like the small italic Latin N ⟨*n*⟩. In handwritten Serbian, however, it appears as a Latin U ⟨*u*⟩ with a bar over it ⟨*ū*⟩. Usage ----- As used in the alphabets of various languages, Pe represents the following sounds: * voiceless bilabial plosive /p/, like the pronunciation of ⟨p⟩ in "**p**ack" * palatalized voiceless bilabial plosive /pʲ/ The pronunciations shown in the table are the primary ones for each language; for details consult the articles on the languages. | Language | Position in alphabet | Pronunciation | | --- | --- | --- | | Belarusian | 17th | /p/, /pʲ/ | | Bulgarian | 16th | /p/, /pʲ/ | | Macedonian | 20th | /p/ | | Russian | 17th | /p/, /pʲ/ | | Serbian | 19th | /p/ | | Ukrainian | 20th | /p/, /pʲ/ | | Kazakh | 22nd | /p/ | | Abkhaz | 19th | /pʼ/ | Related letters and other similar characters -------------------------------------------- * Π π : Greek letter Pi * Ԥ ԥ : Cyrillic letter Pe with descender * Ҧ ҧ : Cyrillic letter Pe with middle hook * Л л : Cyrillic letter El * N n : Latin letter N * P p : Latin letter P * Р р : Cyrillic letter Er Computing codes --------------- Character information| Preview | П | п | | --- | --- | --- | | Unicode name | CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER PE | CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER PE | | Encodings | decimal | hex | dec | hex | | Unicode | 1055 | U+041F | 1087 | U+043F | | UTF-8 | 208 159 | D0 9F | 208 191 | D0 BF | | Numeric character reference | &#1055; | &#x41F; | &#1087; | &#x43F; | | Named character reference | &Pcy; | &pcy; | | KOI8-R and KOI8-U | 240 | F0 | 208 | D0 | | Code page 855 | 221 | DD | 216 | D8 | | Windows-1251 | 207 | CF | 239 | EF | | ISO-8859-5 | 191 | BF | 223 | DF | | Macintosh Cyrillic | 143 | 8F | 239 | EF |

Pe (Cyrillic)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pe_(Cyrillic)

The **Common Redstart** (***Phoenicurus phoenicurus***), or often simply **Redstart**, is a small passerine bird in the genus *Phoenicurus*. Like its relatives, it was formerly classed as a member of the thrush family, (Turdidae), but is now known to be an Old World flycatcher (family Muscicapidae). Taxonomy and systematics ------------------------ The first formal description of the common redstart was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his *Systema Naturae* under the binomial name *Motacilla phoenicurus*. The genus *Phoenicurus* was introduced by the English naturalist Thomas Forster in 1817. The genus and species name *phoenicurus* is from Ancient Greek *phoinix*, "red", and *-ouros* -"tailed". Two subspecies are accepted. The nominate *P. p. phoenicurus* is found all over Europe and reaches into Siberia. To the southeast, subspecies *P. p. samamisicus*, sometimes called ‘Ehrenberg’s Redstart’, is found from the Crimean Peninsula and Greece through Turkey, the Caucasus, the Middle East, and into Central Asia. Adult males have white outer webs in the remiges, forming a pale to whitish wing-patch similar to the one seen in Black Redstart and Daurian Redstart. This patch is also present but less conspicuous in some immature males, and sometimes in adult females. Some males exhibit a blackish mantle, too. Both subspecies intergrade widely in the southern Balkans and coastal Ukraine. The closest genetic relative of the common redstart may be the Moussier's redstart, though incomplete sampling of the genus gives some uncertainty to this. Its ancestors were apparently the first redstarts to spread to Europe; they seem to have diverged from the black redstart group about 3 mya, during the Piacenzian. Genetically, common and black redstarts are still fairly compatible and can produce hybrids that appear to be healthy and fertile, but they are separated by different behaviour and ecological requirements so hybrids are rather rare in nature. Description ----------- The Common Redstart shows some affinity to the European Robin in many of its habits and actions. It has the same general carriage, and chat-like behaviour, and is the same length at 13–14.5 cm long but slightly slimmer and not quite as heavy, weighing 11–23 g. The orange-red tail, from which it and other redstarts get their names ("start" is an old word for "tail"), is frequently quivered. Among common European birds, only the Black Redstart (*Phoenicurus ochrurus*) has a similarly coloured tail. The male in summer has a slate-grey head and upperparts, except the rump and tail, which, like the flanks, underwing coverts and axillaries are orange-chestnut. The forehead is white; the sides of the face and throat are black. The two central tail feathers are dark brown, the other tail feathers bright orange-red. The wings are grey-brown in male *P. p. phoenicurus* but the remiges have white outer webs forming a pale to whitish wing-patch in adult male *P. p. samamisicus* (see Taxonomy and systematics). The orange on the flanks shades to almost white on the belly. The bill and legs are black. In autumn, pale feather fringes on the body feathering obscure the colours of the male, giving it a washed-out appearance. The female is grey-brown above and buff-white or light orange below. In most females the throat is whitish, but some (older?) females show a dark bib, some even approaching males in appearance. In *P. p. samamisicus*, many females tend to show a light wing-patch, analogous to the males but much less prominent. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ Common Redstarts prefer open mature birch, oak or, particularly in the north of the breeding range, conifer woodland with a high horizontal visibility and low amounts of shrub and understorey especially where the trees are old enough to have holes suitable for its nest. Other habitats of the species are orchards as well as villages, parks and old gardens in urban areas. In Britain the Common Redstart occurs primarily in upland areas less affected by agricultural intensification. Nests are built in cavities, e.g. natural tree holes, so dead trees or those with dead limbs are beneficial to the species; nestboxes are commonly used. A high cover of moss and lichen is also preferred. In England, where it has declined by 55% in the past 25 years [*when?*], the Forestry Commission offers grants under a scheme called England's Woodland Improvement Grant (EWIG); as does Natural Englands Environmental Stewardship Scheme. It is a very rare breeding bird in Ireland, with between one and five pairs breeding in most years, nearly all of them in County Wicklow. Behaviour and ecology --------------------- It is a summer visitor throughout most of Europe and western Asia (east to Lake Baikal), and also in northwest Africa in Morocco. It winters in central Africa and Arabia, south of the Sahara Desert but north of the Equator, from Senegal east to Yemen. It is widespread as a breeding bird in Great Britain, particularly in upland broadleaf woodlands and hedgerow trees, but in Ireland it is very local, and may not breed every year. The males first arrive in early to mid April, often a few days in advance of the females. Five or six light blue eggs are laid during May, with a second brood in midsummer in the south of the breeding range. It departs for Africa between mid-August and early October. It often feeds like a flycatcher, making aerial sallies after passing insects, and most of its food consists of winged insects. The main contact call in Central Europe is a rising, slightly dissylabilic huid. In southern Italy and as well as within the range of the subspecies P. p. samamisicus this call is replaced by a monosyllabic heed. This call can be rising or constant in Italy but is always constant and reminiscent of the slightly higher pitched contact calls of Collared Flycatcher *Ficedula albicollis* in *P. p. samamisicus.* A third call variant exists on the Iberian peninsula, whereas in Siberia huid and heed calls can be combined. All call variants are regularly combined with ticking alarm calls. The male's song consists of soft melancholy strophes lasting 1-2 seconds that can be divides into three parts: an introduction, a repetitive part and a more variable third part. This structure seems to be very constant across the breeding range of the nominate subspecies, but is more variable in *P. p. samamisicus* where the introduction only rarely consists solely of a clear whistle similar to that of nominate *P. p. phoenicurus*. Common Redstarts are sometimes parasitized by common cuckoos. Surprisingly, redstart chicks did not suffer from sharing the nest with a cuckoo chick. The presence of a cuckoo might even be beneficial for the nestlings. The large size of the cuckoo chick affects the thermoregulation in the nest. In some sense, the cuckoo chick is ‘brooding’ the redstart nestlings. Moreover, food provision might be better for redstart chicks in a mixed brood. Gallery ------- * Nest with a clutch of eggs showing typical bluish colourNest with a clutch of eggs showing typical bluish colour * Common redstart dietCommon redstart diet

Common redstart

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_redstart

The **little crake** (***Zapornia parva***) is a very small waterbird of the family Rallidae. *parva* is Latin for "small". Its breeding habitat is reed beds in Europe, mainly in the east, and just into western Asia. This species is migratory, wintering in Africa. At 17–19 cm (6.7–7.5 in) in length, they are slightly smaller than the spotted crake, from which they are readily distinguished by the lack of dark barring and white spots on the flanks. The little crake has a short straight bill, yellow with a red base. They have green legs with long toes, and a short tail which is barred black and white underneath. Unlike other *Porzana* crakes, this species has strong sexual dimorphism: Adult males have mainly brown upperparts and blue-grey face and underparts. They resemble the sympatric Baillon's crake (*P. pusilla*), which has strongly barred flanks and is a little smaller. Females have buff underparts, and are grey only on the face; they are more similar to the yellow-breasted crake (*P. flaviventer*) of the American tropics. Immature little crakes are similar to the female but have a white face and breast. The downy chicks are black, as with all rails. These birds probe with their bill in mud or shallow water, also picking up food by sight. They mainly eat insects and aquatic animals. Little crakes are very secretive in the breeding season, and are then mostly heard rather than seen. They can be easier to see on migration. They are then noisy birds, with a yapping *kua* call. They nest in a dry location in reed vegetation, laying 4–7 eggs. The little crake is one of the species to which the *Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds* (AEWA) applies.

Little crake

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_crake

The **mute swan** (***Cygnus olor***) is a species of swan and a member of the waterfowl family Anatidae. It is native to much of Eurosiberia, and (as a rare winter visitor) the far north of Africa. It is an introduced species in North America, home to the largest populations outside of its native range, with additional smaller introductions in Australasia and southern Africa. The name 'mute' derives from it being less vocal than other swan species. Measuring 125 to 160 cm (49 to 63 in) in length, this large swan is wholly white in plumage with an orange beak bordered with black. It is recognizable by its pronounced knob atop the beak, which is larger in males. Taxonomy -------- The mute swan was first formally described by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin as *Anas olor* in 1789, and was transferred by Johann Matthäus Bechstein to the new genus *Cygnus* in 1803. Both *cygnus* and *olor* mean "swan" in Latin; *cygnus* is a variant form of *cycnus*, a borrowing from Greek κύκνος *kyknos*, a word of the same meaning. Despite its Eurasian origin, its closest relatives are the black swan of Australia and the black-necked swan of South America, not the other Northern Hemisphere swans of the genus *Cygnus*. The species is monotypic, with no living subspecies. Evolution --------- Mute swan subfossils, 6,000 years old, have been found in post-glacial peat beds of East Anglia, Great Britain. They have been recorded from Ireland east to Portugal and Italy, and from France, 13,000 BP (Desbrosse and Mourer-Chauvire 1972–1973). The paleosubspecies *Cygnus olor bergmanni*, which differed only in size from the living bird, is known from fossils found in Azerbaijan. A related paleospecies recorded from fossils and subfossils is the Giant swan, *Cygnus falconeri*, a flightless species which lived on the islands of Malta and Sicily during the Middle Pleistocene. Fossils of swan ancestors more distantly allied to the mute swan have been found in four U.S. states: California, Arizona, Idaho and Oregon. The timeline runs from the Miocene to the late Pleistocene, or 10,000 BP. The latest find was in Anza Borrego Desert, a state park in California. Fossils from the Pleistocene include *Cygnus paloregonus* from Fossil Lake, Oregon, Froman's Ferry, Idaho, and Arizona, referred to by Howard in *The Waterfowl of the World* as "probably the mute type swan". Description ----------- Adults of this large swan typically range from 140 to 160 cm (55 to 63 in) long, although can range in extreme cases from 125 to 170 cm (49 to 67 in), with a 200 to 240 cm (79 to 94 in) wingspan. Males are larger than females and have a larger knob on their bill. On average, this is the second largest waterfowl species after the trumpeter swan, although male mute swans can easily match or even exceed a male trumpeter in mass. Among standard measurements of the mute swan, the wing chord measures 53–62.3 cm (20.9–24.5 in), the tarsus is 10–11.8 cm (3.9–4.6 in) and the bill is 6.9–9 cm (2.7–3.5 in). The plumage is white, while the legs are dark grey. The beak of the mute swan is bright orange, with black around the nostrils and a black nail. The mute swan is one of the heaviest flying birds. In several studies from Great Britain, males (known as *cobs*) were found to average from about 10.6 to 11.87 kg (23.4 to 26.2 lb), with a weight range of 9.2–14.3 kg (20–32 lb) while the slightly smaller females (known as *pens*) averaged about 8.5 to 9.67 kg (18.7 to 21.3 lb), with a weight range of 7.6–10.6 kg (17–23 lb). While the top normal weight for a big cob is roughly 15 kg (33 lb), one unusually big Polish cob weighed almost 23 kg (51 lb) and this counts as the largest weight ever verified for a flying bird, although it has been questioned whether this heavyweight could still take flight. Young birds, called cygnets, are not the bright white of mature adults, and their bill is dull greyish-black, not orange, for the first year. The down may range from pure white to grey to buff, with grey/buff the most common. The white cygnets have a leucistic gene. Cygnets grow quickly, reaching a size close to their adult size in approximately three months after hatching. Cygnets typically retain their grey feathers until they are at least one year old, with the down on their wings having been replaced by flight feathers earlier that year. All mute swans are white at maturity, though the feathers (particularly on the head and neck) are often stained orange-brown by iron and tannins in the water. ### Polish swan The colour morph *C. o.* morpha *immutabilis* (immūtābilis is Latin for "immutable, unchangeable, unalterable"), also known as the "Polish swan", has pinkish (not dark grey) legs and dull white cygnets; as with white domestic geese, it is found only in populations with a history of domestication. Polish swans carry a copy of a gene responsible for leucism. Behavior -------- Mute swans nest on large mounds that they build with waterside vegetation in shallow water on islands in the middle or at the very edge of a lake. They are monogamous and often reuse the same nest each year, restoring or rebuilding it as needed. Male and female swans share the care of the nest, and once the cygnets are fledged it is not uncommon to see whole families looking for food. They feed on a wide range of vegetation, both submerged aquatic plants which they reach with their long necks, and by grazing on land. The food commonly includes agricultural crop plants such as oilseed rape and wheat, and feeding flocks in the winter may cause significant crop damage, often as much through trampling with their large webbed feet, as through direct consumption. It will also feed on small proportions of aquatic insects, fish and frogs. Unlike black swans, mute swans are usually strongly territorial with just a single pair on smaller lakes, though in a few locations where a large area of suitable feeding habitat is found they can be colonial. The largest colonies have over 100 pairs, such as at the colony at Abbotsbury Swannery in southern England, and at the southern tip of Öland Island, Ottenby Preserve, in the coastal waters of the Baltic Sea, and can have nests spaced as little as 2 m (7 ft) apart. Non-mated juveniles up to 3–4 years old commonly form larger flocks, which can total several hundred birds, often at regular traditional sites. A notable flock of non-breeding birds is found on the River Tweed estuary at Berwick-upon-Tweed in northeastern England, with a maximum count of 787 birds. A large population exists near the Swan Lifeline Station in Windsor, and live on the Thames in the shadow of Windsor Castle. Once the adults are mated they seek out their own territories and often live close to ducks and gulls, which may take advantage of the swan's ability to reach deep water weeds, which tend to spread out on the water surface. The mute swan is less vocal than the noisy whooper and Bewick's swans; they do, however, make a variety of sounds, often described as "grunting, hoarse whistling, and snorting noises." During a courtship display, mute swans utter a rhythmic song. The song help synchronize the movements of their heads and necks. It could technically be employed to distinguish a bonded couple from two dating swans, as the rhythm of the song typically fails to match the pace of the head movements in two dating swans. Mute swans usually hiss at competitors or intruders trying to enter their territory. The most familiar sound associated with mute swans is the vibrant throbbing of the wings in flight which is unique to the species, and can be heard from a range of 1 to 2 km (0.6 to 1 mi), indicating its value as a contact sound between birds in flight. Cygnets are especially vocal, and communicate through a variety of whistling and chirping sounds when content, as well as a harsh squawking noise when distressed or lost. Mute swans can be very aggressive in defence of their nests and are highly protective of their mate and offspring. Most defensive acts from a mute swan begin with a loud hiss and, if this is not sufficient to drive off the predator or intruder, are followed by a physical attack. Swans attack by striking at the threat with bony spurs in their wings, accompanied by biting with their large bill, while smaller waterbirds such as ducks are normally grabbed with the swan's bill and dragged or thrown clear of the swan and its offspring. Swans will kill intruders into their territory, both other swans, and geese and ducks, by drowning, climbing onto and pecking the back of the head and forcing the other bird underwater. The wings of the swan are very powerful, though not strong enough to break an adult man's leg, as is commonly misquoted. Large waterfowl, such as Canada geese, (more likely out of competition than in response to potential predation) may be aggressively driven off, and mute swans regularly attack people who enter their territory. The cob is responsible for defending the cygnets while on the water, and will sometimes attack small watercraft, such as canoes, that it feels are a threat to its young. The cob will additionally try to chase the predator out of his family territory, and will keep animals such as foxes and raptors at bay. In New York (outside its native range), the most common predators of cygnets are common snapping turtles. Healthy adults are rarely preyed upon, though canids such as coyotes, felids such as lynx, and bears can pose a threat to infirm ones (healthy adults can usually swim away from danger and nest defense is usually successful.) and there are a few cases of healthy adults falling prey to the Eurasian otter and golden eagles. In England, there has been an increased rate of attacks on swans by out-of-control dogs, especially in parks where the birds are less territorial. This is considered criminal in British law, and the birds are placed under the highest protection due to their association with the monarch. Mute swans will readily attack dogs to protect themselves and their cygnets from an attack, and an adult swan is capable of overwhelming and drowning even large dog breeds. The familiar pose with neck curved back and wings half raised, known as busking, is a threat display. Both feet are paddled in unison during this display, resulting in more jerky movement. The swans may also use the busking posture for wind-assisted transportation over several hundred meters, so-called windsurfing. Like other swans, mute swans are known for their ability to grieve for a lost or dead mate or cygnet. Swans will go through a mourning process, and in the case of the loss of their mate, may either stay where its counterpart lived, or fly off to join a flock. Should one of the pair die while there are cygnets present, the remaining parent will take up their partner's duties in raising the clutch. Breeding -------- Mute swans lay from 4 to 10 eggs. The female broods for around 36 days, with cygnets normally hatching between the months of May and July. The young swans do not achieve the ability to fly before about 120 to 150 days old. This limits the distribution of the species at the northern edge of its range as the cygnets need to learn to fly before the ponds and lakes freeze over. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ The mute swan is found naturally mainly in temperate areas of Europe then across the Palearctic as far east as Primorsky Krai, near Sidemi. It is partially migratory throughout northern latitudes in Europe and Asia, as far south as North Africa and the Mediterranean. It is known and recorded to have nested in Iceland and is a vagrant to that area as well as to Bermuda, according to the UN Environment Programme chart of international status chart of bird species, which places it in 70 countries, breeding in 49 countries, and vagrant in 16 countries. While most of the current population in Japan is introduced, mute swans are depicted on scrolls more than 1,000 years old, and wild birds from the mainland Asian population still occur rarely in winter. Natural migrants to Japan usually occur along with whooper and sometimes Bewick's swans. The mute swan is protected in most of its range, but this has not prevented illegal hunting and poaching. It is often kept in captivity outside its natural range, as a decoration for parks and ponds, and escapes have happened. The descendants of such birds have become naturalised in the eastern United States and Great Lakes, much as the Canada goose has done in Europe. ### World population #### Native populations The total native population of mute swans is about 500,000 birds at the end of the breeding season (adults plus young), of which up to 350,000 are in Russia. The largest single breeding concentration is 11,000 pairs in the Volga Delta. The population in the United Kingdom is about 22,000 birds as of the 2006–2007 winter, a slight decline from the peak of about 26,000–27,000 birds in 1990. This includes about 5,300 breeding pairs, the remainder being immatures. Other significant populations in Europe include 6,800–8,300 breeding pairs in Germany, 4,500 pairs in Denmark, 4,000–4,200 pairs in Poland, 3,000–4,000 pairs in the Netherlands, about 2,500 pairs in Ireland, and 1,200–1,700 pairs in Ukraine. For many centuries, mute swans in Great Britain were domesticated for food, with individuals being marked by nicks on their webs (feet) or beaks to indicate ownership. These marks were registered with the Crown and a Royal Swanherd was appointed. Any birds not so marked became Crown property, hence the swan becoming known as the "Royal Bird". It is quite possible that this domestication saved the mute swan from extirpation through overhunting in Great Britain. Populations in western Europe were largely exterminated by hunting pressure in the 13th–19th centuries, with the exception of semi-domesticated birds maintained as poultry by large landowners. Better protection in the late 19th and early 20th centuries allowed the species to expand and return to most or all of their former range. More recently in the period from about 1960 up to the early 1980s, numbers declined significantly again in many areas in England, primarily due to lead poisoning from birds swallowing lead shot from shooting and discarded fishing weights made from lead. After lead weights and shot were mostly replaced by other less toxic alternatives, mute swan numbers increased again rapidly. #### Introduced populations Since being introduced into North America, the mute swan has increased greatly in number to the extent that it is considered as an invasive species there. Populations introduced into other areas remain small, with around 200 in Japan, fewer than 200 in New Zealand and Australia, and about 120 in South Africa. ##### North America The mute swan was introduced to North America in the late 19th century. Recently, it has been widely viewed as an invasive species because of its rapidly increasing numbers and its adverse effects on other waterfowl and native ecosystems. For example, a study of population sizes in the lower Great Lakes from 1971 to 2000 found that mute swan numbers were increasing at an average rate of at least 10% per year, doubling the population every seven to eight years. Several studies have concluded that mute swans severely reduce densities of submerged vegetation where they occur. In 2003, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to "minimize environmental damages attributed to Mute Swans" by reducing their numbers in the Atlantic Flyway to pre-1986 levels, a 67% reduction at the time. According to a report published in the *Federal Register* of 2003 the proposal was supported by all thirteen state wildlife agencies which submitted comments, as well as by 43 bird conservation, wildlife conservation and wildlife management organisations. Ten animal rights organisations and the vast majority of comments from individuals were opposed. At this time mute swans were protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act due to a court order, but in 2005 the United States Department of the Interior officially declared them a non-native, unprotected species. Mute swans are protected in some areas of the U.S. by local laws as, for example, in Connecticut. The status of the mute swan as an introduced species in North America is disputed by the interest group "Save the Mute Swans". They assert that mute swans are native in the region and therefore deserving of protection. They claim that mute swans had origins from Russia and cite historical sightings and fossil records. These claims have been rejected as specious by the U.S. Department of the Interior. ##### Oceania The mute swan had absolute protection in New Zealand under the Wildlife Act 1953, but this was changed in June 2010 to a lower level of protection. It still has protection, but is now allowed to be killed or held in captivity at the discretion of the Minister of Conservation. A small feral population exists in the vicinity of Perth, Australia; however, it is believed to number less than 100 individuals. In popular culture ------------------ The mute swan has been the national bird of Denmark since 1984. Prior to that, the skylark was considered Denmark's national bird (since 1960). The fairy tale "The Ugly Duckling" by Hans Christian Andersen tells the story of a cygnet ostracised by his fellow barnyard fowl because of his perceived unattractiveness. To his delight (and to the surprise of others), he matures into a graceful swan, the most beautiful bird of all. Today, the British Monarch retains the right to ownership of all unmarked mute swans in open water, but King Charles III exercises his ownership only on certain stretches of the Thames and its surrounding tributaries. This ownership is shared with the Vintners' and Dyers' Companies, who were granted rights of ownership by the Crown in the 15th century. The mute swans in the moat at the Bishops Palace at Wells Cathedral in Wells, England have for centuries been trained to ring bells via strings attached to them to beg for food. Two swans are still able to ring for lunch. The pair of swans in the Boston Public Garden are named Romeo and Juliet after the Shakespearean couple; however, it was found that both of them are females. Gallery ------- * Mute swan guarding its cygnets (the latter are out of the picture)Mute swan guarding its cygnets (the latter are out of the picture) * Finding food underwaterFinding food underwater * Mute swan in flightMute swan in flight * Flock in flightFlock in flight * Landing on waterLanding on water * Mute swan eggMute swan egg * 1956 Finnish stamp with a mute swan1956 Finnish stamp with a mute swan * Head profileHead profile * Four mute swans along the bank of the Etobicoke CreekFour mute swans along the bank of the Etobicoke Creek * Family of mute swans on a small lake in southern Michigan, U.S.Family of mute swans on a small lake in southern Michigan, U.S. * Mute swans in Koutavos Lagoon, Cephalonia, GreeceMute swans in Koutavos Lagoon, Cephalonia, Greece * Mute swans on Lake Orongoi, BuryatiaMute swans on Lake Orongoi, Buryatia * Mute swans on a field by the Vistula River in southern PolandMute swans on a field by the Vistula River in southern Poland * Mute swan and cygnets on a duckweed-covered pond in New York CityMute swan and cygnets on a duckweed-covered pond in New York City * Scared mute swans take off.Scared mute swans take off. * A pair of mute swans grooming.A pair of mute swans grooming. See also -------- * Swan Upping * *The Bird of Peace* (statue)

Mute swan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mute_swan

A **nation-state** is a political unit where the state and nation are congruent. It is a more precise concept than "country", since a country does not need to have a predominant ethnic group. A nation, in the sense of a common ethnicity, may include a diaspora or refugees who live outside the nation-state; some nations of this sense do not have a state where that ethnicity predominates. In a more general sense, a nation-state is simply a large, politically sovereign country or administrative territory. A nation-state may be contrasted with: * A multinational state, where no one ethnic group dominates (such a state may also be considered a multicultural state depending on the degree of cultural assimilation of various groups). * A city-state, which is both smaller than a "nation" in the sense of a "large sovereign country" and which may or may not be dominated by all or part of a single "nation" in the sense of a common ethnicity. * An empire, which is composed of many countries (possibly non-sovereign states) and nations under a single monarch or ruling state government. * A confederation, a league of sovereign states, which might or might not include nation-states. * A federated state, which may or may not be a nation-state, and which is only partially self-governing within a larger federation (for example, the state boundaries of Bosnia and Herzegovina are drawn along ethnic lines, but those of the United States are not). This article mainly discusses the more specific definition of a nation-state as a typically sovereign country dominated by a particular ethnicity. Complexity ---------- The relationship between a nation (in the ethnic sense) and a state can be complex. The presence of a state can encourage ethnogenesis, and a group with a pre-existing ethnic identity can influence the drawing of territorial boundaries or argue for political legitimacy. This definition of a "nation-state" is not universally accepted. "All attempts to develop terminological consensus around ‘nation’ failed", concludes academic Valery Tishkov. Walker Connor discusses the impressions surrounding the characters of "nation", "(sovereign) state", "nation-state", and "nationalism". Connor, who gave the term "ethnonationalism" wide currency, also discusses the tendency to confuse nation and state and the treatment of all states as if nation states. History ------- ### Origins The origins and early history of nation-states are disputed. A major theoretical question is: "Which came first, the nation or the nation-state?" Scholars such as Steven Weber, David Woodward, Michel Foucault and Jeremy Black have advanced the hypothesis that the nation-state did not arise out of political ingenuity or an unknown undetermined source, nor was it a political invention; but is an inadvertent byproduct of 15th-century intellectual discoveries in political economy, capitalism, mercantilism, political geography, and geography combined with cartography and advances in map-making technologies. It was with these intellectual discoveries and technological advances that the nation-state arose. For others, the nation existed first, then nationalist movements arose for sovereignty, and the nation-state was created to meet that demand. Some "modernization theories" of nationalism see it as a product of government policies to unify and modernize an already existing state. Most theories see the nation-state as a 19th-century European phenomenon facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacy and mass media. However, historians[*who?*] also note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in Portugal and the Dutch Republic. In France, Eric Hobsbawm argues, the French state preceded the formation of the French people. Hobsbawm considers that the state made the French nation, not French nationalism, which emerged at the end of the 19th century, the time of the Dreyfus Affair. At the time of the 1789 French Revolution, only half of the French people spoke some French, and 12–13% spoke the version of it that was to be found in literature and in educational facilities, according to Hobsbawm. During the Italian unification, the number of people speaking the Italian language was even lower. The French state promoted the replacement of various regional dialects and languages by a centralised French language, and so did, and still does, Italy. The introduction of conscription and the Third Republic's 1880s laws on public instruction facilitated the creation of a national identity under this theory. Some nation-states, such as Germany and Italy, came into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by nationalists during the 19th century. In both cases, the territory was previously divided among other states, some very small. At first, the sense of common identity was a cultural movement, such as in the *Völkisch movement* in German-speaking states, which rapidly acquired a political significance. In these cases, the nationalist sentiment and the nationalist movement precede the unification of the German and Italian nation-states. Historians Hans Kohn, Liah Greenfeld, Philip White, and others have classified nations such as Germany or Italy, where cultural unification preceded state unification, as *ethnic nations* or *ethnic nationalities*. However, "state-driven" national unifications, such as in France, England or China, are more likely to flourish in multiethnic societies, producing a traditional national heritage of *civic nations*, or *territory-based nationalities*. The idea of a nation-state was and is associated with the rise of the modern system of states, often called the "Westphalian system", following the Treaty of Westphalia (1648). The balance of power, which characterized that system, depended for its effectiveness upon clearly defined, centrally controlled, independent entities, whether empires or nation states, which recognize each other's sovereignty and territory. The Westphalian system did not create the nation-state, but the nation-state meets the criteria for its component states (by assuming that there is no disputed territory). Before the Westphalian system, the closest geopolitical system was the "Chanyuan system" established in East Asia in 1005 through the Treaty of Chanyuan, which, like the Westphalian peace treaties, designated national borders between the independent regimes of China's Song dynasty and the nomadic Liao dynasty. This system was copied and developed in East Asia in the following centuries until the establishment of the pan-Eurasian Mongol Empire in the 13th century. The nation-state received a philosophical underpinning in the era of Romanticism, at first as the "natural" expression of the individual peoples (romantic nationalism: see Johann Gottlieb Fichte's conception of the *Volk*, later opposed by Ernest Renan). The increasing emphasis during the 19th century on the ethnic and racial origins of the nation led to a redefinition of the nation-state in these terms. Racism, which in Boulainvilliers's theories was inherently antipatriotic and antinationalist, joined itself with colonialist imperialism and "continental imperialism", most notably in pan-Germanic and pan-Slavic movements. The relationship between racism and ethnic nationalism reached its height in the 20th century through fascism and Nazism. The specific combination of "nation" ("people") and "state" expressed in such terms as the *Völkische Staat* and implemented in laws such as the 1935 Nuremberg laws made fascist states such as early Nazi Germany qualitatively different from non-fascist nation states. Minorities were not considered part of the people (*Volk*) and were consequently denied to have an authentic or legitimate role in such a state. In Germany, neither Jews nor the Roma were considered part of the people, and both were specifically targeted for persecution. German nationality law defined "German" based on German ancestry, excluding *all* non-Germans from the people. In recent years, a nation-state's claim to absolute sovereignty within its borders has been criticized. A global political system based on international agreements and supra-national blocs characterized the post-war era. Non-state actors, such as international corporations and non-governmental organizations, are widely seen as eroding the economic and political power of nation-states. According to Andreas Wimmer and Yuval Feinstein, nation-states tended to emerge when power shifts allowed nationalists to overthrow existing regimes or absorb existing administrative units. Xue Li and Alexander Hicks links the frequency of nation-state creation to processes of diffusion that emanate from international organizations. ### Before the nation state In Europe, during the 18th century, the classic non-national states were the *multiethnic* empires, the Austrian Empire, the Kingdom of France (and its empire), the Kingdom of Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Portuguese Empire, the Spanish Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire, the Dutch Empire and smaller nations at what would now be called sub-state level. The multi-ethnic empire was an absolute monarchy ruled by a king, emperor or sultan. The population belonged to many ethnic groups, and they spoke many languages. The empire was dominated by one ethnic group, and their language was usually the language of public administration. The ruling dynasty was usually, but not always, from that group. This type of state is not specifically European: such empires existed in Asia, Africa and the Americas. Chinese dynasties, such as the Tang dynasty, the Yuan dynasty, and the Qing dynasty, were all multiethnic regimes governed by a ruling ethnic group. In the three examples, their ruling ethnic groups were the Han-Chinese, Mongols, and the Manchus. In the Muslim world, immediately after Muhammad died in 632, Caliphates were established. Caliphates were Islamic states under the leadership of a political-religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. These polities developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires. The Ottoman sultan, Selim I (1512–1520) reclaimed the title of caliph, which had been in dispute and asserted by a diversity of rulers and "shadow caliphs" in the centuries of the Abbasid-Mamluk Caliphate since the Mongols' sacking of Baghdad and the killing of the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad, Iraq 1258. The Ottoman Caliphate as an office of the Ottoman Empire was abolished under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1924 as part of Atatürk's Reforms. Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse but were also dynastic states ruled by a royal house. Their territory could expand by royal intermarriage or merge with another state when the dynasty merged. In some parts of Europe, notably Germany, minimal territorial units existed. They were recognized by their neighbours as independent and had their government and laws. Some were ruled by princes or other hereditary rulers; some were governed by bishops or abbots. Because they were so small, however, they had no separate language or culture: the inhabitants shared the language of the surrounding region. In some cases, these states were overthrown by nationalist uprisings in the 19th century. Liberal ideas of free trade played a role in German unification, which was preceded by a customs union, the Zollverein. However, the Austro-Prussian War and the German alliances in the Franco-Prussian War were decisive in the unification. The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire broke up after the First World War, but the Russian Empire was replaced by the Soviet Union in most of its multinational territory after the Russian Civil War. A few of the smaller states survived: the independent principalities of Liechtenstein, Andorra, Monaco, and the Republic of San Marino. (Vatican City is a special case. All of the larger Papal States save the Vatican itself were occupied and absorbed by Italy by 1870. The resulting Roman Question was resolved with the rise of the modern state under the 1929 Lateran treaties between Italy and the Holy See.) Characteristics --------------- "Legitimate states that govern effectively and dynamic industrial economies are widely regarded today as the defining characteristics of a modern nation-state." Nation-states have their characteristics differing from pre-national states. For a start, they have a different attitude to their territory compared to dynastic monarchies: it is semisacred and nontransferable. No nation would swap territory with other states simply, for example, because the king's daughter married. They have a different type of border, in principle, defined only by the national group's settlement area. However, many nation-states also sought natural borders (rivers, mountain ranges). They are constantly changing in population size and power because of the limited restrictions of their borders. The most noticeable characteristic is the degree to which nation-states use the state as an instrument of national unity in economic, social and cultural life. The nation-state promoted economic unity by abolishing internal customs and tolls. In Germany, that process, the creation of the Zollverein, preceded formal national unity. Nation states typically have a policy to create and maintain national transportation infrastructure, facilitating trade and travel. In 19th-century Europe, the expansion of the rail transport networks was at first largely a matter for private railway companies but gradually came under the control of the national governments. The French rail network, with its main lines radiating from Paris to all corners of France, is often seen as a reflection of the centralised French nation-state, which directed its construction. Nation states continue to build, for instance, specifically national motorway networks. Specifically, transnational infrastructure programmes, such as the Trans-European Networks, are a recent innovation. The nation-states typically had a more centralised and uniform public administration than their imperial predecessors: they were smaller, and the population was less diverse. (The internal diversity of the Ottoman Empire, for instance, was very great.) After the 19th-century triumph of the nation-state in Europe, regional identity was subordinate to national identity in regions such as Alsace-Lorraine, Catalonia, Brittany and Corsica. In many cases, the regional administration was also subordinated to the central (national) government. This process was partially reversed from the 1970s onward, with the introduction of various forms of regional autonomy, in formerly centralised states such as Spain or Italy. The most apparent impact of the nation-state, as compared to its non-national predecessors, is creating a uniform national culture through state policy. The model of the nation-state implies that its population constitutes a nation, united by a common descent, a common language and many forms of shared culture. When implied unity was absent, the nation-state often tried to create it. It promoted a uniform national language through language policy. The creation of national systems of compulsory primary education and a relatively uniform curriculum in secondary schools was the most effective instrument in the spread of the national languages. The schools also taught national history, often in a propagandistic and mythologised version, and (especially during conflicts) some nation-states still teach this kind of history. Language and cultural policy was sometimes hostile, aimed at suppressing non-national elements. Language prohibitions were sometimes used to accelerate the adoption of national languages and the decline of minority languages (see examples: Anglicisation, Bulgarization, Croatization, Czechization, Dutchification, Francisation, Germanisation, Hellenization, Hispanicization, Italianization, Lithuanization, Magyarisation, Polonisation, Russification, Serbization, Slovakisation, Swedification, Turkification). In some cases, these policies triggered bitter conflicts and further ethnic separatism. But where it worked, the cultural uniformity and homogeneity of the population increased. Conversely, the cultural divergence at the border became sharper: in theory, a uniform French identity extends from the Atlantic coast to the Rhine, and on the other bank of the Rhine, a uniform German identity begins. Both sides have divergent language policy and educational systems to enforce that model. In practice ----------- The notion of a unifying "national identity" also extends to countries that host multiple ethnic or language groups, such as India. For example, Switzerland is constitutionally a confederation of cantons and has four official languages. Still, it also has a "Swiss" national identity, a national history and a classic national hero, Wilhelm Tell. Innumerable conflicts have arisen where political boundaries did not correspond with ethnic or cultural boundaries. After World War II in the Josip Broz Tito era, nationalism was appealed to for uniting South Slav peoples. Later in the 20th century, after the break-up of the Soviet Union, leaders appealed to ancient ethnic feuds or tensions that ignited conflict between the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, as well as Bosniaks, Montenegrins and Macedonians, eventually breaking up the long collaboration of peoples. Ethnic cleansing was carried out in the Balkans, destroying the formerly socialist republic and producing the civil wars in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992–95, resulting in mass population displacements and segregation that radically altered what was once a highly diverse and intermixed ethnic makeup of the region. These conflicts were mainly about creating a new political framework of states, each of which would be ethnically and politically homogeneous. Serbs, Croats and Bosniaks insisted they were ethnically distinct, although many communities had a long history of intermarriage. Belgium is a classic example of a state that is not a nation-state. The state was formed by secession from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1830, whose neutrality and integrity was protected by the Treaty of London 1839; thus, it served as a buffer state after the Napoleonic Wars between the European powers France, Prussia (after 1871 the German Empire) and the United Kingdom until World War I, when the Germans breached its neutrality. Currently, Belgium is divided between the Flemings in the north, the French-speaking population in the south, and the German-speaking population in the east. The Flemish population in the north speaks Dutch, the Walloon population in the south speaks either French or, in the east of Liège Province, German. The Brussels population speaks French or Dutch. The Flemish identity is also cultural, and there is a strong separatist movement espoused by the political parties, the right-wing Vlaams Belang and the Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie. The Francophone Walloon identity of Belgium is linguistically distinct and regionalist. There is also unitary Belgian nationalism, several versions of a Greater Netherlands ideal, and a German-speaking community of Belgium annexed from Germany in 1920 and re-annexed by Germany in 1940–1944. However, these ideologies are all very marginal and politically insignificant during elections. China covers a large geographic area and uses the concept of "Zhonghua minzu" or Chinese nationality, in the sense of ethnic groups. Still, it also officially recognizes the majority Han ethnic group which accounts for over 90% of the population, and no fewer than 55 ethnic national minorities. According to Philip G. Roeder, Moldova is an example of a Soviet-era "segment-state" (Moldavian SSR), where the "nation-state project of the segment-state trumped the nation-state project of prior statehood. In Moldova, despite strong agitation from university faculty and students for reunification with Romania, the nation-state project forged within the Moldavian SSR trumped the project for a return to the interwar nation-state project of Greater Romania." See Controversy over linguistic and ethnic identity in Moldova for further details. Exceptional cases ----------------- ### Israel Israel was founded as a Jewish state in 1948. Its "Basic Laws" describe it as both a Jewish and a democratic state. The Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People (2018) explicitly specifies the nature of the State of Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish people. According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 75.7% of Israel's population are Jews. Arabs, who make up 20.4% of the population, are the largest ethnic minority in Israel. Israel also has very small communities of Armenians, Circassians, Assyrians, Samaritans. There are also some non-Jewish spouses of Israeli Jews. However, these communities are very small, and usually number only in the hundreds or thousands. ### Kingdom of the Netherlands The Kingdom of the Netherlands presents an unusual example in which one kingdom represents four distinct countries. The four countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands are: * Netherlands (including the provinces in continental Europe and the special municipalities of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba) * Aruba * Curaçao * Sint Maarten Each is expressly designated as a *land* in Dutch law by the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Unlike the German *Länder* and the Austrian *Bundesländer*, *landen* is consistently translated as "countries" by the Dutch government. ### Spain While historical monarchies often brought together different kingdoms/territories/ethnic groups under the same crown, in modern nation states political elites seek a uniformity of the population, leading to state nationalism. In the case of the Christian territories of the future Spain, neighboring Al-Andalus, there was an early perception of ethnicity, faith and shared territory in the Middle Ages (13th-14th centuries), as documented by the Chronicle of Muntaner in the proposal of the Castilian king to the other Christian kings of the peninsula: "...*if these four Kings of Spain whom he named, who are of one flesh and blood, held together, little need they fear all the other powers of the world.*..". After the dynastic union of the Catholic Monarchs in the 15th century, the Spanish Monarchy ruled over different kingdoms, each with its own cultural, linguistic and political particularities, and the kings had to swear by the Laws of each territory before the respective Parliaments. Forming the Spanish Empire, at this time the Hispanic Monarchy had its maximum territorial expansion. After the War of the Spanish Succession, rooted in the political position of the Count-Duke of Olivares and the absolutism of Philip V, the assimilation of the Crown of Aragon by the Castilian Crown through the Decrees of Nova planta was the first step in the creation of the Spanish nation-state. As in other contemporary European states, political union was the first step in the creation of the Spanish nation-state, in this case not on a uniform ethnic basis, but through the imposition of the political and cultural characteristics of the dominant ethnic group, in this case the Castilians, over those of other ethnic groups, who became national minorities to be assimilated. In fact, since the political unification of 1714, Spanish assimilation policies towards Catalan-speaking territories (Catalonia, Valencia, the Balearic Islands, part of Aragon) and other national minorities, as basques and galicians, have been a historical constant. The process of assimilation began with secret instructions to the corregidores of the Catalan territory: they "will take the utmost care to introduce the Castilian language, for which purpose he will give the most temperate and disguised measures so that the effect is achieved, without the care being noticed." From there, actions in the service of assimilation, discreet or aggressive, were continued, and reached to the last detail, such as, in 1799, the Royal Certificate forbidding anyone to "represent, sing and dance pieces that were not in Spanish." These nationalist policies, sometimes very aggressive, and still in force, have been, and still are, the seed of repeated territorial conflicts within the State. Although official Spanish history describes a "natural" decline of the Catalan language and increasing replacement by Spanish between the 16th and 19th centuries, especially among the upper classes, a survey of language usage in 1807, commissioned by Napoleon, indicates that except in the royal courts, Spanish is absent from everyday life. It is indicated that Catalan "is taught in schools, printed and spoken, not only among the lower class, but also among people of first quality, also in social gatherings, as in visits and congresses", indicating that it is spoken everywhere "except in the royal courts". He also indicates that Catalan is also spoken "in the Kingdom of Valencia, in the islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, Sardinia, Corsica and much of Sicily, in the Vall of Aran and Cerdaña”. The nationalization process accelerated in the 19th century, in parallel to the origin of Spanish nationalism, the social, political and ideological movement that tried to shape a Spanish national identity based on the Castilian model, in conflict with the other historical nations of the State. Politicians of the time were aware that despite the aggressive policies pursued up to that time, the uniform and monocultural "Spanish nation" did not exist, as indicated in 1835 by Antonio Alcalà Galiano, when in the Cortes del Estatuto Real he defended the effort > "To make the Spanish nation a nation that neither is nor has been until now." > > In 1906, the Catalanist party Solidaritat Catalana was founded to try to mitigate the economically and culturally oppressive treatment of Spain towards the Catalans. One of the responses of Spanish nationalism came from the military state with statements such as that of the publication La Correspondencia militar: "The Catalan problem is not solved, well, by freedom, but by restriction; not by palliatives and pacts, but by iron and fire". Another came from important Spanish intellectuals, such Pio Baroja and Blasco Ibañez, calling the Catalans "Jews", considered a serious insult at that time when racism was gaining strength. Building the nation (as in France, it was the state that created the nation, and not the opposite process) is an ideal that the Spanish elites constantly reiterated, and, one hundred years later than Alcalá Galiano, for example, we can also find it in the mouth of the fascist José Pemartín, who admired the German and Italian modeling policies: > "There is an intimate and decisive dualism, both in Italian fascism and in German National Socialism. On the one hand, the Hegelian doctrine of the absolutism of the state is felt. The State originates in the Nation, educates and shapes the mentality of the individual; is, in Mussolini's words, the soul of the soul» > > And will be found again two hundred years later, from the socialist Josep Borrell: > The modern history of Spain is an unfortunate history that meant that we did not consolidate a modern State. Independenceists think that the nation makes the State. I think the opposite. The State makes the nation. A strong State, which imposes its language, culture, education. > > The turn of the 20th century, and the first half of that century, have seen the most ethnic violence, coinciding with a racism that even came to identify states with races; in the case of Spain, with a supposed Spanish race sublimated in Castilian, of which national minorities were degenerate forms, and the first of those that needed to be exterminated. It could be found the influence of spanish nationalism in a pogrom in Argentina, during the Tragic Week, in 1919. It was called to attack Jews and Catalans indiscriminately, possibly because the influence of Spanish nationalism, which at the time described Catalans as a Semitic ethnicity. Also, one can find discourses on the alienation of Catalan speakers, such as, for example, an article entitled «Cataluña bilingüe», by Menéndez Pidal, in which he defends the Romanones decree against the Catalan language, published in El Imparcial, on 15 December 1902: > «… There they will see that the Courts of the Catalan-Aragonese Confederation never had Catalan as their official language; that the kings of Aragon, even those of the Catalan dynasty, used Catalan only in Catalonia, and used Spanish not only in the Cortes of Aragon, but also in foreign relations, the same with Castile or Navarre as with the infidel kings of Granada , from Africa or Asia, because even in the most important days of Catalonia, Spanish prevailed as the language of the Aragonese kingdom and Catalan was reserved for the peculiar affairs of the Catalan county..." > > or the article "Los Catalanes. A las Cortes Constituyentes », appeared in several newspapers, among others: El Dia de Alicante, June 23, 1931, El Porvenir Castellano and El Noticiero de Soria, July 2, 1931, in the Heraldo de Almeria on June 4, 1931, sent by the "Pro-Justice Committee", with a post office box in Madrid: > "The Catalanists have recently declared that they are not Spanish, nor do they want to be, nor can they be. They have also been saying for a long time that they are an oppressed, enslaved, exploited people. It is imperative to do them justice... That they return to Phenicia or that they go wherever they want to admit them. When the Catalan tribes saw Spain and settled in the Spanish territory that is now occupied by the provinces of Barcelona, Gerona, Lérida and Tarragona, how little they imagined that the case of the captivity of the tribes of Israel in Egypt would be repeated there! !... Let us respect his most holy will. They are eternally inadaptable... Their cowardice and selfishness leaves them no room for fraternity... So, we propose to the Constituent Cortes the expulsion of the Catalanists... You are free! The Republic opens wide the doors of Spain, your prison. go away Get out of here. Go back to Phenicia, or go wherever you want, how big is the world." > > The main scapegoat of Spanish nationalism is the non-Spanish languages, which over the last three hundred years have been tried to be replaced by Spanish with hundreds of laws and regulations, but also with acts of great violence, such as during the civil war. For example, the statements of Queipo de Llano can be found in the article entitled "Against Catalonia, the Israel of the Modern World", published in the Diario Palentino on November 26, 1936, where it is dropped that in America Catalans are considered a race of Jews, because they use the same procedures that the Hebrews perform in all the nations of the Globe. And considering the Catalans as Hebrews and considering his anti-Semitism "Our struggle is not a civil war, but a war for Western civilization against the Jewish world," it is not surprising that Queipo de Llano expressed his anti-Catalan intentions: "When the war is over, Pompeu Fabra and his works will be dragged along the Ramblas" (it was not talk to talk, the house of Pompeu Fabra, the standardizer of Catalan language, was raided and his huge personal library burned in the middle of the street. Pompeu Fabra was able to escape into exile). Another example of fascist aggression towards the Catalan language is pointed out by Paul Preston in "The Spanish Holocaust", given that during the civil war it practically led to an ethnic conflict: > "In the days following the occupation of Lleida (…), the republican prisoners identified as Catalans were executed without trial. Anyone who heard them speak Catalan was very likely to be arrested. The arbitrary brutality of the anti-Catalan repression reached such a point that Franco himself had to issue an order ordering that mistakes that could later be regretted be avoided ". > > "There are examples of the murder of peasants for no other apparent reason than that of speaking Catalan" > > After a possible attempt at ethnic cleansing, the biopolitical imposition of Spanish during the Franco dictatorship, to the point of being considered an attempt at cultural genocide, democracy consolidated an apparent asymmetric regime of bilingualism of sorts, wherein the Spanish government has employed a system of laws that favored Spanish over Catalan, which becomes the weaker of the two languages, and therefore, in the absence of other states where it is spoken, is doomed to extinction in the medium or short term. In the same vein, its use in the Spanish Congress is prevented, and it is prevented from achieving official status Europe, unlike less spoken languages such as Gaelic. In other institutional areas, such as justice, Plataforma per la Llengua has denounced Catalanophobia. The association Soberania i Justícia have also denounced it in an act in the European Parliament. It also takes the form of linguistic secessionism, originally advocated by the Spanish extreme right and which has finally been adopted by the Spanish government itself and state bodies. In November 2005, Omnium Cultural organized a meeting of Catalan and Madrid intellectuals in the Círculo de bellas artes in Madrid to show support for ongoing reform of Catalan Statute of Autonomy, which sought to resolve territorial tensions, and among other things better protect the Catalan language. On the Catalan side, a flight was made with one hundred representatives of the cultural, civic, intellectual, artistic and sporting world of Catalonia, but on the Spanish side, except Santiago Carrillo, a politician from the Second Republic, did not attend any more. The subsequent failure of the statutory reform with respect to its objectives opened the door to the growth of Catalan sovereignty. Apart from language discrimination by public officials, e.g. in the hospitals, the current prohibition of using the Catalan language in state institutions such as Court, despite being the former Crown of Aragon, with three Catalan-speaking territories, one of the co-founders of the current Spanish state, is nothing more than the continuation of the foreignization of Catalan-speaking people from the first third of the 20th century, in full swing of state racism and fascism. It also can be pointed the linguistic secessionism, originally advocated by the Spanish far right and which has finally been adopted by the Spanish government itself and state bodies. By fragmenting Catalan language into as many languages as territories, it becomes inoperative, economically suffocated, and becomes a political toy in the hands of territorial politicians. Susceptible to be classified as an ethnic democracy, the Spanish State currently only recognizes the gypsies as a national minority, excluding Catalans (and, of course, Valencians and Balearic), Basques and Galicians. However, it is evident to any external observer that there are social diversities within the Spanish State that qualify as manifestations of national minorities, such as, for example, the existence of the main three linguistic minorities in their ancestral territories. ### United Kingdom Nation state is located in the United KingdomEnglandEnglandScotlandScotlandNorthern IrelandNorthern IrelandWalesWalesclass=notpageimage| Home Nations of the United Kingdom The United Kingdom is an unusual example of a nation state due to its "countries within a country". The United Kingdom is formed by the union of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, but it is a unitary state formed initially by the merger of two independent kingdoms, the Kingdom of England (which already included Wales) and the Kingdom of Scotland, but the Treaty of Union (1707) that set out the agreed terms has ensured the continuation of distinct features of each state, including separate legal systems and separate national churches. In 2003, the British Government described the United Kingdom as "countries within a country". While the Office for National Statistics and others describe the United Kingdom as a "nation state", others, including a then Prime Minister, describe it as a "multinational state", and the term Home Nations is used to describe the four national teams that represent the four nations of the United Kingdom (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales). Some refer to it as a "Union State". There has been academic debate over whether the United Kingdom can be legally dissolved, as it is recognized internationally as a single nation state. English law jurist A.V. Dicey wrote from an English legal perspective that the question is based on whether the legislation giving rise to the union (the Union with Scotland Act), one of the two pieces of legislation which created the state, can be repealed. Dicey claimed because the Law of England does not acknowledge the word "unconstitutional", as a matter of English law it can be repealed. He also stated any tampering with the Acts of Union 1707 would be political madness.[*page needed*]. However, this statement is widely considered baseless due to the role that devolution has played during the early part of the 21st Century. The United Kingdom is better poised constitutionally than other current states to break up, being composed of four national identities with respective associated extant national (or provincial) parliaments. Also noted by historians is that the Republic of Ireland successfully separated as an independent nation during the 20th Century without "political madness" ensuing. Minorities ---------- The most obvious deviation from the ideal of "one nation, one state" is the presence of minorities, especially ethnic minorities, which are clearly not members of the majority nation. An ethnic nationalist definition of a nation is necessarily exclusive: ethnic nations typically do not have open membership. In most cases, there is a clear idea that surrounding nations are different, and that includes members of those nations who live on the "wrong side" of the border. Historical examples of groups who have been specifically singled out as *outsiders* are the Roma and Jews in Europe. Negative responses to minorities within the nation state have ranged from cultural assimilation enforced by the state, to expulsion, persecution, violence, and extermination. The assimilation policies are usually enforced by the state, but violence against minorities is not always state-initiated: it can occur in the form of mob violence such as lynching or pogroms. Nation states are responsible for some of the worst historical examples of violence against minorities not considered part of the nation. However, many nation states accept specific minorities as being part of the nation, and the term *national minority* is often used in this sense. The Sorbs in Germany are an example: for centuries they have lived in German-speaking states, surrounded by a much larger ethnic German population, and they have no other historical territory. They are now generally considered to be part of the German nation and are accepted as such by the Federal Republic of Germany, which constitutionally guarantees their cultural rights. Of the thousands of ethnic and cultural minorities in nation states across the world, only a few have this level of acceptance and protection. Multiculturalism is an official policy in some states, establishing the ideal of coexisting existence among multiple and separate ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups. Other states prefer the interculturalism (or "melting pot" approach) alternative to multiculturalism, citing problems with latter as promoting self-segregation tendencies among minority groups, challenging national cohesion, polarizing society in groups that can't relate to one another, generating problems in regard to minorities and immigrants' fluency in the national language of use and integration with the rest of society (generating hate and persecution against them from the "otherness" they would generate in such a case according to its adherants), without minorities having to give up certain parts of their culture before being absorbed into a now changed majority culture by their contribution. Many nations have laws protecting minority rights. When national boundaries that do not match ethnic boundaries are drawn, such as in the Balkans and Central Asia, ethnic tension, massacres and even genocide, sometimes has occurred historically (see Bosnian genocide and 2010 South Kyrgyzstan ethnic clashes). Irredentism ----------- In principle, the border of a nation state would extend far enough to include all the members of the nation, and all of the national homeland. Again, in practice, some of them always live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Part of the national homeland may be there too, and it may be governed by the 'wrong' nation. The response to the non-inclusion of territory and population may take the form of irredentism: demands to annex *unredeemed* territory and incorporate it into the nation state. Irredentist claims are usually based on the fact that an identifiable part of the national group lives across the border. However, they can include claims to territory where no members of that nation live at present, because they lived there in the past, the national language is spoken in that region, the national culture has influenced it, geographical unity with the existing territory, or a wide variety of other reasons. Past grievances are usually involved and can cause revanchism. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish irredentism from pan-nationalism, since both claim that all members of an ethnic and cultural nation belong in one specific state. Pan-nationalism is less likely to specify the nation ethnically. For instance, variants of Pan-Germanism have different ideas about what constituted Greater Germany, including the confusing term *Grossdeutschland*, which, in fact, implied the inclusion of huge Slavic minorities from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Typically, irredentist demands are at first made by members of non-state nationalist movements. When they are adopted by a state, they typically result in tensions, and actual attempts at annexation are always considered a *casus belli*, a cause for war. In many cases, such claims result in long-term hostile relations between neighbouring states. Irredentist movements typically circulate maps of the claimed national territory, the *greater* nation state. That territory, which is often much larger than the existing state, plays a central role in their propaganda. Irredentism should not be confused with claims to overseas colonies, which are not generally considered part of the national homeland. Some French overseas colonies would be an exception: French rule in Algeria unsuccessfully treated the colony as a *département* of France. Future ------ It has been speculated by both proponents of globalization and various science fiction writers that the concept of a nation state may disappear with the ever-increasing interconnectedness of the world. Such ideas are sometimes expressed around concepts of a world government. Another possibility is a societal collapse and move into communal anarchy or zero world government, in which nation states no longer exist. ### Clash of civilizations The theory of the clash of civilizations lies in direct contrast to cosmopolitan theories about an ever more connected world that no longer requires nation states. According to political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, people's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post–Cold War world. The theory was originally formulated in a 1992 lecture at the American Enterprise Institute, which was then developed in a 1993 *Foreign Affairs* article titled "The Clash of Civilizations?", in response to Francis Fukuyama's 1992 book, *The End of History and the Last Man*. Huntington later expanded his thesis in a 1996 book *The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order*. Huntington began his thinking by surveying the diverse theories about the nature of global politics in the post–Cold War period. Some theorists and writers argued that human rights, liberal democracy and capitalist free market economics had become the only remaining ideological alternative for nations in the post–Cold War world. Specifically, Francis Fukuyama, in *The End of History and the Last Man*, argued that the world had reached a Hegelian "end of history". Huntington believed that while the age of ideology had ended, the world had reverted only to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines. As an extension, he posits that the concept of different civilizations, as the highest rank of cultural identity, will become increasingly useful in analyzing the potential for conflict. In the 1993 *Foreign Affairs* article, Huntington writes: > It is my hypothesis that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future. > > Sandra Joireman suggests that Huntington may be characterised as a neo-primordialist, as, while he sees people as having strong ties to their ethnicity, he does not believe that these ties have always existed. Historiography -------------- Historians often look to the past to find the origins of a particular nation state. Indeed, they often put so much emphasis on the importance of the nation state in modern times, that they distort the history of earlier periods in order to emphasize the question of origins. Lansing and English argue that much of the medieval history of Europe was structured to follow the historical winners—especially the nation states that emerged around Paris and London. Important developments that did not directly lead to a nation state get neglected, they argue: one effect of this approach has been to privilege historical winners, aspects of medieval Europe that became important in later centuries, above all the nation state.... Arguably the liveliest cultural innovation in the 13th century was the Mediterranean, centered on Frederick II's polyglot court and administration in Palermo...Sicily and the Italian South in later centuries suffered a long slide into overtaxed poverty and marginality. Textbook narratives, therefore, focus not on medieval Palermo, with its Muslim and Jewish bureaucracies and Arabic-speaking monarch, but on the historical winners, Paris and London. See also -------- * Balkanization * Caliphate * City-state * Civilization state * Ethnic nationalism * Ethnocracy * Islamic state * Monoethnicity * Nation * Nationalism * National personification * Titular nation * Westphalian sovereignty

Nation state

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation_state

The **pygmy cormorant** (***Microcarbo pygmaeus***) is a member of the Phalacrocoracidae (cormorant) family of seabirds. It breeds in south-eastern Europe and south-western Asia. It is partially migratory, with northern populations wintering further south, mostly within its breeding range. It is a rare migrant to western Europe. Distribution ------------ The pygmy cormorant occupies an area from the south-east of Europe (east of Italy) and the south-west of temperate Asia, east to Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The largest distribution is in south-east Europe, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, the Balkan countries, Turkey, Cyprus, Iran, Iraq (namely the Tigris–Euphrates river system), Azerbaijan, Israel, Syria. In Romania, according to studies of Czech ornithologist Robert Ritter von Dombrowski, at the end of the 19th century, the pygmy cormorant was present in large colonies in the Danube Delta, Brăila and Ialomița Pond, on Vederoasa Lake (Constanța County), on certain pools and ponds with reeds and willows in Muntenia. The number of pygmy cormorant pairs was 10,000 without taking in account the breeding population of the Danube Delta. Populations of pygmy cormorant in Romania have dramatically declined, especially in 1960 when, due to the communist agricultural policies, the Great Brăila Island and important parts of Ialomiţa Pond were drained in order to practice agriculture, so the habitats of a great number of aquatic birds were destroyed. The pygmy cormorant can be found in the Danube Delta, Jijia Largă Pond (Iași County), probably on Mața, Rădeanu, Vădeni Ponds (in Galați County), Cârja Pond (Vaslui County), at Vlădești on Prut River (Galați County), on Calinovăț Island from Caraș-Severin County, on Small Brăila Island, on Dunăreni Pond (Mârleanu, Constanța County), in Danubian Plain on Parches Pond-Somova (Tulcea County). At global scale, it was estimated that the entire population of pygmy cormorants is 85,000-180,000 individuals (a study effectuated by Wetlands International in 2006) and 74-94% of total population lives in Europe. The biggest colony is in the Danube Delta, numbering 4,000 pairs, but this seems certain to plunge due to a massive canalization scheme, which despite the protected status of the delta, commenced in May 2004. According to a study made by BirdLife International in 2004, it was estimated that population of pygmy cormorant in Romania was 11,500-14,000 pairs and during the winter 1,500-4,000 pairs. Habitat and ecology ------------------- Pygmy cormorants like pools with plenty of vegetation, lakes and river deltas. They avoid mountainous and cold and dry areas. They love rice fields or other flooded areas where trees and shrubs can be found. During winter they also go to waters with higher salinity, in estuaries or on barrier lakes. These are birds who can live alone or in groups and they have adapted to human presence. They build nests from sticks and reeds in dense vegetation, in trees, shrubs, willows but occasionally in reeds on small floating islets. At the end of May, beginning of June, both parents incubate for 27–30 days, and nestlings become independent after 70 days. The young are fed by their parents with small fish and other aquatic animals. This bird frequently shares the same type of habitat with egrets, herons and spoonbills. Threats ------- The pygmy cormorant is a species with habitats strongly affected by human actions. Threats include the drainage and serious degradation of wetlands and their associated woodland, water pollution, disturbance, and poaching as well as drowning in fishing nets. Being a great fish consumer and destroyer of fishing nets, it is often persecuted by fishermen. In Romania, pond drainage located on the inferior course of the Danube for agricultural purposes, the accidental death of birds captive in improvised fishing nets, nest destruction by professional fishermen in order to protect fish resources decreased of the number of individuals which put the species on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List as a vulnerable species. It is also hunted in leisure activities, and in Iran the pygmy cormorant is commercialized for cooking. This species is distinguished from the great cormorant and the common shag by its much smaller size (length 64-78cm), lighter build, and long tail. It feeds mainly on fish, often hunting in groups, and perches in trees between fishing expeditions. The pygmy cormorant is one of the species to which the *Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds* (AEWA) applies.

Pygmy cormorant

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pygmy_cormorant

**Americans** are the citizens and nationals of the United States of America. The United States is home to people of many racial and ethnic origins; consequently, American culture and law do not equate nationality with race or ethnicity, but with citizenship and an oath of permanent allegiance. Overview -------- The majority of Americans or their ancestors immigrated to the United States or are descended from people who were brought as slaves within the past five centuries, with the exception of the Native American population and people from Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands, who became American through expansion of the country in the 19th century, additionally America expanded into American Samoa, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Northern Mariana Islands in the 20th century. Despite its multi-ethnic composition, the culture of the United States held in common by most Americans can also be referred to as mainstream American culture, a Western culture largely derived from the traditions of Northern and Western European colonists, settlers, and immigrants. It also includes influences of African-American culture. Westward expansion integrated the Creoles and Cajuns of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest and brought close contact with the culture of Mexico. Large-scale immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from Southern and Eastern Europe introduced a variety of elements. Immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America has also had impact. A cultural melting pot, or pluralistic salad bowl, describes the way in which generations of Americans have celebrated and exchanged distinctive cultural characteristics. In addition to the United States, Americans and people of American descent can be found internationally. As many as seven million Americans are estimated to be living abroad, and make up the American diaspora. Racial and ethnic groups ------------------------ | 2020 U.S. Census | | --- | | **Self-identified race and ethnicity** | | **Percent of population** | | Non-Latino White Americans (mainly European-Americans, but also includes Middle Eastern-Americans and North African-Americans) |   | 57.8% | | Latino Americans (mainly Hispanic-Americans, but also includes Brazilian-Americans) |   | 18.7% | | Black or African Americans (Sub-Saharan African Americans) |   | 12.1% | | Asian or Asian Americans (East Asian-Americans, Southeast Asian-Americans and South-Asian Americans) |   | 5.9% | | Indigenous Americans (including Alaska Natives) |   | 0.7% | | Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders |   | 0.2% | | Two or more races |   | 4.1% | | Some other race |   | 0.5% | | **Total** |   | **100.0**% | The United States of America is a diverse country, racially, and ethnically. Six races are officially recognized by the U.S. Census Bureau for statistical purposes: Alaska Native and American Indian, Asian, Black or African American, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, White and people of two or more races. "Some other race" is also an option in the census and other surveys. The United States Census Bureau also classifies Americans as "Hispanic or Latino" and "Not Hispanic or Latino", which identifies Hispanic and Latino Americans as a racially diverse *ethnicity* that comprises the largest minority group in the nation. ### White and European Americans People of European descent, or White Americans (also referred to as European Americans and Caucasian Americans), constitute the majority of the 331 million people living in the United States, with 191,697,647 people or 57.8% of the population in the 2020 United States Census. They are considered people who trace their ancestry to the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Non-Hispanic Whites are the majority in 45 states. There are five minority-majority states: California, Texas, New Mexico, Nevada, and Hawaii. In addition, the District of Columbia and the five inhabited U.S. territories have a non-white majority. The state with the highest percentage of non-Hispanic White Americans is Maine. Europe is the largest continent that Americans trace their ancestry to, and many claim descent from various European ethnic groups. The Spaniards were the first Europeans to establish a continuous presence in what is now the continental United States in 1565. Martín de Argüelles born 1566, San Agustín, La Florida then a part of New Spain, was the first person of European descent born in what is now the continental United States. Virginia Dare, born 1587 Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina, was the first child born in the original Thirteen Colonies to English parents. The Spaniards also established a continuous presence in what over three centuries later would become a possession of the United States with the founding of the city of San Juan, Puerto Rico, in 1521. In the 2017 American Community Survey, German Americans (13.2%), Irish Americans (9.7%), English Americans (7.1%) and Italian Americans (5.1%) were the four largest self-reported European ancestry groups in the United States forming 35.1% of the total population. However, the English Americans and British Americans demography is considered a serious under-count as they tend to self-report and identify as simply "Americans" (since the introduction of a new "American" category in the 1990 census) due to the length of time they have inhabited America. This is highly over-represented in the Upland South, a region that was settled historically by the British. Overall, as the largest group, European Americans have the lowest poverty rate and the second highest educational attainment levels, median household income, and median personal income of any racial demographic in the nation. | White and European Americans by ancestry group | | --- | | Rank | Ancestry group |  % of total population | Pop. estimates | Ref(s) | | 1 | German | 13.2% | 43,093,766 | | | 2 | Irish | 9.7% | 31,479,232 | | | 3 | English | 7.1% | 23,074,947 | | | 4 | American | 6.1% | 20,024,830 | | | 5 | Spanish | 5.9% | 10,017,244-17,300,000 | | | 6 | Italian | 5.1% | 16,650,674 | | | 7 | Polish | 2.8% | 9,012,085 | | | 8 | French (except Basque)French Canadian | 2.4%0.6% | 7,673,6192,110,014 | | | 9 | ScottishScotch-Irish | 1.7%0.9% | 5,399,371 2,978,827 | | | 10 | Norwegian | 1.3% | 4,295,981 | | | 11 | Dutch | 1.2% | 3,906,193 | | | Total | White and European American | 58% | 204,277,273 | | | Source: 2020 United States Census, 2017 American Community Survey and 1990 United States Census | #### Middle Easterners and North Africans According to the American Jewish Archives and the Arab American National Museum, the first Middle Easterners and North Africans (viz. Jews and Berbers) to arrive in the Americas landed in the late 15th to mid-16th centuries. Many fled ethnic or ethnoreligious persecution during the Spanish Inquisition; a few were taken to the Americas as slaves. In 2014, The United States Census Bureau began finalizing the ethnic classification of people of Middle Eastern and North African ("MENA") origins. According to the Arab American Institute (AAI), Arab Americans have family origins in each of the 22 member states of the Arab League. Following consultations with MENA organizations, the Census Bureau announced in 2014 that it would establish a new MENA ethnic category for populations from the Middle East, North Africa and the Arab world, separate from the "white" classification that these populations had previously sought in 1909. The expert groups, felt that the earlier "white" designation no longer accurately represents MENA identity, so they successfully lobbied for a distinct categorization. This new category would also include Israeli-Americans. The Census Bureau does not currently ask about whether one is Sikh, because it views them as followers of a religion rather than members of an ethnic group, and it does not combine questions concerning religion with race or ethnicity. As of December 2015, the sampling strata for the new MENA category includes the Census Bureau's working classification of 19 MENA groups, as well as Turkish, Sudanese, Djiboutian, Somali, Mauritanian, Armenian, Cypriot, Afghan, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups. In January 2018, it was announced that the Census Bureau would not include the grouping in the 2020 Census. **Middle Eastern Americans in the 2000 - 2010 U.S. Census, the Mandell L. Berman Institute, and the North American Jewish Data Bank**| Ancestry | 2000 | 2000 (% of US population) | 2010 | 2010 (% of US population) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Arab | **1,160,729** | 0.4125% | **1,697,570** | 0.5498% | | Armenian | **385,488** | 0.1370% | **474,559** | 0.1537% | | Iranian | **338,266** | 0.1202% | **463,552** | 0.1501% | | Jewish | **6,155,000** | 2.1810% | **6,543,820** | 2.1157% | | **Total** | **8,568,772** | **3.036418%** | **9,981,332** | **3.227071%** | ### Hispanic and Latino Americans Hispanic or Latino Americans constitute the largest ethnic minority in the United States. They form the second largest group in the United States, comprising 62,080,044 people or 18.7% of the population according to the 2020 United States Census. Hispanic and Latino Americans are not considered a race in the United States census, instead forming an ethnic category. People of Spanish or Hispanic and Latino descent have lived in what is now United States territory since the founding of San Juan, Puerto Rico (the oldest continuously inhabited settlement on American soil) in 1521 by Juan Ponce de Leon, and the founding of St. Augustine, Florida (the oldest continuously inhabited settlement in the continental United States) in 1565 by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. In the State of Texas, Spaniards first settled the region in the late 1600s and formed a unique cultural group known as Tejanos. | Hispanic and Latino American population by national origin | | --- | | Rank | National origin |  % of total population | Pop. | Ref(s) | | 1 | Mexican | 10.29% | 31,798,258 | | | 2 | Puerto Rican | 1.49% | 4,623,716 | | | 3 | Cuban | 0.57% | 1,785,547 | | | 4 | Salvadoran | 0.53% | 1,648,968 | | | 5 | Dominican | 0.45% | 1,414,703 | | | 6 | Guatemalan | 0.33% | 1,044,209 | | | 7 | Colombian | 0.3% | 908,734 | | | 8 | Spanish | 0.2% | 635,253 | | | 9 | Honduran | 0.2% | 633,401 | | | 10 | Ecuadorian | 0.1% | 564,631 | | | 11 | Peruvian | 0.1% | 531,358 | | | | All other | 2.62% | 7,630,835 | | | Hispanic and Latino American (total) | 18.7% | 62,080,044 | | 2020 United States Census | ### Black and African Americans Black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the Office of Management and Budget, the grouping includes individuals who self-identify as African American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan Africa. The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual's self-identification since not all immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa are "Black". Among these racial outliers are persons from Cape Verde, Madagascar, various Arab states and Hamito-Semitic populations in East Africa and the Sahel, and the Afrikaners of Southern Africa. African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans or Afro-Americans, and formerly as American Negroes) are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa. According to the 2020 United States Census, there were 39,940,338 Black and African Americans in the United States, representing 12.1% of the population. Black and African Americans make up the third largest group in the United States, after White and European Americans, and Hispanic and Latino Americans. The majority of the population (55%) lives in the South; compared to the 2000 Census, there has also been a decrease of African Americans in the Northeast and Midwest. Most African Americans are the direct descendants of captives from West Africa and Central Africa, from ancestral populations in countries like Nigeria, Benin, Sierra Leone, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal and Angola, who survived the slavery era within the boundaries of the present United States.As an adjective, the term is usually spelled *African-American*. Montinaro et al. (2014) observed that around 50% of the overall ancestry of African Americans traces back to the Niger-Congo-speaking Yoruba of southwestern Nigeria and southern Benin (before the European colonization of Africa this people created the Oyo Empire), reflecting the centrality of this West African region in the Atlantic Slave Trade. Zakharaia et al. (2009) found a similar proportion of Yoruba associated ancestry in their African-American samples, with a minority also drawn from Mandenka populations (founders of the Mali Empire), and Bantu populations (who had a varying level of social organization during the colonial era, while some Bantu peoples were still tribal, other Bantu peoples had founded kingdoms such as the Kingdom of Kongo).. The first West African slaves were brought to Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. The English settlers treated these captives as indentured servants and released them after a number of years. This practice was gradually replaced by the system of race-based slavery used in the Caribbean. All the American colonies had slavery, but it was usually the form of personal servants in the North (where 2% of the people were slaves), and field hands in plantations in the South (where 25% were slaves); by the beginning of the American Revolutionary War 1/5th of the total population was enslaved. During the revolution, some would serve in the Continental Army or Continental Navy, while others would serve the British Empire in Lord Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment, and other units. By 1804, the northern states (north of the Mason–Dixon line) had abolished slavery. However, slavery would persist in the southern states until the end of the American Civil War and the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment. Following the end of the Reconstruction Era, which saw the first African American representation in Congress, African Americans became disenfranchised and subject to Jim Crow laws, legislation that would persist until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act due to the Civil Rights Movement. According to US Census Bureau data, very few African immigrants self-identify as African American. On average, less than 5% of African residents self-reported as "African American" or "Afro-American" on the 2000 US Census. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants (~95%) identified instead with their own respective ethnicities. Self-designation as "African American" or "Afro-American" was highest among individuals from West Africa (4%-9%), and lowest among individuals from Cape Verde, East Africa and Southern Africa (0%-4%). African immigrants may also experience conflict with African Americans. | Black and African American population by ancestry group | | --- | | Rank | Ancestry group | Percentageof total est. population | Pop. estimates | | 1 | Jamaican | 0.31% | 986,897 | | 2 | Haitian | 0.28% | 873,003 | | 3 | Nigerian | 0.08% | 259,934 | | 4 | Trinidadian and Tobagonian | 0.06% | 193,233 | | 5 | Ghanaian | 0.03% | 94,405 | | 6 | Barbadian | 0.01% | 59,236 | | | Sub-Saharan African (total) | 0.92% | 2,864,067 | | | West Indian (total) (except Hispanic groups) | 0.85% | 2,633,149 | | | Black and African American (total) | 12.1% | 39,940,338 | | 2020 United States Census | ### Asian Americans Another significant population is the Asian American population, comprising 19,618,719 people in 2020, or 5.9% of the U.S. population. California is home to 5.6 million Asian Americans, the greatest number in any state. In Hawaii, Asian Americans make up the highest proportion of the population (57 percent). Asian Americans live across the country, yet are heavily urbanized, with significant populations in the Greater Los Angeles Area, New York metropolitan area, and the San Francisco Bay Area. The U.S. census defines Asian Americans as those with origins to the countries of East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. Although Americans with roots in Western Asia were once classified as "Asian", they are now excluded from the term in modern census classifications. The largest sub-groups are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from Cambodia, Mainland China, India, Japan, Korea, Laos, Pakistan, the Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. Asians overall have higher income levels than all other racial groups in the United States, including whites, and the trend appears to be increasing in relation to those groups. Additionally, Asians have a higher education attainment level than all other racial groups in the United States. For better or for worse, the group has been called a model minority. While Asian Americans have been in what is now the United States since before the Revolutionary War, relatively large waves of Chinese, Filipino, and Japanese immigration did not begin until the mid-to-late 19th century. Immigration and significant population growth continue to this day. Due to a number of factors, Asian Americans have been stereotyped as "perpetual foreigners". | Asian American ancestries | | --- | | Rank | Ancestry | Percentageof total population | Pop. | | 1 | Chinese | 1.2% | 3,797,379 | | 2 | Filipino | 1.1% | 3,417,285 | | 3 | Indian | 1.0% | 3,183,063 | | 4 | Vietnamese | 0.5% | 1,737,665 | | 5 | Korean | 0.5% | 1,707,027 | | 6 | Japanese | 0.4% | 1,304,599 | | | Other Asian | 0.9% | 2,799,448 | | | Asian American (total) | 5.9% | 19,618,719 | | 2020 United States Census | ### Native American and Alaska Natives According to the 2020 Census, there are 2,251,699 people who are Native Americans or Alaska Natives alone; they make up 0.7% of the total population. According to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), an "American Indian or Alaska Native" is a person whose ancestry have origins in any of the original peoples of North, Central, or South America. 2.3 million individuals who are American Indian or Alaskan Native are multiracial; additionally the plurality of American Indians reside in the Western United States (40.7%). Collectively and historically this race has been known by several names; as of 1995, 50% of those who fall within the OMB definition prefer the term "American Indian", 37% prefer "Native American" and the remainder have no preference or prefer a different term altogether. Among Americans today, levels of Native American ancestry (distinct from Native American identity) differ. The genomes of self-reported African Americans averaged to 0.8% Native American ancestry, those of European Americans averaged to 0.18%, and those of Latinos averaged to 18.0%. Native Americans, whose ancestry is indigenous to the Americas, originally migrated to the two continents between 10,000 and 45,000 years ago. These Paleoamericans spread throughout the two continents and evolved into hundreds of distinct cultures during the pre-Columbian era. Following the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, the European colonization of the Americas began, with St. Augustine, Florida becoming the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States. From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the population of Native Americans declined in the following ways: epidemic diseases brought from Europe; genocide and warfare at the hands of European explorers, settlers and colonists, as well as between tribes; displacement from their lands; internal warfare, enslavement; and intermarriage. | Native American and Alaska Native population by selected tribal groups | | --- | | Rank | National origin | Percentageof total population | Pop. | | 1 | Cherokee | 0.26% | 819,105 | | 2 | Navajo | 0.1% | 332,129 | | 3 | Choctaw | 0.06% | 195,764 | | 5 | Chippewa | 0.05% | 170,742 | | 6 | Sioux | 0.05% | 170,110 | | | All other | 1.08% | 3,357,235 | | | American Indian (total) | 0.7% | 2,251,699 | | 2020 United States Census | ### Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders As defined by the United States Census Bureau and the Office of Management and Budget, Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders are "persons having origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands". Previously called Asian Pacific American, along with Asian Americans beginning in 1976, this was changed in 1997. As of the 2020 United States Census there are 622,018 who reside in the United States, and make up 0.2% of the nation's total population. 14% of the population have at least a bachelor's degree, and 15.1% live in poverty, below the poverty threshold. As compared to the 2000 United States Census this population grew by 40%; and 71% live in the West; of those over half (52%) live in either Hawaii or California, with no other states having populations greater than 100,000. The U.S. territories in the Pacific also have large Pacific Islander populations such as Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands (Chammoro), and American Samoa (Samoan). The largest concentration of Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders, is Honolulu County in Hawaii, and Los Angeles County in the continental United States. | Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander by ancestries | | --- | | Rank | Ancestry | Percentage | Pop. | | 1 | Native Hawaiian | 0.17% | 527,077 | | 2 | Samoan | 0.05% | 184,440 | | 3 | Chamorro | 0.04% | 147,798 | | 4 | Tongan | 0.01% | 57,183 | | | Other Pacific Islanders | 0.09% | 308,697 | | | Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander (total) | 0.2% | 622,018 | | 2020 United States Census | ### Two or more races The United States has a growing multiracial identity movement. Multiracial Americans numbered 7.0 million in 2008, or 2.3% of the population; by the 2020 census the multiracial increased to 13,548,983, or 4.1% of the total population. They can be any combination of races (White, Black or African American, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, "some other race") and ethnicities. The largest population of Multiracial Americans were those of White and African American descent, with a total of 1,834,212 self-identifying individuals. Barack Obama, 44th President of the United States who is biracial- his mother is white (of English and Irish descent) and his father is of Kenyan birth- only self-identifies as being African American. | Population by selected Two or More Races Population | | --- | | Rank | Specific Combinations | Percentageof total population | Pop. | | 1 | White; Black | 0.59% | 1,834,212 | | 2 | White; Some Other Race | 0.56% | 1,740,924 | | 3 | White; Asian | 0.52% | 1,623,234 | | 4 | White; Native American | 0.46% | 1,432,309 | | 5 | African American; Some Other Race | 0.1% | 314,571 | | 6 | African American; Native American | 0.08% | 269,421 | | | All other specific combinations | 0.58% | 1,794,402 | | | Multiracial American (total) | 4.1% | 13,548,983 | | 2020 United States Census | ### Some other race According to the 2020 United States Census, 8.4% or 27,915,715 Americans chose to self-identify with the "some other race" category, the third most popular option. Also, 42.2% or 26,225,882 Hispanic/Latino Americans chose to identify as some other race as these Hispanic/Latinos may feel the U.S. Census does not describe their European and American Indian ancestry as they understand it to be. A significant portion of the Hispanic and Latino population self-identifies as Mestizo, particularly the Mexican and Central American community. Mestizo is not a racial category in the U.S. Census, but signifies someone who has both European and American Indian ancestry. National personification ------------------------ "Uncle Sam" is a national personification of the United States. The image bears a resemblance to the real Samuel Wilson and the pose used here is based on Lord Kitchener Wants You. The female personification, primarily popular during the 18th and 19th centuries, is "Columbia". Uncle Sam is a national personification of the United States and sometimes more specifically of the American government, with the first usage of the term dating from the War of 1812. He is depicted as a stern elderly white man with white hair and a goatee beard, and dressed in clothing that recalls the design elements of the flag of the United States – for example, typically a top hat with red and white stripes and white stars on a blue band, and red and white striped trousers. Columbia is a poetic name for the Americas and the feminine personification of the United States of America, made famous by African-American poet Phillis Wheatley during the American Revolutionary War in 1776. It has inspired the names of many persons, places, objects, institutions, and companies in the Western Hemisphere and beyond, including the District of Columbia, the seat of government of the United States. Language -------- **Languages spoken at home by more than 1 million persons in 2010**| Language | Percent ofpopulation | Number ofspeakers | | --- | --- | --- | | English | 80.38% | 233,780,338 | | *Combined total of all languagesother than English* | *19.62%* | *57,048,617* | | Spanish(excluding Puerto Rico and Spanish Creole) | 12.19% | 35,437,985 | | Chinese(including Cantonese and Mandarin) | 0.9% | 2,567,779 | | Tagalog | 0.53% | 1,542,118 | | Vietnamese | 0.44% | 1,292,448 | | French | 0.44% | 1,288,833 | | Korean | 0.38% | 1,108,408 | | German | 0.38% | 1,107,869 | English is the de facto national language. Although there is no official language at the federal level, some laws—such as U.S. naturalization requirements—standardize English. In 2007, about 226 million, or 80% of the population aged five years and older, spoke only English at home. Spanish, spoken by 12% of the population at home, is the second most common language and the most widely taught second language. Some Americans advocate making English the country's official language, as it is in at least twenty-eight states. Both English and Hawaiian are official languages in Hawaii by state law. While neither has an official language, New Mexico has laws providing for the use of both English and Spanish, as Louisiana does for English and French. Other states, such as California, mandate the publication of Spanish versions of certain government documents. The latter include court forms. Several insular territories grant official recognition to their native languages, along with English: Samoan and Chamorro are recognized by American Samoa and Guam, respectively; Carolinian and Chamorro are recognized by the Northern Mariana Islands; Spanish is an official language of Puerto Rico. Religion -------- Religious affiliation in the U.S. (2014)| Affiliation | % of U.S. population | | --- | --- | | Christian | 70.6 | 70.6  | | Protestant | 46.5 | 46.5  | | Evangelical Protestant | 25.4 | 25.4  | | Mainline Protestant | 14.7 | 14.7  | | Black church | 6.5 | 6.5  | | Catholic | 20.8 | 20.8  | | The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints | 1.6 | 1.6  | | Jehovah's Witnesses | 0.8 | 0.8  | | Eastern Orthodox | 0.5 | 0.5  | | Other Christian | 0.4 | 0.4  | | Non-Christian faiths | 5.9 | 5.9  | | Jewish | 1.9 | 1.9  | | Muslim | 0.9 | 0.9  | | Buddhist | 0.7 | 0.7  | | Hindu | 0.7 | 0.7  | | Other Non-Christian faiths | 1.8 | 1.8  | | Unaffiliated | 22.8 | 22.8  | | Nothing in particular | 15.8 | 15.8  | | Agnostic | 4.0 | 4  | | Atheist | 3.1 | 3.1  | | Don't know/refused answer | 0.6 | 0.6  | | Total | 100 | 100  | Religion in the United States has a high adherence level compared to other developed countries, as well as a diversity in beliefs. The First Amendment to the country's Constitution prevents the Federal government from making any "law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof". The U.S. Supreme Court has interpreted this as preventing the government from having any authority in religion. A majority of Americans report that religion plays a "very important" role in their lives, a proportion unusual among developed countries, although similar to the other nations of the Americas. Many faiths have flourished in the United States, including both later imports spanning the country's multicultural immigrant heritage, as well as those founded within the country; these have led the United States to become the most religiously diverse country in the world. The United States has the world's largest Christian population. The majority of Americans (76%) are Christians, mostly within Protestant and Catholic denominations; these adherents constitute 48% and 23% of the population, respectively. Other religions include Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism, which collectively make up about 4% to 5% of the adult population. Another 15% of the adult population identifies as having no religious belief or no religious affiliation. According to the American Religious Identification Survey, religious belief varies considerably across the country: 59% of Americans living in Western states (the "Unchurched Belt") report a belief in God, yet in the South (the "Bible Belt") the figure is as high as 86%. Several of the original Thirteen Colonies were established by settlers who wished to practice their own religion without discrimination: the Massachusetts Bay Colony was established by English Puritans, Pennsylvania by Irish and English Quakers, Maryland by English and Irish Catholics, and Virginia by English Anglicans. Although some individual states retained established religious confessions well into the 19th century, the United States was the first nation to have no official state-endorsed religion. Modeling the provisions concerning religion within the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, the framers of the Constitution rejected any religious test for office, and the First Amendment specifically denied the federal government any power to enact any law respecting either an establishment of religion or prohibiting its free exercise, thus protecting any religious organization, institution, or denomination from government interference. The decision was mainly influenced by European Rationalist and Protestant ideals, but was also a consequence of the pragmatic concerns of minority religious groups and small states that did not want to be under the power or influence of a national religion that did not represent them. * The First Baptist Church in America in Providence, Rhode IslandThe First Baptist Church in America in Providence, Rhode Island * The Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, D.C. is the largest Catholic church in the United States.The Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, D.C. is the largest Catholic church in the United States. * The Salt Lake Temple in Salt Lake City, Utah is the largest LDS temple.The Salt Lake Temple in Salt Lake City, Utah is the largest LDS temple. * Holy Trinity Orthodox Cathedral in Chicago's Ukrainian VillageHoly Trinity Orthodox Cathedral in Chicago's Ukrainian Village * Unity Temple Unitarian Universalist church in Oak Park, IllinoisUnity Temple Unitarian Universalist church in Oak Park, Illinois * Touro Synagogue in Newport, Rhode Island is America's oldest surviving synagogue.Touro Synagogue in Newport, Rhode Island is America's oldest surviving synagogue. * The Islamic Center of America in Dearborn, Michigan is the largest mosque in North America.The Islamic Center of America in Dearborn, Michigan is the largest mosque in North America. * Hsi Lai Temple in Hacienda Heights, California is one of the largest Buddhist temples in the Western Hemisphere.Hsi Lai Temple in Hacienda Heights, California is one of the largest Buddhist temples in the Western Hemisphere. * Hindu Temple in Malibu, CaliforniaHindu Temple in Malibu, California * The Bahá'í House of Worship, in Wilmette, IllinoisThe Bahá'í House of Worship, in Wilmette, Illinois * The Jain Center of Greater Phoenix (JCGP) in Phoenix, ArizonaThe Jain Center of Greater Phoenix (JCGP) in Phoenix, Arizona * Sikh Gurdwara in Evergreen, San Jose, CaliforniaSikh Gurdwara in Evergreen, San Jose, California Culture ------- The American culture is primarily a Western culture, but is influenced by Native American, West African, Latin American, East Asian, and Polynesian cultures. The United States of America has its own unique social and cultural characteristics, such as dialect, music, arts, social habits, cuisine and folklore. Its chief early European influences came from English, Scottish, Welsh, and Irish settlers of colonial America during British rule. British culture, due to colonial ties with Britain that spread the English language, legal system and other cultural inheritances, had a formative influence. Other important influences came from other parts of Europe, especially Germany, France, and Italy. Original elements also play a strong role, such as Jeffersonian democracy. Thomas Jefferson's *Notes on the State of Virginia* was perhaps the first influential domestic cultural critique by an American and a reaction to the prevailing European consensus that America's domestic originality was degenerate. Prevalent ideas and ideals that evolved domestically, such as national holidays, uniquely American sports, military tradition, and innovations in the arts and entertainment give a strong sense of national pride among the population as a whole. American culture includes both conservative and liberal elements, scientific and religious competitiveness, political structures, risk taking and free expression, materialist and moral elements. Despite certain consistent ideological principles (e.g. individualism, egalitarianism, faith in freedom and democracy), the American culture has a variety of expressions due to its geographical scale and demographic diversity. Diaspora -------- Americans have migrated to many places around the world, including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Chile, China, Costa Rica, France, Germany, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, South Korea, the United Arab Emirates, and the United Kingdom. Unlike migration from other countries, U.S. migration is not concentrated in specific countries, possibly as a result of the roots of immigration from so many different countries to the United States. As of 2016[update], there were approximately 9 million U.S. citizens living outside of the United States. See also -------- * American studies * Ancestry of the people of the United States * Birthright citizenship in the United States * Deportation of Americans from the United States * Hyphenated American * *Making North America* (2015 PBS film) * Names for United States citizens * Stereotypes of Americans

Americans

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americans

A **catamaran** (/ˌkætəməˈræn/) (informally, a "cat") is a multi-hulled watercraft featuring two parallel hulls of equal size. It is a geometry-stabilized craft, deriving its stability from its wide beam, rather than from a ballasted keel as with a monohull boat. Catamarans typically have less hull volume, smaller displacement, and shallower draft (draught) than monohulls of comparable length. The two hulls combined also often have a smaller hydrodynamic resistance than comparable monohulls, requiring less propulsive power from either sails or motors. The catamaran's wider stance on the water can reduce both heeling and wave-induced motion, as compared with a monohull, and can give reduced wakes. Catamarans were invented by the Austronesian peoples which enabled their expansion to the islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Catamarans range in size from small sailing or rowing vessels to large naval ships and roll-on/roll-off car ferries. The structure connecting a catamaran's two hulls ranges from a simple frame strung with webbing to support the crew to a bridging superstructure incorporating extensive cabin and/or cargo space. History ------- Catamarans from Oceania and Maritime Southeast Asia became the inspiration for modern catamarans. Until the 20th century catamaran development focused primarily on sail-driven concepts. ### Etymology The word "catamaran" is derived from the Tamil word, *kattumaram* (கட்டுமரம்), which means "logs bound together" and is a type of single-hulled raft made of three to seven tree trunks lashed together. The term has evolved in English usage to refer to double-hulled vessels. ### Development in Oceania and Asia Catamaran-type vessels were an early technology of the Austronesian peoples. Early researchers like Heine-Geldern (1932) and Hornell (1943) once believed that catamarans evolved from outrigger canoes, but modern authors specializing in Austronesian cultures like Doran (1981) and Mahdi (1988) now believe it to be the opposite. Two canoes bound together developed directly from minimal raft technologies of two logs tied together. Over time, the double-hulled canoe form developed into the asymmetric double canoe, where one hull is smaller than the other. Eventually the smaller hull became the prototype outrigger, giving way to the single outrigger canoe, then to the reversible single outrigger canoe. Finally, the single outrigger types developed into the double outrigger canoe (or trimarans). This would also explain why older Austronesian populations in Island Southeast Asia tend to favor double outrigger canoes, as it keeps the boats stable when tacking. But they still have small regions where catamarans and single-outrigger canoes are still used. In contrast, more distant outlying descendant populations in Oceania, Madagascar, and the Comoros, retained the double-hull and the single outrigger canoe types, but the technology for double outriggers never reached them (although it exists in western Melanesia). To deal with the problem of the instability of the boat when the outrigger faces leeward when tacking, they instead developed the shunting technique in sailing, in conjunction with reversible single-outriggers. Despite their being the more "primitive form" of outrigger canoes, they were nonetheless effective, allowing seafaring Polynesians to voyage to distant Pacific islands. ### Traditional catamarans The following is a list of traditional Austronesian catamarans: * Island Melanesia: * Fiji: *Drua* (or *waqa tabu*) * Papua New Guinea: *Lakatoi* * Tonga: *Hamatafua*, *kalia*, *tongiaki* * Polynesia * Cook Islands: *Vaka katea* * Hawaii: *Waʻa kaulua* * Marquesas: *Vaka touʻua* * New Zealand: *Waka hourua* * Samoa: *ʻAlia*, *amatasi*, *va'a-tele* * Society Islands: *Pahi*, *tipairua* ### Western development of sailing catamarans The first documented example of double-hulled sailing craft in Europe was designed by William Petty in 1662 to sail faster, in shallower waters, in lighter wind, and with fewer crew than other vessels of the time. However, the unusual design met with skepticism and was not a commercial success. The design remained relatively unused in the West for almost 160 years until the early 19th-century, when the Englishman Mayflower F. Crisp built a two-hulled merchant ship in Rangoon, Burma. The ship was christened *Original*. Crisp described it as "a fast sailing fine sea boat; she traded during the monsoon between Rangoon and the Tenasserim Provinces for several years". Later that century, the American Nathanael Herreshoff constructed a double-hulled sailing boat of his own design (US Pat. No. 189,459). The craft, *Amaryllis*, raced at her maiden regatta on June 22, 1876, and performed exceedingly well. Her debut demonstrated the distinct performance advantages afforded to catamarans over the standard monohulls. It was as a result of this event, the Centennial Regatta of the New York Yacht Club, that catamarans were barred from regular sailing classes, and this remained the case until the 1970s. On June 6, 1882, three catamarans from the Southern Yacht Club of New Orleans raced a 15 nm course on Lake Pontchartrain and the winning boat in the catamaran class, *Nip and Tuck*, beat the fastest sloop's time by over five minutes. In 1936, Eric de Bisschop built a Polynesian "double canoe" in Hawaii and sailed it home to a hero's welcome in France. In 1939, he published his experiences in a book, *Kaimiloa*, which was translated into English in 1940. Roland and Francis Prout experimented with catamarans in 1949 and converted their 1935 boat factory in Canvey Island, Essex (England), to catamaran production in 1954. Their *Shearwater* catamarans easily won races against monohulls. *Yellow Bird,* a 1956-built *Shearwater III*, raced successfully by Francis Prout in the 1960s, is in the collection of the National Maritime Museum Cornwall. Prout Catamarans, Ltd. designed a mast aft rig with the mast aft of midships to support an enlarged jib—more than twice the size of the design's reduced mainsail; it was produced as the *Snowgoose* model. The claimed advantage of this sail plan was to diminish any tendency for the bows of the vessel to dig in. In the mid-twentieth century, beachcats became a widespread category of sailing catamarans, owing to their ease of launching and mass production. In California, a maker of surfboards, Hobie Alter, produced the 250-pound (110 kg) Hobie 14 in 1967, and two years later the larger and even more successful Hobie 16. As of 2016, the Hobie 16 was still being produced with more than 100,000 having been manufactured. Catamarans were introduced to Olympic sailing in 1976. The two-handed Tornado catamaran was selected for the multihull discipline in the Olympic Games from 1976 through 2008. It was redesigned in 2000. The foiling Nacra 17 was used in the Tokyo 2020 Olympics, which were held in 2021; after the 2015 adoption of the Nacra 15 as a Youth World Championships class and as a new class for the Youth Olympic Games. Performance ----------- Catamarans have two distinct primary performance characteristics that distinguish them from displacement monohull vessels: lower resistance to passage through the water and greater stability (initial resistance to capsize). Choosing between a monohull and catamaran configuration includes considerations of carrying capacity, speed, and efficiency. ### Resistance At low to moderate speeds, a lightweight catamaran hull experiences resistance to passage through water that is approximately proportional to the square of its speed. A displacement monohull, by comparison, experiences resistance that is at least the cube of its speed. This means that a catamaran would require four times the power in order to double its speed, whereas a monohull would require eight times the power to double its speed, starting at a slow speed. For powered catamarans, this implies smaller power plants (although two are typically required). For sailing catamarans, low forward resistance allows the sails to derive power from attached flow, their most efficient mode—analogous to a wing—leading to the use of wingsails in racing craft. ### Stability Catamarans rely primarily on form stability to resist heeling and capsize. Comparison of heeling stability of a rectangular-cross section monohull of beam, *B*, compared with two catamaran hulls of width *B*/2, separated by a distance, 2×*B*, determines that the catamaran has an initial resistance to heeling that is seven times that of the monohull. Compared with a monohull, a cruising catamaran sailboat has a high initial resistance to heeling and capsize—a fifty-footer requires four times the force to initiate a capsize than an equivalent monohull. ### Tradeoffs One measure of the trade-off between speed and carrying capacity is the displacement Froude number (FnV), compared with *calm water transportation efficiency*. FnV applies when the waterline length is too speed-dependent to be meaningful—as with a planing hull. It uses a reference length, the cubic root of the volumetric displacement of the hull, *V*, where *u* is the relative flow velocity between the sea and ship, and *g* is acceleration due to gravity: F n V = u g V 1 / 3 {\displaystyle \mathrm {Fn\_{V}} ={\frac {u}{\sqrt {gV^{1/3}}}}} {\displaystyle \mathrm {Fn_{V}} ={\frac {u}{\sqrt {gV^{1/3}}}}} *Calm water transportation efficiency* of a vessel is proportional to the full-load displacement and the maximum calm-water speed, divided by the corresponding power required. Large merchant vessels have a FnV between one and zero, whereas higher-performance powered catamarans may approach 2.5—denoting a *higher speed* per unit volume for *catamarans*. Each type of vessel has a corresponding calm water transportation efficiency, with large transport ships being in the range of 100–1,000, compared with 11-18 for transport catamarans—denoting a *higher efficiency* per unit of payload for *monohulls*. SWATH and wave-piercing designs ------------------------------- Two advances over the traditional catamaran are the *small-waterplane-area twin hull* (SWATH) and the *wave-piercing* configuration—the latter having become a widely favored design. SWATH reduces wave-generating resistance by moving displacement volume below the waterline, using a pair of tubular, submarine-like hulls, connected by pylons to the bridge deck with a narrow waterline cross-section. The submerged hulls are minimally affected by waves. The SWATH form was invented by Canadian Frederick G. Creed, who presented his idea in 1938 and was later awarded a British patent for it in 1946. It was first used in the 1960s and 1970s as an evolution of catamaran design for use as oceanographic research vessels or submarine rescue ships. In 1990, the US Navy commissioned the construction of a SWATH ship to test the configuration. SWATH vessels compare with conventional powered catamarans of equivalent size, as follows: * Larger wetted surface, which causes higher skin friction drag * Significant reduction in wave-induced drag, with the configuration of struts and submerged hull structures * Lower water plane area significantly reduces pitching and heaving in a seaway * No possibility of planing * Higher sensitivity to loading, which may bring the bridge structure closer to the water Wave-piercing catamarans (strictly speaking they are trimarans, with a central hull and two outriggers) employ a low-buoyancy bow on each hull that is pointed at the water line and rises aft, up to a level, to allow each hull to pierce waves, rather than ride over them. This allows higher speeds through waves than for a conventional catamaran. They are distinguished from SWATH catamarans, in that the buoyant part of the hull is not tubular. The spanning bridge deck may be configured with some of the characteristics of a normal V-hull, which allows it to penetrate the crests of waves. Wave-piercing catamaran designs have been employed for yachts, passenger ferries, and military vessels. Applications ------------ A catamaran configuration fills a niche where speed and sea-kindliness is favored over bulk capacity. In larger vessels, this niche favors car ferries and military vessels for patrol or operation in the littoral zone. ### Sport Recreational and sport catamarans typically are designed to have a crew of two and be launched and landed from a beach. Most have a trampoline on the bridging structure, a rotating mast and full-length battens on the mainsail. Performance versions often have trapezes to allow the crew to hike out and counterbalance capsize forces during strong winds on certain points of sail. For the 33rd America's Cup, both the defender and the challenger built 90-foot (27 m) long multihulls. Société Nautique de Genève, defending with team Alinghi, sailed a catamaran. The challenger, BMW Oracle Racing, used a trimaran, replacing its soft sail rig with a towering wing sail—the largest sailing wing ever built. In the waters off Valencia, Spain in February 2010, the BMW Oracle Racing trimaran with its powerful wing sail proved to be superior. This represented a break from the traditional monohulls that had always been sailed in previous America's Cup series. On San Francisco Bay, the 2013 America's Cup was sailed in 72-foot (22 m) long AC72 catamarans (craft set by the rules for the 2013 America's Cup). Each yacht employed hydrofoils and a wing sail. The regatta was won 9-8 by Oracle Team USA against the challenger, Emirates Team New Zealand, in fifteen matches because Oracle Team USA had started the regatta with a two-point penalty. Yachting has seen the development of multihulls over 100 feet (30 m) in length. "The Race" helped precipitate this trend; it was a circumnavigation challenge which departed from Barcelona, Spain, on New Year's Eve, 2000. Because of the prize money and prestige associated with this event, four new catamarans (and two highly modified ones) over 100 feet (30 m) in length were built to compete. The largest, *PlayStation*, owned by Steve Fossett, was 125 feet (38 m) long and had a mast which was 147 feet (45 m) above the water. Virtually all of the new mega-cats were built of pre-preg carbon fiber for strength and the lowest possible weight. The top speeds of these boats can approach 50 knots (58 mph; 93 km/h). The Race was won by the 33.50 m (109.9 ft)-long catamaran *Club Med* skippered by Grant Dalton. It went round the globe in 62 days at an average speed of 18 knots (21 mph; 33 km/h). Whitewater catamaran—sometimes called "cata-rafts"—for whitewater sports are widely spread in post-Soviet countries. They consists of two inflatable hulls connected with a lattice scaffold. The frame of the tourist catamaran can be made of both aluminum (duralumin) pipes and from felled tree trunks. The inflatable part has two layers—an airtight balloon with inflation holes and a shell made of dense tissue, protecting the balloon from mechanical damage. Advantages of such catamarans are light weight, compactness and convenience in transportation (the whole product is packed in one pack-backpack, suitable for air traffic standards) and the speed of assembly (10–15 minutes for the inflation). All-inflatable models are available in North America. A cata-raft design has been used on the Colorado River to handle heavy whitewater, yet maintain a good speed through the water. ### Cruising Cruising sailors must make trade-offs among volume, useful load, speed, and cost in choosing a boat. Choosing a catamaran offers increased speed at the expense of reduced load per unit of cost. Howard and Doane describe the following tradeoffs between cruising monohulls and catamarans: A long-distance, offshore cruising monohull may be as short as 30 feet (9.1 m) for a given crew complement and supporting supplies, whereas a cruising catamaran would need to be 40 feet (12 m) to achieve the same capacity. In addition to greater speed, catamarans draw less water than do monohulls— as little as 3 feet (0.91 m) —and are easier to beach. Catamarans are harder to tack and take up more space in a marina. Cruising catamarans entail added expense for having two engines and two rudders. Tarjan adds that cruising catamarans boats can maintain a comfortable 300 nautical miles (350 mi; 560 km) per day passage, with the racing versions recording well over 400 nautical miles (460 mi; 740 km) per day. In addition, they do not heel more than 10-12 degrees, even at full speed on a reach. Powered cruising catamarans share many of the amenities found in a sail cruising catamaran. The saloon typically spans two hulls wherein are found the staterooms and engine compartments. As with sailing catamarans, this configuration minimizes boat motion in a seaway. The Swiss-registered wave-piercing catamaran, *Tûranor PlanetSolar*, which was launched in March 2010, is the world's largest solar powered boat. It completed a circumnavigation of the globe in 2012. ### Passenger transport The 1970s saw the introduction of catamarans as high-speed ferries, as pioneered by Westermoen Hydrofoil in Mandal, Norway, which launched the Westamaran design in 1973. The *Stena Voyager* was an example of a large, fast ferry, typically traveling at a speed of 46 miles per hour (74 km/h), although it was capable of over 70 miles per hour (110 km/h). The Australian island Tasmania became the site of builders of large transport catamarans—Incat in 1977 and Austal in 1988—each building civilian ferries and naval vessels. Incat built HSC Francisco, a High-Speed trimaran that, at 58 knots, is (as of 2014) the fastest passenger ship in service. ### Military The first warship to be propelled by a steam engine, named *Demologos* or *Fulton* and built in the United States during the War of 1812, was a catamaran with a paddle wheel between her hulls. In the early 20th Century several catamarans were built as submarine salvage ships: SMS *Vulkan* and SMS *Cyclop* of Germany, *Kommuna* of Russia, and *Kanguro* of Spain, all designed to lift stricken submarines by means of huge cranes above a moon pool between the hulls. Two Cold War-era submarine rescue ships, USS *Pigeon* and USS *Ortolan* of the US Navy, were also catamarans, but did not have the moon pool feature. The use of catamarans as high-speed naval transport was pioneered by HMAS *Jervis Bay*, which was in service with the Royal Australian Navy between 1999 and 2001. The US Military Sealift Command now operates several Expeditionary Fast Transport catamarans owned by the US Navy; they are used for high speed transport of military cargo, and to get into shallow ports. The *Makar*-class is a class of two large catamaran-hull survey ships built for the Indian Navy. As of 2012, one vessel, INS Makar (J31), was in service and the second was under construction. First launched in 2004 at Shanghai, the Houbei class missile boat of the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) has a catamaran design to accommodate the vessel's stealth features. See also -------- * List of multihulls Further reading --------------- * Marchaj, C. A. (2000). *Aero-Hydrodynamics of Sailing*. Tiller Publishing. ISBN 1-888671-18-1.

Catamaran

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catamaran

**Cichlids** /ˈsɪklɪdz/ are fish from the family **Cichlidae** in the order Cichliformes. Cichlids were traditionally classed in a suborder, the Labroidei, along with the wrasses (Labridae), in the order Perciformes, but molecular studies have contradicted this grouping. On the basis of fossil evidence, it first appeared in Tanzania during the Eocene epoch, about 46–45 million years ago. The closest living relative of cichlids is probably the convict blenny, and both families are classified in the 5th edition of *Fishes of the World* as the two families in the Cichliformes, part of the subseries Ovalentaria. This family is large, diverse, and widely dispersed. At least 1,650 species have been scientifically described, making it one of the largest vertebrate families. New species are discovered annually, and many species remain undescribed. The actual number of species is therefore unknown, with estimates varying between 2,000 and 3,000. Many cichlids, particularly tilapia, are important food fishes, while others, such as the *Cichla* species, are valued game fish. The family also includes many popular freshwater aquarium fish kept by hobbyists, including the angelfish, oscars, and discus. Cichlids have the largest number of endangered species among vertebrate families, most in the haplochromine group. Cichlids are particularly well known for having evolved rapidly into many closely related but morphologically diverse species within large lakes, particularly Lakes Tanganyika, Victoria, Malawi, and Edward. Their diversity in the African Great Lakes is important for the study of speciation in evolution. Many cichlids introduced into waters outside of their natural range have become nuisances. All cichlids practice some form of parental care for their eggs and fry, usually in the form of guarding the eggs and fry or mouthbrooding. Anatomy and appearance ---------------------- Cichlids span a wide range of body sizes, from species as small as 2.5 cm (1 in) in length (e.g., female *Neolamprologus multifasciatus*) to much larger species approaching 1 m (3 ft) in length (*Boulengerochromis* and *Cichla*). As a group, cichlids exhibit a similar diversity of body shapes, ranging from strongly laterally compressed species (such as *Altolamprologus*, *Pterophyllum*, and *Symphysodon*) to species that are cylindrical and highly elongated (such as *Julidochromis*, *Teleogramma*, *Teleocichla*, *Crenicichla*, and *Gobiocichla*). Generally, however, cichlids tend to be of medium size, ovate in shape, and slightly laterally compressed, and generally similar to the North American sunfishes in morphology, behavior, and ecology. Cichlids share a single key trait - the fusion of the lower pharyngeal bones into a single tooth-bearing structure. A complex set of muscles allows the upper and lower pharyngeal bones to be used as a second set of jaws for processing food, allowing a division of labor between the "true jaws" (mandibles) and the "pharyngeal jaws". Cichlids are efficient and often highly specialized feeders that capture and process a very wide variety of food items. This is assumed to be one reason why they are so diverse. The features that distinguish them from the other families in the Labroidei include: * A single nostril on each side of the forehead, instead of two * No bony shelf below the orbit of the eye * Division of the lateral line organ into two sections, one on the upper half of the flank and a second along the midline of the flank from about halfway along the body to the base of the tail (except for genera *Teleogramma* and *Gobiocichla*) * A distinctively shaped otolith * The small intestine's left-side exit from the stomach instead of its right side as in other Labroidei Taxonomy -------- Kullander (1998) recognizes eight subfamilies of cichlids: the Astronotinae, Cichlasomatinae, Cichlinae, Etroplinae, Geophaginae, Heterochromidinae, Pseudocrenilabrinae, and Retroculinae. A ninth subfamily, the Ptychochrominae, was later recognized by Sparks and Smith. Cichlid taxonomy is still debated, and classification of genera cannot yet be definitively given. A comprehensive system of assigning species to monophyletic genera is still lacking, and there is not complete agreement on what genera should be recognized in this family. As an example of the classification problems, Kullander placed the African genus *Heterochromis* phylogenetically within Neotropical cichlids, although later papers concluded otherwise. Other problems center upon the identity of the putative common ancestor for the Lake Victoria superflock (many closely related species sharing a single habitat), and the ancestral lineages of Lake Tanganyikan cichlids. Comparisons between a morphologically based phylogeny and analyses of gene loci produce differences at the genus level. A consensus remains that the Cichlidae as a family are monophyletic. In cichlid taxonomy, dentition was formerly used as a classifying characteristic, but this was complicated because in many cichlids, tooth shapes change with age, due to wear, and cannot be relied upon. Genome sequencing and other technologies transformed cichlid taxonomy. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ Cichlids are one of the largest vertebrate families in the world. They are most diverse in Africa and South America. Africa alone is host to at least an estimated 1,600 species. Central America and Mexico have about 120 species, as far north as the Rio Grande in South Texas. Madagascar has its own distinctive species (*Katria*, *Oxylapia*, *Paratilapia*, *Paretroplus*, *Ptychochromis*, and *Ptychochromoides*), only distantly related to those on the African mainland. Native cichlids are largely absent in Asia, except for 9 species in Israel, Lebanon, and Syria (*Astatotilapia flaviijosephi*, *Oreochromis aureus*, *O. niloticus*, *Sarotherodon galilaeus*, *Coptodon zillii*, and *Tristramella* spp.), two in Iran (*Iranocichla*), and three in India and Sri Lanka (*Etroplus* and *Pseudetroplus*). If disregarding Trinidad and Tobago (where the few native cichlids are members of genera that are widespread in the South American mainland), the three species from the genus *Nandopsis* are the only cichlids from the Antilles in the Caribbean, specifically Cuba and Hispaniola. Europe, Australia, Antarctica, and North America north of the Rio Grande drainage have no native cichlids, although in Florida, Hawaii, Japan, northern Australia, and elsewhere, feral populations of cichlids have become established as exotics. Although most cichlids are found at relatively shallow depths, several exceptions do exist. The deepest known occurrences are *Trematocara* at more than 300 m (1,000 ft) below the surface in Lake Tanganyika. Others found in relatively deep waters include species such as *Alticorpus macrocleithrum* and *Pallidochromis tokolosh* down to 150 m (500 ft) below the surface in Lake Malawi, and the whitish (nonpigmented) and blind *Lamprologus lethops*, which is believed to live as deep as 160 m (520 ft) below the surface in the Congo River. Cichlids are less commonly found in brackish and saltwater habitats, though many species tolerate brackish water for extended periods; *Mayaheros urophthalmus*, for example, is equally at home in freshwater marshes and mangrove swamps, and lives and breeds in saltwater environments such as the mangrove belts around barrier islands. Several species of *Tilapia*, *Sarotherodon*, and *Oreochromis* are euryhaline and can disperse along brackish coastlines between rivers. Only a few cichlids, however, inhabit primarily brackish or salt water, most notably *Etroplus maculatus*, *Etroplus suratensis*, and *Sarotherodon melanotheron*. The perhaps most extreme habitats for cichlids are the warm hypersaline lakes where the members of the genera *Alcolapia* and *Danakilia* are found. Lake Abaeded in Eritrea encompasses the entire distribution of *D. dinicolai*, and its temperature ranges from 29 to 45 °C (84 to 113 °F). With the exception of the species from Cuba, Hispaniola, and Madagascar, cichlids have not reached any oceanic island and have a predominantly Gondwanan distribution, showing the precise sister relationships predicted by vicariance: Africa-South America and India-Madagascar. The dispersal hypothesis, in contrast, requires cichlids to have negotiated thousands of kilometers of open ocean between India and Madagascar without colonizing any other island, or for that matter, crossing the Mozambique Channel to Africa. Although the vast majority of Malagasy cichlids are entirely restricted to fresh water, *Ptychochromis grandidieri* and *Paretroplus polyactis* are commonly found in coastal brackish water and are apparently salt tolerant, as is also the case for *Etroplus maculatus* and *E. suratensis* from India and Sri Lanka. Ecology ------- ### Feeding Within the cichlid family, carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, planktivores, and detritivores are known, meaning the Cichlidae encompass essentially the full range of food consumption possible in the animal kingdom. Various species have morphological adaptations for specific food sources, but most cichlids consume a wider variety of foods based on availability. Carnivorous cichlids can be further divided into piscivorous and molluscivorous, since the morphology and hunting behavior differ greatly between the two categories. Piscivorous cichlids eat other fish, fry, larvae, and eggs. Some species eat the offspring of mouthbrooders by head-ramming, wherein the hunter shoves its head into the mouth of a female to expel her young and eat them. Molluscivorous cichlids have several hunting strategies amongst the varieties within the group. Lake Malawi cichlids consume substrate and filter it out through their gill rakers to eat the mollusks that were in the substrate. Gill rakers are finger-like structures that line the gills of some fish to catch any food that might escape through their gills. Many cichlids are primarily herbivores, feeding on algae (e.g. *Petrochromis*) and plants (e.g. *Etroplus suratensis*). Small animals, particularly invertebrates, are only a minor part of their diets. Other cichlids are detritivores and eat organic material, called *Aufwuchs* (offal); among these species are the tilapiines of the genera *Oreochromis*, *Sarotherodon*, and *Tilapia*. Other cichlids are predatory and eat little or no plant matter. These include generalists that catch a variety of small animals, including other fishes and insect larvae (e.g. *Pterophyllum*), as well as variety of specialists. *Trematocranus* is a specialized snail-eater, while *Pungu maclareni* feeds on sponges. A number of cichlids feed on other fish, either entirely or in part. *Crenicichla* species are stealth predators that lunge from concealment at passing small fish, while *Rhamphochromis* species are open-water pursuit predators that chase down their prey. Paedophagous cichlids such as the *Caprichromis* species eat other species' eggs or young, in some cases ramming the heads of mouthbrooding species to force them to disgorge their young. Among the more unusual feeding strategies are those of *Corematodus*, *Docimodus evelynae*, *Plecodus*, *Perissodus*, and *Genyochromis* spp., which feed on scales and fins of other fishes, a behavior known as lepidophagy, along with the death-mimicking behaviour of *Nimbochromis* and *Parachromis* species, which lay motionless, luring small fish to their side prior to ambush. This variety of feeding styles has helped cichlids to inhabit similarly varied habitats. Its pharyngeal teeth (in the throat) afford cichlids so many "niche" feeding strategies, because the jaws pick and hold food, while the pharyngeal teeth crush the prey. Behavior -------- ### Aggression Aggressive behavior in cichlids is ritualized and consists of multiple displays used to seek confrontation while being involved in evaluation of competitors, coinciding with temporal proximity to mating. Displays of ritualized aggression in cichlids include a remarkably rapid change in coloration, during which a successfully dominant territorial male assumes a more vivid and brighter coloration, while a subordinate or "nonterritorial" male assumes a dull-pale coloration. In addition to color displays, cichlids employ their lateral lines to sense movements of water around their opponents to evaluate the competing male for physical traits/fitness. Male cichlids are very territorial due to the pressure of reproduction, and establish their territory and social status by physically driving out challenging males (novel intruders) through lateral displays (parallel orientation, uncovering gills), biting, or mouth fights (head-on collisions of open mouths, measuring jaw sizes, and biting each other's jaws). The cichlid social dichotomy is composed of a single dominant with multiple subordinates, where the physical aggression of males becomes a contest for resources (mates, territory, food). Female cichlids prefer to mate with a successfully alpha male with vivid coloration, whose territory has food readily available. ### Mating Cichlids mate either monogamously or polygamously. The mating system of a given cichlid species is not consistently associated with its brooding system. For example, although most monogamous cichlids are not mouthbrooders, *Chromidotilapia*, *Gymnogeophagus*, *Spathodus*, and *Tanganicodus* all include – or consist entirely of – monogamous mouthbrooders. In contrast, numerous open- or cave-spawning cichlids are polygamous; examples include many *Apistogramma*, *Lamprologus*, *Nannacara*, and *Pelvicachromis* species. Most adult male cichlids, specifically in the cichlid tribe Haplochromini, exhibit a unique pattern of oval-shaped color dots on their anal fins. These phenomena, known as egg spots, aid in the mouthbrooding mechanisms of cichlids. The egg spots consist of carotenoid-based pigment cells, which indicate a high cost to the organism, when considering that fish are not able to synthesize their own carotenoids. The mimicry of egg spots is used by males for the fertilization process. Mouthbrooding females lay eggs and immediately snatch them up with their mouths. Over millions of years, male cichlids have evolved egg spots to initiate the fertilization process more efficiently. When the females are snatching up the eggs into their mouth, the males gyrate their anal fins, which illuminates the egg spots on his tail. Afterwards, the female, believing these are her eggs, places her mouth to the anal fin (specifically the genital papilla) of the male, which is when he discharges sperm into her mouth and fertilizes the eggs. The genuine color of egg spots is a yellow, red, or orange inner circle with a colorless ring surrounding the shape. Through phylogenetic analysis, using the mitochondrial *ND2* gene, the true egg spots are thought to have evolved in the common ancestor of the *Astatoreochromis* lineage and the modern *Haplochrominis* species. This ancestor was most likely riverine in origin, based on the most parsimonious representation of habitat type in the cichlid family. The presence of egg spots in a turbid riverine environment would seem particularly beneficial and necessary for intraspecies communication. Two pigmentation genes are found to be associated with egg-spot patterning and color arrangement. These are *fhl2-a* and *fhl2-b*, which are paralogs. These genes aid in pattern formation and cell-fate determination in early embryonic development. The highest expression of these genes was temporally correlated with egg-spot formation. A short, interspersed, repetitive element was also seen to be associated with egg spots. Specifically, it was evident upstream of the transcriptional start site of *fhl2* in only *Haplochrominis* species with egg spots ### Brood care #### Pit spawning in cichlids Pit spawning, also referred to as substrate breeding, is a behavior in cichlid fish in which a fish builds a pit in the sand or ground, where a pair court and consequently spawn. Many different factors go into this behavior of pit spawning, including female choice of the male and pit size, as well as the male defense of the pits once they are dug in the sand. Cichlids are often divided into two main groups: mouthbrooders and substrate brooders. Different parenting investment levels and behaviors are associated with each type of reproduction. As pit spawning is a reproductive behavior, many different physiological changes occur in the cichlid while this process is occurring that interfere with social interaction. Different kinds of species that pit spawn, and many different morphological changes occur because of this behavioral experience. Pit spawning is an evolved behavior across the cichlid group. Phylogenetic evidence from cichlids in Lake Tanganyika could be helpful in uncovering the evolution of their reproductive behaviors. Several important behaviors are associated with pit spawning, including parental care, food provisioning, and brood guarding. #### Mouth brooding vs. pit spawning One of the differences studied in African cichlids is reproductive behavior. Some species pit spawn and some are known as mouth brooders. Mouthbrooding is a reproductive technique where the fish scoop up eggs and fry for protection. While this behavior differs from species to species in the details, the general basis of the behavior is the same. Mouthbrooding also affects how they choose their mates and breeding grounds. In a 1995 study, Nelson found that in pit-spawning females choose males for mating based on the size of the pit that they dig, as well as some of the physical characteristics seen in the males. Pit spawning also differs from mouth brooding in the size and postnatal care exhibited. Eggs that have been hatched from pit-spawning cichlids are usually smaller than those of mouthbrooders. Pit-spawners' eggs are usually around 2 mm, while mouthbrooders are typically around 7 mm. While different behaviors take place postnatally between mouthbrooders and pit spawners, some similarities exist. Females in both mouthbrooders and pit-spawning cichlids take care of their young after they are hatched. In some cases, both parents exhibit care, but the female always cares for the eggs and newly hatched fry. #### Pit spawning process Many species of cichlids use pit spawning, but one of the less commonly studied species that exhibits this behavior is the Neotropical *Cichlasoma dimerus*. This fish is a substrate breeder that displays biparental care after the fry have hatched from their eggs. One study examined reproductive and social behaviors of this species to see how they accomplished their pit spawning, including different physiological factors such as hormone levels, color changes, and plasma cortisol levels. The entire spawning process could take about 90 minutes and 400~800 eggs could be laid. The female deposits about 10 eggs at a time, attaching them to the spawning surface, which may be a pit constructed on the substrate or another surface. The number of eggs laid was correlated to the space available on the substrate. Once the eggs were attached, the male swam over the eggs and fertilized them. The parents would then dig pits in the sand, 10–20 cm wide and 5–10 cm deep, where larvae were transferred after hatching. Larvae began swimming 8 days after fertilization and parenting behaviors and some of the physiological factors measured changed. #### Color changes In the same study, color changes were present before and after the pit spawning occurred. For example, after the larvae were transferred and the pits were beginning to be protected, their fins turned a dark grey color. In another study, of the rainbow cichlid, *Herotilapia multispinosa*, colr changes occurred throughout the spawning process. Before spawning, the rainbow cichlid was an olive color with grey bands. Once spawning behaviors started, the body and fins of the fish became a more golden color. When the eggs were finished being laid, the pelvic fin all the way back to the caudal fin turned to a darker color and blackened in both the males and the females. #### Pit sizes Females prefer a bigger pit size when choosing where to lay eggs. Differences are seen in the sizes of pits that created, as well as a change in the morphology of the pits. Evolutionary differences between species of fish may cause them to either create pits or castles when spawning. The differences were changes in the way that each species fed, their macrohabitats, and the abilities of their sensory systems. #### Evolution Cichlids are renowned for their recent, rapid evolutionary radiation, both across the entire clade and within different communities across separate habitats. Within their phylogeny, many parallel instances are seen of lineages evolving to the same trait and multiple cases of reversion to an ancestral trait. The family Cichlidae arose between 80 and 100 million years ago within the order Perciformes (perch-like fishes). Cichlidae can be split into a few groups based on their geographic location: Madagascar, Indian, African, and Neotropical (or South American). The most famous and diverse group, the African cichlids, can be further split either into Eastern and Western varieties, or into groups depending on which lake the species is from: Lake Malawi, Lake Victoria, or Lake Tanganyika. Of these subgroups, the Madagascar and Indian cichlids are the most basal and least diverse. Of the African cichlids, the West African or Lake Tanganyika cichlids are the most basal. Cichlids' common ancestor is believed to have been a spit-spawning species. Both Madagascar and Indian cichlids retain this feature. However, of the African cichlids, all extant substrate brooding species originate solely from Lake Tanganyika. The ancestor of the Lake Malawi and Lake Victoria cichlids were mouthbrooders. Similarly, only around 30% of South American cichlids are thought to retain the ancestral substrate-brooding trait. Mouthbrooding is thought to have evolved individually up to 14 times, and a return to substrate brooding as many as three separate times between both African and Neotropical species. #### Associated behaviors Cichlids have a great variety of behaviors associated with substrate brooding, including courtship and parental care alongside the brooding and nest-building behaviors needed for pit spawning. Cichlids' behavior typically revolves around establishing and defending territories when not courting, brooding, or raising young. Encounters between males and males or females and females are agonistic, while an encounter between a male and female leads to courtship. Courtship in male cichlids follows the establishment of some form of territory, sometimes coupled with building a bower to attract mates. After this, males may attempt to attract female cichlids to their territories by a variety of lekking display strategies or otherwise seek out females of their species. However, cichlids, at the time of spawning, undergo a behavioral change such that they become less receptive to outside interactions. This is often coupled with some physiological change in appearance. #### Brood care Cichlids can have maternal, paternal, or biparental care. Maternal care is most common among mouthbrooders, but cichlids' common ancestor is thought to exhibit paternal-only care. Other individuals outside of the parents may also play a role in raising young; in the biparental daffodil cichlid (*Neolamprologus pulcher*), closely related satellite males, those males that surround other males' territories and attempt to mate with female cichlids in the area, help rear the primary males' offspring and their own. A common form of brood care involves food provisioning. For example, females of lyretail cichlids (*Neolamprologus modabu*) dig at sandy substrate more to push nutritional detritus and zooplankton into the surrounding water. Adult of *N. modabu* perform this strategy to collect food for themselves, but dig more when offspring are present, likely to feed their fry. This substrate-disruption strategy is rather common and can also be seen in convict cichlids (*Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum*). Other cichlids have an ectothermal mucus that they grow and feed to their young, while still others chew and distribute caught food to offspring. These strategies, however, are less common in pit-spawning cichlids. Cichlids have highly organized breeding activities. All species show some form of parental care for both eggs and larvae, often nurturing free-swimming young until they are weeks or months old. Communal parental care, where multiple monogamous pairs care for a mixed school of young have also been observed in multiple cichlid species, including *Amphilophus citrinellus*, *Etroplus suratensis*, and *Tilapia rendalli*. Comparably, the fry of *Neolamprologus brichardi*, a species that commonly lives in large groups, are protected not only by the adults, but also by older juveniles from previous spawns. Several cichlids, including discus (*Symphysodon* spp.), some *Amphilophus* species, *Etroplus*, and *Uaru* species, feed their young with a skin secretion from mucous glands. The species *Neolamprologus pulcher* uses a cooperative breeding system, in which one breeding pair has many helpers that are subordinate to the dominant breeders. Parental care falls into one of four categories: substrate or open brooders, secretive cave brooders (also known as guarding speleophils), and at least two types of mouthbrooders, ovophile mouthbrooders and larvophile mouthbrooders. #### Open brooding Open- or substrate-brooding cichlids lay their eggs in the open, on rocks, leaves, or logs. Examples of open-brooding cichlids include *Pterophyllum* and *Symphysodon* species and *Anomalochromis thomasi*. Male and female parents usually engage in differing brooding roles. Most commonly, the male patrols the pair's territory and repels intruders, while the female fans water over the eggs, removing the infertile ones, and leading the fry while foraging. Both sexes are able to perform the full range of parenting behaviours. #### Cave brooding Secretive cave-spawning cichlids lay their eggs in caves, crevices, holes, or discarded mollusc shells, frequently attaching the eggs to the roof of the chamber. Examples include *Pelvicachromis* spp., *Archocentrus* spp., and *Apistogramma* spp. Free-swimming fry and parents communicate in captivity and in the wild. Frequently, this communication is based on body movements, such as shaking and pelvic fin flicking. In addition, open- and cave-brooding parents assist in finding food resources for their fry. Multiple neotropical cichlid species perform leaf-turning and fin-digging behaviors. #### Ovophile mouthbrooding Ovophile mouthbrooders incubate their eggs in their mouths as soon as they are laid, and frequently mouthbrood free-swimming fry for several weeks. Examples include many East African Rift lakes (Lake Malawi, Lake Tanganyika, and Lake Victoria) endemics, e.g.: *Maylandia*, *Pseudotropheus*, *Tropheus*, and *Astatotilapia burtoni*, along with some South American cichlids such as *Geophagus steindachneri*. #### Larvophile mouthbrooding Larvophile mouthbrooders lay eggs in the open or in a cave and take the hatched larvae into the mouth. Examples include some variants of *Geophagus altifrons*, and some *Aequidens*, *Gymnogeophagus*, and *Satanoperca*, as well as *Oreochromis mossambicus* and *Oreochromis niloticus*. Mouthbrooders, whether of eggs or larvae, are predominantly females. Exceptions that also involve the males include eretmodine cichlids (genera *Spathodus*, *Eretmodus*, and *Tanganicodus*), some *Sarotherodon* species (such as *Sarotherodon melanotheron*), *Chromidotilapia guentheri*, and some *Aequidens* species. This method appears to have evolved independently in several groups of African cichlids. Speciation ---------- Cichlids provide scientists with a unique perspective of speciation, having become extremely diverse in the recent geological past, those of Lake Victoria actually within the last 10,000 to 15,000 years, a small fraction of the millions taken for Galápagos finch speciation in Darwin's textbook case. Some of the contributing factors to their diversification are believed to be the various forms of prey processing displayed by cichlid pharyngeal jaw apparatus. These different jaw apparatus allow for a broad range of feeding strategies, including algae scraping, snail crushing, planktivory, piscivory, and insectivory. Some cichlids can also show phenotypic plasticity in their pharyngeal jaws, which can also help lead to speciation. In response to different diets or food scarcity, members of the same species can display different jaw morphologies that are better suited to different feeding strategies. As species members begin to concentrate around different food sources and continue their lifecycle, they most likely spawn with like individuals. This can reinforce the jaw morphology and given enough time, create new species. Such a process can happen through allopatric speciation, whereby species diverge according to different selection pressures in different geographical areas, or through sympatric speciation, by which new species evolve from a common ancestor while remaining in the same area. In Lake Apoyo in Nicaragua, *Amphilophus zaliosus* and its sister species *Amphilophus citrinellus* display many of the criteria needed for sympatric speciation. In the African rift lake system, cichlid species in numerous distinct lakes evolved from a shared hybrid swarm. Population status ----------------- In 2010, the International Union for Conservation of Nature classified 184 species as vulnerable, 52 as endangered, and 106 as critically endangered. At present, the IUCN only lists *Yssichromis* sp. nov. *argens* as extinct in the wild, and six species are listed as entirely extinct, but many more possibly belong in these categories (for example, *Haplochromis aelocephalus*, *H. apogonoides*, *H. dentex*, *H. dichrourus*, and numerous other members of the genus *Haplochromis* have not been seen since the 1980s, but are maintained as critically endangered on the small chance that tiny –but currently unknown– populations survive). ### Lake Victoria Because of the introduced Nile perch (*Lates niloticus*), Nile tilapia (*Oreochromis niloticus*), and water hyacinth, deforestation that led to water siltation, and overfishing, many Lake Victoria cichlid species have become extinct or been drastically reduced. By around 1980, lake fisheries yielded only 1% cichlids, a drastic decline from 80% in earlier years. By far the largest Lake Victoria group is the haplochromine cichlids, with more than 500 species, but at least 200 of these (about 40%) have become extinct, and many others are seriously threatened. Initially it was feared that the percentage of extinct species was even higher, but some species have been rediscovered after the Nile perch started to decline in the 1990s. Some species have survived in nearby small satellite lakes, or in refugia among rocks or papyrus sedges (protecting them from the Nile perch), or have adapted to the human-induced changes in the lake itself. The species were often specialists and these were not affected to the same extent. For example, the piscivorous haplochromines were particularly hard hit with a high number of extinctions, while the zooplanktivorous haplochromines reached densities in 2001 that were similar to before the drastic decline, although consisting of fewer species and with some changes in their ecology. Food and game fish ------------------ Although cichlids are mostly small- to medium-sized, many are notable as food and game fishes. With few thick rib bones and tasty flesh, artisan fishing is not uncommon in Central America and South America, as well as areas surrounding the African rift lakes. ### Tilapia The most important food cichlids, however, are the tilapiines of North Africa. Fast growing, tolerant of stocking density, and adaptable, tilapiine species have been introduced and farmed extensively in many parts of Asia and are increasingly common aquaculture targets elsewhere. Farmed tilapia production is about 1,500,000 tonnes (1,700,000 short tons) annually, with an estimated value of US$1.8 billion, about equal to that of salmon and trout. Unlike those carnivorous fish, tilapia can feed on algae or any plant-based food. This reduces the cost of tilapia farming, reduces fishing pressure on prey species, avoids concentrating toxins that accumulate at higher levels of the food chain, and makes tilapia the preferred "aquatic chickens" of the trade. ### Game fish Many large cichlids are popular game fish. The peacock bass (*Cichla* species) of South America is one of the most popular sportfish. It was introduced in many waters around the world.[*where?*] In Florida, this fish generates millions of hours of fishing and sportfishing revenue of more than US$8 million a year. Other cichlids preferred by anglers include the oscar, Mayan cichlid (*Cichlasoma urophthalmus*), and jaguar guapote (*Parachromis managuensis*). Aquarium fish ------------- Since 1945, cichlids have become increasingly popular as aquarium fish. The most common species in hobbyist aquaria is *Pterophyllum scalare* from the Amazon River basin in tropical South America, known in the trade as the "angelfish". Other popular or readily available species include the oscar (*Astronotus ocellatus*), convict cichlid (*Archocentrus nigrofasciatus*) and discus fish (*Symphysodon*). Hybrids and selective breeding ------------------------------ Some cichlids readily hybridize with related species, both in the wild and under artificial conditions. Other groups of fishes, such as European cyprinids, also hybridize. Unusually, cichlid hybrids have been put to extensive commercial use, in particular for aquaculture and aquaria. The hybrid red strain of tilapia, for example, is often preferred in aquaculture for its rapid growth. Tilapia hybridization can produce all-male populations to control stock density or prevent reproduction in ponds. ### Aquarium hybrids The most common aquarium hybrid is perhaps the blood parrot cichlid, which is a cross of several species, especially from species in the genus *Amphilophus*. (There are many hypotheses, but the most likely is: *Amphilophus labiatus* × *Vieja synspillus* With a triangular-shaped mouth, an abnormal spine, and an occasionally missing caudal fin (known as the "love heart" parrot cichlid), the fish is controversial among aquarists. Some have called blood parrot cichlids "the Frankenstein monster of the fish world". Another notable hybrid, the flowerhorn cichlid, was very popular in some parts of Asia from 2001 until late 2003, and is believed to bring good luck to its owner. The popularity of the flowerhorn cichlid declined in 2004. Owners released many specimens into the rivers and canals of Malaysia and Singapore, where they threaten endemic communities. Numerous cichlid species have been selectively bred to develop ornamental aquarium strains. The most intensive programs have involved angelfish and discus, and many mutations that affect both coloration and fins are known. Other cichlids have been bred for albino, leucistic, and xanthistic pigment mutations, including oscars, convict cichlid and *Pelvicachromis pulcher*. Both dominant and recessive pigment mutations have been observed. In convict cichlids, for example, a leucistic coloration is recessively inherited, while in *Oreochromis niloticus niloticus*, red coloration is caused by a dominant inherited mutation. This selective breeding may have unintended consequences. For example, hybrid strains of *Mikrogeophagus ramirezi* have health and fertility problems. Similarly, intentional inbreeding can cause physical abnormalities, such as the notched phenotype in angelfish. Genera ------ The genus list is as per FishBase. Studies are continuing, however, on the members of this family, particularly the haplochromine cichlids of the African rift lakes. | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | * *Abactochromis* Oliver & Arnegard 2010 * *Acarichthys* Eigenmann 1912 * *Acaronia* Myers 1940 * *Alcolapia* Thys van den Audenaerde 1969 * *Alticorpus* Stauffer & McKaye 1988 * *Altolamprologus* Poll 1986 * *Amatitlania* Schmitter-Soto, 2007 * *Amphilophus* Agassiz, 1859 * *Andinoacara* Musilova, Rican, & Novak 2009 * *Anomalochromis* Greenwood 1985 * *Apistogramma* Regan 1913 * *Apistogrammoides* Meinken 1965 * *Aristochromis* Trewavas, 1935 * *Astatoreochromis* Pellegrin 1904 * *Astatotilapia* Pellegrin 1904 * *Astronotus* Swainson 1839 * *Aulonocara* Regan 1922 * *Aulonocranus* Regan 1920 * *Australoheros* Rican & Kullander 2006 * *Baileychromis* Poll 1986 * *Bathybates* Boulenger 1898 * *Benitochromis* Lamboj 2001 * *Benthochromis* Poll 1986 * *Biotodoma* Eigenmann & Kennedy 1903 * *Biotoecus* Eigenmann & Kennedy 1903 * *Boulengerochromis* Pellegrin 1904 * *Buccochromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Bujurquina* Kullander 1986 * *Callochromis* Regan 1920 * *Caprichromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Caquetaia* Fowler 1945 * *Cardiopharynx* Poll 1942 * *Chaetobranchopsis* Steindachner, 1875 * *Chaetobranchus* Heckel, 1840 * *Chalinochromis* Poll 1974 * *Champsochromis* Boulenger 1915 * *Cheilochromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Chetia* Trewavas 1961 * *Chilochromis* Boulenger 1902 * *Chilotilapia* Boulenger 1908 * *Chromidotilapia* Boulenger 1898 * *Cichla* Bloch & Schneider 1801 * *Cichlasoma* Swainson 1839 * *Cleithracara* Kullander & Nijssen 1989 * *Coelotilapia* * *Congochromis* Stiassny & Schliewen 2007 * *Congolapia* * *Copadichromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Coptodon* * *Corematodus* Boulenger 1897 * *Crenicara* Steindachner 1875 * *Crenicichla* Heckel 1840 * *Cryptoheros* Allgayer 2001 * *Ctenochromis* Pfeffer 1893 * *Ctenopharynx* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Cunningtonia* Boulenger 1906 * *Cyathochromis* Trewavas 1935 * *Cyathopharynx* Regan 1920 * *Cyclopharynx* Poll 1948 * *Cynotilapia* Regan 1922 * *Cyphotilapia* Regan 1920 * *Cyprichromis* Scheuermann 1977 * *Cyrtocara* Boulenger 1902 * *Danakilia* Thys van den Audenaerde 1969 * *Dicrossus* Steindachner 1875 * *Dimidiochromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Diplotaxodon* Trewavas 1935 * *Divandu* Lamboj & Snoeks 2000 * *Docimodus* Boulenger 1897 * *Eclectochromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Ectodus* Boulenger 1898 * *Enigmatochromis* Lamboj 2009 * *Eretmodus* Boulenger 1898 * *Etia* Schliewen & Stiassny 2003 | * *Etroplus* Cuvier 1830 * *Exochochromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Fossorochromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Genyochromis* Trewavas 1935 * *Geophagus* Heckel 1840 * *Gephyrochromis* Boulenger 1901 * *Gnathochromis* Poll 1981 * *Gobiocichla* Kanazawa 1951 * *Grammatotria* Boulenger 1899 * *Greenwoodochromis* Poll 1983 * *Guianacara* Kullander & Nijssen 1989 * *Gymnogeophagus* Miranda Ribeiro 1918 * *Haplochromis* Hilgendorf 1888 * *Haplotaxodon* Boulenger 1906 * *Hemibates* Regan 1920 * *Hemichromis* Peters 1857 * *Hemitaeniochromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Hemitilapia* Boulenger 1902 * *Herichthys* Baird & Girard 1854 * *Heroina* Kullander, 1996 * *Heros* Heckel, 1840 * *Heterochromis* Regan 1922 * *Heterotilapia* * *Hoplarchus* Kaup,1860 * *Hypselecara* Kullander 1986 * *Hypsophrys* Agassiz 1859 * *Interochromis* Yamaoka, Hori & Kuwamura 1988 * *Iodotropheus* Oliver & Loiselle 1972 * *Iranocichla* Coad 1982 * *Julidochromis* Boulenger 1898 * *Katria* Stiassny & Sparks 2006 * *Konia* Trewavas 1972 * *Krobia* Kullander & Nijssen 1989 * *Labeotropheus* Ahl 1926 * *Labidochromis* Trewavas 1935 * *Laetacara* Kullander 1986 * *Lamprologus* Schilthuis 1891 * *Lepidiolamprologus* Pellegrin 1904 * *Lestradea* Poll 1943 * *Lethrinops* Regan 1922 * *Lichnochromis* Trewavas 1935 * *Limbochromis* Greenwood 1987 * *Limnochromis* Regan 1920 * *Limnotilapia* Regan 1920 * *Lobochilotes* Boulenger 1915 * †*Mahengechromis* Murray 2001 * *Maylandia* Meyer & Foerster 1984 * *Mazarunia* Kullander 1990 * *Mchenga* Stauffer & Konings, 2006 * *Melanochromis* Trewavas, 1935 * *Mesonauta* Günther, 1862 * *Microchromis* Johnson 1975 * *Mikrogeophagus* Meulengracht-Madson 1968 * *Myaka* Trewavas 1972 * *Mylochromis* Regan 1920 * *Naevochromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Nandopsis* Gill, 1862 * *Nannacara* Regan 1905 * *Nanochromis* Pellegrin 1904 * *Neolamprologus* Colombe & Allgayer 1985 * *Nimbochromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Nosferatu* De la Maza-Benignos, Ornelas-García, Lozano-Vilano, García Ramírez & Doadrio, 2015 * *Nyassachromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Ophthalmotilapia* Pellegrin 1904 * *Oreochromis* Günther 1889 * *Orthochromis* Greenwood 1954 * *Otopharynx* Regan 1920 * *Oxylapia* Kiener & Maugé 1966 * *Pallidochromis* Turner 1994 * *Parachromis* Agassiz 1859 * *Paracyprichromis* Poll 1986 * *Parananochromis* Greenwood 1987 * *Paraneetroplus* Regan 1905 * *Paratilapia* Bleeker, 1868 * *Paretroplus* Bleeker, 1868 * *Pelmatochromis* Steindachner 1894 * *Pelmatolapia* | * *Pelvicachromis* Thys van den Audenaerde 1968 * *Perissodus* Boulenger 1898 * *Petenia* Günther, 1862 * *Petrochromis* Boulenger 1898 * *Petrotilapia* Trewavas 1935 * *Pharyngochromis* Greenwood 1979 * *Placidochromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Plecodus* Boulenger 1898 * *Protomelas* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Pseudocrenilabrus* Fowler 1934 * *Pseudosimochromis* Nelissen 1977 * *Pseudotropheus* Regan 1922 * *Pterochromis* Trewavas 1973 * *Pterophyllum* Heckel 1840 * *Ptychochromis* Steindachner 1880 * *Ptychochromoides* Kiener & Mauge 1966 * *Pungu* Trewavas 1972 * *Reganochromis* Whitley 1929 * *Retroculus* Eigenmann & Bray 1894 * *Rhamphochromis* Regan 1922 * *Rocio* Schmitter-Soto, 2007 * *Sargochromis* Regan 1920 * *Sarotherodon* Rppell 1852 * *Satanoperca* Günther, 1862 * *Schwetzochromis* Poll 1948 * *Sciaenochromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Serranochromis* Regan 1920 * *Simochromis* Boulenger 1898 * *Spathodus* Boulenger 1900 * *Steatocranus* Boulenger 1899 * *Stigmatochromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Stomatepia* Trewavas 1962 * *Symphysodon* Heckel 1840 * *Taeniacara* Myers 1935 * *Taeniochromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Taeniolethrinops* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Tahuantinsuyoa* Kullander 1991 * *Tangachromis* Poll 1981 * *Tanganicodus* Poll 1950 * *Teleocichla* Kullander 1988 * *Teleogramma* Boulenger 1899 * *Telmatochromis* Boulenger 1898 * *Theraps* Günther, 1862 * *Thoracochromis* Greenwood 1979 * *Thorichthys* Meek 1904 * *Thysochromis* Daget 1988 * *Tilapia* Smith, 1840 See also: Tilapiine cichlids * *Tomocichla* Regan 1908 * *Tramitichromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Trematocara* Boulenger 1899 * *Trematocranus* Trewavas 1935 * *Triglachromis* Poll & Thys van den Audenaerde 1974 * *Tristramella* Trewavas 1942 * *Tropheops* Trewavas 1984 * *Tropheus* Boulenger 1898 * *Tylochromis* Regan 1920 * *Tyrannochromis* Eccles & Trewavas 1989 * *Uaru* Heckel 1840 * *Variabilichromis* Colombe & Allgayer 1985 * *Xenochromis* Boulenger 1899 * *Xenotilapia* Boulenger 1899 | Gallery ------- * The oscar (Astronotus ocellatus) is one of the most popular cichlids in the fishkeeping hobby.The oscar (*Astronotus ocellatus*) is one of the most popular cichlids in the fishkeeping hobby. * The butterfly peacock bass (Cichla ocellaris) was introduced intentionally in Florida as gamefish.The butterfly peacock bass (*Cichla ocellaris*) was introduced intentionally in Florida as gamefish. * The Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is farmed extensively as food fish in many parts of the world.The Nile tilapia (*Oreochromis niloticus*) is farmed extensively as food fish in many parts of the world. * The angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) has long been commercially bred for the aquarium trade.The angelfish (*Pterophyllum scalare*) has long been commercially bred for the aquarium trade. * Sexual dimorphism is common in cichlids. Shown here are a male (front, with egg spots) and a female (rear) Maylandia lombardoi.Sexual dimorphism is common in cichlids. Shown here are a male (front, with egg spots) and a female (rear) *Maylandia lombardoi*. * A pair of blue rams (Mikrogeophagus ramirezi), male in front, female behind. Many cichlids form strong pair bonds while breeding.A pair of blue rams (*Mikrogeophagus ramirezi*), male in front, female behind. Many cichlids form strong pair bonds while breeding. * A discus (Symphysodon spp.) is guarding its eggs. Advanced broodcare is one of the defining characteristics of cichlids.A discus (*Symphysodon spp.*) is guarding its eggs. Advanced broodcare is one of the defining characteristics of cichlids. * Lake Malawi, Eastern Africa, is home to numerous cichild species including this Livingston's cichlid (Nimbochromis livingstonii).Lake Malawi, Eastern Africa, is home to numerous cichild species including this Livingston's cichlid (*Nimbochromis livingstonii*). * Also from Lake MalawiAlso from Lake Malawi * Also from Lake MalawiAlso from Lake Malawi * A shell-brooding cichlid of the genus Lamprologus from Lake Tanganyika in East AfricaA shell-brooding cichlid of the genus *Lamprologus* from Lake Tanganyika in East Africa * The Texas cichlid (Herichthys cyanoguttatus) is the only cichlid native to the United States.The Texas cichlid (*Herichthys cyanoguttatus*) is the only cichlid native to the United States. * Pelvicachromis pulcher is a West African riverine cichlid, and part of the aquarists dwarf cichlid group.*Pelvicachromis pulcher* is a West African riverine cichlid, and part of the aquarists dwarf cichlid group. * The flowerhorn cichlid is a man-made hybrid that has recently gained popularity among aquarists, particularly in Asia.The flowerhorn cichlid is a man-made hybrid that has recently gained popularity among aquarists, particularly in Asia. * Ivanacara adoketa, a dwarf cichlid from Brazil*Ivanacara adoketa*, a dwarf cichlid from Brazil * The red terror cichlid is a highly aggressive species from the rivers of Northeast South America.The red terror cichlid is a highly aggressive species from the rivers of Northeast South America. * A juvenile female Maylandia lombardoi with faint stripesA juvenile female Maylandia lombardoi with faint stripes * A juvenile Aequidens diademaA juvenile *Aequidens diadema* Further reading --------------- * Barlow, G.W. (2000). *The Cichlid Fishes*. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing. * "Cichlidae". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.: National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C., 2004-05-11). * Sany, R.H. (2012). Taxonomy of Cichlids and Angels (web publication).[*full citation needed*]

Cichlid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cichlid

**Slavery** is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labor. Slavery typically involves compulsory work with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. **Enslavement** is the placement of a person into slavery. Many historical cases of enslavement occurred as a result of breaking the law, becoming indebted, suffering a military defeat, or exploitation for cheaper labor; other forms of slavery were instituted along demographic lines such as race or sex. Slaves may be kept in bondage for life, or for a fixed period of time after which they would be granted freedom. Although slavery is usually involuntary and involves coercion, there are also cases where people voluntarily enter into slavery to pay a debt or earn money due to poverty. In the course of human history, slavery was a typical feature of civilization, and was legal in most societies, but it is now outlawed in most countries of the world, except as a punishment for a crime. In **chattel slavery**, the slave is legally rendered the personal property (chattel) of the slave owner. In economics, the term **de facto slavery** describes the conditions of unfree labour and forced labour that most slaves endure. The Islamic Republic of Mauritania was the last country in the world to officially ban slavery. In 2007, "under international pressure", its government passed a law allowing slaveholders to be prosecuted. However, in 2019, approximately 40 million people, of whom 26% were children, were still enslaved throughout the world despite slavery being illegal. In the modern world, more than 50% of slaves provide forced labour, usually in the factories and sweatshops of the private sector of a country's economy. In industrialised countries, human trafficking is a modern variety of slavery; in non-industrialised countries, enslavement by debt bondage is a common form of enslaving a person, such as captive domestic servants, people in forced marriages, and child soldiers. Terminology ----------- The word slave arrived in modern English from Middle English *sclave*, from Old French *esclave*, from Late Middle High German *sklave*, from Medieval Latin *sclāvus*, from Late Latin *Sclāvus*, from Byzantine Greek Σκλάβος [*Sklábos*], Έσκλαβήνος [*Ésklabḗnos*]. According to the widespread view, which has been known since the 18th century, Byzantine Σκλάβινοι [*Sklábinoi*], Έσκλαβηνοί [*Ésklabēnoí*], borrowed from Slavic gen self-name \**Slověninŭ* turned into Σκλάβος, Έσκλαβήνος (Late Latin *Sclāvus*) in the meaning 'prisoner of war Slave', 'slave' in 8th/9th century, because they often became captured and enslaved. However this version has been disputed since the 19th century. An alternative contemporary hypothesis states that Medieval Latin *sclāvus* via \**scylāvus* derives from Byzantine σκυλάω [*skūláō*, *skyláō*], σκυλεύω [*skūleúō*, *skyleúō*] - "to strip the enemy (killed in a battle)", "to make booty / extract spoils of war". This version is criticized as well. There is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as "unfree labourer" or "**enslaved person**", rather than "slave", should be used when describing the victims of slavery. According to those proposing a change in terminology, *slave* perpetuates the crime of slavery in language by reducing its victims to a nonhuman noun instead of "carry[ing] them forward as people, not the property that they were" (see also *People-first language*). Other historians prefer *slave* because the term is familiar and shorter, or because it accurately reflects the inhumanity of slavery, with *person* implying a degree of autonomy that slavery does not allow. ### Chattel slavery As a social institution, chattel slavery classes slaves as *chattels* (personal property) owned by the enslaver; like livestock, they can be bought and sold at will. Chattel slavery was practiced in places such as the Roman Empire and classical Greece, where it was considered a keystone of society. Chattel slavery reached its modern extreme in the Americas during European colonization. Beginning in the 18th century, a series of abolitionist movements saw slavery as a violation of the slaves' rights as people ("all men are created equal"), and sought to abolish it. Abolitionism encountered extreme resistance but was eventually successful; the last Western country to abolish slavery was Brazil, in 1888. The last country to abolish slavery, Mauritania, did so in 1981. The 1981 ban on slavery was not effectively enforced in practice, as there were no legal mechanisms to prosecute those who used slaves. This only came in 2007. ### Bonded labour Indenture, also known as bonded labour or debt bondage, is a form of unfree labour in which a person works to pay off a debt by pledging himself or herself as collateral. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, may be undefined. Debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their progenitors' debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today. Debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. Money marriage refers to a marriage where a girl, usually, is married off to a man to settle debts owed by her parents. The Chukri system is a debt bondage system found in parts of Bengal where a female can be coerced into prostitution in order to pay off debts. ### Dependents The word "slavery" has also been used to refer to a legal state of dependency to somebody else. For example, in Persia, the situations and lives of such slaves could be better than those of common citizens. ### Forced labour Forced labour, or unfree labour, is sometimes used to describe an individual who is forced to work against their own will, under threat of violence or other punishment, but the generic term "unfree labour" is also used to describe chattel slavery, as well as any other situation in which a person is obliged to work against their own will, and a person's ability to work productively is under the complete control of another person. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription and penal labour. While some unfree labourers, such as serfs, have substantive, *de jure* legal or traditional rights, they also have no ability to terminate the arrangements under which they work and are frequently subject to forms of coercion, violence, and restrictions on their activities and movement outside their place of work. Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution and is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil and Mexico having been identified as leading hotspots of commercial sexual exploitation of children. #### Child soldiers and child labor In 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in then-current conflicts. More girls under 16 work as domestic workers than any other category of child labour, often sent to cities by parents living in rural poverty as with the Haitian restaveks. ### Forced marriage Forced marriages or early marriages are often considered types of slavery. Forced marriage continues to be practiced in parts of the world including some parts of Asia and Africa and in immigrant communities in the West. Sacred prostitution is where girls and women are pledged to priests or those of higher castes, such as the practice of Devadasi in South Asia or fetish slaves in West Africa. Marriage by abduction occurs in many places in the world today, with a 2003 study finding a national average of 69% of marriages in Ethiopia being through abduction. ### Other uses of the term The word *slavery* is often used as a pejorative to describe any activity in which one is coerced into performing. Some argue that military drafts and other forms of coerced government labour constitute "state-operated slavery." Some libertarians and anarcho-capitalists view government taxation as a form of slavery. "Slavery" has been used by some anti-psychiatry proponents to define involuntary psychiatric patients, claiming there are no unbiased physical tests for mental illness and yet the psychiatric patient must follow the orders of the psychiatrist. They assert that instead of chains to control the slave, the psychiatrist uses drugs to control the mind. Drapetomania was a pseudoscientific psychiatric diagnosis for a slave who desired freedom; "symptoms" included laziness and the tendency to flee captivity. Some proponents of animal rights have applied the term *slavery* to the condition of some or all human-owned animals, arguing that their status is comparable to that of human slaves. The labour market, as institutionalized under contemporary capitalist systems, has been criticized by mainstream socialists and by anarcho-syndicalists, who utilise the term wage slavery as a pejorative or dysphemism for wage labour. Socialists draw parallels between the trade of labour as a commodity and slavery. Cicero is also known to have suggested such parallels. Characteristics --------------- ### Economics Economists have modeled the circumstances under which slavery (and variants such as serfdom) appear and disappear. One observation is that slavery becomes more desirable for landowners where land is abundant but labour is scarce, such that rent is depressed and paid workers can demand high wages. If the opposite holds true, then it is more costly for landowners to guard the slaves than to employ paid workers who can demand only low wages because of the degree of competition. Thus, first slavery and then serfdom gradually decreased in Europe as the population grew. They were reintroduced in the Americas and in Russia as large areas of land with few inhabitants became available. Slavery is more common when the tasks are relatively simple and thus easy to supervise, such as large-scale monocrops such as sugarcane and cotton, in which output depended on economies of scale. This enables systems of labour, such as the gang system in the United States, to become prominent on large plantations where field hands toiled with factory-like precision. Then, each work gang was based on an internal division of labour that assigned every member of the gang to a task and made each worker's performance dependent on the actions of the others. The slaves chopped out the weeds that surrounded the cotton plants as well as excess sprouts. Plow gangs followed behind, stirring the soil near the plants and tossing it back around the plants. Thus, the gang system worked like an assembly line. Since the 18th century, critics have argued that slavery retards technological advancement because the focus is on increasing the number of slaves doing simple tasks rather than upgrading their efficiency. For example, it is sometimes argued that, because of this narrow focus, technology in Greece – and later in Rome – was not applied to ease physical labour or improve manufacturing. Scottish economist Adam Smith stated that free labour was economically better than slave labour, and that it was nearly impossible to end slavery in a free, democratic, or republican form of government since many of its legislators or political figures were slave owners, and would not punish themselves. He further stated that slaves would be better able to gain their freedom under centralized government, or a central authority like a king or church. Similar arguments appeared later in the works of Auguste Comte, especially given Smith's belief in the separation of powers, or what Comte called the "separation of the spiritual and the temporal" during the Middle Ages and the end of slavery, and Smith's criticism of masters, past and present. As Smith stated in the *Lectures on Jurisprudence*, "The great power of the clergy thus concurring with that of the king set the slaves at liberty. But it was absolutely necessary both that the authority of the king and of the clergy should be great. Where ever any one of these was wanting, slavery still continues..." Even after slavery became a criminal offense, slave owners could get high returns. According to researcher Siddharth Kara, the profits generated worldwide by all forms of slavery in 2007 were $91.2 billion. That was second only to drug trafficking, in terms of global criminal enterprises. At the time the weighted average global sales price of a slave was estimated to be approximately $340, with a high of $1,895 for the average trafficked sex slave, and a low of $40 to $50 for debt bondage slaves in part of Asia and Africa. The weighted average annual profits generated by a slave in 2007 was $3,175, with a low of an average $950 for bonded labour and $29,210 for a trafficked sex slave. Approximately 40% of slave profits each year were generated by trafficked sex slaves, representing slightly more than 4% of the world's 29 million slaves. ### Identification A widespread practice was branding, either to explicitly mark slaves as property or as punishment. Legal aspects ------------- ### Private versus state-owned slaves Slaves have been owned privately by individuals but have also been under state ownership. For example, the *kisaeng* were women from low castes in pre modern Korea, who were owned by the state under government officials known as *hojang* and were required to provide entertainment to the aristocracy; in the 2020s some are denoted *Kippumjo* (the pleasure brigades of North Korea — serving as the concubines of the rulers of the state). "Tribute labor" is compulsory labor for the state and has been used in various iterations such as corvée. The internment camps of totalitarian regimes such as the Nazis and the Soviet Union placed increasing importance on the labor provided in those camps, leading to a growing tendency among historians to designate such systems as slavery. In the "Red Rubber System" in the Congo Free State , as well as French ruled Ubangi-Shari, labour was demanded as taxation and private companies in the areas they were granted concessions were allowed to use any measures to increase rubber production. Convict leasing was common in the Southern United States where the state would lease prisoners for their free labour to companies. ### Legal rights Depending upon the era and the country, slaves sometimes had a limited set of legal rights. For example, in the Province of New York, people who deliberately killed slaves were punishable under a 1686 statute. And, as already mentioned, certain legal rights attached to the nobi in Korea, to slaves in various African societies, and to black female slaves in the French colony of Louisiana. Giving slaves legal rights has sometimes been a matter of morality, but also sometimes a matter of self-interest. For example, in ancient Athens, protecting slaves from mistreatment simultaneously protected people who might be mistaken for slaves, and giving slaves limited property rights incentivized slaves to work harder to get more property. In the southern United States prior to the extirpation of slavery in 1865, a proslavery legal treatise reported that slaves accused of crimes typically had a legal right to counsel, freedom from double jeopardy, a right to trial by jury in graver cases, and the right to grand jury indictment, but they lacked many other rights such as white adults' ability to control their own lives. History ------- Slavery predates written records and has existed in many cultures. Slavery is rare among hunter-gatherer populations because it requires economic surpluses and a substantial population density. Thus, although it has existed among unusually resource-rich hunter gatherers, such as the American Indian peoples of the salmon-rich rivers of the Pacific Northwest coast, slavery became widespread only with the invention of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution about 11,000 years ago. Slavery was practiced in almost every ancient civilization. Such institutions included debt bondage, punishment for crime, the enslavement of prisoners of war, child abandonment, and the enslavement of slaves' offspring. ### Africa Slavery was widespread in Africa, which pursued both internal and external slave trade. In the Senegambia region, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In early Islamic states of the western Sahel, including Ghana, Mali, Segou, and Songhai, about a third of the population were enslaved. In European courtly society, and European aristocracy, black African slaves and their children became visible in the late 1300s and 1400s. Starting with Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, black Africans were included in the retinue. In 1402 and Ethiopian embassy reached Venice. In the 1470s black Africans were painted as court attendants in wall paintings that were displayed in Mantua and Ferrara. In the 1490s black Africans were included on the emblem of the Duke of Milan. During the trans-Saharan slave trade, slaves from West Africa were transported across the Sahara desert to North Africa to be sold to Mediterranean and Middle eastern civilizations. The Indian Ocean slave trade, sometimes known as the east African slave trade, was multi-directional. Africans were sent as slaves to the Arabian Peninsula, to Indian Ocean islands (including Madagascar), to the Indian subcontinent, and later to the Americas. These traders captured Bantu peoples (Zanj) from the interior in present-day Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania and brought them to the coast. There, the slaves gradually assimilated in rural areas, particularly on Unguja and Pemba islands. Some historians assert that as many as 17 million people were sold into slavery on the coast of the Indian Ocean, the Middle East, and North Africa, and approximately 5 million African slaves were bought by Muslim slave traders and taken from Africa across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara desert between 1500 and 1900. The captives were sold throughout the Middle East. This trade accelerated as superior ships led to more trade and greater demand for labour on plantations in the region. Eventually, tens of thousands of captives were being taken every year. The Indian Ocean slave trade was multi-directional and changed over time. To meet the demand for menial labour, Bantu slaves bought by east African slave traders from southeastern Africa were sold in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries to customers in Egypt, Arabia, the Persian Gulf, India, European colonies in the Far East, the Indian Ocean islands, Ethiopia and Somalia. According to the *Encyclopedia of African History*, "It is estimated that by the 1890s the largest slave population of the world, about 2 million people, was concentrated in the territories of the Sokoto Caliphate. The use of slave labour was extensive, especially in agriculture." The Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2 million slaves in Ethiopia in the early 1930s out of an estimated population of 8 to 16 million. Slave labour in East Africa was drawn from the *Zanj*, Bantu peoples that lived along the East African coast. The Zanj were for centuries shipped as slaves by Arab traders to all the countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs recruited many Zanj slaves as soldiers and, as early as 696, there were slave revolts of the Zanj against their Arab enslavers in Iraq. The Zanj Rebellion, a series of uprisings that took place between 869 and 883 near Basra (also known as Basara), situated in present-day Iraq, is believed to have involved enslaved Zanj that had originally been captured from the African Great Lakes region and areas further south in East Africa. It grew to involve over 500,000 slaves and free men who were imported from across the Muslim empire and claimed over "tens of thousands of lives in lower Iraq". The Zanj who were taken as slaves to the Middle East were often used in strenuous agricultural work. As the plantation economy boomed and the Arabs became richer, agriculture and other manual labour work was thought to be demeaning. The resulting labour shortage led to an increased slave market. In Algiers, the capital of Algeria, captured Christians and Europeans were forced into slavery. In about 1650, there were as many as 35,000 Christian slaves in Algiers. By one estimate, raids by Barbary slave traders on coastal villages and ships extending from Italy to Iceland, enslaved an estimated 1 to 1.25 million Europeans between the 16th and 19th centuries. However, this estimate is the result of an extrapolation which assumes that the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates was constant for a 250-year period: > There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000. > > Davis' numbers have been refuted by other historians, such as David Earle, who cautions that true picture of Europeans slaves is clouded by the fact the corsairs also seized non-Christian whites from eastern Europe. In addition, the number of slaves traded was hyperactive, with exaggerated estimates relying on peak years to calculate averages for entire centuries, or millennia. Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records. Middle East expert, John Wright, cautions that modern estimates are based on back-calculations from human observation. Such observations, across the late 16th and early 17th century observers, account for around 35,000 European Christian slaves held throughout this period on the Barbary Coast, across Tripoli, Tunis, but mostly in Algiers. The majority were sailors (particularly those who were English), taken with their ships, but others were fishermen and coastal villagers. However, most of these captives were people from lands close to Africa, particularly Spain and Italy. This eventually led to the bombardment of Algiers by an Anglo-Dutch fleet in 1816. Under Omani Arabs, Zanzibar became East Africa's main slave port, with as many as 50,000 African slaves passing through every year during the 19th century. Some historians estimate that between 11 and 18 million African slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert from 650 to 1900 AD.[*failed verification*] Eduard Rüppell described the losses of Sudanese slaves being transported on foot to Egypt: "after the Daftardar bey's 1822 campaign in the southern Nuba mountains, nearly 40,000 slaves were captured. However, through bad treatment, disease and desert travel barely 5,000 made it to Egypt." W.A. Veenhoven wrote: "The German doctor, Gustav Nachtigal, an eye-witness, believed that for every slave who arrived at a market three or four died on the way ... Keltie (*The Partition of Africa*, London, 1920) believes that for every slave the Arabs brought to the coast at least six died on the way or during the slavers' raid. Livingstone puts the figure as high as ten to one." Systems of servitude and slavery were common in parts of Africa, as they were in much of the ancient world. In many African societies where slavery was prevalent, the slaves were not treated as chattel slaves and were given certain rights in a system similar to indentured servitude elsewhere in the world. The forms of slavery in Africa were closely related to kinship structures. In many African communities, where land could not be owned, enslavement of individuals was used as a means to increase the influence a person had and expand connections. This made slaves a permanent part of a master's lineage and the children of slaves could become closely connected with the larger family ties. Children of slaves born into families could be integrated into the master's kinship group and rise to prominent positions within society, even to the level of chief in some instances. However, stigma often remained attached and there could be strict separations between slave members of a kinship group and those related to the master. Slavery was practiced in many different forms: debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, and criminal slavery were all practiced in various parts of Africa. Slavery for domestic and court purposes was widespread throughout Africa. When the Atlantic slave trade began, many of the local slave systems began supplying captives for chattel slave markets outside Africa. Although the Atlantic slave trade was not the only slave trade from Africa, it was the largest in volume and intensity. As Elikia M'bokolo wrote in *Le Monde diplomatique*: > The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth).... Four million enslaved people exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean. > > The trans-Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by African kingdoms, such as the Oyo Empire (Yoruba), the Ashanti Empire, the kingdom of Dahomey, and the Aro Confederacy. It is estimated that about 15 percent of slaves died during the voyage, with mortality rates considerably higher in Africa itself in the process of capturing and transporting indigenous peoples to the ships. ### Americas Slavery in Mexico can be traced back to the Aztecs. Other Amerindians, such as the Inca of the Andes, the Tupinambá of Brazil, the Creek of Georgia, and the Comanche of Texas, also practiced slavery. Slavery in Canada was practiced by First Nations and by European settlers. Slave-owning people of what became Canada were, for example, the fishing societies, such as the Yurok, that lived along the Pacific coast from Alaska to California, on what is sometimes described as the Pacific or Northern Northwest Coast. Some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, such as the Haida and Tlingit, were traditionally known as fierce warriors and slave-traders, raiding as far as California. Slavery was hereditary, the slaves being prisoners of war and their descendants were slaves. Some nations in British Columbia continued to segregate and ostracize the descendants of slaves as late as the 1970s. Diagrams of a slave ship and the alignment of captive slaves during the Atlantic slave trade. Slavery in America remains a contentious issue and played a major role in the history and evolution of some countries, triggering a revolution, a civil war, and numerous rebellions. The countries that controlled the transatlantic slave market in terms of number of slaves shipped were: **the United Kingdom, Portugal and France.** In order to establish itself as an American empire, Spain had to fight against the relatively powerful civilizations of the New World. The Spanish conquest of the indigenous peoples in the Americas included using the Natives as forced labour. The Spanish colonies were the first Europeans to use African slaves in the New World on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola. It was argued by some contemporary writers to be intrinsically immoral. Bartolomé de las Casas, a 16th-century Dominican friar and Spanish historian, participated in campaigns in Cuba (at Bayamo and Camagüey) and was present at the massacre of Hatuey; his observation of that massacre led him to fight for a social movement away from the use of natives as slaves. Also, the alarming decline in the native population had spurred the first royal laws protecting the native population. The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501. This era saw a growth in race-based slavery England played a prominent role in the Atlantic slave trade. The "slave triangle" was pioneered by Francis Drake and his associates, though English slave-trading would not take off until the mid-17th century. Many whites who arrived in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came under contract as indentured servants. The transformation from indentured servitude to slavery was a gradual process in Virginia. The earliest legal documentation of such a shift was in 1640 where a Black man, John Punch, was sentenced to lifetime slavery, forcing him to serve his master, Hugh Gwyn, for the remainder of his life, for attempting to run away. This case was significant because it established the disparity between his sentence as a black man and that of the two white indentured servants who escaped with him (one described as Dutch and one as a Scotchman). It is the first documented case of a black man sentenced to lifetime servitude and is considered one of the first legal cases to make a racial distinction between black and white indentured servants. After 1640, planters started to ignore the expiration of indentured contracts and keep their servants as slaves for life. This was demonstrated by the 1655 case *Johnson v. Parker*, where the court ruled that a black man, Anthony Johnson of Virginia, was granted ownership of another black man, John Casor, as the result of a civil case. This was the first instance of a judicial determination in the Thirteen Colonies holding that a person who had committed no crime could be held in servitude for life. #### Spanish colonial America In 1519, Hernán Cortés brought the first modern slave to the area. In the mid-16th century, the Spanish New Laws, prohibited slavery of the indigenous people, including the Aztecs. A labour shortage resulted. This led to the African slaves being imported, as they were not susceptible to smallpox. In exchange, many Africans were afforded the opportunity to buy their freedom, while eventually others were granted their freedom by their masters. In Jamaica, the Spanish enslaved many of the Taino; some escaped, but most died from European diseases and overwork. The Spaniards also introduced the first African slaves. Spain practically did not trade in slaves until 1810 after the rebellions and independence of its American territories or viceroyalties. After the Napoleonic invasions, Spain had lost its industry and its American territories, except in Cuba and Puerto Rico, where the African slave trade to Cuba began on a massive scale from 1810 onwards. It was started by French planters exiled from the French lost colony Saint Domingue (Haiti) who settled in the eastern part of Cuba. ``` In 1789 the Spanish Crown led an effort to reform slavery, as the demand for slave labour in Cuba was growing. The Crown issued a decree, *Código Negro Español* (Spanish Black Code), that specified food and clothing provisions, put limits on the number of work hours, limited punishments, required religious instruction, and protected marriages, forbidding the sale of young children away from their mothers. The British made other changes to the institution of slavery in Cuba. But planters often flouted the laws and protested against them, considering them a threat to their authority and an intrusion into their personal lives. ``` #### English and Dutch Caribbean In the early 17th century, the majority of the labour in Barbados was provided by European indentured servants, mainly English, Irish and Scottish, with African and native American slaves providing little of the workforce. The introduction of sugar cane in 1640 completely transformed society and the economy. Barbados eventually had one of the world's largest sugar industries. The workable sugar plantation required a large investment and a great deal of heavy labour. At first, Dutch traders supplied the equipment, financing, and African slaves, in addition to transporting most of the sugar to Europe. In 1644, the population of Barbados was estimated at 30,000, of which about 800 were of African descent, with the remainder mainly of English descent. By 1700, there were 15,000 free whites and 50,000 enslaved Africans. In Jamaica, although the African slave population in the 1670s and 1680s never exceeded 10,000, by 1800 it had increased to over 300,000. The increased implementation of slave codes or black codes, which created differential treatment between Africans and the white workers and ruling planter class. In response to these codes, several slave rebellions were attempted or planned during this time, but none succeeded. The planters of the Dutch colony of Suriname relied heavily on African slaves to cultivate, harvest and process the commodity crops of coffee, cocoa, sugar cane and cotton plantations. The Netherlands abolished slavery in Suriname in 1863. Many slaves escaped the plantations. With the help of the native South Americans living in the adjoining rain forests, these runaway slaves established a new and unique culture in the interior that was highly successful in its own right. They were known collectively in English as Maroons, in French as *Nèg'Marrons* (literally meaning "brown negroes", that is "pale-skinned negroes"), and in Dutch as *Marrons*. The Maroons gradually developed several independent tribes through a process of ethnogenesis, as they were made up of slaves from different African ethnicities. These tribes include the Saramaka, Paramaka, Ndyuka or Aukan, Kwinti, Aluku or Boni, and Matawai. The Maroons often raided plantations to recruit new members from the slaves and capture women, as well as to acquire weapons, food and supplies. They sometimes killed planters and their families in the raids. The colonists also mounted armed campaigns against the Maroons, who generally escaped through the rain forest, which they knew much better than did the colonists. To end hostilities, in the 18th century the European colonial authorities signed several peace treaties with different tribes. They granted the Maroons sovereign status and trade rights in their inland territories, giving them autonomy. #### Brazil Slavery in Brazil began long before the first Portuguese settlement was established in 1532, as members of one tribe would enslave captured members of another. Later, Portuguese colonists were heavily dependent on indigenous labour during the initial phases of settlement to maintain the subsistence economy, and natives were often captured by expeditions called *bandeiras*. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, but the enslavement of indigenous peoples continued well into the 17th and 18th centuries. During the Atlantic slave trade era, Brazil imported more African slaves than any other country. Nearly 5 million slaves were brought from Africa to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866. Until the early 1850s, most African slaves who arrived on Brazilian shores were forced to embark at West Central African ports, especially in Luanda (in present-day Angola). Today, with the exception of Nigeria, the country with the largest population of people of African descent is Brazil. Slave labour was the driving force behind the growth of the sugar economy in Brazil, and sugar was the primary export of the colony from 1600 to 1650. Gold and diamond deposits were discovered in Brazil in 1690, which sparked an increase in the importation of African slaves to power this newly profitable market. Transportation systems were developed for the mining infrastructure, and population boomed from immigrants seeking to take part in gold and diamond mining. Demand for African slaves did not wane after the decline of the mining industry in the second half of the 18th century. Cattle ranching and foodstuff production proliferated after the population growth, both of which relied heavily on slave labour. 1.7 million slaves were imported to Brazil from Africa from 1700 to 1800, and the rise of coffee in the 1830s further enticed expansion of the slave trade. Brazil was the last country in the Western world to abolish slavery. Forty percent of the total number of slaves brought to the Americas were sent to Brazil. For reference, the United States received 10 percent. Despite being abolished, there are still people working in slavery-like conditions in Brazil in the 21st century. #### Haiti Slavery in Haiti started with the arrival of Christopher Columbus on the island in 1492. The practice was devastating to the native population. Following the indigenous Taíno's near decimation from forced labour, disease and war, the Spanish, under advisement of the Catholic priest Bartolomeu de las Casas, and with the blessing of the Catholic church, who also wished to protect the indigenous people, began engaging in earnest in the use of African slaves. During the French colonial period beginning in 1625, the economy of Haiti (then known as Saint-Domingue) was based on slavery, and the practice there was regarded as the most brutal in the world. Following the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, Hispaniola was divided between France and Spain. France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue. To develop it into sugarcane plantations, the French imported thousands of slaves from Africa. Sugar was a lucrative commodity crop throughout the 18th century. By 1789, approximately 40,000 white colonists lived in Saint-Domingue. The whites were vastly outnumbered by the tens of thousands of African slaves they had imported to work on their plantations, which were primarily devoted to the production of sugarcane. In the north of the island, slaves were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Blacks outnumbered whites by about ten to one. The French-enacted *Code Noir* ("Black Code"), prepared by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV, had established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms. Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years. Many slaves died from diseases such as smallpox and typhoid fever. They had birth rates around 3 percent, and there is evidence that some women aborted fetuses, or committed infanticide, rather than allow their children to live within the bonds of slavery. As in its Louisiana colony, the French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color: the mixed-race descendants of white male colonists and black female slaves (and later, mixed-race women). Over time, many were released from slavery. They established a separate social class. White French Creole fathers frequently sent their mixed-race sons to France for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, near Port-au-Prince, and many intermarried within their community. They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property. Some became slave holders. The free people of color petitioned the colonial government to expand their rights. Slaves that made it to Haiti from the trans-Atlantic journey and slaves born in Haiti were first documented in Haiti's archives and transferred to France's Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As of 2015[update], these records are in The National Archives of France. According to the 1788 Census, Haiti's population consisted of nearly 40,000 whites, 30,000 free coloureds and 450,000 slaves. The Haitian Revolution of 1804, the only successful slave revolt in human history, precipitated the end of slavery in all French colonies, which came in 1848. #### United States Slavery in the United States was the legal institution of human chattel enslavement, primarily of Africans and African Americans, that existed in the United States of America in the 18th and 19th centuries, after it gained independence from the British and before the end of the American Civil War. Slavery had been practiced in British America from early colonial days and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies, at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry. The United States became polarized over the issue of slavery, represented by the slave and free states divided by the Mason–Dixon line, which separated free Pennsylvania from slave Maryland and Delaware. Congress, during the Jefferson administration, prohibited the importation of slaves, effective 1808, although smuggling (illegal importing) was not unusual. Domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labour demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. Those states attempted to extend slavery into the new western territories to keep their share of political power in the nation. Such laws proposed to Congress to continue the spread of slavery into newly ratified states include the Kansas-Nebraska Act. The treatment of slaves in the United States varied widely depending on conditions, times, and places. The power relationships of slavery corrupted many whites who had authority over slaves, with children showing their own cruelty. Masters and overseers resorted to physical punishments to impose their wills. Slaves were punished by whipping, shackling, hanging, beating, burning, mutilation, branding and imprisonment. Punishment was most often meted out in response to disobedience or perceived infractions, but sometimes abuse was carried out to re-assert the dominance of the master or overseer of the slave. Treatment was usually harsher on large plantations, which were often managed by overseers and owned by absentee slaveholders. William Wells Brown, who escaped to freedom, reported that on one plantation, slave men were required to pick 80 pounds (36 kg) of cotton per day, while women were required to pick 70 pounds (32 kg) per day; if any slave failed in their quota, they were subject to whip lashes for each pound they were short. The whipping post stood next to the cotton scales. A New York man who attended a slave auction in the mid-19th century reported that at least three-quarters of the male slaves he saw at sale had scars on their backs from whipping. By contrast, small slave-owning families had closer relationships between the owners and slaves; this sometimes resulted in a more humane environment but was not a given. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labour, and taken to the Deep South in a forced migration, splitting up many families. New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. In the 19th century, proponents of slavery often defended the institution as a "necessary evil". White people of that time feared that emancipation of black slaves would have more harmful social and economic consequences than the continuation of slavery. The French writer and traveler Alexis de Tocqueville, in *Democracy in America* (1835), expressed opposition to slavery while observing its effects on American society. He felt that a multiracial society without slavery was untenable, as he believed that prejudice against black people increased as they were granted more rights. Others, like James Henry Hammond argued that slavery was a "positive good" stating: "Such a class you must have, or you would not have that other class which leads progress, civilization, and refinement." The Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a political balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises. By 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. Many white Southern Christians, including church ministers, attempted to justify their support for slavery as modified by Christian paternalism. The largest denominations, the Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches, split over the slavery issue into regional organizations of the North and South. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, according to the 1860 U.S. census, roughly 400,000 individuals, representing 8% of all U.S. families, owned nearly 4,000,000 slaves. One-third of Southern families owned slaves. The South was heavily invested in slavery. As such, upon Lincoln's election, seven states broke away to form the Confederate States of America. The first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, over the issue of slavery, the United States erupted into an all out Civil War, with slavery legally ceasing as an institution following the war in December 1865. In 1865, the United States ratified the 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution, which banned slavery and involuntary servitude "except as punishment for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted," providing a legal basis for forced labor to continue in the country. This led to the system of convict leasing, which affected primarily African Americans. The Prison Policy Initiative, an American criminal justice think tank, cites the 2020 US prison population as 2.3 million, and nearly all able-bodied inmates work in some fashion. In Texas, Georgia, Alabama and Arkansas, prisoners are not paid at all for their work. In other states, prisoners are paid between $0.12 and $1.15 per hour. Federal Prison Industries paid inmates an average of $0.90 per hour in 2017. Inmates who refuse to work may be indefinitely remanded into solitary confinement, or have family visitation revoked. From 2010 to 2015 and again in 2016 and in 2018, some prisoners in the US refused to work, protesting for better pay, better conditions, and for the end of forced labor. Strike leaders were punished with indefinite solitary confinement. Forced prison labor occurs in both government-run prisons and private prisons. CoreCivic and GEO Group constitute half the market share of private prisons, and they made a combined revenue of $3.5 billion in 2015. The value of all labor by inmates in the United States is estimated to be in the billions. In California, 2,500 incarcerated workers fought wildfires for only $1 per hour through the CDCR's Conservation Camp Program, which saves the state as much as $100 million a year. ### Asia-Pacific #### East Asia Slavery existed in ancient China as early as the Shang dynasty. Slavery was employed largely by governments as a means of maintaining a public labour force. Many Han Chinese were enslaved in the process of the Mongol invasion of China proper. According to Japanese historians Sugiyama Masaaki (杉山正明) and Funada Yoshiyuki (舩田善之), Mongolian slaves were owned by Han Chinese during the Yuan dynasty. Slavery has taken various forms throughout China's history. It was reportedly abolished as a legally recognized institution, including in a 1909 law fully enacted in 1910, although the practice continued until at least 1949. The Tang dynasty purchased Western slaves from the Radhanite Jews. Tang Chinese soldiers and pirates enslaved Koreans, Turks, Persians, Indonesians, and people from Inner Mongolia, central Asia, and northern India. The greatest source of slaves came from southern tribes, including Thais and aboriginals from the southern provinces of Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Guizhou. Malays, Khmers, Indians, and "black skinned" peoples (who were either Austronesian Negritos of Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands, or Africans, or both) were also purchased as slaves in the Tang dynasty. In the 17th century Qing Dynasty, there was a hereditarily servile people called *Booi Aha* (Manchu: booi niyalma; Chinese transliteration: 包衣阿哈), which is a Manchu word literally translated as "household person" and sometimes rendered as "nucai." The Manchu was establishing close personal and paternalist relationship between masters and their slaves, as Nurhachi said, "The Master should love the slaves and eat the same food as him". However, booi aha "did not correspond exactly to the Chinese category of "bond-servant slave" (Chinese:奴僕); instead, it was a relationship of personal dependency on a master which in theory guaranteed close personal relationships and equal treatment, even though many western scholars would directly translate "booi" as "bond-servant" (some of the "booi" even had their own servant). Chinese Muslim (Tungans) Sufis who were charged with practicing xiejiao (heterodox religion), were punished by exile to Xinjiang and being sold as a slave to other Muslims, such as the Sufi begs. Han Chinese who committed crimes such as those dealing with opium became slaves to the begs, this practice was administered by Qing law. Most Chinese in Altishahr were exile slaves to Turkestani Begs. While free Chinese merchants generally did not engage in relationships with East Turkestani women, some of the Chinese slaves belonging to begs, along with Green Standard soldiers, Bannermen, and Manchus, engaged in affairs with the East Turkestani women that were serious in nature. Slavery in Korea existed since before the Three Kingdoms of Korea period, in the first century BCE. Slavery has been described as "very important in medieval Korea, probably more important than in any other East Asian country, but by the 16th century, population growth was making [it] unnecessary". Slavery went into decline around the 10th century but came back in the late Goryeo period when Korea also experienced multiple slave rebellions. In the Joseon period of Korea, members of the slave class were known as *nobi*. The nobi were socially indistinct from freemen (i.e., the middle and common classes) other than the ruling yangban class, and some possessed property rights, and legal and civil rights. Hence, some scholars argue that it is inappropriate to call them "slaves", while some scholars describe them as serfs. The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one-third of the total, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population. In 1801, the majority of government nobi were emancipated, and by 1858, the nobi population stood at about 1.5 percent of the Korean population. During the Joseon period, the nobi population could fluctuate up to about one-third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population. The nobi system declined beginning in the 18th century. Since the outset of the Joseon dynasty and especially beginning in the 17th century, there was harsh criticism among prominent thinkers in Korea about the nobi system. Even within the Joseon government, there were indications of a shift in attitude toward the nobi. King Yeongjo implemented a policy of gradual emancipation in 1775, and he and his successor King Jeongjo made many proposals and developments that lessened the burden on nobi, which led to the emancipation of the vast majority of government nobi in 1801. In addition, population growth, numerous escaped slaves, growing commercialization of agriculture, and the rise of the independent small farmer class contributed to the decline in the number of nobi to about 1.5% of the total population by 1858. The hereditary nobi system was officially abolished around 1886–87, and the rest of the nobi system was abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894. However, slavery did not completely disappear in Korea until 1930, during Imperial Japanese rule. During the Imperial Japanese occupation of Korea around World War II, some Koreans were used in forced labour by the Imperial Japanese, in conditions which have been compared to slavery. These included women forced into sexual slavery by the Imperial Japanese Army before and during World War II, known as "comfort women". After the Portuguese first made contact with Japan in 1543, slave trade developed in which Portuguese purchased Japanese as slaves in Japan and sold them to various locations overseas, including Portugal, throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. Many documents mention the slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese. Japanese slaves are believed to be the first of their nation to end up in Europe, and the Portuguese purchased numbers of Japanese slave girls to bring to Portugal for sexual purposes, as noted by the Church in 1555. Japanese slave women were even sold as concubines to Asian lascar and African crew members, along with their European counterparts serving on Portuguese ships trading in Japan, mentioned by Luis Cerqueira, a Portuguese Jesuit, in a 1598 document. Japanese slaves were brought by the Portuguese to Macau, where they were enslaved to Portuguese or became slaves to other slaves. Some Korean slaves were bought by the Portuguese and brought back to Portugal from Japan, where they had been among the tens of thousands of Korean prisoners of war transported to Japan during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98). Historians pointed out that at the same time Hideyoshi expressed his indignation and outrage at the Portuguese trade in Japanese slaves, he was engaging in a mass slave trade of Korean prisoners of war in Japan. Fillippo Sassetti saw some Chinese and Japanese slaves in Lisbon among the large slave community in 1578, although most of the slaves were black. The Portuguese also valued Oriental slaves more than the black Africans and the Moors for their rarity. Chinese slaves were more expensive than Moors and blacks and showed off the high status of the owner. The Portuguese attributed qualities like intelligence and industriousness to Chinese, Japanese and Indian slaves. King Sebastian of Portugal feared rampant slavery was having a negative effect on Catholic proselytization, so he commanded that it be banned in 1571. Hideyoshi was so disgusted that his own Japanese people were being sold *en masse* into slavery on Kyushu, that he wrote a letter to Jesuit Vice-Provincial Gaspar Coelho on July 24, 1587, to demand the Portuguese, Siamese (Thai), and Cambodians stop purchasing and enslaving Japanese and return Japanese slaves who ended up as far as India. Hideyoshi blamed the Portuguese and Jesuits for this slave trade and banned Christian proselytizing as a result.[*self-published source*] In 1595, a law was passed by Portugal banning the selling and buying of Chinese and Japanese slaves. #### South Asia Slavery in India was widespread by the 6th century BC, and perhaps even as far back as the Vedic period. Slavery intensified during the Muslim domination of northern India after the 11th-century. Slavery existed in Portuguese India after the 16th century. The Dutch, too, largely dealt in Abyssian slaves, known in India as Habshis or Sheedes. Arakan/Bengal, Malabar, and Coromandel remained the largest sources of forced labour until the 1660s. Between 1626 and 1662, the Dutch exported on an average 150–400 slaves annually from the Arakan-Bengal coast. During the first 30 years of Batavia's existence, Indian and Arakanese slaves provided the main labour force of the Dutch East India Company, Asian headquarters. An increase in Coromandel slaves occurred during a famine following the revolt of the Nayaka Indian rulers of South India (Tanjavur, Senji, and Madurai) against Bijapur overlordship (1645) and the subsequent devastation of the Tanjavur countryside by the Bijapur army. Reportedly, more than 150,000 people were taken by the invading Deccani Muslim armies to Bijapur and Golconda. In 1646, 2,118 slaves were exported to Batavia, the overwhelming majority from southern Coromandel. Some slaves were also acquired further south at Tondi, Adirampatnam, and Kayalpatnam. Another increase in slaving took place between 1659 and 1661 from Tanjavur as a result of a series of successive Bijapuri raids. At Nagapatnam, Pulicat, and elsewhere, the company purchased 8,000–10,000 slaves, the bulk of whom were sent to Ceylon, while a small portion were exported to Batavia and Malacca. Finally, following a long drought in Madurai and southern Coromandel, in 1673, which intensified the prolonged Madurai-Maratha struggle over Tanjavur and punitive fiscal practices, thousands of people from Tanjavur, mostly children, were sold into slavery and exported by Asian traders from Nagapattinam to Aceh, Johor, and other slave markets. In September 1687, 665 slaves were exported by the English from Fort St. George, Madras. And, in 1694–96, when warfare once more ravaged South India, a total of 3,859 slaves were imported from Coromandel by private individuals into Ceylon. The volume of the total Dutch Indian Ocean slave trade has been estimated to be about 15–30% of the Atlantic slave trade, slightly smaller than the trans-Saharan slave trade, and one-and-a-half to three times the size of the Swahili and Red Sea coast and the Dutch West India Company slave trades. According to Sir Henry Bartle Frere (who sat on the Viceroy's Council), there were an estimated 8 or 9 million slaves in India in 1841. About 15% of the population of Malabar were slaves. Slavery was legally abolished in the possessions of the East India Company by the Indian Slavery Act, 1843. #### South East Asia The hill tribe people in Indochina were "hunted incessantly and carried off as slaves by the Siamese (Thai), the Anamites (Vietnamese), and the Cambodians". A Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by a British observer as having been "transformed into slave-hunting raids on a large scale". The census, taken in 1879, showed that 6% of the population in the Malay sultanate of Perak were slaves. Enslaved people made up about two-thirds of the population in part of North Borneo in the 1880s. #### Oceania Slaves (*he mōkai*) had a recognised social role in traditional Māori society in New Zealand. Blackbirding occurred on islands in the Pacific Ocean and Australia, especially in the 19th century. ### Europe #### Ancient Greece and Rome Records of slavery in Ancient Greece begin with Mycenaean Greece. Classical Athens had the largest slave population, with as many as 80,000 in the 6th and 5th centuries BC. As the Roman Republic expanded outward, entire populations were enslaved, across Europe and the Mediterranean. Slaves were used for labour, as well as for amusement (e.g. gladiators and sex slaves). This oppression by an elite minority eventually led to slave revolts (see Roman Servile Wars); the Third Servile War was led by Spartacus. By the late Republican era, slavery had become an economic pillar of Roman wealth, as well as Roman society. It is estimated that 25% or more of the population of Ancient Rome was enslaved, although the actual percentage is debated by scholars and varied from region to region. Slaves represented 15–25% of Italy's population, mostly war captives, especially from Gaul and Epirus. Estimates of the number of slaves in the Roman Empire suggest that the majority were scattered throughout the provinces outside of Italy. Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians. Foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) born outside of Italy were estimated to have peaked at 5% of the total in the capital, where their number was largest. Those from outside of Europe were predominantly of Greek descent. Jewish slaves never fully assimilated into Roman society, remaining an identifiable minority. These slaves (especially the foreigners) had higher death rates and lower birth rates than natives and were sometimes subjected to mass expulsions. The average recorded age at death for the slaves in Rome was seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females). #### Medieval Europe Slavery in early medieval Europe was so common that the Catholic Church repeatedly prohibited it, or at least the export of Christian slaves to non-Christian lands, as for example at the Council of Koblenz (922), the Council of London (1102) (which aimed mainly at the sale of English slaves to Ireland) and the Council of Armagh (1171). Serfdom, on the contrary, was widely accepted. In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull *Dum Diversas*, granting the kings of Spain and Portugal the right to reduce any "Saracens (Muslims), pagans and any other unbelievers" to perpetual slavery, legitimizing the slave trade as a result of war. The approval of slavery under these conditions was reaffirmed and extended in his *Romanus Pontifex* bull of 1455. Large-scale trading in slaves was mainly confined to the South and East of early medieval Europe: the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim world were the destinations, while pagan Central and Eastern Europe (along with the Caucasus and Tartary) were important sources. Viking, Arab, Greek, and Radhanite Jewish merchants were all involved in the slave trade during the Early Middle Ages. The trade in European slaves reached a peak in the 10th century following the Zanj Rebellion which dampened the use of African slaves in the Arab world. In Britain, slavery continued to be practiced following the fall of Rome, while sections of Æthelstan's and Hywel the Good's laws dealt with slaves in medieval England and medieval Wales respectively. The trade particularly picked up after the Viking invasions, with major markets at Chester and Bristol supplied by Danish, Mercian, and Welsh raiding of one another's borderlands. At the time of the *Domesday Book*, nearly 10% of the English population were slaves. William the Conqueror introduced a law preventing the sale of slaves overseas. According to historian John Gillingham, by 1200 slavery in the British Isles was non-existent. Slavery had never been authorized by statute within England and Wales, and in 1772, in the case Somerset v Stewart, Lord Mansfield declared that it was also unsupported within England by the common law. The slave trade was abolished by the Slave Trade Act 1807, although slavery remained legal in possessions outside Europe until the passage of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 and the Indian Slavery Act, 1843. However, when England began to have colonies in the Americas, and particularly from the 1640s, African slaves began to make their appearance in England and remained a presence until the eighteenth century. In Scotland, slaves continued to be sold as chattels until late in the eighteenth century (on the second May, 1722, an advertisement appeared in the *Edinburgh Evening Courant*, announcing that a stolen slave had been found, who would be sold to pay expenses, unless claimed within two weeks). For nearly two hundred years in the history of coal mining in Scotland, miners were bonded to their "maisters" by a 1606 Act "Anent Coalyers and Salters". The Colliers and Salters (Scotland) Act 1775 stated that "many colliers and salters are in a state of slavery and bondage" and announced emancipation; those starting work after 1 July 1775 would not become slaves, while those already in a state of slavery could, after 7 or 10 years depending on their age, apply for a decree of the Sheriff's Court granting their freedom. Few could afford this, until a further law in 1799 established their freedom and made this slavery and bondage illegal. The Byzantine-Ottoman wars and the Ottoman wars in Europe brought large numbers of slaves into the Islamic world. To staff its bureaucracy, the Ottoman Empire established a janissary system which seized hundreds of thousands of Christian boys through the devşirme system. They were well cared for but were legally slaves owned by the government and were not allowed to marry. They were never bought or sold. The empire gave them significant administrative and military roles. The system began about 1365; there were 135,000 janissaries in 1826, when the system ended. After the Battle of Lepanto, 12,000 Christian galley slaves were recaptured and freed from the Ottoman fleet. Eastern Europe suffered a series of Tatar invasions, the goal of which was to loot and capture slaves for selling them to Ottomans as jasyr. Seventy-five Crimean Tatar raids were recorded into Poland–Lithuania between 1474 and 1569. Medieval Spain and Portugal were the scene of almost constant Muslim invasion of the predominantly Christian area. Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from Al-Andalus to ravage the Iberian Christian kingdoms, bringing back booty and slaves. In a raid against Lisbon in 1189, for example, the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000 female and child captives, while his governor of Córdoba, in a subsequent attack upon Silves, Portugal, in 1191, took 3,000 Christian slaves. From the 11th to the 19th century, North African Barbary Pirates engaged in raids on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in places such as Algeria and Morocco. The maritime town of Lagos was the first slave market created in Portugal (one of the earliest colonizers of the Americas) for the sale of imported African slaves – the *Mercado de Escravos*, opened in 1444. In 1441, the first slaves were brought to Portugal from northern Mauritania. By 1552, black African slaves made up 10% of the population of Lisbon. In the second half of the 16th century, the Crown gave up the monopoly on slave trade, and the focus of European trade in African slaves shifted from import to Europe to slave transports directly to tropical colonies in the Americas – especially Brazil. In the 15th century one-third of the slaves were resold to the African market in exchange of gold. Until the late 18th century, the Crimean Khanate (a Muslim Tatar state) maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East. The slaves were captured in southern Russia, Poland-Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Circassia by Tatar horsemen and sold in the Crimean port of Kaffa. About 2 million mostly Christian slaves were exported over the 16th and 17th centuries until the Crimean Khanate was destroyed by the Russian Empire in 1783. In Kievan Rus and Muscovy, slaves were usually classified as kholops. According to David P. Forsythe, "In 1649 up to three-quarters of Muscovy's peasants, or 13 to 14 million people, were serfs whose material lives were barely distinguishable from slaves. Perhaps another 1.5 million were formally enslaved, with Russian slaves serving Russian masters." Slavery remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter the Great converted the household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679. Slavery in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588; they were replaced by the second serfdom. In Scandinavia, thralldom was abolished in the mid-14th century. #### World War II During the Second World War, Nazi Germany effectively enslaved about 12 million people, both those considered undesirable and citizens of conquered countries, with the avowed intention of treating these *Untermenschen* (sub-humans) as a permanent slave-class of inferior beings who could be worked until they died, and who possessed neither the rights nor the legal status of members of the Aryan race. Besides Jews, the harshest deportation and forced labour policies were applied to the populations of Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia. By the end of the war, half of Belarus' population had been killed or deported. #### Communist states Between 1930 and 1960, the Soviet Union created a system of, according to Anne Applebaum and the "perspective of the Kremlin", slave labor camps called the *Gulag* (Russian: ГУЛаг, romanized: *GULag*). Prisoners in these camps were worked to death by a combination of extreme production quotas, physical and psychological brutality, hunger, lack of medical care, and the harsh environment. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who survived eight years of Gulag incarceration, provided firsthand testimony about the camps with the publication of *The Gulag Archipelago*, after which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Fatality rate was as high as 80% during the first months in many camps. Hundreds of thousands of people, possibly millions, died as a direct result of forced labour under the Soviets. Golfo Alexopoulos suggests comparing labor in the Gulag with *"other forms of slave labor"* and notes its *"violence of human exploitation"* in *Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag*: > > Stalin's Gulag was, in many ways, less a concentration camp than a forced labor camp and less a prison system than a system of slavery. The image of the slave appears often in Gulag memoir literature. As Varlam Shalamov wrote: *"Hungry and exhausted, we leaned into a horse collar, raising blood blisters on our chests and pulling a stone-filled cart up the slanted mine floor. The collar was the same device used long ago by the ancient Egyptians."* Thoughtful and rigorous historical comparisons of Soviet forced labor and **other forms of slave labor** would be worthy of scholarly attention, in my view. For as in the case of global slavery, the Gulag found legitimacy in an elaborate narrative of difference that involved the presumption of dangerousness and guilt. This ideology of difference and the violence of human exploitation have left lasting legacies in contemporary Russia. > > > Historian Anne Applebaum writes in the introduction of her book that the word *GULAG* has come to represent *"the system of Soviet slave labor itself, in all its forms and varieties"*: > > The word *"GULAG"* is an acronym for *Glavnoe Upravlenie Lagerei*, or Main Camp Administration, the institution which ran the Soviet camps. But over time, the word has also come to signify the system of Soviet slave labor itself, in all its forms and varieties: labor camps, punishment camps, criminal and political camps, women's camps, children's camps, transit camps. Even more broadly, "Gulag" has come to mean the Soviet repressive system itself, the set of procedures that Alexander Solzhenitsyn once called "our meat grinder": the arrests, the interrogations, the transport in unheated cattle cars, the forced labor, the destruction of families, the years spent in exile, the early and unnecessary deaths. > > > Applebaum's introduction has been criticized by Gulag researcher Wilson Bell, stating that her book "is, *aside from the introduction*, a well-done overview of the Gulag, but it did not offer an interpretative framework much beyond Solzhenitsyn's paradigms". ### Middle East In the earliest known records, slavery is treated as an established institution. The Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BC), for example, prescribed death for anyone who helped a slave escape or who sheltered a fugitive. The Bible mentions slavery as an established institution. Slavery existed in Pharaonic Egypt, but studying it is complicated by terminology used by the Egyptians to refer to different classes of servitude over the course of history. Interpretation of the textual evidence of classes of slaves in ancient Egypt has been difficult to differentiate by word usage alone. The three apparent types of enslavement in Ancient Egypt: chattel slavery, bonded labour, and forced labour. As recently as the early 1960s, Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at 300,000. Along with Yemen, the Saudis abolished slavery in 1962. Historically, slaves in the Arab World came from many different regions, including Sub-Saharan Africa (mainly *Zanj*), the Caucasus (mainly Circassians), Central Asia (mainly Tartars), and Central and Eastern Europe (mainly Slavs [*Saqaliba*]). **Above**: Ottoman wars saw Europeans dragged to that empire In Constantinople, about one-fifth of the population consisted of slaves. The city was a major centre of the slave trade in the 15th and later centuries. Slaves were provided by Tatar raids on Slavic villages but also by conquest and the suppression of rebellions, in the aftermath of which entire populations were sometimes enslaved and sold across the Empire, reducing the risk of future rebellion. The Ottomans also purchased slaves from traders who brought slaves into the Empire from Europe and Africa. It has been estimated that some 200,000 slaves – mainly Circassians – were imported into the Ottoman Empire between 1800 and 1909. In 1908, women slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire. German orientalist, Gustaf Dalman, reported seeing slaves in Muslim houses in Aleppo, belonging to Ottoman Syria, in 1899, and that boys could be bought as slaves in Damascus and Cairo in as late as 1909. A slave market for captured Russian and Persian slaves was centred in the Central Asian khanate of Khiva. In the early 1840s, the population of the Uzbek states of Bukhara and Khiva included about 900,000 slaves. Contemporary slavery -------------------- Even though slavery is now outlawed in every country, the number of slaves today is estimated as between 12 million and 29.8 million. According to a broad definition of slavery, there were 27 million people in slavery in 1999, spread all over the world. In 2005, the International Labour Organization provided an estimate of 12.3 million forced labourers. Siddharth Kara has also provided an estimate of 28.4 million slaves at the end of 2006 divided into three categories: bonded labour/debt bondage (18.1 million), forced labour (7.6 million), and trafficked slaves (2.7 million). Kara provides a dynamic model to calculate the number of slaves in the world each year, with an estimated 29.2 million at the end of 2009. According to a 2003 report by Human Rights Watch, an estimated 15 million children in debt bondage in India work in slavery-like conditions to pay off their family's debts. Slavoj Žižek asserts that new forms of contemporary slavery have been created in the post-Cold War era of global capitalism, including migrant workers deprived of basic civil rights on the Arabian Peninsula, the total control of workers in Asian sweatshops and the use of forced labor in the exploitation of natural resources in Central Africa. ### Distribution In June 2013, U.S. State Department released a report on slavery. It placed Russia, China, and Uzbekistan in the worst offenders category. Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Sudan, Syria, and Zimbabwe were at the lowest level. The list also included Algeria, Libya, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait among a total of 21 countries. In Kuwait, there are more than 600,000 migrant domestic workers who are vulnerable to forced labor and legally tied to their employers, who often illegally take their passports. In 2019, online slave markets on apps such as Instagram were uncovered. In the preparations for the 2022 World Cup in Qatar, thousands of Nepalese, the largest group of labourers, faced slavery in the form of denial of wages, confiscation of documents, and inability to leave the workplace. In 2016, the United Nations gave Qatar 12 months to end migrant worker slavery or face investigation. The Walk Free Foundation reported in 2018 that slavery in wealthy Western societies is much more prevalent than previously known, in particular the United States and Great Britain, which have 403,000 (one in 800) and 136,000 slaves respectively. Andrew Forrest, founder of the organization, said that "The United States is one of the most advanced countries in the world yet has more than 400,000 modern slaves working under forced labour conditions." An estimated 40.3 million are enslaved globally, with North Korea having the most slaves at 2.6 million (one in 10). Of the estimated 40.3 million people in contemporary slavery, 71% are women and 29% are men. The report found of the 40.3 million in modern slavery, 15.4 million are in forced marriages and 24.9 million are in forced labor. The foundation defines contemporary slavery as "situations of exploitation that a person cannot refuse or leave because of threats, violence, coercion, abuse of power, or deception." #### China The Chinese government has a history of imprisoning citizens for political reasons. Article 73 of China's Criminal Procedure Law was adopted in 2012 and allow the authorities to detain people for reasons of "state security" or "terrorism". In this regard, detainees can be held for as long as six months in "designated locations" such as secret prisons. In March 2020, the Chinese government was found to be using the Uyghur minority for forced labour, inside sweat shops. According to a report published then by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI), no fewer than around 80,000 Uyghurs were forcibly removed from the region of Xinjiang and used for forced labour in at least twenty-seven corporate factories. According to the Business and Human Rights resource center, corporations such as Abercrombie & Fitch, Adidas, Amazon, Apple, BMW, Fila, Gap, H&M, Inditex, Marks & Spencer, Nike, North Face, Puma, PVH, Samsung, and UNIQLO each have each sourced products from these factories prior to the publication of the ASPI report. #### Libya During the Second Libyan Civil War, Libyans started capturing Sub-Saharan African migrants trying to get to Europe through Libya and selling them on slave markets or holding them hostage for ransom Women are often raped, used as sex slaves, or sold to brothels. Child migrants suffer from abuse and child rape in Libya. #### Mauritania In Mauritania, the last country to abolish slavery (in 1981), it is estimated that 20% of its population of 3 million people are enslaved as bonded labourers. Slavery in Mauritania was criminalized in August 2007. However, although slavery, as a practice, was legally banned in 1981, it was not a crime to own a slave until 2007. Although many slaves have escaped or have been freed since 2007, as of 2012[update], only one slave owner had been sentenced to serve time in prison. #### North Korea North Korea's human rights record is often considered to be the worst in the world and has been globally condemned, with the United Nations, the European Union and groups such as Human Rights Watch all critical of the country's record. Forms of torture, forced labour, and abuses are all widespread. Most international human rights organizations consider North Korea to have no contemporary parallel with respect to violations of liberty. ### Economics While American slaves in 1809 were sold for around $40,000 (in inflation adjusted dollars), a slave nowadays can be bought for just $90, making replacement more economical than providing long-term care. Slavery is a multibillion-dollar industry with estimates of up to $35 billion generated annually. ### Trafficking Victims of human trafficking are typically recruited through deceit or trickery (such as a false job offer, false migration offer, or false marriage offer), sale by family members, recruitment by former slaves, or outright abduction. Victims are forced into a "debt slavery" situation by coercion, deception, fraud, intimidation, isolation, threat, physical force, debt bondage or even force-feeding with drugs to control their victims. "Annually, according to U.S. government-sponsored research completed in 2006, approximately 800,000 people are trafficked across national borders, which does not include millions trafficked within their own countries. Approximately 80% of transnational victims are women and girls, and up to 50% are minors, reports the U.S. State Department in a 2008 study. While the majority of trafficking victims are women who are forced into prostitution (in which case the practice is called sex trafficking), victims also include men, women and children who are forced into manual labour. Because of the illegal nature of human trafficking, its extent is unknown. A U.S. government report, published in 2005, estimates that about 700,000 people worldwide are trafficked across borders each year. This figure does not include those who are trafficked internally. Another research effort revealed that roughly 1.5 million individuals are trafficked either internally or internationally each year, of which about 500,000 are sex trafficking victims. Abolitionism ------------ Slavery has existed, in one form or another, throughout recorded human history – as have, in various periods, movements to free large or distinct groups of slaves. ### In antiquity Ashoka, who ruled the Maurya Empire in the Indian subcontinent from 269 to 232 BCE, abolished the slave trade but not slavery. The Qin dynasty, which ruled China from 221 to 206 BC, abolished slavery and discouraged serfdom. However, many of its laws were overturned when the dynasty was overthrown. Slavery was again abolished by Wang Mang in China in 17 CE but was reinstituted after his assassination. ### Americas The Spanish colonization of the Americas sparked a discussion about the right to enslave Native Americans. A prominent critic of slavery in the Spanish New World colonies was the Spanish missionary and bishop, Bartolomé de las Casas, who was "the first to expose the oppression of indigenous peoples by Europeans in the Americas and to call for the abolition of slavery there." One of the first protests against slavery came from German and Dutch Quakers in Pennsylvania in 1688. In 1777, Vermont, at the time an independent nation, became the first portion of what would become the United States to abolish slavery. In the United States, all of the northern states had abolished slavery by 1804, with New Jersey being the last to act. Abolitionist pressure produced a series of small steps towards emancipation. After the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves went into effect on January 1, 1808, the importation of slaves into the United States was prohibited, but not the internal slave trade, nor involvement in the international slave trade externally. Legal slavery persisted outside the northern states; most of those slaves already in the U.S. were legally emancipated only in 1863. Many American abolitionists took an active role in opposing slavery by supporting the Underground Railroad. Violent clashes between anti-slavery and pro-slavery Americans included Bleeding Kansas, a series of political and armed disputes in 1854–1858 as to whether Kansas would join the United States as a slave or free state. By 1860, the total number of slaves reached almost four million, and the American Civil War, beginning in 1861, led to the end of slavery in the United States. In 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed slaves held in the Confederate States; the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibited most forms of slavery throughout the country. Many of the freed slaves became sharecroppers and indentured servants. In this manner, some became tied to the very parcel of land into which they had been born a slave having little freedom or economic opportunity because of Jim Crow laws which perpetuated discrimination, limited education, promoted persecution without due process and resulted in continued poverty. Fear of reprisals such as unjust incarcerations and lynchings deterred upward mobility further. ### Europe France abolished slavery in 1794 during the Revolution, but it was restored in 1802 under Napoleon. It has been asserted that, before the Revolution, slavery was illegal in metropolitan France (as opposed to its colonies), but this has been refuted. One of the most significant milestones in the campaign to abolish slavery throughout the world occurred in England in 1772, with British Judge Lord Mansfield, whose opinion in Somersett's Case was widely taken to have held that slavery was illegal in England. This judgement also laid down the principle that slavery contracted in other jurisdictions could not be enforced in England. Sons of Africa was a late 18th-century British group that campaigned to end slavery. Its members were Africans in London, freed slaves who included Ottobah Cugoano, Olaudah Equiano and other leading members of London's black community. It was closely connected to the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade, a non-denominational group founded in 1787, whose members included Thomas Clarkson. British Member of Parliament William Wilberforce led the anti-slavery movement in the United Kingdom, although the groundwork was an anti-slavery essay by Clarkson. Wilberforce was urged by his close friend, Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger, to make the issue his own and was also given support by reformed Evangelical John Newton. The Slave Trade Act was passed by the British Parliament on March 25, 1807, making the slave trade illegal throughout the British Empire, Wilberforce also campaigned for abolition of slavery in the British Empire, which he lived to see in the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. After the 1807 act abolishing the slave trade was passed, these campaigners switched to encouraging other countries to follow suit, notably France and the British colonies. Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard. Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of Lagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers. ### Worldwide In 1839, the world's oldest international human rights organization, Anti-Slavery International, was formed in Britain by Joseph Sturge, which campaigned to outlaw slavery in other countries. There were celebrations in 2007 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the abolition of the slave trade in the United Kingdom through the work of the British Anti-Slavery Society. In the 1860s, David Livingstone's reports of atrocities within the Arab slave trade in Africa stirred up the interest of the British public, reviving the flagging abolitionist movement. The Royal Navy throughout the 1870s attempted to suppress "this abominable Eastern trade", at Zanzibar in particular. In 1905, the French abolished indigenous slavery in most of French West Africa. On December 10, 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which declared freedom from slavery is an internationally recognized human right. Article 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: > No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms. > > In 2014, for the first time in history, major leaders of many religions, Buddhist, Hindu, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim met to sign a shared commitment against modern-day slavery; the declaration they signed calls for the elimination of slavery and human trafficking by 2020. The signatories were: Pope Francis, Mātā Amṛtānandamayī, Bhikkhuni Thich Nu Chân Không (representing Zen Master Thích Nhất Hạnh), Datuk K Sri Dhammaratana, Chief High Priest of Malaysia, Rabbi Abraham Skorka, Rabbi David Rosen, Abbas Abdalla Abbas Soliman, Undersecretary of State of Al Azhar Alsharif (representing Mohamed Ahmed El-Tayeb, Grand Imam of Al-Azhar), Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi, Sheikh Naziyah Razzaq Jaafar, Special advisor of Grand Ayatollah (representing Grand Ayatollah Sheikh Basheer Hussain al Najafi), Sheikh Omar Abboud, Justin Welby, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Metropolitan Emmanuel of France (representing Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew.) Groups such as the American Anti-Slavery Group, Anti-Slavery International, Free the Slaves, the Anti-Slavery Society, and the Norwegian Anti-Slavery Society continue to campaign to eliminate slavery. Apologies --------- On May 21, 2001, the National Assembly of France passed the Taubira law, recognizing slavery as a crime against humanity. Apologies on behalf of African nations, for their role in trading their countrymen into slavery, remain an open issue since slavery was practiced in Africa even before the first Europeans arrived and the Atlantic slave trade was performed with a high degree of involvement of several African societies. The black slave market was supplied by well-established slave trade networks controlled by local African societies and individuals. > There is adequate evidence citing case after case of African control of segments of the trade. Several African nations such as the Calabar and other southern parts of Nigeria had economies depended solely on the trade. African peoples such as the Imbangala of Angola and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania would serve as middlemen or roving bands warring with other African nations to capture Africans for Europeans. > > Several historians have made important contributions to the global understanding of the African side of the Atlantic slave trade. By arguing that African merchants determined the assemblage of trade goods accepted in exchange for slaves, many historians argue for African agency and ultimately a shared responsibility for the slave trade. In 1999, President Mathieu Kérékou of Benin issued a national apology for the central role Africans played in the Atlantic slave trade. Luc Gnacadja, minister of environment and housing for Benin, later said: "The slave trade is a shame, and we do repent for it." Researchers estimate that 3 million slaves were exported out of the Slave Coast bordering the Bight of Benin. President Jerry Rawlings of Ghana also apologized for his country's involvement in the slave trade. The issue of an apology is linked to reparations for slavery and is still being pursued by entities across the world. For example, the Jamaican Reparations Movement approved its declaration and action plan. In 2007, British Prime Minister Tony Blair made a formal apology for Great Britain's involvement in slavery. On February 25, 2007, the Commonwealth of Virginia resolved to 'profoundly regret' and apologize for its role in the institution of slavery. Unique and the first of its kind in the U.S., the apology was unanimously passed in both Houses as Virginia approached the 400th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown. On August 24, 2007, Mayor of London Ken Livingstone issued a public apology for London's role in Atlantic slave trade, which took place at an event commemorating the 200th anniversary of the British slave trade's abolition. In his speech, Livingstone described the slave trade as "the racial murder of not just those who were transported but generations of enslaved African men, women and children. To justify this murder and torture black people had to be declared inferior or not human... We live with the consequences today." City officials in Liverpool, which was a large slave trading port, apologized in 1999. On July 30, 2008, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws. In June 2009, the U.S. Senate passed a resolution apologizing to African-Americans for the "fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality, and inhumanity of slavery". The news was welcomed by President Barack Obama, the nation's first president of African descent. Some of President Obama's ancestors may have been slave owners. In 2010, Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi apologized for Arab involvement in the slave trade, saying: "I regret the behavior of the Arabs... They brought African children to North Africa, they made them slaves, they sold them like animals, and they took them as slaves and traded them in a shameful way." ### Reparations There have been movements to achieve reparations for those formerly held as slaves or for their descendants. Claims for reparations for being held in slavery are handled as a civil law matter in almost every country. This is often decried as a serious problem, since former slaves' relatives lack of money means they often have limited access to a potentially expensive and futile legal process. Mandatory systems of fines and reparations paid to an as yet undetermined group of claimants from fines, paid by unspecified parties, and collected by authorities have been proposed by advocates to alleviate this "civil court problem." Since in almost all cases there are no living ex-slaves or living ex-slave owners these movements have gained little traction. In nearly all cases the judicial system has ruled that the statute of limitations on these possible claims has long since expired. Media ----- Film has been the most influential medium in the presentation of the history of slavery to the general public around the world. The American film industry has had a complex relationship with slavery and until recent decades often avoided the topic. Films such as *The Birth of a Nation* (1915) and *Gone with the Wind* (1939) became controversial because they gave a favourable depiction. In 1940 *The Santa Fe Trail* gave a liberal but ambiguous interpretation of John Brown's attacks on slavery. *Song of the South* gave a favorable outlook on slavery in the United States in 1946. The Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s made defiant slaves into heroes. The question of slavery in American memory necessarily involves its depictions in feature films. Most Hollywood films used American settings, although *Spartacus* (1960), dealt with an actual revolt in the Roman Empire known as the Third Servile War. The revolt failed, and all the rebels were executed, but their spirit lived on according to the film. *Spartacus* stays surprisingly close to the historical record. *The Last Supper* (*La última cena* in Spanish) was a 1976 film directed by Cuban Tomás Gutiérrez Alea about the teaching of Christianity to slaves in Cuba, and emphasizes the role of ritual and revolt. *Burn!* takes place on the imaginary Portuguese island of Queimada (where the locals speak Spanish) and it merges historical events that took place in Brazil, Cuba, Santo Domingo, Jamaica, and elsewhere. Historians agree that films have largely shaped historical memories, but they debate issues of accuracy, plausibility, moralism, sensationalism, how facts are stretched in search of broader truths, and suitability for the classroom. Berlin argues that critics complain if the treatment emphasizes historical brutality, or if it glosses over the harshness to highlight the emotional impact of slavery. | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Title | Film genre | Director | Actor | Country | Book | Author | | 1915 | The Birth of a Nation | Historical drama / epic | D. W. Griffith | Lillian Gish |  United States | The Clansman | Thomas Dixon, Jr. | | 1960 | Spartacus | Historical drama / epic | Stanley Kubrick | Kirk Douglas |  United States |   |   | | 1967 | Cervantes | Historical drama | Vincent Sherman | Horst Buchholz |  Spain |   |   | | 1968 | Angélique and the Sultan | Drama | Bernard Borderie |   |  France | *Angélique in Barbary* | Anne Golon | | 1969 | Queimada (Burn!) | Drama | Gillo Pontecorvo | Marlon Brando |  Italy |   |   | | 1975 | *Mandingo* | Drama, Exploitation film | Richard Fleischer | Ken Norton |  United States | *Mandingo* | Kyle Onstott | | 1976 | Escrava Isaura (TV series) | Telenovela | Herval Rossano |   |  Brazil | *A Escrava Isaura* | Bernardo Guimarães | | 1977 | Alex Haley's Roots (TV series) | Historical drama | Chomsky, Erman, Greene and Moses |   |  United States | *Roots: The Saga of an American Family* | Alex Haley | | 1987 | Cobra Verde | Drama | Werner Herzog | Klaus Kinski |  Germany | *The Viceroy of Ouidah* | Bruce Chatwin | | 1993 | Alex Haley's Queen (TV series) | Historical drama | John Erman | Halle Berry |  United States | *Queen: The Story of an American Family* | Alex Haley | | 1997 | Amistad | Drama | Steven Spielberg | Djimon Hounsou |  United States |   |   | | 1998 | Beloved | Drama | Jonathan Demme | Oprah Winfrey |  United States |   | Toni Morrison | | 2000 | Gladiator | Historical epic | Ridley Scott | Russell Crowe |  United Kingdom,  United States |   | | | 2007 | El Cimarrón | Historical drama | Iván Dariel Ortíz | Pedro Telemaco |  Puerto Rico |   | | 2006 | Amazing Grace | Historical drama | Michael Apted |   |  United Kingdom,  United States |   |   | | 2007 | Trade | Thriller | Marco Kreuzpaintner |   |  Germany,  United States |   |   | | 2010 | The Slave Hunters | Historical drama | Kwak Jung-hwan |   |  South Korea |   | | 2011 | Muhteşem Yüzyıl (TV series) | Historical soap opera | The Taylan Brothers | Halit Ergenç |  Turkey |   | | | 2012 | Lincoln | Historical drama / epic | Steven Spielberg | Daniel Day-Lewis |  United States | | Doris Kearns Goodwin | | 2012 | The Horde | Drama | Andrei Proshkin |   |  Russia | | Yuri Arabov | | 2012 | 500 Years Later | Documentary | Owen 'Alik Shahadah |   |  United Kingdom,  United States |   |   | | 2012 | Django Unchained | Western | Quentin Tarantino | Jamie Foxx |  United States |   |   | | 2013 | 12 Years a Slave | Historical drama | Steve McQueen | Chiwetel Ejiofor |  United Kingdom,  United States | *Twelve Years a Slave* | Solomon Northup | | 2013 | Belle | Historical drama | Amma Asante | Gugu Mbatha-Raw |  United Kingdom | | Misan Sagay | | 2016 | The Birth of a Nation | Historical drama | Nate Parker | Nate Parker |  Canada,  United States | | | See also -------- * Bodmin manumissions, the names and details of slaves freed in Medieval Bodmin * International Day for the Abolition of Slavery * International Slavery Museum * Involuntary servitude * List of slaves * List of slave owners * Mukataba * Slave rebellion * Subjugate * Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery * Wilberforce Institute for the Study of Slavery and Emancipation ### Bibliography * Anderson, Gary M.; Tollison, Robert D. 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(April 4, 2011). *Death and Redemption: The Gulag and the Shaping of Soviet Society*. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. * Bavis, Barbara. "Research Guides: American Women: Resources from the Law Library: Introduction". *guides.loc.gov*. Law Library of Congress. Retrieved February 11, 2021. * Boxer, C. R. (1968) [1948]. *Fidalgos in the Far East 1550-1770* (2nd revised ed.). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-638074-2. * Burnham, Philip (1993). "Selling Poor Steven". *American Heritage Magazine*. Archived from the original on May 7, 2006. * Campbell, Gwyn (2004). *The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia*. London: Frank Cass. ISBN 978-1-135-75917-9. * Campbell, Gwyn; Miers, Suzanne; Miller, Joseph Calder, eds. (2007). *Women and Slavery: Africa, the Indian Ocean world, and the medieval north Atlantic*. Vol. 1. Athens: Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-8214-1723-2. * Campbell, Gwyn; Miers, Suzanne; Miller, Joseph Calder, eds. (2008). *Women and Slavery: The Modern Atlantic*. Vol. 2. Athens: Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-8214-1725-6. * Conquest, Robert (1978). *Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps*. New York: Viking Press. * Conway, John (2008). *A Look at the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments: Slavery Abolished, Equal Protection Established*. Enslow Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59845-070-5. * Danver, Steven (2010). *Popular Controversies in World History*. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-078-0. * Davis, Natalie Zemon (2002). *Slaves on Screen: Film and Historical Vision*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00821-2. * Dobson, Miriam (October 2012). "Stalin's Gulag: Death, Redemption and Memory". *The Slavonic and East European Review*. **90** (4): 735–743. doi:10.5699/slaveasteurorev2.90.4.0735. S2CID 148284255. * Donoghue, John (2010). "Out of the Land of Bondage": The English Revolution and the Atlantic Origins of Abolition". *The American Historical Review*. **115** (4): 943–974. doi:10.1086/ahr.115.4.943. * Ellerman, David Patterson (1992). *Property and Contract in Economics: The Case for Economic Democracy*. Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55786-309-6. * Foner, Philip S. (1980). *History of Black Americans: From Africa to the emergence of the cotton kingdom*. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on October 14, 2013. * Forbes, Robert P. (1998). "Slavery and the Evangelical Movement". In McKivigan, John R.; Snay, Mitchell (eds.). *Religion and the Antebellum Debate Over Slavery*. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. pp. 68–106. ISBN 978-0-8203-2076-2. * Gregory, Paul R.; Lazarev, Valery (October 1, 2003). *The Economics of Forced Labor: The Soviet Gulag*. Stanford, CA: Hoover Press. * Higginbotham, A. Leon Jr. (1978). *In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process: The Colonial Period*. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-19-502745-7. * Kozlowski, Darrell (2010). *Colonialism: Key Concepts in American History*. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60413-217-5. * Lee, Kenneth B. (1997). *Korea and East Asia: the story of a Phoenix*. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-275-95823-7. Retrieved July 4, 2010. * Lester, David; Krysinska, Karolina (2008). "Suicide in the Soviet Gulag Camps" (pdf). *Archives of Suicide Research*. **12** (2): 170–179. doi:10.1080/13811110701857541. PMID 18340600. S2CID 205804782. Retrieved December 30, 2020. * Lewis, Bernard (1992). *Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry*. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505326-5. * Love, Henry Davison (1913). *Vestiges of Old Madras, 1640-1800*. London: Government of India. OL 1773373W. * Meltzer, Milton (1993). "Slavery: A World History". *Personal Research Collection*. * Millward, James A. (1998). *Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnieitya and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1564*. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2933-8. * Prakash, Om (January 1, 1985). *The Dutch East India Company and the Economy of Bengal, 1630-1720*. Princeton University Press. doi:10.1515/9781400857760. ISBN 978-1-4008-5776-0. * Prakash, Om (June 28, 1998). *European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-Colonial India*. *The New Cambridge History of India*. Vol. II. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-521-25758-9. * Raychaudhuri, Tapan; Habib, Irfan, eds. (1982). *The Cambridge Economic History of India I*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Richards, John F. (2012). *The Mughal Empire*. The New Cambridge History of India, Part I. Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-58406-0. * Rodriguez, Junius P. (1997). *The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery*. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-87436-885-7. * Rodriguez, Junius P. (2007a). *Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia*. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-544-5. * Salisbury, Joyce E. (2004). *The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Daily Life: The medieval world*. Greenwood Press. p. 316. ISBN 978-0-313-32543-4. Retrieved January 9, 2011. * de Sande, Duarte (2012). Massarella, Derek (ed.). *Japanese Travellers in Sixteenth-century Europe: A Dialogue Concerning the Mission of the Japanese Ambassadors to the Roman Curia (1590)*. *Works Issued by the Hakluyt Society*. Third Series. Vol. 25 of 3: Works, Hakluyt Society. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4094-7223-0. ISSN 0072-9396. * Saunders, A.C. de C.M. (1982). *A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555* (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-521-23150-3. Retrieved February 2, 2014. * Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1997). "Slaves and Tyrants: Dutch Tribulations in Seventeenth-Century Mrauk-U". *Journal of Early Modern History*. **1** (3): 201–253. doi:10.1163/157006597x00028. ISSN 1385-3783. * Toppin, Edgar (2010). *The Black American in United States History*. Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 978-1-4759-6172-0. * Vink, Markus P. M. (June 1998). *Encounters on the Opposite Coast: Cross-Cultural Contacts between the Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century* (PhD). Vol. 1. University of Minnesota. ISBN 978-0-591-92325-4. ProQuest 304436379. Retrieved February 14, 2021. Further reading --------------- ### Surveys and reference Books * Beckert, Sven (2014). *Empire of Cotton: A Global History*. Knopf Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-35325-0. * Davies, Stephen (2008). "Slavery, World". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). *The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism*. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 464–69. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n285. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. * Davis, David Brion (1988) [1966]. *The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505639-6. * Davis, David Brion (1999). *The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-988083-6. * Drescher, Seymour (2009). *Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery*. Cambridge University Press. p. 281. ISBN 978-1-139-48296-7. * Eden, Jeff (2018). *Slavery and Empire in Central Asia*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-63732-9. * Gordon, Murray (1989). *Slavery in the Arab World*. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-941533-30-0. * Greene, Jacqueline Dembar (2001). *Slavery in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia*. Turtleback Books. ISBN 978-0-613-34472-2. * Heuman, Gad J. (2003). *The Slavery Reader*. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-21304-2. * Hogendorn, Jan; Johnson, Marion (2003). *The Shell Money of the Slave Trade*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54110-7. * Lal, K.S. (1994). *Muslim Slave System in Medieval India*. ISBN 978-81-85689-67-8. Archived from the original on May 12, 2008. * Miers, Suzanne; Kopytoff, Igor (1979). *Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives*. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-07334-3. * Montejo, Esteban (April 15, 2016). Barnet, Miguel (ed.). *Biography of a Runaway Slave: Fiftieth Anniversary Edition*. Northwestern University Press. ISBN 978-0-8101-3342-6. * Morgan, Kenneth (2007). *Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-156627-1. * Postma, Johannes (2005). *The Atlantic Slave Trade*. University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-2906-1. * Reséndez, Andrés (2016). *The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America*. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-547-64098-3. * Rodriguez, Junius P. (2007). *Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion*. Vol. 2. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33273-9. * Shell, Robert Carl-Heinz (1994). *Children of Bondage: A Social History of the Slave Society at the Cape of Good Hope, 1652-1838*. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England [for] Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-5273-0. * Westermann, William Linn (1955). *The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity*. American Philosophical Society. ISBN 978-0-87169-040-1. Journal articles and reviews * Bartlett, Will (May 1994). "Review: Property and Contract in Economics". *Economic and Industrial Democracy*. **15** (2): 296–298. doi:10.1177/0143831x94152010. S2CID 220850066. * Burczak, Theodore (June 2001). "Ellerman's Labor Theory of Property and the Injustice of Capitalist Exploitation". *Review of Social Economy*. **59** (2): 161–183. doi:10.1080/00346760110035572. JSTOR 29770104. S2CID 144866813. * Devine, Pat (November 1, 1993). "Review: Property and Contract in Economics". *Economic Journal*. **103** (421): 1560–1561. doi:10.2307/2234490. JSTOR 2234490. * Lawson, Colin (1993). "Review: Property and Contract in Economics". *The Slavonic and East European Review*. **71** (4): 792–793. JSTOR 4211433. * Lutz, Mark A. (1995). "Book Reviews: Property and Contract in Economics". *Review of Social Economy*. **53** (1): 141–147. doi:10.1080/00346769500000007. * Pole, J. R. (June 1977). "Review: Slavery and Revolution: The Conscience of the Rich". *The Historical Journal*. **20** (2): 503–513. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00011171. JSTOR 2638543. S2CID 162624457. * Smith, Stephen C. (December 1994). "Property and Contract in Economics". *Journal of Comparative Economics*. **19** (3): 463–466. doi:10.1006/jcec.1994.1115. * Woltjer, Geert (March 1996). "Book review: Property and Contract in Economics". *European Journal of Law and Economics*. **3** (1): 109–112. doi:10.1007/bf00149085. S2CID 195243866. #### United States * Baptist, Edward (2016). *The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism*. ISBN 978-0-465-09768-5. * Beckert, Sven; Rockman, Seth, eds. (2016). *Slavery's Capitalism: A New History of American Economic Development*. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-2417-7. * Berlin, Ira (2009). *Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America*. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02082-5. * Berlin, Ira; Favreau, Marc; Miller, Steven (2011). *Remembering Slavery: African Americans Talk About Their Personal Experiences of Slavery and Freedom*. New Press. ISBN 978-1-59558-763-3. * Blackmon, Douglas A. (2012). *Slavery by Another Name: The re-enslavement of black americans from the civil war to World War Two*. Icon Books Limited. ISBN 978-1-84831-413-9. * Boles, John B. (2015). *Black Southerners, 1619–1869*. University Press of Kentucky. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8131-5786-3. * Engerman, Stanley Lewis (1999). *Terms of Labor: Slavery, Serfdom, and Free Labor*. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3521-6. * Genovese, Eugene D. (2011). *Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made*. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-77272-5. * King, Richard H.; Genovese, Eugene (1977). "Marxism and the Slave South". *American Quarterly*. **29** (1): 117. doi:10.2307/2712264. ISSN 0003-0678. JSTOR 2712264. * Mintz, S. "Slavery Facts & Myths". *Digital History*. Archived from the original on November 6, 2006. * Morgan, Edmund Sears (1975). *American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia*. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-05554-2.; online review * Parish, Peter J. (1989). *Slavery: History and Historians*. New York: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-06-437001-1. * Parish, Peter J. (February 1, 2018). *Slavery: History And Historians*. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-97694-0. * Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell (1918). *American Negro Slavery: A Survey of the Supply, Employment and Control of Negro Labor as Determined by the Plantation Régime*. D. Appleton. p. 1. * Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell (2007). *Life and Labor in the Old South*. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-678-1. * Resendez, Andres (2016). *The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America*. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 448. ISBN 978-0-544-60267-0 – via Google Books. * Sellers, James Benson (1994). *Slavery in Alabama*. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-0594-9. * Stampp, Kenneth Milton (1969). *The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Antebellum South*. A.A. Knopf. * Trenchard, David (2008). "Slavery in America". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). *The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism*. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 469–70. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n286. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. * Vorenberg, Michael (May 21, 2001). *Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65267-4. * Weinstein, Allen; Gatell, Frank Otto; Sarasohn, David, eds. (1979). *American Negro Slavery: A Modern Reader*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-502470-8. #### Slavery in the modern era * Brass, Tom; van der Linden, Marcel (1997). *Free and unfree labour: the debate continues*. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-906756-87-5. * Brass, Tom (2015). *Towards a Comparative Political Economy of Unfree Labour: Case Studies and Debates*. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-82735-1. * Bales, Kevin, ed. (2005). *Understanding Global Slavery: A Reader*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-93207-4. * Bales, Kevin (2007). *Ending Slavery: How We Free Today's Slaves*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25470-1. * Craig, Gary (2007). *Contemporary Slavery in the UK: Overview and Key Issues* (PDF). York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. ISBN 978-1-85935-573-2. * Hawk, David R. (2012). *The Hidden Gulag: The Lives and Voices of "those Who Are Sent to the Mountains"* (PDF). Washington, DC: U.S. Committee for Human Rights in North Korea. ISBN 978-0-615-62367-2. * Nazer, Mende; Lewis, Damien (2009). *Slave: My True Story*. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-0-7867-3897-7. * Sage, Jesse (2015). *Enslaved: True Stories of Modern Day Slavery*. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1-250-08310-4. * Sowell, Thomas (2010). "The Real History of Slavery". *Black Rednecks and White Liberals*. ReadHowYouWant.com. ISBN 978-1-4596-0221-2. External links -------------- ### Historical * Slavery in America: A Resource Guide at the Library of Congress * The Bibliography of Slavery and World Slaving, University of Virginia: a searchable database of 25,000 scholarly works on slavery and the slave trade * Digital Library on American Slavery at University of North Carolina at Greensboro * "Slavery Fact Sheets". *Digital History*. University of Houston. Archived from the original on February 9, 2014. * The West African Squadron and slave trade, history of the Victorian Royal Navy * Slavery and the Making of America at WNET * "Understanding Slavery". Discovery Education. Archived from the original on March 26, 2010. * Slavery archival sources, University of London, Senate House Library * Mémoire St Barth (archives & history of slavery, slave trade and their abolition), Comité de Liaison et d'Application des Sources Historiques 2010 * Archives of the Middelburgsche Commercie Compagnie (MCC), 1720-1889 'Trade Company of Middelburg', Inventory of the archives of the Dutch slave trade across the Atlantic (in Dutch) * Slave Ships and the Middle Passage at *Encyclopedia Virginia* * The Trans-Atlantic and Intra-American slave trade databases at Emory University ### Modern * 2018 Global Slavery Index at the Walk Free Foundation * What is Modern Slavery?; Office To Monitor And Combat Trafficking In Persons, U.S. Department of State.

Slavery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery

**Corsica** (/ˈkɔːrsɪkə/ *KOR-sik-ə*, Upper Corsican: [ˈkorsiɡa], Southern Corsican: [ˈkɔrsika], Italian: [ˈkɔrsika]; French: *Corse* [kɔʁs] (); Ligurian: *Còrsega*) is an island in the Mediterranean Sea and one of the 18 regions of France. It is the fourth-largest island in the Mediterranean and lies southeast of the French mainland, west of the Italian Peninsula and immediately north of the Italian island of Sardinia, which is the land mass nearest to it. A single chain of mountains makes up two-thirds of the island. As of January 2023[update], it had a population of 351,255. The island is a territorial collectivity of France. The regional capital is Ajaccio. Although the region is divided into two administrative departments, Haute-Corse and Corse-du-Sud, their respective regional and departmental territorial collectivities were merged on 1 January 2018 to form the single territorial collectivity of Corsica. As such, Corsica enjoys a greater degree of autonomy than other French regional collectivities; for example, the Corsican Assembly is permitted to exercise limited executive powers. Corsica's second-largest town is Bastia, the prefecture of Haute-Corse. Corsica was ruled by the Republic of Genoa from 1284 to 1755, when it seceded to become a self-proclaimed, Italian-speaking Republic. In 1768, Genoa officially ceded it to Louis XV of France as part of a pledge for the debts it had incurred by enlisting France's military help in suppressing the Corsican revolt, and as a result France annex it in 1769. The future Emperor of the French, Napoleon Bonaparte, was a native Corsican, born that same year in Ajaccio: his ancestral home, Maison Bonaparte, is today a visitor attraction and museum. Because of Corsica's historical ties to Tuscany, the island has retained many Italian cultural elements and many Corsican surnames are rooted in the Italian peninsula. Corsican, the native tongue and an Italo-Dalmatian language, is recognised as one of France's regional languages. Corsica is the least populated region of metropolitan France, and the third-least populated overall after Mayotte and French Guiana. History ------- ### Prehistory and antiquity The origin of the name Corsica is subject to much debate and remains a mystery. To the Ancient Greeks it was known as *Kalliste*, *Corsis*, *Cyrnos*, *Cernealis*, or *Cirné*. Corsica has been occupied since the Mesolithic era. The permanent human presence in Corsica is documented in the Neolithic period from the 6th millennium BC. In the 2nd millennium BC Corsica, the southern part in particular, saw the rise of the Torrean civilization, strongly linked to the Nuragic civilization in Sardinia. After a brief occupation by the Carthaginians, colonization by the ancient Greeks, and an only slightly longer occupation by the Etruscans, it was incorporated by the Roman Republic at the end of the First Punic War and, with Sardinia, in 238 BC became a province of the Roman Republic. The Romans, who built a colony in Aléria, considered Corsica as one of the most backward regions of the Roman world. The island produced sheep, honey, resin and wax, and exported many slaves, not well considered because of their fierce and rebellious character. Moreover, it was known for its cheap wines, exported to Rome, and was used as a place of relegation, one of the most famous exiles being the Roman philosopher Seneca. Administratively, the island was divided into *pagi*, which in the Middle Ages became the *pievi*, the basic administrative units of the island until 1768. During the diffusion of Christianity, which arrived quite early from Rome and the Tuscan harbors, Corsica was home to many martyrs and saints: among them, the most important are Saint Devota and Saint Julia, both patrons of the island. Corsica was integrated into Roman Italy by Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305). ### Middle Ages and early-modern era In the fifth century, the western half of the Roman Empire collapsed, and the island was invaded by the Vandals and the Ostrogoths. Briefly recovered by the Byzantines, it soon became part of the Kingdom of the Lombards. This made it a dependency of the March of Tuscany, which used it as an outpost against the Saracens. Pepin the Short, king of the Franks and Charlemagne's father, expelled the Lombards and nominally granted Corsica to Pope Stephen II. In the first quarter of the 11th century, Pisa and Genoa together freed the island from the threat of Arab invasion. After that, the island came under the influence of the republic of Pisa. Many polychrome churches which adorn the island date from this period. Corsica also experienced a massive immigration from Tuscany, which gave to the island its present toponymy and rendered the language spoken in the northern two-thirds of the island very close to the Tuscan dialect. This led to the traditional division of Corsica into two parts, along the main chain of mountains roughly going from Calvi to Porto-Vecchio: the eastern *Banda di dentro*, or *Cismonte*, more populated, developed, and open to the commerce with Italy, and the western *Banda di fuori*, or *Pomonte*, almost deserted, wild and remote. The crushing defeat experienced by Pisa in 1284 in the Battle of Meloria against Genoa had among its consequences the end of the Pisan rule and the beginning of the Genoese influence in Corsica: this was contested initially by the King of Aragon, who in 1296 had received from the Pope the investiture over Sardinia and Corsica. A popular revolution against this and the feudal lords, led by Sambucuccio d'Alando, got the aid of Genoa. After that, the *Cismonte* was ruled as a league of comuni and churches, after the Italian experience. The following 150 years were a period of conflict, when the Genoese rule was contested by Aragon, the local lords, the comuni and the Pope: finally, in 1450 Genoa ceded the administration of the island to its main bank, the Bank of Saint George, which brought peace. In the 16th century, the island entered into the fight between Spain and France for supremacy in Italy. In 1553, a Franco-Ottoman fleet occupied Corsica, but the reaction of Spain and Genoa, led by Andrea Doria, reestablished the Genoese supremacy on the island, confirmed by the Peace of Cateau-Cambresis. The unlucky protagonist of this episode was Sampiero di Bastelica, who would later come to be considered a hero of the island. Their power was reinstated, the Genoese did not allow the Corsican nobility to share in the government of the island and oppressed the inhabitants with a heavy tax burden. On the other hand, they introduced the chestnut tree on a large scale, improving the diet of the population, and built a chain of towers along the coast to defend Corsica from the attacks of the Barbary pirates from North Africa. The period of peace lasted until 1729, when the refusal to pay taxes by a peasant sparked the general insurrection of the island against Genoa. The island became known for the large number of mercenary soldiers and officers it produced. In 1743, over 4,600 Corsicans, or 4% of the entire population of the island, were serving as soldiers in various armies (predominantly those of Genoa, Venice, and Spain), making it one of the most militarized societies in Europe. ### Rise and annexation of the Corsican Republic In 1729 the Corsican Revolution for independence from Genoa began, first led by Luiggi Giafferi and Giacinto Paoli, and later by Paoli's son, Pasquale Paoli. After 26 years of struggle against the Republic of Genoa, including an ephemeral attempt in 1736 to proclaim an independent Kingdom of Corsica under the German adventurer Theodor von Neuhoff, an independent Corsican Republic was proclaimed in 1755 under the leadership of Pasquale Paoli and remained sovereign until 1769 when the island was conquered by France. The first Corsican Constitution was written in Italian, the prevalent language in Corsica until the mid-19th century, by Paoli. The Corsican Republic was unable to eject the Genoese from the major coastal fortresses of Calvi and Bonifacio. After the Corsican conquest of Capraia in 1767, the Republic of Genoa sold the island to France, as France was trying to reinforce its Mediterranean position after its defeat in the Seven Years' War. In 1768, as part of the Treaty of Versailles, Genoa conceded the region to France to repay its heavy debts. French troops became stationed at forts to try to subdue the republicans. After an initial successful resistance culminating with the victory at Borgo, the Corsican republic was crushed by a large French army led by the Count of Vaux at the Battle of Ponte Novu. This marked the end of Corsican sovereignty. Despite triggering the Corsican Crisis in Britain, whose government gave secret aid, no foreign military support came for the Corsicans. However, nationalist feelings still ran high. Following the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, Pasquale Paoli was able to return to Corsica from exile in Britain. In 1794, he invited British forces under Lord Hood to intervene to free Corsica from French rule. Anglo-Corsican forces drove the French from the island and established an Anglo-Corsican Kingdom. Following Spain's entry into the war, the British decided to withdraw from Corsica in 1796. Corsica returned to French rule. ### 19th century Despite being the birthplace of the Emperor, the island was slightly neglected by Napoleon's government. In 1814, near the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Corsica was briefly occupied again by British troops. The Treaty of Bastia gave the British crown sovereignty over the island, but it was later repudiated by Lord Castlereagh who insisted that the island should be returned to a restored French monarchy. After the restoration, the island was further neglected by the French state. Despite the presence of a middle class in Bastia and Ajaccio, Corsica remained an otherwise primitive place, whose economy consisted mainly of subsistence agriculture, and whose population constituted a pastoral society, dominated by clans and the rules of vendetta. The code of vendetta required Corsicans to seek deadly revenge for offences against their family's honor. Between 1821 and 1852, no fewer than 4,300 murders were perpetrated in Corsica. During the first half of the century, the people of Corsica were still immersed in the Italian cultural world: the bourgeoisie sent children to Pisa to study, official acts were enacted in Italian and most books were printed in Italian. Moreover, many islanders sympathised with the national struggle which was taking place in nearby Italy in those years: several political refugees from the peninsula, like Niccolò Tommaseo, spent years in the island, while some Corsicans, like Count Leonetto Cipriani [fr], [it], took active part in the fights for Italian independence. Despite all that, during those years the Corsicans began to feel a stronger and stronger attachment to France. The reasons for that are manifold: the knowledge of the French language, which thanks to the mandatory primary school started to penetrate among the local youth, the high prestige of French culture, the awareness of being part of a big, powerful state, the possibility of well-paid jobs as civil servants, both in the island, in the mainland and in the colonies, the prospect of serving the French army during the wars for the conquest of the colonial empire, the introduction of steamboats, which reduced the travel time between mainland France from the island drastically, and – last but not least – Napoleon himself, whose existence alone constituted an indissoluble link between France and Corsica. Thanks to all these factors by around 1870 Corsica had landed in the French cultural world. From the 19th century into the mid-20th century, Corsicans also grew closer to the French nation through participation in the French Empire. Compared to much of Metropolitan France, Corsica was poor and many Corsicans emigrated. While Corsicans emigrated globally, especially to many South American countries, many chose to move within the French Empire which acted as a conduit for emigration and eventual return, as many young Corsican men could find better job opportunities in the far corners of the Empire where many other French hesitated to go. In many parts of the Empire, Corsicans were strongly represented, such as in Saigon where in 1926 12% of Europeans were from Corsica. Across the French Empire, many Corsicans retained a sense of community by establishing organizations where they would meet regularly, keep one another informed of developments in Corsica, and come to one another's aid in times of need. ### Modern Corsica Corsica paid a high price for the French victory in the First World War: agriculture was disrupted by the years-long absence of almost all of the young workers, and the percentage of dead or wounded Corsicans in the conflict was double that of those from mainland France. Moreover, the protectionist policies of the French government, started in the 1880s and never stopped, had ruined the Corsican export of wine and olive oil, and forced many young Corsicans to emigrate to mainland France or to the Americas. In reaction to these conditions, a nationalist movement was born in the 1920s around the newspaper *A Muvra*, having as its objective the autonomy of the island from France. In the 1930s, many exponents of this movement became irredentist, seeing annexation of the island to fascist Italy as the only solution to its problems. Under Benito Mussolini annexation of Corsica had become one of the main goals of Italy's unification policy. After the collapse of France to the German Wehrmacht in 1940, Corsica came under the rule of the Vichy French regime, which was collaborating with Nazi Germany. In November 1942 the island was occupied by Italian and German forces following the Anglo-American landings in North Africa. After the Italian armistice in September 1943, Italian and Free French Forces pushed the Germans out of the island, making Corsica the first French Department to be freed. Subsequently, the US military established 17 airfields, nicknamed "USS Corsica", which served as bases for attacks on targets in German-occupied Italy. The Corsicans who promoted the ideal of Corsican irredentism published mainly in Italy, because of the persecutions from the French regime in the island in the first half of the 20th century. Many Corsicans, notably Petru Giovacchini, Simon Petru Cristofini and Marco Angeli di Sartèna, supported Italian irredentism on the island. Cristofini was executed by the French authorities; Angeli and Giovacchini were also condemned to death, but they escaped in Italy. During the May 1958 crisis, the French military command in Algeria mutinied against the French Fourth Republic and on 24 May occupied the island in an action called Opération Corse that led to the collapse of the government; the second phase of the coup attempt, occupying Paris, was cancelled following the establishment of a transitional government under Charles de Gaulle. Between the late fifties and the seventies, proposals to conduct underground nuclear tests in the Argentella mines, the immigration of 18,000 former settlers from Algeria ("Pieds-Noirs") in the eastern plains, and continuing chemical pollution (*Fanghi Rossi*) from mainland Italy increased tensions between the indigenous inhabitants and the French government. Tensions escalated until an armed police assault on a pieds-noirs-owned wine cellar in Aleria, occupied by Corsican nationalists on 23 August 1975. This marked the beginning of the Corsican conflict, an armed nationalist struggle against the French government. Ever since, Corsican nationalism has been a feature of the island's politics, with calls for greater autonomy and protection for Corsican culture and the Corsican language, or even full independence. Some groups supporting independence, such as the National Liberation Front of Corsica, have carried out a violent campaign that includes bombings and assassinations targeting buildings and officials representing the French government; periodic flare-ups of raids and killings culminated in the assassination of Prefect Claude Érignac in 1998. Lately, the drive towards independence has taken a more electoral approach, where Corsicans elected pro-autonomist, or pro-independence parties overwhelmingly in the past few elections. In 2013, Corsica hosted the first three stages of the 100th Tour de France, which passed through the island for the first time in the event's 110-year history. In 2018 Corsica had the highest murder rate in France which were the result of family feuds between clans on the island and vendettas or revenge actions against insults against the honor of a family. The most common victims of gun murders are prominent business people and local mayors. In March 2022, Corsica saw large protests and riots after Yvan Colonna, the murderer of Claude Érignac, was murdered in prison. In August 2022, a rare and powerful derecho swept across the island and killed six people, injured dozens of others, and caused significant damage. Geography --------- Corsica was formed about 250 million years ago with the uplift of a granite backbone on the western side. About 50 million years ago sedimentary rock was pressed against this granite, forming the schists of the eastern side. It is the most mountainous island in the Mediterranean, a "mountain in the sea". It is also the fourth-largest island in the Mediterranean, after Sicily, Sardinia and Cyprus. The island is 183 km (114 mi) long at longest, 83 km (52 mi) wide at widest, has 1,000 km (620 mi) of coastline, with more than 200 beaches such as Paraguano. Corsica is very mountainous, with Monte Cinto as the highest peak at 2,706 m (8,878 ft), and around 120 other summits of more than 2,000 m (6,600 ft). Mountains comprise two-thirds of the island, forming a single chain. Forests make up 20% of the island. About 3,500 km2 (1,400 sq mi) of the total surface area of 8,680 km2 (3,350 sq mi) is dedicated to nature reserves (Parc naturel régional de Corse), mainly in the interior. Corsica contains the GR20, one of Europe's most notable hiking trails. The island is 90 km (56 mi) from Tuscany in Italy and 170 km (110 mi) from the Côte d'Azur in France. It is separated from Sardinia to the south by the Strait of Bonifacio, which is a minimum of 11 km (6.8 mi) wide. The Bay of Calvi: Corsica is the most mountainous Mediterranean island. ### Major communities In 2005 the population of Corsica was settled in approximately 360 communities. ### Climate Under the Köppen climate classification scheme, coastal regions are characterized by a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa). Further inland, a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb) is more common. At the highest elevation locations, small areas with a subarctic climate (Dsc, Dfc) and the rare cold-summer Mediterranean climate (Csc) can be found. The station of Sari-Solenzara records the highest year-round temperatures of Metropolitan France with an annual average of 16.41 °C over the 1981–2010 period. Sunshine hours are not available for same period but this was 2715 h for 2008–2016. | Climate data for Sari-Solenzara, south-eastern part of island | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 13.6(56.5) | 14.0(57.2) | 15.9(60.6) | 18.1(64.6) | 22.2(72.0) | 26.1(79.0) | 29.4(84.9) | 29.7(85.5) | 26.3(79.3) | 22.1(71.8) | 17.4(63.3) | 14.3(57.7) | 20.76(69.37) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 9.7(49.5) | 9.8(49.6) | 11.6(52.9) | 13.7(56.7) | 17.8(64.0) | 21.3(70.3) | 24.5(76.1) | 24.8(76.6) | 21.7(71.1) | 18.0(64.4) | 13.6(56.5) | 10.7(51.3) | 16.41(61.54) | | Average low °C (°F) | 5.8(42.4) | 5.6(42.1) | 7.3(45.1) | 9.3(48.7) | 12.9(55.2) | 16.5(61.7) | 19.5(67.1) | 19.9(67.8) | 17.1(62.8) | 13.9(57.0) | 9.8(49.6) | 7.1(44.8) | 12.06(53.71) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 71.1(2.80) | 58.3(2.30) | 61.2(2.41) | 79.9(3.15) | 45.8(1.80) | 25.1(0.99) | 12.1(0.48) | 28.4(1.12) | 88.3(3.48) | 125.6(4.94) | 94.2(3.71) | 103.7(4.08) | 793.7(31.25) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) | 6.2 | 6.1 | 6.5 | 7.5 | 4.9 | 3.0 | 1.5 | 2.2 | 4.8 | 7.1 | 8.1 | 8.7 | 66.6 | | Source: Météo France | | Climate data for Ajaccio, central-western part of island (1991-2020) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 14.0(57.2) | 14.2(57.6) | 16.0(60.8) | 18.5(65.3) | 22.1(71.8) | 25.9(78.6) | 28.6(83.5) | 29.2(84.6) | 26.1(79.0) | 22.8(73.0) | 18.3(64.9) | 15.1(59.2) | 20.9(69.6) | | Average low °C (°F) | 4.7(40.5) | 4.3(39.7) | 5.9(42.6) | 8.4(47.1) | 11.8(53.2) | 15.4(59.7) | 17.7(63.9) | 18.1(64.6) | 15.4(59.7) | 12.6(54.7) | 9.0(48.2) | 5.8(42.4) | 10.8(51.4) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 54.1(2.13) | 48.1(1.89) | 50.4(1.98) | 53.1(2.09) | 49.8(1.96) | 25.9(1.02) | 8.6(0.34) | 15.8(0.62) | 57.8(2.28) | 85.7(3.37) | 111.8(4.40) | 73.9(2.91) | 635.0(25.00) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) | 7.0 | 6.7 | 6.3 | 7.2 | 5.0 | 2.8 | 1.2 | 1.4 | 5.1 | 7.4 | 9.3 | 8.6 | 68.0 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 135.8 | 155.6 | 210.8 | 230.4 | 288.3 | 332.3 | 373.6 | 343.3 | 260.6 | 206.8 | 140.2 | 124.0 | 2,801.7 | | Source: Météo-France | | Climate data for Ajaccio, central-western part of island (1961-1990) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 13.3(55.9) | 13.7(56.7) | 15.0(59.0) | 17.4(63.3) | 20.9(69.6) | 24.5(76.1) | 27.6(81.7) | 27.7(81.9) | 25.4(77.7) | 22.0(71.6) | 17.5(63.5) | 14.4(57.9) | 19.95(67.91) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 8.6(47.5) | 9.0(48.2) | 10.1(50.2) | 12.3(54.1) | 15.7(60.3) | 19.1(66.4) | 21.9(71.4) | 22.1(71.8) | 19.9(67.8) | 16.7(62.1) | 12.6(54.7) | 9.6(49.3) | 14.80(58.64) | | Average low °C (°F) | 3.9(39.0) | 4.3(39.7) | 5.3(41.5) | 7.3(45.1) | 10.6(51.1) | 13.8(56.8) | 16.2(61.2) | 16.5(61.7) | 14.4(57.9) | 11.4(52.5) | 7.7(45.9) | 4.8(40.6) | 9.68(49.42) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 73.8(2.91) | 69.7(2.74) | 58.1(2.29) | 52.0(2.05) | 40.2(1.58) | 19.0(0.75) | 11.0(0.43) | 19.9(0.78) | 43.6(1.72) | 87.0(3.43) | 95.9(3.78) | 75.5(2.97) | 645.7(25.42) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) | 8.9 | 8.7 | 8.3 | 7.2 | 5.7 | 2.8 | 1.3 | 2.4 | 4.3 | 7.3 | 8.6 | 9.1 | 74.6 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 133.3 | 145.0 | 189.1 | 225.0 | 282.1 | 321.0 | 365.8 | 331.7 | 264.0 | 210.8 | 150.0 | 127.1 | 2,744.9 | | Source: Hong Kong Observatory | | Climate data for Bastia, north-eastern part of island | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 13.6(56.5) | 13.8(56.8) | 15.6(60.1) | 17.8(64.0) | 22.0(71.6) | 25.8(78.4) | 29.1(84.4) | 29.3(84.7) | 25.8(78.4) | 21.9(71.4) | 17.4(63.3) | 14.5(58.1) | 20.6(69.0) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 9.1(48.4) | 9.4(48.9) | 10.8(51.4) | 12.9(55.2) | 16.3(61.3) | 20.0(68.0) | 23.2(73.8) | 23.3(73.9) | 20.6(69.1) | 17.1(62.8) | 12.9(55.2) | 10.1(50.2) | 15.5(59.9) | | Average low °C (°F) | 5.1(41.2) | 4.9(40.8) | 6.7(44.1) | 8.8(47.8) | 12.4(54.3) | 16.0(60.8) | 19.0(66.2) | 19.4(66.9) | 16.5(61.7) | 13.3(55.9) | 9.2(48.6) | 6.3(43.3) | 11.5(52.6) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 67(2.6) | 57(2.2) | 60(2.4) | 76(3.0) | 50(2.0) | 41(1.6) | 13(0.5) | 21(0.8) | 81(3.2) | 127(5.0) | 114(4.5) | 93(3.7) | 800(31.5) | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 134 | 158 | 192 | 214 | 268 | 296 | 345 | 304 | 232 | 176 | 133 | 128 | 2,580 | | Source: Quid 2004, page 618 and Météo-France, data for 1981–2010 | Ecology ------- ### Zones by altitude The island is divided into four major ecological zones, by altitude. Below 600 metres (2,000 ft) is the coastal zone's mild Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and cool, rainy winters. The area's natural vegetation is sparse Mediterranean forest, scrubland, and shrubs. The coastal lowlands are part of the Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests ecoregion, in which forests and woodlands of evergreen sclerophyll oaks predominate, chiefly holm oak (*Quercus ilex*) and cork oak (*Quercus suber*). Much of the coastal lowlands have been cleared for agriculture, grazing and logging; these activities have reduced the forest area considerably. Between 600 and 1,800 m (2,000 and 5,900 ft) is a temperate montane zone. The mountains are cooler and wetter, and home to the Corsican montane broadleaf and mixed forests ecoregion. This region supports diverse forests of oak, pine, and broadleaf deciduous trees, with vegetation more typical of northern Europe. The population lives predominantly below 900 m (3,000 ft), with only shepherds and hikers from 600 to 900 m (2,000 to 3,000 ft). The elevation above 1,800 to 2,700 m (5,900 to 8,900 ft) is the high alpine zone. Vegetation is sparse, with high winds and frequent cloud cover. This zone is uninhabited. There is considerable birdlife in Corsica. One famous example is the bearded vulture, or *Lammergeier*, which (along with the iconic griffon vulture) serve as environmental "janitors" by scavenging the remains of deceased animals, thus limiting the proliferation of infectious microbes and diseases. Other avian species to be seen include the barn owl, blue rock thrush, common crane, Corsican nuthatch, golden eagle, greater flamingo, osprey, peregrine falcon, red kite, and starry bittern. In some cases, Corsica is an isolated portion of a species' distribution; in other cases, it is the furthest point in a species' range. For example, a subspecies of hooded crow (*Corvus cornix cornix*) occurs in Corsica, but not anywhere further south. Corsica has abundant reptile and amphibians, one protected species being the sensitive Hermann's tortoise, which are found at A Cupulatta at Vero and Moltifao Regional Natural Park. Corsican brook and fire salamanders, leaf-toed gecko, and yellow and green grass snakes are also common. The European pond turtle can be seen, especially in the waters of Fango Estuary, southern Calvi, Biguglia Lagoon and Pietracorbara. ### Parc Naturel Régional de Corse The island has a natural park (Parc Naturel Régional de Corse, Parcu di Corsica), which protects rare animal and plant species. The park was created in 1972 and includes the Golfe de Porto, the Scandola Nature Reserve (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), and some of the highest mountains on the island. Scandola cannot be reached on foot, but people can gain access by boat from the village of Galéria and Porto (Ota). Two endangered subspecies of hoofed mammals, the European mouflon (*Ovis aries musimon*) and Corsican red deer (*Cervus elaphus corsicanus*) inhabit the park. The Corsican red deer was re-introduced after it was extinct due to over hunting. This Corsican subspecies was the same that survived on Sardinia, so it is endemic. There are other species endemic to Corsica especially in the upper mountain ranges, i.e. Corsican nuthatch, Corsican fire salamander and Corsican brook salamander and many plant subspecies. ### Extinct animals Corsica, like all the other Mediterranean islands, was home to endemic mammals during the Late Pleistocene, most or all of these are shared with Sardinia (as Sardinia was joined to Corsica for much of the Pleistocene). After the arrival humans during Mesolithic around 8000 BC, these began to disappear. Some of the smaller mammals managed to survive until at least to the early Iron Age, but all are now extinct. Extinct mammals formerly native to Corsica include the Sardinian dhole, the mustelid *Enhydrictis* *galictoides*, the deer *Praemegaceros cazioti*, the Corsican giant shrew, Tyrrhenian mole, Sardinian pika, Tyrrhenian vole, and the Tyrrhenian field rat. Demographics ------------ Corsica has a population of 351,255 inhabitants (January 2023 estimate). Historical population of Corsica| | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1740 | 120,379 | —     | | 1770 | 130,236 | +0.26% | | 1786 | 148,172 | +0.81% | | 1806 | 177,582 | +0.91% | | 1821 | 180,348 | +0.10% | | 1831 | 197,967 | +0.94% | | 1836 | 207,889 | +0.93% | | 1841 | 221,463 | +1.27% | | 1846 | 230,271 | +0.77% | | 1851 | 236,251 | +0.51% | | 1856 | 240,183 | +0.35% | | 1861 | 252,889 | +1.02% | | 1866 | 259,861 | +0.55% | | 1872 | 258,507 | −0.09% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1876 | 262,701 | +0.36% | | 1881 | 272,639 | +0.72% | | 1936 | 221,990 | −0.38% | | 1954 | 175,818 | −1.27% | | 1962 | 180,862 | +0.36% | | 1968 | 205,268 | +2.13% | | 1975 | 225,562 | +1.36% | | 1982 | 240,178 | +0.90% | | 1990 | 250,371 | +0.52% | | 1999 | 260,196 | +0.43% | | 2009 | 305,674 | +1.65% | | 2014 | 324,212 | +1.18% | | 2020 | 343,701 | +0.98% | | 2023 | 351,255 | +0.73% | | | | | Note: Censuses from 1886 to 1975 were falsified by the municipalities of Corsica to hide the population decline and maintain the level of financial benefits received from the French state. Figures from 1936 to 1975 in this table are the redressed figures calculated by INSEE to correct the overestimated population of the censuses at the time.Source: 1740-1786 censuses, 1806-1881 censuses, INSEE's censuses (1982-2020, as well as redressed figures 1936-1975), and INSEE estimate (2023). | ### Immigration At the 2019 census, 55.7% of the inhabitants of Corsica were people born on the island, 29.9% were from Continental France, 0.3% were natives of Overseas France, and 14.1% were born in foreign countries. The majority of the foreign immigrants in Corsica come from the Maghreb (particularly Moroccans, who made up 29.0% of all immigrants in Corsica at the 2019 census) and from Southern Europe (particularly Portuguese and Italians, 23.9% and 12.5% of immigrants on the island respectively). Place of birth of residents of Corsica (at the 1982, 1990, 1999, 2008, 2013, and 2019 censuses)| Census | Born in Corsica | Born inContinental France | Born inOverseas France | Born in foreigncountries with Frenchcitizenship at birth1 | Immigrants2 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | 2019 | 55.7% | 29.9% | 0.3% | 4.2% | 9.9% | | **from the Maghreb3** | **from Southern Europe4** | **from the rest of the world** | | 3.9% | 3.8% | 2.2% | | 2013 | 55.8% | 28.9% | 0.3% | 4.8% | 10.2% | | **from the Maghreb3** | **from Southern Europe4** | **from the rest of the world** | | 4.4% | 3.9% | 1.9% | | 2008 | 57.9% | 27.3% | 0.3% | 5.2% | 9.3% | | **from the Maghreb3** | **from Southern Europe4** | **from the rest of the world** | | 4.4% | 3.4% | 1.5% | | 1999 | 59.5% | 24.8% | 0.3% | 5.5% | 10.0% | | **from the Maghreb3** | **from Southern Europe4** | **from the rest of the world** | | 5.3% | 3.3% | 1.4% | | 1990 | 62.0% | 21.3% | 0.2% | 6.0% | 10.5% | | 1982 | 61.6% | 20.4% | 0.2% | 6.0% | 11.8% | | 1Essentially Pieds-Noirs who resettled in Corsica after the independence of Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria, many of whom had Corsican ancestry.2An immigrant is by French definition a person born in a foreign country and who did not have French citizenship at birth. Note that an immigrant may have acquired French citizenship since moving to France, but is still listed as an immigrant in French statistics. On the other hand, persons born in France with foreign citizenship (the children of immigrants) are not listed as immigrants.3Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria4Portugal, Italy, Spain | | Source: INSEE | Culture ------- ### Languages French (*Français*) is the official and most widely spoken language on the island. Italian was the official language of Corsica until 9 May 1859, when it was replaced by French. Corsican (*Corsu*), a minority language that is closely related to medieval Tuscan (*Toscano*), has a better prospect of survival than most other French regional languages: Corsican is the second most widely spoken language after French. However, since the annexation of the island by France in the 18th century, Corsican has been under heavy pressure from French, and today it is estimated that only 10% of Corsica's population speak the language natively, with only 50% having some sort of proficiency in it. The language is divided into two main varieties: *Cismuntanu* and *Ultramuntanu*, spoken respectively northeast and southwest of the Girolata–Porto Vecchio line. This division was due to the massive immigration from Tuscany which took place in Corsica during the lower Middle Ages: as a result, the *Cismuntanu* became very similar to the Tuscan dialects, being part of the Italo-Dalmatian language group, while the *Ultramuntanu* could keep its original characteristics which make it much more similar to a Southern Romance language like Sardinian (*Sardu*). Therefore, due to the differences between the main dialectal varieties, many linguists classify Corsican as an Italo-Dalmatian language, while others consider it a Southern Romance one. Fewer and fewer people speak a Ligurian dialect, known as *bunifazzinu*, in what has long been a language island, Bonifacio, and in Ajaccio, the *aghjaccinu* dialect. In Cargèse, a village established by Greek immigrants in the 17th century, Greek (*Ελληνικά*) was the traditional language: whereas it has long disappeared from spoken conversation, Biblical Greek is still the liturgical language and the village has many Greek Orthodox parishes. ### Cuisine From the mountains to the plains and sea, many ingredients play a role. Game such as wild boar (*Cingale*, *Singhjari*) is popular. There also is seafood and river fish such as trout. Delicacies such as *figatellu* (also named as *ficateddu*), made with liver, *coppa*, ham (*prizuttu*), *lonzu* are made from Corsican pork (*porcu nustrale*). Characteristic among the cheeses is *brocciu* (similar to ricotta), which is used as a fresh ingredient in many dishes, from first courses (*sturzapreti*) to cakes (*fiadone*). Other cheeses, like *casgiu merzu* ("rotten cheese", the Corsican counterpart of the Sardinian *casu martzu*), *casgiu veghju* are made from goat or sheep milk. Chestnuts are the main ingredient in the making of *pulenta castagnina* and cakes (*falculelle*). A variety of alcohol also exists ranging from *aquavita* (brandy), red and white Corsican wines (*Vinu Corsu*), muscat wine (plain or sparkling), and the famous "Cap Corse" apéritif produced by Mattei. The herbs which are part of Maquis (Corsican: *machja*) and the chestnuts and oak nuts of the Corsican forests are eaten by local animals, resulting in a noticeable flavour in the food there. ### Art Corsica has produced a number of known artists: * Alizée (singer/dancer) * Martha Angelici (opera singer) * A Filetta (polyphonic chant group) * Canta U Populu Corsu (band) * Laetitia Casta (model/actress) * Baptiste Giabiconi (model/singer) * Julien de Casabianca (cineast) * Jérôme Ferrari (writer) * Patrick Fiori (singer) * Petru Guelfucci (singer) * José Luccioni (opera singer) * Gaston Micheletti (opera singer) * I Muvrini (band) * Jenifer (singer) * François Lanzi (painter) * Ange Leccia (visual art) * Henri Padovani (musician; original guitarist for The Police) * Thierry de Peretti (cineast) * Marie-Claude Pietragalla (dancer) * Jean-Paul Poletti (singer) * Robin Renucci (comedian) * Tino Rossi (singer) * César Vezzani (opera singer) ### Sport Most Corsican football clubs are currently littered through the first, second, third, fourth and fifth tiers of French football. AC Ajaccio are the highest ranking team, competing in Ligue 1 after promotion in the 2021–22 season, SC Bastia currently play in Ligue 2, FC Bastia-Borgo currently competes in the Championnat National and Gazélec Ajaccio currently competes in the Championnat National 3. ÉF Bastia previously competed in Regional 1, but in 2021 merged with fellow Corsican team Association de la Jeunesse de Biguglia, to form Football Jeunesse Étoile Biguglia. Tour de Corse is a rally held since 1956, which was a round of the World Rally Championship from 1973 to 2008 and later the Intercontinental Rally Challenge and European Rally Championship. The Tour de Corse returned as a World Rally Championship round in 2015. ### Music Administration -------------- Before 1975, Corsica was a *départment* of the French region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. In 1975 two new départements, Haute-Corse and Corse-du-Sud, were created by splitting the hitherto united departement of Corsica. On 2 March 1982, a law was passed that gave Corsica the status of *territorial collectivity* (*collectivité territoriale*), abolishing the Corsican Regional Council. Unlike the regional councils, the Corsican Assembly has executive powers over the island. In 1992, three institutions were formed in the territorial collectivity of Corsica: * The Executive Council of Corsica, which the type of executive functions held in other French regions by the presidents of the Regional Councils. It ensures the stability and consistency needed to manage the affairs of the territory * The Corsican Assembly, a deliberative, unicameral legislative body with greater powers than the regional councils on the mainland * The Economic, Social and Cultural Council of Corsica, an advisory body A local referendum held in 2003, aimed at abolishing the two *départements* to leave a territorial collectivity with extended powers, was voted down by a narrow margin. However, the issue of Corsican autonomy and greater powers for the Corsican Assembly continues to hold sway over Corsican politics. Economy ------- The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 10 billion euros in 2021. Tourism plays a big part in the Corsican economy. The island's climate, mountains, and coastlines make it popular among tourists. The island has not had the same level of intensive development as other parts of the Mediterranean and is thus mainly unspoiled.[*why?*] Tourism is particularly concentrated in the area around Porto-Vecchio and Bonifacio in the south of the island and Calvi in the northwest. In 1584 the Genoese governor ordered all farmers and landowners to plant four trees yearly; a chestnut, olive, fig, and mulberry tree. Many communities owe their origin and former richness to the ensuing chestnut woods. Chestnut bread keeps fresh for as long as two weeks. Corsica produces gourmet cheese, wine, sausages, and honey for sale in mainland France and for export. Corsican honey, of which there are six official varieties, is certified as to its origin (Appellation d'origine contrôlée) by the French National Institute of Origin and Quality (Institut National des Appellations d'Origine – INAO). Corsica's main exports are granite and marble, tannic acid, cork, cheese, wine, citrus fruit, olive oil and cigarettes. Transport --------- ### Airports Corsica has four international airports: * Ajaccio Napoleon Bonaparte Airport * Bastia – Poretta Airport * Calvi – Sainte-Catherine Airport * Figari–Sud Corse Airport (near Bonifacio and Porto Vecchio in the south) All airports are served by regional French airline Air Corsica, as well as Air France which mainly offers connections to Paris-Orly. Budget carriers such as EasyJet and Ryanair offer seasonal connections to different cities in Europe. ### Railway The island has 232 kilometres (144 miles) of metre gauge railway. The main line runs between Bastia and Ajaccio and there is a branch line from Ponte Leccia to Calvi. Chemins de fer de la Corse (CFC) is the name of the regional rail network serving the French island of Corsica. For a list of stations, see Railway stations in Corsica. There was also the Eastern Coast Railway [fr] along the Tyrrhenian seacoast; that line was heavily damaged during World War II, and subsequently closed for good. ### Seaports Corsica is well connected to the European mainland (Italy and France) by various car ferry lines. The island's busiest seaport is Bastia, which saw more than 2.5 million passengers in 2012. The second busiest seaport is Ajaccio, followed by L'Île-Rousse and Calvi. Propriano and Porto Vecchio in the south also have smaller ferry docks and are seasonally served from France (Marseille), while Bonifacio's harbour is only frequented by smaller car ferries from the neighbouring island of Sardinia. The ferry companies serving Corsica are Corsica Ferries – Sardinia Ferries (from Savona, Livorno and Piombino in Italy; Toulon and Nice in France), SNCM (from Marseille, Toulon and Nice in France), CMN – La Méridionale (from Marseille in France) and Moby Lines (from Livorno and Genoa in Italy). Politics -------- There are several groups and two nationalist parties (the autonomist *Femu a Corsica* and the separatist *Corsica Libera*) active on the island calling for some degree of Corsican autonomy from France or even full independence. Generally speaking, regionalist proposals focus on the promotion of the Corsican language, more power for local governments, and some exemptions from national taxes in addition to those already applying to Corsica. The French government is opposed to full independence but has at times shown support for some level of autonomy. There is support on the island for proposals for greater autonomy, but polls show that a large majority of Corsicans are opposed to full independence. In 1972, the Italian company Montedison dumped toxic waste off the Corsican coast, creating what looked like red mud in waters around the island with the poisoning of the sea, the most visible effects being cetaceans found dead on the shores. At that time the Corsican people felt that the French government did not support them. To stop the poisoning, one ship carrying toxic waste from Italy was bombed. Nationalist organisations started to seek money, using tactics similar to those of the Mafia, to fund violence. Some groups that claim to support Corsican independence, such as the National Liberation Front of Corsica, have carried out a violent campaign since the 1970s that includes bombings and assassinations, usually targeting buildings and officials representing the French government or Corsicans themselves for political reasons. A war between two rival independence groups led to several deaths in the 1990s. The peaceful occupation of a *pied-noir* vineyard in Aléria in 1975 marked a turning point when the French government responded with overwhelming force, generating sympathy for the independence groups among the Corsican population. In 2000, Prime Minister Lionel Jospin agreed to grant increased autonomy to Corsica. The proposed autonomy for Corsica would have included greater protection for the Corsican language (*Corsu*), the island's traditional language, whose practice and teaching, like other regional or minority languages in France, had been discouraged in the past. According to the UNESCO classification, the Corsican language is currently in danger of becoming extinct. However, plans for increased autonomy were opposed by the Gaullist opposition in the French National Assembly, who feared that they would lead to calls for autonomy from other *régions* (such as Brittany, Alsace, or Provence), eventually threatening France's unity as a country. In a referendum on 6 July 2003, a narrow majority of Corsican voters opposed a proposal by the government of Jean-Pierre Raffarin and then-Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy that would have suppressed the two *départements* of the island and granted greater autonomy to the territorial collectivity of Corsica. On 13 December 2015, the regionalist coalition *Pè a Corsica* (English: For Corsica), supported by both Femu a Corsica and Corsica Libera and led by Gilles Siméoni, won the territorial elections with a percentage of 36.9%. On 17 December 2015, Jean Guy Talamoni was elected President of the Assembly of Corsica and Gilles Simeoni was elected Executive President of the Council of the Region. In addition, legislation granting Corsica a greater degree of autonomy was passed[*vague*]. On 16 March 2022, the interior minister, Gérald Darmanin, told regional newspaper *Corse Matin* before a two-day visit: "We are ready to go as far as autonomy – there you go, the word has been said." The comment came after two weeks of rioting in which 100 people were injured and public buildings and police were attacked with homemade explosive devices. See also -------- * Corsican nationalism * Corsican language * Italian irredentism in Corsica * Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico * Corsican immigration to Venezuela * Corsican Workers' Trade Union * Corsican mafia * "Dio vi salvi Regina", the unofficial Corsican anthem * GR 20 * List of bodies of water of Corsica * List of castles in Corsica * University of Corsica Pascal Paoli

Corsica

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsica

**Munich** (/ˈmjuːnɪk/ *MEW-nik*; German: *München* [ˈmʏnçn̩] (); Bavarian: *Minga* [ˈmɪŋ(ː)ɐ] ()) is the capital and most populous city of the Free State of Bavaria. With a population of 1,558,395 inhabitants as of 31 July 2020, it is the third-largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, and thus the largest which does not constitute its own state, as well as the 11th-largest city in the European Union. The city's metropolitan region is home to 6 million people. Straddling the banks of the River Isar north of the Alps, Munich is the seat of the Bavarian administrative region of Upper Bavaria, while being the most densely populated municipality in Germany with 4,500 people per km2. Munich is the second-largest city in the Bavarian dialect area, after the Austrian capital of Vienna. The city was first mentioned in 1158. Catholic Munich strongly resisted the Reformation and was a political point of divergence during the resulting Thirty Years' War, but remained physically untouched despite an occupation by the Protestant Swedes. Once Bavaria was established as Kingdom of Bavaria in 1806, Munich became a major European centre of arts, architecture, culture and science. In 1918, during the German Revolution of 1918–19, the ruling House of Wittelsbach, which had governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich and a short-lived Bavarian Soviet Republic was declared. In the 1920s, Munich became home to several political factions, among them the Nazi Party. After the Nazis' rise to power, Munich was declared their "Capital of the Movement". The city was heavily bombed during World War II, but has restored most of its old town. After the end of postwar American occupation in 1949, there was a great increase in population and economic power during the years of Wirtschaftswunder. The city hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics. Today, Munich is a global centre of science, technology, finance, innovation, business, and tourism. Munich enjoys a very high standard and quality of living, reaching first in Germany and third worldwide according to the 2018 Mercer survey, and being rated the world's most liveable city by the Monocle's Quality of Life Survey 2018. Munich is consistently ranked as one of the most expensive cities in Germany in terms of real estate prices and rental costs. In 2021, 28.8 percent of Munich's residents were foreigners, and another 17.7 percent were German citizens with a migration background from a foreign country. Munich's economy is based on high tech, automobiles, and the service sector, as well as IT, biotechnology, engineering, and electronics. It has one of the strongest economies of any German city and the lowest unemployment rate of all cities in Germany with more than 1 million inhabitants. The city houses many multinational companies, such as BMW, Siemens, MAN SE, Allianz SE and Munich Re. In addition, Munich is home to two research universities, and a multitude of scientific institutions. Munich's numerous architectural and cultural attractions, sports events, exhibitions and its annual Oktoberfest, the world's largest Volksfest, attract considerable tourism. History ------- ### Etymology Munich was a tiny 8th century friar settlement, which was named *zu den Munichen* (*to the Monks*). The Old High German *Muniche* served as basis for the modern German city name *München*. The airport code of Munich airport is MUC. ### Prehistory The river Isar was a prehistoric trade route and in the Bronze Age Munich was among the largest raft ports in Europe. Bronze Age settlements, up to 4000 years old, have been discovered. Evidence of Celt settlements from the Iron Age have been discovered in areas around Ramersdorf-Perlach. ### Roman period The ancient Roman road Via Julia, which connected Augsburg and Salzburg, crossed over the Isar river south of Munich, at the towns of Baierbrunn and Gauting. A Roman settlement north-east of Munich was excavated in the neighborhood of Denning. ### Post-Roman settlements Starting in the 6th century, the Baiuvarii populated the area around what is now modern Munich, such as in Johanneskirchen, Feldmoching, Bogenhausen and Pasing. The first known Christian church was built ca. 815 in Fröttmanning. ### Origin of medieval town The first medieval bridges across the river Isar were located in current city areas of Munich and Landshut. The Duke of Saxony and Bavaria Henry the Lion founded the town of Munich in his territory to control the salt trade, after having burned down the town of Föhring and its bridges over the river Isar. Historians date this event at about 1158. The layout of Munich city, with five city gates and market place, resembled that of Höxter. Henry built a new toll bridge, customs house and a coin market closer to his home somewhat upstream at a settlement around the area of modern old town Munich. This new toll bridge most likely crossed the Isar where the Museuminsel and the modern Ludwigsbrücke is now located. Otto of Freising protested to his nephew, Emperor Frederick Barbarosa (d. 1190). However, on 14 June 1158, in Augsburg, the conflict was settled in favor of Duke Henry. The *Augsburg Arbitration* mentions the name of the location in dispute as *forum apud Munichen*. Although Bishop Otto had lost his bridge, the arbiters ordered Duke Henry to pay a third of his income to the Bishop in Freising as compensation. The 14. June 1158 is considered the official founding day of the city of Munich. Archaeological excavations at Marienhof Square (near Marienplatz) in advance of the expansion of the S-Bahn (subway) in 2012 discovered shards of vessels from the 11th century, which prove again that the settlement of Munich must be older than the Augsburg Arbitration of 1158. The old St. Peter's Church near Marienplatz is also believed to predate the founding date of the town. In 1175, Munich received city status and fortification. In 1180, after Henry the Lion's fall from grace with Emperor Frederick Barbarosa, including his trial and exile, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria, and Munich was handed to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, when the Duchy of Bavaria was split in two, Munich became the ducal residence of Upper Bavaria. Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the city's position by granting it the salt monopoly, thus assuring it of additional income. On 13 February 1327, a large fire broke out in Munich that lasted two days and destroyed about a third of the town. In 1349, the Black Death ravaged Munich and Bavaria. In the 15th century, Munich underwent a revival of Gothic arts: the Old Town Hall was enlarged, and Munich's largest Gothic church – the Frauenkirche – now a cathedral, was constructed in only 20 years, starting in 1468. ### Capital of reunited Bavaria When Bavaria was reunited in 1506 after a brief war against the Duchy of Landshut, Munich became its capital. The arts and politics became increasingly influenced by the court. The Renaissance movement beset Munich and the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach under the Duke of Bavaria Albrecht V bolstered their prestige by conjuring up a lineage that reached back to Classical antiquity. In 1568 Albrecht V built the Antiquarium to house the Wittelsbach collection of Greek and Roman antiquities in the Munich Residenz. Albrecht V appointed the composer Orlando di Lasso as director of the court orchestra and tempted numerous Italian musicians to work at the Munich court, establishing Munich as a hub for late Renaissance music. During the rule of Duke William V Munich began to be called the "German Rome" and William V began presenting Emperor Charlemagne as ancestor of the Wittelsbach dynasty. Duke William V further cemented the Wittelsbach rule by commissioning the Jesuit Michaelskirche. He had the sermons of his Jesuit court preacher Jeremias Drexel translated from Latin into German and published them to a greater audience. William V was addressed with the epithet "the Pious" and like his contemporary Wittelsbach dukes promoted himself as "father of the land" (*Landesvater*), encouraged pilgrimages and Marian devotions. William V had the Hofbräuhaus built in 1589. It would become the prototype for beer halls across Munich. After World War II the Residenze, the Hofbräuhaus, the Frauenkirche, and the Peterskirche were reconstructed to look exactly as they did before the Nazi Party seized power in 1933. The Catholic League was founded in Munich in 1609. In 1623, during the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), Munich became an electoral residence when Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria was invested with the electoral dignity, but in 1632 the city was occupied by Gustav II Adolph of Sweden. In 1634 Swedish and Spanish troops advanced on Munich. Maximilian I published a plague ordinance to halt an epidemic escalation. The bubonic plague nevertheless ravaged Munich and the surrounding countryside in 1634 and 1635. During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) troops again converged on Munich in 1647 and precautions were taken, so as to avoid another epidemic. Under the regency of the Bavarian electors, Munich was an important centre of Baroque life, but also had to suffer under Habsburg occupations in 1704 and 1742. When Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria died in 1745, the succession empowered the Palatinate branch within the House of Wittelsbach. In 1777 Bavarian lands were inherited to Karl Theodor, Duke in Bavaria. The new Duke was disliked by the citizens of Munich for his supposedly enlightened ideas. In 1785 Karl Theodor invited Count Rumford Benjamin Thompson to take up residency in Munich and implement stringent social reforms. The poor were forced to live in newly built workhouses. The Bavarian army was restructured, with common soldiers receiving better food and reassurances that they would be treated humanely by officers. Munich was the largest German city to loose fortification in the 1790s. In 1791 Karl Theodor and Count Rumford started to demolish Munich's fortifications. After 1793 Munich's citizens, including house servants, carpenters, butchers, merchants, and court officials, seized the opportunity, building new houses, stalls, and sheds outside the city walls. After making an alliance with Napoleonic France, the city became the capital of the new Kingdom of Bavaria in 1806 with Elector Maximillian Joseph becoming its first King. The state parliament (the *Landtag*) and the new archdiocese of Munich and Freising were also located in the city. The establishment of Bavarian state sovereignty profoundly affected Munich. Munich became the center of a modernizing kingdom, and one of the king's first acts was the secularization of Bavaria. He had dissolved all monasteries in 1802 and once crowned, Max Joseph I generated state revenues by selling off church lands. While many monasteries were reestablished, Max Joseph I succeeded in controlling the right to brew beer (*Brauchrecht*). The king handed the brewing monopoly to Munich's wealthiest brewers, who in turn paid substantial taxs on their beer production. In 1807 the king abolished all ordinances that limited the number of apprentices and journeymen a brewery could employ. Munich's population had swelled and Munich brewers were now free to employ as many workers as they needed to meet the demand. In October 1810 a beer festival was held on the meadows just outside Munich to commemorate the wedding of the crown price and princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen. The parades in regional dress (*Tracht*) represented the diversity of the kingdom. The fields are now part of the Theresienwiese and the celebrations developed into Munich's annual Oktoberfest. The Bavarian state proceeded to take control over the beer market, by regulating all taxes on beer in 1806 and 1811. Brewers and the beer taverns (*Wirtshäuser*) were taxed, and the state also controlled the quality of beer while limiting the competition among breweries. In 1831 the king's government introduced a cost-of-living allowance on beer for lower-ranking civil servants and soldiers. Soldiers stationed in Munich were granted a daily allowance for beer in the early 1840s. By the 1850s beer had become essential staple food for Munich's working and lower classes. Since the Middle Ages beer had been regarded as nutritious *liquid bread* (*fließendes Brot*) in Bavaria. But Munich suffered from poor water sanitation and as early as the 1700s beer came to be regarded as the *fifth element*. Beer was essential in maintaining public health in Munich and in the mid 1840s Munich police estimated that at least 40,000 residents relied primarily on beer for their nutrition. In 1832 Peter von Hess painted the Greek War of Independence at the order of Ludwig I of Bavaria. Ludwig I had the Königsplatz built in neoclassicism as a matter of ideological choice. Leo von Klenze supervised the construction of a Propylaia between 1854 and 1862. During the early to mid-19th century, the old fortified city walls of Munich were largely demolished due to population expansion. The first Munich railway station was built in 1839, with a line going to Augsburg in the west. By 1849 a newer Munich Central Train Station (München Hauptbahnhof) was completed, with a line going to Landshut and Regensburg in the north. In 1825 Ludwig I had ascended to the throne and commissioned leading architects such as Leo von Klenze to design a series of public museums in neoclassical style. The grand building projects of Ludwig I got Munich the endearment "Isar-Athen" and "Monaco di Bavaria". Between 1856 and 1861 the court gardener Carl von Effner landscaped the banks of river Isar and established the *Maximilian Gardens*. In 1857 the construction of the Maximilianeum was started. By the time Ludwig II became king in 1864, he remained mostly aloof from his capital and focused more on his fanciful castles in the Bavarian countryside, which is why he is known the world over as the 'fairytale king'. Ludwig II tried to lure Richard Wagner to Munich, but his plans for an opera house were declined by the city council. Ludwig II nevertheless generated a windfall for Munich's craft and construction industries. In 1876 Munich hosted the first German Art and Industry Exhibition, which showcased the northern Neo-Renaissance fashion that came to be the German Empire's predominant style. Munich based artists put on the German National Applied Arts Exhibition in 1888, showcasing Baroque Revival architecture and Rococo Revival designs. In 1900 Wilhelm Röntgen moved to Munich, he was appointed as professor of Physics. In 1901 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. The Prince Regent Luitpold's reign from 1886 till 1912 was marked by tremendous artistic and cultural activity in Munich. At the dawn of the 20th century Munich was an epicenter for the Jugendstil movement, combining a liberal magazine culture with progressive industrial design and architecture. The German art movement took its name from the Munich magazine *Die Jugend* (*The Youth*). Prominent Munich Jugendstil artists include Hans Eduard von Berlepsch-Valendas, Otto Eckmann, Margarethe von Brauchitsch, August Endell, Hermann Obrist, Wilhelm von Debschitz, and Richard Riemerschmid. In 1905 two large department stores opened in Munich, the Kaufhaus Oberpollinger and the Warenhaus Hermann Tietz, both had been designed by the architect Max Littmann. In 1911 the expressionist group Der Blaue Reiter was established in Munich. Its founding members include Gabriele Münter. ### World War I to World War II Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, life in Munich became very difficult, as the Allied blockade of Germany led to food and fuel shortages. During French air raids in 1916, three bombs fell on Munich. In 1916, the 'Bayerische Motoren Werke' (BMW) produced its first aircraft engine in Munich. The stock cooperation BMW AG was founded in 1918, with Camillo Castiglioni owning one third of the share capital. In 1922 BMW relocated its headquarters to a factory in Munich. After World War I, the city was at the centre of substantial political unrest. In November 1918, on the eve of the German revolution, Ludwig III of Bavaria and his family fled the city. After the murder of the first republican premier of Bavaria Kurt Eisner in February 1919 by Anton Graf von Arco auf Valley, the Bavarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed. The November 1918 revolution ended the reign of the Wittelsbach in Bavaria. In *Mein Kampf* Adolf Hitler described his political activism in Munich after November 1918 as the "Beginning of My Political Activity". Hitler called the shortlived Bavarian Soviet Republic "the rule of the Jews". In 1919 Bavaria Film was founded and in the 1920s Munich offered film makers an alternative to Germany's largest film studio in Babelsberg. In 1923 Gustav von Kahr was appointed Bavarian prime minister and immediately planned for the expulsion of all Jews that did not hold German citizenship. Chief of Police Ernst Pöhner and Wilhelm Frick openly indulged in antisemitism, while Bavarian judges praised people on the political right as patriotic for their crimes and handed down mild sentences. In 1923, Adolf Hitler and his supporters, who were concentrated in Munich, staged the Beer Hall Putsch, an attempt to overthrow the Weimar Republic and seize power. The revolt failed, resulting in Hitler's arrest and the temporary crippling of the Nazi Party (NSDAP). Munich was chosen as capital for the Free State of Bavaria and acquired increased responsibility for administering the city itself and the surrounding districts. Offices needed to be built for bureaucracy, so a 12-story office building was erected in the southern part of the historic city centre in the late 1920s. Munich again became important to the Nazis when they took power in Germany in 1933. The party created its first concentration camp at Dachau, 16 km (9.9 mi) north-west of the city. Because of its importance to the rise of National Socialism, Munich was referred to as the *Hauptstadt der Bewegung* ("Capital of the Movement"). The NSDAP headquarters and the documentation apparatus for controlling all aspects of life were located in Munich. Nazi organizations, such as the National Socialist Women's League and the Gestapo, had their offices along Brienner Straße and around the Königsplatz. The party acquired 68 buildings in the area and many *Führerbauten* ("*Führer* buildings") were built to reflect a new aesthetic of power. Construction work for the Führerbau and the party headquarters (known as the Brown House) started in September 1933. The *Haus der Kunst* (House of German Art) was the first building to be commissioned by Hitler. The architect Paul Troost was asked to start work shortly after the Nazis had seized power because "the most German of all German cities" was left with no exhibition building when in 1931 the Glass Palace was destroyed in an arson. The *Red Terror* that supposedly preceded Nazi control in Munich, was detailed in Nazi publications, seminal accounts are that of Rudolf Schricker *Rotmord über München* published in 1934, and *Die Blutchronik des Marxismus in Deutschland* by Adolf Ehrt and Hans Roden. In 1930 *Feinkost Käfer* was founded in Munich, the *Käfer* catering business is now a world leading party service. The city was the site where the 1938 Munich Agreement signed between the United Kingdom and the Third French Republic with Nazi Germany as part of the Franco-British policy of appeasement. The British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain assented to the German annexation of Czechoslovakia's Sudetenland in the hopes of satisfying Hitler's territorial expansion. The Munich-Riem Airport was completed in October 1939. On November 8, 1939, shortly after the Second World War had begun, Georg Elser planted a bomb in the Bürgerbräukeller in Munich in an attempt to assassinate Adolf Hitler, who held a political party speech. Hitler, however, had left the building minutes before the bomb went off. By mid 1942 the majority of Jews living in Munich and the suburbs had been deported. Munich was the base of the White Rose, a student resistance movement. The group had distributed leaflets in several cities and following the 1943 Battle of Stalingrad members of the group stenciled slogans such as "Down with Hitler" and "Hitler the Mass Murderer" on public buildings in Munich. The core members were arrested and executed after Sophie Scholl and her brother Hans Scholl were caught distributing leaflets on Munich University campus calling upon the youth to rise against Hitler. The city was heavily damaged by the Bombing of Munich in World War II, with 71 air raids over five years. US troops liberated Munich on April 30, 1945. ### Postwar In the aftermath of World War II, Germany and Japan were subject to US Military occupation. After US occupation Munich was completely rebuilt following a meticulous plan, which preserved its pre-war street grid, bar a few exceptions owing to then modern traffic concepts. In 1957, Munich's population surpassed one million. The city continued to play a highly significant role in the German economy, politics and culture, giving rise to its nickname *Heimliche Hauptstadt* ("secret capital") in the decades after World War II. In Munich, the Bayerischer Rundfunk began its first television broadcast in 1954. The Free State of Bavaria used the arms industry as kernel for its high tech development policy. Since 1963, Munich has been hosting the Munich Security Conference, held annually in the Hotel Bayerischer Hof. Munich also became known on the political level due to the strong influence of Bavarian politician Franz Josef Strauss from the 1960s to the 1980s. The Munich Airport, which commenced operations in 1992, was named in his honor. In the early 1960s Dieter Kunzelmann was expelled from the Situationist International and founded an influential group called *Subversive Aktion* in Munich. Kunzelmann was also active in West Berlin, and became known for using situationist avant-garde as a cover for political violence. Munich hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics. After winning the bid in 1966 the Mayor of Munich Hans-Jochen Vogel accelerated the construction of the U-Bahn subway and the S-Bahn metropolitan commuter railway. In May 1967 the construction work began for a new U-Bahn line connecting the city with the Olympic Park. The Olympic Park subway station was built near the BMW Headquarters and the line was completed May 1972, three months before the opening of the 1972 Summer Olympics. Shortly before the opening ceremony, Munich also inaugurated a sizable pedestrian priority zone between Klarlsplatz and Marienplatz. In 1970 the Munich city council released funds so that the iconic gothic facade and Glockenspiel of the *New City Hall* (Neues Rathaus) could be restored. During 1972 Summer Olympics 11 Israeli athletes were murdered by Palestinian terrorists in the Munich massacre, when gunmen from the Palestinian "Black September" group took hostage members of the Israeli Olympic team. The most deadly militant attack the Federal Republic of Germany has ever witnessed, was the Oktoberfest bombing. The attack was eventually blamed on militant Neo-Nazism. Munich and its urban sprawl emerged as leading German high tech region during the 1980s and 1990s. The urban economy of Munich became characterized by a dynamic labour market, low unemployment, a growing service economy and high per capita income. Munich is home of the famous Nockherberg Strong Beer Festival during the Lenten fasting period (usually in March). Its origins go back to the 17th/18th century, but has become popular when the festivities were first televised in the 1980s. The fest includes comical speeches and a mini-musical in which numerous German politicians are parodied by look-alike actors. In 2007 the ecological restoration of the river Isar in the urban area of Munich was awarded the Water Development Prize by the German Association for Water, Wastewater and Waste (known as DWA in German). The renaturation of the Isar allows for the near natural development of the river bed and is part of Munich's flood protection. About 20 percent of buildings in Munich now have a green roof, the Munich city council has been encouraging better stormwater management since the 1990s with regulations and subsidies. On the fifth anniversary of the 2011 Norway attacks an active shooter perpetrated hate crime. The 2016 Munich shooting aimed at killing people of Turkish and Arab descent. Munich was one of the host cities for UEFA Euro 2020, which was delayed for a year due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany, and is planned to be a host city for UEFA Euro 2024. Geography --------- ### Topography Munich lies on the elevated plains of Upper Bavaria, about 50 km (31 mi) north of the northern edge of the Alps, at an altitude of about 520 m (1,706 ft) ASL. The local rivers are the Isar and the Würm. Munich is situated in the Northern Alpine Foreland. The northern part of this sandy plateau includes a highly fertile flint area which is no longer affected by the folding processes found in the Alps, while the southern part is covered with morainic hills. Between these are fields of fluvio-glacial out-wash, such as around Munich. Wherever these deposits get thinner, the ground water can permeate the gravel surface and flood the area, leading to marshes as in the north of Munich. ### Climate Munich is located in close proximity of the Alps. Munich has an oceanic climate (*Cfb*) under the Köppen climate classification. Annual variation in temperature can be significant, as there is no substantial bodies of water nearby. The winter in Munich can be cold and overcast, while some Munich winters can be marked by snow and frost. In Munich, January is the coldest month, night time temperature can be as low as −5 Celsius and even lower. In Munich the summer is usually pleasantly warm, with temperatures averaging 23 Celsius. But, Munich summers can average up to 28 Celsius, topping 30 Celsius on average. During extreme heat summers in Munich, rain and thunderstorms are normal. Munich is subject to active convective seasons and on occasion damaging events. The Alpine thunderstorm system moves along the mountain range, or detaches, heading east-north-east over the foothills of the Alps. At Munich's official weather stations, the highest and lowest temperatures ever measured are 37.5 °C (100 °F), on 27 July 1983 in Trudering-Riem, and −31.6 °C (−24.9 °F), on 12 February 1929 in the Botanic Garden of the city. | Climate data for Munich (Dreimühlenviertel), elevation: 515 m and 535 m, 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1954–present | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 18.9(66.0) | 21.4(70.5) | 24.0(75.2) | 32.2(90.0) | 31.8(89.2) | 35.2(95.4) | 37.5(99.5) | 37.0(98.6) | 31.8(89.2) | 28.2(82.8) | 24.2(75.6) | 21.7(71.1) | 37.5(99.5) | | Average high °C (°F) | 3.5(38.3) | 5.0(41.0) | 9.5(49.1) | 14.2(57.6) | 19.1(66.4) | 21.9(71.4) | 24.4(75.9) | 23.9(75.0) | 19.4(66.9) | 14.3(57.7) | 7.7(45.9) | 4.2(39.6) | 13.9(57.0) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 0.3(32.5) | 1.4(34.5) | 5.3(41.5) | 9.4(48.9) | 14.3(57.7) | 17.2(63.0) | 19.4(66.9) | 18.9(66.0) | 14.7(58.5) | 10.1(50.2) | 4.4(39.9) | 1.3(34.3) | 9.7(49.5) | | Average low °C (°F) | −2.5(27.5) | −1.9(28.6) | 1.6(34.9) | 4.9(40.8) | 9.4(48.9) | 12.5(54.5) | 14.5(58.1) | 14.2(57.6) | 10.5(50.9) | 6.6(43.9) | 1.7(35.1) | −1.2(29.8) | 5.9(42.6) | | Record low °C (°F) | −22.2(−8.0) | −25.4(−13.7) | −16.0(3.2) | −6.0(21.2) | −2.3(27.9) | 1.0(33.8) | 6.5(43.7) | 4.8(40.6) | 0.6(33.1) | −4.5(23.9) | −11.0(12.2) | −20.7(−5.3) | −25.4(−13.7) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 48(1.9) | 46(1.8) | 65(2.6) | 65(2.6) | 101(4.0) | 118(4.6) | 122(4.8) | 115(4.5) | 75(3.0) | 65(2.6) | 61(2.4) | 65(2.6) | 944(37.2) | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 79 | 96 | 133 | 170 | 209 | 210 | 238 | 220 | 163 | 125 | 75 | 59 | 1,777 | | Source 1: DWD | | Source 2: SKlima.de | #### Climate change In Munich, the general trend of global warming with a rise of medium yearly temperatures of about 1 °C in Germany over the last 120 years can be observed as well. In November 2016 the city council concluded officially that a further rise in medium temperature, a higher number of heat extremes, a rise in the number of hot days and nights with temperatures higher than 20 °C (tropical nights), a change in precipitation patterns, as well as a rise in the number of local instances of heavy rain, is to be expected as part of the ongoing climate change. The city administration decided to support a joint study from its own Referat für Gesundheit und Umwelt (department for health and environmental issues) and the German Meteorological Service that will gather data on local weather. The data is supposed to be used to create a plan for action for adapting the city to better deal with climate change as well as an integrated action program for climate protection in Munich. With the help of those programs issues regarding spatial planning and settlement density, the development of buildings and green spaces as well as plans for functioning ventilation in a cityscape can be monitored and managed. Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1500 | 13,447 | —     | | 1600 | 21,943 | +63.2% | | 1750 | 32,000 | +45.8% | | 1880 | 230,023 | +618.8% | | 1890 | 349,024 | +51.7% | | 1900 | 499,932 | +43.2% | | 1910 | 596,467 | +19.3% | | 1920 | 666,000 | +11.7% | | 1930 | 728,900 | +9.4% | | 1940 | 834,500 | +14.5% | | 1950 | 823,892 | −1.3% | | 1955 | 929,808 | +12.9% | | 1960 | 1,055,457 | +13.5% | | 1965 | 1,214,603 | +15.1% | | 1970 | 1,311,978 | +8.0% | | 1980 | 1,298,941 | −1.0% | | 1990 | 1,229,026 | −5.4% | | 2000 | 1,210,223 | −1.5% | | 2005 | 1,259,584 | +4.1% | | 2010 | 1,353,186 | +7.4% | | 2011 | 1,364,920 | +0.9% | | 2012 | 1,388,308 | +1.7% | | 2013 | 1,402,455 | +1.0% | | 2015 | 1,450,381 | +3.4% | | 2018 | 1,471,508 | +1.5% | | 2020 | 1,488,202 | +1.1% | | Population size may be affected by changes in administrative divisions. | From only 24,000 inhabitants in 1700, the city population doubled about every 30 years. It was 100,000 in 1852, 250,000 in 1883 and 500,000 in 1901. Since then, Munich has become Germany's third-largest city. In 1933, 840,901 inhabitants were counted, and in 1957 over 1 million. ### Immigration In July 2017, Munich had 1.42 million inhabitants; 421,832 foreign nationals resided in the city as of 31 December 2017 with 50.7% of these residents being citizens of EU member states, and 25.2% citizens in European states not in the EU (including Russia and Turkey). The largest groups of foreign nationals were Turks (39,204), Croats (33,177), Italians (27,340), Greeks (27,117), Poles (27,945), Austrians (21,944), and Romanians (18,085). Foreign residents by citizenship, 2022[*needs update*]| Country | Population | | --- | --- | |  Croatia | 39,745 | |  Turkey | 37,207 | |  Italy | 28,496 | |  Greece | 26,613 | |  Bosnia and Herzegovina | 21,559 | |  Austria | 20,741 | |  Romania | 18,845 | |  Poland | 18,639 | |  Ukraine | 17,833 | |  Serbia | 14,283 | |  Bulgaria | 13,636 | |  Kosovo | 12,354 | |  India | 11,228 | |  Iraq | 11,093 | |  France | 10,650 | |  Russia | 9,526 | |  Spain | 9,414 | |  China | 9,240 | |  Hungary | 8,269 | |  Afghanistan | 7,446 | |  United States | 6,705 | |  Vietnam | 5,289 | |  Syria | 4,614 | |  United Kingdom | 4,297 | ### Religion About 45% of Munich's residents are not affiliated with any religious group; this ratio represents the fastest growing segment of the population. As in the rest of Germany, the Catholic and Protestant churches have experienced a continuous decline in membership. As of 31 December 2017, 31.8% of the city's inhabitants were Catholic, 11.4% Protestant, 0.3% Jewish, and 3.6% were members of an Orthodox Church (Eastern Orthodox or Oriental Orthodox). About 1% adhere to other Christian denominations. There is also a small Old Catholic parish and an English-speaking parish of the Episcopal Church in the city. According to Munich Statistical Office, in 2013 about 8.6% of Munich's population was Muslim. Munich has the largest Uyghur population with about 800 (whole Germany about 1,600) people with Uyghur diaspora. Many of them fled to Munich due to the Chinese government and are exiled in Munich. Munich is also home to World Uyghur Congress, which is an international organisation of exiled Uyghurs. Government and politics ----------------------- As the capital of Bavaria, Munich is an important political centre for both the state and country as a whole. It is the seat of the Landtag of Bavaria, the State Chancellery, and all state departments. Several national and international authorities are located in Munich, including the Federal Finance Court of Germany, the German Patent Office and the European Patent Office. ### Mayor The current mayor of Munich is Dieter Reiter, he is Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). He was elected in 2014 and re-elected in 2020. Bavaria has been dominated by the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU) on a federal, state, and local level since the establishment of the Federal Republic in 1949. The Munich city council is called the Stadtrat. The most recent mayoral election was held on 15 March 2020, with a runoff held on 29 March, and the results were as follows: | Candidate | Party | First round | Second round | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Votes |  % | Votes |  % | | | Dieter Reiter | Social Democratic Party | 259,928 | 47.9 | 401,856 | 71.7 | | | Kristina Frank | Christian Social Union | 115,795 | 21.3 | 158,773 | 28.3 | | | Katrin Habenschaden | Alliance 90/The Greens | 112,121 | 20.7 | | | Wolfgang Wiehle | Alternative for Germany | 14,988 | 2.8 | | | Tobias Ruff | Ecological Democratic Party | 8,464 | 1.6 | | | Jörg Hoffmann | Free Democratic Party | 8,201 | 1.5 | | | Thomas Lechner | The Left | 7,232 | 1.3 | | | Hans-Peter Mehling | Free Voters of Bavaria | 5,003 | 0.9 | | | Moritz Weixler | Die PARTEI | 3,508 | 0.6 | | | Dirk Höpner | Munich List | 1,966 | 0.4 | | | Richard Progl | Bavaria Party | 1,958 | 0.4 | | | Ender Beyhan-Bilgin | FAIR | 1,483 | 0.3 | | | Stephanie Dilba | mut | 1,267 | 0.2 | | | Cetin Oraner | Together Bavaria | 819 | 0.2 | | Valid votes | 542,733 | 99.6 | 560,629 | 99.7 | | Invalid votes | 1,997 | 0.4 | 1,616 | 0.3 | | Total | 544,730 | 100.0 | 562,245 | 100.0 | | Electorate/voter turnout | 1,110,571 | 49.0 | 1,109,032 | 50.7 | | Source: Wahlen München (1st round, 2nd round) | ### City council The Munich city council (*Stadtrat*) governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 15 March 2020, and the results were as follows: | Party | Lead candidate | Votes |  % | +/- | Seats | +/- | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne) | Katrin Habenschaden | 11,762,516 | 29.1 | Increase 12.5 | 23 | Increase 10 | | | Christian Social Union (CSU) | Kristina Frank | 9,986,014 | 24.7 | Decrease 7.8 | 20 | Decrease 6 | | | Social Democratic Party (SPD) | Dieter Reiter | 8,884,562 | 22.0 | Decrease 8.8 | 18 | Decrease 7 | | | Ecological Democratic Party (ÖDP) | Tobias Ruff | 1,598,539 | 4.0 | Increase 1.4 | 3 | Increase 1 | | | Alternative for Germany (AfD) | Iris Wassill | 1,559,476 | 3.9 | Increase 1.4 | 3 | Increase 1 | | | Free Democratic Party (FDP) | Jörg Hoffmann | 1,420,194 | 3.5 | Increase 0.1 | 3 | ±0 | | | The Left (Die Linke) | Stefan Jagel | 1,319,464 | 3.3 | Increase 0.8 | 3 | Increase 1 | | | Free Voters of Bavaria (FW) | Hans-Peter Mehling | 1,008,400 | 2.5 | Decrease 0.2 | 2 | ±0 | | | Volt Germany (Volt) | Felix Sproll | 732,853 | 1.8 | New | 1 | New | | | Die PARTEI (PARTEI) | Marie Burneleit | 528,949 | 1.3 | New | 1 | New | | | Pink List (Rosa Liste) | Thomas Niederbühl | 396,324 | 1.0 | Decrease 0.9 | 1 | ±0 | | | Munich List | Dirk Höpner | 339,705 | 0.8 | New | 1 | New | | | Bavaria Party (BP) | Richard Progl | 273,737 | 0.7 | Decrease 0.2 | 1 | ±0 | | | mut | Stephanie Dilba | 247,679 | 0.6 | New | 0 | New | | | FAIR | Kemal Orak | 142,455 | 0.4 | New | 0 | New | | | Together Bavaria (ZuBa) | Cetin Oraner | 120,975 | 0.3 | New | 0 | New | | | BIA | Karl Richter | 86,358 | 0.2 | Decrease 0.5 | 0 | ±0 | | Valid votes | 531,527 | 97.6 | | | | | Invalid votes | 12,937 | 2.4 | | | | | Total | 544,464 | 100.0 | | 80 | ±0 | | Electorate/voter turnout | 1,110,571 | 49.0 | Increase 7.0 | | | | Source: Wahlen München | ### State Landtag In the Landtag of Bavaria, Munich is divided between nine constituencies. After the 2018 Bavarian state election, the composition and representation of each was as follows: | Constituency | Area | Party | Member | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 101 München-Hadern | * Sendling-Westpark, Hadern * Parts of Thalkirchen-Obersendling-Forstenried-Fürstenried-Solln and Laim | | CSU | Georg Eisenreich | | 102 München-Bogenhausen | * Bogenhausen, Berg am Laim * Parts of Au-Haidhausen | | CSU | Robert Brannekämper | | 103 München-Giesing | * Sendling, Obergiesing-Fasangarten * Parts of Untergiesing-Harlaching and Thalkirchen-Obersendling-Forstenried-Fürstenried-Solln | | GRÜNE | Gülseren Demirel | | 104 München-Milbertshofen | * Milbertshofen-Am Hart, Schwabing-West * Parts of Neuhausen-Nymphenburg | | GRÜNE | Katharina Schulze | | 105 München-Moosach | * Moosach, Feldmoching-Hasenbergl * Parts of Neuhausen-Nymphenburg | | GRÜNE | Benjamin Adjei | | 106 München-Pasing | * Pasing-Obermenzing, Aubing-Lochhausen-Langwied, Allach-Untermenzing * Parts of Laim | | CSU | Josef Schmid | | 107 München-Ramersdorf | * Ramersdorf-Perlach, Trudering-Riem | | CSU | Markus Blume | | 108 München-Schwabing | * Schwabing-Freimann, Maxvorstadt, Altstadt-Lehe | | GRÜNE | Christian Hierneis | | 109 München-Mitte | * Ludwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt, Schwanthalerhöhe * Parts of Au-Haidhausen and Untergiesing-Harlaching | | GRÜNE | Ludwig Hartmann | ### Federal parliament In the Bundestag, Munich is divided between four constituencies. In the 20th Bundestag, the composition and representation of each was as follows: | Constituency | Area | Party | Member | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 217 Munich North | * Maxvorstadt, Schwabing-West, Moosach, Milbertshofen-Am Hart, Schwabing-Freimann, Feldmoching-Hasenbergl | | CSU | Bernhard Loos | | 218 Munich East | * Altstadt-Lehel, Au-Haidhausen, Bogenhausen, Berg am Laim, Trudering-Riem, Ramersdorf-Perlach | | CSU | Wolfgang Stefinger | | 219 Munich South | * Sendling, Sendling-Westpark, Obergiesing, Untergiesing-Harlaching, Thalkirchen-Obersendling-Forstenried-Fürstenried-Solln, Hadern | | GRÜNE | Jamila Schäfer | | 220 Munich West/Centre | * Ludwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt, Schwanthalerhöhe, Neuhausen-Nymphenburg, Pasing-Obermenzing, Aubing-Lochhausen-Langwied, Allach-Untermenzing, Laim | | CSU | Stephan Pilsinger | ### Sister cities Munich is twinned with the following cities (date of agreement shown in parentheses): Edinburgh, Scotland *(1954)*, Verona, Italy *(March 17, 1960)*, Bordeaux, France *(1964)*, Sapporo, Japan *(1972)*, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States *(1989)*, Kyiv, Ukraine *(1989)*, Harare, Zimbabwe *(1996)* and Beersheba, Israel *(2022)*. ### Subdivisions Since the reform of 1992, Munich is divided into 25 administrative boroughs (*Stadtbezirke*). They are subdivided into 105 statistical areas. Allach-Untermenzing (23), Altstadt-Lehel (1), Aubing-Lochhausen-Langwied (22), Au-Haidhausen (5), Berg am Laim (14), Bogenhausen (13), Feldmoching-Hasenbergl (24), Hadern (20), Laim (25), Ludwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt (2), Maxvorstadt (3), Milbertshofen-Am Hart (11), Moosach (10), Neuhausen-Nymphenburg (9), Obergiesing (17), Pasing-Obermenzing (21), Ramersdorf-Perlach (16), Schwabing-Freimann (12), Schwabing-West (4), Schwanthalerhöhe (8), Sendling (6), Sendling-Westpark (7), Thalkirchen-Obersendling-Forstenried-Fürstenried-Solln (19), Trudering-Riem (15), and Untergiesing-Harlaching (18). There is no official division into districts. The number of districts is about 50, and if you count smaller units, there are about 90 to 100 Map. The three largest districts are Schwabing in the north (about 110,000 inhabitants), Sendling in the southwest (about 100,000 inhabitants), and Giesing in the south (about 80,000 inhabitants) . Architecture ------------ ### Old Town At the centre of the old town is the Marienplatz with the Old Town Hall and the New Town Hall. Its tower contains the Rathaus-Glockenspiel. The Peterskirche is the oldest church of the inner city. Nearby St. Peter the Gothic hall-church Heiliggeistkirche was converted to baroque style from 1724 onwards and looks down upon the Viktualienmarkt. Three gates of the demolished medieval fortification survive, these are the Isartor, the Sendlinger Tor, and the Karlstor. The Karlstor leads up to the Stachus, a square dominated by the Justizpalast (Palace of Justice). The Frauenkirche serves as the cathedral for the Catholic Archdiocese of Munich and Freising. The nearby Michaelskirche is the largest renaissance church north of the Alps, while the Theatinerkirche is a basilica in Italianate high baroque, which had a major influence on southern German baroque architecture. Its dome dominates the Odeonsplatz. ### Palaces and castles The Schloss Nymphenburg (Nymphenburg Palace) and the smaller Schloss Fürstenried (Fürstenried Palace) were erected around the same time in Munich. Northwest of Nymphenburg Palace is Schloss Blutenburg (Blutenburg Castle). The large Munich Residenz complex on the edge of Munich's Old Town now ranks among Europe's most significant museums of interior decoration. Within the Residenz is the splendid Cuvilliés Theatre and next door is the National Theatre Munich. Among the mansions that still exist in Munich are the Palais Porcia, the Palais Preysing, the Palais Holnstein and the Prinz-Carl-Palais. All mansions are situated close to the Residenz, so is the Alter Hof, the first residence of the House of Wittelsbach. ### Modernist architecture Despite Munich being the breeding ground for German Jugendstil, starting with the architect Martin Dülfer, Munich Jugendstil style was quickly submerged in historic trash. While the modernist architect Theodor Fischer was based in Munich, his influence on Munich underwhelmed. Prior to 1914 the city of Munich was under-industrialized. During the Weimar Republic, the Munich establishment was hostile to modernism. The TUM professor German Bestelmeyer favored a conservative style, and Jacobus Oud was rejected for the post of city building chief. Modernist exceptions include a series of post offices by Robert Vorhoelzer built in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Examples of avant-garde temporary constructions include the *Wohnmaschine* (*Housing Machine*) by Robert Vorhoelzer, as well as the *Flachdachhaus* (*Flat Roof House*) by Fritz Norkauer. Paul Schultze-Naumburg, and the Kampfbund enjoyed particular popularity. ### High rise buildings Several high-rise buildings are clustered at the northern edge of Munich in the skyline, like the HVB Tower, the Arabella High-Rise Building, the Highlight Towers, Uptown Munich, Münchner Tor and the BMW Headquarters next to the Olympic Park. Further high-rise buildings are located in the Werksviertel [de] in Berg am Laim. ### Long-term residential development Munich is subject to a long-term residential development plan that is established by the city administration of Munich. The LaSie ("Langfristige Siedlungsentwicklung") was passed in 2011 in response to the acute housing crisis. LaSie is aligned with the strategic development plan passed for Munich in 1998 ("Perspektive München"). LaSie defines three priorities for the construction of residential housing in Munich. Existing housing estates, post-war low-density developments, and the suburban area are subject to densification ("Nachverdichtung"). Non-residential industrial areas are subject to conservation and will be turned into residential and mixed-use areas. On greenfield sites in the Munich periphery medium and large-scale housing estates are to be built so as to extend Munich's urban center. Parks ----- Friedrich Ludwig von Sckell became famous for designing the Englischer Garten between 1789 and 1807. Besides planning the first public garden in Europe, Sckell also redesigned Baroque gardens as landscape gardens, including the parks of Nymphenburg Palace and the Botanischer Garten München-Nymphenburg. Other large green spaces are the Olympiapark, the Westpark and the Ostpark. The city's oldest park is the Hofgarten, near the Residenz, dating back to the 16th century. The site of the largest beer garden in town, the former royal Hirschgarten was founded in 1780. Sports ------ ### Football Munich is home to several professional Association football teams including the FC Bayern Munich. Other notable clubs include 1860 Munich, who currently play in the 3. Liga, and former Bundesliga club SpVgg Unterhaching, who currently play in the Regionalliga Bayern. ### Basketball FC Bayern Munich Basketball is currently playing in the Beko Basket Bundesliga. The city hosted the final stages of the FIBA EuroBasket 1993, where the German national basketball team won the gold medal. ### Ice hockey The city's ice hockey club is EHC Red Bull München who play in the Deutsche Eishockey Liga. The team has won three DEL Championships, in 2016, 2017 and 2018. ### Olympics Munich hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics; the Munich massacre took place in the Olympic village. It was one of the host cities for the 2006 Football World Cup, which was not held in Munich's Olympic Stadium, but in a new football specific stadium, the Allianz Arena. Munich bid to host the 2018 Winter Olympic Games, but lost to Pyeongchang. In September 2011 the DOSB President Thomas Bach confirmed that Munich would bid again for the Winter Olympics in the future. These plans were abandoned some time later. ### Road running Regular annual road running events in Munich are the Munich Marathon in October, the Stadtlauf end of June, the company run B2Run in July, the New Year's Run on 31 December, the Spartan Race Sprint, the Olympia Alm Crosslauf and the Bestzeitenmarathon. ### Swimming Public sporting facilities in Munich include ten indoor swimming pools and eight outdoor swimming pools, which are operated by the Munich City Utilities (SWM) communal company. Popular indoor swimming pools include the Olympia Schwimmhalle of the 1972 Summer Olympics, the wave pool Cosimawellenbad, as well as the Müllersches Volksbad which was built in 1901. Further, swimming within Munich's city limits is also possible in several artificial lakes such as for example the Riemer See or the Langwieder lake district. ### River surfing River surfing is a popular sport in Munich. The Flosskanal wave in the south of Munich is less challenging. A well visited surfing spot for experienced surfers is the Eisbach standing wave, were on the last Saturday of July the annual Munich Surf Open is celebrated. Culture ------- ### Language German is spoken and understood in and around Munich. While the German language has many dialects, so called "high German" is learned in schools and spoken among Germans, Austrians and in some parts of Switzerland. A speaker of a so-called "low German" dialect in Hamburg may find it difficult to understand the dialect of a Bavarian mountaineer. The Bavarian dialects are recognized as regional language and continues to be spoken alongside "high German". ### Museums The gothic Morris dancers of Erasmus Grasser are exhibited in the Munich City Museum in the old gothic arsenal building in the inner city. In 1903 Oskar von Miller assembled a group of engineers and industrialists, who chartered the Deutsches Museum. The Museum was built with the financial support of the German business and imperial nobility community, as well as the blessing of Wilhelm II, German Emperor. The Deutsches Museum had its grand opening in 1925, but has undergone a reinvention recently. The Deutsches Museum now operates three locations. The original site in central Munich continues to expand its exhibits. The city has several important art galleries, most of which can be found in the Kunstareal. The Lenbachhaus displays works of the movement Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider), a Munich-based modernist art. Starting in 1970s, German municipalities started to respond to cultural tourism and invested in public museums. The Neue Pinakothek, like other German museums, was wholly reconstructed from 1974 until 1981. The Pinakothek der Moderne lets the public see a eclectic mix of contemporary art and the principle attention of the permanent collection is Classical Moderns. But the displays are enhanced continuously with spectacular gifts from private collections. City guides published in the early 1860s directed tourists to Munich's architecture and art collections, which at the time were unique in Germany and are a legacy mainly of Ludwig I of Bavaria, with contributions from Maximilian II of Bavaria. The Alte Pinakothek contains works of European masters between the 14th and 18th centuries. Major displays include Albrecht Dürer's *Self-Portrait* (1500), his *Four Apostles*, Raphael's paintings *The Canigiani Holy Family* and *Madonna Tempi* as well as Peter Paul Rubens large *Judgment Day*. An extensive collection of Greek and Roman art is held in the Glyptothek and the Staatliche Antikensammlungen (the State Antiquities Collections). Works on display include the Medusa Rondanini, the Barberini Faun and figures from the Temple of Aphaea on Aegina for the Glyptothek. Another interesting museum is the Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst (the State Collection of Egyptian Art). Several public collections of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich are still housed in the Kunstareal. The expanded state collections are housed in the Paläontologisches Museum München, and the Zoologische Staatssammlung München. After the first German art exhibition in the Glaspalast for an international audience in 1869, Munich emerged as a focal point for the arts. Men of distinction from around the world visited the Academy of Fine Arts under the directorship of Karl von Piloty and later Wilhelm von Kaulbach. The Museum Five Continents is the second largest collection in Germany of artefacts and objects from outside Europe, while the Bavarian National Museum and the adjoining Bavarian State Archaeological Collection display regional art and cultural history. The Schackgalerie is an important gallery of German 19th-century paintings. The memorial museum of the former Dachau concentration camp is just outside the city. ### Music Munich is a major international cultural centre and has played host to many prominent composers including Orlande de Lassus, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Carl Maria von Weber, Richard Wagner, Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss, Max Reger and Carl Orff. Some of classical music's best-known compositions have been created in and around Munich by composers born in the area, for example, Richard Strauss's tone poem *Also sprach Zarathustra* or Carl Orff's *Carmina Burana*. ### Opera Richard Wagner was a supporter of William I, German Emperor, but Wagner only found a generous patron in Ludwig II of Bavaria. 1870 til 1871 Wagner premiered Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (*The Mastersingers of Nuremberg*) in Munich, a popular success for Wagner and King Ludwig II. Wagner premiered at the Hoftheater, now the National Theatre Munich, with Angelo Quaglio the Younger designing the premiere production. The National Theatre Munich is now the home of the Bavarian State Opera and the Bavarian State Orchestra. Next door, the modern Residenz Theatre was erected in the building that also houses the Cuvilliés Theatre. The Staatstheater am Gärtnerplatz is a state theater while another opera house, the Prinzregententheater, has become the home of the Bavarian Theater Academy and the Munich Chamber Orchestra. ### Orchestra The modern Gasteig centre houses the Munich Philharmonic Orchestra. The third orchestra in Munich with international importance is the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra. Its primary concert venue is the Herkulessaal in the former city royal residence, the Munich Residenz. Many important conductors have been attracted by the city's orchestras, including Felix Weingartner, Hans Pfitzner, Hans Rosbaud, Hans Knappertsbusch, Sergiu Celibidache, James Levine, Christian Thielemann, Lorin Maazel, Rafael Kubelík, Eugen Jochum, Sir Colin Davis, Mariss Jansons, Bruno Walter, Georg Solti, Zubin Mehta and Kent Nagano. A stage for shows, big events and musicals is the Deutsche Theater. It is Germany's largest theatre for guest performances. ### Pop and electronica Munich was the centre of Krautrock in southern Germany, with many important bands such as Amon Düül II, Embryo or Popol Vuh hailing from the city. In the 1970s, the Musicland Studios developed into one of the most prominent recording studios in the world, with bands such as the Rolling Stones, Led Zeppelin, Deep Purple and Queen recording albums there. Munich also played a significant role in the development of electronic music, with genre pioneer Giorgio Moroder, who invented synth disco and electronic dance music, and Donna Summer, one of disco music's most important performers, both living and working in the city. In the late 1990s, Electroclash was substantially co-invented if not even invented in Munich, when DJ Hell introduced and assembled international pioneers of this musical genre through his International DeeJay Gigolo Records label here. Other notable musicians and bands from Munich include Konstantin Wecker, Willy Astor, Spider Murphy Gang, Münchener Freiheit, Lou Bega, Megaherz, FSK, Colour Haze and Sportfreunde Stiller. Munich hosted several *Love Parades* and *Mayday Party* rave events throughout the 1990s. Munich continues to rave, the local youth scenes are active. ### Theatre The Munich Kammerspiele is one of the most important German-language theaters. Since Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's premieres in 1775 many important writers have staged their plays in Munich, they include Christian Friedrich Hebbel, Henrik Ibsen, and Hugo von Hofmannsthal. ### Schwabing At the turn of the 20th century Schwabing was a preeminent cultural metropolis. Schwabing was an epicenter for both literature and the fine arts, with numerous German and non-German artists living there. Vladimir Lenin authored *What Is to Be Done?* while living in Schwabing. Central to Schwabing's bohemian scene were *Künstlerlokale* (*Artist's Cafés*) like Café Stefanie or Kabarett Simpl, whose liberal ways differed fundamentally from Munich's more traditional localities. The Simpl, which survives to this day, was named after Munich's anti-authoritarian satirical magazine *Simplicissimus*, founded in 1896 by Albert Langen and Thomas Theodor Heine, which quickly became an important organ of the *Schwabinger Bohème*. Its caricatures and biting satirical attacks on Wilhelmine German society were the result of countless of collaborative efforts by many of the best visual artists and writers from Munich and elsewhere. In 1971 Eckart Witzigmann teamed up with a Munich building contractor to finance and open the *Tantris* restaurant in Schwabing. Witzigmann is credited for starting the German *Küchenwunder* (*kitchen wonder*). ### Biedermeier The Biedermeier era was named after a character that regularly appeared in the satire magazine *Münchner Fliegende Blätter* (*Loose Munich Pages*), which was published by Adolf Kussmaul and Ludwig Eichrodt in Munich between 1855 and 1857. Biedermeier was a synonym for arts, furniture, and the lifestyle of the nonheroic middle class. The Biedermeier era painters Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, Moritz von Schwind, and Carl Spitzweg are shown in the Neue Pinakothek. ### Prinzregentenzeit Celebrity literary figures worked in Munich especially during the final decades of the Kingdom of Bavaria, the so-called *Prinzregentenzeit* (literally *prince regent's time*) under the reign of Luitpold, Prince Regent of Bavaria. This includes Thomas Mann, Heinrich Mann, Paul Johann Ludwig von Heyse, Rainer Maria Rilke, Ludwig Thoma, Fanny zu Reventlow, Oskar Panizza, Gustav Meyrink, Max Halbe, Erich Mühsam and Frank Wedekind. ### Weimar Republic The period immediately before World War I saw continued economic and cultural prominence for the city. Thomas Mann wrote in his novella *Gladius Dei* about this period: "München leuchtete" (literally "Munich shone"). Munich remained a centre of cultural life during the Weimar Republic, with figures such as Lion Feuchtwanger, Bertolt Brecht, Peter Paul Althaus, Stefan George, Ricarda Huch, Joachim Ringelnatz, Oskar Maria Graf, Annette Kolb, Ernst Toller, Hugo Ball, and Klaus Mann adding to the already established big names. Karl Valentin, the cabaret performer and comedian, is to this day remembered and beloved as a cultural icon of his hometown. Between 1910 and 1940, he wrote and performed in many absurdist sketches and short films that were highly influential, earning him the nickname of "Charlie Chaplin of Germany". Liesl Karlstadt, before working together with Valentin, cross-dressed and performed cabaret with yodeling on stage and in Munich's Cafe-Theatres. The cabaret scene was crushed when the Nazis seized power in 1933 and Karlstadt was saved from Nazi sterilization by a doctor. Contemporary Munich cabaret still reverences 1920s cabaret, the Munich alternative rock band F.S.K. absorbs yodels. ### Post-war literature After World War II, Munich soon again became a focal point of the German literary scene and remains so to this day, with writers as diverse as Wolfgang Koeppen, Erich Kästner, Eugen Roth, Alfred Andersch, Elfriede Jelinek, Hans Magnus Enzensberger, Michael Ende, Franz Xaver Kroetz, Gerhard Polt and Patrick Süskind calling the city their home. ### Fine arts From the Gothic to the Baroque era, the fine arts were represented in Munich by artists like Erasmus Grasser, Jan Polack, Johann Baptist Straub, Ignaz Günther, Hans Krumpper, Ludwig von Schwanthaler, Cosmas Damian Asam, Egid Quirin Asam, Johann Baptist Zimmermann, Johann Michael Fischer and François de Cuvilliés. Munich had already become an important place for painters like Carl Rottmann, Lovis Corinth, Wilhelm von Kaulbach, Carl Spitzweg, Franz von Lenbach, Franz Stuck, Karl Piloty and Wilhelm Leibl. ### Cinema Munich was (and in some cases, still is) home to many of the most important authors of the New German Cinema movement, including Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Werner Herzog, Edgar Reitz and Herbert Achternbusch. In 1971, the Filmverlag der Autoren was founded, cementing the city's role in the movement's history. Munich served as the location for many of Fassbinder's films, among them *Ali: Fear Eats the Soul*. The Hotel Deutsche Eiche near Gärtnerplatz was somewhat like a centre of operations for Fassbinder and his "clan" of actors. New German Cinema is considered by far the most important artistic movement in German cinema history since the era of German Expressionism in the 1920s. In 1919, the Bavaria Film Studios were founded, which developed into one of Europe's largest film studios. Directors like Alfred Hitchcock, Billy Wilder, Orson Welles, John Huston, Ingmar Bergman, Stanley Kubrick, Claude Chabrol, Fritz Umgelter, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Wolfgang Petersen and Wim Wenders made films there. Among the internationally well-known films produced at the studios are *The Pleasure Garden* (1925) by Alfred Hitchcock, *The Great Escape* (1963) by John Sturges, *Paths of Glory* (1957) by Stanley Kubrick, *Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory* (1971) by Mel Stuart and both *Das Boot* (1981) and *The Neverending Story* (1984) by Wolfgang Petersen. Munich remains one of the centres of the German film and entertainment industry. ### Festivals #### Coopers' Dance The Coopers' Dance (German: *Schäfflertanz*) is a guild dance of coopers originally started in Munich. Since early 1800s the custom spread via journeymen in it is now a common tradition over the Old Bavaria region. The dance was supposed to be held every 7 years. #### Starkbierfest March and April, for three weeks during Lent, celebrating Munich's "strong beer". Starkbier was created in 1651 by the local Paulinerkirche, Leipzig monks who drank this 'Flüssiges Brot', or 'liquid bread'. It became a public festival in 1751 and is now the second largest beer festival in Munich. A Starkbierfest may be celebrated in beer halls and pubs. #### Frühlingsfest Held for two weeks at the Theresienwiese from the end of April to the beginning of May, the new local spring beers are served. #### Auer Dult A regular event combining a market and a German style folk festival on the Mariahilfplatz. The Auer Dult can be up to 300 stalls, selling handmade crafts, household goods, and local foods. #### Kocherlball Munich's Kocherlball (*Cooks' Ball*) is an annual event, to commemorate all servants, ranging from kitchenhands to cooks. The tradition started in the 19th century. #### Tollwood Usually held annually in July and December, Olympia Park. The Tollwood Festival showcases fine and performing arts with live music, and several lanes of booths selling handmade crafts, as well as Organic food, mostly Fusion cuisine. #### Oktoberfest At the Theresienwiese, the largest beer festival in the world, Munich's Oktoberfest runs for 16–18 days from the end of September through early October. In the last 200 years the festival has grown to span 85 acres and now welcomes over 6 million visitors every year. Beer is served from the six major Munich breweries. These are Augustiner-Bräu, Hacker-Pschorr Brewery, Löwenbräu Brewery, Paulaner Brewery, Spaten-Franziskaner-Bräu, and Staatliches Hofbräuhaus in München. Food must be bought in each tent. #### Christkindlmarkt The Munich Christkindlmarkt started to evolve in the 14th century. The German Christkindlmarkt reached the desired accomplishment in the 17th century in Nuremberg. ### Cuisine and culinary specialities The Munich cuisine contributes to the Bavarian cuisine. Munich Weisswurst ("white sausage", *German: Münchner Weißwurst*) was invented here in 1857. It is a Munich speciality. Traditionally Weisswurst is served in pubs before noon and is served with sweet mustardm and freshly baked pretzels. Munich has 11 restaurants that have been awarded one or more Michelin Guide stars in 2021. ### Beers and breweries Munich is known for its breweries and Weissbier (*wheat beer*). Helles, a pale lager with a translucent gold color, is the most popular contemporary Munich beer. Helles has largely replaced Munich's dark beer, known as Dunkel, which gets its color from roasted malt. It was the typical beer in Munich in the 19th century. Starkbier is the strongest Munich beer, with a high alcohol content of 6%–9% . It is dark amber in color and has a heavy malty taste. The beer served at Oktoberfest is a special type of beer with a higher alcohol content. Wirtshäuser are traditional Bavarian pubs, many of which also have small outside areas. Biergärten (*beer gardens*) are a popular fixture in Munich's gastronomic landscape. They are central to the city's culture, and are an overt melting pot for members of all walks of life, regardless of social class. There are many smaller beer gardens, but some beer gardens have thousands of seats. Large beer gardens can be found in the Englischer Garten, on the Nockherberg, and in the Hirschgarten. There are six main breweries in Munich are Augustiner-Bräu, Hacker-Pschorr Brewery, Hofbräuhaus, Löwenbräu, Paulaner, and Spaten-Franziskaner-Bräu. Smaller breweries are becoming more prevalent in Munich. ### Circus The Circus Krone based in Munich is one of the largest circuses in Europe. It was the first and still is one of only a few in Western Europe to also occupy a building of its own. ### Nightlife Nightlife in Munich is located mostly in the boroughs Ludwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt, Maxvorstadt, Au-Haidhausen, Berg am Laim and Sendling. Between Sendlinger Tor and Maximiliansplatz, on the edge of the central Altstadt-Lehel district, there is also the so-called Feierbanane (party banana), a roughly banana-shaped unofficial party zone spanning 1.3 km (0.8 mi) along Sonnenstraße, characterized by a high concentration of clubs, bars and restaurants, which became the center of Munich's nightlife in the mid-2000s. In the 1960s and 1970s, Schwabing was considered a center of nightlife in Germany, with internationally known clubs such as *Big Apple*, *PN hit-house*, *Domicile*, *Hot Club*, *Piper Club*, *Tiffany*, Germany's first large-scale discotheque Blow Up and the underwater nightclub Yellow Submarine, and Munich has been called "New York's big disco sister" in this context. Bars in the Schwabing district of this era include, among many others, Schwabinger 7 and *Schwabinger Podium*. Since the 1980s, however, Schwabing has lost much of its nightlife activity due to gentrification and the resulting high rents, and the formerly wild artists' and students' quarter developed into one of the city's most coveted and expensive residential districts, attracting affluent citizens with little interest in partying. Since the 1960s, the *Rosa Viertel* (pink quarter) developed in the Glockenbachviertel and around *Gärtnerplatz*, which in the 1980s made Munich "one of the four gayest metropolises in the world" along with San Francisco, New York City and Amsterdam. In particular, the area around Müllerstraße and *Hans-Sachs-Straße* was characterized by numerous gay bars and nightclubs. One of them was the travesty nightclub *Old Mrs. Henderson*, where Freddie Mercury, who lived in Munich from 1979 to 1985, filmed the music video for the song *Living on My Own* at his 39th birthday party. Since the mid-1990s, the *Kunstpark Ost* and its successor *Kultfabrik*, a former industrial complex that was converted to a large party area near München Ostbahnhof in Berg am Laim, hosted more than 30 clubs and was especially popular among younger people from the metropolitan area surrounding Munich and tourists. The Kultfabrik was closed at the end of the year 2015 to convert the area into a residential and office area. Apart from the Kultfarbik and the smaller *Optimolwerke*, there is a wide variety of establishments in the urban parts of nearby Haidhausen. Before the Kunstpark Ost, there had already been an accumulation of internationally known nightclubs in the remains of the abandoned former Munich-Riem Airport. Munich nightlife tends to change dramatically and quickly. Establishments open and close every year, and due to gentrification and the overheated housing market many survive only a few years, while others last longer. Beyond the already mentioned venues of the 1960s and 1970s, nightclubs with international recognition in recent history included *Tanzlokal Größenwahn*, *Atomic Cafe* and the techno clubs Babalu Club, Ultraschall, KW – Das Heizkraftwerk, Natraj Temple, MMA Club (Mixed Munich Arts), *Die Registratur* and *Bob Beaman*. From 1995 to 2001, Munich was also home to the Union Move, one of the largest technoparades in Germany. Munich has the highest density of music venues of any German city, followed by Hamburg, Cologne and Berlin. Within the city's limits are more than 100 nightclubs and thousands of bars and restaurants. Some notable nightclubs are: popular techno clubs are Blitz Club, *Harry Klein*, *Rote Sonne*, Bahnwärter Thiel, *Pimpernel*, *Charlie*, *Palais* and *Pathos*. Popular mixed music clubs are *Call me Drella*, *Wannda Circus*, *Tonhalle*, *Backstage*, *Muffathalle*, *Ampere*, *Pacha*, *P1*, Zenith, *Minna Thiel* and the party ship Alte Utting. Some notable bars (pubs are located all over the city) are *Schumann's Bar*, *Havana Club*, *Sehnsucht*, *Bar Centrale*, *Holy Home*, *Negroni*, *Die Goldene Bar* and *Bei Otto*. Education --------- ### Colleges and universities Munich is a leading location for science and research with a long list of Nobel Prize laureates from Wilhelm Röntgen in 1901 to Theodor W. Hänsch in 2005. The Ludwig Maximilian University (LMU) and the Technische Universität München (TUM), were two of the first three German universities to be awarded the title *elite university* by a selection committee composed of academics and members of the Ministries of Education and Research of the Federation and the German states (Länder). * Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (LMU), founded in 1472 in Ingolstadt, moved to Munich in 1826 * Technical University of Munich (TUM), founded in 1868 * Akademie der Bildenden Künste München, founded in 1808 * Bundeswehr University Munich, founded in 1973 (located in Neubiberg) * Deutsche Journalistenschule, founded in 1959 * Bayerische Akademie für Außenwirtschaft, founded in 1989 * Hochschule für Musik und Theater München, founded in 1830 * International Max Planck Research School for Molecular and Cellular Life Sciences, founded in 2005 * International School of Management, Germany, founded in 1990 * Katholische Stiftungsfachhochschule München, founded in 1971 * Munich Business School (MBS), founded in 1991 * Munich Intellectual Property Law Center (MIPLC), founded in 2003 * Munich School of Philosophy, founded in 1925 in Pullach, moved to Munich in 1971 * Munich School of Political Science, founded in 1950 * Munich University of Applied Sciences (HM), founded in 1971 * New European College, founded in 2014 * Ukrainian Free University, founded in 1921 (from 1945 – in Munich) * University of Television and Film Munich (*Hochschule für Fernsehen und Film*), founded in 1966 ### Primary and secondary schools Notable Gymnasien in Munich include the Maria-Theresia-Gymnasium, the Luitpold Gymnasium, the Wilhelmsgymnasium, as well as the Wittelsbacher Gymnasium. Munich has several notable international schools, including Lycée Jean Renoir, the Japanische Internationale Schule München, the Bavarian International School, the Munich International School, and the European School, Munich. ### Scientific research institutions ### Max Planck Society The Max Planck Society, a government funded non-profit research organization, has its administrative headquarters in Munich. ### Fraunhofer Society The Fraunhofer Society, the German government funded research organization for applied research, has its headquarters in Munich. ### Other research institutes * Botanische Staatssammlung München, a notable herbarium * Ifo Institute for Economic Research, theoretical and applied research in economics and finance * Doerner Institute * European Southern Observatory * Helmholtz Zentrum München * Zoologische Staatssammlung München * German Aerospace Center (GSOC), Oberpfaffenhofen bei München Economy ------- Munich has the strongest economy of any German city according to a study and the lowest unemployment rate (5.4% in July 2020) of any German city of more than a million people (the others being Berlin, Hamburg and Cologne). Munich ranks third on the list of German cities by gross domestic product (GDP). In addition, it is one of the most attractive business locations in Germany. The city is also the economic centre of southern Germany. Munich topped the ranking of the magazine *Capital* in February 2005 for the economic prospects between 2002 and 2011 in 60 German cities. Munich is a financial center and global city that holds the headquarters of many companies. This includes more companies listed by the DAX than any other German city, as well as the German or European headquarters of many foreign companies such as McDonald's and Microsoft. One of the best-known newly established Munich companies is Flixbus. ### Manufacturing Munich holds the headquarters of Siemens AG (electronics), BMW (car), MAN AG (truck manufacturer, engineering), MTU Aero Engines (aircraft engine manufacturer), Linde (gases) and Rohde & Schwarz (electronics). Among German cities with more than 500,000 inhabitants, purchasing power is highest in Munich (€26,648 per inhabitant) as of 2007[update]. In 2006, Munich blue-collar workers enjoyed an average hourly wage of €18.62 (ca. $20). The breakdown by cities proper (not metropolitan areas) of Global 500 cities listed Munich in 8th position in 2009. Munich is also a centre for biotechnology, software and other service industries. Furthermore, Munich is the home of the headquarters of many other large companies such as the injection moulding machine manufacturer Krauss-Maffei, the camera and lighting manufacturer Arri, the semiconductor firm Infineon Technologies (headquartered in the suburban town of Neubiberg), lighting giant Osram, as well as the German or European headquarters of many foreign companies such as Microsoft. ### Finance Munich has significance as a financial centre (second only to Frankfurt), being home of HypoVereinsbank and the Bayerische Landesbank. It outranks Frankfurt though as home of insurance companies such as Allianz (insurance) and Munich Re (re-insurance). ### Media Munich is the largest publishing city in Europe and home to the *Süddeutsche Zeitung*, one of Germany's biggest daily newspapers. The city is also the location of the programming headquarters of Germany's largest public broadcasting network, ARD, while the largest commercial network, Pro7-Sat1 Media AG, is headquartered in the suburb of Unterföhring. The headquarters of the German branch of Random House, the world's largest publishing house, and of Burda publishing group are also in Munich. The Bavaria Film Studios are located in the suburb of Grünwald. They are one of Europe's biggest film production studios. Quality of life --------------- Most Munich residents enjoy a high quality of life. Mercer HR Consulting consistently rates the city among the top 10 cities with the highest quality of life worldwide – a 2011 survey ranked Munich as 4th. In 2007 the same company also ranked Munich as the 39th most expensive in the world and most expensive major city in Germany. Munich enjoys a thriving economy, driven by the information technology, biotechnology, and publishing sectors. Environmental pollution is low, although as of 2006[update] the city council is concerned about levels of particulate matter (PM), especially along the city's major thoroughfares. Since the enactment of EU legislation concerning the concentration of particulate in the air, environmental groups such as Greenpeace have staged large protest rallies to urge the city council and the State government to take a harder stance on pollution. Due to the high standard of living in and the thriving economy of the city and the region, there was an influx of people and Munich's population surpassed 1.5 million by June 2015, an increase of more than 20% in 10 years. Transport --------- Munich has an extensive public transport system consisting of an underground metro, trams, buses and high-speed rail. In 2015, the transport modal share in Munich was 38 percent public transport, 25 percent car, 23 percent walking, and 15 percent bicycle. Its public transport system delivered 566 million passenger trips that year. Munich is the hub of a developed regional transportation system, including the second-largest airport in Germany and the Berlin–Munich high-speed railway, which connects Munich to the German capital city with a journey time of about 4 hours. Flixmobility which offers intercity coach service is headquartered in Munich. The trade fair Transport Logistic is held every two years at the *Neue Messe München* (Messe München International). ### Public transport For its urban population of 2.6 million people, Munich and its closest suburbs have a comprehensive network of public transport incorporating the Munich U-Bahn, the Munich S-Bahn, trams and buses. The system is supervised by the Munich Transport and Tariff Association (*Münchner Verkehrs- und Tarifverbund*). The Munich tramway is the oldest existing public transportation system in the city, which has been in operation since 1876. Munich also has an extensive network of bus lines. The average amount of time people spend commuting to and from work with public transit in Munich on a weekday is 56 min. The extensive network of subway and tram lines assists and complement pedestrian movement in the city centre. The 700m-long Kaufinger Straße, which starts near the Main train station, forms a pedestrian east–west spine that traverses almost the entire centre. Major spines and many smaller streets cover an extensive area of the centre that can be enjoyed on foot and bike. These attributes result from applying the principle of filtered permeability. Pedestrian and bike paths, which permeate the entire Munich city centre, go through public squares and open spaces for enjoyment. Munich city centre was subject to urban planning and has a comprehensive model for laying out neighborhoods and districts according to grid plan. ### Cycling Cycling has a strong presence in the city and is recognized as a good alternative. The growing number of bicycle lanes are widely used throughout the year. Cycle paths can be found alongside the majority of sidewalks and streets, although the newer or renovated ones are much easier to tell apart from pavements than older ones. A modern bike hire system is available within the area bounded by the *Mittlerer Ring*. ### Cultural history trails and bicycle routes Since 2001, historically interesting places in Munich can be explored via the List of cultural history trails in Munich (*KulturGeschichtsPfade*). Sign-posted cycle routes are the Outer *Äußere Radlring* (outer cycle route) and the *RadlRing München*. ### Munich Central Train Station München Hauptbahnhof is the central railway station located in the city centre and is the long-distance station in Munich. Munich Central Train Station serves about 450,000 passengers a day, which puts it on par with other large stations in Germany. Munich Central Train Station alongside München Ost railway station are two of the 21 stations in Germany classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category 1 station. The central mainline station is a terminal station with 32 platforms. The subterranean S-Bahn with 2 platforms and U-Bahn stations with 6 platforms are through stations. The Intercity-Express (ICE) stop at Munich Central Train Station. InterCity and EuroCity trains to destinations east of Munich also stop at the München Ost railway station. Munich is connected to Nuremberg via Ingolstadt by the Nuremberg–Munich high-speed railway and Berlin–Munich high-speed railway. The old air raid shelter next to platform 11 of Munich Central Train Station was an important distribution point for guest workers (*Gastarbeiter*) between 1960 and 1973. At peak more than 1,000 guest workers arrived per day, in total 1.8 million guest workers passed through Munich Central Train Station. ### Autobahns Munich is an integral part of the Autobahn network of southern Germany. Motorways from Stuttgart (W), Nuremberg, Frankfurt and Berlin (N), Deggendorf and Passau (E), Salzburg and Innsbruck (SE), Garmisch Partenkirchen (S) and Lindau (SW) terminate at Munich, allowing direct access to the different parts of Germany, Austria and Italy. Traffic is often very heavy in and around Munich. Traffic congestion are commonplace at the beginning and end of major Bavarian holidays. There are few "green waves" or roundabouts, and an abundance of construction sites. Munich has introduced an environmental zone and was among the first German cities to require a green sticker for vehicles, these are an requirement when entering the city or driving in the wider surrounding area. ### Air #### Munich International Airport Franz Josef Strauss International Airport (IATA: MUC, ICAO: EDDM) is the second-largest airport in Germany and seventh-largest in Europe after London Heathrow, Paris Charles de Gaulle, Frankfurt, Amsterdam, Madrid and Istanbul Atatürk. It is used by about 46 million passengers a year, and lies some 30 km (19 mi) north east of the city centre. It replaced the smaller Munich-Riem Airport in 1992. The airport can be reached by suburban train lines from the city. From the main railway station the journey takes 40–45 minutes. An express train will be added that will cut down travel time to 20–25 minutes with limited stops on dedicated tracks. A magnetic levitation train (called Transrapid), which was to have run at speeds of up to 400 km/h (249 mph) from the central station to the airport in a travel time of 10 minutes, had been approved, but was cancelled in March 2008 because of cost escalation and after heavy protests. Lufthansa opened its second hub at the airport when Terminal 2 was opened in 2003. #### Other airports In 2008, the Bavarian state government granted a licence to expand Oberpfaffenhofen Air Station located west of Munich, for commercial use. These plans were opposed by many residents in the Oberpfaffenhofen area as well as other branches of local Government, including the city of Munich, which took the case to court. However, in October 2009, the permit allowing up to 9725 business flights per year to depart from or land at Oberpfaffenhofen was confirmed by a regional judge. Despite being 110 km (68 mi) from Munich, Memmingen Airport has been advertised as Airport Munich West. After 2005, passenger traffic of nearby Augsburg Airport was relocated to Munich Airport, leaving the Augsburg region of Bavaria without an air passenger airport within close reach. Around Munich ------------- ### Nearby towns The Munich agglomeration sprawls across the plain of the Alpine foothills comprising about 2.6 million inhabitants. Several smaller traditional Bavarian towns and cities like Dachau, Freising, Erding, Starnberg, Landshut and Moosburg are today part of the Greater Munich Region, formed by Munich and the surrounding districts, making up the Munich Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about 6 million people. ### Recreation South of Munich, there are numerous nearby freshwater lakes such as Lake Starnberg, Ammersee, Chiemsee, Walchensee, Kochelsee, Tegernsee, Schliersee, Simssee, Staffelsee, Wörthsee, Kirchsee and the Osterseen (Easter Lakes), which are popular among Munich residents for recreation, swimming and watersports and can be quickly reached by car and a few also by Munich's S-Bahn. * Lake StarnbergLake Starnberg * AmmerseeAmmersee * ChiemseeChiemsee * WalchenseeWalchensee * TegernseeTegernsee * Großer OsterseeGroßer Ostersee * KirchseeKirchsee * SimsseeSimssee * WörthseeWörthsee Notable people -------------- ### Born in Munich | | | | --- | --- | | Entertainment * Herbert Achternbusch (1938–2022), film director * Percy Adlon (born 1935), film director * Briana Banks, born in 1978, porn actress * Moritz Bleibtreu (born 1971), actor * Harry Buckwitz (1904–1987), actor, theatre director and theatre manager * Gedeon Burkhard (born 1969), actor * Andy Fetscher (born 1980), film director, cinematographer and screenplay writer * Maria Furtwängler (born 1966), actress * Therese Giehse (1898–1975), actress * Michael Haneke (born 1942), filmmaker and writer * Michael Herbig (born 1968), comedian, actor and filmmaker * Werner Herzog (born 1942), film director * Curd Jürgens (1915–1982), actor * Rick Kavanian (born 1971), actor and comedian * Renate Müller (1906–1937), actress * Max Neal (1865–1941), dramatist * Christine Neubauer (born 1962), actress * Uschi Obermaier (born 1946), sex symbol of the late sixties * Lola Randl (born 1980), film director and screenwriter * Wolfgang Reitherman (1909–1985), animator and director of Disney movies * Helmut Ringelmann (1926–2011), film producer and film director * Jeri Ryan (born 1968), actress * Till Schmerbeck (born 1969), film producer * Julia Stegner (born 1984), top model * Christian Tramitz (born 1955), actor and comedian * Karl Valentin (1882–1948), comedian, author and film producer * Fritz Wepper (born 1941), actor * Nico Liersch (born 2000), actor Fashion designers * Willy Bogner (born 1942), fashion designer and director of photography * Rudolph Moshammer (1940–2005), fashion designer Musicians * Lou Bega (born 1975), singer-songwriter * Harold Faltermeyer (born 1952), composer and record producer * Julia Fischer (born 1983), classical violinist and pianist * Joey Heindle (born 1993), DSDS participant in season 9. * Franzl Lang (1930–2015), Bavarian yodeller * Lubomyr Melnyk (born 1948), composer and pianist * Nick Menza (1964–2016), Megadeth drummer * Robert Merwald (born 1971), operatic baritone * Brent Mydland (1952–1990), Grateful Dead keyboardist * Charles Oberthür (1819–1895), composer * Carl Orff (1895–1982), composer * Wolfgang Sawallisch (1923–2013), conductor and pianist * Ralph Siegel (born 1945), composer * Richard Strauss (1864–1949), composer Journalists and Writers * Lion Feuchtwanger (1884–1958), writer * Bettina Gaus (1956–2021), journalist * Golo Mann (1909–1994), writer * Klaus Mann (1906–1949), writer * Eugen Roth (1895–1976), writer * Dieter Kronzucker (born 1936), journalist * Maria von Welser (born 1946), journalist * Steffen Seibert (born 1960), journalist * Sandra Maischberger (born 1966), journalist * Simran Sethi (born 1970), environmental journalist * Angie Westhoff (born 1965), children's author * Marcel Mettelsiefen (born 1978), journalist Nobel Prize laureates * Eduard Buchner (1860–1917), chemist and Nobel Prize winner * Ernst Otto Fischer (1918–2007), chemist and Nobel Prize winner * Robert Huber (born 1937), chemist and Nobel Prize winner * Wassily Leontief (1905–1999), economist and Nobel Prize winner * Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen (1911–1979), biochemist and Nobel Prize winner * Rudolf Mössbauer (1929–2011), physicist and Nobel Prize winner * Arno Allan Penzias (born 1933), physicist and Nobel Prize winner | Nobility * Elisabeth of Bavaria (1837–1898), Empress "Sisi" of Austria * Isabeau of Bavaria (1371–1435), queen-consort of France * Jeannette, Hereditary Princess of Fürstenberg (b. 1982) * Prince Leopold of Bavaria (1846–1930), German field marshal * Ludwig II the Dream King, at Nymphenburg * Ludwig III of Bavaria (1845–1921), last king of Bavaria * Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria (1573–1651), Elector of Bavaria * Maximilian II of Bavaria (1811–1864), king of Bavaria * Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria (1662–1726), Elector of Bavaria * Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria (1727–1777), Elector of Bavaria * Otto of Bavaria (1848–1916), king of Bavaria * Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria, (1869–1955) Crown Prince of Bavaria * Sophie, Hereditary Princess of Liechtenstein (born 1967) Painters * Hubert Haider (1879–1971) * Franz Marc (1880–1916), painter * Heinrich Spiess (1832–1875), painter * Karl von Piloty (1826–1886), painter Photographers * Yaakov Rosner (1902–1950), photographer Politicians * Carl Amery (1922–2005), writer, President of the German PEN Center and founding member of the German Green Party * Leon Feuchtwanger (1884–1958), writer * Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg (born 1971), politician (CSU) * Heinrich Himmler (1900–1945), leading member of the Nazi Party, main perpetrator of the Holocaust * Wilhelm Hoegner, (1887–1980), politician * Carljörg Lacherbauer (1902–1967), co-founder of Christian Social Union (CSU), Post-war mayor and secretary of the Department of Justice * Heinrich Müller (1900–1945), chief of the Gestapo * Fritz Schäffer (1888–1967), politician * Franz Josef Strauss (1915–1988), Minister-President of the Free State of Bavaria Professional athletes * Franz Beckenbauer (born 1945), former footballer and honorary president of Bayern Munich * Korbinian Holzer (born 1988), ice hockey player who currently plays in the NHL for the Toronto Maple Leafs * Fabian Johnson (born 1987), German-born soccer player who plays for Borussia Monchengladbach and the United States National Team * Philipp Lahm (born 1983), footballer who played for Bayern Munich * Marcel Nguyen (born 1987), artistic gymnast * JJ Peterka (born 2002), ice hockey player * Christoph Schubert (born 1982), Former ice hockey player who played in the NHL for the Winnipeg Jets * Frank Shorter (born 1947), champion distance runner Others * Andreas Baader (1943–1977), Red Army Faction leader * Eva Braun, 1912–1945, Adolf Hitler's mistress and later wife * Friedrich Brugger (1815–1870), sculptor * Abraham Fraenkel (1891–1965), mathematician * Franz Xaver Gabelsberger (1789–1849), inventor of the Gabelsberger shorthand writing system * Jean Baptiste Holzmayer (1839–1890), teacher, archaeologist and folklorist * Traudl Humps (1920–2002), Adolf Hitler's personal secretary during the Second World War * Wolfgang Franz von Kobell (1803–1882), mineralogist and writer * Carl Alexander von Martius (1838–1920), chemist, company founder and entrepreneur * Theo Rauch (born 1945), economist, consultant and professor at FU-Berlin * E. Lee Spence (born 1947), pioneer underwater archaeologist and shipwreck historian * Andrea Wolf (1965–1998), activist and militant | ### Notable residents | | | | --- | --- | | * Max Emanuel Ainmiller, painter * Pope Benedict XVI, born Joseph Ratzinger, former Archbishop of Munich-Freising * Gudrun Burwitz, daughter of Heinrich Himmler * Manfred Eicher, record producer and founder of ECM Records * Albert Einstein (1879–1955), Nobel Prize-winning physicist, grew up in Munich * Hans Magnus Enzensberger (1929–2022), author * Rainer Werner Fassbinder (1945–1982), film director * Roger C. Field, inventor, industrial designer * Joseph von Fraunhofer, optician * Asger Hamerik, composer * Werner Heisenberg, Nobel Prize-winning physicist * Adolf Hitler, German politician and leader of the Nazi Party * Brigitte Horney, actress (Münchhausen) * Muhammad Iqbal, Pakistan's national poet, who received his PhD from Munich in 1907 * Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944), painter\* * Erich Kästner, author * Erich Kästner (camera designer), movie camera designer, chief designer at ARRI * Blake R. Van Leer, United States Army officer, civil rights leader and president of Georgia Institute of Technology * Orlande de Lassus, composer * Franz von Lenbach, painter * Vladimir Lenin, Russian revolutionary * Justus von Liebig, chemist * Ernst Mach, physicist and philosopher * Sepp Maier (born 1944), football goalkeeper * Thomas Mann (1875–1955), Nobel Prize-winning author * Franz M. Matschinsky (1931–2022), physician, pharmacologist and biochemist * Helene Mayer, fencer * Freddie Mercury, lead singer of Queen * Wilhelm Emil "Willy" Messerschmitt, German aircraft designer and manufacturer * Lola Montez, courtesan to King Ludwig I | * Giorgio Moroder, composer, songwriter, and record producer * Gerd Müller (1945–2021), footballer * Amalie Nacken (1855–1940), philanthropist * David Dalhoff Neal, painter * William of Ockham, English medieval philosopher * Georg Ohm, physicist * Marsilius of Padua, Italian medieval scholar * Max Planck, Nobel Prize-winning physicist * Lucia Popp, Slovak-born opera singer * Ludwig Prandtl, father of modern aerodynamics * Robert Hermann Raudner (1854–1915), landscape and genre painter, and etcher, lived and died at Schleißheim, and trained at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts * Max Reger, composer, organist, pianist and conductor * Wilhelm Röntgen, Nobel Prize–winning physicist * Hannes Rosenow, painter * Willibald Sauerländer, art historian * Max Schreck, actor * Arnold Schwarzenegger, former Governor of California, bodybuilder and actor, resided at Christophstr. 1 and worked at Rolf Putziger's gym at Schillerstr. 36 from 1966 to 1968 * Bastian Schweinsteiger, footballer * Alexander Strähuber or (Straehuber), (1814–1882), Austrian-born German history painter and book illustrator. * Franz von Stuck, painter and sculptor * Donna Summer (1948–2012), singer, known as the "Queen of Disco", she was the most successful musical artist of the Disco era in the late 1970s and early 1980s * Vardges Sureniants, Armenian painter * Fyodor Tyutchev, Russian Romantic poet * Richard Wagner (1813–1883), composer * Franz Widnmann (1846–1910), painter and graphic artist, was a professor at the Royal School of Applied Arts in Munich. * Heinrich Otto Wieland, Nobel Prize-winning chemist who successfully protected Jewish people * Stepan Bandera, Ukrainian nationalist, assassinated in October 1959 | Twin towns and sister cities ---------------------------- Munich is twinned with: * Edinburgh, United Kingdom (1954) * Verona, Italy (1960) * Bordeaux, France (1964) * Sapporo, Japan (1972) * Cincinnati, United States (1989) * Kyiv, Ukraine (1989) * Harare, Zimbabwe (1996) * Beersheba, Israel (2021) Listen to this article (1 hour and 16 minutes) Spoken Wikipedia iconThis audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 8 December 2014 (2014-12-08), and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles)

Munich

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***Taraxacum*** (/təˈræksəkəm/) is a large genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, which consists of species commonly known as **dandelions**. The scientific and hobby study of the genus is known as taraxacology. The genus is native to Eurasia and North America, but the two most commonplace species worldwide, *T. officinale* (the common dandelion) and *T. erythrospermum* (the red-seeded dandelion), were introduced from Europe into North America, where they now propagate as wildflowers. Both species are edible in their entirety. The common name *dandelion* (/ˈdændəlaɪ.ən/ *DAN-də-ly-ən*; from French **dent-de-lion** 'lion's tooth') is also given to specific members of the genus. Like other members of the family Asteraceae, they have very small flowers collected together into a composite flower head. Each single flower in a head is called a *floret*. In part due to their abundance, along with being a generalist species, dandelions are one of the most vital early spring nectar sources for a wide host of pollinators. Many *Taraxacum* species produce seeds asexually by apomixis, where the seeds are produced without pollination, resulting in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent plant. In general, the leaves are 50–250 mm (2–10 in) long or longer, simple, lobed-to-pinnatisect, and form a basal rosette above the central taproot. The flower heads are yellow to orange coloured, and are open in the daytime, but closed at night. The heads are borne singly on a hollow stem (scape) that is usually leafless and rises 10–100 mm (3⁄8–3+7⁄8 in) or more above the leaves. Stems and leaves exude a white, milky latex when broken. A rosette may produce several flowering stems at a time. The flower heads are 20–50 mm (3⁄4–2 in) in diameter and consist entirely of ray florets. The flower heads mature into spherical seed heads sometimes called *blowballs* or *clocks* (in both British and American English) containing many single-seeded fruits called *achenes*. Each achene is attached to a pappus of fine hair-like material which enables wind-aided dispersal over long distances. The flower head is surrounded by bracts (sometimes mistakenly called sepals) in two series. The inner bracts are erect until the seeds mature, then flex downward to allow the seeds to disperse. The outer bracts are often reflexed downward, but remain appressed in plants of the sections *Palustria* and *Spectabilia*. Between the pappus and the achene is a stalk called a beak, which elongates as the fruit matures. The beak breaks off from the achene quite easily, separating the seed from the parachute. Description ----------- The species of *Taraxacum* are tap-rooted, perennial, herbaceous plants, native to temperate areas of the Northern Hemisphere. The genus contains many species, which usually (or in the case of triploids, obligately) reproduce by apomixis, resulting in many local populations and endemism. In the British Isles alone, 234 microspecies (i.e. morphologically distinct clonal populations) are recognised in nine loosely defined sections, of which 40 are "probably endemic". A number of species of *Taraxacum* are seed-dispersed ruderals that rapidly colonize disturbed soil, especially the common dandelion (*T. officinale*), which has been introduced over much of the temperate world. After flowering is finished, the dandelion flower head dries out for a day or two. The dried petals and stamens drop off, the bracts reflex (curve backwards), and the parachute ball opens into a full sphere. When development is complete, the mature seeds are attached to white, fluffy "parachutes" which easily detach from the seedhead and glide by wind, dispersing. The seeds are able to cover large distances when dispersed due to the unique morphology of the pappus which works to create a unique type of vortex ring that stays attached to the seed rather than being sent downstream. In addition to the creation of this vortex ring, the pappus can adjust its morphology depending on the moisture in the air. This allows the plume of seeds to close up and reduce the chance to separate from the stem, waiting for optimal conditions that will maximize dispersal and germination. Similar plants -------------- Many similar plants in the family Asteraceae with yellow flowers are sometimes known as false dandelions. Dandelion flowers are very similar to those of cat's ears (*Hypochaeris*). Both plants carry similar flowers, which form into windborne seeds. However, dandelion flowers are borne singly on unbranched, hairless and leafless, hollow stems, while cat's ear flowering stems are branched, solid, and carry bracts. Both plants have a basal rosette of leaves and a central taproot. However, the leaves of dandelions are smooth or glabrous, whereas those of cat's ears are coarsely hairy. Early-flowering dandelions may be distinguished from coltsfoot (*Tussilago farfara*) by their basal rosette of leaves, their lack of disc florets, and the absence of scales on the flowering stem. Other plants with superficially similar flowers include hawkweeds (*Hieracium*) and hawksbeards (*Crepis*). These are readily distinguished by branched flowering stems, which are usually hairy and bear leaves. Classification -------------- The genus is taxonomically complex due to the presence of apomixis: any morphologically distinct clonal population would deserve its own microspecies. Phylogenetic approaches are also complicated by the accelerated mutation in apomixic lines and repeated ancient hybridization events in the genus. As of 1970, the group is divided into about 34 macrospecies or sections, and about 2000 microspecies; some botanists take a much narrower view and only accept a total of about 60 (macro)species. By 2015, the number has been revised to include 60 sections and about 2800 microspecies. 30 of these sections are known to reproduce sexually. About 235 apomictic and polyploid microspecies have been recorded in Great Britain and Ireland alone. ### Selected species * *Taraxacum albidum*, the white-flowered Japanese dandelion, a hybrid between *T. coreanum* and *T. japonicum* * *Taraxacum aphrogenes*, the Paphos dandelion * *Taraxacum arcticum* * *Taraxacum balticum* * *Taraxacum brachyceras* * *Taraxacum brevicorniculatum*, frequently misidentified as *T. kok-saghyz* and a poor rubber producer * *Taraxacum californicum*, the California dandelion, an endangered species * *Taraxacum centrasiaticum*, the Xinjiang dandelion * *Taraxacum ceratophorum*, the horned dandelion, considered by some sources to be a North American subspecies of *T. officinale* (*T. officinale* subsp. *ceratophorum*) * *Taraxacum coreanum* * *Taraxacum desertorum* * *Taraxacum erythrospermum*, the red-seeded dandelion, often considered a variety of *T. laevigatum* (i.e., *T. laevigatum* var. *erythrospermum*) * *Taraxacum farinosum*, the Turkish dandelion * *Taraxacum holmboei*, the Troödos dandelion * *Taraxacum hybernum* * *Taraxacum japonicum*, the Japanese dandelion, no ring of smallish, downward-turned leaves under the flower head * *Taraxacum kok-saghyz*, the Kazakh dandelion, which produces rubber * *Taraxacum laevigatum*, the rock dandelion, achenes reddish brown and leaves deeply cut throughout the length, inner bracts' tips are hooded * *Taraxacum lissocarpum* * *Taraxacum minimum* * *Taraxacum mirabile* * *Taraxacum officinale* (syn. *T. officinale* subsp. *vulgare*), the common dandelion, found in many forms * *Taraxacum pankhurstianum*, the St. Kilda dandelion * *Taraxacum platycarpum*, the Korean dandelion * *Taraxacum pseudoroseum* * *Taraxacum suecicum* | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | T. albidum *T. albidum* | T. californicum *T. californicum* | T. japonicum *T. japonicum* | T. laevigatum *T. laevigatum* | T. officinale *T. officinale* | T. platycarpum *T. platycarpum* | ### Cultivars * 'Amélioré à Coeur Plein' yields an abundant crop without taking up much ground, and tends to blanch itself naturally, due to its clumping growth habit. * 'Broad-leaved' - The leaves are thick and tender and easily blanched. In rich soils, they can be up to 60 cm (2') wide. Plants do not go to seed as quickly as French types. * 'Vert de Montmagny' is a large-leaved, vigorous grower, which matures early. History ------- Dandelions are thought to have evolved about 30 million years ago in Eurasia. Fossil seeds of *Taraxacum tanaiticum* have been recorded from the Pliocene of southern Belarus. Dandelions have been used by humans for food and as an herb for much of recorded history. They were well known to ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, and are recorded to have been used in traditional Chinese medicine for over a thousand years. The plant was used as food and medicine by Native Americans. Dandelions were probably brought to North America on the *Mayflower* for their supposed medicinal benefits. Etymology --------- The Latin name *Taraxacum* originates in medieval Arabic writings on pharmacy. The scientist Al-Razi around 900 CE wrote "the tarashaquq is like chicory". The scientist and philosopher Ibn Sīnā around 1000 CE wrote a book chapter on *Taraxacum*. Gerard of Cremona, in translating Arabic to Latin around 1170, spelled it *tarasacon*. ### Common names The English name, dandelion, is a corruption of the French *dent de lion* meaning "lion's tooth", referring to the coarsely toothed leaves. The plant is also known as blowball, cankerwort, doon-head-clock, witch's gowan, milk witch, lion's-tooth, yellow-gowan, Irish daisy, monks-head, priest's-crown, and puff-ball; other common names include *faceclock*, *pee-a-bed*, *wet-a-bed*, *swine's snout*, white endive, and wild endive. The English folk name "piss-a-bed" (and indeed the equivalent contemporary French **pissenlit**) refers to the strong diuretic effect of the plant's roots. In various northeastern Italian dialects, the plant is known as *pisacan* ("dog pisses"), because they are found at the side of pavements.[*unreliable source?*] In Swedish, it is called *maskros* (worm rose) after the nymphs of small insects (thrips larvae) usually present in the flowers. Nutrition --------- Raw dandelion greens contain high amounts of vitamins A, C, and K, and are moderate sources of calcium, potassium, iron, and manganese. Raw dandelion greens are 86% water, 9% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and 1% fat. A 100 gram (3+1⁄2oz) reference amount supplies 45 Calories. Phytochemicals -------------- The raw flowers contain diverse phytochemicals, including polyphenols, such as flavonoids apigenin, isoquercitrin (a quercetin-like compound), and caffeic acid, as well as terpenoids, triterpenes, and sesquiterpenes. The roots contain a substantial amount of the prebiotic fiber inulin. Dandelion greens contain lutein. Taraxalisin, a serine proteinase, is found in the latex of dandelion roots. Maximal activity of the proteinase in the roots is attained in April, at the beginning of plant development after the winter period. Each dandelion seed has a mass(weight) of 500 micrograms or 0.0005g (1/125 of a grain). Properties ---------- ### Edibility The entire plant, including the leaves, stems, flowers, and roots, is edible and nutritious, with nutrients such as vitamins A and K as well as calcium and iron. Dandelions are found on six continents and have been gathered for food since prehistory, but the varieties commercially cultivated for consumption are mainly native to Eurasia and North America. A perennial plant, its leaves grow back if the taproot is left intact. To make leaves more palatable, they are often blanched to remove bitterness, or sauteed in the same way as spinach. Dandelion greens have been a part of traditional Kashmiri cuisine, Spanish cuisine, Italian cuisine, Albanian cuisine, Slovenian, Sephardic Jewish, Chinese, Greek cuisine (χόρτα) and Korean cuisines. In Crete, the leaves of a variety called 'Mari' (Μαρί), 'Mariaki' (Μαριάκι), or 'Koproradiko' (Κοπροράδικο) are eaten by locals, either raw or boiled, in salads. *T. megalorhizon*, a species endemic to Crete, is eaten in the same way; it is found only at high altitudes (1,000–1,600 metres (3,300–5,200 ft)) and in fallow sites, and is called *pentaramia* (πενταράμια) or *agrioradiko* (αγριοράδικο). The flower petals, along with other ingredients, usually including citrus, are used to make dandelion wine. Its ground, roasted roots can be used as a caffeine-free coffee alternative. Dandelion was also traditionally used to make the traditional British soft drink dandelion and burdock, and is one of the ingredients of root beer. Dandelions were once considered delicacies by the Victorian gentry, who used them mostly in salads and sandwiches. ### Dye The yellow flowers can be dried and ground into a yellow-pigmented powder and used as a dye. ### Allergies Dandelion pollen may cause allergic reactions when eaten, or adverse skin reactions in sensitive individuals. Contact dermatitis after handling has also been reported, probably from the latex in the stems and leaves.[*unreliable source?*] ### Herbalism Dandelion has been used in traditional medicine in Europe, North America, and China. ### Food for wildlife #### Seeds *Taraxacum* seeds are an important food source for certain birds (linnets, *Linaria* spp.). #### Nectar Szabo studied nectar secretion in a dandelion patch over two years (59.2 and 8.9 flowers per square metre (5.50 and 0.83/sq ft) in 1981 and 1982). He measured average nectar volume at 7.4 μl/flower in 1981 and 3.7 μl/flower in 1982. The flowers tended to open in the morning and close in the afternoon with the concentrations significantly higher on the second day. Dandelions are also important plants for Northern Hemisphere bees, providing an important source of nectar and pollen early in the season. They are also used as a source of nectar by the pearl-bordered fritillary (*Boloria euphrosyne*), one of the earliest emerging butterflies in the spring. #### Leaves Dandelions are used as food plants by the larvae of some species of Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths). ### Invasive species Dandelions can cause significant economic damage as an invasive species and infestation of other crops worldwide; in some jurisdictions, the species *T. officinale* is listed as a noxious weed. It can also be considered invasive in protected areas such as national parks. For example, Denali National Park and Preserve in Alaska lists *Taraxacum officinale* as the most common invasive species in the park and hosts an annual "Dandelion Demolition" event where volunteers are trained to remove the plant from the park's roadsides. ### Benefits to gardeners With a wide range of uses, the dandelion is cultivated in small gardens to massive farms. It is kept as a companion plant; its taproot brings up nutrients for shallow-rooting plants. It is also known to attract pollinating insects and release ethylene gas, which helps fruit to ripen. ### Cultural importance It has been a Western tradition for someone to blow out a dandelion seedhead and think of a wish they want to come true. Five dandelion flowers are the emblem of White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. The citizens celebrate spring with an annual Dandelion Festival. The dandelion is the official flower of the University of Rochester in New York State, and "Dandelion Yellow" is one of the school's official colors. "The Dandelion Yellow" is an official University of Rochester song. ### Inspiration for engineering The ability of dandelion seeds to travel as far as a kilometer in dry, windy and warm conditions, has been an inspiration for designing light-weight passive drones. In 2018, researchers discovered that dandelion seeds have a separated vortex ring. This work provided evidence that dandelion seeds have fluid behavior around fluid-immersed bodies that may help understand locomotion, weight reduction and particle retention in biological and man-made structures. In 2022, researchers at the University of Washington demonstrated battery-free wireless sensors and computers that mimic dandelion seeds and can float in the wind and disperse across a large area. ### As a source of natural rubber Dandelions secrete latex when the tissues are cut or broken, yet in the wild type, the latex content is low and varies greatly. *Taraxacum kok-saghyz*, the Russian dandelion, is a species that produced industrially useful amounts during WW2. Using modern cultivation methods and optimization techniques, scientists in the Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME) in Germany developed a cultivar of the Russian dandelion that is suitable for current commercial production of natural rubber. The latex produced exhibits the same quality as the natural rubber from rubber trees. In collaboration with Continental AG, IME is building a pilot facility. As of May 2014[update], the first prototype test tires made with blends from dandelion-rubber are scheduled for testing on public roads over the next few years. In December 2017, Linglong Group Co. Ltd., a Chinese company, invested $450 million into making commercially viable rubber from dandelions. 1. ↑ Rubar Hussein M. Salih; Ľuboš Majeský; Trude Schwarzacher; R. Gornall; Pat Heslop-Harrison (9 February 2017). "Complete chloroplast genomes from apomictic Taraxacum (Asteraceae): Identity and variation between three microspecies". *PLOS ONE*. **12** (2). e0168008. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1268008M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0168008. PMC 5300115. PMID 28182646. 2. ↑ Adrian John Richards (1985). "Sectional nomenclature in *Taraxacum* (Asteraceae)". *Taxon*. **34** (4): 633–644. doi:10.2307/1222201. JSTOR 1222201. 3. ↑ "Taraxacum". *Merriam-Webster Dictionary*. 4. ↑ Greenwood, Barbara (2015). "Don't Dismiss the Dandelion". 5. 1 2 Brouillet, Luc. "*Taraxacum* F. H. Wiggers, Prim. Fl. Holsat. 56. 1780". *Flora of North America*. 6. ↑ "Wild About Dandelions". *Mother Earth News*. 1 April 2008. 7. ↑ "Let dandelions grow. Bees, beetles and birds need them". *The Guardian*. 12 May 2015. 8. ↑ Doll, J. & Trower, T. "Dandelion". *WeedScience*. University of Wisconsin. Archived from the original on 22 October 2008. 9. ↑ "blowball". *McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms* (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill Companies. 2003. Retrieved 26 January 2013. 10. ↑ "blowball". *CollinsDictionary.com*. HarperCollins. 11. ↑ "blowball". *InfoPlease Dictionary*. 12. ↑ "dandelion clock". *Longman English Dictionary Online*. Pearson. Retrieved 2 June 2019. 13. ↑ "clock". *The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language* (5th ed.). HarperCollins. 14. ↑ Stace, C. A. (2010). *New Flora of the British Isles* (Third ed.). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. p. 712. ISBN 9780521707725. 15. ↑ Cummins, Cathal; Seale, Madeleine; Macente, Alice; Certini, Daniele; Mastropaolo, Enrico; Viola, Ignazio Maria; Nakayama, Naomi (2018). "A separated vortex ring underlies the flight of the dandelion" (PDF). *Nature*. **562** (7727): 414–418. Bibcode:2018Natur.562..414C. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0604-2. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 30333579. S2CID 52988814. 16. ↑ Ledda, P. G.; Siconolfi, L.; Viola, F.; Camarri, S.; Gallaire, F. (2 July 2019). "Flow dynamics of a dandelion pappus: A linear stability approach". *Physical Review Fluids*. **4** (7): 071901. Bibcode:2019PhRvF...4g1901L. doi:10.1103/physrevfluids.4.071901. hdl:11568/998044. ISSN 2469-990X. S2CID 198429309. 17. ↑ Seale, Madeleine; Zhdanov, Oleksandr; Cummins, Cathal; Kroll, Erika; Blatt, Michael R; Zare-Behtash, Hossein; Busse, Angela; Mastropaolo, Enrico; Viola, Ignazio Maria (7 February 2019). "Moisture-dependent morphing tunes the dispersal of dandelion diaspores". doi:10.1101/542696. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help) 18. ↑ Loebach, Christopher A., author. (2015). *Investigating seed dispersal distances and long distance dispersal mechanisms of the invasive plant, Alliaria Petiolata*. ISBN 9781321782141. OCLC 988948576. `{{cite book}}`: `|last=` has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 19. ↑ Blamey, M.; Fitter, R.; Fitter, A (2003). *Wild flowers of Britain and Ireland: The Complete Guide to the British and Irish Flora*. London: A & C Black. p. 274. ISBN 978-1408179505. 20. 1 2 Kirschner, Jan; Záveská Drábková, Lenka; Štěpánek, Jan; Uhlemann, Ingo (April 2015). "Towards a better understanding of the Taraxacum evolution (Compositae–Cichorieae) on the basis of nrDNA of sexually reproducing species". *Plant Systematics and Evolution*. **301** (4): 1135–1156. doi:10.1007/s00606-014-1139-0. S2CID 17903814. 21. 1 2 A. J. Richards (1970). "Eutriploid facultative agamospermy in *Taraxacum*". *New Phytologist*. **69** (3): 761–774. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1970.tb02461.x. JSTOR 2430530. 22. ↑ Richards, A.J. (1997). *Dandelions of Great Britain and Ireland (Handbooks for Field Identification)*. Botanical Society of the British Isles Publications. p. 330. ISBN 978-0-901158-25-3. 23. 1 2 Nowicki, Marcin; Zhao, Yichen; Boggess, Sarah L.; Fluess, Helge; Payá-Milans, Miriam; Staton, Margaret E.; Houston, Logan C.; Hadziabdic, Denita; Trigiano, Robert N. (13 February 2019). "Taraxacum kok-saghyz (rubber dandelion) genomic microsatellite loci reveal modest genetic diversity and cross-amplify broadly to related species". *Scientific Reports*. **9** (1): 1915. Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.1915N. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-38532-8. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6374447. PMID 30760810. 24. ↑ "Alberta Biodiversity Monitoring Institute - Taraxacum ceratophorum". Archived from the original on 8 July 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2013. 25. ↑ "Flora of North America". Efloras.org. Retrieved 29 August 2012. 26. ↑ "Plants for a Future Search Error". *www.ibiblio.org*. Retrieved 17 April 2017. 27. ↑ "Dandelion". Fondation Louis Bonduelle. 28. ↑ "Gardening in Western Washington: Dandelions". Gardening.wsu.edu. 4 May 2003. Archived from the original on 26 June 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2012. 29. ↑ The Pliocene flora of Kholmech, southeastern Belarus and its correlation with other Pliocene floras of Europe by Felix Yu. VELICHKEVICH and Ewa ZASTAWNIAK - Acta Palaeobot. 43(2): 137–259, 2003 30. ↑ Clarke, Charlotte Bringle (1977). *Edible and useful plants of California*. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-520-03261-3. 31. ↑ "Dandelions". Maine Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association. Archived from the original on 20 February 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2017. 32. ↑ Reported in *An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language*, by Walter W. Skeat (1888) (Downloadable at Archive.org). In *An Etymology Dictionary of Modern English* by Ernest Weekley (1921) it is reported that Arabic *tarashaqun* is derivable in turn from Persian *talkh chakok*, bitter herb (Downloadable at Archive.org). 33. ↑ S. Potter & L. Sargent (1973) Pedigree: essays on the etymology of words from nature. Collins New Naturalist series Volume 56 34. ↑ Britton, N. F.; Brown, Addison (1970). *An illustrated flora of the northern United States and Canada: from Newfoundland to the parallel of the southern boundary of Virginia, and from the Atlantic Ocean westward to the 102d meridian*. New York: Dover Publications. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-486-22644-6. 35. ↑ "Common Dandelion\_Family: Asteraceae" (PDF). 36. ↑ Loewer, Peter (2001). *Solving weed problems*. Guilford, Conn.: Lyons Press. p. 210. ISBN 978-1-58574-274-5. Swine's Snout. 37. ↑ "Dandelion clock". *TheFreeDictionary.com*. 38. ↑ Taylor, Joseph (1819). *Antiquitates curiosae: the etymology of many remarkable old sayings, proverbs and singular customs explained by Joseph Taylor* (2nd ed.). T&J Allman. p. 97. 39. ↑ Anon. "Dandelion - far more than a weed" (PDF). *Frapez.com*. Frapez soothie spa. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 July 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2010. 40. ↑ "Den virtuella floran: Taraxacum F. H. Wigg. - Maskrosor" (in Swedish). Linnaeus.nrm.se. Retrieved 3 July 2010. 41. 1 2 3 "Dandelion greens, raw". Nutritiondata.com, Conde Nast Inc. Retrieved 7 March 2011. 42. 1 2 Katrin Schütz, Reinhold Carle & Andreas Schieber (2006). "*Taraxacum*—a review on its phytochemical and pharmacological profile". *Journal of Ethnopharmacology*. **107** (3): 313–323. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.07.021. PMID 16950583. 43. ↑ "Carotenoids". Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University. 1 July 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2019. 44. ↑ Bogacheva, A. M.; Rudenskaya, G. N.; Preusser, A; Tchikileva, I. O.; Dunaevsky, Y. E.; Golovkin, B. N.; Stepanov, V. M. (1999). "A new subtilisin-like proteinase from roots of the dandelion Taraxacum officinale Webb S. L". *Biochemistry. Biokhimiia*. **64** (9): 1030–7. PMID 10521720. 45. 1 2 Rudenskaya, G. N.; Bogacheva, A. M.; Preusser, A.; Kuznetsova, A. V.; Dunaevsky YaE, null; Golovkin, B. N.; Stepanov, V. M. (23 October 1998). "Taraxalisin -- a serine proteinase from dandelion Taraxacum officinale Webb s.l". *FEBS Letters*. **437** (3): 237–240. doi:10.1016/s0014-5793(98)01243-5. ISSN 0014-5793. PMID 9824298. S2CID 43872064. 46. ↑ Osborne, Tegan (11 May 2016). "Edible weeds that are safe to eat and how you can use them". ABC News (Australia). Retrieved 24 May 2021. 47. ↑ McGee, Harold (2004). "A survey of common vegetables". *On Food and Cooking: the science and lore of the kitchen*. New York: Scribner. p. 320. ISBN 978-0-684-80001-1. 48. ↑ sautéed Dandelion Greens, ItalianFoodForever.com 49. ↑ Kleonikos G. Stavridakis; Κλεόνικος Γ. Σταυριδάκης (2006). *Wild edible plants of Crete - Η Άγρια βρώσιμη χλωρίδα της Κρήτης*. Rethymnon Crete. ISBN 978-960-631-179-6. 50. ↑ Castronovo Fusco, MA (15 April 2008). "Dandelion as underrated as underfoot". New Jersey On-Line. Retrieved 7 March 2011. 51. ↑ Dyer, Anne. (1981). *Dyes from natural sources*. Bell & Hyman. ISBN 0713519371. OCLC 219915765. 52. ↑ Bill Church (2006). *Medicinal Plants, Trees, & Shrubs of Appalachia – A Field Guide*. Lulu.com. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-4116-4486-1. 53. ↑ D. L. Buckingham & W. J. Peach (2005). "The influence of livestock management on habitat quality for farmland birds". *Animal Science*. **81** (2): 199–203. doi:10.1079/ASC50700199. 54. ↑ Stewart-Wade, S. M.; Neumann, S.; Collins, L. L.; Boland, G. J. (1 October 2002). "The biology of Canadian weeds. 117. *Taraxacum officinale* G. H. Weber ex Wiggers". *Canadian Journal of Plant Science*. Canadian Science Publishing. **82** (4): 825–853. doi:10.4141/p01-010. ISSN 0008-4220. S2CID 85676502. 55. ↑ Tibor I. Szabo, *Nectar Secretion in Dandelion*, Journal of Apicultural Research, Volume 23, 1984 - Issue 4 56. ↑ Pellett, Frank Chapman (1920). *American Honey Plants; Together With Those Which Are of Special Value to the Beekeeper as Sources of Pollen*. American Bee Journal Publication. p. 178. ISBN 978-1-152-86271-5. 57. 1 2 Stewart-Wade, S. M.; Newmann, S.; Collins, L. L.; Boland, G. J. (2002). "The biology of Canadian weeds. 117. *Taraxacum officinale* G.H. Weber ex Wiggers". *Canadian Journal of Plant Science*. **82** (4): 825–853. doi:10.4141/P01-010. 58. ↑ J., Richardson (1 January 1985). "In praise of the archenemy". *Audubon*: 37–39. ISSN 0097-7136. 59. ↑ Non native species National Park Service 60. ↑ Love, Colleen Coulon Denali’s Dandelion Demolition returns after 2020 hiatus KTNA, June 17, 2021 61. ↑ Anon. "Companion Planting for Vegetables & Plants". *Country living and farm lifestyles*. countryfarm-lifestyles.com. Retrieved 7 March 2011. 62. ↑ Thong, Roseanne (September 2008). *Wish: wishing traditions around the world*. ISBN 9780811857161 – via Google Books. 63. ↑ "Welcome to Main Street White Sulphur Springs...Make it home". Wssmainstreet.org. Archived from the original on 4 June 2010. Retrieved 3 July 2010. 64. ↑ "Songs of the University of Rochester". Lib.rochester.edu. 14 January 2010. Retrieved 3 July 2010. 65. ↑ Cummins, Cathal; Seale, Madeleine; Macente, Alice; Certini, Daniele; Mastropaolo, Enrico; Viola, Ignazio Maria; Nakayama, Naomi (October 2018). "A separated vortex ring underlies the flight of the dandelion". *Nature*. **562** (7727): 414–418. Bibcode:2018Natur.562..414C. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0604-2. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 30333579. S2CID 52988814. 66. ↑ Iyer, Vikram; Gaensbauer, Hans; Daniel, Thomas L.; Gollakota, Shyamnath (17 March 2022). "Wind dispersal of battery-free wireless devices". *Nature*. **603** (7901): 427–433. Bibcode:2022Natur.603..427I. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-04363-9. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 35296847. S2CID 247499662. 67. ↑ "Making Rubber from Dandelion Juice". *Science Daily*. 28 October 2013. Retrieved 22 November 2013. 68. ↑ "Fraunhofer and Continental come together when the dandelion rubber meets the road". 14 October 2013. Retrieved 14 December 2016. 69. ↑ "Linglong to fund research into dandelion rubber | Rubber and Plastics News". 20 December 2017.

Taraxacum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taraxacum

The **Reformation** (alternatively named the **Protestant Reformation** or the **European Reformation**) was a major movement within Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Catholic Church and in particular to papal authority, arising from what were perceived to be errors, abuses, and discrepancies by the Catholic Church. The Reformation was the start of Protestantism and the split of the Western Church into Protestantism and what is now the Roman Catholic Church. It is also considered to be one of the events that signified the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the early modern period in Europe. Prior to Martin Luther and the other Protestant Reformers, there were earlier reform movements within Western Christianity. Although the Reformation is usually considered to have started with the publication of the *Ninety-five Theses* by Martin Luther in 1517, he was not excommunicated by Pope Leo X until January 1521. The Diet of Worms of May 1521 condemned Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas. The spread of Gutenberg's printing press provided the means for the rapid dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. Luther survived after being declared an outlaw due to the protection of Elector Frederick the Wise. The initial movement in Germany diversified, and other reformers such as Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin arose. In general, the Reformers argued that salvation in Christianity was a completed status based on faith in Jesus alone and not a process that requires good works, as in the Catholic view. Key events of the period include: Diet of Worms (1521), formation of the Lutheran Duchy of Prussia (1525), English Reformation (1529 onwards), the Council of Trent (1545–1563), the Peace of Augsburg (1555), the excommunication of Elizabeth I (1570), Edict of Nantes (1598) and Peace of Westphalia (1648). The Counter-Reformation, also called the *Catholic Reformation* or the *Catholic Revival*, was the period of Catholic reforms initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. The end of the Reformation era is disputed among modern scholars. Background ---------- ### Calamities Europe experienced a period of dreadful calamities at the beginning of the Late Middle Ages. In the first half of the 14th century, exceptionally heavy rains and severe droughts and winters caused crop failures and famine in large regions. In the middle of the century, a devastating pandemic known as the Black Death hit Europe, killing about one third of the population. Regarding the plague as a sign of the wrath of God, the fearful people were praying to the saints for intercession, and hundreds of people were wandering from town to town in groups showing repentance by whipping themselves–hence they were called flagellants. In many parts of Europe, thousands of Jews fell victim to anti-semitic pogroms, as irrational rumours accused them of spreading the pandemic by well poisoning. Although the plague abated, it returned from time to time. It was only in the late 15th century that a slow demographic recovery began. Around 1500, the population of Europe was about 60–85 million people—no more than 75 percent of the mid-14th-century demographic maximum. The constant fear of unexpected death was mirrored by popular artistic motifs, such as the allegory of *danse macabre* ("dance of death"), and by the common funerary inscription *memento mori* ("remember that you die"). The fear also contributed to the growing popularity of Masses for the dead. These indicated a widespread belief in an intermediate place between Hell and Heaven known as the Purgatory because prayers for those who had been damned to Hell or gone to Heaven would have been useless. The existence of Purgatory was declared a Catholic dogma at the Council of Florence in 1439. Ghost stories spread widely as most people believed that the souls of the sinful for whom nobody offered intercessory prayers were fated to eternal wandering. Fear of malevolent magical practice was also growing and witch-hunts intensified from the 1430s. Towards the end of the 15th century, a new pandemic started to spread in Europe. This was the syphilis, a sexually transmitted infection that destroyed its victims' looks with ulcers and scabs, and also could drive them mad before they died. Along with the French invasion of Italy, the new fatal disease gave the background to the success of the charismatic preacher Girolamo Savonarola (d. 1498) in Florence. His sermons on the Last Days of Humankind became especially popular, and his calls for a moral renewal led to a revolution putting an end to the Medici's rule in the city. Pope Alexander VI (r. 1492–1503) forbade him to preach but he ignored the ban, for which he was excommunicated. As the calamities continued in the city, Savonarola lost popular support. He was arrested and executed, but his meditations continued to be read in many parts of Europe. ### Clergy Western Christianity displayed a remarkable unity by the early 14th century. This was mainly the outcome of the 11th-century Gregorian Reform that established papal supremacy—the undisputed authority of the papacy—over the Catholic Church, and secured the legal separation of the clergy from laity. Clerical celibacy was reinforced through the prohibition of clerical marriage, and the clergy was exempted from the jurisdiction of secular courts. In contrast, ecclesiastical courts had exclusive jurisdiction over laypeople's marriage affairs and disputes over testaments. The clergy consisted of two major groups, the regular clergy and the secular clergy. Regular clerics lived under a monastic rule, such as the *Rule of Saint Benedict*, within the framework of a religious order; secular clerics were responsible for pastoral care among laypeople. The Church was a hierarchical organisation. The pope was elected by high-ranking clergymen, the cardinals, and assisted by the professional staff of the Roman Curia. Most religious orders, such as the Cistercians, Franciscans, Dominicans, and Teutonic Knights, were centralised international organizations. Secular clerics were organised into territorial units known as dioceses, each ruled by a bishop or archbishop. Each diocese was divided into parishes headed by parish priests. They administered most sacraments to the local community of the faithful. These were sacred rites thought to be essential for transferring divine grace to humankind. The Council of Florence fixed their number at seven, declaring baptism, confirmation, marriage, extreme unction, penance, the Eucharist, and priestly ordination as the sacraments of the Catholic Church. Women could not be ordained priests but under exceptional circumstances they could administer baptism or hear confessions. They could also live as nuns in convents after taking the three monastic vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. Pluralism—the practice of holding multiple Church offices, or benefices—was not unusual. This inevitably led to non-residence, as the same cleric could rarely meet his obligations in multiple offices. Non-resident clerics hired other priests to carry out their spiritual duties, but the deputies were often poorly educated and, being underpaid, were eager to extract extra fees from their flock. Aristocrats mainly supported their kins' church career because a bishop, abbot, abbess, or other prelate might possess remarkable wealth. Some of the ecclesiastic leaders were also secular princes, such as the prince-bishops in Germany and the Grand Masters of the Teutonic Knights in their *Ordensstaat* in the Baltic region. Other prelates who held high offices in state administration might be the power behind the throne in several countries. Examples include the Spanish cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros (d. 1517) and the German archbishop Matthäus Lang (d. 1540). ### Papacy The papacy was "Europe's first major international power" (Chris Wickham) although its authority was based on a well organised system of communication and bureaucracy rather than armed forces. Regarding themselves as successors of Peter the Apostle (d. c. 66), the popes claimed the power of binding and loosing that Christ had reportedly granted to Peter, and offered indulgence—the reduction of the penance both in this world and in the Purgatory—to sinners. To strengthen the conceptional basis of this practice, scholastic theologians elaborated the concept of the inexhaustible treasury of merit available to the papacy to distribute among the faithful. The popes could grant dispensations to institutions or individuals, exempting them from certain provisions of canon law. The proclamation of the papal bull *Unam sanctam* marked "the zenith of medieval papal ecclesiastical ambitions" (Alister McGrath) in 1302. In the bull, Pope Boniface VIII (r. 1294–1303) stated that only those who were obedient to the papacy could come to salvation. A year later, French troops arrested the Pope at Anagni, and in 1309, the seat of the papacy was transferred from the chaotic Rome to Avignon. During the period of the Avignon Papacy, the popes assumed control of the appointment of all senior Catholic clergy. This increased papal income as the new bishops, abbots, and other high-ranking clerics paid a fee for their letter of appointment and ceded to the papacy one-third of the income they earned in the first year in their new office. The idea that Rome was the legitimate center of Catholicism never faded away, and Pope Gregory XI (r. 1370–1378) returned his seat to Rome in 1377. Conflicts between his successor Urban VII (r. 1378–1389) and the College of Cardinals developed into the Western Schism when his opponents declared his election invalid and proclaimed the French Clement VII (r. 1378–1394) pope. Clement returned to Avignon, establishing a rival line of popes. In each country, the Church leaders had to take sides between the two popes. They mainly accepted the local ruler's decision which weakened the supranational character of the Catholic Church. To put an end to the schism, cardinals from both sides assembled at Pisa in 1409. They elected a new pope but their decision only exacerbated the problem because his two rivals refused to resign. More prudent preparations paved the way for the Council of Constance under the auspices of the German king Sigismund of Luxemburg (r. 1410–1437). In Constance, one of the three popes resigned, his two rivals were deposed, and the legitimacy of the newly elected pope Martin V (r. 1417–1431) was acknowledged throughout Catholic Europe. The Council of Constance challenged papal supremacy by declaring that the popes owed obedience to the ecumenical councils. Although this idea known as conciliarism was condemned by Pope Pius II (r. 1458–1467) in a papal bull, ecclesiastic and secular leaders often cited it during their conflicts with the papacy. The French Charles VII (r. 1422–1461) went as far as enacting its fundamental principles in the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges in 1438. In Germany, an antipapal document known as *Grievances of the German Nation* was in circulation around 1450, demanding the severance of the links between the local Church and the papacy. Relationships between the papacy and most powerful Catholic rulers were regulated through special agreements known as concordats. These agreements limited papal authority over the national Churches in favor for the local rulers. As princes of the Papal States in Italy, the popes were deeply involved in the power struggles of the peninsula. In this respect, the Renaissance popes were not dissimilar to secular rulers. Pope Alexander VI appointed his relatives, among them his own illegitimate sons to high offices; Pope Julius II (r. 1503–1513) took up arms to recover papal territories lost during his predecessors' reign. The popes were also generous patrons of art and architecture, and Julius II ordered the demolition of the 4th-century St. Peter's Basilica in preparation for the building of a new Renaissance basilica in 1509. ### Church life Latin was the language of public worship in most dioceses of Catholic Europe although few laymen could understand it. The Eucharist, the central element of Christian worship, was also celebrated in Latin. Western Christians believed that the sacramental bread and wine of the Eucharist transformed into the Body and Blood of Christ during the liturgy of the Mass. This belief known as the transubstantiation was defined as a Catholic dogma at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 along with the principle that only validly ordained priests could celebrate the Eucharist. For unknown reasons, laymen only received the sacramental bread during the ceremony from the 13th century. Priests were ordained by bishops in accordance with the principle of apostolic succession—a claim to the uninterrupted transmission of their consecrating power from Christ's Apostles through generations of bishops. Laypeople could express their devotion through activities outsides the churches as well, such as participating in charitable associations known as confraternities, making pilgrimages to the saints' shrines,, or reciting the popular prayer cycle of the Rosary. Based on Christ's parable on the Last Judgement, the Catholic Church taught that the performance of good works, such as feeding the hungry and visiting the sick, was a precondition of salvation. The churches were richly decorated with paintings, sculptures, and stained glass windows. While Romanesque and Gothic art made a clear distinction between the supernatural and the human, Renaissance artists started to depict God and the saints in a more human way from the 14th century. The sources of religious authority included the Bible and its authoritative commentaries, apostolic tradition, decisions by ecumenical councils, scholastic theology, and papal authority. Matters of faith that had not been declared a dogma could be freely discussed. Catholics regarded the Vulgata as the Bible's authentic Latin translation. To resolve contradictions within the Bible, commentators applied several methods of interpretations. For instance, they read the Law of Moses in a symbolic or mystical sense because the Jewish ceremonies and laws were irrelevant for Christians. In the eyes of the faithful, apostolic tradition verified religious practices that could not be traced back to the Bible, such as infant baptism and the observation of Sunday instead of Saturday. The ecumenical councils' theological decisions were binding to all Catholics. The crucial elements of Christian faith were summarised in the Nicene Creed whose basic text had been adopted at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. The western text of the Creed contained an addition that the Eastern Christians had not agreed to which contributed to the rift between Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Scholastic theologians began the systematic study and logical categorization of the unstructured writings of earlier theologians in the 12th century. Among the prominent scholastics, Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) argued that reason could never be at variance with faith, and William of Ockham (d. 1349) concluded that human logic could not prove the existence of God. Legitimate debates among scholastics were not uncommon. For instance, Aquinas rejected the popular concept of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, whereas Duns Scotus (d. 1308) supported it. Church authorities acknowledged that an individual might receive direct revelations from God under exceptional circumstances but maintained that a genuine revelation could not challenge traditional religious principles. A notable example was the Dominican nun Catherine of Siena (d. 1380) whose revelations convinced Pope Gregory XI to return his seat from Avignon to Rome. Origins ------- ### Dissidents After Arianism—a Christological doctrine condemned as heresy at 4th-century general councils—disappeared in the late 7th century, no major disputes menaced the theological unity of the Western Church. Conflicts between religious enthusiasts and the representatives of the official Church could lead to the development of nonconformist groups but most of them disbanded after their founder died. The Waldensians were a notable exception. They had set up their own ecclesiastic organisation by the time their founder Peter Waldo (d. c. 1205) died. They rejected the clerics' monopoly of public ministry and allowed all trained members of their community, men and women alike, to preach. They regarded baptism, marriage and the Eucharist as sacraments, and deplored the grant of indulgences. In contrast with the more radical Cathars of Occitania, the Waldensians survived the anti-heretic crusades and the investigations by specially appointed commissioners of inquiry known as inquisitors, but they had to seek refuge in the mountains of Piedmont and other remote places. The scandalous Western Schism reinforced a general desire for the *reformatio* of the Church. The Oxford theologian John Wycliffe (d. 1384) sharply criticised traditional practices, such as pilgrimages and prayers to the saints. He regarded the Church as an exclusive community of the faithful who were chosen by God to salvation, stating that they owed respect only to priests who showed moral leadership. Wycliffe rejected papal supremacy, and towards the end of his life also attacked the doctrine of transubstantiation. He initiated an English translation of the Bible that was completed by his followers. Known as Lollards, Wycliffe's followers adopted a more radical position, demanding that the Church should renounce endowments and abandon clerical celibacy. They faced serious persecution after the Parliament of England passed a law against heretics that ordered their execution by burning. Despite this, Lollard communities survived in East Anglia, Kent, the valley of the Thames River and the Midlands. Wycliffe's theology, particularly his teaching about sinful priests had a marked impact on the Prague academic Jan Hus (d. 1415). A popular preacher at the Bethlehem Chapel, he was preaching against the wealth and temporal power of the clergy. After publishing his treatise *On the Church*, he was summoned to Constance to defend his views before the ecumenical council. Although Sigismund of Luxemburg had granted him safe conduct, Hus was sentenced to death for heresy and burned at the stake on 6 July 1415. His execution led to a nationwide movement in Bohemia although his followers were divided into a moderate and a radical wing. The moderate Hussites, mainly Czech aristocrats and academics, were known as Utraquists for they offered the sacramental wine to the laymen during the Mass, stating that the Eucharist be administered *sub utraque specie* ("in both kinds"). The radicals, mainly guildsmen and peasants, established a new town, Tábor, where they held their property in common. Henceforth known as Taborites, the radicals assumed the leadership of the Hussite movement during the crusades that the papacy proclaimed against Bohemia but their millenarian missionary fervour prevented them from consolidating their position. From 1435, the Utraquist Jan Rokycana (d. 1471) held the Archbishopric of Prague, and from 1458, the Utraquist George of Poděbrady (d. 1471) ruled as king. Although none of them were acknowledged by the papacy, their rule consolidated the Utraquists' dominant position in Bohemia. By this time, almost exclusively the German-speaking communities and some free royal cities remained loyal to the papacy. Moderate Hussites were distinguished from the Catholics mainly by the administration of the Eucharist in both kinds and the use of the Czech vernacular in liturgy. More radical Hussites set up their own Church known as the Union of Bohemian Brethren under the spiritual guidance of the writer Petr Chelčický (d. c. 1460). They rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation and the idea of a separate priestly class, and condemned all forms of violence and oath taking. As no new archbishop was elected after Rokycana's death, the Utraquist priests were sent to the tolerant Catholic city of Venice to be ordained. The absence of a local Church hierarchy reinforced the control of the aristocracy and urban leaders over the Bohemian clergy. According to the historian Peter Marshall, the Lollards and the Hussites along with the conciliarist clerics "collectively give the lie to any suggestion that torpor and complacency were the hallmarks of religious life in the century before Martin Luther." Historians customarily refer to Wycliffe and Hus as "Forerunners of the Reformation". The two reformers' emphasis on the study of the Bible as the sole source of theology is often cited as an early example of the idea *sola scriptura* ("by the Scriptures alone") that became one of the basic principles of the Reformation. In fact, prominent scholastic theologians had been convinced that the Bible summarized all knowledge necessary for salvation already before the late medieval dissident movements began. Scholastic theologians associated with the Augustinian Order such as Gregory of Rimini (d. 1358) put a special emphasis on Biblical studies and rarely cited other sources of faith. ### Humanism The Late Middle Ages saw the development of a new intellectual movement known as Humanism. The Humanists' slogan *ad fontes!* ("back to the sources!") demonstrated their enthusiasm for classical texts and textual criticism. The rise of the Ottoman Empire led to the mass immigration of Byzantine scholars to Western Europe, and many of them brought Greek manuscripts containing ancient works previously unknown to western scholarship. These included philosophical works of the Greek philosopher Plato (d. 347/348 BC) and a collection of treatises on various subjects known as the *Corpus Hermeticum*. The rediscovery of Plato and his ideas about an ultimate reality laying beyond visible reality posed a serious challenge to medieval scholasticism and its rigorous definitions. Some treatises in the *Corpus Hermeticum* discussed Gnostic ideas that attempted to synchronize Platonism with Christianity. Textual criticism called into question the reliability of some of the fundamental texts of Catholic doctrine. The Humanist scholars Nicholas of Cusa (d. 1464), Lorenzo Valla (d. 1457), and Reginald Pecock (d. c. 1461) proved that one of the basic documents of papal authority, the allegedly 4th-century *Donation of Constantine* was actually a medieval forgery; Juan Luis Vives (d. 1540) did not hide his contempt of the popular hagiographic collection known as the *Golden Legend*, describing it as a book "written by men with mouths of iron and hearts of lead". Completed by Jerome (d. 420) in the early 5th century, the Vulgata contained the Septaguint version of the Old Testament that included books with no parallel Hebrew texts. As different copies of the Vulgata might contain slightly different phrases, scholars used Hebrew, Greek and Syriac manuscripts to restore the authentic wording. A polyglott version of the complete Bible was published under the auspices of Cardinal Jiménez in Spain in 1517. The systematic study of the Bible revealed that Jerome sometimes misinterpreted his sources of translation. Valla was the first scholar to demonstrate that Jerome's incorrect translations laid the foundation for some ideas developed by renowned theologians such as Aquinas. The erudite Dutch Humanist Erasmus (d. 1536) completed a critical edition of the New Testament, and his new Latin translation challenged the scriptural basis for some Catholic dogmas and practices. He threatened the concept of the treasury of merit by choosing the adjective *gratiosa* ("gracious") instead of the traditional *gratia plena* ("full of grace") to address the Virgin Mary in the Latin text of the *Hail Mary*. Erasmus also attacked the allegorical interpretation of Biblical texts. For example, he rejected that a reference to Jesus's obedience to his parents in the Gospel of Luke could be interpreted that Jesus still owed obedience to his mother, thus indirectly challenging the belief in the intercession by the Virgin. New religious movements promoted the deeper involvement of laity in religious practices. The Brethren of the Common Life dissuaded their members from receiving priestly ordination and often placed their and their sisters' houses under the protection of urban authorities. They were closely associated with the *devotio moderna*, a new method of Catholic spirituality with a special emphasis on the education of laypeople. A leader of the movement the Dutch Wessel Gansfort (d. 1489) attacked abuses of indulgences and stated that a professor of Biblical studies could better understand the Scriptures than untrained clerics. With the spread of the manufacturing of paper from rags and the printing machine with movable type in Europe from the 15th century, books could be bought at a reasonable price which improved laypeople's reading skills. Demand for religious literature was especially high. The German inventor Johannes Gutenberg (d. 1468) first published a two-volume version of the Vulgate in the early 1450s; it was republished several times which made the Latin text of the Bible the most frequently published book in the century. The Bible was translated to vernacular: High and Low German, Italian, Dutch, Spanish, Czech and Catalan translations of the Bible were published between 1466 and 1492; in France, the Bible's abridged French versions gained popularity in the 1470s. By studying their Bibles, laypeople could come to the conclusion that the maintenance of the Church organization was unnecessary for their salvation. Already in 1515, some of them started to challenge their priests' sermons stating that "In my book it is different from what the preacher says". ### Failed reforms The necessity of a Church reform *in capite et membris* ("in head and limbs") was frequently discussed at the ecumenical councils from the late 13th century. With the emergence of conciliarism in the early 15th century, this notion transformed into a demand for the replacement of papal authority with a collective control over the Catholic Church. However, most stakeholders—popes, prelates and monarchs—preferred the *status quo* because they did not want to loose their privileges and revenues. The system of papal dispensations became a principal obstacle to the implementation of reformist measures as the Holy See regularly granted immunities to those who did not want to execute them. Reform movements within regular clergy had some significant successes with the spread of the so-called "congregations of strict observance". These were monastic communities that returned to the strict interpretation of their order's monastic rule. Reformist bishops tried to discipline their clergy through regular canonical visitations in the local parishes and by issuing exhortations to errant clergymen. Their attempts mainly failed as they could hardly overcome the resistance of autonomous institutions such as cathedral chapters. Neither could they exercise real authority over non-resident clerics who had received a benefice from the Holy See. After the failure of conciliarism, most reformist clerics refrained from demanding structural changes; instead, they criticised the clergy's moral failings mainly repeating phrases borrowed from 12th- and 13th-century reformers' works. On the eve of the Reformation, the Fifth Council of the Lateran was the last occasion when efforts to introduce a far-reaching reform from above could have achieved. It was convoked by Pope Julius II in 1512 in response to attempts by the French king Louis XI (r. 1498–1515) to revive conciliarism with the support of a group of cardinals. The assembled prelates discussed sophisticated treatises on the necessity of reform but they failed to introduce fundamental changes. The council made no important decisions, and was dissolved in 1517. Beginnings ---------- ### Ninety-Five Theses Pope Leo X (r. 1513–1521) decided to complete the construction of the new St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. As the sale of certificates of papal indulgences had been a well-established method of fund raising, he proclaimed the papal bull *Sacrosanctis* announcing new indulgences and suspending the promotion of previous ones in 1515. On the advice of the banker Jakob Fugger (d. 1525), he appointed the German pluralist prelate Albert of Brandenburg (d. 1545) to supervise the sale campaign in Germany. The Dominican friar Johann Tetzel (d. 1519), a leading figure in the campaign, applied unusually aggressive marketing methods. One of his slogans famously claimed that "As soon as the coin into the box rings, a soul from purgatory to heaven springs". The campaign's vulgarity shocked most serious-minded believers. Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony (r. 1486–1525), forbade the campaign because Albert was his rival, and the suspension of other indulgences deprived him of a significant part of the revenues that he had spent on his collection of relics in Wittenberg. Martin Luther (d. 1546), a professor of theology at the newly established University of Wittenberg in Saxony, was among those whom Tetzel's campaign outraged. Born into a middle-class family, Luther entered the Augustinians' monastery in Erfurt after a heavy thunderstorm dreadfully reminded him the risk of sudden death and eternal damnation. Although he followed the strictest interpretation of the Augustinians' rules, his anxiety about his sinfulness did not abate. Throughout his life, he suffered from headaches, earaches, fainting, and digestive problems. Retrospectively, he would state that these symptoms—that he described as "temptations"—proved that the Devil was fighting him. He started his lectures on Biblical texts at the Wittenberg University in 1513. His studies of the works of the Late Roman theologian Augustine of Hippo (d. 430), particularly *On the Spirit and the Letter* convinced him that those whom God chose as his elect received a gift of faith independently of their sinful acts. He sharply denounced the scholastic idea of justification before God through human efforts in his *Disputatio contra scholasticam theologiam*, published in September 1517. He declared that "we are not made righteous by doing righteous deeds; but when we have been made righteous we effect righteous deeds". Luther on the Christian struggles toward God > > Christians should be exhorted to seek earnestly to follow Christ, their Head, through penalties, deaths, hells. And let them thus be more confident of entering heaven through many tribulations rather than through a false assurance of peace. > > > Martin Luther, *Ninety-Five Theses* On 31 October 1517, Luther addressed a letter to Albert of Brandenburg, stating that the clerics preaching the St. Peter's indulgences were deceiving the faithful. He had completed a discussion paper, known as *Ninety-Five Theses*, and also sent it to the archbishop. In this document, he attacked the concept of Purgatory, and questioned the efficiency of indulgences for the dead. On the other hand, he stated "If ... indulgences were preached according to the spirit and intention of the pope, all ... doubts would be readily resolved". His fellow academics received the discussion paper from him privately. Its first printed editions were published likely without his consent in Leipzig, Magdeburg, Nuremberg, and Basle in November. Archbishop Albert ordered the theologians at the University of Mainz to examine Luther's theses, and forwarded the case to the Roman Curia for judgement. Tetzel, and the theologians Konrad Wimpina (d. 1531) and Johann Eck (d. 1543) were the first to criticise Luther in public, associating some of his theses with Hussitism. Deeply involved in Italian politics, Pope Leo X (r. 1513–1521) remained uninterested in Luther's case. He described it as "a quarrel among friars" in reference to the well-known feud between the Augustinians and Dominicans. ### New theology As the historian Lyndal Roper notes, the "Reformation proceeded by a set of debates and arguments". Initially, Luther's views were spreading primarily through debates within the Augustinian Order. His fellow friars tended to symphatise with him especially after the Dominicans' hostility became obvious. Luther presented his views in public at the assembly of the congregation of observant Augustinians in Heidelberg on 26 April 1518. Here he explained his "theology of the Cross" about a loving God who had become frail and foolish to save fallen humanity, contrasting it with the scholastic "theology of glory" that celebrated erudition and human acts. With his fortright and spirited speech, Luther convinced many of those who attended the assembly which contributed to the favorable reception of his ideas in southwestern Germany. The historian Thomas Kaufmann notes that students were especially effective "mobile agents in the distribution of Reformation ideas." Pope Leo appointed the jurist Girolamo Ghinucci (d. 1541) and the Dominican theologian Sylvester Mazzolini (d. 1527) to inspect Luther's teaching. Mazzolini published a response to Luther's theses, titled *Dialogue Against the Arrogant Theses of Martin Luther Concerning the Power of the Pope*. He argued that Luther had questioned papal authority by attacking the indulgences. Mazzolini's approach first frightened Luther but he soon realised that only a fundamental reform could put an end to the sale indulgences that he regarded as an abuse. Pope Leo did not excommunicate Luther because he did not want to alienate Luther's patron Frederick the Wise. Instead, he appointed the General of the Dominicans Cardinal Thomas Cajetan (d. 1534) to convince Luther to withdraw some of his theses but Luther resisted with obstinacy during their meeting at Augsburg in October 1518. The historian Berndt Hamm argues that Luther's interrogation by Cajetan was the "historical point at which the opposition between the Reformation and Catholicism first emerged", as Cajetan feared that believers who thought that they were destined to salvation would no more obey clerics. Luther first expressed his sympathy for Jan Hus at a disputation in Leipzig in June 1519. Here he also stated that ecumenical councils and the papacy could err in matters of faith. His theology quickly developed in the subsequent period. In his Latin treatise *On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church*, he concluded that only baptism and the Eucharist could be regarded as sacraments because other Catholic sacred rites had no biblical foundations. He stated that priests could not be viewed as a special cast but only servants of the community hence they became called ministers from the Latin word for servant. His German manifesto *To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation* associated the papacy with the Antichrist, and described the official Church as "the worst whorehouse of all whorehouses" in reference to the huge amount of cash flowing from Germany to the Roman Curia in the form of fees. His study *On the Freedom of a Christian* consolidated his thoughts about the inner freedom of believers with their obligation to care for their neighbours although he rejected the traditional teaching about good works. This work is a characteristic example of Luther's enthusiasm for paradoxes. *Ein' feste Burg ist unser Gott* ("A Mighty Fortress Is Our God") sung in German The German text of Luther's hymn *Ein' feste Burg ist unser Gott* sung to the isometric, more widely known arrangement of its traditional melody. --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* Luther's case was reopened in Rome. Cajetan, Eck and other papal officials drafted a papal bull that condemned Luther and his 41 theses. Published on 15 June 1520, the bull *Exsurge Domine* offered a 60-day-long grace period to Luther to recant before his excommunication came into force. The bull caused widespread outrage in Germany and its copies were vandalised at many places. The papal nuncio Girolamo Aleandro (d. 1542) ordered the burning of Luther's books at Louvain and Liège. In response, Luther and his followers burned a copy of the *Exsurge Domine* along with works by scholastic theologians, and a copy of the *Corpus Juris Canonici*—the fundamental document of medieval ecclesiastic law—on the banks of the river Elbe at Wittenberg on 10 December. The students celebrated the burning of the papal bull with a parade where they also burnt a papal tiara. Luther made use of their radicalism but also tried to keep a safe distance from it: a printed leaflet about the events emphasized that no professor had attended the students' parade. The papal bull of Luther's excommunication called *Decet Romanum Pontificem* was published on 3 January 1521. The newly elected Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (r. 1519–1556) wanted to outlaw Luther at the Diet of Worms, but he could not make the decision alone, as the Holy Roman Empire was a loose confederation of principalities, prince-bishoprics, free imperial cities and other secular and ecclesiastic states. Elected by the seven prince-electors, the Holy Roman Emperor was the nominal ruler of the confederation but real authority rested with the Imperial Diets where the Imperial Estates assembled. Frederick the Wise vetoed the emperor's proposal about an imperial ban againt Luther. Instead, Luther was summoned to Worms to defend his case at the Diet in April 1521. Here he was warned to recant but refused stating that only arguments from the Bible could convince him that his works contained errors. To save Luther's life but also to hide his involvement, Frederick the Wise arranged Luther's abduction on 4 May. Luther was taken to Frederick's castle of Wartburg. During his staged captivity, Luther completed the translation of the New Testament into High German. The historian Diarmaid MacCulloch describes Luther's translation as an "extraordinary achievement that has shaped the German language ever since", adding that "Luther's gift was for seizing the emotion with sudden, urgent phrases". Luther also composed religious hymns that were first published in collections in 1524. ### Spread Roper argues that "the most important reason why Luther did not meet with Hus's fate" (namely, burning at the stake) "was technology: the new medium of print". Luther was publishing his views in a series of short but pungent treatises that gained unexpected popularity: he was responsible for about one-fifth of all works printed in Germany in the first third of the 16th century. While printing presses were concentrated in a few urban centers in most European countries, in Germany they were scattered which prevented their control by central authorities. Statistical analysis indicates a significant positive correlation between the presence of a printing press in a city and the adoption of Reformation. Reformation literature was published at greater levels in cities where printing markets were more competitive, making these cities more likely to accept new theologies. Luther worked with the artist Lucas Cranach the Elder (d. 1553), who had a keen sense of visualising Luther's and his followers' message. Cranach produced Luther's idealised portrait that set a template for further popular images printed on the covers of books and put on medals made for sale. Cranach's woodcuts for the *Passional of Christ and Antichrist*, a work written by Luther's co-worker Philip Melanchthon (d. 1560), contrasted scenes from Christ's life with the popes' luxurious lifestyle on opposing pages. The woodcuts together with itinerant preachers' explanations helped the mainly illiterate people to understand Luther's teaching. Pamphlets were carried from towns to towns mainly by travellers such as peddlers and merchants. Printed copies of the *Ninety-Fine Theses* reached as far as Spain, France and Italy already in 1519. Cities located closer to the ideological centers of the Reformation—Wittenberg and Basle—adopted the Reformation more likely than other towns, either indicating the significance of student networks, or showing that proximity to neighbours who had rejected Catholicism increased the likelihood of adopting the Reformation. Regions that were poor but had great economic potential and less effective political institutions were more likely to adopt Protestantism. Laypeople started to discuss and question various aspects of religion both in private and in public all over Germany. Reformation spread primarily in the towns through the activities of enthusiastic preachers such as Johannes Oecolampadius (d. 1531) and Konrad Kürsner (d. 1556) in Basle, Sebastian Hofmeister (d. 1533) in Schaffhausen, and Matthäus Zell (d. 1548) and Martin Bucer (d. 1551) in Strasbourg. They quickly convinced several laypeople that many of the well-established practices of the traditinal Church contradicted the Bible. They read excerpts from Luther's translation of the New Testament, and offered the Eucharist to the laity in both kinds. They denied the monopolies of the official Church and took advantage of popular anticlericalism. It was not unusual that their supporters attacked priests, monks and churches. Initially, the urban magistrates were typically unsympathetic towards the reformist pastors, but as the number of their flock was growing the magistrates started to cooperate with them. Emperor Charles V was determined to defend the interests of the Catholic Church but his authority was extremly limited outside the Habsburgs' domains. Furthermore, the Ottoman expansion towards Central Europe intensified: the Ottomans captured Belgrade in 1521, inflicted a decisive defeat on the Hungarian army in 1526, and laid siege to Vienna for the first time in 1529. Ottoman incursions decreased conflicts between the Christian powers and hindered the emperor's attempts to fight against the supporters of Reformation. The following supply-side factors have been identified as causes of the Reformation: * Greater political autonomy increased the likelihood that Protestantism would be adopted. * Where Protestant reformers enjoyed princely patronage, they were much more likely to succeed. The following demand-side factors have been identified as causes of the Reformation: * Cities with strong cults of saints were less likely to adopt Protestantism. * Cities where primogeniture was practised were less likely to adopt Protestantism. * The presence of bishoprics made the adoption of Protestantism less likely. * The presence of monasteries made the adoption of Protestantism less likely. A 2020 study linked the spread of Protestantism to personal ties to Luther (e.g. letter correspondents, visits, former students) and trade routes. ### Radicalisation During Luther's absence, his co-workers assumed the leadership in Wittenberg. Melanchthon consolidated Luther's thoughts into a coherent theological work titled *Loci communes* ("Common Places") that was first published in 1521. Andreas Karlstadt (d. 1541) was more radical. On Chistmas Day 1521, he administered the Eucharist in common garment instead of priestly vestments; the next day he announced his engagement to a fifteen-year-old girl. Karlstadt proclaimed that all religious images were examples of "devilish deceit", which caused the mass destruction of pictures and sculptures in the local churches. Religious enthusiasts were swarming to Wittenberg from the nearby regions. Among them, the so-called Zwickau prophets who had been encited by the radical preacher Thomas Müntzer (d. 1525) claimed that they received revelations from God. They rejected the concept of transubstantiation and stated that infant baptism lacked Biblical foundations. To put an end to the anarchy, Frederick the Wise released Luther in March. Luther called the Zwickau prophets *Schwärmer* ("fanatics"), and achieved their removal from Wittenberg. He regarded infant baptism as a sign of membership in the Christian Church, insisted on the idea of transubstantiation, and defended religious art as a proof of the beauty of the Creation. On the other hand, he rejected clerical celibacy, and married the former nun Katharina von Bora (d. 1552). Although Luther condemned the application of violence, some of his followers were ready to take up arms for the reform of the Church. Franz von Sickingen (d. 1523), an imperial knight from the Rhineland, formed an alliance with his peers against Richard von Greiffenklau zu Vollrads, Archbishop-elector of Trier (r. 1511–1531), declaring that they wanted to lead the archbishop's subjects "to evangelical, light laws and Christian freedom". They besieged Trier but failed, and Sickingen was mortally wounded during the siege of his own castle by the troops of Greiffenklau and his allies. Luther was not the only opponent of traditional theology. The Swiss Humanist priest Huldrych Zwingli (d. 1531) would claim that he "began to preach the Gospel of Christ in 1516 long before anyone in our region had ever heard of Luther". Just like Luther, Zwingli rejected the authority of the papacy and the ecumenical councils, and regarded the Bible as the sole source of theology. He came to prominence due to the "Affair of the Sausages" when he attended a meal of sausages in Zürich in Lent 1522, breaching the rules of fasting. He married secretly and, along with ten other clergymen, approached the bishop of Constance to sanction clerical marriage even though they knew that the bishop had no choice but to reject their petition. The local urban magistrates defended Zwingli against the bishop, and with their support he introduced further radical changes in Zürich's ecclesiastic life. In 1524, all images were removed from the churches, and fasting and clerical celibacy were abolished. Two years later, a German communion service replaced the Latin liturgy of the Mass. The close cooperation between the reformist clergy and the urban magistrates brought about the establishment of two new institutions that would be adopted in other towns. The *Prophezei* was a public theological school where scholars, priests, and laymen listened lectures from the Bible; the Marriage and Morals Court was a legal court consisting of two laymen and two clerics with a jurisdiction over marriage affairs but also acted as a moral police. Although the German Peasants' War of 1524–1525 began as a tax and anti-corruption protest as reflected in the Twelve Articles, its leader, Thomas Müntzer, gave it a radical Reformation character. It swept through the Bavarian, Thuringian, and Swabian principalities. Among the combatants was the Black Company of Florian Geier, a knight from Giebelstadt who had joined the peasants in the general outrage against the Catholic hierarchy. In response to reports about the destruction and violence, Luther condemned the revolt in writings such as *Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants*; Zwingli and Melanchthon also did not condone the uprising. Some 100,000 peasants were killed by the end of the war. ### Radical Reformation The Radical Reformation was the response to what was believed to be the corruption in both the Roman Catholic Church and the Magisterial Reformation. Beginning in Germany and Switzerland in the 16th century, the Radical Reformation developed radical Protestant churches throughout Europe. The term includes Thomas Müntzer, Andreas Karlstadt, the Zwickau prophets, and Anabaptists like the Hutterites and Mennonites. In parts of Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, a majority sympathised with the Radical Reformation despite intense persecution. Although the surviving proportion of the European population that rebelled against Catholic, Lutheran and Zwinglian churches was small, Radical Reformers wrote profusely and the literature on the Radical Reformation is disproportionately large, partly as a result of the proliferation of the Radical Reformation teachings in the United States. Despite significant diversity among the early Radical Reformers, some "repeating patterns" emerged among many Anabaptist groups. Many of these patterns were enshrined in the *Schleitheim Confession* (1527) and include believers' (or adult) baptism, memorial view of the Lord's Supper, belief that Scripture is the final authority on matters of faith and practice, emphasis on the New Testament and the Sermon on the Mount, interpretation of Scripture in community, separation from the world and a two-kingdom theology, pacifism and nonresistance, communal ownership and economic sharing, belief in the freedom of the will, non-swearing of oaths, "yieldedness" (*Gelassenheit*) to one's community and to God, the ban (i.e., shunning), salvation through divinization (*Vergöttung*) and ethical living, and discipleship (*Nachfolge Christi*). ### Literacy The Protestant Reformation was a triumph of literacy and the new printing press. Luther's translation of the Bible into High German (the New Testament was published in 1522; the Old Testament was published in parts and completed in 1534) was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from Early New High German to Modern Standard German. Luther's translation of the Bible promoted the development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area. The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy in early modern Germany, and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded Germany and much of Europe. By 1530, over 10,000 publications are known, with a total of ten million copies. The Reformation was thus a media revolution. Luther strengthened his attacks on Rome by depicting a "good" against "bad" church. From there, it became clear that print could be used for propaganda in the Reformation for particular agendas, although the term propaganda derives from the Catholic *Congregatio de Propaganda Fide* (*Congregation for Propagating the Faith*) from the Counter-Reformation. Reform writers used existing styles, cliches and stereotypes which they adapted as needed. Especially effective were writings in German, including Luther's translation of the Bible, his Smaller Catechism for parents teaching their children, and his Larger Catechism, for pastors. Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. Illustrations in the German Bible and in many tracts popularised Luther's ideas. Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472–1553), the great painter patronised by the electors of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Luther, and he illustrated Luther's theology for a popular audience. He dramatised Luther's views on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, while remaining mindful of Luther's careful distinctions about proper and improper uses of visual imagery. Reformation in Germany ---------------------- Political situation in Germany about 1560Religious situation in Germany and Europe about 1560 In 1517, Luther nailed the *Ninety-five theses* to the Castle Church door, and without his knowledge or prior approval, they were copied and printed across Germany and internationally. Different reformers arose more or less independently of Luther in 1518 (for example Andreas Karlstadt, Philip Melanchthon, Erhard Schnepf, Johannes Brenz and Martin Bucer) and in 1519 (for example Huldrych Zwingli, Nikolaus von Amsdorf, Ulrich von Hutten), and so on. After the Heidelberg Disputation (1518) where Luther described the Theology of the Cross as opposed to the Theology of Glory and the Leipzig Disputation (1519), the faith issues were brought to the attention of other German theologians throughout the Empire. Each year drew new theologians to embrace the Reformation and participate in the ongoing, European-wide discussion about faith. The pace of the Reformation proved unstoppable by 1520. The early Reformation in Germany mostly concerns the life of Martin Luther until he was excommunicated by Pope Leo X on 3 January 1521, in the bull *Decet Romanum Pontificem*. The exact moment Martin Luther realised the key doctrine of Justification by Faith is described in German as the *Turmerlebnis*. In *Table Talk*, Luther describes it as a sudden realization. Experts often speak of a gradual process of realization between 1514 and 1518. Reformation ideas and Protestant church services were first introduced in cities, being supported by local citizens and also some nobles. The Reformation did not receive overt state support until 1525, although it was only due to the protection of Elector Frederick the Wise (who had a strange dream the night prior to 31 October 1517) that Luther survived after being declared an outlaw, in hiding at Wartburg Castle and then returning to Wittenberg. It was more of a movement among the German people between 1517 and 1525, and then also a political one beginning in 1525. Reformer Adolf Clarenbach was burned at the stake near Cologne in 1529. The first state to formally adopt a Protestant confession was the Duchy of Prussia (1525). Albert, Duke of Prussia formally declared the "Evangelical" faith to be the state religion. Catholics labeled self-identified Evangelicals "Lutherans" to discredit them after the practice of naming a heresy after its founder. However, the Lutheran Church traditionally sees itself as the "main trunk of the historical Christian Tree" founded by Christ and the Apostles, holding that during the Reformation, the Church of Rome fell away. Ducal Prussia was followed by many imperial free cities and other minor imperial entities. The next sizable territories were the Landgraviate of Hesse (1526; at the Synod of Homberg) and the Electorate of Saxony (1527; Luther's homeland), Electoral Palatinate (1530s), and the Duchy of Württemberg (1534). For a more complete list, see the list of states by the date of adoption of the Reformation and the table of the adoption years for the Augsburg Confession. The reformation wave swept first the Holy Roman Empire, and then extended beyond it to the rest of the European continent. Germany was home to the greatest number of Protestant reformers. Each state which turned Protestant had their own reformers who contributed towards the *Evangelical* faith. In Electoral Saxony the Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Saxony was organised and served as an example for other states, although Luther was not dogmatic on questions of polity. Reformation outside Germany --------------------------- The Reformation also spread widely throughout Europe, starting with Bohemia, in the Czech lands, and, over the next few decades, to other countries. ### Austria Austria followed the same pattern as the German-speaking states within the Holy Roman Empire, and Lutheranism became the main Protestant confession among its population. Lutheranism gained a significant following in the eastern half of present-day Austria, while Calvinism was less successful. Eventually the expulsions of the Counter-Reformation reversed the trend. ### Switzerland In Switzerland, the teachings of the reformers and especially those of Zwingli and Calvin had a profound effect, despite frequent quarrels between the different branches of the Reformation. #### Huldrych Zwingli Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in the Swiss Confederation under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli. Zwingli was a scholar and preacher who moved to Zürich—the then-leading city state—in 1518, a year after Martin Luther began the Reformation in Germany with his Ninety-five Theses. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, as the recently introduced printing press spread ideas rapidly from place to place, some unresolved differences kept them separate. Long-standing resentment between the German states and the Swiss Confederation led to heated debate over how much Zwingli owed his ideas to Lutheranism. Although Zwinglianism does hold uncanny resemblance to Lutheranism (it even had its own equivalent of the *Ninety-five Theses*, called the 67 Conclusions), historians have been unable to prove that Zwingli had any contact with Luther's publications before 1520, and Zwingli himself maintained that he had prevented himself from reading them. The German Prince Philip of Hesse saw potential in creating an alliance between Zwingli and Luther, seeing strength in a united Protestant front. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as the Colloquy of Marburg, which has become infamous for its complete failure. The two men could not come to any agreement due to their disputation over one key doctrine. Although Luther preached consubstantiation in the Eucharist over transubstantiation, he believed in the real presence of Christ in the Communion bread. Zwingli, inspired by Dutch theologian Cornelius Hoen, believed that the Communion bread was only representative and memorial—Christ was not present. Luther became so angry that he famously carved into the meeting table in chalk *Hoc Est Corpus Meum*—a Biblical quotation from the Last Supper meaning "This is my body". Zwingli countered this saying that *est* in that context was the equivalent of the word *significat* (signifies). Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative and moved independently toward more radical positions, some of which survive among modern day Anabaptists. One famous incident illustrating this was when radical Zwinglians fried and ate sausages during Lent in the Zurich city square by way of protest against the Church teaching of good works. Other Protestant movements grew up along the lines of mysticism or humanism (cf. Erasmus and Louis de Berquin who was martyred in 1529), sometimes breaking from Rome or from the Protestants, or forming outside of the churches. #### John Calvin Following the excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various churches in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. After the expulsion of its Bishop in 1526, and the unsuccessful attempts of the Berne reformer Guillaume (William) Farel, Calvin was asked to use the organisational skill he had gathered as a student of law to discipline the "fallen city" of Geneva. His "Ordinances" of 1541 involved a collaboration of Church affairs with the City council and consistory to bring morality to all areas of life. After the establishment of the Geneva academy in 1559, Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, providing refuge for Protestant exiles from all over Europe and educating them as Calvinist missionaries. These missionaries dispersed Calvinism widely, and formed the French Huguenots in Calvin's own lifetime and spread to Scotland under the leadership of John Knox in 1560. Anne Locke translated some of Calvin's writings to English around this time. The faith continued to spread after Calvin's death in 1563 and reached as far as Constantinople by the start of the 17th century. The Reformation foundations engaged with Augustinianism. Both Luther and Calvin thought along lines linked with the theological teachings of Augustine of Hippo. The Augustinianism of the Reformers struggled against Pelagianism, a heresy that they perceived in the Catholic Church of their day. Ultimately, since Calvin and Luther disagreed strongly on certain matters of theology (such as double-predestination and Holy Communion), the relationship between Lutherans and Calvinists was one of conflict. ### Nordic countries All of Scandinavia ultimately adopted Lutheranism over the course of the 16th century, as the monarchs of Denmark (who also ruled Norway and Iceland) and Sweden (who also ruled Finland) converted to that faith. #### Sweden In Sweden, the Reformation was spearheaded by Gustav Vasa, elected king in 1523, with major contributions by Olaus Petri, a Swedish clergyman. Friction with the pope over the latter's interference in Swedish ecclesiastical affairs led to the discontinuance of any official connection between Sweden and the papacy since 1523. Four years later, at the Diet of Västerås, the king succeeded in forcing the diet to accept his dominion over the national church. The king was given possession of all church property, church appointments required royal approval, the clergy were subject to the civil law, and the "pure Word of God" was to be preached in the churches and taught in the schools—effectively granting official sanction to Lutheran ideas. The apostolic succession was retained in Sweden during the Reformation. The adoption of Lutheranism was also one of the main reasons for the eruption of the Dacke War, a peasants uprising in Småland. #### Denmark Under the reign of Frederick I (1523–33), Denmark remained officially Catholic. Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, yet he quickly adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers, of whom the most famous was Hans Tausen. During his reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads among the Danish population. In 1526, Frederick forbade papal investiture of bishops in Denmark and in 1527 ordered fees from new bishops be paid to the crown, making Frederick the head of the church of Denmark. Frederick's son, Christian, was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his father's death. In 1536, following his victory in the Count's War, he became king as Christian III and continued the Reformation of the state church with assistance from Johannes Bugenhagen. By the Copenhagen recess of October 1536, the authority of the Catholic bishops was terminated. #### Iceland Luther's influence had already reached Iceland before King Christian's decree. The Germans fished near Iceland's coast, and the Hanseatic League engaged in commerce with the Icelanders. These Germans raised a Lutheran church in Hafnarfjörður as early as 1533. Through German trade connections, many young Icelanders studied in Hamburg. In 1538, when the kingly decree of the new Church ordinance reached Iceland, bishop Ögmundur and his clergy denounced it, threatening excommunication for anyone subscribing to the German "heresy". In 1539, the King sent a new governor to Iceland, Klaus von Mervitz, with a mandate to introduce reform and take possession of church property. Von Mervitz seized a monastery in Viðey with the help of his sheriff, Dietrich of Minden, and his soldiers. They drove the monks out and seized all their possessions, for which they were promptly excommunicated by Ögmundur. ### United Kingdom #### England ##### Church of England The separation of the Church of England from Rome under Henry VIII, beginning in 1529 and completed in 1537, brought England alongside this broad Reformation movement. Although Robert Barnes attempted to get Henry VIII to adopt Lutheran theology, he refused to do so in 1538 and burned him at the stake in 1540. Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for decades, between sympathies between Catholic tradition and Reformed principles, gradually developing, within the context of robustly Protestant doctrine, a tradition considered a middle way (*via media*) between the Catholic and Protestant traditions. The English Reformation followed a different course from the Reformation in continental Europe. There had long been a strong strain of anti-clericalism. England had already given rise to the Lollard movement of John Wycliffe, which played an important part in inspiring the Hussites in Bohemia. Lollardy was suppressed and became an underground movement, so the extent of its influence in the 1520s is difficult to assess. The different character of the English Reformation came rather from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII. Henry had once been a sincere Catholic and had even authored a book strongly criticising Luther. His wife, Catherine of Aragon, bore him only a single child who survived infancy, Mary. Henry strongly wanted a male heir, and many of his subjects might have agreed, if only because they wanted to avoid another dynastic conflict like the Wars of the Roses. Refused an annulment of his marriage to Catherine, King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognised Henry as "the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England". Between 1535 and 1540, under Thomas Cromwell, the policy known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries was put into effect. The veneration of some saints, certain pilgrimages and some pilgrim shrines were also attacked. Huge amounts of church land and property passed into the hands of the Crown and ultimately into those of the nobility and gentry. The vested interest thus created made for a powerful force in support of the dissolution. There were some notable opponents to the Henrician Reformation, such as Thomas More and Cardinal John Fisher, who were executed for their opposition. There was also a growing party of reformers who were imbued with the Calvinistic, Lutheran and Zwinglian doctrines then current on the Continent. When Henry died he was succeeded by his Protestant son Edward VI, who, through his empowered councilors (with the King being only nine years old at his succession and fifteen at his death) the Duke of Somerset and the Duke of Northumberland, ordered the destruction of images in churches, and the closing of the chantries. Under Edward VI the Church of England moved closer to continental Protestantism. Yet, at a popular level, religion in England was still in a state of flux. Following a brief Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary (1553–1558), a loose consensus developed during the reign of Elizabeth I, though this point is one of considerable debate among historians. This "Elizabethan Religious Settlement" largely formed Anglicanism into a distinctive church tradition. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on one hand and Catholicism on the other. But compared to the bloody and chaotic state of affairs in contemporary France, it was relatively successful, in part because Queen Elizabeth lived so long, until the Puritan Revolution or English Civil War in the seventeenth century. ##### English dissenters The success of the Counter-Reformation on the Continent and the growth of a Puritan party dedicated to further Protestant reform polarised the Elizabethan Age, although it was not until the 1640s that England underwent religious strife comparable to what its neighbours had suffered some generations before. The early *Puritan movement* (late 16th–17th centuries) was Reformed (or Calvinist) and was a movement for reform in the Church of England. Its origins lay in the discontent with the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. The desire was for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially Geneva. The Puritans objected to ornaments and ritual in the churches as idolatrous (vestments, surplices, organs, genuflection), calling the vestments "popish pomp and rags" (see Vestments controversy). They also objected to ecclesiastical courts. Their refusal to endorse completely all of the ritual directions and formulas of the *Book of Common Prayer*, and the imposition of its liturgical order by legal force and inspection, sharpened Puritanism into a definite opposition movement. The later Puritan movement, often referred to as dissenters and nonconformists, eventually led to the formation of various Reformed denominations. The most famous emigration to America was the migration of Puritan separatists from the Anglican Church of England. They fled first to Holland, and then later to America to establish the English colony of Massachusetts in New England, which later became one of the original United States. These Puritan separatists were also known as "the Pilgrims". After establishing a colony at Plymouth (which became part of the colony of Massachusetts) in 1620, the Puritan pilgrims received a charter from the King of England that legitimised their colony, allowing them to do trade and commerce with merchants in England, in accordance with the principles of mercantilism. Civil and religious restrictions were most strictly applied by the Puritans of Massachusetts which saw various banishments applied to dissenters to enforce conformity, including the branding iron, the whipping post, the bilboes and the hangman’s noose. Notable individuals persecuted by the Puritans include Anne Hutchinson who was banished to Rhode Island during the Antinomian Controversy and Quaker Mary Dyer who was hanged in Boston for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony. Dyer was one of the four executed Quakers known as the Boston martyrs. Executions ceased in 1661 when King Charles II explicitly forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism. In 1647, Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting any Jesuit Roman Catholic priests from entering territory under Puritan jurisdiction. Any suspected person who could not clear himself was to be banished from the colony; a second offence carried a death penalty. The Pilgrims held radical Protestant disapproval of Christmas, and its celebration was outlawed in Boston from 1659 to 1681. The ban was revoked in 1681 by the English-appointed governor Edmund Andros, who also revoked a Puritan ban on festivities on Saturday nights. Nevertheless, it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region. #### Wales Bishop Richard Davies and dissident Protestant cleric John Penry introduced Calvinist theology to Wales. In 1588, the Bishop of Llandaff published the entire Bible in the Welsh language. The translation had a significant impact upon the Welsh population and helped to firmly establish Protestantism among the Welsh people. The Welsh Protestants used the model of the Synod of Dort of 1618–1619. Calvinism developed through the Puritan period, following the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II, and within Wales' Calvinistic Methodist movement. However few copies of Calvin's writings were available before the mid-19th century. #### Scotland The Reformation in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. John Knox is regarded as the leader of the Scottish reformation. The Reformation Parliament of 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by the *Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560*, forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith. It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the regent Mary of Guise, who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent daughter Mary, Queen of Scots (then also Queen of France). Although Protestantism triumphed relatively easily in Scotland, the exact form of Protestantism remained to be determined. The 17th century saw a complex struggle between Presbyterianism (particularly the Covenanters) and Episcopalianism. The Presbyterians eventually won control of the Church of Scotland, which went on to have an important influence on Presbyterian churches worldwide, but Scotland retained a relatively large Episcopalian minority. ### France Besides the Waldensians already present in France, Protestantism also spread in from German lands, where the Protestants were nicknamed *Huguenots*; this eventually led to decades of civil warfare. Though not personally interested in religious reform, Francis I (reigned 1515–1547) initially maintained an attitude of tolerance, in accordance with his interest in the humanist movement. This changed in 1534 with the Affair of the Placards. In this act, Protestants denounced the Catholic Mass in placards that appeared across France, even reaching the royal apartments. During this time as the issue of religious faith entered into the arena of politics, Francis came to view the movement as a threat to the kingdom's stability. Following the Affair of the Placards, culprits were rounded up, at least a dozen heretics were put to death, and the persecution of Protestants increased. One of those who fled France at that time was John Calvin, who emigrated to Basel in 1535 before eventually settling in Geneva in 1536. Beyond the reach of the French kings in Geneva, Calvin continued to take an interest in the religious affairs of his native land including the training of ministers for congregations in France. As the number of Protestants in France increased, the number of heretics in prisons awaiting trial also grew. As an experimental approach to reduce the caseload in Normandy, a special court just for the trial of heretics was established in 1545 in the Parlement de Rouen. When Henry II took the throne in 1547, the persecution of Protestants grew and special courts for the trial of heretics were also established in the Parlement de Paris. These courts came to known as "*La Chambre Ardente*" ("the fiery chamber") because of their reputation of meting out death penalties on burning gallows. Despite heavy persecution by Henry II, the Reformed Church of France, largely Calvinist in direction, made steady progress across large sections of the nation, in the urban bourgeoisie and parts of the aristocracy, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment. French Protestantism, though its appeal increased under persecution, came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the conversions of nobles during the 1550s. This established the preconditions for a series of destructive and intermittent conflicts, known as the Wars of Religion. The civil wars gained impetus with the sudden death of Henry II in 1559, which began a prolonged period of weakness for the French crown. Atrocity and outrage became the defining characteristics of the time, illustrated at their most intense in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of August 1572, when the Catholic party killed between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France. The wars only concluded when Henry IV, himself a former Huguenot, issued the Edict of Nantes (1598), promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Catholicism remained the official state religion, and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in Louis XIV's Edict of Fontainebleau (1685), which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Catholicism the sole legal religion of France, leading some Huguenots to live as Nicodemites. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg declared the Edict of Potsdam (October 1685), giving free passage to Huguenot refugees and tax-free status to them for ten years. In the late 17th century, 150,000–200,000 Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies. A significant community in France remained in the Cévennes region. A separate Protestant community, of the Lutheran faith, existed in the newly conquered province of Alsace, its status not affected by the Edict of Fontainebleau. ### Spain The New Testament translated by Enzinas, published in Antwerp (1543)The New Testament translated by Joanes Leizarraga into the Basque language (1571) on the orders of Navarre's Calvinist queen, Jeanne III of Navarre In the early 16th century, Spain had a different political and cultural milieu from its Western and Central European neighbours in several respects, which affected the mentality and the reaction of the nation towards the Reformation. Spain, which had only recently managed to complete the reconquest of the Peninsula from the Moors in 1492, had been preoccupied with converting the Muslim and Jewish populations of the newly conquered regions through the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition in 1478. The rulers of the nation stressed political, cultural, and religious unity, and by the time of the Lutheran Reformation, the Spanish Inquisition was already 40 years old and had the capability of quickly persecuting any new movement that the leaders of the Catholic Church perceived or interpreted to be religious heterodoxy. Charles V did not wish to see Spain or the rest of Habsburg Europe divided, and in light of continual threat from the Ottomans, preferred to see the Roman Catholic Church reform itself from within. This led to a Counter-Reformation in Spain in the 1530s. During the 1520s, the Spanish Inquisition had created an atmosphere of suspicion and sought to root out any religious thought seen as suspicious. As early as 1521, the Pope had written a letter to the Spanish monarchy warning against allowing the unrest in Northern Europe to be replicated in Spain. Between 1520 and 1550, printing presses in Spain were tightly controlled and any books of Protestant teaching were prohibited. Between 1530 and 1540, Protestantism in Spain was still able to gain followers clandestinely, and in cities such as Seville and Valladolid adherents would secretly meet at private houses to pray and study the Bible. Protestants in Spain were estimated at between 1000 and 3000, mainly among intellectuals who had seen writings such as those of Erasmus. Notable reformers included Dr. Juan Gil and Juan Pérez de Pineda who subsequently fled and worked alongside others such as Francisco de Enzinas to translate the Greek New Testament into the Spanish language, a task completed by 1556. Protestant teachings were smuggled into Spain by Spaniards such as Julián Hernández, who in 1557 was condemned by the Inquisition and burnt at the stake. Under Philip II, conservatives in the Spanish church tightened their grip, and those who refused to recant such as Rodrigo de Valer were condemned to life imprisonment. In May 1559, sixteen Spanish Lutherans were burnt at the stake: fourteen were strangled before being burnt, while two were burnt alive. In October another thirty were executed. Spanish Protestants who were able to flee the country were to be found in at least a dozen cities in Europe, such as Geneva, where some of them embraced Calvinist teachings. Those who fled to England were given support by the Church of England. The Kingdom of Navarre, although by the time of the Protestant Reformation a minor principality territoriality restricted to southern France, had French Huguenot monarchs, including Henry IV of France and his mother, Jeanne III of Navarre, a devout Calvinist. Upon the arrival of the Protestant Reformation, Calvinism reached some Basques through the translation of the Bible into the Basque language by Joanes Leizarraga. As Queen of Navarre, Jeanne III commissioned the translation of the New Testament into Basque and Béarnese for the benefit of her subjects. Molinism presented a soteriology similar to Protestants within the Roman Catholic Church. ### Portugal During the Reformation era Protestantism was unsuccessful in Portugal, as its spread was frustrated for similar reasons to those in Spain. ### Netherlands The Reformation in the Netherlands, unlike in many other countries, was not initiated by the rulers of the Seventeen Provinces, but instead by multiple popular movements which in turn were bolstered by the arrival of Protestant refugees from other parts of the continent. While the Anabaptist movement enjoyed popularity in the region in the early decades of the Reformation, Calvinism, in the form of the Dutch Reformed Church, became the dominant Protestant faith in the country from the 1560s onward. In the early 17th century internal theological conflict within the Calvinist church between two tendencies of Calvinism, the Gomarists and the liberal Arminians (or Remonstrants), resulted in Gomarist Calvinism becoming the *de facto* state religion. ### Belgium The first two Lutheran martyrs were monks from Antwerp, Johann Esch and Heinrich Hoes, who were burned at the stake when they would not recant. Harsh persecution of Protestants by the Spanish government of Philip II contributed to a desire for independence in the provinces, which led to the Eighty Years' War and, eventually, the separation of the largely Protestant Dutch Republic from the Catholic-dominated Southern Netherlands (present-day Belgium). In 1566, at the peak of Belgian Reformation, there were an estimated 300,000 Protestants, or 20% of the Belgian population. ### Hungary Much of the population of the Kingdom of Hungary adopted Protestantism during the 16th century. After the 1526 Battle of Mohács, the Hungarian people were disillusioned by the inability of the government to protect them and turned to the faith they felt would infuse them with the strength necessary to resist the invader. They found this in the teaching of Protestant reformers such as Martin Luther. The spread of Protestantism in the country was assisted by its large ethnic German minority, which could understand and translate the writings of Martin Luther. While Lutheranism gained a foothold among the German- and Slovak-speaking populations, Calvinism became widely accepted among ethnic Hungarians. In the more independent northwest, the rulers and priests, protected now by the Habsburg monarchy, which had taken the field to fight the Turks, defended the old Catholic faith. They dragged the Protestants to prison and the stake wherever they could. Such strong measures only fanned the flames of protest, however. Leaders of the Protestants included Mátyás Dévai Bíró, Mihály Sztárai, István Szegedi Kis, and Ferenc Dávid. Protestants likely formed a majority of Hungary's population at the close of the 16th century, but Counter-Reformation efforts in the 17th century reconverted a majority of the kingdom to Catholicism. A significant Protestant minority remained, most of it adhering to the Calvinist faith. In 1558 the Transylvanian Diet of Turda decreed the free practice of both the Catholic and Lutheran religions, but prohibited Calvinism. Ten years later, in 1568, the Diet extended this freedom, declaring that "It is not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with captivity or expulsion for his religion". Four religions were declared to be "accepted" (*recepta*) religions (the fourth being Unitarianism, which became official in 1583 as the faith of the only Unitarian king, John II Sigismund Zápolya, r. 1540–1571), while Eastern Orthodox Christianity was "tolerated" (though the building of stone Orthodox churches was forbidden). During the Thirty Years' War, Royal (Habsburg) Hungary joined the Catholic side, until Transylvania joined the Protestant side. Between 1604 and 1711, there was a series of anti-Habsburg uprisings calling for equal rights and freedom for all Christian denominations, with varying success; the uprisings were usually organised from Transylvania. The Habsburg-sanctioned Counter-Reformation efforts in the 17th century reconverted the majority of the kingdom to Catholicism. The center of Protestant learning in Hungary has for some centuries been the University of Debrecen. Founded in 1538, the university was situated in an area of Eastern Hungary under Ottoman Turkish rule during the 1600s and 1700s, being allowed Islamic toleration and thus avoiding Counter-Reformation persecution. ### Ireland The Reformation in Ireland was a movement for the reform of religious life and institutions that was introduced into Ireland by the English administration at the behest of King Henry VIII of England. His desire for an annulment of his marriage was known as the King's Great Matter. Ultimately Pope Clement VII refused the petition; consequently it became necessary for the King to assert his lordship over the church in his realm to give legal effect to his wishes. The English Parliament confirmed the King's supremacy over the Church in the Kingdom of England. This challenge to Papal supremacy resulted in a breach with the Roman Catholic Church. By 1541, the Irish Parliament had agreed to the change in status of the country from that of a Lordship to that of Kingdom of Ireland. Unlike similar movements for religious reform on the continent of Europe, the various phases of the English Reformation as it developed in Ireland were largely driven by changes in government policy, to which public opinion in England gradually accommodated itself. However, a number of factors complicated the adoption of the religious innovations in Ireland; the majority of the population there adhered to the Catholic Church. However, in the city of Dublin the Reformation took hold under the auspices of George Browne, Archbishop of Dublin. ### Italy Word of the Protestant reformers reached Italy in the 1520s but never caught on. Its development was stopped by the Counter-Reformation, the Inquisition and popular disinterest. Not only was the Church highly aggressive in seeking out and suppressing heresy, but there was a shortage of Protestant leadership. No one translated the Bible into Italian; few tracts were written. No core of Protestantism emerged. The few preachers who did take an interest in "Lutheranism", as it was called in Italy, were suppressed, or went into exile to northern countries where their message was well received. As a result, the Reformation exerted almost no lasting influence in Italy, except for strengthening the Catholic Church and pushing for an end to ongoing abuses during the Counter-Reformation. Some Protestants left Italy and became outstanding activists of the European Reformation, mainly in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (e.g. Giorgio Biandrata, Bernardino Ochino, Giovanni Alciato, Giovanni Battista Cetis, Fausto Sozzini, Francesco Stancaro and Giovanni Valentino Gentile), who propagated Nontrinitarianism there and were chief instigators of the movement of Polish Brethren. Some also fled to England and Switzerland, including Peter Vermigli. In 1532, the Waldensians, who had been already present centuries before the Reformation, aligned themselves and adopted the Calvinist theology. The Waldensian Church survived in the Western Alps through many persecutions and remains a Protestant church in Italy. ### Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth In the first half of the 16th century, the enormous Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a country of many religions and Churches, including: Roman Catholics, Byzantine Orthodox, Armenian Oriental Orthodox, Ashkenazi Jews, Karaites, and Sunni Muslims. The various groups had their own juridical systems. On the eve of the Protestant Reformation, Christianity held the predominant position within the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and Catholicism received preferential treatment at the expense of the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox. The Reformation first entered Poland through the mostly German-speaking areas in the country's north. In the 1520s Luther's reforms spread among the mostly German-speaking inhabitants of such major cities as Danzig (now Gdańsk), Thorn (now Toruń) and Elbing (now Elbląg). In Königsberg (now Kaliningrad), in 1530, a Polish-language edition of Luther's Small Catechism was published. The Duchy of Prussia, a vassal of the Polish Crown ruled by the Teutonic Knights, emerged as a key center of the movement, with numerous publishing houses issuing not only Bibles, but also catechisms, in German, Polish and Lithuanian. In 1525 the last Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights secularised the territory, became Lutheran, and established Lutheranism as the state church. Lutheranism found few adherents among the other peoples of the two countries. Calvinism became the most numerous Protestant group because Calvin's teachings on the role of the state within religion appealed to the nobility (known as szlachta), mainly in Lesser Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Several publishing houses were opened in Lesser Poland in the mid-16th century in such locations as Słomniki and Raków. At that time, Mennonites and Czech Brothers came to Poland. The former settled in the Vistula Delta where they used their agricultural abilities to turn parts of the delta into plodders. The latter settled mostly in Greater Poland around Leszno. Later on, Socinus and his followers emigrated to Poland. Originally the Reformed Church in Poland included both the Calvinists and the Anti-trinitarians (also known as the Socinians and the Polish Brethren); however, they eventually split due to an inability to reconcile their divergent views on the Trinity. Both Catholics and Orthodox Christians converts became Calvinists and the Anti-Trinitarians. The Commonwealth was unique in Europe in the 16th century for its widespread tolerance confirmed by the Warsaw Confederation. This agreement granted religious toleration to all nobles: peasants living on noble estates did not receive the same protections. In 1563, the Brest Bible was published (see also Bible translations into Polish). The period of tolerance came under strain during the reign of King Sigismund III Vasa (Zygmunt Wasa). Sigismund, who was also the King of Sweden until deposed, was educated by Jesuits in Sweden before his election as King of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. During his reign, he selected Catholics for the highest offices in the country. This created resentment amongst the Protestant nobility; however, the country did not experience a religiously motivated civil war. Despite concerted efforts, the nobility rejected efforts to revise or rescind the Confederation of Warsaw, and protected this agreement. The Deluge, a 20-year period of almost continual warfare, marked the turning point in attitudes. During the war with Sweden, when King John Casimir (Jan Kazimierz) fled to Silesia, the Icon of Mary of Częstochowa became the rallying point for military opposition to the Swedish forces. Upon his return to the country Kihn John Casimir crowned Mary a Queen of Poland. Despite these wars against Protestant, Orthodox, and Muslim neighbours, the Confederation of Warsaw held with one notable exception. In the aftermath of the Swedish withdrawal and truce, attitudes throughout the nobility (Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant) turned against the Polish Brethren. In 1658 the Polish Brethren were forced to leave the country. They were permitted to sell their immovable property and take their movable property; however, it is still unknown whether they received fair-market value for their lands. In 1666, the Sejm banned apostasy from Catholicism to any other religion, under penalty of death. Finally, in 1717, the Silent Sejm banned non-Catholics from becoming deputies of the Parliament. The strategy the Catholic Church took towards reconverting the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth differed from its strategy elsewhere. The unique government (Poland was a republic where the citizen nobility owned the state) meant the king could not enforce a religious settlement even if he so desired. Instead the Catholic Church undertook a long and steady campaign of persuasion. In the Ruthenian lands (predominately modern day Belarus & Ukraine) the Orthodox Church also undertook a similar strategy. Additionally, the Orthodox also sought to join the Catholic Church (accomplished in the Union of Brześć [Brest]); however, this union failed to achieve a lasting, permanent, and complete union of the Catholics and Orthodox in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. An important component of the Catholic Reformation in Poland was education. Numerous colleges and universities were set up throughout the country: the Jesuits and Piarists were important in this regard but there were contributions of other religious orders such as the Dominicans. While in the middle of the 16th century the nobility mostly sent their sons abroad for education (the new German Protestant universities were important in this regard), by the mid-1600s the nobility mostly stayed home for education. The quality of the new Catholic schools was so great that Protestants willingly sent their children to these schools. Through their education, many nobles became appreciative of Catholicism or out-right converted. Even though the majority of the nobility were Catholic circa 1700, Protestants remained in these lands and pockets of Protestantism could be found outside the German-speaking lands of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth into the 20th century. Among the most important Protestants of the Commonwealth were Mikołaj Rej, Marcin Czechowic, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski and Symon Budny. ### Slovenia Primož Trubar is notable for consolidating the Slovene language and is considered to be the key figure of Slovenian cultural history, in many aspects a major Slovene historical personality. He was the key figure of the Protestant Church of the Slovene Lands, as he was its founder and its first superintendent. The first books in Slovene, *Catechismus* and *Abecedarium*, were written by Trubar. ### Greece The Protestant teachings of the Western Church were also briefly adopted within the Eastern Orthodox Church through the Greek Patriarch Cyril Lucaris in 1629 with the publishing of the *Confessio* (Calvinistic doctrine) in Geneva. Motivating factors in their decision to adopt aspects of the Reformation included the historical rivalry and mistrust between the Greek Orthodox and the Roman Catholic Churches along with their concerns of Jesuit priests entering Greek lands in their attempts to propagate the teachings of the Counter-Reformation to the Greek populace. He subsequently sponsored Maximos of Gallipoli's translation of the New Testament into the Modern Greek language and it was published in Geneva in 1638. Upon Lucaris's death in 1638, the conservative factions within the Eastern Orthodox Church held two synods: the Synod of Constantinople (1638) and Synod of Iași (1642) criticising the reforms and, in the 1672 convocation led by Dositheos, they officially condemned the Calvinistic doctrines. In 2019, Christos Yannaras told Norman Russell that although he had participated in the Zoë movement, he had come to regard it as Crypto-Protestant. Spread ------ The Reformation spread throughout Europe beginning in 1517, reaching its peak between 1545 and 1620. The greatest geographical extent of Protestantism occurred at some point between 1545 and 1620. In 1620, the Battle of White Mountain defeated Protestants in Bohemia (now the Czech Republic) who sought to have the 1609 Letter of Majesty upheld. . The Thirty Years' War began in 1618 and brought a drastic territorial and demographic decline when the House of Habsburg introduced counter-reformational measures throughout their vast possessions in Central Europe. Although the Thirty Years' War concluded with the Peace of Westphalia, the French Wars of the Counter-Reformation continued, as well as the expulsion of Protestants in Austria. According to a 2020 study in the *American Sociological Review*, the Reformation spread earliest to areas where Luther had pre-existing social relations, such as mail correspondents, and former students, as well as where he had visited. The study argues that these social ties contributed more to the Reformation's early breakthroughs than the printing press. Conclusion and legacy --------------------- There is no universal agreement on the exact or approximate date the Reformation ended. Various interpretations emphasise different dates, entire periods, or argue that the Reformation never really ended. However, there are a few popular interpretations. Peace of Augsburg in 1555 officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of Christianity permanent within the Holy Roman Empire, allowing rulers to choose either Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism as the official confession of their state. It could be considered to end with the enactment of the confessions of faith. Other suggested ending years relate to the Counter-Reformation or the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. From a Catholic perspective, the Second Vatican Council called for an end to the Counter-Reformation. * In the history of theology or philosophy, the Reformation era ended with the Age of Orthodoxy. The Orthodox Period, also termed the Scholastic Period, succeeded the Reformation with the 1545–1563 *Council of Trent*, the 1562 Anglican *Thirty-nine Articles*, the 1580 *Book of Concord*, and other confessions of faith. The Orthodox Era ended with the development of both Pietism and the Enlightenment. * The Peace of Westphalia might be considered to be the event that ended the Reformation. * Some historians[*who?*] argue that the Reformation never ended as new churches have splintered from the Catholic Church (e.g., Old Catholics, Polish National Catholic Church, etc.), as well as all the various Protestant churches that exist today. No church splintering from the Catholic Church since the 17th century has done so on the basis of the same issues animating the Reformation, however. ### Thirty Years' War: 1618–1648 The Reformation and Counter-Reformation era conflicts are termed the European wars of religion. In particular, the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) devastated much of Germany, killing between 25% and 40% of its entire population. The Catholic House of Habsburg and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and France. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the Crown of Bohemia, Hungary, Slovene Lands, the Spanish Netherlands and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Catholic Church. Some[*who?*] historians believe that the era of the Reformation came to a close when Catholic France allied itself with Protestant states against the Habsburg dynasty. Two main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were: * All parties would now recognise the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of *cuius regio, eius religio*). * Christians living in principalities where their denomination was *not* the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will. The treaty also effectively ended the Papacy's pan-European political power. Pope Innocent X declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his apostolic brief *Zelo Domus Dei*. European sovereigns, Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict. ### Consequences of the Reformation Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, who issued a protest (or dissent) against the edict of the Diet of Speyer (1529), were the first individuals to be called Protestants. The edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. The term *Protestant*, though initially purely political in nature, later acquired a broader sense, referring to a member of any Western church which subscribed to the main Protestant principles. Today, Protestantism constitutes the second-largest form of Christianity (after Catholicism), with a total of 800 million to 1 billion adherents worldwide or about 37% of all Christians. Protestants have developed their own culture, with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts and many other fields. The following outcomes of the Reformation regarding human capital formation, the Protestant ethic, economic development, governance, and "dark" outcomes have been identified by scholars: The absence of Protestants, however, does not necessarily imply a failure of the Reformation.[*where?*] Although Protestants were excommunicated and ended up worshipping in communions separate from Catholics (contrary to the original intention of the Reformers), they were also suppressed, and persecuted in most of Europe at one point. As a result, some of them lived as crypto-Protestants, also called Nicodemites, contrary to the urging of John Calvin, who wanted them to live their faith openly. Some crypto-Protestants have been identified as late as the 19th century after immigrating to Latin America. #### Human capital formation * Higher literacy rates. * Lower gender gap in school enrollment and literacy rates. * Higher primary school enrollment. * Higher public spending on schooling and better educational performance of military conscripts. * Higher capability in reading, numeracy, essay writing, and history. #### Protestant ethic * More hours worked. * Divergent work attitudes of Protestant and Catholics. * Fewer referendums on leisure, state intervention, and redistribution in Swiss cantons with more Protestants. * Lower life satisfaction when unemployed. * Pro-market attitudes. * Income differences between Protestants and Catholics. #### Economic development * Different levels of income tax revenue per capita, % of labor force in manufacturing and services, and incomes of male elementary school teachers. * Growth of Protestant cities. * Greater entrepreneurship among religious minorities in Protestant states. * Different social ethics. * Industrialization. #### Governance * The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the development of the state system. * The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the formation of transnational advocacy movements. * The Reformation impacted the Western legal tradition. * Establishment of state churches. * Poor relief and social welfare regimes. * James Madison noted that Martin Luther's doctrine of the two kingdoms marked the beginning of the modern conception of separation of church and state. * The Calvinist and Lutheran doctrine of the lesser magistrate contributed to resistance theory in the Early Modern period and was employed in the United States Declaration of Independence. * Reformers such as Calvin promoted mixed government and the separation of powers, which governments such as the United States subsequently adopted. #### Other outcomes * Witch trials became more common in regions or other jurisdictions where Protestants and Catholics contested the religious market. * Christopher J. Probst, in his book *Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany* (2012), shows that a large number of German Protestant clergy and theologians during the Nazi Third Reich used Luther's hostile publications towards the Jews and Judaism to justify at least in part the anti-Semitic policies of the National Socialists. * In its decree on ecumenism, the Second Vatican Council of Catholic bishops declared that by contemporary dialogue that, while still holding views as the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church, between the churches "all are led to examine their own faithfulness to Christ's will for the Church and accordingly to undertake with vigor the task of renewal and reform" (*Unitatis Redintegratio*, 4). ### Historiography Margaret C. Jacob argues that there has been a dramatic shift in the historiography of the Reformation. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Their ideas were studied in depth. However, the rise of the new social history in the 1960s led to looking at history from the bottom up, not from the top down. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation is now seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement, textured and rich because of its diversity." ### Music and art **Painting and sculpture** * Northern Mannerism * Lutheran art * German Renaissance Art * Swedish art * English art * Woodcuts * Art conflicts * Beeldenstorm **Building** * Influence on church architecture **Literature** * Elizabethan * Metaphysical poets * Propaganda * Welsh * Scottish * Anglo-Irish * German * Czech * Swiss * Slovak * Sorbian * Romanian * Danish * Faroese * Norwegian * Swedish * Finnish * Icelandic * Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age * Folklore of the Low Countries * 16th century Renaissance humanism * 16th century in poetry * 16th century in literature * English Renaissance theatre **Musical forms** * Hymnody of continental Europe * Music of the British Isles * Hymn tune * Lutheran chorale * Lutheran hymn * Anglican church music * Exclusive psalmody * Anglican chant * Homophony vs. Polyphony **Liturgies** * Reformed worship * Calvin's liturgy * Formula missae * Deutsche Messe * Ecclesiastical Latin * Lutheran and Anglican Mass in music * Cyclic mass vs. Paraphrase mass * Roman vs. Sarum Rites * Sequence (retained by Lutherans, mostly banned by Trent) **Hymnals** * First and Second Lutheran hymnals * First Wittenberg hymnal * Swenske songer * Thomissøn's hymnal * Ausbund * Book of Common Prayer * Metrical psalters * Souterliedekens * Book of Common Order * Genevan Psalter * Scottish Psalter **Secular music** * English Madrigal School * *Greensleeves* * German madrigals * Moravian traditional music * Meistersinger Partly due to Martin Luther's love for music, music became important in Lutheranism. The study and practice of music was encouraged in Protestant-majority countries. Songs such as the Lutheran hymns or the Calvinist Psalter became tools for the spread of Protestant ideas and beliefs, as well as identity flags. Similar attitudes developed among Catholics, who in turn encouraged the creation and use of music for religious purposes. See also -------- * Anti-Catholicism * Anti-Protestantism * Book of Concord * Catholic Church and ecumenism * Catholic-Protestant relations * Criticism of Christianity * Criticism of Protestantism * Concordat of Worms * Confessionalization * European City of the Reformation * Free Grace theology * Historiography of religion * History of the Catholic Church * History of Christianity * List of Protestant Reformers * Protestantism in Germany * The Reformation and its influence on church architecture * Women in the Protestant Reformation References ---------- 1. ↑ Armstrong, Alstair (2002). *European Reformation: 1500–1610 (Heinemann Advanced History): 1500–55*. Heinemann Educational. ISBN 0-435-32710-0. 2. ↑ Davies *Europe* pp. 291–293 3. ↑ Fahlbusch, Erwin, and Bromiley, Geoffrey William (2003). *The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3*. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans. p. 362. 4. ↑ "Counter Reformation". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5. ↑ Lindberg 2021, pp. 21–24. 6. ↑ Cameron 2012, p. 4. 7. ↑ Lindberg 2021, p. 24. 8. ↑ Hamilton 2003, p. 97. 9. ↑ Gordon 2022, pp. 41, 48. 10. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, pp. 90–92. 11. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, pp. 26–27. 12. ↑ Hamilton 2003, pp. 34–38. 13. ↑ Hamilton 2003, pp. 33, 42. 14. 1 2 Hamilton 2003, p. 33. 15. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, pp. 26–30. 16. ↑ Cameron 2012, p. 12. 17. ↑ Hamilton 2003, pp. 41, 48–49, 88, 97. 18. 1 2 3 4 Hamilton 2003, p. 39. 19. ↑ Gordon 2022, p. 2. 20. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, p. 29. 21. ↑ Wickham 2016, pp. 148–149. 22. ↑ Hamilton 2003, pp. 107–108. 23. ↑ MacGrath 2004, p. 15. 24. ↑ Hamilton 2003, p. 30. 25. ↑ Wickham 2016, pp. 143, 212. 26. ↑ Hamilton 2003, p. 38. 27. ↑ Hamilton 2003, p. 32. 28. ↑ Wickham 2016, pp. 187, 212–213. 29. ↑ Cameron 2012, p. 57. 30. ↑ Wickham 2016, p. 213. 31. ↑ Hamilton 2003, p. 31. 32. ↑ Cameron 2012, pp. 54–56. 33. ↑ Cameron 2012, p. 58. 34. 1 2 Gordon 2022, p. 13. 35. ↑ Cameron 2012, p. 59. 36. ↑ Hamilton 2003, p. 10. 37. ↑ Cameron 2012, pp. 58–59. 38. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, pp. 40–41. 39. ↑ Gordon 2022, p. 9. 40. ↑ Hamilton 2003, p. 53. 41. ↑ Hamilton 2003, pp. 51–53, 93. 42. ↑ Cameron 2012, p. 14. 43. ↑ Hamilton 2003, p. 68. 44. 1 2 Hamilton 2003, p. 83. 45. ↑ Hamilton 2003, pp. 24–31, 124–126, 140. 46. ↑ Hamilton 2003, pp. 31–32. 47. ↑ Hamilton 2003, p. 130. 48. ↑ Hamilton 2003, pp. 3, 129–135. 49. ↑ Michael 2003, p. 343. 50. 1 2 Marshall 2009, p. 4. 51. ↑ Hamilton 2003, pp. 135–136. 52. ↑ Cameron 2012, p. 81. 53. ↑ Wickham 2016, pp. 246–247. 54. ↑ Cameron 2012, pp. 76–77. 55. ↑ Cameron 2012, p. 77. 56. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, pp. 36–37. 57. ↑ MacGrath 2004, p. 138. 58. ↑ MacGrath 2004, pp. 137–138. 59. ↑ MacGrath 2004, pp. 144–145. 60. ↑ Kaufmann 2023, pp. 48–50. 61. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, pp. 75–79. 62. ↑ Hamilton 2003, pp. 27–28. 63. 1 2 MacCulloch 2003, p. 79. 64. ↑ MacGrath 2004, p. 128. 65. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, pp. 95–97. 66. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, p. 22. 67. ↑ MacGrath 2004, pp. 22–23. 68. ↑ MacGrath 2004, p. 22. 69. 1 2 MacCulloch 2003, p. 119. 70. ↑ Gordon 2022, p. 18. 71. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, pp. 68–70. 72. ↑ Gordon 2022, pp. 8, 18, 29. 73. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, pp. 70–71. 74. ↑ Gordon 2022, p. 30. 75. ↑ Cameron 2012, pp. 44–45. 76. ↑ Cameron 2012, pp. 47–48. 77. ↑ Cameron 2012, p. 50. 78. ↑ Cameron 2012, pp. 52–53. 79. ↑ Cameron 2012, pp. 47–53. 80. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, pp. 84–85. 81. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, p. 117. 82. 1 2 Lindberg 2021, p. 71. 83. 1 2 3 Marshall 2009, p. 15. 84. ↑ Cameron 2012, p. 15. 85. ↑ Kolb 2006, p. 41. 86. 1 2 Kolb 2006, pp. 40–41. 87. ↑ Roper 2022, pp. 56–57. 88. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, pp. 114, 116. 89. ↑ Kaufmann 2023, p. 70. 90. 1 2 3 4 Cameron 2012, p. 102. 91. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, p. 120. 92. ↑ Roper 2022, p. 52. 93. ↑ Kaufmann 2023, p. 75. 94. ↑ Kaufmann 2023, pp. 75–79. 95. 1 2 MacCulloch 2003, p. 121. 96. ↑ Roper 2022, p. 58. 97. 1 2 Kaufmann 2023, pp. 77–79. 98. ↑ Cameron 2012, p. 103. 99. ↑ Lindberg 2021, pp. 72–75. 100. ↑ Hamm 1999, pp. 75–76. 101. ↑ Lindberg 2021, p. 79. 102. ↑ Cameron 2012, pp. 103–104. 103. ↑ Lindberg 2021, p. 82. 104. ↑ Kaufmann 2023, pp. 82–85. 105. ↑ Roper 2022, pp. 60–62. 106. 1 2 MacCulloch 2003, pp. 126–127. 107. 1 2 Cameron 2012, p. 104. 108. ↑ Lindberg 2021, pp. 82–83. 109. ↑ Roper 2022, p. 62. 110. 1 2 Cameron 2012, p. 105. 111. ↑ Cantoni 2012, pp. 502–503. 112. ↑ Marshall 2009, p. 12. 113. ↑ MacCulloch 2003, pp. 128–129. 114. ↑ Roper 2022, pp. 68–69. 115. ↑ Marshall 2009, p. 17. 116. ↑ Rubin 2014, p. 26. 117. ↑ Becker, Pfaff & Rubin 2016, p. 18. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeckerPfaffRubin2016 (help) 118. ↑ Dittmar & Seabold 2015, p. 21. 119. ↑ Roper 2022, pp. 69–71. 120. ↑ Becker, Pfaff & Rubin 2016, p. 205. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeckerPfaffRubin2016 (help) 121. ↑ Kim & Pfaff 2012, p. 205. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFKimPfaff2012 (help) 122. ↑ Cantoni 2012, p. 19. 123. ↑ Kim & Pfaff 2012, p. 206. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFKimPfaff2012 (help) 124. ↑ Cantoni 2012, p. 20. 125. ↑ Curuk & Smulders 2016, pp. 24, 38–40. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCurukSmulders2016 (help) 126. ↑ Kaufmann 2023, pp. 92–93. 127. ↑ Cameron 2012, pp. 111–112. 128. ↑ Kaufmann 2023, pp. 95–96. 129. ↑ Becker, Pfaff & Rubin 2016, p. 9. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeckerPfaffRubin2016 (help) 130. ↑ Kaufmann 2023, p. 96. 131. ↑ Becker, Pfaff & Rubin 2016, p. 15. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeckerPfaffRubin2016 (help) 132. ↑ Iyigun 2008, pp. 4, 27. 133. ↑ Becker, Pfaff & Rubin 2016, p. 19. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeckerPfaffRubin2016 (help) 134. 1 2 3 Becker, Sascha O.; Pfaff, Steven; Rubin, Jared (2016). "Causes and Consequences of the Protestant Reformation" (PDF). *Explorations in Economic History*. **62**: 1–25. doi:10.1016/j.eeh.2016.07.007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. 135. 1 2 3 Rubin, "Printing and Protestants" Review of Economics and Statistics pp. 270–286 136. ↑ Cantoni 2012. 137. ↑ Kim, Hyojoung; Pfaff, Steven (1 April 2012). "Structure and Dynamics of Religious Insurgency Students and the Spread of the Reformation". *American Sociological Review*. **77** (2): 188–215. doi:10.1177/0003122411435905. ISSN 0003-1224. S2CID 144678806. 138. ↑ Pfaff, Steven (12 March 2013). "The true citizens of the city of God: the cult of saints, the Catholic social order, and the urban Reformation in Germany". *Theory and Society*. **42** (2): 189–218. doi:10.1007/s11186-013-9188-x. ISSN 0304-2421. S2CID 144049459. 139. ↑ Ekelund, Jr., Robert B.; Hébert, Robert F.; Tollison, Robert D. (1 June 2002). 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Klager, "Ingestion and Gestation: Peacemaking, the Lord's Supper, and the Theotokos in the Mennonite-Anabaptist and Eastern Orthodox Traditions", *Journal of Ecumenical Studies* 47, no. 3 (summer 2012): pp. 441–442. 156. 1 2 3 4 Lobenstein-Reichmann, Anja (29 March 2017). "Martin Luther, Bible Translation, and the German Language". *Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.382. ISBN 9780199340378. 157. ↑ Euan Cameron (1 March 2012). *The European Reformation*. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-954785-2.[*page needed*] 158. ↑ Pettegree *Reformation World* p. 543 159. ↑ "Media, Markets and Institutional Change: Evidence from the Protestant Reformation" (PDF). 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"Nova odkritja o slovenski protestantiki" [New Discoveries About the Slovene Protestant Literature] (PDF). *Slavistična Revija* (in Slovenian). **61** (4): 543–555. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. 203. ↑ "Metaphysics as a Personal Adventure, by Norman Russell". *www.churchtimes.co.uk*. Retrieved 18 May 2023. 204. ↑ Becker, Sascha O.; Hsiao, Yuan; Pfaff, Steven; Rubin, Jared (1 October 2020). "Multiplex Network Ties and the Spatial Diffusion of Radical Innovations: Martin Luther's Leadership in the Early Reformation". *American Sociological Review*. **85** (5): 857–894. doi:10.1177/0003122420948059. ISSN 0003-1224. 205. ↑ Olson, Roger E. (21 August 2017). *IS THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION OVER? CAN THE SCHISM END?*. *ministry matters*. Archived from the original on 20 January 2022. Protestant Reformation was a long process begun a century earlier by Bohemian priest John Hus and, at least according to many Protestants, is ever ongoing. "Reformed and always reforming" was the motto of many of the Reformation's leaders and remains a crucial ideal and challenge today. 206. ↑ Wills, Garry (7 November 2019). "Changing the 'Changeless' Church". *New York Review of Books*. ISSN 0028-7504. Retrieved 14 March 2020. 207. ↑ "History of Europe | Summary, Wars, Map, Ideas, & Colonialism | Britannica". *www.britannica.com*. 16 May 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2023. 208. ↑ Cross, (ed.) "Westphalia, Peace of" *Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church* 209. 1 2 "protestant – Origin and meaning of protestant by Online Etymology Dictionary". *www.etymonline.com*. 210. ↑ "Pewforum: Grobal Christianity" (PDF). 19 December 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 November 2013. Retrieved 14 May 2014. 211. 1 2 "Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact" (PDF). gordonconwell.edu. January 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 29 May 2015. 212. ↑ Hillerbrand, Hans J. (2004). *Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set*. Routledge. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-135-96028-5. 213. ↑ Karl Heussi, *Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte*, 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317–319, 325–326 214. ↑ Eire, Carlos M. N. "Calvin and Nicodemism: A Reappraisal". *Sixteenth Century Journal* X:1, 1979. 215. ↑ Martínez Fernández, Luis (2000). "Crypto-Protestants and Pseudo-Catholics in the Nineteenth-Century Hispanic Caribbean". *Journal of Ecclesiastical History*. **51** (2): 347–365. doi:10.1017/S0022046900004255. S2CID 162296826. 216. 1 2 3 Becker, Sascha O.; Woessmann, Ludger (1 May 2009). "Was Weber Wrong? A Human Capital Theory of Protestant Economic History". *The Quarterly Journal of Economics*. **124** (2): 531–596. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.657.9590. doi:10.1162/qjec.2009.124.2.531. hdl:1893/1653. ISSN 0033-5533. S2CID 3113486. 217. ↑ Becker, Sascha O.; Woessmann, Ludger (1 December 2008). "Luther and the Girls: Religious Denomination and the Female Education Gap in Nineteenth-century Prussia\*". *Scandinavian Journal of Economics*. **110** (4): 777–805. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9442.2008.00561.x. ISSN 1467-9442. S2CID 146303270. 218. ↑ Becker, Sascha O.; Woessmann, Ludger (1 May 2010). "The effect of Protestantism on education before the industrialization: Evidence from 1816 Prussia". *Economics Letters*. **107** (2): 224–228. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.517.2101. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2010.01.031. S2CID 154922179. 219. ↑ Boppart, Timo; Falkinger, Josef; Grossmann, Volker; Woitek, Ulrich; Wüthrich, Gabriela (1 April 2013). "Under which conditions does religion affect educational outcomes?" (PDF). *Explorations in Economic History*. **50** (2): 242–266. doi:10.1016/j.eeh.2012.12.001. S2CID 154150626. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. 220. ↑ Boppart, Timo; Falkinger, Josef; Grossmann, Volker (1 April 2014). "Protestantism and Education: Reading (the Bible) and Other Skills" (PDF). *Economic Inquiry*. **52** (2): 874–895. doi:10.1111/ecin.12058. ISSN 1465-7295. S2CID 10220106. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. 221. ↑ Spenkuch, Jörg L. (20 March 2011). "The Protestant Ethic and Work: Micro Evidence from Contemporary Germany". Rochester, New York: Social Science Research Network. SSRN 1703302. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help) 222. ↑ Schaltegger, Christoph A.; Torgler, Benno (1 May 2010). "Work ethic, Protestantism, and human capital" (PDF). *Economics Letters*. **107** (2): 99–101. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2009.12.037. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. 223. ↑ Basten, Christoph; Betz, Frank (2013). "Beyond Work Ethic: Religion, Individual, and Political Preferences" (PDF). *American Economic Journal: Economic Policy*. **5** (3): 67–91. doi:10.1257/pol.5.3.67. hdl:1814/62006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. 224. ↑ van Hoorn, André; Maseland, Robbert (1 July 2013). "Does a Protestant work ethic exist? Evidence from the well-being effect of unemployment" (PDF). *Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization*. **91**: 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2013.03.038. hdl:11370/edf4c610-0828-4ba7-b222-9ce36e3c58be. S2CID 73683588. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. 225. ↑ Hayward, R. David; Kemmelmeier, Markus (1 November 2011). "Weber Revisited A Cross-National Analysis of Religiosity, Religious Culture, and Economic Attitudes". *Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology*. **42** (8): 1406–1420. doi:10.1177/0022022111412527. ISSN 0022-0221. S2CID 9101480. 226. ↑ Cantoni, Davide (1 August 2015). "The Economic Effects of the Protestant Reformation: Testing the Weber Hypothesis in the German Lands". *Journal of the European Economic Association*. **13** (4): 561–598. doi:10.1111/jeea.12117. hdl:10230/11729. ISSN 1542-4774. S2CID 7528944. 227. ↑ "Origins of growth: How state institutions forged during the Protestant Reformation drove development". *VoxEU.org*. 26 April 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2016. 228. ↑ Nunziata, Luca; Rocco, Lorenzo (1 January 2014). "The Protestant Ethic and Entrepreneurship: Evidence from Religious Minorities from the Former Holy Roman Empire". *Mpra Paper*. University Library of Munich, Germany. 229. ↑ Nunziata, Luca; Rocco, Lorenzo (20 January 2016). "A tale of minorities: evidence on religious ethics and entrepreneurship". *Journal of Economic Growth*. **21** (2): 189–224. doi:10.1007/s10887-015-9123-2. ISSN 1381-4338. S2CID 55740195. 230. ↑ Arruñada, Benito (1 September 2010). "Protestants and Catholics: Similar Work Ethic, Different Social Ethic\*". *The Economic Journal*. **120** (547): 890–918. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0297.2009.02325.x. hdl:10230/624. ISSN 1468-0297. S2CID 6753991. 231. ↑ Spater, Jeremy; Tranvik, Isak (1 November 2019). "The Protestant Ethic Reexamined: Calvinism and Industrialization". *Comparative Political Studies*. **52** (13–14): 1963–1994. doi:10.1177/0010414019830721. ISSN 0010-4140. S2CID 204438351. 232. ↑ Nexon, D.H. (20 April 2009). *The Struggle for Power in Early Modern Europe: Religious Conflict, Dynastic Empires, and International Change*. *press.princeton.edu*. ISBN 978-0-691-13793-3. 233. ↑ Philpott, Daniel (1 January 2000). "The Religious Roots of Modern International Relations". *World Politics*. **52** (2): 206–245. doi:10.1017/S0043887100002604. ISSN 1086-3338. S2CID 40773221. 234. ↑ Stamatov, Peter (1 August 2010). "Activist Religion, Empire, and the Emergence of Modern Long-Distance Advocacy Networks". *American Sociological Review*. **75** (4): 607–628. doi:10.1177/0003122410374083. hdl:10016/33305. ISSN 0003-1224. S2CID 145615068. 235. ↑ "Law and Revolution, II – Harold J. Berman | Harvard University Press". *www.hup.harvard.edu*. Retrieved 19 April 2016. 236. ↑ Gorski, Philip S. (1 January 2000). "Historicizing the Secularization Debate: Church, State, and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe, ca. 1300 to 1700". *American Sociological Review*. **65** (1): 138–167. doi:10.2307/2657295. JSTOR 2657295. 237. ↑ Pullan, Brian (1 January 1976). "Catholics and the Poor in Early Modern Europe". *Transactions of the Royal Historical Society*. **26**: 15–34. doi:10.2307/3679070. JSTOR 3679070. S2CID 161899850. 238. ↑ kahl, sigrun (1 April 2005). "the religious roots of modern poverty policy: catholic, lutheran, and reformed protestant traditions compared". *European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie*. **46** (1): 91–126. doi:10.1017/S0003975605000044. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-4DFA-2. ISSN 1474-0583. S2CID 9584702. 239. ↑ Madison, James (1865). *Madison to Schaeffer, 1821*. pp. 242–243. 240. ↑ Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), *History of Religion in the United States*, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp. 9–10 241. ↑ Jan Weerda, *Calvin*, in *Evangelisches Soziallexikon*, col. 210–211 242. ↑ Heinrich August Winkler (2012), *Geschichte des Westens. Von den Anfängen in der Antike bis zum 20. Jahrhundert*, Third Edition, Munich (Germany), ISBN 978-3-406-59235-5, pp. 290ff. 243. ↑ "Constitution Day 2021: Mixed Government, Bicameralism, and the Creation of the U.S. Senate". *U.S. Senate*. 17 September 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2021. 244. ↑ "Witch Trials" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2016. 245. ↑ "Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant church in Nazi Germany / Christopher J. Probst. – Collections Search – United States Holocaust Memorial Museum". *collections.ushmm.org*. Retrieved 18 May 2023. 246. ↑ Jacob *Living the Enlightenment* p. 215 247. ↑ Chiara Bertoglio *Reforming Music. 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"Structure and Dynamics of Religious Insurgency: Students and the Spread of the Reformation". *American Sociological Review*. American Sociological Association. **77** (2): 188–215. doi:10.1177/0003122411435905. ISSN 0003-1224. S2CID 144678806. * Kolb, Robert (2006) [2004]. "Martin Luther and the German Nation". In R. Po-Chia, Hsia (ed.). *A Companion to the Reformation World*. Blackwell Companions to European History. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 39–55. ISBN 978-1-4051-4962-4. * Lindberg, Carter (2021) [1996]. *The European Reformations* (Third ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-119-64081-3. * Michael, Emily (July 2003). "John Wyclif on Body and Mind". *Journal of the History of Ideas*. University of Pennsylvania Press. **64** (3): 343–360. doi:10.1353/jhi.2003.0039. ISSN 0022-5037. JSTOR 3654230. PMID 15190908. S2CID 20223339. * Lockhart, Paul Douglas (2007). *Denmark, 1513-1660: The Rise and Decline of a Renaissance Monarchy*. Oxford University Press. * MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2003). *The Reformation: A History*. Viking. ISBN 0-670-03296-4. * MacGrath, Alister E. (2004) [1987]. *The Intellectual Origins of the European Reformation* (Second ed.). Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22940-X. * Marshall, Peter (2009). *The Reformation: A Very Short Introduction*. Very Short Introductions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923131-7. * Berntson, Martin (2006). "The Dissolution of the Hospitaller houses in Scandinavia". In Mol, Johannes A.; Militzer, Klaus; Nicholson, Helen J. (eds.). *The Military Orders and the Reformation: Choices, State Building, and the*. Hilversum Verloren. pp. 59–78. * Oberman, Heiko Augustinus; Walliser-Schwarzbart, Eileen (2006) [1982]. *Luther: Man between God and the Devil*. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10313-7. * Patrick, James (2007). *Renaissance and Reformation*. New York: Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-7650-4. * Pettegree, Andrew (2000). *The Reformation World*. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-44527-3. * Pettegree, Andrew; Hall, Matthew (December 2004). "The Reformation and the Book: A Reconsideration". *The Historical Journal*. **47** (4): 785–808. doi:10.1017/S0018246X04003991. JSTOR 4091657. S2CID 145512622. * Roper, Lyndal (2022) [2015]. "Martin Luther". In Marshall, Peter (ed.). *The Oxford History of the Reformation*. Oxford University Press. pp. 51–94. ISBN 978-0-19-289526-4. * Rublack, Ulinka (2010). *Dressing Up: Cultural Identity in Renaissance Europe*. Oxford University Press. * Rubin, Jared (2014). "Printing and Protestants: An Empirical Test of the Role of Printing in the Reformation". *Review of Economics and Statistics*. **96** (2): 270–286. doi:10.1162/REST\_a\_00368. S2CID 52885129. * Schofield, John (2011). *Martin Luther: A Concise History of His Life and Works*. History Press Limited. * Weimer, Christoph (2004). "Luther and Cranach on Justification in Word and Image". *Lutheran Quarterly*. **18** (4): 387–405. * Whaley, Joachim (2012). *Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume I: Maximilian I to the Peace of Westphalia, 1493–1648 (Oxford History of Early Modern Europe)*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-873101-6. * Wickham, Chris (2016). *Medieval Europe*. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-20834-4. * Yarnell III, Malcolm B. (2014). *Royal Priesthood in the English Reformation*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-968625-4. Further reading --------------- ### Surveys * Appold, Kenneth G. *The Reformation: A Brief History* (2011) online * Collinson, Patrick. *The Reformation: A History* (2006) * Elton, Geoffrey R. and Andrew Pettegree, eds. *Reformation Europe: 1517–1559* (1999) excerpt and text search * Elton, G.R., ed. *The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 2: The Reformation, 1520–1559* (1st ed. 1958) online free * Gassmann, Günther, and Mark W. Oldenburg. *Historical dictionary of Lutheranism* (Scarecrow Press, 2011). * Hillerbrand, Hans J. *The Protestant Reformation* (2nd ed. 2009) * Hsia, R. Po-chia, ed. *A Companion to the Reformation World* (2006) * Lindberg, Carter. *The European Reformations* (2nd ed. 2009) * Mourret, Fernand. *History of the Catholic Church* (vol 5 1931) online free; pp. 325–516; by French Catholic scholar * Naphy, William G. (2007). *The Protestant Revolution: From Martin Luther to Martin Luther King Jr*. BBC Books. ISBN 978-0-563-53920-9. * Spalding, Martin (2010). *The History of the Protestant Reformation; In Germany and Switzerland, and in England, Ireland, Scotland, the Netherlands, France, and Northern Europe*. General Books LLC. * Reeves, Michael. *The Unquenchable Flame: Discovering the Heart of the Reformation* (2nd ed. 2016) * Spitz, Lewis William (2003). *The Protestant Reformation: 1517–1559*. ### Theology * Bagchi, David, and David C. Steinmetz, eds. *The Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology* (2004) * Bainton, Roland (1952). *The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century*. Boston: The Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-1301-4. * Barrett, Matthew, and Michael Horton. *Reformation Theology: A Systematic Summary* (2017). * Braaten, Carl E. and Robert W. Jenson. *The Catholicity of the Reformation*. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996. ISBN 0-8028-4220-8. * Cunningham, William. *The Reformers and the Theology of the Reformation* (2013). * Payton, James R., Jr. *Getting the Reformation Wrong: Correcting Some Misunderstandings* (IVP Academic, 2010) * Pelikan, Jaroslav (1984). *Reformation of Church and Dogma (1300–1700)*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-65377-8. ### Primary sources in translation * Fosdick, Harry Emerson, ed. *Great Voices of the Reformation [and of other putative reformers before and after it]: an Anthology*, ed., with an introd. and commentaries, by Harry Emerson Fosdick. (Modern Library, 1952). xxx, 546 pp. * Janz, Denis, ed. *A Reformation Reader: Primary Texts with Introductions* (2008) excerpt and text search * Littlejohn, Bradford, and Jonathan Roberts eds. *Reformation Theology: A Reader of Primary Sources with Introductions* (2018). * Luther, Martin *Luther's Correspondence and Other Contemporary Letters*, 2 vols., tr. and ed. by Preserved Smith, Charles Michael Jacobs, The Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia, Pa. 1913, 1918. vol.2 (1521–1530) from Google Books. Reprint of Vol. 1, Wipf & Stock Publishers (March 2006). ISBN 1-59752-601-0. * Spitz, Lewis W. *The Protestant Reformation: Major Documents*. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1997. ISBN 0-570-04993-8. ### Historiography * Bates, Lucy (2010). "The Limits of Possibility in England's Long Reformation". *Historical Journal*. **53** (4): 1049–1070. doi:10.1017/S0018246X10000403. JSTOR 40930369. S2CID 159904890. * Bradshaw, Brendan (1983). "The Reformation and the Counter-Reformation". *History Today*. **33** (11): 42–45. * Brady, Thomas A. Jr. (1991). "People's Religions in Reformation Europe". *The Historical Journal*. **24** (1): 173–182. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00013984. JSTOR 2639713. S2CID 162991792. * de Boer, Wietse (2009). "An Uneasy Reunion The Catholic World in Reformation Studies". *Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte*. **100** (1): 366–387. doi:10.14315/arg-2009-100-1-366. S2CID 170395778. * Dickens, A.G.; Tonkin, John M., eds. (1985). *The Reformation in Historical Thought*. Harvard University Press, 443 pp. excerpt * Dixon, C. Scott (2012). *Contesting the Reformation*. * Fritze, Ronald H. (2005). "The English Reformation: Obedience, Destruction and Cultural Adaptation". *Journal of Ecclesiastical History*. **56** (1): 107–115. doi:10.1017/S0022046904002106. S2CID 162920265. * Haigh, Christopher (1982). "The recent historiography of the English Reformation". *The Historical Journal*. **25** (4): 995–1007. doi:10.1017/s0018246x00021385. JSTOR 2638647. S2CID 154848886. * Haigh, Christopher (1990). "The English Reformation: A Premature Birth, a Difficult Labour and a Sickly Child". *The Historical Journal*. **33** (2): 449–459. doi:10.1017/s0018246x0001342x. JSTOR 2639467. S2CID 162341988. * Haigh, Christopher (2002). "Catholicism in Early Modern England: Bossy and Beyond". *The Historical Journal*. **45** (2): 481–494. doi:10.1017/S0018246X02002479. JSTOR 3133654. S2CID 163117077. * Heininen, Simo; Czaika, Otfried (2010). "Wittenberg Influences on the Reformation in Scandinavia". *European History Online*. Mainz: Institute of European History. Retrieved 17 December 2012. * Howard, Thomas A. and Mark A. Noll, eds. *Protestantism after 500 Years* (Oxford UP, 2016) pp. 384. * Hsia, Po-Chia, ed. (2006). *A Companion to the Reformation World*. * Hsia, R. Po-chia (2004). "Reformation on the Continent: Approaches Old and New". *Journal of Religious History*. **28** (2): 162–170. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9809.2004.00212.x. * Hsia, R. Po-Chia (1987). "The Myth of the Commune: Recent Historiography on City and Reformation in Germany". *Central European History*. **20** (3): 203–215. doi:10.1017/s0008938900012061. JSTOR 4546103. S2CID 146309764. * Karant-Nunn, Susan C. (2005). "Changing One's Mind: Transformations in Reformation History from a Germanist's Perspective". *Renaissance Quarterly*. **58** (2): 1101–1127. doi:10.1353/ren.2008.0933. JSTOR 10.1353/ren.2008.0933. S2CID 170423375. * Kooi, Christine. "The Reformation in the Netherlands: Some Historiographic Contributions in English." *Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte* 100.1 (2009): 293–307. * MacCulloch, Diarmaid (1995). "The Impact of the English Reformation". *The Historical Journal*. **38** (1): 151–153. doi:10.1017/s0018246x00016332. JSTOR 2640168. S2CID 162582384. * MacCulloch, Diarmaid; Laven, Mary; Duffy, Eamon (2006). "Recent Trends in the Study of Christianity in Sixteenth-Century Europe". *Renaissance Quarterly*. **59** (3): 697–731. doi:10.1353/ren.2008.0381. JSTOR 10.1353/ren.2008.0381. * Marnef, Guido (2009). "Belgian and Dutch Post-war Historiography on the Protestant and Catholic Reformation in the Netherlands". *Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte*. **100** (1): 271–292. doi:10.14315/arg-2009-100-1-271. S2CID 164021053. * Marshall, Peter (2009b). "(Re)defining the English Reformation" (PDF). *Journal of British Studies*. **48** (3): 564–586. doi:10.1086/600128. JSTOR 27752571. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. * Menchi, Silvana Seidel (2009). "The Age of Reformation and Counter-Reformation in Italian Historiography, 1939–2009". *Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte*. **100** (1): 193–217. doi:10.14315/arg-2009-100-1-193. S2CID 201096496. * Nieden, Marcel (2012). "The Wittenberg Reformation as a Media Event". *European History Online*. Mainz: Institute of European History. Retrieved 17 December 2012. * Scott, Tom (1991). "The Common People in the German Reformation". *The Historical Journal*. **24** (1): 183–192. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00013996. JSTOR 2639714. S2CID 161111542. * Scott, Tom (2008). "The Reformation between Deconstruction and Reconstruction: Reflections on Recent Writings on the German Reformation". *German History*. **26** (3): 406–422. doi:10.1093/gerhis/ghn027. * Walsham, Alexandra (2008). "The Reformation and 'The Disenchantment of the World' Reassessed". *Historical Journal*. **51** (2): 497–528. doi:10.1017/S0018246X08006808. JSTOR 20175171. * Walsham, Alexandra. "Toleration, Pluralism, and Coexistence: The Ambivalent Legacies of the Reformation." *Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte-Archive for Reformation History* 108.1 (2017): 181–190. Online * Wiesner-Hanks, Merry (2009). "Gender and the Reformation". *Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte*. **100** (1): 350–365. doi:10.14315/arg-2009-100-1-350. S2CID 192966856.

Reformation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformation

A **pulsar** (from ***pulsa**ting **r**adio source*) is a highly magnetized rotating neutron star that emits beams of electromagnetic radiation out of its magnetic poles. This radiation can be observed only when a beam of emission is pointing toward Earth (similar to the way a lighthouse can be seen only when the light is pointed in the direction of an observer), and is responsible for the pulsed appearance of emission. Neutron stars are very dense and have short, regular rotational periods. This produces a very precise interval between pulses that ranges from milliseconds to seconds for an individual pulsar. Pulsars are one of the candidates for the source of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. (See also centrifugal mechanism of acceleration.) The periods of pulsars make them very useful tools for astronomers. Observations of a pulsar in a binary neutron star system were used to indirectly confirm the existence of gravitational radiation. The first extrasolar planets were discovered around a pulsar, PSR B1257+12 in 1992. In 1983, certain types of pulsars were detected that, at that time, exceeded the accuracy of atomic clocks in keeping time. History of observation ---------------------- ### Discovery Signals from the first discovered pulsar were initially observed by Jocelyn Bell while analyzing data recorded on August 6, 1967, from a newly commissioned radio telescope that she helped build. Initially dismissed as radio interference by her supervisor and developer of the telescope, Antony Hewish, the fact that the signals always appeared at the same declination and right ascension soon ruled out a terrestrial source. On November 28, 1967, Bell and Hewish using a fast strip chart recorder resolved the signals as a series of pulses, evenly spaced every 1.337 seconds. No astronomical object of this nature had ever been observed before. On December 21, Bell discovered a second pulsar, quashing speculation that these might be signals beamed at earth from an extraterrestrial intelligence. When observations with another telescope confirmed the emission, it eliminated any sort of instrumental effects. At this point, Bell said of herself and Hewish that "we did not really believe that we had picked up signals from another civilization, but obviously the idea had crossed our minds and we had no proof that it was an entirely natural radio emission. It is an interesting problem—if one thinks one may have detected life elsewhere in the universe, how does one announce the results responsibly?" Even so, they nicknamed the signal *LGM-1*, for "little green men" (a playful name for intelligent beings of extraterrestrial origin). It was not until a second pulsating source was discovered in a different part of the sky that the "LGM hypothesis" was entirely abandoned. Their pulsar was later dubbed CP 1919, and is now known by a number of designators including PSR B1919+21 and PSR J1921+2153. Although CP 1919 emits in radio wavelengths, pulsars have subsequently been found to emit in visible light, X-ray, and gamma ray wavelengths. The word "pulsar" first appeared in print in 1968: > An entirely novel kind of star came to light on Aug. 6 last year and was referred to, by astronomers, as LGM (Little Green Men). Now it is thought to be a novel type between a white dwarf and a neutron [star]. The name Pulsar is likely to be given to it. Dr. A. Hewish told me yesterday: '... I am sure that today every radio telescope is looking at the Pulsars.' > > The existence of neutron stars was first proposed by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1934, when they argued that a small, dense star consisting primarily of neutrons would result from a supernova. Based on the idea of magnetic flux conservation from magnetic main sequence stars, Lodewijk Woltjer proposed in 1964 that such neutron stars might contain magnetic fields as large as 1014 to 1016 gauss (=1010 to 1012 tesla). In 1967, shortly before the discovery of pulsars, Franco Pacini suggested that a rotating neutron star with a magnetic field would emit radiation, and even noted that such energy could be pumped into a supernova remnant around a neutron star, such as the Crab Nebula. After the discovery of the first pulsar, Thomas Gold independently suggested a rotating neutron star model similar to that of Pacini, and explicitly argued that this model could explain the pulsed radiation observed by Bell Burnell and Hewish. In 1968, Richard V. E. Lovelace with collaborators discovered period P ≈ 33 {\displaystyle P\approx 33} {\displaystyle P\approx 33} ms of the Crab Nebula pulsar using Arecibo Observatory. The discovery of the Crab pulsar provided confirmation of the rotating neutron star model of pulsars. The Crab pulsar 33-millisecond pulse period was too short to be consistent with other proposed models for pulsar emission. Moreover, the Crab pulsar is so named because it is located at the center of the Crab Nebula, consistent with the 1933 prediction of Baade and Zwicky. In 1974, Antony Hewish and Martin Ryle, who had developed revolutionary radio telescopes, became the first astronomers to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, with the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences noting that Hewish played a "decisive role in the discovery of pulsars". Considerable controversy is associated with the fact that Hewish was awarded the prize while Bell, who made the initial discovery while she was his PhD student, was not. Bell claims no bitterness upon this point, supporting the decision of the Nobel prize committee. ### Milestones In 1974, Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. and Russell Hulse discovered for the first time a pulsar in a binary system, PSR B1913+16. This pulsar orbits another neutron star with an orbital period of just eight hours. Einstein's theory of general relativity predicts that this system should emit strong gravitational radiation, causing the orbit to continually contract as it loses orbital energy. Observations of the pulsar soon confirmed this prediction, providing the first ever evidence of the existence of gravitational waves. As of 2010, observations of this pulsar continue to agree with general relativity. In 1993, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Taylor and Hulse for the discovery of this pulsar. In 1982, Don Backer led a group that discovered PSR B1937+21, a pulsar with a rotation period of just 1.6 milliseconds (38,500 rpm). Observations soon revealed that its magnetic field was much weaker than ordinary pulsars, while further discoveries cemented the idea that a new class of object, the "millisecond pulsars" (MSPs) had been found. MSPs are believed to be the end product of X-ray binaries. Owing to their extraordinarily rapid and stable rotation, MSPs can be used by astronomers as clocks rivaling the stability of the best atomic clocks on Earth. Factors affecting the arrival time of pulses at Earth by more than a few hundred nanoseconds can be easily detected and used to make precise measurements. Physical parameters accessible through pulsar timing include the 3D position of the pulsar, its proper motion, the electron content of the interstellar medium along the propagation path, the orbital parameters of any binary companion, the pulsar rotation period and its evolution with time. (These are computed from the raw timing data by Tempo, a computer program specialized for this task.) After these factors have been taken into account, deviations between the observed arrival times and predictions made using these parameters can be found and attributed to one of three possibilities: intrinsic variations in the spin period of the pulsar, errors in the realization of Terrestrial Time against which arrival times were measured, or the presence of background gravitational waves. Scientists are currently attempting to resolve these possibilities by comparing the deviations seen between several different pulsars, forming what is known as a pulsar timing array. The goal of these efforts is to develop a pulsar-based time standard precise enough to make the first ever direct detection of gravitational waves. In June 2006, the astronomer John Middleditch and his team at LANL announced the first prediction of pulsar glitches with observational data from the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer. They used observations of the pulsar PSR J0537−6910. In 1992, Aleksander Wolszczan discovered the first extrasolar planets around PSR B1257+12. This discovery presented important evidence concerning the widespread existence of planets outside the Solar System, although it is very unlikely that any life form could survive in the environment of intense radiation near a pulsar. In 2016, AR Scorpii was identified as the first pulsar in which the compact object is a white dwarf instead of a neutron star. Because its moment of inertia is much higher than that of a neutron star, the white dwarf in this system rotates once every 1.97 minutes, far slower than neutron-star pulsars. The system displays strong pulsations from ultraviolet to radio wavelengths, powered by the spin-down of the strongly magnetized white dwarf. Nomenclature ------------ Initially pulsars were named with letters of the discovering observatory followed by their right ascension (e.g. CP 1919). As more pulsars were discovered, the letter code became unwieldy, and so the convention then arose of using the letters PSR (Pulsating Source of Radio) followed by the pulsar's right ascension and degrees of declination (e.g. PSR 0531+21) and sometimes declination to a tenth of a degree (e.g. PSR 1913+16.7). Pulsars appearing very close together sometimes have letters appended (e.g. PSR 0021−72C and PSR 0021−72D). The modern convention prefixes the older numbers with a B (e.g. PSR B1919+21), with the B meaning the coordinates are for the 1950.0 epoch. All new pulsars have a J indicating 2000.0 coordinates and also have declination including minutes (e.g. PSR J1921+2153). Pulsars that were discovered before 1993 tend to retain their B names rather than use their J names (e.g. PSR J1921+2153 is more commonly known as PSR B1919+21). Recently discovered pulsars only have a J name (e.g. PSR J0437−4715). All pulsars have a J name that provides more precise coordinates of its location in the sky. Formation, mechanism, turn off ------------------------------ The events leading to the formation of a pulsar begin when the core of a massive star is compressed during a supernova, which collapses into a neutron star. The neutron star retains most of its angular momentum, and since it has only a tiny fraction of its progenitor's radius (and therefore its moment of inertia is sharply reduced), it is formed with very high rotation speed. A beam of radiation is emitted along the magnetic axis of the pulsar, which spins along with the rotation of the neutron star. The magnetic axis of the pulsar determines the direction of the electromagnetic beam, with the magnetic axis not necessarily being the same as its rotational axis. This misalignment causes the beam to be seen once for every rotation of the neutron star, which leads to the "pulsed" nature of its appearance. In rotation-powered pulsars, the beam is the result of the rotational energy of the neutron star, which generates an electrical field from the movement of the very strong magnetic field, resulting in the acceleration of protons and electrons on the star surface and the creation of an electromagnetic beam emanating from the poles of the magnetic field. Observations by NICER of PSR J0030+0451 indicate that both beams originate from hotspots located on the south pole and that there may be more than two such hotspots on that star. This rotation slows down over time as electromagnetic power is emitted. When a pulsar's spin period slows down sufficiently, the radio pulsar mechanism is believed to turn off (the so-called "death line"). This turn-off seems to take place after about 10–100 million years, which means of all the neutron stars born in the 13.6-billion-year age of the universe, around 99% no longer pulsate. Though the general picture of pulsars as rapidly rotating neutron stars is widely accepted, Werner Becker of the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics said in 2006, "The theory of how pulsars emit their radiation is still in its infancy, even after nearly forty years of work." Categories ---------- Three distinct classes of pulsars are currently known to astronomers, according to the source of the power of the electromagnetic radiation: * rotation-powered pulsars, where the loss of rotational energy of the star provides the power, * accretion-powered pulsars (accounting for most but not all X-ray pulsars), where the gravitational potential energy of accreted matter is the power source (producing X-rays that are observable from the Earth), * magnetars, where the decay of an extremely strong magnetic field provides the electromagnetic power. Although all three classes of objects are neutron stars, their observable behavior and the underlying physics are quite different. There are, however, some connections. For example, X-ray pulsars are probably old rotationally-powered pulsars that have already lost most of their power, and have only become visible again after their binary companions had expanded and begun transferring matter on to the neutron star. The process of accretion can, in turn, transfer enough angular momentum to the neutron star to "recycle" it as a rotation-powered millisecond pulsar. As this matter lands on the neutron star, it is thought to "bury" the magnetic field of the neutron star (although the details are unclear), leaving millisecond pulsars with magnetic fields 1000–10,000 times weaker than average pulsars. This low magnetic field is less effective at slowing the pulsar's rotation, so millisecond pulsars live for billions of years, making them the oldest known pulsars. Millisecond pulsars are seen in globular clusters, which stopped forming neutron stars billions of years ago. Of interest to the study of the state of the matter in a neutron star are the *glitches* observed in the rotation velocity of the neutron star. This velocity decreases slowly but steadily, except for an occasional sudden variation – a “glitch”. One model put forward to explain these glitches is that they are the result of "starquakes" that adjust the crust of the neutron star. Models where the glitch is due to a decoupling of the possibly superconducting interior of the star have also been advanced. In both cases, the star's moment of inertia changes, but its angular momentum does not, resulting in a change in rotation rate. ### Disrupted recycled pulsar When two massive stars are born close together from the same cloud of gas, they can form a binary system and orbit each other from birth. If those two stars are at least a few times as massive as the Sun, their lives will both end in supernova explosions. The more massive star explodes first, leaving behind a neutron star. If the explosion does not kick the second star away, the binary system survives. The neutron star can now be visible as a radio pulsar, and it slowly loses energy and spins down. Later, the second star can swell up, allowing the neutron star to suck up its matter. The matter falling onto the neutron star spins it up and reduces its magnetic field. This is called "recycling" because it returns the neutron star to a quickly-spinning state. Finally, the second star also explodes in a supernova, producing another neutron star. If this second explosion also fails to disrupt the binary, a double neutron star binary is formed. Otherwise, the spun-up neutron star is left with no companion and becomes a "disrupted recycled pulsar", spinning between a few and 50 times per second. Applications ------------ The discovery of pulsars allowed astronomers to study an object never observed before, the neutron star. This kind of object is the only place where the behavior of matter at nuclear density can be observed (though not directly). Also, millisecond pulsars have allowed a test of general relativity in conditions of an intense gravitational field. ### Maps Pulsar maps have been included on the two *Pioneer* plaques as well as the *Voyager* Golden Record. They show the position of the Sun, relative to 14 pulsars, which are identified by the unique timing of their electromagnetic pulses, so that our position both in space and in time can be calculated by potential extraterrestrial intelligences. Because pulsars are emitting very regular pulses of radio waves, its radio transmissions do not require daily corrections. Moreover, pulsar positioning could create a spacecraft navigation system independently, or be used in conjunction with satellite navigation. ### Pulsar navigation *X-ray pulsar-based navigation and timing (XNAV)* or simply *pulsar navigation* is a navigation technique whereby the periodic X-ray signals emitted from pulsars are used to determine the location of a vehicle, such as a spacecraft in deep space. A vehicle using XNAV would compare received X-ray signals with a database of known pulsar frequencies and locations. Similar to GPS, this comparison would allow the vehicle to calculate its position accurately (±5 km). The advantage of using X-ray signals over radio waves is that X-ray telescopes can be made smaller and lighter. Experimental demonstrations have been reported in 2018. ### Precise clocks Generally, the regularity of pulsar emission does not rival the stability of atomic clocks. They can still be used as external reference. For example, J0437−4715 has a period of 0.005757451936712637 s with an error of 1.7×10−17 s. This stability allows millisecond pulsars to be used in establishing ephemeris time or in building pulsar clocks. *Timing noise* is the name for rotational irregularities observed in all pulsars. This timing noise is observable as random wandering in the pulse frequency or phase. It is unknown whether timing noise is related to pulsar glitches. ### Probes of the interstellar medium The radiation from pulsars passes through the interstellar medium (ISM) before reaching Earth. Free electrons in the warm (8000 K), ionized component of the ISM and H II regions affect the radiation in two primary ways. The resulting changes to the pulsar's radiation provide an important probe of the ISM itself. Because of the dispersive nature of the interstellar plasma, lower-frequency radio waves travel through the medium slower than higher-frequency radio waves. The resulting delay in the arrival of pulses at a range of frequencies is directly measurable as the *dispersion measure* of the pulsar. The dispersion measure is the total column density of free electrons between the observer and the pulsar: D M = ∫ 0 D n e ( s ) d s , {\displaystyle \mathrm {DM} =\int \_{0}^{D}n\_{e}(s)\,ds,} {\displaystyle \mathrm {DM} =\int _{0}^{D}n_{e}(s)\,ds,} where D {\displaystyle D} D is the distance from the pulsar to the observer, and n e {\displaystyle n\_{e}} n_{e} is the electron density of the ISM. The dispersion measure is used to construct models of the free electron distribution in the Milky Way. Additionally, density inhomogeneities in the ISM cause scattering of the radio waves from the pulsar. The resulting scintillation of the radio waves—the same effect as the twinkling of a star in visible light due to density variations in the Earth's atmosphere—can be used to reconstruct information about the small scale variations in the ISM. Due to the high velocity (up to several hundred km/s) of many pulsars, a single pulsar scans the ISM rapidly, which results in changing scintillation patterns over timescales of a few minutes. The exact cause of these density inhomogeneities remains an open question, with possible explanations ranging from turbulence to current sheets. ### Probes of space-time Pulsars orbiting within the curved space-time around Sgr A\*, the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way, could serve as probes of gravity in the strong-field regime. Arrival times of the pulses would be affected by special- and general-relativistic Doppler shifts and by the complicated paths that the radio waves would travel through the strongly curved space-time around the black hole. In order for the effects of general relativity to be measurable with current instruments, pulsars with orbital periods less than about 10 years would need to be discovered; such pulsars would orbit at distances inside 0.01 pc from Sgr A\*. Searches are currently underway; at present, five pulsars are known to lie within 100 pc from Sgr A\*. ### Gravitational wave detectors There are 3 consortia around the world which use pulsars to search for gravitational waves. In Europe, there is the European Pulsar Timing Array (EPTA); there is the Parkes Pulsar Timing Array (PPTA) in Australia; and there is the North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves (NANOGrav) in Canada and the US. Together, the consortia form the International Pulsar Timing Array (IPTA). The pulses from Millisecond Pulsars (MSPs) are used as a system of Galactic clocks. Disturbances in the clocks will be measurable at Earth. A disturbance from a passing gravitational wave will have a particular signature across the ensemble of pulsars, and will be thus detected. Significant pulsars ------------------- Pulsars within 300 pc| PSR | Distance(pc) | Age(Myr) | | --- | --- | --- | | J0030+0451 | 244 | 7,580 | | J0108−1431 | 238 | 166 | | J0437−4715 | 156 | 1,590 | | J0633+1746 | 156 | 0.342 | | J0659+1414 | 290 | 0.111 | | J0835−4510 | 290 | 0.0113 | | J0453+0755 | 260 | 17.5 | | J1045−4509 | 300 | 6,710 | | J1741−2054 | 250 | 0.387 | | J1856−3754 | 161 | 3.76 | | J2144−3933 | 165 | 272 | The pulsars listed here were either the first discovered of its type, or represent an extreme of some type among the known pulsar population, such as having the shortest measured period. * The first radio pulsar "CP 1919" (now known as PSR B1919+21), with a pulse period of 1.337 seconds and a pulse width of 0.04-second, was discovered in 1967. * The first binary pulsar, PSR 1913+16, whose orbit is decaying due to the emission of gravitational radiation at the exact rate predicted by general relativity. * The brightest radio pulsar, the Vela Pulsar. * The first millisecond pulsar, PSR B1937+21 * The brightest millisecond pulsar, PSR J0437−4715 * The first X-ray pulsar, Cen X-3 * The first accreting millisecond X-ray pulsar, SAX J1808.4−3658 * The first pulsar with planets, PSR B1257+12 * The first pulsar observed to have been affected by asteroids: PSR J0738−4042 * The first double pulsar binary system, PSR J0737−3039 * The shortest period pulsar, PSR J1748−2446ad, with a period of ~0.0014 seconds or ~1.4 milliseconds (716 times a second). * The longest period neutron star pulsar, PSR J0901-4046, with a period of 75.9 seconds. * The longest period pulsar, at 118.2 seconds, as well as one of the only known two white dwarf pulsars, AR Scorpii. * The first white dwarf pulsar AE Aquarii. * The pulsar with the most stable period, PSR J0437−4715 * The first millisecond pulsar with 2 stellar mass companions, PSR J0337+1715 * PSR J1841−0500, stopped pulsing for 580 days. One of only two pulsars known to have stopped pulsing for more than a few minutes. * PSR B1931+24, has a cycle. It pulses for about a week and stops pulsing for about a month. One of only two pulsars known to have stopped pulsing for more than a few minutes. * Swift J0243.6+6124 most magnetic pulsar with 1.6 × 10 13 {\displaystyle 1.6\times 10^{13}} {\displaystyle 1.6\times 10^{13}}G. * PSR J0952-0607 heaviest pulsar with 2.35+0.17 −0.17 M☉. * PSR J1903+0327, a ~2.15 ms pulsar discovered to be in a highly eccentric binary star system with a Sun-like star. * PSR J2007+2722, a 40.8-hertz 'recycled' isolated pulsar was the first pulsar found by volunteers on data taken in February 2007 and analyzed by distributed computing project Einstein@Home. * PSR J1311–3430, the first millisecond pulsar discovered via gamma-ray pulsations and part of a binary system with the shortest orbital period. Gallery ------- * Video – Crab Pulsar – bright pulse and interpulse.Video – Crab Pulsar – bright pulse and interpulse. * Video – Vela pulsar – X-ray light. * Video – Artist's impression of AR Scorpii. See also -------- * Anomalous X-ray pulsar * Black hole * Double pulsar * Magnetar * Neutron star * Optical pulsar * Pulsar clock * Pulsar planet * Pulsar wind nebula * Radio astronomy * Radio star * Rotating radio transient * Soft gamma repeater * Supernova remnant * X-ray pulsar Further reading --------------- * Lorimer, Duncan R.; Kramer, Michael (2004). *Handbook of Pulsar Astronomy*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82823-9. * Lorimer, Duncan R. (2008). "Binary and Millisecond Pulsars". *Living Reviews in Relativity*. **11** (1): 8. arXiv:0811.0762. Bibcode:2008LRR....11....8L. doi:10.12942/lrr-2008-8. PMC 5256074. PMID 28179824. Archived from the original on 2012-03-15. Retrieved 2011-12-14. * Lyne, Andrew G.; Graham-Smith, Francis (1998). *Pulsar Astronomy*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59413-4. * Manchester, Richard N.; Taylor, Joseph H. (1977). *Pulsars*. W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 978-0-7167-0358-7. * Stairs, Ingrid H (2003). "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing". *Living Reviews in Relativity*. **6** (1): 5. arXiv:astro-ph/0307536. Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S. doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5. PMC 5253800. PMID 28163640.

Pulsar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsar

**Patna** (/ˈpætnə, ˈpʌt-/ Hindi: [ˈpəʈnaː] ()), historically known as **Pataliputra**, is the capital and largest city of the state of Bihar in India. According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Patna had a population of 2.35 million, making it the 19th largest city in India. Covering 250 square kilometres (97 sq mi) and over 2.5 million people, its urban agglomeration is the 18th largest in India. Patna serves as the seat of Patna High Court. The Buddhist, Hindu and Jain pilgrimage centres of Vaishali, Rajgir, Nalanda, Bodh Gaya and Pawapuri are nearby and Patna City is a sacred city for Sikhs as the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh was born here. The modern city of Patna is mainly on the southern bank of the river Ganges. The city also straddles the rivers Sone, Gandak and Punpun. The city is approximately 35 kilometres (22 mi) in length and 16 to 18 kilometres (9.9 to 11.2 mi) wide. One of the oldest continuously inhabited places in the world, Patna was founded in 490 BCE by the king of Magadha. Ancient Patna, known as Pataliputra, was the capital of the Magadha Empire throughout the Haryanka, Nanda, Mauryan, Shunga, Gupta, and Pala dynasties. Pataliputra was a seat of learning and fine arts. It was home to many astronomers and scholars including Aryabhata, Vātsyāyana and Chanakya. During the Maurya period (around 300 BCE) its population was about 400,000. Patna served as the seat of power, and political and cultural centre of the Indian subcontinent during the Maurya and Gupta empires. With the fall of the Gupta Empire, Patna lost its glory. It was revived again in the 17th century by the British as a centre of international trade. Following the partition of Bengal presidency in 1912, Patna became the capital of Bihar and Orissa Province. Until the 19th century it was a major trading and commercial hub in India. After independence there were a few downturns but its economy was still stable. After the separation of Jharkhand from Bihar, it lost its glory. Now trials are made to develop the city. As per the Directorate of Economics and Statistics (Government of Bihar), Nominal GDP of Patna District was estimated at INR 63,176.55 crores in 2011-12. As of 2011-12, Patna already recorded per capita gross domestic product of ₹1,08,657, way ahead of many other Indian cities and state capitals. Using figures for assumed average annual growth, Patna is the 21st fastest growing city in the world and 5th fastest growing city in India according to a study by the City Mayors Foundation. Patna registered an average annual growth of 3.72% during 2006–2010. As of 2011-12, GDP per capita of Patna is ₹1,08,657 and its GDP growth rate is 7.29 per cent. In June 2009, the World Bank ranked Patna second in India (after Delhi) for ease of starting a business. Etymology --------- The name of this city has changed with time. One of the oldest cities of India, there are several theories regarding the origin of the modern name Patna (Bengali: পাটনা; Devanagari: पटना; Kaithi: 𑂣𑂗𑂢𑂰; Gurmukhi: ਪਟਨਾ; Urdu: پٹنہ). It is etymologically derived from *Patan* (Devanagari: पटन), the name of the Hindu goddess, Patan Devi. Patan Devi Mandir is still in old Patna near Gulzarbagh mandi along with another, Patan Devi Mandir, near Takht Sri Patna Sahib. Many believe Patna derived its name from Patli, a tree variety that was found in abundance in the historic city. It is also seen on the state tourism's logo. The place is mentioned in Chinese traveller Fa Hien's records as Pa-lin-fou. The city has been known by various names through more than 2,000 years of existence – Pataligrama, Pataliputra, Kusumapura, Kusumdhwaja Pushpapuram, Padmavathi, Azimabad and the present-day Patna. Legend ascribes the origin of Patna to the mythological King Putraka who created Patna by magic for his queen Patali, literally "trumpet flower", which gives it its ancient name Pataligrama. It is said that in honour of the queen's first-born, the city was named Pataliputra. *Gram* is Sanskrit for village and *Putra* means son. Legend also says that the Emerald Buddha was created in Patna (then Pataliputra) by Nagasena in 43 BCE. History ------- ### Ancient Era Traditional Buddhist literature attributes foundation of Patna 490 BCE as Ajatashatru, the king of Magadha, wanted to shift his capital from the hilly Rajagrha (today Rajgir) to a strategically chosen place to better combat the Licchavis of Vaishali. He chose the site on the bank of the Ganges and fortified the area. Gautama Buddha travelled through this place in the last year of his life. He prophesied a great future for this place even as he predicted its ruin due to flood, fire and feud. According to Dieter Schlingloff, the Buddhist accounts may have presented the grandeur of Patna as a prophecy and that its wooden fortifications, unlike other early historic Indian cities, indicate that it might be much older than thought but only archaeological excavation and C14 dates of its wooden palisades which is presently lacking may establish this. ### Mauryan Empire Megasthenes, the Indo-Greek historian and ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya, gave one of the earliest accounts of the city. He wrote that the city was on the confluence of the rivers *Ganga* and *Arennovoas* (Sonabhadra – Hiranyawah) and was 14 kilometres (9 mi) long and 2.82 kilometres (1.75 mi) wide. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to India, described the city as the greatest city on earth during its heyday. The Shungas ultimately retained control of Pataliputra and ruled for almost 100 years. The Shungas were followed by the Kanvas and eventually by the Guptas. A number of Chinese travellers came to India in pursuit of knowledge and recorded their observations about Pataliputra in their travelogues. One such famous account was recorded by a Chinese Buddhist traveller Fa Hien, who visited India between 399 and 414 CE, and stayed here for many months translating Buddhist texts. When Chinese Buddhist Monk Faxian visited the city in 400 A.D, he found the people to be rich and prosperous; they practised virtue and justice. He found that the nobles and householders of the city had constructed several hospitals in which the poor of all countries, the destitute, the crippled and the diseased can get treatment. They could receive every kind of help gratuitously. Physicians would inspect the diseases, and order them food, drink, and medicines.[*page needed*] * Pataliputra as a capital of the Magadha Empire.Pataliputra as a capital of the Magadha Empire. * Pataliputra as a capital of Maurya Empire. The Maurya Empire at its largest extent under Ashoka the Great. Pataliputra as a capital of Maurya Empire. The Maurya Empire at its largest extent under Ashoka the Great. * Pataliputra as a capital of Shunga Empire. Approximate greatest extent of the Shunga Empire (c. 185 BCE). Pataliputra as a capital of Shunga Empire. Approximate greatest extent of the Shunga Empire (c. 185 BCE). * Pataliputra as a capital of Gupta Empire. Approximate greatest extent of the Gupta Empire. Pataliputra as a capital of Gupta Empire. Approximate greatest extent of the Gupta Empire. ### Gupta and Pala empire In the years that followed, many dynasties ruled the Indian subcontinent from the city, including the Gupta dynasty and the Pala kings. With the disintegration of the Gupta empire, Patna passed through uncertain times. Bakhtiar Khilji captured Bihar in the 12th century and destroyed everything, and Patna lost its prestige as the political and cultural centre of India. ### Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire was a period of unremarkable provincial administration from Delhi. The most remarkable period during the Middle Ages was under the Afghan emperor Sher Shah Suri, who revived Patna in the middle of the 16th century. He built a fort and founded a town on the banks of the Ganges. Sher Shah's fort in Patna does not survive, although the Sher Shah Suri mosque, built in Afghan architectural style, does. Mughal emperor Akbar reached Patna in 1574 to crush the rebellious Afghan Chief Daud Khan. One of the navratnas from Akbar's court, his official historian and author of "Ain-i-Akbari" Abul Fazl refers to Patna as a flourishing centre for paper, stone and glass industries. He also refers to the high quality of numerous strains of rice grown in Patna, famous as Patna rice in Europe. By 1620, the city of Patna was being described as the "chiefest mart towne of all Bengala" (i.e. largest town in Bengal) in northern India, "the largest town in Bengal and the most famous for trade". This was before the founding of the city of Calcutta. Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb acceded to the request of his favourite grandson, Prince Muhammad Azim, to rename Patna as Azimabad, in 1704 while Azim was in Patna as the subedar. Patna or Azimabad did see some violent activities, according to Phillip Mason, writing in the book "The Men Who Ruled India". "Aurangzeb had restored the poll-tax (Jazia) on unbelievers and this had to be compounded for. In Patna, Peacock the Chief of the factory was not sufficiently obliging and was seized, forced to walk through the town bare-headed and bare-footed and subjected to many other indignities before he paid up and was released." Little changed during this period other than the name. With the decline of the Mughal empire, Patna moved into the hands of the Nawabs of Bengal, who levied a heavy tax on the populace but allowed it to flourish as a commercial centre. The mansions of the Maharaja of Tekari Raj dominated the Patna riverfront in 1811–12. In 1750, the future Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah revolted against his grandfather, Alivardi Khan, and seized Patna, but quickly surrendered and was forgiven. Guru Gobind Singh (22 December 1666 – 7 October 1708), the tenth Guru of the Sikhs, was born as Gobind Rai in Patna to Guru Teg Bahadur, the ninth Guru of the Sikhs, and his wife Mata Gujri. His birthplace, Patna Sahib, is one of the most sacred sites of pilgrimage for Sikhs. ### Portuguese Empire As trade grew, settlements of the Portuguese empire expanded to the Bengal Gulf. Since at least 1515 the Portuguese were at Bengal as traders, and later in 1521 an embassy was sent to Gaur to be able to create factories in the region. The Bengal Sultan after 1534 allowed the Portuguese to create several settlements as Chitagoong e Satgaon. In 1535 the Portuguese were allied with the Bengal sultan and held the Teliagarhi pass 280 km from Patna helping to avoid the invasion by the Mughals. By then several of the products came from Patna and the Portuguese send in traders, establishing a factory there since 1580 at least. The products were shipped out down the river until other Portuguese ports as Chittagoon e Satgaoon, and from there to the rest of the empire. ### British Empire During the 17th century, Patna became a centre of international trade. In 1620, the English East India Company established a factory in Patna for trading in calico and silk. Soon it became a trading centre for saltpetre. Francois Bernier, in *Travels in the Mogul Empire* (1656–1668), says ". It was carried down the Ganges with great facility, and the Dutch and English sent large cargoes to many parts of the Indies, and to Europe". This trade encouraged other Europeans, principally the French, Danes, Dutch and Portuguese, to compete in the lucrative business. Peter Mundy, writing in 1632, described Patna as "the greatest mart of the eastern region". After the decisive Battle of Buxar of 1764, as per the treaty of Allahabad East India Company was given the right to collect tax of this former Mughal province by the Mughal emperor. Patna was annexed by the company in 1793 to its territory when Nizamat (Mughal suzerainty) was abolished and the British East India Company took control of the province of Bengal-Bihar. Patna however continued as a trading centre. In 1912, when the Bengal Presidency was partitioned, Patna became the capital of the British province of Bihar and Orissa, although in 1936 Orissa became a separate entity with its own capital. To date, a major population of Bengalis lives in Patna particularly. * Street in Patna, 1825 (British, active in India)Street in Patna, 1825 (British, active in India) * Golghar at Bankipore, near Patna, 1814–15Golghar at Bankipore, near Patna, 1814–15 #### Indian Independence Movement People from Patna were greatly involved in the Indian independence movement. Most notable movements were the Champaran movement against the Indigo plantation and the 1942 Quit India Movement. National leaders who came from the city include Swami Sahajanand Saraswati; the first President of the Constituent Assembly of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad; *Bihar Vibhuti* (Anugrah Narayan Sinha); Basawon Singh (Sinha); and *Loknayak* (Jayaprakash Narayan). ### Post-Independence Patna remained the capital of Bihar after India gained independence in 1947, even as Bihar was partitioned again in 2000 when Jharkhand became a separate state of the Indian union. On 27 October 2013, six people were killed and 85 others were injured in a series of co-ordinated bombings at an election rally for BJP candidate Narendra Modi. On 3 October 2014, 33 people were killed and 26 injured in a stampede at Gandhi Maidan during Vijaya Dashmi celebrations. Geography --------- ### Topography | | | **Patna's Urban agglomeration**| Jurisdiction | Population | | --- | --- | | Town | Type | Estimate (2011) | | **Patna** | Municipal Corporation | 1,684,222 | | **Danapur** | Nagar Parishad | 182,429 | | **Badalpura** | Out Growth | 75 | | **Danapur Cantonment** | Cantonment Board | 28,723 | | **Khagaul** | Nagar Parishad | 44,364 | | **Nohsa** | Census Town | 16,680 | | **Pataliputra Housing Colony** | Census Town | 3,531 | | **Phulwari Sharif** | Nagar Parishad | 81,740 | | **Saidpura** | Census Town | 7,392 | | **Patna UA** | 2,049,156 | | Patna district | 5,838,465 | | *Source:* | Patna is on the southern bank of the river Ganges. The total area of Patna is 250 km2 (97 sq mi). Of this, the municipal area constitutes 109.218 km2 (42.169 sq mi). The suburban area covers 140.782 km2 (54.356 sq mi). It has an average elevation of 53 m (174 ft). A characteristic feature of the geography of Patna is its confluence of major rivers. During the British Raj, Patna was part of the Bengal Presidency. After Nalanda district was carved out of Patna district in 1976, Patna was purged of all hilly regions. It is an alluvial, flat expanse of land. The land in the district is too fertile and is almost entirely cultivated with no forest cover. Alluvial soil found here is ideal for cultivation of rice, sugarcane and other foodgrains. The area under cultivation is studded with mango orchards and bamboo groves. In the fields along the banks of river Ganges, weeds such as ammannia, citriculari, hygrophile and sesbania grow. But palmyra, date palm and mango orchards are found near habitations. Dry stretches of shrubbery are sometimes seen in the villages far from the rivers. Trees commonly found are bel, siris, jack fruit and the red cotton tree. Patna is unique in having four large rivers in its vicinity. It is the largest riverine city in the world. The topography of Patna city is saucer shaped as per Patna City Development Plan prepared in 2006. The bridge over the river Ganges named Mahatma Gandhi Setu is 5575m long and is the longest river bridge in the India. Patna comes under India's seismic zone-IV, indicating its vulnerability to major earthquakes, but earthquakes have not been common in recent history. Patna also falls in the risk zone for floods and cyclones. ### Climate Patna has a humid subtropical climate under the Köppen climate classification: (Cwa) with extremely hot summers from late March to June, the monsoon season from late June to late September and chilly winter nights and foggy or sunny days from November to February. Highest temperature ever recorded was 46.6 °C (115.9 °F) in the year 1966, the lowest ever was 1.1 °C (34 °F) on 9 January 2013, and highest rainfall was 204.5 mm (8.05 in) in the year 1997. The table below details historical monthly averages for climate variables. | Climate data for Patna Airport (1981–2010, extremes 1951–2013) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 30.0(86.0) | 35.1(95.2) | 41.4(106.5) | 44.6(112.3) | 45.6(114.1) | 46.6(115.9) | 41.2(106.2) | 39.7(103.5) | 37.5(99.5) | 37.2(99.0) | 34.1(93.4) | 30.5(86.9) | 46.6(115.9) | | Mean maximum °C (°F) | 27.0(80.6) | 30.4(86.7) | 37.3(99.1) | 41.1(106.0) | 42.5(108.5) | 41.7(107.1) | 36.8(98.2) | 36.1(97.0) | 35.1(95.2) | 34.5(94.1) | 31.8(89.2) | 27.9(82.2) | 43.3(109.9) | | Average high °C (°F) | 22.4(72.3) | 26.0(78.8) | 32.2(90.0) | 37.0(98.6) | 37.4(99.3) | 36.4(97.5) | 33.0(91.4) | 32.9(91.2) | 32.5(90.5) | 31.9(89.4) | 29.0(84.2) | 24.5(76.1) | 31.3(88.3) | | Average low °C (°F) | 9.3(48.7) | 12.1(53.8) | 16.7(62.1) | 22.1(71.8) | 25.1(77.2) | 26.7(80.1) | 26.3(79.3) | 26.3(79.3) | 25.5(77.9) | 21.5(70.7) | 15.1(59.2) | 10.5(50.9) | 19.8(67.6) | | Mean minimum °C (°F) | 5.1(41.2) | 7.8(46.0) | 11.6(52.9) | 17.1(62.8) | 20.6(69.1) | 23.1(73.6) | 23.8(74.8) | 23.6(74.5) | 22.6(72.7) | 16.9(62.4) | 10.5(50.9) | 6.9(44.4) | 4.9(40.8) | | Record low °C (°F) | 1.1(34.0) | 3.4(38.1) | 8.2(46.8) | 13.3(55.9) | 17.7(63.9) | 19.3(66.7) | 21.1(70.0) | 20.5(68.9) | 19.0(66.2) | 12.0(53.6) | 7.7(45.9) | 2.2(36.0) | 1.1(34.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 11.1(0.44) | 14.0(0.55) | 9.5(0.37) | 12.7(0.50) | 43.7(1.72) | 162.5(6.40) | 354.4(13.95) | 277.8(10.94) | 197.7(7.78) | 49.1(1.93) | 7.2(0.28) | 6.1(0.24) | 1,145.8(45.11) | | Average rainy days | 1.2 | 1.3 | 0.7 | 1.0 | 2.9 | 6.9 | 14.3 | 12.5 | 9.5 | 2.9 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 54.2 | | Average relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST) | 65 | 52 | 37 | 32 | 42 | 59 | 75 | 75 | 76 | 68 | 67 | 69 | 60 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 207.7 | 228.8 | 260.4 | 264.0 | 272.8 | 192.0 | 130.2 | 151.9 | 162.0 | 238.7 | 240.0 | 201.5 | 2,550 | | Mean daily sunshine hours | 6.7 | 8.1 | 8.4 | 8.8 | 8.8 | 6.4 | 4.2 | 4.9 | 5.4 | 7.7 | 8.0 | 6.5 | 7.0 | | Average ultraviolet index | 6 | 7 | 9 | 11 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 11 | 8 | 6 | 5 | 9 | | Source 1: India Meteorological Department (sun 1971–2000) | | Source 2: Weather Atlas | ### Air pollution Pollution is a major concern in Patna. According to the CAG report, tabled in the Bihar Legislative Assembly in April 2015, respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM) level (PM-10) in Patna was 355, three-and-a-half times higher than the prescribed limit of 100 micro-gram per cubic metre, primarily due to high vehicular and industrial emissions and construction activities in the city. In May 2014, a World Health Organization survey declared Patna the second most air polluted city in India, only after Delhi, with the survey calculating the airborne particulate matter in the state capital's ambient air (PM-2.5) to be 149 micro-grams, six times more than the safe limit, which is 25 micro-grams. Severe air pollution in the city has caused a rise in pollution-related respiratory ailments, such as lung cancer, asthma, dysentery and diarrhoea. The dense smog in Patna during winter season results in major air and rail traffic disruptions every year. Economy ------- Patna has long been a major agricultural hub and a centre of trade. It's largest exports are grain, sugarcane, sesame, and medium-grained Patna rice. There are several sugar mills in and around Patna. It is an important business and luxury brand centre of eastern India. The economy of Patna has seen sustained economic growth since 2005. The economy has been spurred by growth in the fast-moving consumer goods industry, the service sector, along with Green revolution businesses. In 2009, the World Bank stated Patna as the second best city in India to start up a business. As of 2011-12, GDP per capita of Patna is ₹1,08,657 and its GDP growth rate is 7.29 per cent. Patna is the 21st fastest-growing city in the world and the fifth fastest-growing city in India, and is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 3.72%. The major business districts of the city are Bander Bagicha, Exhibition Road, Gandhi Maidan Marg, Frazer Road, Indrapuri and Maurya Lok. Earlier, Patna was an international trading hub and a major textile center. Going back to the 19th century when a silk factory was set up here, many foreign traders visited the city, contributing to its economic growth. Even after gaining independence, the economy remained relatively stable. During this time, the city witnessed the establishment of numerous vegetable and vegetable oil manufacturing facilities. However, from the 1980s onwards, the economy experienced fluctuations. Despite this, until the 1990s, when liberalization came to India, Patna did not attract significant global funds or foreign investments. Consequently, the trading and economic environment suffered a severe setback. Although the city had several fertilizer plants and sugar mills, due to a weakened ecosystem, many companies incurred losses and were eventually forced to close down or leave the state. A large number of manufacturing companies Hero Cycles, Britannia Industries, PepsiCo, Sonalika Tractors and UltraTech Cement have established their manufacturing plants in Patna metropolitan area. World's second largest leather cluster is in Fatuha in Patna. Patna is also emerging as an IT hub. Tata Consultancy Services-Patna started their operations in 2019 at their new facility. Many business parks are planned in the city. * State Bank of India- Patna Regional office at East Gandhi Maidan MargState Bank of India- Patna Regional office at East Gandhi Maidan Marg * Software Technology Park of India, PatnaSoftware Technology Park of India, Patna * Reserve Bank of India's regional office at South Gandhi Maidan Marg, PatnaReserve Bank of India's regional office at South Gandhi Maidan Marg, Patna Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1807–14 | 312,000 | —     | | 1820 | 100,000 | −67.9% | | 1865 | 284,100 | +184.1% | | 1872 | 158,000 | −44.4% | | 1881 | 170,684 | +8.0% | | 1891 | 165,200 | −3.2% | | 1901 | 134,785 | −18.4% | | 1911 | 136,153 | +1.0% | | 1921 | 119,976 | −11.9% | | 1931 | 159,690 | +33.1% | | 1941 | 196,415 | +23.0% | | 1951 | 283,479 | +44.3% | | 1961 | 364,594 | +28.6% | | 1971 | 475,300 | +30.4% | | 1981 | 813,963 | +71.3% | | 1991 | 1,099,647 | +35.1% | | 2001 | 1,376,950 | +25.2% | | 2011 | 1,684,222 | +22.3% | | Note: Huge population decline after 1814 due to the decreasein the river borne trade, persistent unhealthiness and repeatedepidemics of plaque.Source: | With an estimated population of 1.68 million in 2011, Patna is the 19th most populous city in India and with over 2 million people, its urban agglomeration is the 18th largest in India. Residents of Patna are referred to by the demonym Patnaite. According to 2011 census data, Patna city had a population of 1,684,222 (before the expansion of the city limits) within the corporation limits, with 893,399 men and 790,823 women. This was an increase of 22.3 percent compared to the 2001 figures. 11.32 percent of the population was under six years of age, with 102,208 boys and 88,288 girls. The overall literacy rate is 83.37%, with the male literacy rate being 87.35% and the female literacy rate being 79.89%. The sex ratio of Patna is 885 females per 1,000 males. The child sex ratio of girls is 877 per 1000 boys. The urban agglomeration had a population of 2,049,156 of which 1,087,285 are males and 961,871 are females with 82.73% literacy. Patna is the second largest city in eastern India. Roughly 0.25% of Patna's population lives in slums which makes Patna, the city with the lowest percentage of people living in slums in India. Like other fast-growing cities in the developing world, Patna suffers from major urbanisation problems including unemployment, poor public health, and poor civic and educational standards for a large section of the population. In 2015, the National Sample Survey Organisation revealed that, for females, Patna had the highest unemployment rate 34.6%, and for males, it was the second highest with a rate of 8% in 2011–12. ### Religion and language | Religion in Patna city (2011) | | --- | | Religion | | Percent | | Hinduism |   | 86.39% | | Islam |   | 12.27% | | Christianity |   | 0.51% | | Other or not stated |   | 0.83% | According to the 2011 census of India, Patna's major religion is Hinduism with 86.39% followers. Islam is the second most popular religion in Patna with approximately 12.27% following it. Christianity, Jainism, Sikhism, and Buddhism, with smaller followings, are also practiced in Patna. During the last census report, around 0.01% stated other religions and approximately 0.49% stated no particular religion. Languages of Patna city (2011)   Hindi (65.94%)  Magahi (18.04%)  Urdu (9.67%)  Bhojpuri (3.19%)  Maithili (1.79%)  Others (1.37%) Hindi is the official language of the state of Bihar and Urdu is the additional official language, but many other languages are spoken too. The native language is Magadhi or Magahi, named after Magadha, the ancient name of South Bihar and is most widely spoken. Hindi is spoken by 65.94% of the population, 18.04% Magahi, 9.67% Urdu, 3.19% Bhojpuri and 1.79% Maithili as their first language. Administration -------------- The Patna sub-division (Tehsil) is one of the 6 Tehsils of the Patna district. It is headed by an IAS or state Civil service officer of the rank of Sub Divisional Magistrate (SDM). The SDM of Patna Tehsil reports to the District Magistrate (DM) of Patna District. ### Blocks The Patna Tehsil is divided into 3 Blocks, each headed by a Block Development Officer (BDO). The list of Blocks is as follows: 1. Patna 2. Sampatchak 3. Phulwari Sharif Government ---------- ### Civic administration The civic administration of Patna is run by several government agencies and has overlapping structural divisions. At least five administrative definitions of the city are available; listed in ascending order of area, those are: Patna division, Patna district (also the Patna Police area), the Patna Metropolitan Region (also known as Patna Planning area), "Greater Patna" or PRDA area, which adds to the PMC area a few areas just adjacent to it and Patna Municipal Corporation area. | City officials  | | --- | | | | **Assumed office** | **Office** | Source | | **Corporation Mayor** | Sita Sahu, BJP | June 2017 | Maurya Lok | | | **Corporation Commissioner** | Animesh Kumar Parashar, IAS | November 2021 | Maurya Lok | | | **Divisional Commissioner** | Sanjay Kumar Agarwal, IAS | October 2019 | Near Golghar, Gandhi Maidan | | | **District Magistrate** | Dr.Chandrashekhar Singh, IAS | January 2021 | Patna Collectorate | | | **Senior Superintendent of Police** | Manavjit Singh Dhillon, IPS | January 2022 | South Gandhi Maidan Marg | | The Patna Municipal Corporation, or PMC, oversees and manages the civic infrastructure of the city's 75 wards, which accommodates a population of 1.7 million as per 2011 Census. The municipal corporation consists of democratically elected members, each ward elects a Councillor to the PMC. The PMC is in charge of the civic and infrastructure needs of the metropolis. As Patna's apex body, the corporation discharges its functions through the mayor-in-council, which comprises a mayor, a deputy mayor, and other elected members of the PMC. The Mayor is usually chosen through indirect election by the councillors from among themselves. The functions of the PMC include water supply, drainage and sewerage, sanitation, solid waste management, street lighting, and building regulation. The Municipal Commissioner is the chief Executive Officer and head of the executive arm of the Municipal Corporation. All executive powers are vested in the Municipal Commissioner who is an Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer appointed by the state government. Although the Municipal Corporation is the legislative body that lays down policies for the governance of the city, it is the Commissioner who is responsible for the execution of the policies. The Commissioner is appointed for a fixed term as defined by state statute. The powers of the Commissioner are those provided by statute and those delegated by the Corporation or the Standing Committee. As of June 2017, the BJP won PMC Mayor seat; the mayor is Sita Sahu, while the deputy mayor is Vinay Kumar Pappu. The Patna Municipal Corporation was ranked 4th out of 21 Cities for best governance & administrative practices in India in 2014. It scored 3.6 on 10 compared to the national average of 3.3. The revenue district of Patna comes under the jurisdiction of a District Collector (District Magistrate). The Collectors are in charge of the general administration, property records and revenue collection for the Central Government, and oversee the national elections held in the city. The Bihar Urban Infrastructure Development Corporation Limited (BUIDCO) and the Patna Metropolitan Area Authority, are responsible for the statutory planning and development of the Patna Metropolitan Region. Patna Metropolitan Area Authority was established in 2016. It is the superseding agency for the former Patna Regional Development Authority (PRDA), which was dissolved in 2006. In addition to the city government, numerous commissions and state authorities—including the Ministry of Tourism, the Bihar Health Department, the Bihar Water Resources Department, National Ganga River Basin Authority, Bihar State Pollution Control Board and the Bihar Public Service Commission—play a role in the life of Patnaites. As the capital of Bihar, Patna plays a major role not only in state politics but in central politics as well. In October 2016, the Bihar cabinet approved the Patna master plan 2031 which envisages the development of a new airport at Bihta. As of August 2015, the area of Patna city (along with its urban agglomeration) is 250 square kilometres (97 sq mi). Patna master 2031 is the second master plan of the city that has been passed ever, after the last plan was approved for 1961-1981. Patna master plan covers six urban local bodies - Patna Municipal Corporation, Danapur Nagar Parishad, Phulwarisharif Nagar Parishad, Khagaul Nagar Parishad, Maner Nagar Panchayat and Fatuha Nagar Parishad. The new master plan proposed to increase the area of Patna city to 1,167 square kilometres (451 sq mi) to transform it as a metropolitan city. 5 satellite towns have also been proposed in the master plan at Bihta, Naubatpur, Punpun, Fatuha and Khusrupur. Patna has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Government of India's flagship Smart Cities Mission. With the grade of a Smart City, Patna will have highly up-to-date and radical provisions like uninterrupted electric supply, first-rate traffic and transport system, superior health care and many other prime utilities. Under this scheme, the city will use digital technology that will act as the integral mechanism of the aforesaid facilities and thereby further elevate the lifestyle of the citizens. A special purpose vehicle company named the Patna Smart City Limited has been formed to implement the smart city projects. On 22 November 2017, Eptisa Servicios de Ingenieria SL of Spain was chosen as the project management consultant. Politics -------- As the seat of the Government of Bihar, The city has several federal facilities, including the Raj Bhavan: Governor's house, the Bihar Legislative Assembly; the state secretariat, which is housed in the Patna Secretariat; and the Patna High Court. The Patna High Court is one of the oldest High Court in India. The Patna High Court has jurisdiction over the state of Bihar. Patna also has lower courts; the Small Causes Court for civil matters, and the Sessions Court for criminal cases. The Patna Police, commanded by Senior Superintendent of Police, is overseen by the Bihar Government's Home Department. The Patna district elects two representatives to India's lower house, the Lok Sabha, and 14 representatives to the state legislative assembly. The capital city of Patna has 9 State Legislative Assembly constituencies, which form two constituencies of the Lok Sabha (the lower house of the Parliament of India). | City representatives (Legislators)  | | --- | | **Member** | **Party** | **Constituency** | Source | | Ravi Shankar Prasad, MP | BJP | Patna Sahib | | | Ram Kripal Yadav, MP | BJP | Pataliputra | | | Sanjiv Chaurasiya, MLA | BJP | Digha | | | Nitin Naveen, MLA | BJP | Bankipur | | | Nand Kishore Yadav, MLA | BJP | Patna Sahib | | | Arun Kumar Sinha, MLA | BJP | Kumhrar | | | Jai Vardhan Yadav, MLA | RJD | Paliganj | | | Rama Nand Yadav, MLA | RJD | Fatuha | | | Ritlal Yadav, MLA | RJD | Danapur | | | Bhai Virendra, MLA | RJD | Maner | | | Gopal Ravidas, MLA | CPI-ML(L) | Phulwari | | Utility services ---------------- Groundwater fulfills the basic needs of the people, administered by Patna Jal Parishad under Patna Municipal Corporation. The public water supply system comprises 98 tube wells that pump water directly to the distribution mains. Around 23 overhead reservoirs of which only the one's at Agam Kuan, Gulzarbagh Press, Guru Gobind Singh Hospital and High Court serves the city. The sewerage system in Patna was set up in 1936. At present, there are four sewage treatment plants at Saidpur, Beur, Pahari and Karmali Chak. In 2019, the central government has started the process *Nirmal Ganga*, which is to build new sewerage infrastructure at Patna's Karmalichak as well as in Barh, Naugachia and Sultanganj. The new infrastructure will be capable of preventing the flow of 67 million litre of sewage into Ganga. As of 2011, the city's electricity consumption is about 601 kWh per capita, even though the actual demand is much higher. Electricity supply to the city is regulated and distributed by the South Bihar Power Distribution Company Limited managed by Bihar State Power Holding Company Limited (the holding company and a successor company of erstwhile Bihar State Electricity Board). The city forms the Patna Electricity Supply Unit (PESU) Circle, which is further divided into two wings namely Patna East (consists Kankarbagh, Patna City, Gulzarbagh, Bankipore, Rajendra Nagar Divisions) and Patna West (Consists Danapur, New Capital, Pataliputra, Gardanibagh, Dak Bungalow divisions). Direct–to–home (DTH) is available via DD Free Dish, Airtel digital TV, Dish TV, Tata Sky, Videocon d2h, Sun Direct and Reliance Digital TV. Cable companies include Darsh Digital Network Pvt. Ltd., SITI Maurya Cablenet Pvt. Ltd etc. The Conditional Access System for cable television was implemented in March 2013. Patna comes under the Patna Telecom District of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), India's state-owned telecom and internet services provider. Both Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and Code division multiple access (CDMA) mobile services are available. Apart from telecom, BSNL also provides broadband internet service. Among private enterprises, Bharti Airtel, Reliance Jio, Reliance GSM/CDMA, Idea Cellular, Aircel, Tata Teleservices (Tata DoCoMo, Virgin Mobile and Tata Indicom), Telenor (Formerly Uninor & Now Acquired by Bharti Airtel), Vodafone and Videocon Telecom are the leading telephone and cell phone service providers in the city. Patna was the second Indian city, after Bangalore, which offered free WiFi connectivity to its citizens in February 2014. By surpassing the previous record-holder, Beijing in China, Patna's WiFi zone is the world's longest free WiFi zone, which covers a 20-km stretch from NIT Patna on Ashok Rajpath to Danapur. Transport --------- ### Roads Bihar's longest flyover from Jagdeo Path Mor to Sheikhpura Mor in Bailey Road, PatnaChiriyatand Flyover at Patna, one of the many new ones that have come up in the city recently.Radio TaxisDigha–Sonpur Bridge connecting Patna with North Bihar. Patna is about 100 km south of national East – West Highway corridor. The NH 30, NH 31 and NH 2 passes through the city. The Ashok Rajpath, Patna-Danapur Road, Bailey Road, Harding Road and Kankarbagh old bypass Road are the major corridors. Patna was one of the first places in India to use horse-drawn trams for public transport. Public transportation is provided for by buses, auto rickshaws and local trains. Auto rickshaws are said to be the lifeline of the city. BSRTC has started City bus service on all major routes of Patna. App based cab service is available within city. Patna is about 70.02KM away from Chhapra ### Air transport Patna Airport known as Lok Nayak Jayaprakash Narayan International Airport is classified as a restricted international airport. The arrival of several low-cost carriers and a number of new destinations have caused a growth in air traffic in recent years, as has an improvement in the situation with regard to law and order. For the period April to December 2009 the airport ranked first in a survey of 46 airports in the country in terms of percentage growth of domestic passengers as well as domestic aircraft movement. The Airport Authority of India (AAI) has proposed to develop a civil enclave at Bihta Air Force Station to serve as the new airport for Patna. The military airfield lies 40 kilometres (25 mi) southwest of Patna, in Bihta. ### Railways Patna is served by several railway stations within. The Patna Junction railway station is the main railway station of the city, and one of the busiest railway stations in India. Patna lies in between New Delhi and Kolkata on Howrah–Delhi main line, which is one of the busiest rail routes in India. Patna Junction is directly connected to most of the major cities in India. The city has four additional major railway stations: Rajendra Nagar Terminal (adjacent to Kankarbagh), Patliputra Junction (near Bailey road), Danapur (near western outskirts) and Patna Sahib (in Patna City area). Danapur is the divisional headquarters of East Central Railway zone's Danapur railway division. Patna is well connected with neighbouring Gaya, Jehanabad, Bihar Sharif, Rajgir, Islampur through daily passenger and express train services. And also connected with Jamalpur Junction and Munger. India's longest road-cum-rail bridge, Digha–Sonpur bridge has been constructed across river Ganges, connecting Digha, Patna to Pahleja Ghat in Sonpur. The bridge was completed in 2015, It is 4.55 kilometres (2.83 mi) long and therefore the second longest rail-cum-road bridge in India, after Bogibeel Bridge in Assam. The city is served by several major road highways and state highways, including National Highways 19, 30, 31, and 83. Pataliputra Bus Terminal is an upcoming ISBT. Asia's longest river bridge, the Mahatma Gandhi Setu (built 1982), is in Patna and connects the city to Hajipur across the Ganga. In recent times, the bridge has been witnessing major traffic chaos and accidents due to exceeding number of vehicles passing over it and regularly overloading the structure. A new six lane road bridge across the Ganges parallel to Mahatma Gandhi Setu is proposed which would connect Kacchi Dargah in Patna City to Bidupur in Vaishali district, which will be the longest bridge in India after completion. Patna is well connected with roads to various major cities of Bihar like Hajipur, Munger, Jamalpur, Bhagalpur, Gaya, and Purnia. Patna is 1,015 kilometres (631 mi) East from Delhi, 1,802 kilometres (1,120 mi) North East from Mumbai,1,527 kilometres (949 mi) North from Hyderabad and 556 kilometres (345 mi) North West from Kolkata. Luxury bus service between Patna and several neighbouring cities is provided by the Bihar State Tourism Development Corporation and the Bihar State Road Transport Corporation. Auto rickshaws are a popular mode of transportation. Prepaid auto services operated by an all-women crew was started in 2013 in Patna, which is the first of its kind in India. Radio Taxi services are also available within city limit as well as outskirts. There are private options such as Ola Cabs. ### Metro Patna Metro is an under-construction rapid transit system for the city. It would be owned and operated by state run Patna Metro Rail Corporation. It will be constructed on Public Private Partnership (PPP) mode, estimated to cost ₹140 billion (US$2 billion). It will have 5 lines with a total planned length of 60 kilometres (37 mi) km, which will be built in 3 phases. Patna Monorail Project covering the municipal area is also underway. Recently the central government approved Patna metro rail project comprising two corridors (Danapur - Khemnichak and Patna Junction - Pataliputra Bus Terminal). According to government, the project will be completed until 2025 with an estimated cost of Rs. 133657.7 million. The Ganges – navigable throughout the year – was the principal river highway across the vast Indo-Gangetic Plain. Vessels capable of accommodating five hundred merchants were known to ply this river in the ancient period; it served as a major trade route, as goods were transported from Pataliputra to the Bay of Bengal and further, to ports in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. The role of the Ganges as a channel for trade was enhanced by its natural links – it embraces all the major rivers and streams in both north and south Bihar. In recent times, Inland Waterways Authority of India has declared the stretch of river Ganges between Allahabad and Haldia National Inland Waterway and has taken steps to restore and maintain its navigability. The National Waterway-1, the longest Waterway in India, stretches 1620 km in the River Ganga from Allahabad to Haldia via Varanasi, Munger, Bhagalpur passes through Patna. This National Waterways has fixed terminal at Patna. Culture ------- Patna's native language is Magahi or Magadhi a language derived from the ancient Magadhi Prakrit, which was created in the ancient kingdom of Magadha, the core of which was the area of Patna south of the Ganges. It is believed to be the language spoken by Gautama Buddha. Patna has a vibrant Bengali culture too with many Bengali stalwarts including the first Chief Minister of post-independence West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra Ray, being born here. The numerous Bengali speaking Patnaites have contributed massively into fine arts, culture, education and history of Bihar in general and Patna in particular. However, Magahi was the official language of the Mauryan court, in which the edicts of Ashoka were composed. The name *Magahi* is directly derived from the name Magadhi Prakrit, and educated speakers of Magahi prefer to call it "Magadhi" rather than "Magahi". Patna has many buildings adorned with Indo-Islamic and Indo-Saracenic architectural motifs. Several well-maintained major buildings from the colonial period have been declared "heritage structures"; others are in various stages of decay. Established in 1917 as the Bihar's first museum, the Patna Museum (पटना संग्रहालय) houses large collections that showcase Indian natural history and Indian art. The Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Library and Sinha Library are historic public libraries of Patna. Several theatres are in or near the central part of the city, including the Bhartiya Nritya Kala Mandir, the Rabindra Parishad, Premchand Rangshala and the Kalidas Rangalaya, which is home to the Bihar art theatre. Kalidas Rangalaya also hosts the Patliputra Natya Mahotsav, a dance festival. But in the last two decades, the popularity of commercial theatres in the city has declined. The Patna School of Painting or Patna Qalaam, some times also called Company style, is an offshoot of the well-known Mughal Miniature school of painting, which flourished in Bihar during the early 18th to the mid-20th centuries. The practitioners of this art form were descendants of Hindu artisans of Mughal painting who facing persecution under the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and who found refuge, via Murshidabad, in Patna during the late 18th century. The Patna painters differed from the Mughal painters, whose subjects included only royalty and court scenes, in that they included as subjects bazaar scenes, scenes of Indian daily life, local dignitaries, festivals and ceremonies, and nature scenes. The paintings were executed in watercolours on paper and on mica, but the style was generally of a hybrid and undistinguished quality. It is this school of painting that inspired the formation of the College of Arts and Crafts, Patna, under the leadership of Shri Radha Mohan, which is an important centre of fine arts in Bihar. Some well known dishes of Bihari cuisine include *sattu paratha* (parathas stuffed with roasted gram flour), "*sattu ka sharbat*" (a spiced drink with roasted gram flour as main ingredient), *chokha* (spicy mashed potatoes), fish curry, Bihari kebab, *postaa-dana kaa halwaa*, malpua, dal pitha (Similar to momos), *kheer makhana* (fox nut) and *thekua/khajuria* (a type of snack). Street foods such as samosa, chaat, jalebi, litti chokha, phuchka (a deep-fried crêpe with tamarind sauce), South Indian and Chinese cuisine are favourite among Patnaites. Taj Hotel Patna is under construction at Budh Marg Lodipur. Bihari Women have traditionally worn cotton sari but shalwar kameez and other western attire are gaining acceptance among younger women. Western attire has gained wide acceptance among the urban men, although the traditional dhoti and kurta are seen during festivals. Chhath, also called Dala Chhath, is a major ancient festival in Bihar. It is celebrated twice a year: once in the summer, called the Chaiti Chhath, and once about a week after Deepawali, called the Kartik Chhath. Durga Puja, held in September–October, is Patna's another important festival; it is an occasion for glamorous celebrations. Among the city's other festivals, are Saraswati Puja, Eid, Holi, Christmas, Vishwakarma Puja, Makar Sankranti, Raksha Bandhan and Rath Yatra. Cultural events include the Patna Book Fair, Patna Sahib Mahotsav, the Patna Film Festival, Bihar Diwas, Rajgir Mahotsav, Vaishali Mahotsav and the Sonepur Cattle Fair in neighbouring towns. * A murti, or representation, of the goddess Durga shown during the Durga Puja festivalA murti, or representation, of the goddess Durga shown during the Durga Puja festival * People Celebrating Chhath Festival the 2nd Day at Morning a tribute to the rising holy God SunPeople Celebrating Chhath Festival the 2nd Day at Morning a tribute to the rising holy God Sun Tourism ------- Patna is home to many tourist attractions and it saw about 2.4 million tourists (including day visitors) in 2005. Tourists visiting the city accounted for 41% of the total number of tourists visiting Bihar although Bodh Gaya was the most popular destination for foreign visitors. The cultural heritage of Bihar is reflected in its many ancient monuments. Kumhrar and Agam Kuan are the sites of the ruins of the Ashokan Pataliputra. Didarganj Yakshi remains as an example of Mauryan art. Takht Sri Patna Sahib is one of the Five Takhts of Sikhism and consecrates the birthplace of the tenth Guru of the Sikhs, Gobind Singh. There are five other Gurdwaras in Patna that are related to different Sikh Gurus; these are Gurdwara Pahila Bara, Gurdwara Gobind Ghat, Gurdwara Guru ka Bagh, Gurdwara Bal Leela, Gurdwara Handi Sahib, and Prakash Punj. Padri Ki Haveli, High Court, Golghar, Sultan Palace, and Secretariat Building are examples of British architecture. Gandhi Maidan is a historic ground in Patna where several freedom movement rallies took place. Nealy built Buddha Smriti Park near Patna Junction is also becoming a major tourist attraction. The Patna Planetarium (Indira Gandhi Planetarium) is in Patna's Indira Gandhi Science Complex. It claims to be one of the largest planetariums in Asia and to attract a large number of tourists. The Sanjay Gandhi Jaivik Udyan (Patna Zoo) is at Bailey Road, Raj Bhawan, Rajbanshi Nagar, and includes over 300 mammals, 300 birds, and 450 species of reptiles as of January 2019. In 2015, the Bihar government has built a state-of-the-art art landmark museum in Patna at a cost of approximately ₹530 crores on a site of 13.9 acres at Bailey Road. 5 firms were shortlisted for the architectural design, of which the Japanese firm Maki and Associates was chosen. It is now completed and opened for all. Completed in May 2018, the Sabhyata Dwar was built with Mauryan-style architecture. It was opened to the general public in December 2018. In 2014, the Bihar government laid the foundation of Samrat Ashok International Convention Centre. It is expected to use more steel than used in raising Eiffel Tower and Indira Gandhi International Airport. Construction of Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam Science City began in February 2019. The Eco Park is in Jawaharlal Nehru Marg. It has more than 3,000 varieties of plants and includes several theme parks, a restaurant, and a boat trip zone. Education --------- Schools in Patna are either government-run schools or private schools. The schools are affiliated to Bihar School Examination Board (BSEB), Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS), or the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) boards. A number of Bengali medium schools also thrive in Patna. Hindi and English are the primary languages of instruction. A 2012 survey found 1,574 schools: of these, 78% were private unaided schools (most of them at an affordable cost), 21% were government schools and 1% were private aided. Under the 10+2+3/4 plan, students complete ten years of schooling and then enroll in schools that have a higher secondary facility and are affiliated to the Bihar State Intermediate Board, the All-India Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), the NIOS or the CBSE, where they select one of three streams: arts, commerce, or science. This is followed by either a general degree course in a chosen field of study or a professional degree course, such as law, engineering, and medicine. Patna has important government educational institutions like Patna University, Anugrah Narayan College, Chanakya National Law University, Aryabhatta Knowledge University, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bakhtiyarpur College of Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Patna, Patna Science College, Patna Women's College, Patna Law College, Bihar Veterinary College, J.D. Women's College, Birla Institute of Technology, Patna, Patna Medical College Hospital, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Nalanda Medical College Hospital, Indira Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences, Mahavir Cancer Sansthan, All India Institute of Medical Sciences Patna, National Institute of Fashion Technology Patna, Chandragupta Institute of Management, Development Management Institute, National Institute of Electronics & Information Technology, Patliputra University. Patna University was established in 1917 and is the seventh oldest modern university in the Indian Sub-continent. Patna also has a variety of other universities, as well as many primary and secondary schools. Nalanda University (also known as Nalanda International University) is a newly established university in Rajgir, around 100 kilometres (62 mi) from Patna. The University, created as a revival of an ancient centre of learning at Nalanda, began its first academic session on 1 September 2014. It will attract students from across the globe. Sports ------ As in the rest of India, cricket is popular in Patna and is played on grounds and in streets throughout the city. There are several sports grounds across the city. The Bihar Cricket Association, which regulates cricket in Bihar, is based in the city. Tournaments, especially those involving cricket, basketball, football, badminton, and table tennis, are regularly organised on an inter-locality or inter-club basis. Moin-ul-Haq Stadium, which has a capacity of 25,000, has served as the venue for two one-day international cricket matches and several national sports events. It was home to the Bihar cricket team. Due to negligence and lack of maintenance, the stadium is in a dilapidated state and no international match has been played here since 1996. In 2013, it was announced by the Chief Minister of Bihar Nitish Kumar that an international cricket stadium will be constructed at Rajgir. The Patna Golf Club was established on 21 March 1916, and is one of the oldest golf courses in India. It has 18 holes in a historic setting in and around Bailey Road, a 165-acre (67 ha) course. Patna hosted the first ever woman's Kabaddi world cup. It was held at the Patliputra Sports Complex, Kankarbagh from 1 to 4 March 2012. Hosts India won the World Cup defeating Iran in the finals. Patna also hosts the seven league matches of Pro Kabaddi League with its home team as Patna Pirates at the Patliputra Sports Complex. Other famous sports complexes of Patna are Bihar Military Police's Mithilesh Stadium, East Central Railway zone's indoor stadium at Digha etc. * A game of cricket in progressA game of cricket in progress * Kankarbagh Indoor Stadium at Patliputra Sports Complex during Pro Kabaddi League matchKankarbagh Indoor Stadium at Patliputra Sports Complex during Pro Kabaddi League match Media ----- The beginning of the 20th century was marked by a number of notable new publications. A monthly magazine named *Bharat Ratna* was started in Patna in 1901. It was followed by *Ksahtriya Hitaishi*, *Aryavarta* from Dinapure, Patna, *Udyoga* and *Chaitanya Chandrika*. *Udyog* was edited by Vijyaanand Tripathy, a famous poet of the time and *Chaitanya Chandrika* by Krishna Chaitanya Goswami, a literary figure of that time. The literary activity was not confined to Patna alone but to many districts of Bihar. Magahi Parishad, established in Patna in 1952, pioneered Magadhi journalism in Bihar. It started the monthly journal, *Magadhi*, which was later renamed *Bihan*. Many national media agencies, including the Press Trust of India and Doordarshan's regional offices, are based in the city. *The Hindu*, *The Times of India*, *Hindustan Times*, *The Economic Times* and *The Telegraph* are the five principal English-language daily newspapers which have Patna editions. *The Pioneer* and *The Indian Express*, though not printed in the city, are other English-language daily newspapers available in the city. The city's Hindi newspapers include *Hindustan Dainik*, *Dainik Jagran*, *Dainik Bhaskar*, *Prabhat Khabar*, *Aaj* and *Rashtriya Sahara*, all of which have editions from Patna. There are also daily Urdu newspapers like Qaumi Tanzeem and Farooqi Tanzeem published in Patna. There is also the Hindi and English mixed newspaper tabloid Inext. Patna has several AM and FM radio stations, including many state-owned channels. The city hosts several radio stations, including the state-owned All India Radio's Vividh Bharati, and FM 105. The All India Radio, Patna (officially Akashvani Patna Kendra) was established in 1948. Patna is served by several private channels. ### Private FM stations | No. | Name | Frequency | Language | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 01 | Radio Mirchi | 98.3 FM | Hindi | | 02 | Radio City | 91.1 FM | Hindi | | 03 | Big FM | 95.0 FM | Hindi & Bhojpuri | | 04 | Red FM | 93.5 FM | Hindi | Notable people -------------- See also -------- * List of cities in Bihar by population Further reading --------------- * Lewis Sydney Steward O'Malley, ed. (1924). *Bihar And Orissa District Gazetteers Patna*. Concept Publishing Company. p. 256. ISBN 9788172681210. * Surendra Gopal, ed. (1982). *Patna in the 19th Century: A Socio-cultural Profile*. Naya Prokash. p. 120. ISBN 9780836409338. * Robert Montgomery Martin, ed. (1838). *Behar (Patna city) and Shahabad, Volume 1 of The History, Antiquities, Topography, and Statistics of Eastern India*. W. H. Allen and Co. p. 256. * William Tayler, ed. (1858). *The Patna crisis; or, Three months at Patna: during the insurrection of 1857*. J. Nisbet. p. 96. * J. D. Beglar, Sir Alexander Cunningham, ed. (1878). *Report of a Tour Through the Bengal Provinces of Patna, Gaya, Mongir, and Bhagalpur: The Santal Parganas, Manbhum, Singhbhum, and Birbhum; Bankura, Raniganj, Bardwan, and Hughli : in 1872–73 Volume 8 of Archaeological Survey of India*. Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing. p. 213. * Walter Kelly Firminger, ed. (1909). *The Diaries of Three Surgeons of Patna – 1763*. The Calcutta Historical Society. * Nas Margens do Hindustão : o estado da India e a expansão mongol ca.1570-1640. Por Jorge Flores * Thakur, Baleshwar (1980). "Urban Settlemnts in Eastern India".

Patna

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patna