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**Caviar** (also known as **caviare**, originally from Persian: خاویار, romanized: *khâvyâr*, lit. 'egg-bearing') is a food consisting of salt-cured roe of the family Acipenseridae. Caviar is considered a delicacy and is eaten as a garnish or spread. Traditionally, the term caviar refers only to roe from wild sturgeon in the Caspian Sea and Black Sea (Beluga, Ossetra and Sevruga caviars). The term caviar can also describe the roe of other species of sturgeon or other fish such as paddlefish, salmon, steelhead, trout, lumpfish, whitefish, or carp. The roe can be "fresh" (non-pasteurized) or pasteurized, which reduces its culinary and economic value. Terminology ----------- Beluga caviarRussian and Iranian caviar tins: Beluga to the left, Ossetra in middle, Sevruga to the rightOssetra caviar, salmon creme fraiche, potato shallot croquette, basil oil, egg whites and yolks According to the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization, roe from any fish not belonging to the Acipenseriformes order (including Acipenseridae, or sturgeon *sensu stricto*, and Polyodontidae or paddlefish) are not caviar, but "substitutes of caviar". This position is also adopted by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, the World Wide Fund for Nature, the United States Customs Service, and France. The term *caviar* is sometimes used to describe dishes that are perceived to resemble caviar, such as "eggplant caviar" (made from eggplant) and "Texas caviar" (made from black-eyed peas). History ------- Caviar and sturgeon from the Sea of Azov began reaching the tables of aristocratic and noble Greeks in the 10th century, after the commencement of large-scale trading between the Byzantine Empire and Kievan Rus'. Varieties --------- The main types of caviar from sturgeon species native to the Caspian Sea are Beluga, Sterlet, Kaluga hybrid, Ossetra, Siberian sturgeon and Sevruga. American White Sturgeon caviar is abundant and native to California and the U.S. Pacific Northwest. The rarest and costliest is from beluga sturgeon that swim in the Caspian Sea, which is bordered by Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Azerbaijan. Wild caviar production was suspended in Russia between 2008 and 2011 to allow wild stocks to replenish. Azerbaijan and Iran also allow the fishing of sturgeon off their coasts. Beluga caviar is prized for its soft, extremely large (pea-size) eggs. It can range in colour from pale silver-grey to black. It is followed by the small golden sterlet caviar which is rare and was once reserved for Russian, Iranian and Austrian royalty. Next in quality is the medium-sized, light brown to rich brown Ossetra, also known as Russian caviar. Others in the quality ranking are the grey sevruga caviar, the Chinese Kaluga caviar, and the American white sturgeon caviar. The Siberian variety with black beads is similar to sevruga and is popular because of its reduced (five years) harvest period, but it has a higher brine content than other kinds. The Chinese Kaluga hybrid varies in colour from dark grey to light golden green and is a close cousin of beluga caviar. ### Quality factors and cost An expensive caviar example at 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) sold for £20,000 (then US$34,500) is the Iranian 'Almas' product (from Persian: الماس, "diamond") produced from the eggs of a rare albino sturgeon between 60 and 100 years old from the southern Caspian Sea. Wild beluga sturgeon caviar from the Caspian Sea was priced in 2012 at $16,000 per 1 kilogram (35 oz). Cheaper alternatives have been developed from the roe of whitefish and the North Atlantic salmon. Conventional sturgeon caviar was priced in 2014 at about $105 per 1 ounce (28 g) and from albino sturgeon up to $800 per ounce. Other quality factors are texture – with firmness having higher quality value – flavour qualities, such as creaminess, butter taste, and brine or mild fish finish, and whether the caviar was taken from the fish by massage (higher value) rather than by killing it. Industry -------- ### China China has emerged as the leading producer, accounting for 60% of the world's caviar production. The largest caviar company in the world is the Chinese brand Kaluga Queen, which cultivates sturgeon at Qiandao Lake in Zhejiang. ### Israel Kibbutz Dan in Israel produces four tons of caviar a year. The farm is fed by the Dan River, a tributary of the Jordan River. ### Italy Cristoforo da Messisbugo in his book *Libro novo nel qual si insegna a far d'ogni sorte di vivanda*, Venice, 1564, at page 110, gave the first recorded recipe in Italy about extraction of the eggs from the roe and caviar preparation "to be consumed fresh or to preserve". The writer and voyager Jérôme Lalande in his book "*Voyage en Italie*", Paris, 1771, vol. 8, page 269, noted that many sturgeon were caught in the Po delta area in the territory of Ferrara. In 1753 a diplomatic war broke out between the Papal States, governing the Ferrara territory, and the Venetian Republic about sturgeon fishing rights in the Po River, the border between the two states. From about 1920 and until 1942, there was a shop in Ferrara, named "Nuta" from the nickname of the owner Benvenuta Ascoli, that processed all the sturgeons caught in the Po River for caviar extraction, using an elaboration of the original Messisbugo recipe, and shipped it to Italy and Europe. A new owner sporadically continued production until 1972, when the sturgeon stopped swimming up the Po River. Since 2015, some sturgeon have reappeared in the Po. Currently, Italian caviar is obtained almost entirely from bred sturgeons. The caviar production is concentrated predominantly in Brescia, which is considered the capital of Italian caviar: in this area, in Calvisano, is located the world's largest sturgeons farm that produces annually 25 tonnes of caviar. Italian caviar is generally the most sold and appreciated in the world: Italy is the world's leading producer. ### Madagascar Madagascar is the first African country that produces and exports caviar since 2018. ### Malaysia In Malaysia, caviar production is relatively new and smaller in scale. Caviar is harvested from farmed sturgeon fish in Tanjung Malim, Perak. The caviar produced here is marketed as "tropical caviar". The first Malaysian brand of tropical caviar was launched in March 2019. ### North America In the early 20th century, Canada and the United States were the major caviar suppliers to Europe; they harvested roe from the lake sturgeon in the North American Midwest, and from the shortnose sturgeon and the Atlantic sturgeon spawning in the rivers of the East Coast of the United States. The American caviar industry started when Henry Schacht, a German immigrant, opened a business catching sturgeon on the Delaware River. He treated his caviar with German salt and exported a great deal of it to Europe. Around the same time, sturgeon was fished from the Columbia River on the West Coast of the United States, also supplying caviar. American caviar was so plentiful at the time that it was given away at bars to induce or prolong patrons' thirst. Today, the shortnose sturgeon is rated *Vulnerable* in the IUCN Red List of endangered species and rated *Endangered* per the Endangered Species Act. With the depletion of Caspian and Black Sea caviar, production of farmed or "sustainable" caviar has greatly increased. In particular, northern California is reported to account for 70% to 80% of U.S. production. In 2021 a significant illegal sturgeon egg harvesting and selling ring run in part by the former top sturgeon biologist for the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (DNR) was discovered and broken up by investigators. ### Russia In the wake of over-fishing, the harvest and sale of black caviar were banned in Russia in 2007. The ban on sturgeon fishing in the Caspian Sea has led to the development of aquaculture as an economically viable means of commercial caviar production. ### Spain The 17th-century book *Don Quixote* mentions "cavial" in a banquet of German pilgrims. Until 1992, sturgeons and caviar were collected at the lower parts of rivers Guadalquivir, Ebro, Duero and Tajo. From 1932 to 1970, the Ybarra family had a factory in Coria del Río. Overfishing, pollution and the Alcalá del Río dam eliminated the wild population of *Acipenser naccarii*. In Spain, a fish farm called Caviar de Riofrío produces organic caviar at Loja, Granada, Andalusia. ### United Kingdom The British royal family had held a long affinity with the sturgeon since 1324, when Edward II decreed it a royal fish, whereby all sturgeons found within the foreshore of the Kingdom were decreed property of the monarch. ### Uruguay As well with Canada and the United States, Uruguay has become a major producer and exporter. Ecology ------- Overfishing, smuggling and pollution caused by sewage entry into the Caspian Sea have considerably reduced the sea's sturgeon population. In September 2005, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service banned the import of Caspian Sea Beluga caviar to protect the endangered Beluga sturgeon; a month later, the ban was extended to include Beluga caviar from the entire Black Sea basin. In January 2006, the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) supported an international embargo on caviar export. In January 2007, this ban was partly lifted, allowing the sale of 96 tons of caviar, 15% below the official 2005 level. In July 2010, Russia and some other CIS countries restarted the export of caviar. The 2010 quotas allow for the export of three tons of beluga, 17 tons of sevruga and 27 tons of osetra. In September 2010, Kazakhstan launched a state monopoly brand, Zhaik Balyk, from the Kazakh word for the Ural River. Under the CITES agreement, Kazakhstan was granted the right to produce 13 of the 80 tons allowed up until 28 February 2011. Extraction ---------- Commercial caviar production historically involved stunning the fish and extracting the ovaries. Another method of extracting caviar is by performing a caesarean section, which allows the female to continue producing roe. Other farmers use a process called "stripping", which extracts the caviar from the fish via a small incision made along the urogenital muscle when the fish is deemed to be ready to be processed. An ultrasound is used to determine the correct timing. Removing the caviar by massage may yield higher quality and a more sustainable source. Preparation ----------- Preparation follows a sequence that has not significantly changed over the last century. First, the ovaries are removed from a sedated female sturgeon and passed through a sieve to remove the membrane. Freed roes are rinsed to wash away impurities. Roes are now ready to become caviar by adding a precise amount of salt for taste and preservation. The fresh product is tasted and graded according to quality. Finally, the eggs are packed into lacquer-lined tins that will be further processed or sold directly to customers. Substitutes ----------- In coastal British Columbia, Fraser River white sturgeon are sustainably farmed to produce caviar. A sturgeon caviar imitation is a black or red-coloured lumpsucker caviar sold throughout Europe in small glass jars. In Sweden and Finland, the roes of many fish species, including vendace, burbot, salmon and common whitefish, are also commonly eaten in a similar manner as caviar. However, they are not caviar 'substitutes' but are enjoyed in their own right. Spherification of liquids with alginate (a seaweed polysaccharide) is used to recreate caviar's texture. With liquids flavored to resemble caviar, one obtains kosher and vegan caviar substitutes. They resemble beluga caviar in appearance and are either used as a food prop for television and film or enjoyed by vegetarians and other people worldwide. In Scandinavia, a type of sandwich spread is available, made from smoked cod roe and other ingredients, which is referred to as *smörgåskaviar* (meaning "sandwich caviar"). Outside Scandinavia, the product is referred to as *creamed smoked roe* or in French as *Caviar de Lysekil*. Storage and nutrition --------------------- Caviar is highly perishable and must be kept refrigerated until consumption. Caviar is 48% water, 25% protein, 18% fats, and 4% carbohydrates. In a common serving amount of 16 grams (one tablespoon), caviar supplies 44 kilocalories of food energy, 53% of the Daily Value (DV) of vitamin B12, and moderate amounts (10-15% DV) of sodium, iron, magnesium, and selenium, with no other micronutrients in significant content. See also -------- * List of hors d'oeuvre * Snail caviar Further reading --------------- * Peter G. Rebeiz, *Caviar – a magic history*, ISBN 978-88-6373-103-3, Sagep Editori Archived 22 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Genova, Italy, 2010.

Caviar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caviar

**Lithium** (from Ancient Greek λίθος *(*líthos*)* 'stone') is a chemical element with the symbol **Li** and atomic number 3. It is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal. Under standard conditions, it is the least dense metal and the least dense solid element. Like all alkali metals, lithium is highly reactive and flammable, and must be stored in vacuum, inert atmosphere, or inert liquid such as purified kerosene or mineral oil. It exhibits a metallic luster. It corrodes quickly in air to a dull silvery gray, then black tarnish. It does not occur freely in nature, but occurs mainly as pegmatitic minerals, which were once the main source of lithium. Due to its solubility as an ion, it is present in ocean water and is commonly obtained from brines. Lithium metal is isolated electrolytically from a mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride. The nucleus of the lithium atom verges on instability, since the two stable lithium isotopes found in nature have among the lowest binding energies per nucleon of all stable nuclides. Because of its relative nuclear instability, lithium is less common in the solar system than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements even though its nuclei are very light: it is an exception to the trend that heavier nuclei are less common. For related reasons, lithium has important uses in nuclear physics. The transmutation of lithium atoms to helium in 1932 was the first fully human-made nuclear reaction, and lithium deuteride serves as a fusion fuel in staged thermonuclear weapons. Lithium and its compounds have several industrial applications, including heat-resistant glass and ceramics, lithium grease lubricants, flux additives for iron, steel and aluminium production, lithium metal batteries, and lithium-ion batteries. These uses consume more than three-quarters of lithium production.[*when?*] Lithium is present in biological systems in trace amounts. It has no established metabolic function. Lithium-based drugs are useful as a mood stabilizer and antidepressant in the treatment of mental illness such as bipolar disorder. Properties ---------- ### Atomic and physical The alkali metals are also called the lithium family, after its leading element. Like the other alkali metals (which are sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr)), lithium has a single valence electron that, in the presence of solvents, is easily released to form Li+. Because of this, lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity as well as a highly reactive element, though it is the least reactive of the alkali metals. Lithium's low reactivity is due to the proximity of its valence electron to its nucleus (the remaining two electrons are in the 1s orbital, much lower in energy, and do not participate in chemical bonds). Molten lithium is significantly more reactive than its solid form. Lithium metal is soft enough to be cut with a knife. It is silvery-white. In air it oxidizes to lithium oxide. Its melting point of 180.50 °C (453.65 K; 356.90 °F) and its boiling point of 1,342 °C (1,615 K; 2,448 °F) are each the highest of all the alkali metals while its density of 0.534 g/cm3 is the lowest. Lithium has a very low density (0.534 g/cm3), comparable with pine wood. It is the least dense of all elements that are solids at room temperature; the next lightest solid element (potassium, at 0.862 g/cm3) is more than 60% denser. Apart from helium and hydrogen, as a solid it is less dense than any other element as a liquid, being only two-thirds as dense as liquid nitrogen (0.808 g/cm3). Lithium can float on the lightest hydrocarbon oils and is one of only three metals that can float on water, the other two being sodium and potassium. Lithium's coefficient of thermal expansion is twice that of aluminium and almost four times that of iron. Lithium is superconductive below 400 μK at standard pressure and at higher temperatures (more than 9 K) at very high pressures (>20 GPa). At temperatures below 70 K, lithium, like sodium, undergoes diffusionless phase change transformations. At 4.2 K it has a rhombohedral crystal system (with a nine-layer repeat spacing); at higher temperatures it transforms to face-centered cubic and then body-centered cubic. At liquid-helium temperatures (4 K) the rhombohedral structure is prevalent. Multiple allotropic forms have been identified for lithium at high pressures. Lithium has a mass specific heat capacity of 3.58 kilojoules per kilogram-kelvin, the highest of all solids. Because of this, lithium metal is often used in coolants for heat transfer applications. ### Isotopes Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes, 6Li and 7Li, the latter being the more abundant (95.15% natural abundance). Both natural isotopes have anomalously low nuclear binding energy per nucleon (compared to the neighboring elements on the periodic table, helium and beryllium); lithium is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy through nuclear fission. The two lithium nuclei have lower binding energies per nucleon than any other stable nuclides other than hydrogen-1, deuterium and helium-3. As a result of this, though very light in atomic weight, lithium is less common in the Solar System than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements. Seven radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 8Li with a half-life of 838 ms and 9Li with a half-life of 178 ms. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 8.6 ms. The shortest-lived isotope of lithium is 4Li, which decays through proton emission and has a half-life of 7.6 × 10−23 s. The 6Li isotope is one of only five stable nuclides to have both an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons, the other four stable odd-odd nuclides being hydrogen-2, boron-10, nitrogen-14, and tantalum-180m. 7Li is one of the primordial elements (or, more properly, primordial nuclides) produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis. A small amount of both 6Li and 7Li are produced in stars during stellar nucleosynthesis, but it is further "burned" as fast as produced. 7Li can also be generated in carbon stars. Additional small amounts of both 6Li and 7Li may be generated from solar wind, cosmic rays hitting heavier atoms, and from early solar system 7Be and 10Be radioactive decay. Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes, including mineral formation (chemical precipitation), metabolism, and ion exchange. Lithium ions substitute for magnesium and iron in octahedral sites in clay minerals, where 6Li is preferred to 7Li, resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of hyperfiltration and rock alteration. The exotic 11Li is known to exhibit a neutron halo, with 2 neutrons orbiting around its nucleus of 3 protons and 6 neutrons. The process known as laser isotope separation can be used to separate lithium isotopes, in particular 7Li from 6Li. Nuclear weapons manufacture and other nuclear physics applications are a major source of artificial lithium fractionation, with the light isotope 6Li being retained by industry and military stockpiles to such an extent that it has caused slight but measurable change in the 6Li to 7Li ratios in natural sources, such as rivers. This has led to unusual uncertainty in the standardized atomic weight of lithium, since this quantity depends on the natural abundance ratios of these naturally-occurring stable lithium isotopes, as they are available in commercial lithium mineral sources. Both stable isotopes of lithium can be laser cooled and were used to produce the first quantum degenerate Bose-Fermi mixture. Occurrence ---------- ### Astronomical Although it was synthesized in the Big Bang, lithium (together with beryllium and boron) is markedly less abundant in the universe than other elements. This is a result of the comparatively low stellar temperatures necessary to destroy lithium, along with a lack of common processes to produce it. According to modern cosmological theory, lithium—in both stable isotopes (lithium-6 and lithium-7)—was one of the three elements synthesized in the Big Bang. Though the amount of lithium generated in Big Bang nucleosynthesis is dependent upon the number of photons per baryon, for accepted values the lithium abundance can be calculated, and there is a "cosmological lithium discrepancy" in the universe: older stars seem to have less lithium than they should, and some younger stars have much more. The lack of lithium in older stars is apparently caused by the "mixing" of lithium into the interior of stars, where it is destroyed, while lithium is produced in younger stars. Although it transmutes into two atoms of helium due to collision with a proton at temperatures above 2.4 million degrees Celsius (most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors), lithium is more abundant than computations would predict in later-generation stars. Lithium is also found in brown dwarf substellar objects and certain anomalous orange stars. Because lithium is present in cooler, less-massive brown dwarfs, but is destroyed in hotter red dwarf stars, its presence in the stars' spectra can be used in the "lithium test" to differentiate the two, as both are smaller than the Sun. Certain orange stars can also contain a high concentration of lithium. Those orange stars found to have a higher than usual concentration of lithium (such as Centaurus X-4) orbit massive objects—neutron stars or black holes—whose gravity evidently pulls heavier lithium to the surface of a hydrogen-helium star, causing more lithium to be observed. On 27 May 2020, astronomers reported that classical nova explosions are galactic producers of lithium-7. ### Terrestrial Although lithium is widely distributed on Earth, it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity. The total lithium content of seawater is very large and is estimated as 230 billion tonnes, where the element exists at a relatively constant concentration of 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm), or 25 micromolar; higher concentrations approaching 7 ppm are found near hydrothermal vents. Estimates for the Earth's crustal content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight. Lithium constitutes about 0.002 percent of Earth's crust. In keeping with its name, lithium forms a minor part of igneous rocks, with the largest concentrations in granites. Granitic pegmatites also provide the greatest abundance of lithium-containing minerals, with spodumene and petalite being the most commercially viable sources. Another significant mineral of lithium is lepidolite which is now an obsolete name for a series formed by polylithionite and trilithionite. Another source for lithium is hectorite clay, the only active development of which is through the Western Lithium Corporation in the United States. At 20 mg lithium per kg of Earth's crust, lithium is the 25th most abundant element. According to the *Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium*, "Lithium is a comparatively rare element, although it is found in many rocks and some brines, but always in very low concentrations. There are a fairly large number of both lithium mineral and brine deposits but only comparatively few of them are of actual or potential commercial value. Many are very small, others are too low in grade." Chile is estimated (2020) to have the largest reserves by far (9.2 million tonnes), and Australia the highest annual production (40,000 tonnes). One of the largest *reserve bases* of lithium is in the Salar de Uyuni area of Bolivia, which has 5.4 million tonnes. Other major suppliers include Australia, Argentina and China. As of 2015, the Czech Geological Survey considered the entire Ore Mountains in the Czech Republic as lithium province. Five deposits are registered, one near Cínovec [cs] is considered as a potentially economical deposit, with 160 000 tonnes of lithium. In December 2019, Finnish mining company Keliber Oy reported its Rapasaari lithium deposit has estimated proven and probable ore reserves of 5.280 million tonnes. In June 2010, *The New York Times* reported that American geologists were conducting ground surveys on dry salt lakes in western Afghanistan believing that large deposits of lithium are located there. These estimates are "based principally on old data, which was gathered mainly by the Soviets during their occupation of Afghanistan from 1979–1989". The Department of Defense estimated the lithium reserves in Afghanistan to amount to the ones in Bolivia and dubbed it as a potential "Saudi-Arabia of lithium". In Cornwall, England, the presence of brine rich in lithium was well known due to the region's historic mining industry, and private investors have conducted tests to investigate potential lithium extraction in this area. ### Biological Lithium is found in trace amount in numerous plants, plankton, and invertebrates, at concentrations of 69 to 5,760 parts per billion (ppb). In vertebrates the concentration is slightly lower, and nearly all vertebrate tissue and body fluids contain lithium ranging from 21 to 763 ppb. Marine organisms tend to bioaccumulate lithium more than terrestrial organisms. Whether lithium has a physiological role in any of these organisms is unknown. Lithium concentrations in human tissue averages about 24 ppb (4 ppb in blood, and 1.3 ppm in bone). Lithium is easily absorbed by plants and lithium concentration in plant tissue is typically around 1 ppm. Some plant families bioaccumulate more lithium than others. Dry weight lithium concentrations for members of the family Solanaceae (which includes potatoes and tomatoes), for instance, can be as high as 30 ppm while this can be as low as 0.05 ppb for corn grains. Studies of lithium concentrations in mineral-rich soil give ranges between around 0.1 and 50−100 ppm, with some concentrations as high as 100−400 ppm, although it is unlikely that all of it is available for uptake by plants. Lithium accumulation does not appear to affect the essential nutrient composition of plants. Tolerance to lithium varies by plant species and typically parallels sodium tolerance; maize and Rhodes grass, for example, are highly tolerant to lithium injury while avocado and soybean are very sensitive. Similarly, lithium at concentrations of 5 ppm reduces seed germination in some species (e.g. Asian rice and chickpea) but not in others (e.g. barley and wheat). Many of lithium's major biological effects can be explained by its competition with other ions. The monovalent lithium ion Li+ competes with other ions such as sodium (immediately below lithium on the periodic table), which like lithium is also a monovalent alkali metal. Lithium also competes with bivalent magnesium ions, whose ionic radius (86 pm) is approximately that of the lithium ion (90 pm). Mechanisms that transport sodium across cellular membranes also transport lithium. For instance, sodium channels (both voltage-gated and epithelial) are particularly major pathways of entry for lithium. Lithium ions can also permeate through ligand-gated ion channels as well as cross both nuclear and mitochondrial membranes. Like sodium, lithium can enter and partially block (although not permeate) potassium channels and calcium channels. The biological effects of lithium are many and varied but its mechanisms of action are only partially understood. For instance, studies of lithium-treated patients with bipolar disorder show that, among many other effects, lithium partially reverses telomere shortening in these patients and also increases mitochondrial function, although how lithium produces these pharmacological effects is not understood. Even the exact mechanisms involved in lithium toxicity are not fully understood. History ------- Petalite (LiAlSi4O10) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist and statesman José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva in a mine on the island of Utö, Sweden. However, it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson, then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius, detected the presence of a new element while analyzing petalite ore. This element formed compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and less alkaline. Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name "*lithion*/*lithina*", from the Greek word *λιθoς* (transliterated as *lithos*, meaning "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material "lithium". Arwedson later showed that this same element was present in the minerals spodumene and lepidolite. In 1818, Christian Gmelin was the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color to flame. However, both Arfwedson and Gmelin tried and failed to isolate the pure element from its salts. It was not isolated until 1821, when William Thomas Brande obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide, a process that had previously been employed by the chemist Sir Humphry Davy to isolate the alkali metals potassium and sodium. Brande also described some pure salts of lithium, such as the chloride, and, estimating that lithia (lithium oxide) contained about 55% metal, estimated the atomic weight of lithium to be around 9.8 g/mol (modern value ~6.94 g/mol). In 1855, larger quantities of lithium were produced through the electrolysis of lithium chloride by Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen. The discovery of this procedure led to commercial production of lithium in 1923 by the German company Metallgesellschaft AG, which performed an electrolysis of a liquid mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride. Australian psychiatrist John Cade is credited with reintroducing and popularizing the use of lithium to treat mania in 1949. Shortly after, throughout the mid 20th century, lithium's mood stabilizing applicability for mania and depression took off in Europe and the United States. The production and use of lithium underwent several drastic changes in history. The first major application of lithium was in high-temperature lithium greases for aircraft engines and similar applications in World War II and shortly after. This use was supported by the fact that lithium-based soaps have a higher melting point than other alkali soaps, and are less corrosive than calcium based soaps. The small demand for lithium soaps and lubricating greases was supported by several small mining operations, mostly in the US. The demand for lithium increased dramatically during the Cold War with the production of nuclear fusion weapons. Both lithium-6 and lithium-7 produce tritium when irradiated by neutrons, and are thus useful for the production of tritium by itself, as well as a form of solid fusion fuel used inside hydrogen bombs in the form of lithium deuteride. The US became the prime producer of lithium between the late 1950s and the mid-1980s. At the end, the stockpile of lithium was roughly 42,000 tonnes of lithium hydroxide. The stockpiled lithium was depleted in lithium-6 by 75%, which was enough to affect the measured atomic weight of lithium in many standardized chemicals, and even the atomic weight of lithium in some "natural sources" of lithium ion which had been "contaminated" by lithium salts discharged from isotope separation facilities, which had found its way into ground water. alt1alt2Satellite images of the Salar del Hombre Muerto, Argentina (left), and Uyuni, Bolivia (right), salt flats that are rich in lithium. The lithium-rich brine is concentrated by pumping it into solar evaporation ponds (visible in the left image). Lithium is used to decrease the melting temperature of glass and to improve the melting behavior of aluminium oxide in the Hall-Héroult process. These two uses dominated the market until the middle of the 1990s. After the end of the nuclear arms race, the demand for lithium decreased and the sale of department of energy stockpiles on the open market further reduced prices. In the mid-1990s, several companies started to isolate lithium from brine which proved to be a less expensive option than underground or open-pit mining. Most of the mines closed or shifted their focus to other materials because only the ore from zoned pegmatites could be mined for a competitive price. For example, the US mines near Kings Mountain, North Carolina closed before the beginning of the 21st century. The development of lithium ion batteries increased the demand for lithium and became the dominant use in 2007. With the surge of lithium demand in batteries in the 2000s, new companies have expanded brine isolation efforts to meet the rising demand. It has been argued that lithium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy and dependent on batteries, but this perspective has also been criticised for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production. Chemistry --------- ### Of lithium metal Lithium reacts with water easily, but with noticeably less vigor than other alkali metals. The reaction forms hydrogen gas and lithium hydroxide. When placed over a flame, lithium compounds give off a striking crimson color, but when the metal burns strongly, the flame becomes a brilliant silver. Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when exposed to water or water vapor. In moist air, lithium rapidly tarnishes to form a black coating of lithium hydroxide (LiOH and LiOH·H2O), lithium nitride (Li3N) and lithium carbonate (Li2CO3, the result of a secondary reaction between LiOH and CO2). Lithium is one of the few metals that react with nitrogen gas. Because of its reactivity with water, and especially nitrogen, lithium metal is usually stored in a hydrocarbon sealant, often petroleum jelly. Although the heavier alkali metals can be stored under mineral oil, lithium is not dense enough to fully submerge itself in these liquids. Lithium has a diagonal relationship with magnesium, an element of similar atomic and ionic radius. Chemical resemblances between the two metals include the formation of a nitride by reaction with N2, the formation of an oxide (Li 2O) and peroxide (Li 2O 2) when burnt in O2, salts with similar solubilities, and thermal instability of the carbonates and nitrides. The metal reacts with hydrogen gas at high temperatures to produce lithium hydride (LiH). Lithium forms a variety of binary and ternary materials by direct reaction with the main group elements. These Zintl phases, although highly covalent, can be viewed as salts of polyatomic anions such as Si44-, P73-, and Te52-. With graphite, lithium forms a variety of intercalation compounds. It dissolves in ammonia (and amines) to give [Li(NH3)4]+ and the solvated electron. ### Inorganic compounds Lithium forms salt-like derivatives with all halides and pseudohalides. Some examples include the halides LiF, LiCl, LiBr, LiI, as well as the pseudohalides and related anions. Lithium carbonate has been described as the most important compound of lithium. This white solid is the principal product of beneficiation of lithium ores. It is a precursor to other salts including ceramics and materials for lithium batteries. The compounds LiBH 4 and LiAlH 4 are useful reagents. These salts and many other lithium salts exhibit distinctively high solubility in ethers, in contrast with salts of heavier alkali metals. In aqueous solution, the coordination complex [Li(H2O)4]+ predominates for many lithium salts. Related complexes are known with amines and ethers. ### Organic chemistry Organolithium compounds are numerous and useful. They are defined by the presence of a bond between carbon and lithium. They serve as metal-stabilized carbanions, although their solution and solid-state structures are more complex than this simplistic view. Thus, these are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles. They have also been applied in asymmetric synthesis in the pharmaceutical industry. For laboratory organic synthesis, many organolithium reagents are commercially available in solution form. These reagents are highly reactive, and are sometimes pyrophoric. Like its inorganic compounds, almost all organic compounds of lithium formally follow the duet rule (e.g., BuLi, MeLi). However, it is important to note that in the absence of coordinating solvents or ligands, organolithium compounds form dimeric, tetrameric, and hexameric clusters (e.g., BuLi is actually [BuLi]6 and MeLi is actually [MeLi]4) which feature multi-center bonding and increase the coordination number around lithium. These clusters are broken down into smaller or monomeric units in the presence of solvents like dimethoxyethane (DME) or ligands like tetramethylethylenediamine (TMEDA). As an exception to the duet rule, a two-coordinate lithate complex with four electrons around lithium, [Li(thf)4]+[((Me3Si)3C)2Li]–, has been characterized crystallographically. Production ---------- Lithium mine production (2022), reserves and resources in tonnes according to USGS| Country | Production | Reserves | Resources | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Argentina | 6,200 | 2,700,000 | 20,000,000 | | Australia | 61,000 | 6,200,000 | 7,900,000 | | Austria | - | - | 60,000 | | Bolivia | - | - | 21,000,000 | | Brazil | 2,200 | 250,000 | 730,000 | | Canada | 500 | 930,000 | 2,900,000 | | Chile | 39,000 | 9,300,000 | 11,000,000 | | China | 19,000 | 2,000,000 | 6,800,000 | | Czech Republic | - | - | 1,300,000 | | DR Congo | - | - | 3,000,000 | | Finland | - | - | 68,000 | | Germany | - | - | 3,200,000 | | Ghana | - | - | 180,000 | | India | - | - | 5,900,000 | | Kazakhstan | - | - | 50,000 | | Mali | - | - | 840,000 | | Mexico | - | - | 1,700,000 | | Namibia | - | - | 230,000 | | Peru | - | - | 880,000 | | Portugal | 600 | 60,000 | 270,000 | | Russia | - | - | 1,000,000 | | Serbia | - | - | 1,200,000 | | Spain | - | - | 320,000 | | United States | 870 | 1,000,000 | 12,000,000 | | Zimbabwe | 800 | 310,000 | 690,000 | | **World total** | **130,000** | **26,000,000** | **98,000,000+** | Lithium production has greatly increased since the end of World War II. The main sources of lithium are brines and ores. Lithium metal is produced through electrolysis applied to a mixture of fused 55% lithium chloride and 45% potassium chloride at about 450 °C. ### Reserves and occurrence The US Geological Survey (USGS) estimated worldwide identified lithium reserves in 2020 and 2021 to be 17 million and 21 million tonnes, respectively. An accurate estimate of world lithium reserves is difficult. One reason for this is that most lithium classification schemes are developed for solid ore deposits, whereas brine is a fluid that is problematic to treat with the same classification scheme due to varying concentrations and pumping effects. Following a hike in lithium price in 2015 and concern for insufficiency of lithium resource for the growing lithium-ion battery industry, a peer-reviewed analysis of USGS data in 2017 predicted that there will be no shortage of lithium and current estimates of reserves will increase along with the demand. Worldwide lithium resources identified by USGS started to increase in 2017 owing to continuing exploration. Identified resources in 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020 were 41, 47, 54, 62 and 80 million tonnes, respectively. In 2013, the world was estimated to contain about 15 million tonnes of lithium reserves, while 65 million tonnes of known resources were reasonable. 75% of lithium reserves could be found in the ten largest deposits of the world. Another study noted that 83% of the geological resources of lithium are located in six brine, two pegmatite, and two sedimentary deposits. In the US, lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada. A deposit discovered in 2013 in Wyoming's Rock Springs Uplift is estimated to contain 228,000 tons. Additional deposits in the same formation were estimated to be as much as 18 million tons. Similarly in Nevada, the McDermitt Caldera hosts lithium-bearing volcanic muds that consist of the largest known deposits of lithium within the United States. #### Lithium triangle The world's top four lithium-producing countries from 2019, as reported by the US Geological Survey are Australia, Chile, China and Argentina. The three countries of Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina make up a region known as the Lithium Triangle. The Lithium Triangle is known for its high-quality salt flats, which include Bolivia's Salar de Uyuni, Chile's Salar de Atacama, and Argentina's Salar de Arizaro. The Lithium Triangle is believed to contain over 75% of existing known lithium reserves. Deposits are also found in South America throughout the Andes mountain chain. Chile is the leading producer, followed by Argentina. Both countries recover lithium from brine pools. According to USGS, Bolivia's Uyuni Desert has 5.4 million tonnes of lithium. Half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia along the central eastern slope of the Andes. The Bolivian government has invested US$900 million and in 2021 successfully produced 540 tons The brines in the salt pans of the Lithium Triangle vary widely in lithium content. Concentrations can also vary in time as brines are fluids that are changeable and mobile. Since 2018 the Democratic Republic of Congo is known to have the largest lithium spodumene hard-rock deposit in the world. The deposit located in Manono, DRC, may hold up to 1.5 billion tons of lithium spodumene hard-rock. The two largest pegmatites (known as the Carriere de l'Este Pegmatite and the Roche Dure Pegmatite) are each of similar size or larger than the famous Greenbushes Pegmatite in Western Australia. Thus, the Democratic Republic of Congo is expected to be a significant supplier of lithium to the world with its high grade and low impurities. According to a later 2011 study by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California, Berkeley, the then-estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large-scale battery production for electric vehicles because an estimated 1 billion 40 kWh Li-based batteries could be built with those reserves - about 10 kg of lithium per car. Another 2011 study at the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found enough resources to support global demand until 2100, including the lithium required for the potential widespread transportation use. The study estimated global reserves at 39 million tons, and total demand for lithium during the 90-year period annualized at 12–20 million tons, depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates. In 2014, *The Financialist* stated that demand for lithium was growing at more than 12% a year. According to Credit Suisse, this rate exceeded projected availability by 25%. The publication compared the 2014 lithium situation with oil, whereby "higher oil prices spurred investment in expensive deepwater and oil sands production techniques"; that is, the price of lithium would continue to rise until more expensive production methods that could boost total output would receive the attention of investors. On 16 July 2018 2.5 million tonnes of high-grade lithium resources and 124 million pounds of uranium resources were found in the Falchani hard rock deposit in the region Puno, Peru. In 2020, Australia granted Major Project Status (MPS) to the Finniss Lithium Project for a strategically important lithium deposit: an estimated 3.45 million tonnes (Mt) of mineral resource at 1.4 percent lithium oxide. Operational mining began in 2022. In 2019, world production of lithium from spodumene was around 80,000t per annum, primarily from the Greenbushes pegmatite and from some Chinese and Chilean sources. The Talison mine in Greenbushes is reported to be the largest and to have the highest grade of ore at 2.4% Li2O (2012 figures). Oceans are estimated to contain 230 billion tons of lithium, but the concentration is 0.1-0.2ppm, making it more expensive to isolate with 2020 technology than from land based brine and rock. ### Sources Another potential source of lithium as of 2012[update] was identified as the leachates of geothermal wells, which are carried to the surface. Recovery of this type of lithium has been demonstrated in the field; the lithium is separated by simple filtration.[*clarification needed*] Reserves are more limited than those of brine reservoirs and hard rock. ### Pricing In 1998, the price of lithium metal was about 95 USD/kg (or US$43/lb). After the 2007 financial crisis, major suppliers, such as Sociedad Química y Minera (SQM), dropped lithium carbonate pricing by 20%. Prices rose in 2012. A 2012 Business Week article outlined an oligopoly in the lithium space: "SQM, controlled by billionaire Julio Ponce, is the second-largest, followed by Rockwood, which is backed by Henry Kravis’s KKR & Co., and Philadelphia-based FMC", with Talison mentioned as the biggest producer. Global consumption may jump to 300,000 metric tons a year by 2020[*failed verification*] from about 150,000 tons in 2012, to match the demand for lithium batteries that has been growing at about 25% a year, outpacing the 4% to 5% overall gain in lithium production.[*needs update*] The price information service ISE - Institute of Rare Earths Elements and Strategic Metals - gives for various lithium substances in the average of the last six months (March to August 2022) the following kilo prices stable in the course: Lithium Carbonate, purity 99.5%min, from various producers between 63 and 72 EUR/kg. Lithium Hydroxide Monohydrate LiOH 56.5%min, China, at 66 to 72 EUR/kg; Delivered South Korea - 73 EUR/kg. Lithium Metal 99.9%min, Delivered China - 42 EUR/kg. ### Extraction Lithium and its compounds were historically isolated and extracted from hard rock but by the 1990s mineral springs, brine pools, and brine deposits had become the dominant source. Most of these were in Chile, Argentina and Bolivia. Large lithium-clay deposits under development in the McDermitt caldera (Nevada, United States) require concentrated sulfuric acid to leach lithium from the clay ore. By early 2021, much of the lithium mined globally comes from either "spodumene, the mineral contained in hard rocks found in places such as Australia and North Carolina" or from the salty brine pumped directly out of the ground, as it is in locations in Chile. In Chile's Salar de Atacama, the lithium concentration in the brine is raised by solar evaporation in a system of ponds. The enrichment by evaporation process may require up to one-and-a-half years, when the brine reaches a lithium content of 6%. The final processing in this example is done near the city of Antofagasta on the coast where pure lithium carbonate, lithium hydroxide, and lithium chloride are produced from the brine. Low-cobalt cathodes for lithium batteries are expected to require lithium hydroxide rather than lithium carbonate as a feedstock, and this trend favors rock as a source. One method for lithium extraction, as well as other valuable minerals, is to process geothermal brine water through an electrolytic cell, located within a membrane. The use of electrodialysis and electrochemical intercalation has been proposed to extract lithium compounds from seawater (which contains lithium at 0.2 parts per million). Ion-selective cells within a membrane in principle could collect lithium either by use of electric field or a concentration difference. ### Environmental issues The manufacturing processes of lithium, including the solvent and mining waste, presents significant environmental and health hazards. Lithium extraction can be fatal to aquatic life due to water pollution. It is known to cause surface water contamination, drinking water contamination, respiratory problems, ecosystem degradation and landscape damage. It also leads to unsustainable water consumption in arid regions (1.9 million liters per ton of lithium). Massive byproduct generation of lithium extraction also presents unsolved problems, such as large amounts of magnesium and lime waste. In the United States, open-pit mining, mountaintop removal mining competes with brine extraction mining. Environmental concerns include wildlife habitat degradation, potable water pollution including arsenic and antimony contamination, unsustainable water table reduction, and massive mining waste, including radioactive uranium byproduct and sulfuric acid discharge. ### Human rights issues A study of relationships between lithium extraction companies and indigenous peoples in Argentina indicated that the state may not have protected indigenous peoples' right to free prior and informed consent, and that extraction companies generally controlled community access to information and set the terms for discussion of the projects and benefit sharing. Development of the Thacker Pass lithium mine in Nevada, United States, has met with protests and lawsuits from several indigenous tribes who have said they were not provided free prior and informed consent and that the project threatens cultural and sacred sites. They have also expressed concerns that development of the project will create risks to indigenous women, because resource extraction is linked to missing and murdered indigenous women. Protestors have been occupying the site of the proposed mine since January, 2021. Applications ------------ ### Batteries In 2021, most lithium is used to make lithium-ion batteries for electric cars and mobile devices. ### Ceramics and glass Lithium oxide is widely used as a flux for processing silica, reducing the melting point and viscosity of the material and leading to glazes with improved physical properties including low coefficients of thermal expansion. Worldwide, this is one of the largest use for lithium compounds. Glazes containing lithium oxides are used for ovenware. Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) is generally used in this application because it converts to the oxide upon heating. ### Electrical and electronic Late in the 20th century, lithium became an important component of battery electrolytes and electrodes, because of its high electrode potential. Because of its low atomic mass, it has a high charge- and power-to-weight ratio. A typical lithium-ion battery can generate approximately 3 volts per cell, compared with 2.1 volts for lead-acid and 1.5 volts for zinc-carbon. Lithium-ion batteries, which are rechargeable and have a high energy density, differ from lithium metal batteries, which are disposable (primary) batteries with lithium or its compounds as the anode. Other rechargeable batteries that use lithium include the lithium-ion polymer battery, lithium iron phosphate battery, and the nanowire battery. Over the years opinions have been differing about potential growth. A 2008 study concluded that "realistically achievable lithium carbonate production would be sufficient for only a small fraction of future PHEV and EV global market requirements", that "demand from the portable electronics sector will absorb much of the planned production increases in the next decade", and that "mass production of lithium carbonate is not environmentally sound, it will cause irreparable ecological damage to ecosystems that should be protected and that LiIon propulsion is incompatible with the notion of the 'Green Car'". ### Lubricating greases The third most common use of lithium is in greases. Lithium hydroxide is a strong base and, when heated with a fat, produces a soap made of lithium stearate. Lithium soap has the ability to thicken oils, and it is used to manufacture all-purpose, high-temperature lubricating greases. ### Metallurgy Lithium (e.g. as lithium carbonate) is used as an additive to continuous casting mould flux slags where it increases fluidity, a use which accounts for 5% of global lithium use (2011). Lithium compounds are also used as additives (fluxes) to foundry sand for iron casting to reduce veining. Lithium (as lithium fluoride) is used as an additive to aluminium smelters (Hall–Héroult process), reducing melting temperature and increasing electrical resistance, a use which accounts for 3% of production (2011). When used as a flux for welding or soldering, metallic lithium promotes the fusing of metals during the process and eliminates the forming of oxides by absorbing impurities. Alloys of the metal with aluminium, cadmium, copper and manganese are used to make high-performance, low density aircraft parts (see also Lithium-aluminium alloys). ### Silicon nano-welding Lithium has been found effective in assisting the perfection of silicon nano-welds in electronic components for electric batteries and other devices. ### Pyrotechnics Lithium compounds are used as pyrotechnic colorants and oxidizers in red fireworks and flares. ### Air purification Lithium chloride and lithium bromide are hygroscopic and are used as desiccants for gas streams. Lithium hydroxide and lithium peroxide are the salts most used in confined areas, such as aboard spacecraft and submarines, for carbon dioxide removal and air purification. Lithium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air by forming lithium carbonate, and is preferred over other alkaline hydroxides for its low weight. Lithium peroxide (Li2O2) in presence of moisture not only reacts with carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate, but also releases oxygen. The reaction is as follows: 2 Li2O2 + 2 CO2 → 2 Li2CO3 + O2. Some of the aforementioned compounds, as well as lithium perchlorate, are used in oxygen candles that supply submarines with oxygen. These can also include small amounts of boron, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, titanium, manganese, and iron. ### Optics Lithium fluoride, artificially grown as crystal, is clear and transparent and often used in specialist optics for IR, UV and VUV (vacuum UV) applications. It has one of the lowest refractive indexes and the furthest transmission range in the deep UV of most common materials. Finely divided lithium fluoride powder has been used for thermoluminescent radiation dosimetry (TLD): when a sample of such is exposed to radiation, it accumulates crystal defects which, when heated, resolve via a release of bluish light whose intensity is proportional to the absorbed dose, thus allowing this to be quantified. Lithium fluoride is sometimes used in focal lenses of telescopes. The high non-linearity of lithium niobate also makes it useful in non-linear optics applications. It is used extensively in telecommunication products such as mobile phones and optical modulators, for such components as resonant crystals. Lithium applications are used in more than 60% of mobile phones. ### Organic and polymer chemistry Organolithium compounds are widely used in the production of polymer and fine-chemicals. In the polymer industry, which is the dominant consumer of these reagents, alkyl lithium compounds are catalysts/initiators. in anionic polymerization of unfunctionalized olefins. For the production of fine chemicals, organolithium compounds function as strong bases and as reagents for the formation of carbon-carbon bonds. Organolithium compounds are prepared from lithium metal and alkyl halides. Many other lithium compounds are used as reagents to prepare organic compounds. Some popular compounds include lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), lithium triethylborohydride, n-butyllithium and tert-butyllithium. ### Military Metallic lithium and its complex hydrides, such as Li[AlH4], are used as high-energy additives to rocket propellants. Lithium aluminium hydride can also be used by itself as a solid fuel. The Mark 50 torpedo stored chemical energy propulsion system (SCEPS) uses a small tank of sulfur hexafluoride, which is sprayed over a block of solid lithium. The reaction generates heat, creating steam to propel the torpedo in a closed Rankine cycle. Lithium hydride containing lithium-6 is used in thermonuclear weapons, where it serves as fuel for the fusion stage of the bomb. ### Nuclear Lithium-6 is valued as a source material for tritium production and as a neutron absorber in nuclear fusion. Natural lithium contains about 7.5% lithium-6 from which large amounts of lithium-6 have been produced by isotope separation for use in nuclear weapons. Lithium-7 gained interest for use in nuclear reactor coolants. Lithium deuteride was the fusion fuel of choice in early versions of the hydrogen bomb. When bombarded by neutrons, both 6Li and 7Li produce tritium — this reaction, which was not fully understood when hydrogen bombs were first tested, was responsible for the runaway yield of the Castle Bravo nuclear test. Tritium fuses with deuterium in a fusion reaction that is relatively easy to achieve. Although details remain secret, lithium-6 deuteride apparently still plays a role in modern nuclear weapons as a fusion material. Lithium fluoride, when highly enriched in the lithium-7 isotope, forms the basic constituent of the fluoride salt mixture LiF-BeF2 used in liquid fluoride nuclear reactors. Lithium fluoride is exceptionally chemically stable and LiF-BeF2 mixtures have low melting points. In addition, 7Li, Be, and F are among the few nuclides with low enough thermal neutron capture cross-sections not to poison the fission reactions inside a nuclear fission reactor. In conceptualized (hypothetical) nuclear fusion power plants, lithium will be used to produce tritium in magnetically confined reactors using deuterium and tritium as the fuel. Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare, and must be synthetically produced by surrounding the reacting plasma with a 'blanket' containing lithium where neutrons from the deuterium-tritium reaction in the plasma will fission the lithium to produce more tritium: 6Li + n → 4He + 3H. Lithium is also used as a source for alpha particles, or helium nuclei. When 7Li is bombarded by accelerated protons 8Be is formed, which almost immediately undergoes fission to form two alpha particles. This feat, called "splitting the atom" at the time, was the first fully human-made nuclear reaction. It was produced by Cockroft and Walton in 1932. Injection of lithium powders is used in fusion reactors to manipulate plasma-material interactions and dissipate energy in the hot thermo-nuclear fusion plasma boundary. In 2013, the US Government Accountability Office said a shortage of lithium-7 critical to the operation of 65 out of 100 American nuclear reactors "places their ability to continue to provide electricity at some risk". Castle Bravo first used lithium-7, in the *Shrimp*, its first device, which weighed only 10 tons, and generated massive nuclear atmospheric contamination of Bikini Atoll. This perhaps accounts for the decline of US nuclear infrastructure. The equipment needed to separate lithium-6 from lithium-7 is mostly a cold war leftover. The US shut down most of this machinery in 1963, when it had a huge surplus of separated lithium, mostly consumed during the twentieth century. The report said it would take five years and $10 million to $12 million to reestablish the ability to separate lithium-6 from lithium-7. Reactors that use lithium-7 heat water under high pressure and transfer heat through heat exchangers that are prone to corrosion. The reactors use lithium to counteract the corrosive effects of boric acid, which is added to the water to absorb excess neutrons. ### Medicine Lithium is useful in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Lithium salts may also be helpful for related diagnoses, such as schizoaffective disorder and cyclic major depression. The active part of these salts is the lithium ion Li+. Lithium may increase the risk of developing Ebstein's cardiac anomaly in infants born to women who take lithium during the first trimester of pregnancy. A 2022 review indicated that lithium therapy during treatment of bipolar disorder does not affect body weight. Precautions ----------- Lithium metal is corrosive and requires special handling to avoid skin contact. Breathing lithium dust or lithium compounds (which are often alkaline) initially irritate the nose and throat, while higher exposure can cause a buildup of fluid in the lungs, leading to pulmonary edema. The metal itself is a handling hazard because contact with moisture produces the caustic lithium hydroxide. Lithium is safely stored in non-reactive compounds such as naphtha. See also -------- * Cosmological lithium problem * Dilithium * Halo nucleus * Isotopes of lithium * List of countries by lithium production * Lithia water * Lithium–air battery * Lithium burning * Lithium compounds (category) * Lithium-ion battery * Lithium Tokamak Experiment tt h

Lithium

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium

The **American Revolutionary War** (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the **Revolutionary War** or **American War of Independence**, was the military conflict of the American Revolution in which American Patriot forces under George Washington's command defeated the British, establishing and securing the independence of the United States. Fighting began on April 19, 1775 at the Battles of Lexington and Concord. The war was formalized and intensified following passage of the Lee Resolution, which asserted that the Thirteen Colonies were "free and independent states", by the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia on July 2, 1776 and the unanimous ratification of the Declaration of Independence two days later, on July 4, 1776. In the war, American patriot forces were supported by the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of Spain. The British, in turn, were supported by Hessian soldiers from Germany, some American Indians, Loyalists, and freedmen. The conflict was fought in America, the Caribbean, and the Atlantic Ocean. The American colonies were established by Royal charter in the 17th and 18th centuries. They were initially largely autonomous in domestic affairs and commercially prosperous, trading with Britain, its Caribbean colonies, and other European powers via their Caribbean entrepôts. After the British gained victory over the French in the Seven Years' War in 1763, tensions and disputes arose between Britain and the colonies over policies related to trade, trans-Appalachian settlement, and taxation, including the Stamp and Townshend Acts. Colonial opposition led to the Boston Massacre in 1770, which strengthened American Patriots' desire for independence from Britain. The British responded by repealing earlier taxation measures. But in 1773, the British Parliament adopted the Tea Act, a measure which led to the Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773. In response, the British Parliament imposed the Intolerable Acts in mid-1774, closed Boston Harbor, and revoked Massachusetts' charter, which placed the colony under the British monarchy's direct governance. These measures stirred unrest throughout the colonies, 12 of which sent delegates to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia in early September 1774 to protest the measures and deliberate on potential responses. In Philadelphia, the Congress drafted a Petition to the King asking for peace, and threatened a boycott of British goods known as the Continental Association if the Intolerable Acts were not withdrawn. Fighting began at the Battle of Lexington on April 19, 1775. In June, the Second Continental Congress formalized Patriot militias into the Continental Army and appointed George Washington its commander-in-chief. The coercion policy advocated by the North ministry was opposed by a faction within the British Parliament, but both sides began to see military conflict as inevitable. Congress sent the Olive Branch Petition to King George III in July 1775, but he rejected it, and the British Parliament declared the colonies to be in a state of rebellion in August. As the Revolutionary War formally launched, Washington's forces drove the British army out of Boston during the Siege of Boston in March 1776, and British commander in chief William Howe responded by launching the New York and New Jersey campaign. Howe captured New York City in November, and Washington responded by clandestinely crossing the Delaware River and winning small but significant victories at Trenton and Princeton, which restored Patriot confidence. In summer 1777, as Howe was poised to capture Philadelphia, the Continental Congress prepared for Philadelphia's fall by fleeing the city for Baltimore, where they convened at Henry Fite House, and protecting the Liberty Bell by relocating it to Zion Reformed Church in Allentown, where it was hidden under the church's floorboards for nine months. In October 1776, a separate British force under the command of John Burgoyne was forced to surrender at Saratoga in an American victory that proved crucial in convincing France and Spain that an independent United States was a viable possibility. With Philadelphia still occupied by the British, Washington and 12,000 Continental Army troops secured refuge in Valley Forge from December 1777 to June 1778. At Valley Forge, General von Steuben drilled the Continental Army into a more viable fighting unit, but as many as 2,000 Continental Army troops died from disease and possibly malnutrition over a brutal winter. France provided the Continental Army with informal economic and military support from the beginning of the war. After Saratoga, the two countries signed a commercial agreement and a Treaty of Alliance in February 1778. In 1779, Spain also allied with France against Britain in the Treaty of Aranjuez, though Spain did not formally ally with the Americans. Access to ports in Spanish Louisiana allowed American patriots to import arms and supplies, while the Spanish Gulf Coast campaign deprived the British Royal Navy of key bases in the American south. Closure of American ports undermined the 1778 strategy devised by Howe's replacement Henry Clinton, which intended to take the war against the Americans into the south. Despite some initial success, Cornwallis was besieged by a Franco-American force in Yorktown in September and October 1781. Cornwallis attempted to resupply the garrison, but failed and was forced to surrender in October. The British wars with France and Spain continued for another two years, but Britain's forces in America were largely confined to several harbors and forts in Great Lakes, and fighting largely ceased in America. In April 1782, the North ministry was replaced by a new British government, which accepted American independence and began negotiating the Treaty of Paris, ratified on September 3, 1783, and Britain acknowledged the sovereignty and independence of the United States of America, bringing the American Revolutionary War to an end. The Treaties of Versailles resolved Britain's conflicts with France and Spain. Prelude to revolution --------------------- The French and Indian War, part of the wider global conflict known as the Seven Years' War, ended with the 1763 Peace of Paris, which expelled France from Britain's possessions in New France. Acquisition of territories in Atlantic Canada and West Florida, inhabited largely by French or Spanish-speaking Catholics, led British authorities to consolidate their hold by populating them with English-speaking settlers. Preventing conflict between settlers and Indian tribes west of the Appalachian Mountains also avoided the cost of an expensive military occupation. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was designed to achieve these aims by refocusing colonial expansion north into Nova Scotia and south into Florida, with the Mississippi River as the dividing line between British and Spanish possessions in America. Settlement was tightly restricted beyond the 1763 limits, and claims west of this line, including by Virginia and Massachusetts, were rescinded despite the fact that each colony argued that their boundaries extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. The vast exchange of territory ultimately destabilized existing alliances and trade networks between settlers and Indians in the west, while it proved impossible to prevent encroachment beyond the Proclamation Line. With the exception of Virginia and others deprived of rights to western lands, the colonial legislatures agreed on the boundaries but disagreed on where to set them. Many settlers resented the restrictions entirely, and enforcement required permanent garrisons along the frontier, which led to increasingly bitter disputes over who should pay for them. ### Taxation and legislation Although directly administered by The Crown, acting through a local governor, the colonies were largely governed by native-born property owners. While external affairs were managed by London, colonial militia were funded locally but with the ending of the French threat in 1763, the legislatures expected less taxation, not more. At the same time, the huge debt incurred by the Seven Years' War and demands from British taxpayers for cuts in government expenditure meant Parliament expected the colonies to fund their own defense. The 1763 to 1765 Grenville ministry instructed the Royal Navy to cease trading smuggled goods and enforce customs duties levied in American ports. The most important was the 1733 Molasses Act; routinely ignored prior to 1763, it had a significant economic impact since 85% of New England rum exports were manufactured from imported molasses. These measures were followed by the Sugar Act and Stamp Act, which imposed additional taxes on the colonies to pay for defending the western frontier. In July 1765, the Whigs formed the First Rockingham ministry, which repealed the Stamp Act and reduced tax on foreign molasses to help the New England economy, but re-asserted Parliamentary authority in the Declaratory Act. However, this did little to end the discontent; in 1768, a riot started in Boston when the authorities seized the sloop *Liberty* on suspicion of smuggling. Tensions escalated further in March 1770 when British troops fired on rock-throwing civilians, killing five in what became known as the Boston Massacre. The Massacre coincided with the partial repeal of the Townshend Acts by the Tory-based North Ministry, which came to power in January 1770 and remained in office until 1781. North insisted on retaining duty on tea to enshrine Parliament's right to tax the colonies; the amount was minor, but ignored the fact it was that very principle Americans found objectionable. Tensions escalated following the destruction of a customs vessel in the June 1772 Gaspee Affair, then came to a head in 1773. A banking crisis led to the near-collapse of the East India Company, which dominated the British economy; to support it, Parliament passed the Tea Act, giving it a trading monopoly in the Thirteen Colonies. Since most American tea was smuggled by the Dutch, the act was opposed by those who managed the illegal trade, while being seen as yet another attempt to impose the principle of taxation by Parliament. In December 1773, a group called the Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawk natives dumped 342 crates of tea into Boston Harbor, an event later known as the Boston Tea Party. The British Parliament responded by passing the so-called Intolerable Acts, aimed specifically at Massachusetts, although many colonists and members of the Whig opposition considered them a threat to liberty in general. This led to increased sympathy for the Patriot cause locally, in British Parliament, and in the London press. ### Break with the British Crown Throughout the 18th century, the elected lower houses in the colonial legislatures gradually wrested power from their royal governors. Dominated by smaller landowners and merchants, these assemblies now established ad-hoc provincial legislatures, variously called congresses, conventions, and conferences, effectively replacing royal control. With the exception of Georgia, twelve colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress to agree on a unified response to the crisis. Many of the delegates feared that an all-out boycott would result in war and sent a Petition to the King calling for the repeal of the Intolerable Acts. However, after some debate, on September 17, 1774, Congress endorsed the Massachusetts Suffolk Resolves and on October 20 passed the Continental Association; based on a draft prepared by the First Virginia Convention in August, the association instituted economic sanctions and a full boycott of goods against Britain. While denying its authority over internal American affairs, a faction led by James Duane and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway insisted Congress recognize Parliament's right to regulate colonial trade. Expecting concessions by the North administration, Congress authorized the extralegal committees and conventions of the colonial legislatures to enforce the boycott; this succeeded in reducing British imports by 97% from 1774 to 1775. However, on February 9 Parliament declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and instituted a blockade of the colony. In July, the Restraining Acts limited colonial trade with the British West Indies and Britain and barred New England ships from the Newfoundland cod fisheries. The increase in tension led to a scramble for control of militia stores, which each assembly was legally obliged to maintain for defense. On April 19, a British attempt to secure the Concord arsenal culminated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord, which began the Revolutionary War. ### Political reactions After the Patriot victory at Concord, moderates in Congress led by John Dickinson drafted the Olive Branch Petition, offering to accept royal authority in return for George III mediating in the dispute. However, since the petition was immediately followed by the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms, Colonial Secretary Lord Dartmouth viewed the offer as insincere; he refused to present the petition to the king, which was therefore rejected in early September. Although constitutionally correct, since George could not oppose his own government, it disappointed those Americans who hoped he would mediate in the dispute, while the hostility of his language annoyed even Loyalist members of Congress. Combined with the Proclamation of Rebellion, issued on August 23 in response to the Battle at Bunker Hill, it ended hopes of a peaceful settlement. Backed by the Whigs, Parliament initially rejected the imposition of coercive measures by 170 votes, fearing an aggressive policy would simply drive the Americans towards independence. However, by the end of 1774 the collapse of British authority meant both Lord North and George III were convinced war was inevitable. After Boston, Gage halted operations and awaited reinforcements; the Irish Parliament approved the recruitment of new regiments, while allowing Catholics to enlist for the first time. Britain also signed a series of treaties with German states to supply additional troops. Within a year, it had an army of over 32,000 men in America, the largest ever sent outside Europe at the time. The employment of German soldiers against people viewed as British citizens was opposed by many in Parliament and by the colonial assemblies; combined with the lack of activity by Gage, opposition to the use of foreign troops allowed the Patriots to take control of the legislatures. ### Declaration of Independence Support for independence was boosted by Thomas Paine's pamphlet *Common Sense*, which was published January 10, 1776 and argued for American self-government and was widely reprinted. To draft the Declaration of Independence, the Second Continental Congress appointed the Committee of Five, consisting of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston. The declaration was written almost exclusively by Jefferson, who wrote it largely in isolation between June 11 and June 28, 1776, in a three-story residence at 700 Market Street in Philadelphia. Identifying inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies as "one people", the declaration simultaneously dissolved political links with Britain, while including a long list of alleged violations of "English rights" committed by George III. This is also one of the foremost times that the colonies were referred to as "United States", rather than the more common United Colonies. On July 2, Congress voted for independence and published the declaration on July 4, which Washington read to his troops in New York City on July 9. At this point, the revolution ceased to be an internal dispute over trade and tax policies and had evolved into a civil war, since each state represented in Congress was engaged in a struggle with Britain, but also split between American Patriots and American Loyalists. Patriots generally supported independence from Britain and a new national union in Congress, while Loyalists remained faithful to British rule. Estimates of numbers vary, one suggestion being the population as a whole was split evenly between committed Patriots, committed Loyalists, and those who were indifferent. Others calculate the split as 40% Patriot, 40% neutral, 20% Loyalist, but with considerable regional variations. At the onset of the war, the Second Continental Congress realized defeating Britain required foreign alliances and intelligence-gathering. The Committee of Secret Correspondence was formed for "the sole purpose of corresponding with our friends in Great Britain and other parts of the world". From 1775 to 1776, the committee shared information and built alliances through secret correspondence, as well as employing secret agents in Europe to gather intelligence, conduct undercover operations, analyze foreign publications, and initiate Patriot propaganda campaigns. Paine served as secretary, while Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane, sent to France to recruit military engineers, were instrumental in securing French aid in Paris. War breaks out -------------- The Revolutionary War included two principal campaign theaters within the Thirteen Colonies, and a smaller but strategically important third one west of the Appalachian Mountains. Fighting began in the Northern Theater and was at its most severe from 1775 to 1778. American patriots achieved several strategic victories in the South. The Americans defeated the British Army at Saratoga in October 1777, and the French, seeing the possibility for an American patriot victory in the war, formally entered the war as an American ally. During 1778, Washington prevented the British army from breaking out of New York City, while militia under George Rogers Clark conquered Western Quebec, supported by Francophone settlers and their Indian allies, which became the Northwest Territory. The war became a stalemate in the north in 1779, so the British initiated their southern strategy, which aimed to mobilize Loyalist support in the region and occupy American patriot-controlled territory north to Chesapeake Bay. The campaign was initially successful, with the British capture of Charleston being a major setback for southern Patriots; however, a Franco-American force surrounded the British army at Yorktown and their surrender in October 1781 effectively ended fighting in America. ### Early engagements On April 14, 1775, Sir Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief, North America since 1763 and also Governor of Massachusetts from 1774, received orders to take action against the Patriots. He decided to destroy militia ordnance stored at Concord, Massachusetts, and capture John Hancock and Samuel Adams, who were considered the principal instigators of the rebellion. The operation was to begin around midnight on April 19, in the hope of completing it before the American patriots could respond. However, Paul Revere learned of the plan and notified Captain Parker, commander of the Concord militia, who prepared to resist the attempted seizure. The first action of the war, commonly referred to as the shot heard round the world, was a brief skirmish at Lexington, followed by the full-scale Battles of Lexington and Concord. British troops suffered around 300 casualties before withdrawing to Boston, which was then besieged by the militia. In May 1775, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived under Generals William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Sir Henry Clinton. On June 17, they seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill, a frontal assault in which they suffered over 1,000 casualties. Dismayed at the costly attack which had gained them little, Gage appealed to London for a larger army to suppress the revolt, but instead was replaced as commander by Howe. On June 14, 1775, Congress took control of American patriot forces outside Boston, and Congressional leader John Adams nominated George Washington as commander-in-chief of the newly-formed Continental Army. Washington previously commanded Virginia militia regiments in the French and Indian War, and on June 16, John Hancock officially proclaimed him "General and Commander in Chief of the army of the United Colonies." He assumed command on July 3, preferring to fortify Dorchester Heights outside Boston rather than assaulting it. In early March 1776, Colonel Henry Knox arrived with heavy artillery acquired in the Capture of Fort Ticonderoga. Under cover of darkness, on March 5, Washington placed these on Dorchester Heights, from where they could fire on the town and British ships in Boston Harbor. Fearing another Bunker Hill, Howe evacuated the city on March 17 without further loss and sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia, while Washington moved south to New York City. Beginning in August 1775, American privateers raided towns in Nova Scotia, including Saint John, Charlottetown, and Yarmouth. In 1776, John Paul Jones and Jonathan Eddy attacked Canso and Fort Cumberland respectively. British officials in Quebec began negotiating with the Iroquois for their support, while US envoys urged them to remain neutral. Aware of Native American leanings toward the British and fearing an Anglo-Indian attack from Canada, Congress authorized a second invasion in April 1775. After defeat at the Battle of Quebec on December 31, the Americans maintained a loose blockade of the city until they retreated on May 6, 1776. A second defeat at Trois-Rivières on June 8 ended operations in Quebec. British pursuit was initially blocked by American naval vessels on Lake Champlain until victory at Valcour Island on October 11 forced the Americans to withdraw to Fort Ticonderoga, while in December an uprising in Nova Scotia sponsored by Massachusetts was defeated at Fort Cumberland. These failures impacted public support for the Patriot cause, and aggressive anti-Loyalist policies in the New England colonies alienated the Canadians. In Virginia, an attempt by Governor Lord Dunmore to seize militia stores on April 20, 1775, led to an increase in tension, although conflict was avoided for the time being. This changed after the publication of Dunmore's Proclamation on November 7, 1775, promising freedom to any slaves who fled their Patriot masters and agreed to fight for the Crown. British forces were defeated at Great Bridge on December 9 and took refuge on British ships anchored near the port of Norfolk. When the Third Virginia Convention refused to disband its militia or accept martial law, Dunmore ordered the Burning of Norfolk on January 1, 1776. The siege of Savage's Old Fields began on November 19 in South Carolina between Loyalist and Patriot militias, and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony in the Snow Campaign. Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert British rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge. A British expedition sent to reconquer South Carolina launched an attack on Charleston in the Battle of Sullivan's Island on June 28, 1776, but it failed and left the South under Patriot control until 1780. A shortage of gunpowder led Congress to authorize a naval expedition against The Bahamas to secure ordnance stored there. On March 3, 1776, an American squadron under the command of Esek Hopkins landed at the east end of Nassau and encountered minimal resistance at Fort Montagu. Hopkins' troops then marched on Fort Nassau. Hopkins had promised governor Montfort Browne and the civilian inhabitants of the area that their lives and property would not be in any danger if they offered no resistance, to which they complied. Hopkins captured large stores of powder and other munitions that was so great he had to impress an extra ship in the harbor to transport the supplies back home, when he departed on March 17. A month later, after a brief skirmish with HMS *Glasgow*, they returned to New London, Connecticut, the base for American naval operations during the Revolution. ### British New York counter-offensive After regrouping at Halifax in Nova Scotia, Howe was determined to take the fight to the Americans. He set sail for New York in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island near the entrance to New York Harbor on July 2. The Americans rejected Howe's informal attempt to negotiate peace on July 30; Washington knew that an attack on the city was imminent and realized that he needed advance information to deal with disciplined British regular troops. On August 12, 1776, Patriot Thomas Knowlton was given orders to form an elite group for reconnaissance and secret missions. Knowlton's Rangers, which included Nathan Hale, became the Army's first intelligence unit. When Washington was driven off Long Island, he soon realized that he would need more than military might and amateur spies to defeat the British. He was committed to professionalizing military intelligence. With aid from Benjamin Tallmadge, Washington launched the six-man Culper spy ring. The efforts of Washington and the Culper Spy Ring substantially increased effective allocation and deployment of Continental regiments in the field. Over the course of the war, Washington spent more than 10 percent of his total military funds on military intelligence operations. Washington split the Continental Army into positions on Manhattan and across the East River in western Long Island. On August 27 at the Battle of Long Island, Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights, but he did not attempt to encircle Washington's forces. Through the night of August 28, General Henry Knox bombarded the British. Knowing they were up against overwhelming odds, Washington ordered the assembly of a war council on August 29; all agreed to retreat to Manhattan. Washington quickly had his troops assembled and ferried them across the East River to Manhattan on flat-bottomed freight boats without any losses in men or ordnance, leaving General Thomas Mifflin's regiments as a rearguard. Howe met with a delegation from the Second Continental Congress at the September Staten Island Peace Conference, but it failed to conclude peace, largely because the British delegates only had authority to offer pardons and could not recognize independence. On September 15, Howe seized control of New York City when the British landed at Kip's Bay and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans at the Battle of Harlem Heights the following day. On October 18, Howe failed to encircle the Americans at the Battle of Pell's Point, and the Americans withdrew. Howe declined to close with Washington's army on October 28 at the Battle of White Plains, and instead attacked a hill that was of no strategic value. Washington's retreat isolated his remaining forces and the British captured Fort Washington on November 16. The British victory there amounted to Washington's most disastrous defeat with the loss of 3,000 prisoners. The remaining American regiments on Long Island fell back four days later. General Henry Clinton wanted to pursue Washington's disorganized army, but he was first required to commit 6,000 troops to capture Newport, Rhode Island to secure the Loyalist port. General Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt, leaving Washington unmolested. The outlook following the defeat at Fort Washington appeared bleak for the American cause. The reduced Continental Army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men and was reduced further when enlistments expired at the end of the year. Popular support wavered, and morale declined. On December 20, 1776, the Continental Congress abandoned the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia and moved to Baltimore, where it remained for over two months, until February 27, 1777. Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat, especially in New York state. In London, news of the victorious Long Island campaign was well received with festivities held in the capital. Public support reached a peak, and King George III awarded the Order of the Bath to Howe. Strategic deficiencies among Patriot forces were evident: Washington divided a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misread the military situation, and American troops fled in the face of enemy fire. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year. In the meantime, the British established winter quarters in the New York City area and anticipated renewed campaigning the following spring. ### Patriot resurgence Two weeks after Congress withdrew to Baltimore, on the night of December 25–26, 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River, leading a column of Continental Army troops from today's Bucks County, Pennsylvania, located about 30 miles upriver from Philadelphia, to today's Mercer County, New Jersey, in a logistically challenging and dangerous operation. Meanwhile, the Hessians were involved with numerous clashes with small bands of patriots and were often aroused by false alarms at night in the weeks before the actual Battle of Trenton. By Christmas they were tired and weary, while a heavy snow storm led their commander, Colonel Johann Rall, to assume no attack of any consequence would occur. At daybreak on the 26th, the American patriots surprised and overwhelmed Rall and his troops, who lost over 20 killed including Rall, while 900 prisoners, German cannons and much supply were captured. The Battle of Trenton restored the American army's morale, reinvigorated the Patriot cause, and dispelled their fear of the what they regarded as Hessian "mercenaries". A British attempt to retake Trenton was repulsed at Assunpink Creek on January 2; during the night, Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis, then defeated his rearguard in the Battle of Princeton the following day. The two victories helped convince the French that the Americans were worthy military allies. After his success at Princeton, Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, where he remained until May and received Congressional direction to inoculate all patriot troops against smallpox. With the exception of a minor skirmishing between the two armies which continued until March, Howe made no attempt to attack the Americans. ### British northern strategy fails The 1776 campaign demonstrated that regaining New England would be a prolonged affair, which led to a change in British strategy. This involved isolating the north from the rest of the country by taking control of the Hudson River, allowing them to focus on the south where Loyalist support was believed to be substantial. In December 1776, Howe wrote to the Colonial Secretary Lord Germain, proposing a limited offensive against Philadelphia, while a second force moved down the Hudson from Canada. Germain received this on February 23, 1777, followed a few days later by a memorandum from Burgoyne, then in London on leave. Burgoyne supplied several alternatives, all of which gave him responsibility for the offensive, with Howe remaining on the defensive. The option selected required him to lead the main force south from Montreal down the Hudson Valley, while a detachment under Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario. The two would meet at Albany, leaving Howe to decide whether to join them. Reasonable in principle, this did not account for the logistical difficulties involved and Burgoyne erroneously assumed Howe would remain on the defensive; Germain's failure to make this clear meant he opted to attack Philadelphia instead. Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, with a mixed force of British regulars, professional German soldiers and Canadian militia, and captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 5. As General Horatio Gates retreated, his troops blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams, and stripped the area of food. This slowed Burgoyne's progress and forced him to send out large foraging expeditions; on one of these, more than 700 British troops were captured at the Battle of Bennington on August 16. St Leger moved east and besieged Fort Stanwix; despite defeating an American relief force at the Battle of Oriskany on August 6, he was abandoned by his Indian allies and withdrew to Quebec on August 22. Now isolated and outnumbered by Gates, Burgoyne continued onto Albany rather than retreating to Fort Ticonderoga, reaching Saratoga on September 13. He asked Clinton for support while constructing defenses around the town. Morale among his troops rapidly declined, and an unsuccessful attempt to break past Gates at the Battle of Freeman Farms on September 19 resulted in 600 British casualties. When Clinton advised he could not reach them, Burgoyne's subordinates advised retreat; a reconnaissance in force on October 7 was repulsed by Gates at the Battle of Bemis Heights, forcing them back into Saratoga with heavy losses. By October 11, all hope of escape had vanished; persistent rain reduced the camp to a "squalid hell" of mud and starving cattle, supplies were dangerously low and many of the wounded in agony. Burgoyne capitulated on October 17; around 6,222 soldiers, including German forces commanded by General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel, surrendered their arms before being taken to Boston, where they were to be transported to England. After securing additional supplies, Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia by landing his troops in Chesapeake Bay on August 24. He now compounded failure to support Burgoyne by missing repeated opportunities to destroy his opponent, defeating Washington at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, then allowing him to withdraw in good order. After dispersing an American detachment at Paoli on September 20, Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26, with the main force of 9,000 under Howe based just to the north at Germantown. Washington attacked them on October 4, but was repulsed. To prevent Howe's forces in Philadelphia being resupplied by sea, the Patriots erected Fort Mifflin and nearby Fort Mercer on the east and west banks of the Delaware respectively, and placed obstacles in the river south of the city. This was supported by a small flotilla of Continental Navy ships on the Delaware, supplemented by the Pennsylvania State Navy, commanded by John Hazelwood. An attempt by the Royal Navy to take the forts in the October 20 to 22 Battle of Red Bank failed; a second attack captured Fort Mifflin on November 16, while Fort Mercer was abandoned two days later when Cornwallis breached the walls. His supply lines secured, Howe tried to tempt Washington into giving battle, but after inconclusive skirmishing at the Battle of White Marsh from December 5 to 8, he withdrew to Philadelphia for the winter. On December 19, the Americans followed suit and entered winter quarters at Valley Forge; while Washington's domestic opponents contrasted his lack of battlefield success with Gates' victory at Saratoga, foreign observers such as Frederick the Great were equally impressed with Germantown, which demonstrated resilience and determination. Over the winter, poor conditions, supply problems and low morale resulted in 2,000 deaths, with another 3,000 unfit for duty due to lack of shoes. However, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben took the opportunity to introduce Prussian Army drill and infantry tactics to the entire Continental Army; he did this by training "model companies" in each regiment, who then instructed their home units. Despite Valley Forge being only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, an action some critics argue could have ended the war. ### Foreign intervention Like his predecessors, French foreign minister Vergennes considered the 1763 Peace a national humiliation and viewed the war as an opportunity to weaken Britain. He initially avoided open conflict, but allowed American ships to take on cargoes in French ports, a technical violation of neutrality. Although public opinion favored the American cause, Finance Minister Turgot argued they did not need French help to gain independence, and war was too expensive. Instead, Vergennes persuaded Louis XVI to secretly fund a government front company to purchase munitions for the Patriots, carried in neutral Dutch ships and imported through Sint Eustatius in the Caribbean. Many Americans opposed a French alliance, fearing to "exchange one tyranny for another", but this changed after a series of military setbacks in early 1776. As France had nothing to gain from the colonies reconciling with Britain, Congress had three choices; making peace on British terms, continuing the struggle on their own, or proclaiming independence, guaranteed by France. Although the Declaration of Independence in July 1776 had wide public support, Adams was among those reluctant to pay the price of an alliance with France, and over 20% of Congressmen voted against it. Congress agreed to the treaty with reluctance and as the war moved in their favor increasingly lost interest in it. Silas Deane was sent to Paris to begin negotiations with Vergennes, whose key objectives were replacing Britain as the United States' primary commercial and military partner while securing the French West Indies from American expansion. These islands were extremely valuable; in 1772, the value of sugar and coffee produced by Saint-Domingue on its own exceeded that of all American exports combined. Talks progressed slowly until October 1777, when British defeat at Saratoga and their apparent willingness to negotiate peace convinced Vergennes only a permanent alliance could prevent the "disaster" of Anglo-American rapprochement. Assurances of formal French support allowed Congress to reject the Carlisle Peace Commission and insist on nothing short of complete independence. On February 6, 1778, France and the United States signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce regulating trade between the two countries, followed by a defensive military alliance against Britain, the Treaty of Alliance. In return for French guarantees of American independence, Congress undertook to defend their interests in the West Indies, while both sides agreed not to make a separate peace; conflict over these provisions would lead to the 1798 to 1800 Quasi-War. Charles III of Spain was invited to join on the same terms but refused, largely due to concerns over the impact of the Revolution on Spanish colonies in the Americas. Spain had complained on multiple occasions about encroachment by American settlers into Louisiana, a problem that could only get worse once the United States replaced Britain. Although Spain ultimately made important contributions to American success, in the Treaty of Aranjuez (1779), Charles agreed only to support France's war with Britain outside America, in return for help in recovering Gibraltar, Menorca and Spanish Florida. The terms were confidential since several conflicted with American aims; for example, the French claimed exclusive control of the Newfoundland cod fisheries, a non-negotiable for colonies like Massachusetts. One less well-known impact of this agreement was the abiding American distrust of 'foreign entanglements'; the US would not sign another treaty with France until their NATO agreement of 1949. This was because the US had agreed not to make peace without France, while Aranjuez committed France to keep fighting until Spain recovered Gibraltar, effectively making it a condition of US independence without the knowledge of Congress. To encourage French participation in the struggle for independence, the US representative in Paris, Silas Deane promised promotion and command positions to any French officer who joined the Continental Army. Such as Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, whom Congress via Dean appointed a major General, on July 31, 1777. When the war started, Britain tried to borrow the Dutch-based Scots Brigade for service in America, but pro-Patriot sentiment led the States General to refuse. Although the Republic was no longer a major power, prior to 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade, and Dutch merchants made large profits shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots. This ended when Britain declared war in December 1780, a conflict that proved disastrous to the Dutch economy. The Dutch were also excluded from the First League of Armed Neutrality, formed by Russia, Sweden and Denmark in March 1780 to protect neutral shipping from being stopped and searched for contraband by Britain and France. The British government failed to take into account the strength of the American merchant marine and support from European countries, which allowed the colonies to import munitions and continue trading with relative impunity. While well aware of this, the North administration delayed placing the Royal Navy on a war footing for cost reasons; this prevented the institution of an effective blockade and restricted them to ineffectual diplomatic protests. Traditional British policy was to employ European land-based allies to divert the opposition, a role filled by Prussia in the Seven Years' War; in 1778, they were diplomatically isolated and faced war on multiple fronts. Meanwhile, George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight. He did not welcome war with France, but he believed the British victories over France in the Seven Years' War as a reason to believe in ultimate victory over France. Britain could not find a powerful ally among the Great Powers to engage France on the European continent. Britain subsequently changed its focus into the Caribbean theater, and diverted major military resources away from America. Vergennes's colleague stated, "For her honour, France had to seize this opportunity to rise from her degradation ... If she neglected it, if fear overcame duty, she would add debasement to humiliation, and become an object of contempt to her own century and to all future peoples". ### Stalemate in the North At the end of 1777, Howe resigned and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778; with French entry into the war, he was ordered to consolidate his forces in New York. On June 18, the British departed Philadelphia with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit; the Battle of Monmouth on June 28 was inconclusive but boosted Patriot morale. Washington had rallied Charles Lee's broken regiments, the Continentals repulsed British bayonet charges, the British rear guard lost perhaps 50 per-cent more casualties, and the Americans held the field at the end of the day. That midnight, the newly installed Clinton continued his retreat to New York. A French naval force under Admiral Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing was sent to assist Washington; deciding New York was too formidable a target, in August they launched a combined attack on Newport, with General John Sullivan commanding land forces. The resulting Battle of Rhode Island was indecisive; badly damaged by a storm, the French withdrew to avoid putting their ships at risk. Further activity was limited to British raids on Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor in October. In July 1779, the Americans captured British positions at Stony Point and Paulus Hook. Clinton unsuccessfully tried to tempt Washington into a decisive engagement by sending General William Tryon to raid Connecticut. In July, a large American naval operation, the Penobscot Expedition, attempted to retake Maine, then part of Massachusetts, but was defeated. Persistent Iroquois raids along the border with Quebec led to the punitive Sullivan Expedition in April 1779, destroying many settlements but failing to stop them. During the winter of 1779–1780, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge. Morale was poor, public support fell away in the long war, the Continental dollar was virtually worthless, the army was plagued with supply problems, desertion was common, and mutinies occurred in the Pennsylvania Line and New Jersey Line regiments over the conditions in early 1780. In June 1780, Clinton sent 6,000 men under Wilhelm von Knyphausen to retake New Jersey, but they were halted by local militia at the Battle of Connecticut Farms; although the Americans withdrew, Knyphausen felt he was not strong enough to engage Washington's main force and retreated. A second attempt two weeks later ended in a British defeat at the Battle of Springfield, effectively ending their ambitions in New Jersey. In July, Washington appointed Benedict Arnold commander of West Point; his attempt to betray the fort to the British failed due to incompetent planning, and the plot was revealed when his British contact John André was captured and later executed. Arnold escaped to New York and switched sides, an action justified in a pamphlet addressed "To the Inhabitants of America"; the Patriots condemned his betrayal, while he found himself almost as unpopular with the British. ### War in the South The Southern Strategy was developed by Lord Germain, based on input from London-based Loyalists, including Joseph Galloway. They argued that it made no sense to fight the Patriots in the north where they were strongest, while the New England economy was reliant on trade with Britain, regardless of who governed it. On the other hand, duties on tobacco made the South far more profitable for Britain, while local support meant securing it required small numbers of regular troops. Victory would leave a truncated United States facing British possessions in the south, Canada to the north, and Ohio on their western border; with the Atlantic seaboard controlled by the Royal Navy, Congress would be forced to agree to terms. However, assumptions about the level of Loyalist support proved wildly optimistic. Germain accordingly ordered Augustine Prévost, the British commander in East Florida, to advance into Georgia in December 1778. Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell, an experienced officer taken prisoner earlier in the war before being exchanged for Ethan Allen, captured Savannah on December 29, 1778. He recruited a Loyalist militia of nearly 1,100, many of whom allegedly joined only after Campbell threatened to confiscate their property. Poor motivation and training made them unreliable troops, as demonstrated in their defeat by Patriot militia at the Battle of Kettle Creek on February 14, 1779, although this was offset by British victory at Brier Creek on March 3. In June 1779, Prévost launched an abortive assault on Charleston, before retreating to Savannah, an operation notorious for widespread looting by British troops that enraged both Loyalists and Patriots. In October, a joint French and American operation under Admiral d'Estaing and General Benjamin Lincoln failed to recapture Savannah. Prévost was replaced by Lord Cornwallis, who assumed responsibility for Germain's strategy; he soon realized estimates of Loyalist support were considerably over-stated, and he needed far larger numbers of regular forces. Reinforced by Clinton, Cornwallis' troops captured Charleston in May 1780, inflicting the most serious Patriot defeat of the war; over 5,000 prisoners were taken and the Continental Army in the south effectively destroyed. On May 29, Lieutenant-Colonel Banastre Tarleton's mainly Loyalist force routed a Continental Army force nearly three times its size under the command of Colonel Abraham Buford at the Battle of Waxhaws. The battle is controversial for allegations of a massacre, which were later used as a recruiting tool by the Patriots. Clinton returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis to oversee the south; despite their success, the two men left barely on speaking terms, with dire consequences for the future conduct of the war. The Southern strategy depended on local support, but this was undermined by a series of coercive measures. Previously, captured Patriots were sent home after swearing not to take up arms against the king; they were now required to fight their former comrades, while the confiscation of Patriot-owned plantations led formerly neutral "grandees" to side with them. Skirmishes at Williamson's Plantation, Cedar Springs, Rocky Mount, and Hanging Rock signaled widespread resistance to the new oaths throughout South Carolina. In July 1780, Congress appointed General Horatio Gates commander in the south; he was defeated at the Battle of Camden on August 16, leaving Cornwallis free to enter North Carolina. Despite battlefield success, the British could not control the countryside and Patriot attacks continued; before moving north, Cornwallis sent Loyalist militia under Major Patrick Ferguson to cover his left flank, leaving their forces too far apart to provide mutual support. In early October, Ferguson was defeated at the Battle of Kings Mountain, dispersing organized Loyalist resistance in the region. Despite this, Cornwallis continued into North Carolina hoping for Loyalist support, while Washington replaced Gates with General Nathanael Greene in December 1780. Greene divided his army, leading his main force southeast pursued by Cornwallis; a detachment was sent southwest under Daniel Morgan, who defeated Tarleton's British Legion at Cowpens on January 17, 1781, nearly eliminating it as a fighting force. The Patriots now held the initiative in the south, with the exception of a raid on Richmond led by Benedict Arnold in January 1781. Greene led Cornwallis on a series of countermarches around North Carolina; by early March, the British were exhausted and short of supplies and Greene felt strong enough to fight the Battle of Guilford Court House on March 15. Although victorious, Cornwallis suffered heavy casualties and retreated to Wilmington, North Carolina seeking supplies and reinforcements. The Patriots now controlled most of the Carolinas and Georgia outside the coastal areas; after a minor reversal at the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, they recaptured Fort Watson and Fort Motte on April 15. On June 6, Brigadier General Andrew Pickens captured Augusta, leaving the British in Georgia confined to Charleston and Savannah. The assumption Loyalists would do most of the fighting left the British short of troops and battlefield victories came at the cost of losses they could not replace. Despite halting Greene's advance at the Battle of Eutaw Springs on September 8, Cornwallis withdrew to Charleston with little to show for his campaign. ### Western campaign From the beginning of the war, Bernardo de Gálvez, the Governor of Spanish Louisiana, allowed the Americans to import supplies and munitions into New Orleans, then ship them to Pittsburgh. This provided an alternative transportation route for the Continental Army, bypassing the British blockade of the Atlantic Coast. The trade was organized by Oliver Pollock, a successful merchant in Havana and New Orleans, who was appointed U.S. commercial agent. It also helped support the American campaign in the west; in the 1778 Illinois campaign, militia under General George Rogers Clark. In February 1778, an expedition of militia to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River was halted by adverse weather. Later in the year, a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country from the British. Virginia militia, *Canadien* settlers, and Indian allies commanded by Colonel George Rogers Clark captured Kaskaskia on July 4 amd then secured Vincennes, though Vincennes was recaptured by Quebec Governor Henry Hamilton. In early 1779, the Virginians counter-attacked in the siege of Fort Vincennes and took Hamilton prisoner. Clark secured western British Quebec as the American Northwest Territory in the Treaty of Paris brought the Revolutionary War to an end. When Spain joined France's war against Britain in the Anglo-French War in 1779, their treaty specifically excluded Spanish military action in North America. Later that year, however, Gálvez initiated offensive operations against British outposts. First, he cleared British garrisons in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Fort Bute, and Natchez, Mississippi, and captured five forts. In doing so, Gálvez opened navigation on the Mississippi River north to the American settlement in Pittsburgh. On May 25, 1780, British Colonel Henry Bird invaded Kentucky as part of a wider operation to clear American resistance from Quebec to the Gulf Coast. Their Pensacola advance on New Orleans was repelled by Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive on Mobile. Simultaneous British attacks were repulsed on St. Louis by the Spanish Lieutenant Governor de Leyba, and on the Virginia County courthouse in Cahokia, Illinois by Lieutenant Colonel Clark. The British initiative under Bird from Detroit was ended at the rumored approach of Clark. The scale of violence in the Licking River Valley, was extreme "even for frontier standards." It led to English and German settlements, who joined Clark's militia when the British and their hired German soldiers withdrew to the Great Lakes. The Americans responded with a major offensive along the Mad River in August which met with some success in the Battle of Piqua but did not end Indian raids. French soldier Augustin de La Balme led a Canadian militia in an attempt to capture Detroit, but they dispersed when Miami natives led by Little Turtle attacked the encamped settlers on November 5. The war in the west stalemated with the British garrison sitting in Detroit and the Virginians expanding westward settlements north of the Ohio River in the face of British-allied Indian resistance. In 1781, Galvez and Pollock campaigned east along the Gulf Coast to secure West Florida, including British-held Mobile and Pensacola. The Spanish operations impaired the British supply of armaments to British Indian allies, which effectively suspended a military alliance to attack settlers between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains. In 1782, large scale retaliations between settlers and Native Americans in the region included the Gnadenhutten massacre and the Crawford expedition. The 1782 Battle of Blue Licks was one of the last major engagements of the American Revolutionary War. News of the treaty between Great Britain and the United States arrived late that year. By this time, about 7% of Kentucky settlers had been killed in battles against Native Americans, contrasted with 1% of the population killed in the Thirteen Colonies. Lingering resentments led to continued fighting in the west after the war officially ended. ### British defeat Clinton spent most of 1781 based in New York City; he failed to construct a coherent operational strategy, partly due to his difficult relationship with Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot. In Charleston, Cornwallis independently developed an aggressive plan for a campaign in Virginia, which he hoped would isolate Greene's army in the Carolinas and cause the collapse of Patriot resistance in the South. This strategy was approved by Lord Germain in London, but neither of them informed Clinton. Washington and Rochambeau, meanwhile, discussed their options. Washington wanted to attack the British in New York, and Rochambeau wanted to attack them in Virginia, where Cornwallis' forces were less established and arguably easier to defeat. Washington eventually gave way, and Lafayette took a combined Franco-American force into Virginia, but Clinton misinterpreted his movements as preparations for an attack on New York. Concerned by a perceived threat to his positions in New York, he instructed Cornwallis to establish a fortified sea base, where the Royal Navy could evacuate British troops to help defend New York. When Lafayette entered Virginia, Cornwallis complied with Clinton's orders and withdrew to Yorktown, where he constructed strong defenses and awaited evacuation. An agreement by the Spanish Navy to defend the French West Indies allowed Admiral de Grasse to relocate to the Atlantic seaboard, a move Arbuthnot did not anticipate. This provided Lafayette naval support, while the failure of previous combined operations at Newport and Savannah meant their coordination was planned more carefully. Despite repeated urging from his subordinates, Cornwallis made no attempt to engage Lafayette before he could establish siege lines. Expecting to be withdrawn within a few days, he also abandoned the outer defenses, which were promptly occupied by the besiegers and hastened British defeat. On August 31, a Royal Navy fleet under Thomas Graves left New York for Yorktown. After landing troops and munitions for the besiegers on August 30, de Grasse remained in Chesapeake Bay and intercepted him on September 5; although the Battle of the Chesapeake was indecisive in terms of losses, Graves was forced to retreat, leaving Cornwallis isolated. An attempted breakout over York River] at Gloucester Point failed due to bad weather. Under heavy bombardment with dwindling supplies, Cornwallis felt his situation was hopeless and on October 16 sent emissaries to General Washington to negotiate their surrender; after twelve hours of negotiations, the terms of surrender were finalized the following day. Responsibility for defeat was the subject of fierce public debate between Cornwallis, Clinton, and Germain. Despite criticism from his junior officers, Cornwallis retained the confidence of his peers and later held a series of senior government positions. Clinton ultimately took most of the blame and spent the rest of his life in relative obscurity. Subsequent to Yorktown, American forces were assigned to supervise the armistice between Washington and Clinton made to facilitate British departure following the January 1782 law of Parliament forbidding any further British offensive action in North America. British-American negotiations in Paris led to signed preliminary agreements in November 1782, which acknowledged U.S. independence. The enacted Congressional war objective, a British to withdraw from North America and cede these regions to the U.S., was completed in stages in East Coast cities. In the U.S. South, Generals Greene and Wayne loosely invested the withdrawing British at Savannah and Charleston, where they observed the British remove their troops from Charleston on December 14, 1782. Loyalist provincial militias of whites and free blacks and Loyalists with slaves were transported to Nova Scotia and the British West Indies. Native American allies of the British and some freed blacks were left to escape unaided through the American lines. Washington moved his army to New Windsor on the Hudson River about sixty miles north of New York City, and there the substance of the Continental Army was furloughed home with officers at half pay until the Treaty of Paris formally ended the war on September 3, 1783. At that time, Congress decommissioned the regiments of Washington's Continental Army and began issuing land grants to veterans in the Northwest Territories for their war service. The last British occupation of New York City ended on November 25, 1783, with the departure of Clinton's replacement, General Sir Guy Carleton. Strategy and commanders ----------------------- To win their insurrection, Washington and the Continental Army needed to outlast the British will to continue the fight. To restore their British America empire, the British had to defeat the Continental Army in the early months, and compel Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia to dissolve and retract its claim to self-governance. Historian Terry M. Mays of The Citadel identifies three separate types of warfare during the Revolutionary War. The first was a colonial conflict in which objections to imperial trade regulation were as significant as taxation policy. The second was a civil war with all Thirteen Colonies split between American patriots, American loyalists, and those who preferred to remain neutral in the revolution and war. Particularly in the south, many battles were fought between Patriots and Loyalists with no British involvement, leading to divisions that continued after independence was achieved. The third element was a global war between France, Spain, the Dutch Republic, and Britain, with America serving as one of several different war theaters. After entering the Revolutionary War in 1778, France provided the Americans money, weapons, soldiers, and naval assistance, while French troops fought under U.S. command in North America. While Spain did not formally join the war in America, they provided access to the Mississippi River and captured British possessions on the Gulf of Mexico that denied bases to the Royal Navy, retook Menorca and besieged Gibraltar in Europe. Although the Dutch Republic was no longer a major power prior to 1774, they still dominated the European carrying trade, and Dutch merchants made large profits by shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots. This ended when Britain declared war in December 1780, and the conflict proved disastrous to Dutch economy. The Dutch were also excluded from the First League of Armed Neutrality formed by Russia, Sweden, and Denmark in March 1780 that protected neutral ships from being stopped and searched for contraband by Britain and France. While of limited effect, these interventions forced the British to divert men and resources away from North America. ### American strategy The Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, stood to benefit if the American Revolution evolved into a protracted war. Their thirteen colonial state populations were largely prosperous and depended on local production for food and supplies rather than on imports from Britain, which took six to twelve weeks to arrive by cross-Atlantic shipping. The thirteen colonies were spread across most of North American Atlantic seaboard, stretching 1,000 miles. Most colonial farms were remote from the seaports, and control of four or five major ports did not give Britain control over American inland areas. Each state had established internal distribution systems. Each of the thirteen colonies also had a long-established system of local militia, which were combat-tested in support of British regulars thirteen years before to secure an expanded British Empire. Together, these milias denied France's claims to North America west of the Mississippi River in the French and Indian War. The thirteen colonial state legislatures independently funded and controlled their local militias. In the American Revolution, they trained and provided Continental Line regiments to the regular army, each with their own state officer corps. Motivation was also a major asset: each colonial capital had its own newspapers and printers, and the Patriots enjoyed more popular support than the Loyalists. Britain hoped that the Loyalists would do much of the fighting, but found that the Loyalists did not engage as significantly as they had hoped. #### Continental Army When Revolutionary War began, the Second Continental Congress lacked a professional army or navy, but each colony maintained local militias. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time and lacked the training and discipline of more experienced soldiers. Local county militias were reluctant to travel far from home and they were unavailable for extended operations. To compensate for this, the Continental Congress established a regular force known as the Continental Army on June 14, 1775, which proved to be the origin of the modern United States Army, and appointed Washington as it commander-in-chief. However, it suffered significantly from the lack of an effective training program and from largely inexperienced officers and sergeants, offset by a few senior officers. Each state legislature appointed officers for both county and state militias and their regimental Continental Line officers; although Washington was required to accept Congressional appointments, he was still permitted to choose and command his own generals, such as Nathanael Greene; his chief of artillery, Henry Knox; and Alexander Hamilton, the chief of staff. One of Washington's most successful recruits to general officer was Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian general staff who wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war; when properly employed, the combination allowed them to overwhelm smaller British forces, as they did in battles at Concord, Boston, Bennington, and Saratoga. Both sides used partisan warfare, but the state militias effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area. Washington designed the overall military strategy of the Revolutionary War in cooperation with Congress, established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs, personally recruited his senior officer corps, and kept the states focused on a common goal. For the first three years until after fall of Philadelphia and the six-month encampment at Valley Forge, the Continental Army was largely supplemented by local state militias. Washington initally employed the inexperienced officers and untrained troops in Fabian strategies rather than risk frontal assaults against Britain's professional soldiers and officers. Over the course of the entire war, Washington lost more battles than he won, but he never surrendered his troops and maintained a fighting force in the face of British field armies and never gave up fighting for the American cause. By prevailing European standards, the armies in America were relatively small, limited by lack of supplies and logistics. The British were constrained by the logistical difficulty of transporting troops across the Atlantic and their dependence on local supplies. Throughout the war, Washington never directly commanded more than 17,000 men, and the combined Franco-American army in the decisive American victory at Yorktown was only about 19,000. At the beginning of 1776, Patriot forces consisted of 20,000 men with two-thirds of them in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias. About 250,000 American men served as regulars or as militia for the Revolutionary cause over eight years during wartime, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at any time. On the whole, American officers never equaled their British opponents in tactics and maneuvers, and they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes at Boston (1776), Saratoga (1777), and Yorktown (1781) were won by trapping the British far from base with a greater number of troops. After 1778, however, Washington's army was transformed into a more disciplined and effective force, mostly as a product of Baron von Steuben's military training. Immediately after the Continental Army emerged from Valley Forge in June 1778, it proved its ability to match the military capabilities of the British at the Battle of Monmouth, including a black Rhode Island regiment fending off a British bayonet attack and then counter charging the British for the first time as part of Washington's army. After the Battle of Monmouth, Washington came to realize that saving entire towns was not necessary, but preserving his army and keeping the revolutionary spirit alive was more important. Washington informed Henry Laurens, then president of the Second Continental Congress, "that the possession of our towns, while we have an army in the field, will avail them little." Although the Continental Congress was responsible for the war effort and provided supplies to the troops, Washington took it upon himself to pressure the Congress and state legislatures to provide the essentials of war; there was never nearly enough. Congress evolved in its committee oversight and established the Board of War, which included members of the military. Because the Board of War was also a committee ensnared with its own internal procedures, Congress also created the post of Secretary of War, appointing Major General Benjamin Lincoln to the position in February 1781. Washington worked closely with Lincoln to coordinate civilian and military authorities and took charge of training and supplying the army. #### Continental Navy During the first summer of the war, Washington began outfitting schooners and other small seagoing vessels to prey on ships supplying the British in Boston. The Second Continental Congress established the Continental Navy on October 13, 1775, and appointed Esek Hopkins as its first commander; for most of the war, the Continental Navy included only a handful of small frigates and sloops, supported by numerous privateers. On November 10, 1775, Congress authorized the creation of the Continental Marines, which ultimately evolved into, and was named, the United States Marine Corps. John Paul Jones became the first American naval hero when he captured the HMS *Drake* on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters. The last such victory was by the frigate USS *Alliance*, commanded by Captain John Barry. On March 10, 1783, the *Alliance* outgunned HMS *Sybil* in a 45-minute duel while escorting Spanish gold from Havana to the Congress in Philadelphia. After Yorktown, all US Navy ships were sold or given away; it was the first time in America's history that it had no fighting forces on the high seas. Congress primarily commissioned privateers to reduce costs and to take advantage of the large proportion of colonial sailors found in the British Empire. In total, they included 1,700 ships that successfully captured 2,283 enemy ships to damage the British effort and to enrich themselves with the proceeds from the sale of cargo and the ship itself. About 55,000 sailors served aboard American privateers during the war. ### France At the beginning of the Revolutionary War, the Americans had no major international allies, since most nation-states watched and waited to see how developments unfolded in the conflict in British America. Over time, the Continental Army established its military credibility, defeating or holding their own against British regulars and their hired Hessians known to all European great powers. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington, the Battles of Saratoga, and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown, proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations, including France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic; the Dutch, impressed by these American victories and conflicts, moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies to overtly supporting them. The decisive American victory at Saratoga convinced France, which was already a long-time rival of Britain, to offer the Americans the Treaty of Amity and Commerce. The two nations also agreed to a defensive Treaty of Alliance to protect their trade and also guaranteed American independence from Britain. To engage the United States as a French ally militarily, the treaty was conditioned on Britain initiating a war on France to stop it from trading with the U.S. Spain and the Dutch Republic were invited to join by both France and the United States in the treaty, but neither was responsive to the request. On June 13, 1778, France declared war on Great Britain, and it invoked the French military alliance with the U.S., which ensured additional U.S. private support for French possessions in the Caribbean. Washington worked closely with the soldiers and navy that France would send to America, primarily through Lafayette on his staff. French assistance made critical contributions required to defeat General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781. ### British strategy The British military had considerable experience of fighting in North America, most recently during the Seven Years' War which forced France to give up New France in 1763. However, in previous conflicts they benefited from local logistics, as well as support from the colonial militia, which was not available in the American Revolutionary War. Reinforcements had to come from Europe, and maintaining large armies over such distances was extremely complex; ships could take three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time they arrived. Prior to the conflict, the colonies were largely autonomous economic and political entities, with no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance. This meant that, unlike Europe where the fall of a capital city often ended wars, that in America continued even after the loss of major settlements such as Philadelphia, the seat of Congress, New York and Charleston. British power was reliant on the Royal Navy, whose dominance allowed them to resupply their own expeditionary forces while preventing access to enemy ports. However, the majority of the American population was agrarian, rather than urban; supported by the French navy and blockade runners based in the Dutch Caribbean, their economy was able to survive. The geographical size of the colonies and limited manpower meant the British could not simultaneously conduct military operations and occupy territory without local support. Debate persists over whether their defeat was inevitable; one British statesman described it as "like trying to conquer a map". While Ferling argues Patriot victory was nothing short of a miracle, Ellis suggests the odds always favored the Americans, especially after Howe squandered the chance of a decisive British success in 1776, an "opportunity that would never come again". The US military history speculates the additional commitment of 10,000 fresh troops in 1780 would have placed British victory "within the realm of possibility". #### British Army The expulsion of France from North America in 1763 led to a drastic reduction in British troop levels in the colonies; in 1775, there were only 8,500 regular soldiers among a civilian population of 2.8 million. The bulk of military resources in the Americas were focused on defending sugar islands in the Caribbean; Jamaica alone generated more revenue than all thirteen American colonies combined. With the end of the Seven Years' War, the permanent army in Britain was also cut back, which resulted in administrative difficulties when the war began a decade later. Over the course of the war, there were four separate British commanders-in-chief. The first was Thomas Gage, appointed in 1763, whose initial focus was establishing British rule in former French areas of Canada. Rightly or wrongly, many in London blamed the revolt on his failure to take firm action earlier, and he was relieved after the heavy losses incurred at the Battle of Bunker Hill in Charlestown, Massachusetts. His replacement was Sir William Howe, a member of the Whig faction in Parliament who opposed the policy of coercion advocated by Lord North; Cornwallis, who later surrendered at Yorktown, was one of many senior officers who initially refused to serve in North America. The 1775 campaign showed the British overestimated the capabilities of their own troops and underestimated the colonial militia, requiring a reassessment of tactics and strategy. However, it allowed the Patriots to take the initiative and British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony. Howe's responsibility is still debated; despite receiving large numbers of reinforcements, Bunker Hill seems to have permanently affected his self-confidence and lack of tactical flexibility meant he often failed to follow up opportunities. Many of his decisions were attributed to supply problems, such as the delay in launching the New York campaign and failure to pursue Washington's beaten army. Having lost the confidence of his subordinates, he was recalled after Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. Following the failure of the Carlisle Commission, British policy changed from treating the Patriots as subjects who needed to be reconciled to enemies who had to be defeated. In 1778, Howe was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton, appointed instead of Carleton who was considered overly cautious. Regarded as an expert on tactics and strategy, like his predecessors Clinton was handicapped by chronic supply issues. As a result, he was largely inactive in 1779 and much of 1780; in October 1780, he warned Germain of "fatal consequences" if matters did not improve. In addition, Clinton's strategy was compromised by conflict with political superiors in London and his colleagues in North America, especially Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot, replaced in early 1781 by Rodney. He was neither notified nor consulted when Germain approved Cornwallis' invasion of the south in 1781 and delayed sending him reinforcements believing the bulk of Washington's army was still outside New York City. After the surrender at Yorktown, Clinton was relieved by Carleton, whose major task was to oversee the evacuation of Loyalists and British troops from Savannah, Charleston, and New York City. #### German troops During the 18th century, states commonly hired foreign soldiers, including Britain. During the Seven Years' War, foreign soldiers comprised 10% of the British army and their use caused little debate. When it became clear additional troops were needed to suppress the revolt in America, it was decided to employ professional German soldiers. There were several reasons for this, including public sympathy for the Patriot cause, an historical reluctance to expand the British army and the time needed to recruit and train new regiments. An alternate source was readily available in the Holy Roman Empire, where many smaller states had a long tradition of renting their armies to the highest bidder. The most important was Hesse-Kassel, known as "the Mercenary State". The first supply agreements were signed by the North administration in late 1775; over the next decade, more than 40,000 Germans fought in North America, Gibraltar, South Africa and India, of whom 30,000 served in the American War. Often generically referred to as "Hessians", they included men from many other states, including Hanover and Brunswick. Sir Henry Clinton recommended recruiting Russian troops whom he rated very highly, having seen them in action against the Ottomans; however, negotiations with Catherine the Great made little progress. Unlike previous wars their use led to intense political debate in Britain, France, and even Germany, where Frederick the Great refused to provide passage through his territories for troops hired for the American war. In March 1776, the agreements were challenged in Parliament by Whigs who objected to "coercion" in general, and the use of foreign soldiers to subdue "British subjects". The debates were covered in detail by American newspapers, which reprinted key speeches and in May 1776 they received copies of the treaties themselves. Provided by British sympathizers, these were smuggled into North America from London by George Merchant, a recently released American prisoner. The prospect of foreign German soldiers being used in the colonies bolstered support for independence, more so than taxation and other acts combined; the King was accused of declaring war on his own subjects, leading to the idea there were now two separate governments. By apparently showing Britain was determined to go to war, it made hopes of reconciliation seem naive and hopeless, while the employment of what was regarded as "foreign mercenaries" became one of the charges levelled against George III in the Declaration of Independence. The Hessian reputation within Germany for brutality also increased support for the Patriot cause among German-American immigrants. The presence of over 150,000 German Americans meant both sides felt the German soldiers might be persuaded to desert; one reason Clinton suggested employing Russians was that he felt they were less likely to defect. When the first German troops arrived on Staten Island in August 1776, Congress approved the printing of handbills, promising land and citizenship to any willing to join the Patriot cause. The British launched a counter-campaign claiming deserters could well be executed for meddling in a war that was not theirs. Desertion among the Germans occurred throughout the war, with the highest rate of desertion occurring during the time between the surrender at Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris. German regiments were central to the British war effort; of the estimated 30,000 sent to America, some 13,000 became casualties. Revolution as civil war ----------------------- ### Loyalists Wealthy Loyalists convinced the British government that most of the colonists were sympathetic toward the Crown; consequently, British military planners relied on recruiting Loyalists, but had trouble recruiting sufficient numbers as the Patriots had widespread support. Nevertheless, they continued to deceive themselves on their level of American support as late as 1780, a year before hostilities ended. Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war. Although Loyalists constituted about twenty percent of the colonial population, they were concentrated in distinct communities. Many of them lived among large plantation owners in the Tidewater region and South Carolina who produced cash crops in tobacco and indigo comparable to global markets in Caribbean sugar. When the British began probing the backcountry in 1777–1778, they were faced with a major problem: any significant level of organized Loyalist activity required a continued presence of British regulars. The available manpower that the British had in America was insufficient to protect Loyalist territory and counter American offensives. The Loyalist militias in the South were constantly defeated by neighboring Patriot militia. The most critical combat between the two partisan militias was at the Battle of Kings Mountain; the Patriot victory irreversibly impaired any further Loyalist militia capability in the South. When the early war policy was administered by General William Howe, the Crown's need to maintain Loyalist support prevented it from using the traditional revolt suppression methods. The British cause suffered when their troops ransacked local homes during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779 that enraged both Patriots and Loyalists. After Congress rejected the Carlisle Peace Commission in 1778 and Westminster turned to "hard war" during Clinton's command, neutral colonists in the Carolinas often allied with the Patriots whenever brutal combat broke out between Tories and Whigs. Conversely, Loyalists gained support when Patriots intimidated suspected Tories by destroying property or tarring and feathering. A Loyalist militia unit—the British Legion—provided some of the best troops in British service; it received a commission in the British Army. It was a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry supported by batteries of flying artillery. It was commanded by Banastre Tarleton and gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies for "brutality and needless slaughter".In May 1779 the British Legion was one of five regiments that formed the American Establishment. ### Women Women played various roles during the Revolutionary War; they often accompanied their husbands when permitted to do so. For example, throughout the war Martha Washington was known to visit and provide aid to her husband George at various American camps, and Frederika Charlotte Riedesel documented the Saratoga campaign. Women often accompanied armies as camp followers to sell goods and perform necessary tasks in hospitals and camps. They were a necessary part of eighteenth-century armies, and numbered in the thousands during the war. Women also assumed military roles: aside from military tasks like treating the wounded or setting up camp, some dressed as men to directly support combat, fight, or act as spies on both sides of the Revolutionary War. Anna Maria Lane joined her husband in the Army and wore men's clothes by the time the Battle of Germantown happened. The Virginia General Assembly later cited her bravery: she fought while dressed as a man and "performed extraordinary military services, and received a severe wound at the battle of Germantown ... with the courage of a soldier". On April 26, 1777, Sybil Ludington is said to have ridden to alert militia forces of Putnam County, New York, and Danbury, Connecticut, to warn them of the British's approach; she has been called the "female Paul Revere". A report in *The New England Quarterly* says there is little evidence backing the story, and whether the ride occurred is questioned. A few others disguised themselves as men. Deborah Sampson fought until her gender was discovered and discharged as a result; Sally St. Clair was killed in action during the war. ### African Americans When war began, the population of the Thirteen Colonies included an estimated 500,000 slaves, predominantly used as labor on Southern plantations. In November 1775, Lord Dunmore, the Royal Governor of Virginia, issued a proclamation that promised freedom to any Patriot-owned slaves willing to bear arms. Although the announcement helped to fill a temporary manpower shortage, white Loyalist prejudice meant recruits were eventually redirected to non-combatant roles. The Loyalists' motive was to deprive Patriot planters of labor rather than to end slavery; Loyalist-owned slaves were returned. The 1779 Philipsburg Proclamation issued by Clinton extended the offer of freedom to Patriot-owned slaves throughout the colonies. It persuaded entire families to escape to British lines, many of which were employed on farms to grow food for the army by removing the requirement for military service. While Clinton organized the Black Pioneers, he also ensured fugitive slaves were returned to Loyalist owners with orders that they were not to be punished for their attempted escape. As the war progressed, service as regular soldiers in British units became increasingly common; black Loyalists formed two regiments of the Charleston garrison in 1783. Estimates of the numbers who served the British during the war vary from 25,000 to 50,000, excluding those who escaped during wartime. Thomas Jefferson estimated that Virginia may have lost 30,000 slaves in total escapes. In South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (about 30 percent of the enslaved population) either fled, migrated, or died, which significantly disrupted the plantation economies both during and after the war. Black Patriots were barred from the Continental Army until Washington convinced Congress in January 1778 that there was no other way to replace losses from disease and desertion. The 1st Rhode Island Regiment formed in February included former slaves whose owners were compensated; however, only 140 of its 225 soldiers were black and recruitment stopped in June 1788. Ultimately, around 5,000 African-Americans served in the Continental Army and Navy in a variety of roles, while another 4,000 were employed in Patriot militia units, aboard privateers, or as teamsters, servants, and spies. After the war, a small minority received land grants or Congressional pensions in old age; many others were returned to their masters post-war despite earlier promises of freedom. As a Patriot victory became increasingly likely, the treatment of Black Loyalists became a point of contention; after the surrender of Yorktown in 1781, Washington insisted all escapees be returned but Cornwallis refused. In 1782 and 1783, around 8,000 to 10,000 freed blacks were evacuated by the British from Charleston, Savannah, and New York; some moved onto London, while 3,000 to 4,000 settled in Nova Scotia, where they founded settlements such as Birchtown. White Loyalists transported 15,000 enslaved blacks to Jamaica and the Bahamas. The free Black Loyalists who migrated to the British West Indies included regular soldiers from Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment, and those from Charleston who helped garrison the Leeward Islands. ### Native Americans Most Native Americans east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over how to respond to the conflict. A few tribes were friendly with the colonists, but most Natives opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Natives fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes who deployed around 1,500 men. Early in July 1776, Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the short-lived Washington District of North Carolina. Their defeat splintered both Cherokee settlements and people, and was directly responsible for the rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee, who perpetuated the Cherokee–American wars against American settlers for decades after hostilities with Britain ended. Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia. Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the Siege of Savannah. Many Native Americans were involved in the fight between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and along the British side of the Mississippi River. Thousands of Creeks, Chickasaws, and Choctaws fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte, the Battle of Mobile, and the Siege of Pensacola. The Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the American Revolutionary War, whatever side they took; the Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga tribes sided with the British; members of the Mohawks fought on both sides; and many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the Americans. To retaliate against raids on American settlement by Loyalists and their Indian allies, the Continental Army dispatched the Sullivan Expedition on a punitive expedition throughout New York to debilitate the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively, which further exacerbated the split. In the western theater of the American Revolutionary War, conflicts between settlers and Native Americans led to lingering distrust. In the 1783 Treaty of Paris, Great Britain ceded control of the disputed lands between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River, but the Indian inhabitants were not a part of the peace negotiations. Tribes in the Northwest Territory joined as the Western Confederacy and allied with the British to resist American settlement, and their conflict continued after the Revolutionary War as the Northwest Indian War. Britain's "American war" and peace ---------------------------------- ### Changing Prime Ministers Lord North, Prime Minister since 1770, delegated control of the war in North America to Lord George Germain and the Earl of Sandwich, who was head of the Royal Navy from 1771 to 1782. Defeat at Saratoga in 1777 made it clear the revolt would not be easily suppressed, especially after the Franco-American alliance of February 1778, and French declaration of war in June. With Spain also expected to join the conflict, the Royal Navy needed to prioritize either the war in America or in Europe; Germain advocated the former, Sandwich the latter. British negotiators now proposed a second peace settlement to Congress. The terms presented by the Carlisle Peace Commission included acceptance of the principle of self-government. Parliament would recognize Congress as the governing body, suspend any objectionable legislation, surrender its right to local colonial taxation, and discuss including American representatives in the House of Commons. In return, all property confiscated from Loyalists would be returned, British debts honored, and locally enforced martial law accepted. However, Congress demanded either immediate recognition of independence or the withdrawal of all British troops; they knew the commission were not authorized to accept these, bringing negotiations to a rapid end. When the commissioners returned to London in November 1778, they recommended a change in policy. Sir Henry Clinton, the new British Commander-in-Chief in America, was ordered to stop treating the rebels as enemies, rather than subjects whose loyalty might be regained. Those standing orders would be in effect for three years until Clinton was relieved. North initially backed the Southern strategy attempting to exploit divisions between the mercantile north and slave-owning south, but after the defeat of Yorktown, he was forced to accept the fact that this policy had failed. It was clear the war was lost, although the Royal Navy forced the French to relocate their fleet to the Caribbean in November 1781 and resumed a close blockade of American trade. The resulting economic damage and rising inflation meant the US was now eager to end the war, while France was unable to provide further loans; Congress could no longer pay its soldiers. On February 27, 1782, a Whig motion to end the offensive war in America was carried by 19 votes. North now resigned, obliging the king to invite Lord Rockingham to form a government; a consistent supporter of the Patriot cause, he made a commitment to US independence a condition of doing so. George III reluctantly accepted and the new government took office on March 27, 1782; however, Rockingham died unexpectedly on July 1, and was replaced by Lord Shelburne who acknowledged American independence. ### American Congress signs a peace When Lord Rockingham, the Whig leader and friend of the American cause was elevated to Prime Minister, Congress consolidated its diplomatic consuls in Europe into a peace delegation at Paris. All were experienced in Congressional leadership. The dean of the delegation was Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania. He had become a celebrity in the French Court, but he was also an Enlightenment scientist with influence in the courts of European great powers in Prussia, England's former ally, and Austria, a Catholic empire like Spain. Since the 1760s, Franklin had been an organizer of British American inter-colony cooperation, and then served as a colonial lobbyist to Parliament in London. John Adams of Massachusetts had been consul to the Dutch Republic and was a prominent early New England Patriot. John Jay of New York had been consul to Spain and was a past president of the Continental Congress. As consul to the Dutch Republic, Henry Laurens of South Carolina had secured a preliminary agreement for a trade agreement. He had been a successor to John Jay as president of Congress and with Franklin was a member of the American Philosophical Society. Although active in the preliminaries, he was not a signer of the conclusive treaty. The Whig negotiators for Lord Rockingham and his successor, Prime Minister Lord Shelburne, included long-time friend of Benjamin Franklin from his time in London, David Hartley and Richard Oswald, who had negotiated Laurens' release from the Tower of London. The Preliminary Peace signed on November 30 met four key Congressional demands: independence, territory up to the Mississippi, navigation rights into the Gulf of Mexico, and fishing rights in Newfoundland. British strategy was to strengthen the U.S. sufficiently to prevent France from regaining a foothold in North America, and they had little interest in these proposals. However, divisions between their opponents allowed them to negotiate separately with each to improve their overall position, starting with the American delegation in September 1782. The French and Spanish sought to improve their position by creating the U.S. dependent on them for support against Britain, thus reversing the losses of 1763. Both parties tried to negotiate a settlement with Britain excluding the Americans; France proposed setting the western boundary of the US along the Appalachians, matching the British 1763 Proclamation Line. The Spanish suggested additional concessions in the vital Mississippi River Basin, but required the cession of Georgia in violation of the Franco-American alliance. Facing difficulties with Spain over claims involving the Mississippi River, and from France who was still reluctant to agree to American independence until all her demands were met, John Jay promptly told the British that he was willing to negotiate directly with them, cutting off France and Spain, and Prime Minister Lord Shelburne, in charge of the British negotiations, agreed. Key agreements for the United States in obtaining peace included recognition of United States independence, including recognition that the U.S. would gain all of the area east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida and south of Canada, and the granting of fishing rights in the Grand Banks, off the coast of Newfoundland and in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence; the United States and Great Britain were each given perpetual access to the Mississippi River. An Anglo-American Preliminary Peace was formally entered into in November 1782, and Congress endorsed the settlement on April 15, 1783. It announced the achievement of peace with independence, and the conclusive treaty was signed on September 2, 1783, in Paris, effective the following day on September 3, 1783, when Britain signed its treaty with France. John Adams, who helped draft the treaty, claimed it represented "one of the most important political events that ever happened on the globe". Ratified respectively by Congress and Parliament, the final versions were exchanged in Paris the following spring. On November 25, the last British troops remaining in the U.S. were evacuated from New York to Halifax. Aftermath --------- Washington expressed astonishment that the Americans had won a war against a leading world power, referring to the American victory as "little short of a standing miracle". The conflict between British subjects with the Crown against those with the Congress had lasted over eight years from 1775 to 1783. The last uniformed British troops departed their last East Coast port cities in Savannah, Charleston, and New York City, by November 25, 1783, which marked the end of British occupation in the new United States. On April 9, 1783, Washington issued orders that he had long waited to give, that "all acts of hostility" were to cease immediately. That same day, by arrangement with Washington, General Guy Carleton issued a similar order to British troops. British troops, however, were not to evacuate until a prisoner of war exchange occurred, an effort that involved much negotiation and would take some seven months to effect. As directed by a Congressional resolution of May 26, 1783, all non-commissioned officers and enlisted were furloughed "to their homes" until the "definitive treaty of peace", when they would be automatically discharged. The U.S. armies were directly disbanded in the field as of Washington's General Orders on Monday, June 2, 1783. Once the Treaty of Paris was signed with Britain on September 3, 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and left to retire at Mount Vernon. ### Territory The expanse of territory that was now the United States was ceded from its colonial mother country alone. It included millions of sparsely settled acres south of the Great Lakes line between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, much of which was part of Canada. The tentative colonial migration west became a flood during the years of the Revolutionary War. Kentucky County, Virginia, for instance, had a 1775 population of 150. By 1790, 15 years later, its population had grown to over 73,000. Britain's extended post-war policy for the U.S. continued to try to establish an Indian buffer state below the Great Lakes as late as 1814 during the War of 1812. The formally acquired western American lands continued to be populated by a dozen or so American Indian tribes that had been British allies for the most part. Though British forts on their lands had been ceded to either the French or the British prior to the creation of the United States, Natives were not referred to in the British cession to the U.S. While tribes were not consulted by the British for the treaty, in practice the British refused to abandon the forts on territory they formally transferred. Instead, they provisioned military allies for continuing frontier raids and sponsored the Northwest Indian War (1785–1795), including erecting an additional British Fort Miami in Maumee, Ohio. British sponsorship of local warfare on the U.S. continued until the Anglo-American Jay Treaty, authored by Alexander Hamilton went into effect on February 29, 1796. At the same time, the Spanish also sponsored war within the U.S. by Indian proxies in its Southwest Territory ceded by France to Britain, then Britain to the Americans. Of the European powers with American colonies adjacent to the newly created United States, Spain was most threatened by American independence, and it was correspondingly the most hostile to it. Its territory adjacent to the U.S. was relatively undefended, so Spanish policy developed a combination of initiatives. Spanish soft power diplomatically challenged the British territorial cession west to the Mississippi River and the previous northern boundaries of Spanish Florida. It imposed a high tariff on American goods, then blocked American settler access to the port of New Orleans. Spanish hard power extended war alliances and arms to Southwestern Natives to resist American settlement. A former Continental Army General, James Wilkinson settled in Kentucky County, Virginia in 1784, and there he fostered settler secession from Virginia during the Spanish-allied Chickamauga Cherokee war. Beginning in 1787, he received pay as Spanish Agent 13, and subsequently expanded his efforts to persuade American settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains to secede from the United States, first in the Washington administration and later again in the Jefferson administration. ### Casualties and losses The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As was typical in wars of the era, diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America, killing an estimated 130,000 among all its populations during those years. Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington's decision to have his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions. Up to 70,000 American patriots died during active military service. Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor. The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000. The French suffered 2,112 killed in combat in the United States. The Spanish lost a total of 124 killed and 247 wounded in West Florida. A British report in 1781 puts their total Army deaths at 6,046 in North America (1775–1779). Approximately 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; among those labeled German deserters, however, it is estimated that 1,800 were killed in combat. ### Legacy The American Revolution established the United States with its numerous civil liberties and set an example to overthrow both monarchy and colonial governments. The United States has the world's oldest written constitution, and the constitutions of other free countries often bear a striking resemblance to the U.S. Constitution, often word-for-word in places. It inspired revolutions in France, Haiti, Latin America, and elsewhere in the modern era. Although the Revolution eliminated many forms of inequality, it did little to change the status of women, despite the role they played in winning independence. Most significantly, it failed to end slavery which continued to be a serious social and political issue and caused divisions that would ultimately end in civil war. While many were uneasy over the contradiction of demanding liberty for some, yet denying it to others, the dependence of southern states on slave labor made abolition too great a challenge. Between 1774 and 1780, many of the states banned the importation of slaves, but the institution itself continued. In 1782, Virginia passed a law permitting manumission and over the next eight years more than 10,000 slaves were given their freedom. With support from Benjamin Franklin, in 1790 the Quakers petitioned Congress to abolish slavery; the number of abolitionist movements greatly increased, and by 1804 all the northern states had outlawed it. However, even many like Adams who viewed slavery as a 'foul contagion' opposed the 1790 petition as a threat to the Union. In 1808, Jefferson passed legislation banning the importation of slaves, but allowed the domestic slave trade to continue, arguing the federal government had no right to regulate individual states. ### Historiography The body of historical writings on the American Revolution cite many motivations for the Patriot revolt that ultimately led to the nation's independence and establishment. American patriots stressed the denial of their constitutional rights as Englishmen, especially "no taxation without representation." Contemporaries credit the American Enlightenment with laying the intellectual, moral, and ethical foundations for the American Revolution among the Founding Fathers, who were influenced by the classical liberalism of John Locke and other enlightenment age writers and philosophers. *Two Treatises of Government* has long been cited as a major influence on Revolutionary-era American thinking, but historians David Lundberg and Henry F. May contend that Locke's *Essay Concerning Human Understanding* was far more widely read than were his political *Treatises*. Historians since the 1960s have emphasized that the Patriot constitutional argument was made possible by the emergence of a sense of American nationalism that united the 13 colonies. In turn, that nationalism was rooted in a Republican value system that demanded consent of the governed and deeply opposed aristocratic control. In Britain, on the other hand, republicanism was largely a fringe ideology since it challenged the aristocratic control of the British monarchy and political system. Political power was not controlled by an aristocracy or nobility in the 13 colonies; instead, the colonial political system was based on the winners of free elections, which were open at the time to the majority of white men. In analysis of the Revolution, historians in recent decades have often cited three motivations behind it: * The Atlantic history view places the American story in a broader context, including subsequent revolutions in France and Haiti. It tends to reintegrate the historiographies of the American Revolution and the British Empire. * The "new social history" approach looks at community social structure to find cleavages that were magnified into colonial cleavages. * The ideological approach that centers on republicanism in the United States. Republicanism dictated there would be no royalty, aristocracy or national church but allowed for continuation of the British common law, which American lawyers and jurists understood and approved and used in their everyday practice. Historians have examined how the rising American legal profession adopted British common law to incorporate republicanism by selective revision of legal customs and by introducing more choices for courts. Revolutionary War commemoration stamps -------------------------------------- After the first U.S. postage stamp was issued in 1849, the U.S. Postal Service frequently issued commemorative stamps celebrating the various people and events of the Revolutionary War. The first such stamp was the Liberty Bell issue of 1926 on the 150th anniversary of American independence. * Selected issues: * The Liberty Bell stamp, issued on the 150th anniversary of American independence in 1926The Liberty Bell stamp, issued on the 150th anniversary of American independence in 1926 * 150th anniversary of the Battles of Saratoga stamp featuring Burgoyne's surrender, issued in 1927150th anniversary of the Battles of Saratoga stamp featuring Burgoyne's surrender, issued in 1927 * Washington at prayer at Valley Forge stamp, issued in 1928Washington at prayer at Valley Forge stamp, issued in 1928 * 150th anniversary of the Siege of Yorktown stamp featuring Rochambeau, Washington, and de Grasse, issued in 1931150th anniversary of the Siege of Yorktown stamp featuring Rochambeau, Washington, and de Grasse, issued in 1931 See also -------- * 1776 in the United States: events, births, deaths, and other years * Timeline of the American Revolution **Topics of the Revolution** * Committee of safety (American Revolution) * Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War * Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War * Flags of the American Revolution * Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War **Social history of the Revolution** * Black Patriot * Christianity in the United States#American Revolution * The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution * History of Poles in the United States#American Revolution * List of clergy in the American Revolution * List of Patriots (American Revolution) * Quakers in the American Revolution * Scotch-Irish Americans#American Revolution **Others in the American Revolution** * Nova Scotia in the American Revolution * Watauga Association **Lists of Revolutionary military** * List of American Revolutionary War battles * List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary War * List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War * List of infantry weapons in the American Revolution * List of United States militia units in the American Revolutionary War **Thirteen Colony economy** * Economic history of the US: Colonial economy to 1780 * Shipbuilding in the American colonies * Slavery in the United States **Legacy and related** * American Revolution Statuary * Commemoration of the American Revolution * Founders Online * Independence Day (United States) * The Last Men of the Revolution * List of plays and films about the American Revolution * Museum of the American Revolution * Tomb of the Unknown Soldier of the American Revolution * United States Bicentennial * United States Semiquincentennial * List of wars of independence **Bibliographies** * Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War * Bibliography of Thomas Jefferson * Bibliography of George Washington *Year dates enclosed in [brackets] denote year of original printing* Bibliography ------------ * Abrams, Creighton W. 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Boston : Houghton, Mifflin and Company. * Taafe, Stephen R. (2003). *The Philadelphia Campaign, 1777–1778*. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0700612673. * Taylor, Alan (2016). *American Revolutions: A Continental History, 1750–1804*. WW Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-3932-5387-0. * Tellier, L.-N. (2009). *Urban World History: an Economic and Geographical Perspective*. Quebec: PUQ. ISBN 978-2-7605-2209-1. * Thomas, Molly (November 9, 2017). "The Last Naval Battle of the American Revolution". Florida Frontiers Article, The Florida Historical Society. Retrieved October 2, 2020. * Tolson, Jay (June 27, 2008). "How George Washington's Savvy Won the Day:Despite his share of errors, the commander in chief prevailed as a strategist and a politician". Retrieved September 29, 2020. * Trevelyan, George Otto (1912). *George the Third and Charles Fox: the concluding part of The American revolution*. Longmans, Green, and Company. Archived online at HathiTrust.org * —— (1912). *History of the American Revolution*. Vol. IV. Longmans, Green & Co. * Tucker, Mary (March 1, 2002). *Washington Crossing the Delaware*. Lorenz Educational Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-0-7877-8564-2. * U.S. Census Bureau (September 1975). "Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970; Colonial and Pre-Federal Statistics". Bicentennial Edition * U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (December 5, 2007). "An Overview of American Intelligence Until World War II". *US Central Intelligence Agency*. Archived from the original on March 11, 2008. Featured Story Archive, Historical Document * U.S. Congress. "Treaty of Greenville 1795" (3 August 1795). Document Collection: 18th Century, 1700–1799. Yale Law School Avalon Project. * U.S. Military Academy History Department. "Principal Campaigns of the War, 1775–1783" [map]. The American Revolutionary War, Series: Campaign Atlases of the United States Army. West Point, New York: United States Military Academy, History Department. 20 October 2020. * Vale, Brian (March 22, 2013). "The Conquest of Scurvy in the Royal Navy 1793–1800: A Challenge to Current Orthodoxy". *The Mariner's Mirror*. 94, 2008 (2): 160–175. doi:10.1080/00253359.2008.10657052. S2CID 162207993. * Walker, James W. St. (1992). *The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870*. ISBN 978-0-8020-7402-7. * Wallace, Willard M. (1954). *Traitorous Hero: The Life and Fortunes of Benedict Arnold*. New York: Harper & Brothers. ISBN 978-1199083234. * ——; Ray, Michael (September 21, 2015). *American Revolution*. *Britannica*. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved August 24, 2020. American Revolution, (1775–83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain's North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America. * Ward, A.W.; Prothero, G.W. (1925). *Cambridge Modern History, vol.6 (18th Century)*. University of Oxford, The University Press. Digital Library of India Item 2015.107358 * Ward, Christopher (1952). *The War of the Revolution (2 volumes)*. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 9781616080808. History of land battles in North America * Ward, Harry M. (1999). *The war for independence and the transformation of American society*. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-85728-656-4. * Washington, George (1932). Fitzpatrick, John C. (ed.). *The Writings of George Washington: from the Original Manuscript Sources 1745-1799*. Vol. 7 January 13, 1777 – April 30, 1777. Washington: United States Government Printing Office. George Washington Bicentennial Edition in 35 volumes * Watson, J. Steven; Clark, Sir George (1960). *The Reign of George III, 1760–1815*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198217138. * Weeks, William (2013). *The New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations: Volume 1* (2015 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107536227. * Weigley, Russell F. (1977). *The American Way of War*. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-2532-8029-9. * White, Matthew (2010). "Spanish casualties in The American Revolutionary war". Necrometrics. * Whiteley, Peter (1996). *Lord North: The Prime Minister Who Lost America*. Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 978-1852851453. * Wilson, David K (2005). *The Southern Strategy: Britain's Conquest of South Carolina and Georgia, 1775–1780*. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-573-9. OCLC 232001108. * Winfield, Rif (2007). *British Warships in the Age of Sail: 1714–1792*. Seaforth Publishing. ISBN 978-1-8441-5700-6. (See also:British Warships in the Age of Sail) * Wood, Gordon S. (1992). *'The Radicalism of the American Revolution*. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 978-0-3077-5896-5. * Wood, Gordon S. (2017). *Friends Divided: John Adams and Thomas Jefferson*. Penguin Press, New York. ISBN 978-0-7352-2471-1. * Wood, W. J. (2003) [1995]. *Battles of the Revolutionary War, 1775–1781*. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-80617-9. * Yaniz, Jose I. (2009). "The Role of Spain in the American Revolution: An Unavoidable Mistake" (PDF). Marine Corps University. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 24, 2020. Websites without authors * Franklin, Bruce H (November 30, 2015). "Which Side Benefitted the Most from the Native Americans". *Journal of the American Revolution*. Retrieved November 30, 2015. * Canada's Digital Collections Program "The Philipsburg Proclamation". *Black Loyalists: Our History, Our People*. Industry Canada: Canada's Digital Collections Program. Archived from the original on November 17, 2007. Retrieved November 1, 2020. * History.org Aron, Paul (2020) [2005]. "Women's Service with the Revolutionary Army : The Colonial Williamsburg Official History & Citizenship Site". The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. Retrieved October 2, 2020. * Maryland State House ""The Road to Peace, A Chronology: 1779–1784". William L. Clements Library / The Maryland State House. 2007. Retrieved June 3, 2020. * The History Place "An Unlikely Victory 1777–1783". *The History Place*. Retrieved September 16, 2020. American Revolution timeline * Totallyhistory.com "Red Coats". Totallyhistory.com. 2012. Retrieved March 23, 2020. * U.S. Merchant Marine "Privateers and Mariners in the Revolutionary War". U.S. Merchant Marine. 2012. Retrieved May 25, 2017. * U.S. National Archives "Continental Congress: Remarks on the Provisional Peace Treaty". U.S. National Archives. 1783. Retrieved July 15, 2020. * Valley Forge National Historic Park "Overview of History and Significance of Valley Forge". *Valley Forge National Historical Park, Pennsylvania*. August 12, 2019 [2007]. * Yale Law School, Massachusetts Act "Great Britain : Parliament – The Massachusetts Government Act; May 20, 1774". Yale Law School: The Avalon Project. 2008. Further reading --------------- A selection of works relating to the war not listed above; * Allison, David, and Larrie D. Ferreiro, eds. *The American Revolution: A World War* (Smithsonian, 2018) excerpt * Bancroft, George (1854–1878). *History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent – eight volumes*. Volumes committed to the American Revolution: Vol. 7; Vol. 8; Vol. 9; Vol. 10 * Bobrick, Benson. *Angel in the Whirlwind: The Triumph of the American Revolution*. Penguin, 1998 (paperback reprint) * British Army (1916) [7 August 1781]. *Proceedings of a Board of general officers of the British army at New York, 1781*. New-York Historical Society. Collections. The John Watts de Peyster publication fund series, no. 49. New York Historical Society. The board of inquiry was convened by Sir Henry Clinton into Army accounts and expenditures * Burgoyne, John (1780). *A state of the expedition from Canada : as laid before the House of commons*. London : Printed for J. Almon. * Butterfield, Lyman H. (June 1950). "Psychological Warfare in 1776: The Jefferson-Franklin Plan to Cause Hessian Desertions". *Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society*. American Philosophical Society. **94** (3): 233–241. JSTOR 3143556. * Cate, Alan C. (2006). *Founding Fighters: The Battlefield Leaders Who Made American Independence*. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0275987078. * Caughey, John W. (1998). *Bernardo de Gálvez in Louisiana 1776–1783*. Gretna: Pelican Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-56554-517-5. * Chartrand, Rene. *The French Army in the American War of Independence* (1994). Short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions. * Christie, Ian R.; Labaree, Benjamin W. (1976). *Empire or independence, 1760–1776*. Phaidon Press. ISBN 978-0-7148-1614-2. * Clarfield, Gerard (1992). *United States Diplomatic History: From Revolution to Empire*. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 9780130292322. * Clode, Charles M. (1869). *The military forces of the crown; their administration and government*. Vol. 2. London, J. Murray. * Commager, Henry Steele and Richard B. Morris, eds. *The Spirit of 'Seventy-Six': The Story of the American Revolution as told by Participants*. (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1958). online * Conway, Stephen. *The War of American Independence 1775–1783*. Publisher: E. Arnold, 1995. ISBN 0340625201. 280 pp. * Creigh, Alfred (1871). *History of Washington County*. B. Singerly. p. 49. ann hupp indian. * Cook, Fred J. (1959). *What Manner of Men*. William Morrow and Co. 59-11702. Allan McLane, Chapter VIII, pp. 275–304 * Davies, Wallace Evan (July 1939). "Privateering around Long Island during the Revolution". *New York History*. Fenimore Art Museum. **20** (3): 283–294. JSTOR 23134696. * Downes, Randolph C. (1940). *Council Fires on the Upper Ohio: A Narrative of Indian Affairs in the Upper Ohio Valley until 1795*. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0-8229-5201-7. * Duncan, Francis (1879). *History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery*. London: John Murray. * Ferling, John E. (2002) [2000]. *Setting the World Ablaze: Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and the American Revolution*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513409-4. * Fleming, Thomas (1970). *The Perils of Peace*. New York: The Dial Press. ISBN 978-0-06-113911-6. * Foner, Eric, "Whose Revolution?: The history of the United States' founding from below" (review of Woody Holton, *Liberty Is Sweet: The Hidden History of the American Revolution*, Simon & Schuster, 2021, 800 pp.), *The Nation*, vol. 314, no. 8 (18–25 April 2022), pp. 32–37. Highlighted are the struggles and tragic fates of America's Indians and Black slaves. For example, "In 1779 [George] Washington dispatched a contingent of soldiers to upstate New York to burn Indian towns and crops and seize hostages 'of every age and sex.' The following year, while serving as governor of Virginia, [Thomas] Jefferson ordered troops under the command of George Rogers Clark to enter the Ohio Valley and bring about the expulsion or 'extermination' of local Indians." (pp. 34–35.) * Fortescue, John (1902). *A history of the British army*. Vol. 3. * Fredriksen, John C. (2006). *Revolutionary War Almanac Almanacs of American wars Facts on File library of American history*. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7468-6. * Freedman, Russell (2008). *Washington at Valley Forge*. Holiday House. ISBN 978-0823420698. * Fremont-Barnes, Gregory; Ryerson, Richard A, eds. (2006). *Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military History*. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1851094080. * Frey, Sylvia R (1982). *The British Soldier in America: A Social History of Military Life in the Revolutionary Period*. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0292780408. * Gilbert, Alan (2012). *Black Patriots and Loyalists: Fighting for Emancipation in the War for Independence*. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226101552. * Grant, John N. (1973). "Black Immigrants into Nova Scotia, 1776–1815". *The Journal of Negro History*. **58** (3): 253–270. doi:10.2307/2716777. JSTOR 2716777. S2CID 150064269. * Jensen, Merrill (2004). *The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution 1763–1776*. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87220-705-9. * Johnston, Henry Phelps (1881). *The Yorktown Campaign and the Surrender of Cornwallis, 1781*. New York: Harper & Bros. p. 34. OCLC 426009. * Hagist, Don N. (Winter 2011). "Unpublished Writings of Roger Lamb, Soldier of the American War of Independence". *Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research*. Society for Army Historical Research. **89** (360): 280–290. JSTOR 44232931. * Kaplan, Rodger (January 1990). "The Hidden War: British Intelligence Operations during the American Revolution". *The William and Mary Quarterly*. Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture. **47** (1): 115–138. doi:10.2307/2938043. JSTOR 2938043. * Kepner, K. (February 1945). "A British View of the Siege of Charleston, 1776". *The Journal of Southern History*. Southern Historical Association. **11** (1): 93–103. doi:10.2307/2197961. JSTOR 2197961. * Kilmeade, Brian.; Yaeger, Don (2013). *George Washington's Secret Six: The Spy Ring That Saved the American Revolution*. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-6981-3765-3. * Knight, Peter (2003). *Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia*. ABC-CLIO. pp. 184–85. ISBN 978-1-57607-812-9. * Kohn, George C. (2006). *Dictionary of Wars, 3d edition*. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9781438129167. * Kwasny, Mark V. *Washington's Partisan War, 1775–1783*. Kent, Ohio: 1996. ISBN 0873385462. Militia warfare. * Larabee, Leonard Woods (1959). *Conservatism in Early American History*. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0151547456. Great Seal Books * Lemaître, Georges Édouard (2005). *Beaumarchais*. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 9781417985364. * Levy, Andrew (2007). *The First Emancipator: Slavery, Religion, and the Quiet Revolution of Robert Carter*. Random House Trade Paperbacks. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-375-76104-1. * Library of Congress "Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781–1783". *Library: Library of Congress*. Library of Congress. Retrieved August 24, 2020. * Lloyd, Earnest Marsh (1908). *A review of the history of infantry*. New York: Longmans, Green, and co. * May, Robin. *The British Army in North America 1775–1783* (1993). Short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions. * McGrath, Nick. "Battle of Guilford Courthouse". *George Washington's Mount Vernon: Digital Encyclopedia*. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Retrieved January 26, 2017. * Middleton, Richard (July 2013). "The Clinton–Cornwallis Controversy and Responsibility for the British Surrender at Yorktown". *History*. Wiley Publishers. **98** (3): 370–389. doi:10.1111/1468-229X.12014. JSTOR 24429518. * —— (2014). *The War of American Independence, 1775–1783*. London: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-5822-2942-6. * Miller, Ken (2014). *Dangerous Guests: Enemy Captives and Revolutionary Communities During the War for Independence*. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-5494-3. * Nash, Gary B.; Carter Smith (2007). *Atlas Of American History*. Infobase Publishing. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-4381-3013-2. * National Institute of Health "Scurvy". National Institute of Health. November 14, 2016. Retrieved October 1, 2020. Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center * Neimeyer, Charles Patrick. *America Goes to War: A Social History of the Continental Army* (1995) JSTOR j.ctt9qg7q2 * Nicolas, Paul Harris (1845). *Historical record of the Royal Marine Forces, Volume 2*. London: Thomas and William Boone. port praya suffren 1781. * Ortiz, J.D. "General Bernardo Galvez in the American Revolution". Retrieved September 9, 2020. * Perkins, James Breck (2009) [1911]. *France in the American Revolution*. Cornell University Library. ASIN B002HMBV52. * Peters, Richard, ed. (1846). *A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774 – 1875: Treaty of Alliance with France 1778, "Article II"*. Library of Congress archives. * Ramsay, David (1819). *Universal History Americanised: Or, An Historical View of the World, from the Earliest Records to the Year 1808*. Vol. 4. Philadelphia : M. Carey & Son. * Reich, Jerome R. (1997). *British friends of the American Revolution*. M.E. Sharpe. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-7656-3143-5. * Ridpath, John Clark (1915). *The new complete history of the United States of America*. Vol. 6. Cincinnati: Jones Brothers. OCLC 2140537. * Royal Navy Museum "Ships Biscuits – Royal Navy hardtack". Royal Navy Museum. Archived from the original on October 31, 2009. Retrieved January 14, 2010. * Sawyer, C.W. (1910). *Firearms in American History*. Boston: C.W. Sawyer. online at Hathi Trust * Schiff, Stacy (2006). *A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America*. Macmillan. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4299-0799-6. * Scribner, Robert L. (1988). *Revolutionary Virginia, the Road to Independence*. University of Virginia Press. ISBN 978-0-8139-0748-2. * Selig, Robert A. (1999). *Rochambeau in Connecticut, Tracing His Journey: Historic and Architectural Survey*. Connecticut Historical Commission. * Smith, Merril D. (2015). *The World of the American Revolution: A Daily Life Encyclopedia*. ABC-CLIO. p. 374. ISBN 978-1-4408-3028-0. * Southey, Robert (1831). *The life of Lord Nelson*. Henry Chapman Publishers. ISBN 9780665213304. * Stoker, Donald, Kenneth J. Hagan, and Michael T. McMaster, eds. *Strategy in the American War of Independence: a global approach* (Routledge, 2009) excerpt. * Symonds, Craig L. *A Battlefield Atlas of the American Revolution* (1989), newly drawn maps emphasizing the movement of military units * Trew, Peter (2006). *Rodney and the Breaking of the Line*. Pen & Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-8441-5143-1. * Trickey, Erick. "The Little-Remembered Ally Who Helped America Win the Revolution". Smithsonian Magazine January 13, 2017. Retrieved April 28, 2020. * Turner, Frederick Jackson (1920). *The frontier in American history*. New York: H. Holt and company. * Volo, M. James (2006). *Blue Water Patriots: The American Revolution Afloat*. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7425-6120-5. * U.S. Army, "The Winning of Independence, 1777–1783" *American Military History* Volume I, 2005. * U.S. National Park Service "Springfield Armory". Nps.gov. April 25, 2013. Retrieved May 8, 2013. * Weir, William (2004). *The Encyclopedia of African American Military History*. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-61592-831-6. * Whaples, Robert (March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions". *The Journal of Economic History*. **55** (1): 144. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.482.4975. doi:10.1017/S0022050700040602. JSTOR 2123771. S2CID 145691938. There is an overwhelming consensus that Americans' economic standard of living on the eve of the Revolution was among the highest in the world. * Whaples, Robert (March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions". *The Journal of Economic History*. **55** (1): 144. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.482.4975. doi:10.1017/S0022050700040602. JSTOR 2123771. S2CID 145691938. There is an overwhelming consensus that Americans' economic standard of living on the eve of the Revolution was among the highest in the world. * Wood, Gordon (1969). *The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787*. Williamsburg, Virginia: Institute of Early American History and Culture. p. 653. ISBN 9780393006445. * Zeller-Frederick, Andrew A. (April 18, 2018). "The Hessians Who Escaped Washington's Trap at Trenton". *Journal of the American Revolution*. Bruce H. Franklin. Citing William M. Dwyer and Edward J. Lowell, *The Hessians: And the Other German Auxiliaries in the Revolutionary War*, 1970 * Zlatich, Marko; Copeland, Peter. *General Washington's Army (1): 1775–78* (1994). Short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions. * ——. *General Washington's Army (2): 1779–83* (1994). Short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions. Primary sources --------------- Many primary sources are available at Princeton University Law School's Avalon Project and at the Library of Congress' Digital Collections. Original editions for titles related to the American Revolutionary War are also available online at Internet Archive and HathiTrust digital library. * Declaration of Independence (Report). National Archives, Washington D.C.: Continental Congress of the United States. 1776. * Emmerich, Adreas. *The Partisan in War*, a treatise on light infantry tactics written in 1789. Bibliographies online --------------------- * Library of Congress Guide to the American Revolution * Bibliographies of the War of American Independence compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History * Political bibliography from Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture Listen to this article (6 minutes) Spoken Wikipedia iconThis audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 16 October 2022 (2022-10-16), and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles)

American Revolutionary War

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War

A **curfew** is an order that imposes certain regulations during specified hours. Typically, curfews order all people affected by them to remain indoors during the evening and nighttime hours. Such an order is most often issued by public authorities, but may also be given by the owner of a house to those living in the household. For instance, children are often given curfews by their parents, and an au pair is traditionally given a curfew by which time he or she must return to his or her host family's home. Some jurisdictions have juvenile curfews which affect all persons under a certain age not accompanied by an adult or engaged in certain approved activities. Curfews have been used as a control measure in martial law, as well as for public safety in the event of a disaster, epidemic, or crisis. Various countries have implemented such measures throughout history, including during World War II and the Gulf War. The enforcement of curfews has been found to disproportionately affect marginalised groups, including those who are homeless or have limited access to transportation. During the COVID-19 pandemic, curfews were implemented in several countries, including France, Italy, Poland and Australia, as a measure to limit the spread of the virus. However, recent studies have reported negligible or no effect, and even a potential increase in virus transmission. The use and enforcement of curfews during the pandemic has been associated with human rights violations and mental health deterioration, particularly among females and young people, further complicating their use as a control measure. Curfews may also impact road safety, as studies indicate a potential decrease in crashes during curfew hours but an increase in crashes before curfew due to rushing. Etymology --------- > > Between the evening twilight and the grayness before dawn one can hardly make out the walls of the houses, for there is no lighting in the medieval city as we said. At evening curfew the women cover the > coals in the hearth with ash to reduce the fire hazard. The houses are built with beams of oak and every one is a potential tinderbox waiting to blaze up, so at night the only flames left burning are the candles before the holy images. Why would the streets need to be lit anyway? In the evening the entrances to the dangerous neighborhoods are barred, chains are stretched across the river to prevent a surprise attack from barbarian raiders coming upstream, and the city gates are locked tight. The city is like one big household, with everything well secured. > > > Arsenio Frugoni, Quoted in *Urban Space in the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Age* The word "curfew" /ˈkɜːr.fjuː/ comes from the Old French phrase "*couvre-feu*", which means "cover fire". It was later adopted into Middle English as "curfeu", which later became the modern "curfew". Its original meaning refers to a law by William the Conqueror that all lights and fires should be covered to extinction at the ringing of an eight o'clock bell to prevent the spread of destructive fire within communities in timber buildings. Historical ---------- Curfews have been used since the Middle Ages to limit uprisings among subordinate groups, including Anglo-Saxons under William the Conqueror. Prior to the U.S. Civil War, most Southern states placed a curfew on slaves. Modern curfews primarily focus on youth as well as during periods of war and other crisis. In the United States, progressive reformers pushed for curfews on youth, successfully securing bans on children's nighttime presence on streets in cities such as Louisville, Kentucky and Lincoln, Nebraska. General curfews were also put into place after crises such as the 1871 Chicago Fire. Wartime curfews were also implemented during the first and second world wars. A formal curfew order introduced by the British board of trade, ordered shops and entertainment establishments to extinguish their lights by 10:30 p.m. to save fuel during World War I. Types ----- * An order issued by public authorities or military forces requiring everyone or certain people to be indoors at certain times, often at night. It can be imposed to maintain public order (as was the case with the northeast blackout of 2003, the 2005 French riots, the 2010 Chile earthquake, the 2011 Egyptian revolution, and the 2014 Ferguson unrest), or suppress targeted groups. Curfews have long been directed at certain groups in many cities or states, such as Japanese-American university students on the West Coast of the United States during World War II, African-Americans in many towns during the time of Jim Crow laws, or people younger than a certain age (usually within a few years either side of 18) in many towns of the United States since the 1980s. In recent times, curfews have been imposed by many countries during disease epidemics or pandemics such as the COVID-19 pandemic; see below. * A rule set for a child or teenager by their parents or legal guardians, requiring them to return home by a specific time, usually in the evening or night. This may apply daily, or vary with the day of the week, e.g., if the minor has to go to school the next day. * An order by the head of household to a domestic assistant such as an au pair or nanny. The domestic assistant must then return home by a specific time. * A daily requirement for guests to return to their hostel before a specified time, usually in the evening or night. * A daily requirement that a person subject to a court order, such as probation or bail conditions, must return to their home before a certain hour and be inside it until a certain hour of the morning. * In baseball, a time after which a game must end, or play be suspended. For example, in the American League the curfew rule for many years decreed that no inning could begin after 1 am local time (with the exception of international games). * In aeronautics, night flying restrictions may restrict aircraft operations over a defined period in the nighttime, to limit the disruption of aircraft noise on the sleep of nearby residents. Notable examples are the London airports of Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted, which operate under the Quota Count system. * In a few locations in the UK patrons of licensed premises may not enter after a "curfew" time, also known as "last orders". In Inverclyde, for example, this is currently set at 12:00 am. By country ---------- ### Australia On 17 August 2011, a nighttime curfew was imposed on children who had run amok in the streets of Victoria after repeating youth offenses. On 2 August 2020, following the surge of COVID-19 cases in Victoria, especially in Melbourne, Victorian premier Daniel Andrews declared a state of disaster across the state and imposed stage 4 lockdown in Metropolitan Melbourne. The new measures included nighttime curfew, which was implemented across Melbourne from 20:00 to 05:00 (AEST). The restrictions came into effect at 18:00 (6 pm) and lasted until 28 September 2020 (5 am). On 16 August 2021, following a surge of COVID-19 cases and a drop in compliance in restrictions in Victoria, especially in Melbourne, Victorian Premier Daniel Andrews reinstated the curfew in Melbourne, this time from 21:00 to 05:00 (AEST) effective midnight 17 August 2021 until at least 2 September 2021. On 20 August 2021, as COVID-19 cases continued to surge in New South Wales, NSW Premier Gladys Berejiklian imposed a curfew in the local government areas of Bayside, Blacktown, Burwood, Campbelltown, Canterbury-Bankstown, Cumberland, Fairfield, Georges River, Liverpool, Parramatta, Strathfield, and parts of Penrith, from 9:00 pm to 5:00 am (AEST) beginning from 23 August. ### Belgium On 17 October 2020, due to surge of COVID-19 cases and deaths in Belgium, Prime Minister Alexander De Croo announced a nationwide curfew from midnight to 05:00 am local time. The curfew was imposed on 19 October 2020 and was to last for four weeks. The government also announced the closure of cafes, bars and restaurants for one month and alcohol sales were banned after 8:00 pm local time. ### Canada On 6 January 2021, due to a surge of COVID-19 cases and deaths in the province of Quebec, a curfew was ordered by the premier of Quebec François Legault. The curfew was adjusted for different areas of the province depending on the number of cases, amongst other criteria. The more populous areas, such as the urban areas of Montréal and Quebec City qualified as "red zones" and were placed under a curfew from 8 pm to 5 am while the less urban areas were either "orange zones" with a curfew from 9:30 pm to 5 am. This curfew was expected to be in effect from 9 January up to and including 8 February 2021. "Yellow zones" did not have curfew. However, the curfew did not end in February. It ended on May 28, 2021. On December 30, 2021, Quebec reinstated the nightly curfew this time starting at 10:00 pm to 5:00 am. Following the reinstatement of the curfew, studies came out doubting its effectiveness in lowering the transmission of COVID-19. ### Egypt On 28 January 2011, during the Egyptian Revolution and following the collapse of the police system, President Hosni Mubarak declared a country-wide military enforced curfew. However, it was ignored by demonstrators who continued their sit-in in Tahrir Square. Concerned residents formed neighborhood vigilante groups to defend their communities against looters and the newly escaped prisoners. On the second anniversary of the revolution, in January 2013, a wave of demonstrations swept the country against President Mohamed Morsi who declared a curfew in Port Said, Ismaïlia, and Suez, three cities where deadly street clashes had occurred. In defiance, the locals took to the streets during the curfew, organizing football tournaments and street festivals, prohibiting police and military forces from enforcing the curfew. ### Fiji On 27 March 2020, Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama announced a nationwide curfew from 10 p.m. to 5 a.m. that would take effect on 30 March. The times have been adjusted forward and backward on several occasions, but as of January 2022, this curfew is still in effect. The government of Fiji maintains that this curfew will stay in effect for the foreseeable future. ### France On 14 October 2020, following the surge of COVID-19 cases and deaths in France that threatened to overwhelm hospitals, French President Emmanuel Macron declared a national state of public health emergency for the second time and imposed a nighttime curfew in the Île-de-France region that includes Paris, as well as Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Marseille, Montpellier, Rouen, Saint-Etienne, and Toulouse. The curfew ran from 09:00 pm to 06:00 am local time (CEST) (08:00 pm to 05:00 am CET) and was implemented from 17 October 2020 to last four weeks. Under the rules, people in those cities could only leave their homes for essential reasons, and anyone who violated the curfew would face a fine of 135 euros ($158.64) for the first offence. A second offence would bring a far steeper fine of 1,500 euros, or around $1,762. On 23 October, the curfew was expanded to 38 departments and French Polynesia. In total, 54 departments and one overseas collectivity were affected by new restrictions, comprising 46 million people, or two-thirds of the French population. ### Iceland Under Iceland's Child Protection Act (no. 80/2002 Art. 92), minors aged 12 and under may not be outdoors after 20:00 (8:00 pm) unless accompanied by an adult. Minors aged 13 to 16 may not be outdoors after 22:00 (10:00 pm), unless on their way home from a recognized event organized by a school, sports organization or youth club. During the period 1 May to 1 September, children may be outdoors for two hours longer. Children and teenagers that break curfew are taken to the local police station and police officers tell their parents to come and get them. The age limits are based upon year of birth, not date of birth. If a parent cannot be reached, the child or teenager is taken to a shelter. ### Ireland Several medieval towns in Ireland had a curfew after the English model. In Galway a curfew bell was rang every night before the town gates were locked. In Kilkenny the night watchmen stood guard over the market stalls "from curfew to cockcrow." During the 1916 Easter Rising, Dublin was under curfew between 7:30 p.m. and 5:30 am. During the Irish War of Independence curfews were regularly imposed, including in 1920 in Dublin between midnight and 5 am. Curfew between 9 p.m. and 3 a.m. was imposed on Cork City in July 1920 after the shooting of Gerald Smyth; in August it was extended to many parts of Munster. In 1921 Limerick was under a curfew. In 1921, Dublin's curfew began at 10 pm, moved to 9 p.m on 4 March. In the Republic of Ireland, a restriction on movement order may be placed on an offender, which may include a curfew element. ### Italy In Italy a curfew went into effect from October 2020 to limit the spread of COVID-19. Between 22 and 26 October 2020 Lombardy, Campania, Lazio, Sicily, Calabria and Piedmont imposed a curfew between 11.00 pm and 5.00 am, so any movement was prohibited. With the ministerial decree of 3 November 2020, corrected with the DPCM of 3 December 2020, and 14 January 2021, the Italian Regions are grouped into three types of different epidemiological scenarios. A curfew is instituted nationwide from 10 pm to 5 am, shopping centers are ordered to close on weekends, and the use of distance learning for high schools. There have been many protests and riots against the curfew nationwide since it came into effect. However, the curfew has not been lifted by the government. ### Jersey During the German occupation of the Channel Islands, curfews were imposed. ### Morocco On 21 December 2020, the government of Morocco first announced a nationwide nighttime curfew as part of its response to the COVID-19 pandemic, to come into effect on 23 December. Initially implemented for a three-week period from 9:00 pm–6:00 am, it was extended throughout 2021 alongside the state of health emergency, with hours altered during Ramadan (8:00 pm–6:00 am), and from May to early August (11:00 pm–4:30 am). The curfew was lifted on 10 November 2021. ### Netherlands In the Netherlands, a curfew from 9:00 pm to 4:30 am local time went into effect on 23 January 2021 to limit the spread of COVID-19. Across the first two nights, 5,765 people were given the 95 euro fine for disobeying the curfew. Nationwide anti-curfew riots occurred from 23 until 26 January, resulting in the arrests of over 575 people. On 8 February, the government announced an extension of the curfew until 2 March. The curfew was lifted on April 28, 2021 and has not been reinstated since then. ### Poland A strict nationwide curfew was imposed in December 1981 following the introduction of Martial law in Poland. ### Slovenia In Slovenia, a curfew was implemented in February 1942 in the area occupied by Italy during World War II. More recently, it was imposed in October 2020 during the COVID-19 epidemic to limit the spread of the virus. The curfew, which was referred to as the "epidemiological curfew," was enforced from 20 October 2020 to 12 April 2021, from 9:00 pm to 6:00 am local time, for a total of 174 days. The measure was recommended by the government's COVID-19 expert group and enforced under the Infectious Diseases Act. The curfew was criticized by some experts as unnecessary and was challenged for its potential violation of human rights. In April 2023, the Constitutional Court declined to assess the curfew regulations as no longer valid, although a concern has been raised that similar measures may be implemented in the future. ### South Korea In South Korea, a curfew was imposed following the American military occupation and end of Japanese colonial rule in 1945. It remained in place throughout the Korean War and decades thereafter until it was lifted on 4 January 1982 under the presidency of Chun Doo-hwan, a few months after the capital Seoul was awarded host of the 1988 Summer Olympics. ### Spain In Spain, a curfew was imposed from 11:00 pm to 6:00 am local time on 25 October 2020 to limit the spread of COVID-19, in addition to some Autonomous Communities starting the curfew at 10:00 pm. ### Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka, the Sri Lanka Police are empowered to declare and enforce a *Police Curfew* in any police area for any particular period to maintain the peace, law and order under the *Police Ordinance*. Under the emergency regulations of the *Public Security Ordinance*, the President may declare a curfew over the whole or over any part of the country. Travel is restricted, during a curfew, to authorised persons such as police, armed forces personal and public officers. Civilians may gain a Curfew Pass from a police station to travel during a curfew. ### Ukraine During the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine, curfews are imposed in all oblasts of Ukraine, usually lasting from 10 or 11 pm to 5 am. ### United Kingdom The United Kingdom's 2003 Anti-Social Behaviour Act created zones that allow police from 9 pm to 6 am to hold and escort home unaccompanied minors under the age of 16, whether badly behaved or not. Although hailed as a success, the High Court ruled in one particular case that the law did not give the police a power of arrest, and officers could not force someone to come with them. On appeal the court of appeal held that the act gave police powers to escort minors home only if they are involved in, or at risk from, actual or imminently anticipated bad behaviour. In a few towns in the United Kingdom, the curfew bell is still rung as a continuation of the medieval tradition where the bell used to be rung from the parish church to guide travelers safely towards a town or village as darkness fell, or when bad weather made it difficult to follow trackways and for the villagers to extinguish their lights and fires as a safety measure to combat accidental fires. Until 1100 it was against the law to burn any lights after the ringing of the curfew bell. In Morpeth, the curfew is rung each night at 8 pm from Morpeth Clock Tower. In Chertsey, it is rung at 8 pm, from Michaelmas to Lady Day. A short story concerning the Chertsey curfew, set in 1471, and entitled "Blanche Heriot. A legend of old Chertsey Church" was published by Albert Richard Smith in 1843, and formed a basis for the poem "Curfew Must Not Ring Tonight". At Castleton in the Peak District, the curfew is rung from Michaelmas to Shrove Tuesday. At Wallingford in Oxfordshire, the curfew bell continues to be rung at 9 pm rather than 8 pm which is a one-hour extension granted by William The Conqueror as the Lord of the town was a Norman sympathiser. However, none of these curfew bells serves its original function. #### Northern Ireland In Northern Ireland, during The Troubles, an attempt was made to search for weapons held by Irish republican paramilitaries on the Falls area of Belfast on 3–5 July 1970. The result, known as the Falls Curfew, was 36 hours of riots, looting and gun battles between British soldiers and the Official IRA and the Provisional IRA. Four civilians were killed by the British Army and dozens were injured. The curfew was later found to be illegal and no further attempts to impose curfews were made during the Troubles. During the 2020–21 coronavirus pandemic, a curfew was imposed between Christmas 2020 and New Years 2021, 8 p.m. to 6 am, to reduce contagion. ### United States Curfew law in the United States is usually a matter of local ordinance (mainly applied by a municipality or county), rather than federal law. However, the Constitution guarantees certain rights, which have been applied to the states through the 14th Amendment. Hence, any curfew law may be overruled and struck down if, for example, it violates 1st, 4th, 5th or 14th Amendment rights. Nonetheless, curfews are set by state and local governments. They vary by state and even by county or municipality. American military curfews are a tool used by commanders at various installations to shape the behavior of soldiers. #### Juvenile curfews Local ordinances and state statutes may make it unlawful for minors below a certain age to be on public streets, unless they are accompanied by a parent or an adult or on lawful and necessary business on behalf of their parents or guardians. For example, a Michigan state law provides that "[n]o minor under the age of 12 years shall loiter, idle or congregate in or on any public street, highway, alley or park between the hours of 10 o'clock p.m. and 6 o'clock a.m., unless the minor is accompanied by a parent or guardian, or some adult delegated by the parent or guardian to accompany the child." MCLA § 722.751; MSA § 28.342(1). Curfew laws in other states and cities typically set forth different curfews for minors of different ages. The stated purpose of such laws is generally to deter disorderly behavior and crime, while others can include to protect youth from victimization and to strengthen parental responsibility, but their effectiveness is subject to debate. Generally, curfews attempt to address vandalism, shootings, and property crimes, which are believed to happen mostly at night, but are less commonly used to address underage drinking, drunk driving and teenage pregnancy. Parents can be fined, charged or ordered to take parenting classes for willingly, or through insufficient control or supervision, permitting the child to violate the curfew. Many local curfew laws were enacted in the 1950s and 1960s to attack the "juvenile delinquent" problem of youth gangs. Most curfew exceptions include: * accompanied by a parent or an adult appointed by the parent; * going to or coming home from work, school, religious, or recreational activity; * engaging in a lawful employment activity or; * involved in an emergency; Some cities make it illegal for a business owner, operator, or any employee to knowingly allow a minor to remain in the establishment during curfew hours. A business owner, operator, or any employee may be also subject to fines. A 2011 UC-Berkeley study looked at the 54 larger U.S. cities that enacted youth curfews between 1985 and 2002 and found that arrests of youths affected by curfew restrictions dropped almost 15% in the first year and approximately 10% in following years. However, not all studies agree with the conclusion that youth curfew laws actually reduce crime, and many studies find no benefit or sometimes even the opposite. For example, one 2016 systematic review of 12 studies on the matter found that the effect on crime is close to zero, and can perhaps even backfire somewhat. There are also concerns about racial profiling. In response to concerns about racial profiling, Montgomery County, Maryland, passed a limited curfew, which would permit police officers to arrest juveniles in situations that appear threatening. #### Mall curfews Many malls in the United States have policies that prohibit minors under a specified age from entering the mall after specified times, unless they are accompanied by a parent or another adult or are working at the mall during curfew times. Such policies are known as *mall curfews.* The Youth Supervision Policy, requires all minors visiting Mall after 3 p.m. to be accompanied by someone 21 or older. One adult can chaperone up to four minors. The policy is part of the mall's broader security program, which includes the addition of metal detectors, more patrols and a K-9 unit. Malls that have policies prohibiting unaccompanied minors at any time are known as *parental escort policies.* #### Curfews for adults States and municipalities in the United States have occasionally enacted curfews on the population at large, often as a result of severely inclement weather or civil disorder. Some such curfews require all citizens simply to refrain from driving. Others require all citizens to remain inside, with exceptions granted to those in important positions, such as elected officials, law enforcement personnel, first responders, healthcare workers, and the mass media. However, unlike juvenile curfews, all-ages curfews have always been very limited in terms of both location and duration. That is, they are temporary and restricted to very specific areas, and generally only implemented during states of emergency, then subsequently lifted or allowed to sunset. In 1992, a curfew was imposed in Los Angeles, California during the Rodney King Riots. In 2015, the city of Baltimore enacted a curfew on all citizens that lasted for five days and prohibited all citizens from going outdoors from 10 pm to 5 am with the exception of those traveling to or from work and those with medical emergencies. This was in response to the 2015 Baltimore protests. During the global COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, local curfews were used (typically in combination with daytime lockdown policies) in the attempt to slow down the spread of the virus by limiting inessential interactions between people from different households. Later in 2020, citywide curfews were enacted in major cities across the country due to protests following the killing of George Floyd in May. Arizona enacted a statewide curfew. Countywide curfews were enacted for Los Angeles County and Alameda County in California. In spring 2021, the city of Miami Beach, Florida enacted a citywide curfew due to public disorder associated with spring break celebrations. See also -------- * Curfew bell * Freedom of assembly * Shutdown law * Stranger danger * Unlawful assembly **People** * Don A. Allen, member of the California State Assembly and of the Los Angeles City Council in the 1940s and 1950s, urged enforcement of curfew laws.

Curfew

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curfew

Languages spoken in the Republic of India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-Aryan languages spoken by 78.05% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 19.64% of Indians, both families together are sometimes known as Indic languages. Languages spoken by the remaining 2.31% of the population belong to the Austroasiatic, Sino–Tibetan, Tai–Kadai, and a few other minor language families and isolates. As per the People's Linguistic Survey of India, India has the second highest number of languages (780), after Papua New Guinea (840). Ethnologue lists a lower number of 456. Article 343 of the Constitution of India stated that the official language of the Union is Hindi in Devanagari script, with official use of English to continue for 15 years from 1947. Later, a constitutional amendment, The Official Languages Act, 1963, allowed for the continuation of English alongside Hindi in the Indian government indefinitely until legislation decides to change it. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union are "the international form of Indian numerals", which are referred to as Arabic numerals in most English-speaking countries. Despite the misconceptions, Hindi is not the national language of India; the Constitution of India does not give any language the status of national language. The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution lists 22 languages, which have been referred to as *scheduled* languages and given recognition, status and official encouragement. In addition, the Government of India has awarded the distinction of *classical language* to Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu. Classical language status is given to languages which have a rich heritage and independent nature. According to the Census of India of 2001, India has 122 major languages and 1599 other languages. However, figures from other sources vary, primarily due to differences in definition of the terms "language" and "dialect". The 2001 Census recorded 30 languages which were spoken by more than a million native speakers and 122 which were spoken by more than 10,000 people. Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India: Persian and English. Persian was the court language during the Mughal period in India. It reigned as an administrative language for several centuries until the era of British colonisation. English continues to be an important language in India. It is used in higher education and in some areas of the Indian government. Hindi, which has the largest number of first-language speakers in India today, serves as the *lingua franca* across much of North and Central India. However, there have been concerns raised with Hindi being imposed in South India, most notably in the states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Maharashtra, West Bengal, Assam, Punjab and other non-Hindi regions have also started to voice concerns about Hindi. Bengali is the second most spoken and understood language in the country with a significant amount of speakers in eastern and northeastern regions. Marathi is the third most spoken and understood language in the country with a significant amount of speakers in South-Western regions. History ------- The Southern Indian languages are from the Dravidian family. The Dravidian languages are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. Proto-Dravidian languages were spoken in India in the 4th millennium BCE and started disintegrating into various branches around 3rd millennium BCE. The Dravidian languages are classified in four groups: North, Central (Kolami–Parji), South-Central (Telugu–Kui), and South Dravidian (Tamil-Kannada). The Northern Indian languages from the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European family evolved from Old Indo-Aryan by way of the Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrit languages and Apabhraṃśa of the Middle Ages. The Indo-Aryan languages developed and emerged in three stages — Old Indo-Aryan (1500 BCE to 600 BCE), Middle Indo-Aryan stage (600 BCE and 1000 CE), and New Indo-Aryan (between 1000 CE and 1300 CE). The modern north Indian Indo-Aryan languages all evolved into distinct, recognisable languages in the New Indo-Aryan Age. In the Northeast India, among the Sino-Tibetan languages, Meitei language (officially known as Manipuri language) was the court language of the Manipur Kingdom (Meitei: Meeteileipak). It was honoured before and during the darbar sessions before Manipur was merged into the Dominion of the Indian Republic. Its history of existence spans from 1500 to 2000 years according to most eminent scholars including Padma Vibhushan awardee Suniti Kumar Chatterji. Even according to the "Manipur State Constitution Act, 1947" of the once independent Manipur, Manipuri and English were made the court languages of the kingdom (before merging into Indian Republic). Persian, or *Farsi*, was brought into India by the Ghaznavids and other Turko-Afghan dynasties as the court language. Culturally Persianized, they, in combination with the later Mughal dynasty (of Turco-Mongol origin), influenced the art, history, and literature of the region for more than 500 years, resulting in the Persianisation of many Indian tongues, mainly lexically. In 1837, the British replaced Persian with English and Hindustani in Perso-Arabic script for administrative purposes and the Hindi movement of the 19th Century replaced Persianised vocabulary with Sanskrit derivations and replaced or supplemented the use of Perso-Arabic script for administrative purposes with Devanagari. Each of the northern Indian languages had different influences. For example, Hindustani was strongly influenced by Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian, leading to the emergence of Modern Standard Hindi and Modern Standard Urdu as registers of the Hindustani language. Bangla on the other hand has retained its Sanskritic roots while heavily expanding its vocabulary with words from Persian, English, French and other foreign languages. Inventories ----------- The first official survey of language diversity in the Indian subcontinent was carried out by Sir George Abraham Grierson from 1898 to 1928. Titled the Linguistic Survey of India, it reported a total of 179 languages and 544 dialects. However, the results were skewed due to ambiguities in distinguishing between "dialect" and "language", use of untrained personnel and under-reporting of data from South India, as the former provinces of Burma and Madras, as well as the princely states of Cochin, Hyderabad, Mysore and Travancore were not included in the survey. Different sources give widely differing figures, primarily based on how the terms "language" and "dialect" are defined and grouped. *Ethnologue*, produced by the Christian evangelist organisation SIL International, lists 461 tongues for India (out of 6,912 worldwide), 447 of which are living, while 14 are extinct. The 447 living languages are further subclassified in *Ethnologue* as follows: * Institutional – 63 * Developing – 130 * Vigorous – 187 * In trouble – 54 * Dying – 13 The People's Linguistic Survey of India, a privately owned research institution in India, has recorded over 66 different scripts and more than 780 languages in India during its nationwide survey, which the organisation claims to be the biggest linguistic survey in India. The People of India (POI) project of Anthropological Survey of India reported 325 languages which are used for in-group communication by 5,633 Indian communities. ### Census of India figures The Census of India records and publishes data with respect to the number of speakers for languages and dialects, but uses its own unique terminology, distinguishing between *language* and *mother tongue*. The mother tongues are grouped within each language. Many of the mother tongues so defined could be considered a language rather than a dialect by linguistic standards. This is especially so for many mother tongues with tens of millions of speakers that are officially grouped under the language Hindi. 1951 Census Separate figures for Hindi, Urdu, and Punjabi were not issued, due to the fact the returns were intentionally recorded incorrectly in states such as East Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, PEPSU, and Bilaspur. 1961 Census The 1961 census recognised 1,652 mother tongues spoken by 438,936,918 people, counting all declarations made by any individual at the time when the census was conducted. However, the declaring individuals often mixed names of languages with those of dialects, subdialects and dialect clusters or even castes, professions, religions, localities, regions, countries and nationalities. The list therefore includes languages with barely a few individual speakers as well as 530 unclassified mother tongues and more than 100 idioms that are non-native to India, including linguistically unspecific demonyms such as "African", "Canadian" or "Belgian". 1991 Census The 1991 census recognises 1,576 classified mother tongues. According to the 1991 census, 22 languages had more than a million native speakers, 50 had more than 100,000 and 114 had more than 10,000 native speakers. The remaining accounted for a total of 566,000 native speakers (out of a total of 838 million Indians in 1991). 2001 Census As per the census of 2001, there are 1635 rationalised mother tongues, 234 identifiable mother tongues and 22 major languages. Of these, 29 languages have more than a million native speakers, 60 have more than 100,000 and 122 have more than 10,000 native speakers. There are a few languages like Kodava that do not have a script but have a group of native speakers in Coorg (Kodagu). 2011 Census According to the most recent census of 2011, after thorough linguistic scrutiny, edit, and rationalization on 19,569 raw linguistic affiliations, the census recognizes 1369 rationalized mother tongues and 1474 names which were treated as ‘unclassified’ and relegated to ‘other’ mother tongue category. Among, the 1369 rationalized mother tongues which are spoken by 10,000 or more speakers, are further grouped into appropriate set that resulted into total 121 languages. In these 121 languages, 22 are already part of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India and the other 99 are termed as "Total of other languages" which is one short as of the other languages recognized in 2001 census. Multilingualism --------------- ### 2011 Census India First, second, and third languages by number of speakers in India (2011 Census)| Language | First languagespeakers | First languagespeakers as percentageof total population | Second languagespeakers (millions) | Third languagespeakers (millions) | Total speakers (millions) | Total speakers as percentage of totalpopulation | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Hindi | 528,347,193 | 43.63 | 139 | 24 | 692 | 57.1 | | Bengali | 97,237,669 | 8.30 | 9 | 1 | 107 | 8.9 | | Marathi | 83,026,680 | 6.86 | 13 | 3 | 99 | 8.2 | | Telugu | 81,127,740 | 6.70 | 12 | 1 | 95 | 7.8 | | Tamil | 69,026,881 | 5.70 | 7 | 1 | 77 | 6.3 | | Gujarati | 55,492,554 | 4.58 | 4 | 1 | 60 | 5.0 | | Urdu | 50,772,631 | 4.19 | 11 | 1 | 63 | 5.2 | | Kannada | 43,706,512 | 3.61 | 14 | 1 | 59 | 4.9 | | Odia | 37,521,324 | 3.10 | 5 | 0.03 | 43 | 3.5 | | Malayalam | 34,838,819 | 2.88 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 36 | 2.9 | | Punjabi | 33,124,726 | 2.74 | 0.03 | 0.003 | 36 | 3.0 | | Assamese | 15,311,351 | 1.26 | 7.48 | 0.74 | 24 | 2.0 | | Maithili | 13,583,464 | 1.12 | 0.03 | 0.003 | 14 | 1.2 | | Meitei (Manipuri) | 1,761,079 | 0.15 | 0.4 | 0.04 | 2.25 | 0.2 | | English | 259,678 | 0.02 | 83 | 46 | 129 | 10.6 | | Sanskrit | 24,821 | 0.00185 | 0.01 | 0.003 | 0.025 | 0.002 | ### *Ethnologue* (2019, 22nd edition) worldwide The following table is a list of languages from the Indian subcontinent by total number of speakers as it appears in the 2019 edition of *Ethnologue*, a language reference published by SIL International, which is based in the United States. | Language | Total speakers (millions) | | --- | --- | | Hindi | 615 | | Bengali | 265 | | Urdu | 170 | | Punjabi | 126 | | Marathi | 95 | | Telugu | 93 | | Tamil | 81 | | Gujarati | 61 | | Kannada | 56 | | Odia | 38 | | Malayalam | 38 | | Assamese | 15 | | Santali | 7 | | Meitei (Manipuri) | 1.7 | | Sanskrit | 0.025 | Language families ----------------- Ethnolinguistically, the languages of South Asia, echoing the complex history and geography of the region, form a complex patchwork of language families, language phyla and isolates. Languages spoken in India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-Aryan languages spoken by 78.05% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 19.64% of Indians. The most important language families in terms of speakers are: | Rank | Language family | Population (2018) | | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Indo-European language family | 1,045,000,000 (78.05%) | | 2 | Dravidian language family | 265,000,000 (19.64%) | | 3 | Austroasiatic language family | Unknown | | 4 | Sino-Tibetan language family | Unknown | | 5 | Tai–Kadai language family | Unknown | | 6 | Great Andamanese languages | Unknown | | Total | Languages of India | 1,340,000,000 | ### Indo-Aryan language family The largest of the language families represented in India, in terms of speakers, is the Indo-Aryan language family, a branch of the Indo-Iranian family, itself the easternmost, extant subfamily of the Indo-European language family. This language family predominates, accounting for some 1035 million speakers, or over 76.5 of the population, as per a 2018 estimate. The most widely spoken languages of this group are Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Urdu, Gujarati, Punjabi, Kashmiri, Rajasthani, Sindhi, Assamese (Asamiya), Maithili and Odia. Aside from the Indo-Aryan languages, other Indo-European languages are also spoken in India, the most prominent of which is English, as a *lingua franca*. ### Dravidian language family The second largest language family is the Dravidian language family, accounting for some 277 million speakers, or approximately 20.5% as per 2018 estimate. The Dravidian languages are spoken mainly in southern India and parts of eastern and central India as well as in parts of northeastern Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh. The Dravidian languages with the most speakers are Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam. Besides the mainstream population, Dravidian languages are also spoken by small scheduled tribe communities, such as the Oraon and Gond tribes. Only two Dravidian languages are exclusively spoken outside India, Brahui in Balochistan, Pakistan and Dhangar, a dialect of Kurukh, in Nepal. ### Austroasiatic language family Families with smaller numbers of speakers are Austroasiatic and numerous small Sino-Tibetan languages, with some 10 and 6 million speakers, respectively, together 3% of the population. The Austroasiatic language family (*austro* meaning South) is the autochthonous language in Southeast Asia, arrived by migration. Austroasiatic languages of mainland India are the Khasi and Munda languages, including Bhumij and Santali. The languages of the Nicobar islands also form part of this language family. With the exceptions of Khasi and Santali, all Austroasiatic languages on Indian territory are endangered. ### Tibeto-Burman language family The Tibeto-Burman language family are well represented in India. However, their interrelationships are not discernible, and the family has been described as "a patch of leaves on the forest floor" rather than with the conventional metaphor of a "family tree". Padma Vibhushan awardee Indian Bengali scholar Suniti Kumar Chatterjee said, "Among the various Tibeto-Burman languages, the most important and in literature certainly of much greater importance than Newari, is the Meitei or Manipuri language". In India, Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken across the Himalayas in the regions of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam (hills and autonomous councils), Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura and West Bengal. Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in India include two constitutionally recognised official languages, Meitei (officially known as Manipuri) and Bodo as well as the non-scheduled languages like Karbi, Lepcha, and many varieties of several related Tibetic, West Himalayish, Tani, Brahmaputran, Angami–Pochuri, Tangkhul, Zeme, Kukish sub linguistic branches, amongst many others. ### Tai-Kadai language family The Ahom language, a Southwestern Tai language, had been once the dominant language of the Ahom Kingdom in modern-day Assam, but was later replaced by the Assamese language (known as Kamrupi in ancient era which is the pre-form of the Kamrupi dialect of today). Nowadays, small Tai communities and their languages remain in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh together with Sino-Tibetans, e.g. Tai Phake, Tai Aiton and Tai Khamti, which are similar to the Shan language of Shan State, Myanmar; the Dai language of Yunnan, China; the Lao language of Laos; the Thai language of Thailand; and the Zhuang language in Guangxi, China. ### Andamanese language families The languages of the Andaman Islands form another group: * the Great Andamanese languages, comprising a number of extinct, and one highly endangered language Aka-Jeru. * the Ongan family of the southern Andaman Islands, comprising two extant languages, Önge and Jarawa, and one extinct language, Jangil. In addition, Sentinelese is thought likely to be related to the above languages. ### Language isolates The only language found in the Indian mainland that is considered a language isolate is Nihali. The status of Nihali is ambiguous, having been considered as a distinct Austroasiatic language, as a dialect of Korku and also as being a "thieves' argot" rather than a legitimate language. The other language isolates found in the rest of South Asia include Burushaski, a language spoken in Gilgit–Baltistan (administered by Pakistan), Kusunda (in western Nepal), and Vedda (in Sri Lanka). The validity of the Great Andamanese language group as a language family has been questioned and it has been considered a language isolate by some authorities. In addition, a Bantu language, Sidi, was spoken until the mid-20th century in Gujarat by the Siddi. Official languages ------------------ ### Federal level | Language proficiency in India (2001, 2011) | | --- | | Language | Year | | percent | | Hindi | 2001 |    | 53.61% | +3.50% | | 2011 |    | 57.11% | | English | 2001 |    | 12.19% | -1.57% | | 2011 |    | 10.62% | Prior to Independence, in British India, English was the sole language used for administrative purposes as well as for higher education purposes. In 1946, the issue of national language was a bitterly contested subject in the proceedings of the Constituent Assembly of India, specifically what should be the language in which the Constitution of India is written and the language spoken during the proceedings of Parliament and thus deserving of the epithet "national". Members belonging to the northern parts of India insisted that the Constitution be drafted in Hindi with the unofficial translation in English. This was not agreed to by the drafting committee on the grounds that English was much better to craft the nuanced prose on constitutional subjects. The efforts to make Hindi the pre-eminent language were bitterly resisted by the members from those parts of India where Hindi was not spoken natively. Eventually, a compromise was reached not to include any mention of a national language. Instead, Hindi in Devanagari script was declared to be the official language of the union, but for "fifteen years from the commencement of the Constitution, the English Language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement." Article 343 (1) of the Constitution of India states "The Official Language of the Union government shall be Hindi in Devanagari script." Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, i.e. on 26 January 1965. As the date for changeover approached, however, there was much alarm in the non-Hindi-speaking areas of India, especially in Kerala, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal, Karnataka, Puducherry and Andhra Pradesh. Accordingly, Jawaharlal Nehru ensured the enactment of the Official Languages Act, 1963, which provided that English "may" still be used with Hindi for official purposes, even after 1965. The wording of the text proved unfortunate in that while Nehru understood that "may" meant shall, politicians championing the cause of Hindi thought it implied exactly the opposite. In the event, as 1965 approached, India's new Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri prepared to make Hindi paramount with effect from 26 January 1965. This led to widespread agitation, riots, self-immolations, and suicides in Tamil Nadu. The split of Congress politicians from the South from their party stance, the resignation of two Union ministers from the South, and the increasing threat to the country's unity forced Shastri to concede. As a result, the proposal was dropped, and the Act itself was amended in 1967 to provide that the use of English would not be ended until a resolution to that effect was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament. The Constitution of India does not give any language the status of national language. #### Hindi In the 2001 census, 422 million (422,048,642) people in India reported Hindi to be their native language. This figure not only included Hindi speakers of Hindustani, but also people who identify as native speakers of related languages who consider their speech to be a dialect of Hindi, the Hindi belt. Hindi (or Hindustani) is the native language of most people living in Delhi, Western Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, and Rajasthan. "Modern Standard Hindi", a standardised language is one of the official languages of the Union of India. In addition, it is one of only two languages used for business in Parliament. However, the Rajya Sabha now allows all 22 official languages on the Eighth Schedule to be spoken. Hindustani, evolved from *khari boli* (खड़ी बोली), a prominent tongue of Mughal times, which itself evolved from Apabhraṃśa, an intermediary transition stage from Prakrit, from which the major North Indian Indo-Aryan languages have evolved. Varieties of Hindi spoken in India include Rajasthani, Braj Bhasha, Haryanvi, Bundeli, Kannauji, Hindustani, Awadhi, Bagheli and Chhattisgarhi. By virtue of its being a *lingua franca*, Hindi has also developed regional dialects such as Bambaiya Hindi in Mumbai. In addition, a trade language, Andaman Creole Hindi has also developed in the Andaman Islands. In addition, by use in popular culture such as songs and films, Hindi also serves as a *lingua franca* across both North and Central India. Hindi is widely taught both as a primary language and language of instruction and as a second tongue in most states. #### English British colonialism in India resulted in English becoming a language for governance, business, and education. English, along with Hindi, is one of the two languages permitted in the Constitution of India for business in Parliament. Despite the fact that Hindi has official Government patronage and serves as a *lingua franca* over large parts of India, there was considerable opposition to the use of Hindi in the southern states of India, and English has emerged as a de facto *lingua franca* over much of India. Journalist Manu Joseph, in a 2011 article in *The New York Times*, wrote that due to the prominence and usage of the language and the desire for English-language education, "English is the de facto national language of India. It is a bitter truth." English language proficiency is highest among urban residents, wealthier Indians, Indians with higher levels of educational attainment, Christians, men and younger Indians. In 2017, more than 58 percent of rural teens could read basic English, and 53 percent of fourteen year-olds & sixty percent of 18-year-olds could read English sentences. ### Scheduled languages Until the Twenty-first Amendment of the Constitution of India in 1967, the country recognised 14 official regional languages. The Eighth Schedule and the Seventy-First Amendment provided for the inclusion of Sindhi, Konkani, Meitei and Nepali, thereby increasing the number of official regional languages of India to 18. The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, as of 1 December 2007, lists 22 languages, which are given in the table below together with the regions where they are used. | Language | Family | ISO 639 code | | --- | --- | --- | | **Assamese** | Indo-Aryan | as | | **Bengali (Bangla)** | Indo-Aryan | bn | | **Bodo** | Sino-Tibetan | brx | | **Dogri** | Indo-Aryan | doi | | **Gujarati** | Indo-Aryan | gu | | **Hindi** | Indo-Aryan | hi | | **Kannada** | Dravidian | kn | | **Kashmiri** | Indo-Aryan | ks | | **Konkani** | Indo-Aryan | gom | | **Maithili** | Indo-Aryan | mai | | **Malayalam** | Dravidian | ml | | **Meitei (Manipuri)** | Sino-Tibetan | mni | | **Marathi** | Indo-Aryan | mr | | **Nepali** | Indo-Aryan | ne | | **Odia** | Indo-Aryan | or | | **Punjabi** | Indo-Aryan | pa | | **Sanskrit** | Indo-Aryan | sa | | **Santali** | Austroasiatic | sat | | **Sindhi** | Indo-Aryan | sd | | **Tamil** | Dravidian | ta | | **Telugu** | Dravidian | te | | **Urdu** | Indo-Aryan | ur | The individual states, the borders of most of which are or were drawn on socio-linguistic lines, can legislate their own official languages, depending on their linguistic demographics. The official languages chosen reflect the predominant as well as politically significant languages spoken in that state. Certain states having a linguistically defined territory may have only the predominant language in that state as its official language, examples being Karnataka and Gujarat, which have Kannada and Gujarati as their sole official language respectively. Telangana, with a sizeable Urdu-speaking Muslim population, and Andhra Pradesh has two languages, Telugu and Urdu, as its official languages. Some states buck the trend by using minority languages as official languages. Jammu and Kashmir used to have Urdu, which is spoken by fewer than 1% of the population, as the sole official language until 2020. Meghalaya uses English spoken by 0.01% of the population. This phenomenon has turned majority languages into "minority languages" in a functional sense. **List of official languages of states of India** | No. | State | Official language(s) | Additional official language(s) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1. | Andhra Pradesh | Telugu, Urdu | English | | 2. | Arunachal Pradesh | English | | | 3. | Assam | Assamese, Bodo | Bengali in three districts of Barak Valley, | | 4. | Bihar | Hindi | Urdu | | 5. | Chhattisgarh | Hindi | Chhattisgarhi | | 6. | Goa | Konkani, English | Marathi | | 7. | Gujarat | Gujarati | Hindi | | 8. | Haryana | Hindi | English, Punjabi | | 9. | Himachal Pradesh | Hindi | Sanskrit | | 10. | Jharkhand | Hindi | Angika, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Bhumij, Ho, Kharia, Khortha, Kurmali, Kurukh, Magahi, Maithili, Mundari, Nagpuri, Odia, Santali, Urdu | | 11. | Karnataka | Kannada | English | | 12. | Kerala | Malayalam | English | | 13. | Madhya Pradesh | Hindi | | | 14. | Maharashtra | Marathi | | | 15. | Manipur | Manipuri | English | | 16. | Meghalaya | English | Khasi and Garo | | 17. | Mizoram | Mizo, English | | | 18. | Nagaland | English | | | 19. | Odisha | Odia | English | | 20. | Punjab | Punjabi | | | 21. | Rajasthan | Hindi | | | 22. | Sikkim | English, Nepali, Sikkimese, Lepcha | Gurung, Limbu, Magar, Mukhia, Newari, Rai, Sherpa and Tamang | | 23. | Tamil Nadu | Tamil | English | | 24. | Telangana | Telugu | Urdu | | 25. | Tripura | Bengali, English, Kokborok | | | 26. | Uttar Pradesh | Hindi | Urdu | | 27. | Uttarakhand | Hindi | Sanskrit | | 28. | West Bengal | Bengali, English | Nepali in Darjeeling and Kurseong sub-divisions; Urdu, Hindi, Odia, Santali, Punjabi, Kamtapuri, Rajbanshi, Kurmali, Kurukh and Telugu in blocks, divisions or districts with population greater than 10 percent | **Official languages of Union Territories** | No. | Union territory | Official language(s) | Additional official language(s) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1. | Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Hindi, English | | | 2. | Chandigarh | English | | | 3. | Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu | Hindi, English | Gujarati | | 4. | Delhi | Hindi, English | Urdu, Punjabi | | 5. | Lakshadweep | English, Hindi | | | 6. | Jammu and Kashmir | Kashmiri, Dogri, Hindi, Urdu, English | | | 7. | Ladakh | Hindi, English | | | 8. | Puducherry | Tamil, English, French | Telugu in Yanam, Malayalam in Mahe | In addition to states and union territories, India has autonomous administrative regions which may be permitted to select their own official language – a case in point being the Bodoland Territorial Council in Assam which has declared the Bodo language as official for the region, in addition to Assamese and English already in use. and Bengali in the Barak Valley, as its official languages. Prominent languages of India ---------------------------- ### Hindi In British India, English was the sole language used for administrative purposes as well as for higher education purposes. When India became independent in 1947, the Indian legislators had the challenge of choosing a language for official communication as well as for communication between different linguistic regions across India. The choices available were: * Making "Hindi", which a plurality of the people (41%) identified as their native language, the official language. * Making English, as preferred by non-Hindi speakers, particularly Kannadigas and Tamils, and those from Mizoram and Nagaland, the official language. *See also Anti-Hindi agitations*. * Declare both Hindi and English as official languages and each state is given freedom to choose the official language of the state. The Indian constitution, in 1950, declared Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official language of the union. Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, i.e. on 26 January 1965. The prospect of the changeover, however, led to much alarm in the non-Hindi-speaking areas of India, especially in South India whose native tongues are not related to Hindi. As a result, Parliament enacted the Official Languages Act in 1963, which provided for the continued use of English for official purposes along with Hindi, even after 1965. ### Bengali Native to the Bengal region, comprising the nation of Bangladesh and the states of West Bengal, Tripura and Barak Valley region of Assam. Bengali (also spelt as *Bangla*: বাংলা) is the sixth most spoken language in the world. After the partition of India (1947), refugees from East Pakistan were settled in Tripura, and Jharkhand and the union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. There is also a large number of Bengali-speaking people in Maharashtra and Gujarat where they work as artisans in jewellery industries. Bengali developed from Abahattha, a derivative of Apabhramsha, itself derived from Magadhi Prakrit. The modern Bengali vocabulary contains the vocabulary base from Magadhi Prakrit and Pali, also borrowings from Sanskrit and other major borrowings from Persian, Arabic, Austroasiatic languages and other languages in contact with. Like most Indian languages, Bengali has a number of dialects. It exhibits diglossia, with the literary and standard form differing greatly from the colloquial speech of the regions that identify with the language. Bengali language has developed a rich cultural base spanning art, music, literature, and religion. Bengali has some of the oldest literature of all modern Indo-Aryan languages, dating from about 10th to 12th century ('Chargapada' Buddhist songs). There have been many movements in defence of this language and in 1999 UNESCO declared 21 Feb as the International Mother Language Day in commemoration of the Bengali Language Movement in 1952. ### Assamese Asamiya or Assamese language is most popular in the state of Assam. It's an Eastern Indo-Aryan language with more than 23 million total speakers including more than 15 million native speakers and more than 7 million L2 speakers as per 2011 Census of India. Along with other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Assamese evolved at least before the 7th century CE from the middle Indo-Aryan Magadhi Prakrit. Assamese is unusual among Eastern Indo-Aryan languages for the presence of the /x/ (which, phonetically, varies between velar ([x]) and a uvular ([χ]) pronunciations). The first characteristics of this language are seen in the Charyapadas composed in between the eighth and twelfth centuries. The first examples emerged in writings of court poets in the fourteenth century, the finest example of which is Madhav Kandali's Saptakanda Ramayana composed during 14th century CE, which was the first translation of the Ramayana into an Indo-Aryan language. ### Marathi Marathi is an Indo-Aryan language. It is the official language and co-official language in Maharashtra and Goa states of Western India respectively, and is one of the official languages of India. There were 83 million speakers of the language in 2011. Marathi has the third-largest number of native speakers in India and ranks 10th in the list of most spoken languages in the world. Marathi has some of the oldest literature of all modern Indo-Aryan languages; Oldest stone inscriptions from 8th century & literature dating from about 1100 AD (Mukundraj's *Vivek Sindhu* dates to the 12th century). The major dialects of Marathi are Standard Marathi and the Varhadi dialect. There are other related languages such as Khandeshi, Dangi, Vadvali, Samavedi. Malvani Konkani has been heavily influenced by Marathi varieties. Marathi is one of several languages that descend from Maharashtri Prakrit. The further change led to the Apabhraṃśa languages like Old Marathi. Marathi Language Day (मराठी दिन/मराठी दिवस (transl. Marathi Dina/Marathi Diwasa) is celebrated on 27 February every year across the Indian states of Maharashtra and Goa. This day is regulated by the State Government. It is celebrated on the birthday of eminent Marathi Poet Vi. Va. Shirwadkar, popularly known as Kusumagraj. Marathi is the official language of Maharashtra and co-official language in the union territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu. In Goa, Konkani is the sole official language; however, Marathi may also be used for all official purposes. Over a period of many centuries the Marathi language and people came into contact with many other languages and dialects. The primary influence of Prakrit, Maharashtri, Apabhraṃśa and Sanskrit is understandable. Marathi has also been influenced by the Austroasiatic, Dravidian and foreign languages such as Persian and Arabic. Marathi contains loanwords from Persian, Arabic, English and a little from French and Portuguese. ### Meitei *Meitei language* (officially known as *Manipuri language*) is the most widely spoken Indian Sino-Tibetan language of Tibeto-Burman linguistic sub branch. It is the sole official language in Manipur and is one of the official languages of India. It is one of the two Sino-Tibetan languages with official status in India, beside Bodo. It has been recognized as one of the advanced modern languages of India by the National Sahitya Academy for its rich literature. It uses both Meitei script as well as Bengali script for writing. Meitei language is currently proposed to be included in the elite category of "Classical Languages" of India. Besides, it is also currently proposed to be an associate official language of Government of Assam. According to Leishemba Sanajaoba, the present titular king of Manipur and a Rajya Sabha member of Manipur state, by recognising Meitei as an *associate official language* of Assam, the identity, history, culture and tradition of Manipuris residing in Assam could be protected. Meitei Language Day (Manipuri Language Day) is celebrated on 20 August every year by the Manipuris across the Indian states of Manipur, Assam and Tripura. This day is regulated by the Government of Manipur. It is the commemoration of the day on which Meitei was included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India on the 20 August 1992. ### Telugu Telugu is the most widely spoken Dravidian language in India and around the world. Telugu is an official language in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Yanam, making it one of the few languages (along with Hindi, Bengali, and Urdu) with official status in more than one state. It is also spoken by a significant number of people in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and by the Sri Lankan Gypsy people. It is one of six languages with classical status in India. Telugu ranks fourth by the number of native speakers in India (81 million in the 2011 Census), fifteenth in the *Ethnologue* list of most-spoken languages worldwide and is the most widely spoken Dravidian language. ### Tamil Tamil is a Dravidian language predominantly spoken in Tamil Nadu, Puducherry and many parts of Sri Lanka. It is also spoken by large minorities in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius and throughout the world. Tamil ranks fifth by the number of native speakers in India (61 million in the 2001 Census) and ranks 20th in the list of most spoken languages. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and was the first Indian language to be declared a classical language by the Government of India in 2004. Tamil is one of the longest surviving classical languages in the world. It has been described as "the only language of contemporary India which is recognisably continuous with a classical past". The two earliest manuscripts from India, acknowledged and registered by UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005, are in Tamil. Tamil is an official language of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka and Singapore. It is also recognized as a minority language in Canada, Malaysia, Mauritius and South Africa. ### Urdu After independence, Modern Standard Urdu, the Persianised register of Hindustani became the national language of Pakistan. During British colonial times, knowledge of Hindustani or Urdu was a must for officials. Hindustani was made the second language of British Indian Empire after English and considered as the language of administration. The British introduced the use of Roman script for Hindustani as well as other languages. Urdu had 70 million speakers in India (as per the Census of 2001), and, along with Hindi, is one of the 22 officially recognised regional languages of India and also an official language in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Telangana that have significant Muslim populations. ### Gujarati Gujarati is an Indo-Aryan language. It is native to the west Indian region of Gujarat. Gujarati is part of the greater Indo-European language family. Gujarati is descended from Old Gujarati (c. 1100 – 1500 CE), the same source as that of Rajasthani. Gujarati is the chief and official language in the Indian state of Gujarat. It is also an official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. According to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 4.5% of population of India (1.21 billion according to 2011 census) speaks Gujarati. This amounts to 54.6 million speakers in India. ### Kannada Kannada is a Dravidian language which branched off from Kannada-Tamil sub group around 500 B.C.E according to the Dravidian scholar Zvelebil. It is the official language of Karnataka. According to the Dravidian scholars Steever and Krishnamurthy, the study of Kannada language is usually divided into three linguistic phases: Old (450–1200 CE), Middle (1200–1700 CE) and Modern (1700–present). The earliest written records are from the 5th century, and the earliest available literature in rich manuscript (*Kavirajamarga*) is from c. 850. Kannada language has the second oldest written tradition of all languages of India. Current estimates of the total number of epigraph present in Karnataka range from 25,000 by the scholar Sheldon Pollock to over 30,000 by the Sahitya Akademi, making Karnataka state "one of the most densely inscribed pieces of real estate in the world". According to Garg and Shipely, more than a thousand notable writers have contributed to the wealth of the language. ### Malayalam Malayalam (/mæləˈjɑːləm/; [ maləjaːɭəm]) has official language status in the state of Kerala and in the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry. It belongs to the Dravidian family of languages and is spoken by some 38 million people. Malayalam is also spoken in the neighboring states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka; with some speakers in the Nilgiris, Kanyakumari and Coimbatore districts of Tamil Nadu, and the Dakshina Kannada and the Kodagu district of Karnataka. Malayalam originated from Middle Tamil (Sen-Tamil) in the 7th century. As Malayalam began to freely borrow words as well as the rules of grammar from Sanskrit, the Grantha alphabet was adopted for writing and came to be known as *Arya Eluttu*. This developed into the modern Malayalam script. ### Odia Odia (formerly spelled *Oriya*) is the only modern language officially recognized as a classical language from the Indo-Aryan group. Odia is primarily spoken and has official language status in the Indian state of Odisha and has over 40 million speakers. It was declared as a classical language of India in 2014. Native speakers comprise 91.85% of the population in Odisha. Odia originated from Odra Prakrit which developed from Magadhi Prakrit, a language spoken in eastern India over 2,500 years ago. The history of Odia language can be divided to Old Odia (3rd century BC −1200 century AD), Early Middle Odia (1200–1400), Middle Odia (1400–1700), Late Middle Odia (1700–1870) and Modern Odia (1870 until present day). The National Manuscripts Mission of India have found around 213,000 unearthed and preserved manuscripts written in Odia. ### Santali Santali is a Munda languages, a branch of Austroasiatic languages spoken widely in Jharkhand and other states of eastern India by Santhal community of tribal and non-tribal. It is written in Ol Chiki script invented by Raghunath Murmu at the end of 19th century. Santali is spoken by 0.67% of India's population. About 7 million people speak this language. It is also spoken in Bangladesh and Nepal. The language is major tribal language of Jharkhand and thus Santhal community is demanding to make it as the official language of Jharkhand. ### Punjabi Punjabi, written in the Gurmukhi script in India, is one of the prominent languages of India with about 32 million speakers. In Pakistan it is spoken by over 80 million people and is written in the Shahmukhi alphabet. It is mainly spoken in Punjab but also in neighboring areas. It is an official language of Delhi and Punjab. ### Maithili Maithili (/ˈmaɪtɪli/; *Maithilī*) is an Indo-Aryan language native to India and Nepal. In India, it is widely spoken in the Bihar and Jharkhand states. Native speakers are also found in other states and union territories of India, most notably in Uttar Pradesh and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. In the 2011 census of India, It was reported by 13,583,464 people as their mother tongue comprising about 1.12% of the total population of India. In Nepal, it is spoken in the eastern Terai, and is the second most prevalent language of Nepal. Tirhuta was formerly the primary script for written Maithili. Less commonly, it was also written in the local variant of Kaithi. Today it is written in the Devanagari script. In 2003, Maithili was included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution as a recognised regional language of India, which allows it to be used in education, government, and other official contexts. Classical languages of India ---------------------------- In 2004, the Government of India declared that languages that met certain requirements could be accorded the status of a "Classical Language" of India. Languages thus far declared to be Classical: * Tamil (in 2004), * Sanskrit (in 2005), * Kannada (in 2008), * Telugu (in 2008), * Malayalam (in 2013), * Odia (in 2014). Over the next few years, several languages were granted the Classical status, and demands have been made for other languages, including Pali, Bengali, Marathi, Maithili and Meitei (officially called Manipuri). Other regional languages and dialects ------------------------------------- The 2001 census identified the following native languages having more than one million speakers. Most of them are dialects/variants grouped under Hindi. | Languages | No. of native speakers | | --- | --- | | Bhojpuri | 33,099,497 | | Rajasthani | 18,355,613 | | Magadhi/Magahi | 13,978,565 | | Chhattisgarhi | 13,260,186 | | Haryanvi | 7,997,192 | | Marwari | 7,936,183 | | Malvi | 5,565,167 | | Mewari | 5,091,697 | | Khorth/Khotta | 4,725,927 | | Bundeli | 3,072,147 | | Bagheli | 2,865,011 | | Pahari | 2,832,825 | | Laman/Lambadi | 2,707,562 | | Awadhi | 2,529,308 | | Harauti | 2,462,867 | | Garhwali | 2,267,314 | | Nimadi | 2,148,146 | | Sadan/Sadri | 2,044,776 | | Kumauni | 2,003,783 | | Dhundhari | 1,871,130 | | Tulu | 1,722,768 | | Surgujia | 1,458,533 | | Bagri Rajasthani | 1,434,123 | | Banjari | 1,259,821 | | Nagpuria | 1,242,586 | | Surajpuri | 1,217,019 | | Kangri | 1,122,843 | ### Practical problems India has several languages in use; choosing any single language as an official language presents problems to all those whose "mother tongue" is different. However, all the boards of education across India recognise the need for training people to one common language. There are complaints that in North India, non-Hindi speakers have language trouble. Similarly, there are complaints that North Indians have to undergo difficulties on account of language when travelling to South India. It is common to hear of incidents that result due to friction between those who strongly believe in the chosen official language, and those who follow the thought that the chosen language(s) do not take into account everyone's preferences. Local official language commissions have been established and various steps are being taken in a direction to reduce tensions and friction. Language policy --------------- The Union Government of India formulated the Three language formula. ### In the Prime Minister's Office The official website of the Prime Minister's Office of India publishes its official information in 11 Indian official languages, namely Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Meitei (Manipuri), Marathi, Odia, Punjabi, Tamil and Telugu, out of the 22 official languages of the Indian Republic, in addition to English and Hindi. ### In the Press Information Bureau The Press Information Bureau (PIB) selects 14 Indian official languages, which are Dogri, Punjabi, Bengali, Oriya, Gujarati, Marathi, Meitei (Manipuri), Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, Konkani and Urdu, in addition to Hindi and English, out of the 22 official languages of the Indian Republic to render its information about all the Central Government press releases. ### In the Staff Selection Commission The Staff Selection Commission (SSC) selected 13 Indian official languages, which are Urdu, Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Kannada, Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Konkani, Meitei (Manipuri), Marathi, Odia and Punjabi, in addition to Hindi and English, out of the 22 official languages of the Indian Republic, to conduct the Multi-Tasking (Non-Technical) Staff examination for the first time in its history. ### In the Central Armed Police Forces The Union Government of India selected Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Malayalam, Meitei (Manipuri), Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, Odia, Urdu, Punjabi, and Konkani, 13 out of the 22 official languages of the Indian Republic, in addition to Hindi & English, to be used in the recruitment examination of the Central Armed Police Forces (CAPF). The decision was taken by the Home Minister after having an agreement between the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Staff Selection Commission. The official decision will be converted into action from 1 January 2024; 6 months' time (2024-01-01). Language conflicts ------------------ There are conflicts over linguistic rights in India. The first major linguistic conflict, known as the Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu, took place in Tamil Nadu against the implementation of Hindi as the official language of India. Political analysts consider this as a major factor in bringing DMK to power and leading to the ousting and nearly total elimination of the Congress party in Tamil Nadu. Strong cultural pride based on language is also found in other Indian states such as Assam, Odisha, Karnataka, West Bengal, Punjab and Maharashtra. To express disapproval of the imposition of Hindi on its states' people as a result of the central government, the government of Maharashtra made the state language Marathi mandatory in educational institutions of CBSE and ICSE through Class/Grade 10. The Government of India attempts to assuage these conflicts with various campaigns, coordinated by the Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore, a branch of the Department of Higher Education, Language Bureau, and the Ministry of Human Resource Development.[*clarification needed*] Linguistic movements -------------------- In the history of India, various linguistic movements were and are undertaken by different literary, political and social associations as well as organisations, advocating for the changes and the developments of several languages, dialects and vernaculars in diverse critical, discriminative and unfavorable circumstances and situations. ### Bengali * Bengali language movement in India ### Meitei (Manipuri) * Meitei language movements (aka Manipuri language movements), various linguistic movements for the cause of Meitei language (officially called Manipuri language) + Meitei linguistic purism movement, an ongoing linguistic movement, aimed to attain linguistic purism in Meitei language + Scheduled language movement, a historical linguistic movement in Northeast India, aimed at the recognition of Meitei language as one of the scheduled languages of Indian Republic + Meitei classical language movement, an ongoing linguistic movement in Northeast India, aimed at the recognition of Meitei language as an officially recognized "classical language" + Meitei associate official language movement, a semi active linguistic movement in Northeast India, aimed at the recognition of Meitei language as an "associate" official language of Assam ### Rajasthani * Rajasthani language movement, a linguistic movement that has been campaigning for greater recognition for the Rajasthani language since 1947 ### Tamil * Tanittamil Iyakkam (Pure Tamil Movement), a linguistic purism movement for the Tamil language, to ignore the loanwords borrowed from Sanskrit Developmental works ------------------- In the age of technological advancements, the Google Translate supports the following Indian languages: Bengali, Bhojpuri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Meiteilon (Manipuri) (in Meitei script), Odia, Punjabi (in Gurmukhi script), Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu. ### Meitei (Manipuri) On the 4 September 2013, the Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation was established for the development and the promotion of Meitei language (officially called Manipuri language) and the Meitei script (Manipuri script) in Manipur. In September 2021, the Central Government of India released ₹180 million (US$2.3 million) as the first instalment for the development and the promotion of the Meitei language (officially called Manipuri language) and the Meitei script (Manipuri script) in Manipur. ### Sanskrit The Central Government of India allocated ₹6438.4 million in the last three years for the development and the promotion of Sanskrit, ₹2311.5 million in 2019–20, around ₹2143.8 million in 2018–19, and ₹1983.1 million in 2017–18. ### Tamil The Central Government of India gave an allocation of Rs 105.9 million in 2017–18, Rs 46.5 million in 2018–19 and Rs 77 million in 2019–20 to the "Central Institute of Classical Tamil" for the development and the promotion of Tamil language. ### Telugu and Kannada The Central Government of India gave an allocation of Rs 10 million in 2017–18, Rs 9.9 million in 2018–19 and Rs 10.7 million in 2019–20, each for the development and the promotion of Telugu language and Kannada language. Writing systems --------------- | Part of a series on | | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | Officially used writing systems in India | | Category | | Indic scripts | | Bengali-Assamese script  **·** Devanagari script Gujarati script  **·** Gurmukhi script  **·** Kannada script Malayalam script  **·** Meitei script  **·** Odia script Tamil script  **·** Telugu script | | Arabic derived scripts | | Perso-Arabic script  **·** Urdu script | | Alphabetical scripts | | Ol Chiki script  **·** Latin script | | Related | | Official scripts of the Indian Republic Writing systems of India Languages of India | | icon Asia portal flag India portal icon Language portal icon Writing portal | Most languages in India are written in scripts derived from Brahmi. These include Devanagari, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Meitei Mayek, Odia, Eastern Nagari – Assamese/Bengali, Gurumukhi and other. Urdu is written in a script derived from Arabic. A few minor languages such as Santali use independent scripts (see Ol Chiki script). Various Indian languages have their own scripts. Hindi, Marathi, Maithili and Angika are languages written using the Devanagari script. Most major languages are written using a script specific to them, such as Assamese (Asamiya) with Asamiya, Bengali with Bengali, Punjabi with Gurmukhi, Meitei with Meitei Mayek, Odia with Odia script, Gujarati with Gujarati, etc. Urdu and Kashmiri, Saraiki and Sindhi are written in modified versions of the Perso-Arabic script. With this one exception, the scripts of Indian languages are native to India. Languages like Kodava that didn't have a script whereas Tulu which had a script adopted Kannada due to its readily available printing settings; these languages have taken up the scripts of the local official languages as their own and are written in the Kannada script. * A Meitei language stone inscription in Meitei script about a royal decree of a Meitei king found in the sacred site of God Panam Ningthou in Andro, Imphal East, ManipurA Meitei language stone inscription in Meitei script about a royal decree of a Meitei king found in the sacred site of God Panam Ningthou in Andro, Imphal East, Manipur * Development of Odia scriptDevelopment of Odia script * Tamil-Brahmi inscription in JambaimalaiTamil-Brahmi inscription in Jambaimalai * Silver coin issued during the reign of Rudra Singha with Assamese inscriptionsSilver coin issued during the reign of Rudra Singha with Assamese inscriptions * North Indian Brahmi found in Ashok pillarNorth Indian Brahmi found in Ashok pillar * The Halmidi inscription, the oldest known inscription in the Kannada script and language. The inscription is dated to the 450 CE - 500 CE period.The Halmidi inscription, the oldest known inscription in the Kannada script and language. The inscription is dated to the 450 CE - 500 CE period. * An early Telugu inscription found in the Krishna district of Andhra PradeshAn early Telugu inscription found in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh See also -------- * Caribbean Hindustani * Fiji Hindi * Indo-Portuguese creoles * Languages of Bangladesh * Languages of Bhutan * Languages of China * Languages of Fiji * Languages of Guyana * Languages of Malaysia * Languages of Maldives * Languages of Mauritius * Languages of Myanmar * Languages of Nepal * Languages of Pakistan * Languages of Réunion * Languages of Singapore * Languages of Sri Lanka * Languages of Trinidad and Tobago * List of endangered languages in India * List of languages by number of native speakers in India * National Translation Mission * Romanisation of Sindhi * Tamil diaspora * Telugu diaspora 1. ↑ Although linguistically Hindi and Urdu are the same language called Hindustani, the government classifies them as separate languages instead of different standard registers of same language.

Languages of India

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_India

The **Hasmonean dynasty** (/ˌhæzməˈniːən/; Hebrew: חַשְׁמוֹנָאִים‎ *Ḥašmōnaʾīm*) was a ruling dynasty of Judea and surrounding regions during classical antiquity, from c. 140 BCE to 37 BCE. Between c. 140 and c. 116 BCE the dynasty ruled Judea semi-autonomously in the Seleucid Empire, and from roughly 110 BCE, with the empire disintegrating, Judea gained further autonomy and expanded into the neighboring regions of Perea, Samaria, Idumea, Galilee, and Iturea. The Hasmonean rulers took the Greek title *basileus* ("king" or "emperor"). Forces of the Roman Republic conquered the Hasmonean kingdom in 63 BCE and made it into a client state; Herod the Great displaced the last reigning Hasmonean client-ruler in 37 BCE. Simon Thassi established the dynasty in 141 BCE, two decades after his brother Judas Maccabeus (יהודה המכבי *Yehudah HaMakabi*) had defeated the Seleucid army during the Maccabean Revolt of 167 to 141 BCE. According to 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, and the first book of *The Jewish War* by historian Flavius Josephus (37 CE–c. 100), the Seleucid Emperor Antiochus IV (r. 175–164) moved to assert strict control over the Seleucid satrapy of Coele Syria and Phoenicia after his successful invasion of Ptolemaic Egypt (170–168 BCE) was turned back by the intervention of the Roman Republic. He sacked Jerusalem and its Temple, suppressing Jewish and Samaritan religious and cultural observances, and imposed Hellenistic practices (c. 168–167 BCE). The steady collapse of the Seleucid Empire under attacks from the rising powers of the Roman Republic and the Parthian Empire allowed Judea to regain some autonomy; however, in 63 BCE, the kingdom was invaded by the Roman Republic, broken up and set up as a Roman client state. Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, Simon's great-grandsons, became pawns in a proxy war between Julius Caesar and Pompey. The deaths of Pompey (48 BCE) and Caesar (44 BCE), and the related Roman civil wars, temporarily relaxed Rome's grip on the Hasmonean kingdom, allowing a brief reassertion of autonomy backed by the Parthian Empire, rapidly crushed by the Romans under Mark Antony and Augustus. The Hasmonean dynasty had survived for 103 years before yielding to the Herodian dynasty in 37 BCE. The installation of Herod the Great (an Idumean) as king in 37 BCE made Judea a Roman client state and marked the end of the Hasmonean dynasty. Even then, Herod tried to bolster the legitimacy of his reign by marrying a Hasmonean princess, Mariamne, and planning to drown the last male Hasmonean heir at his Jericho palace. In 6 CE, Rome joined Judea proper, Samaria and Idumea into the Roman province of Judaea. In 44 CE, Rome installed the rule of a procurator side by side with the rule of the Herodian kings (specifically Agrippa I 41–44 and Agrippa II 50–100). Etymology --------- The family name of the Hasmonean dynasty originates with the ancestor of the house, whom Josephus Flavius called by the Hellenised form Asmoneus or Asamoneus (Greek: Ἀσαμωναῖος), said to have been the great-grandfather of Mattathias, but about whom nothing more is known. The name appears to come from the Hebrew name *Hashmonay* (חַשְׁמוֹנַאי *Ḥašmōnaʾy*). An alternative view posits that the Hebrew name *Hashmona'i* is linked with the village of Heshmon, mentioned in Joshua 15:27. Gott and Licht attribute the name to "Ha Simeon," a veiled reference to the Simeonite Tribe. Background ---------- The lands of the former Kingdom of Israel and Kingdom of Judah (c. 722–586 BCE), had been occupied in turn by Assyria, Babylonia, the Achaemenid Empire, and Alexander the Great's Hellenic Macedonian empire (c. 330 BCE), although Jewish religious practice and culture had persisted and even flourished during certain periods. The entire region was heavily contested between the successor states of Alexander's empire, the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemaic Egypt, during the six Syrian Wars of the 3rd–1st centuries BCE: "After two centuries of peace under the Persians, the Hebrew state found itself once more caught in the middle of power struggles between two great empires: the Seleucid state with its capital in Syria to the north and the Ptolemaic state, with its capital in Egypt to the south...Between 319 and 302 BC, Jerusalem changed hands seven times." Under Antiochus III, the Seleucids wrested control of Judea from the Ptolemies for the final time, defeating Ptolemy V Epiphanes at the Battle of Panium in 200 BCE. Seleucid rule over the Jewish parts of the region then resulted in the rise of Hellenistic cultural and religious practices: "In addition to the turmoil of war, there arose in the Jewish nation pro-Seleucid and pro-Ptolemaic parties; and the schism exercised great influence upon the Judaism of the time. It was in Antioch that the Jews first made the acquaintance of Hellenism and of the more corrupt sides of Greek culture; and it was from Antioch that Judea henceforth was ruled." Historical sources ------------------ The major source of information about the origin of the Hasmonean dynasty is the books 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees, held as canonical scripture by the Catholic, Orthodox, and most Oriental Orthodox churches and as apocryphal by Protestant denominations, although they do not comprise the canonical books of the Hebrew Bible. The books cover the period from 175 BCE to 134 BCE during which time the Hasmonean dynasty became semi-independent from the Seleucid empire but had not yet expanded far outside of Judea. They are written from the point of view that the salvation of the Jewish people in a crisis came from God through the family of Mattathias, particularly his sons Judas Maccabeus, Jonathan Apphus, and Simon Thassi, and his grandson John Hyrcanus. The books include historical and religious material from the Septuagint that was codified by Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians. The other primary source for the Hasmonean dynasty is the first book of *The Wars of the Jews* and a more detailed history in *Antiquities of the Jews* by the Jewish historian Josephus, (37–c. 100 CE). Josephus' account is the only primary source covering the history of the Hasmonean dynasty during the period of its expansion and independence between 110 and 63 BCE. Notably, Josephus, a Roman citizen and former general in the Galilee, who survived the Jewish–Roman wars of the 1st century, was a Jew who was captured by and cooperated with the Romans, and wrote his books under Roman patronage. Seleucid rule over Judea ------------------------ ### Hellenisation The continuing Hellenization of Judea pitted traditional Jews against those who eagerly Hellenized. The latter felt that the former's orthodoxy held them back. Jews were divided both between those favoring Hellenization and those opposing it and over allegiance to the Ptolemies or Seleucids. In 175 BCE, conflict broke out between High Priest Onias III (who opposed Hellenisation and favoured the Ptolemies) and his brother Jason (who favoured Hellenisation and the Seleucids). A period of political intrigue followed, with both Jason and Menelaus bribing the king to win the High Priesthood, and accusations of murder of competing contenders for the title. The result was a brief civil war. The Tobiads, a philo-Hellenistic party, succeeded in placing Jason into the powerful position of High Priest. He established an arena for public games close by the Temple. Author Lee I. Levine notes, "The 'piece de resistance' of Judaean Hellenisation, and the most dramatic of all these developments, occurred in 175 BCE, when the high priest Jason converted Jerusalem into a Greek polis replete with gymnasium and ephebeion (2 Maccabees 4). Whether this step represents the culmination of a 150-year process of Hellenisation within Jerusalem in general, or whether it was only the initiative of a small coterie of Jerusalem priests with no wider ramifications, has been debated for decades." Hellenised Jews are known to have engaged in non-surgical foreskin restoration (epispasm) in order to join the dominant Hellenistic cultural practice of socialising naked in the gymnasium, where their circumcision would have carried a social stigma; Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman culture found circumcision to be a cruel, barbaric and repulsive custom. ### Antiochus IV against Jerusalem In spring 168 BCE, after successfully invading the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt, Antiochus IV was humiliatingly pressured by the Romans to withdraw. According to the Roman historian Livy, the Roman senate dispatched the diplomat Gaius Popilius to Egypt who demanded Antiochus to withdraw. When Antiochus requested time to discuss the matter Popilius "drew a circle round the king with the stick he was carrying and said, 'Before you step out of that circle give me a reply to lay before the senate.'" While Antiochus was campaigning in Egypt, a rumor spread in Judah that he had been killed. The deposed high priest Jason took advantage of the situation, attacked Jerusalem, and drove away Menelaus and his followers. Menelaus took refuge in Akra, the Seleucids fortress in Jerusalem. When Antiochus heard of this, he sent an army to Jerusalem to sort things out. Jerusalem was taken, Jason and his followers were driven out, and Menelaus reinstated as high priest. He then imposed a tax and established a fortress in Jerusalem. Antiochus tried to suppress public observance of Jewish laws, apparently in an attempt to secure control over the Jews. His government set up an idol of Zeus on the Temple Mount, which Jews considered to be desecration of the Mount; it also forbade both circumcision and possession of Jewish scriptures, on pain of death. According to Josephus, > "Now Antiochus was not satisfied either with his unexpected taking the city, or with its pillage, or with the great slaughter he had made there; but being overcome with his violent passions, and remembering what he had suffered during the siege, he compelled the Jews to dissolve the laws of their country, and to keep their infants uncircumcised, and to sacrifice swine's flesh upon the altar." > > He also outlawed observance of the Sabbath and the offering of sacrifices at the Jerusalem Temple and required Jewish leaders to sacrifice to idols; punitive executions were also instituted. Possession of Jewish scriptures was made a capital offence. The motives of Antiochus are unclear. He may have been incensed at the overthrow of his appointee, Menelaus, he may have been responding to a Jewish revolt that had drawn on the Temple and the Torah for its strength, or he may have been encouraged by a group of radical Hellenisers among the Jews. ### Maccabean Revolt The author of the First Book of Maccabees regarded the Maccabean revolt as a rising of pious Jews against the Seleucid king who had tried to eradicate their religion and against the Jews who supported him. The author of the Second Book of Maccabees presented the conflict as a struggle between "Judaism" and "Hellenism", words that he was the first to use. Modern scholarship tends to the second view. Most modern scholars argue that the king was intervening in a civil war between traditionalist Jews in the countryside and Hellenised Jews in Jerusalem. According to Joseph P. Schultz, modern scholarship, "considers the Maccabean revolt less as an uprising against foreign oppression than as a civil war between the orthodox and reformist parties in the Jewish camp." In the conflict over the office of High Priest, traditionalists with Hebrew/Aramaic names like Onias contested against Hellenisers with Greek names like Jason or Menelaus. Other authors point to social and economic factors in the conflict. What began as a civil war took on the character of an invasion when the Hellenistic kingdom of Syria sided with the Hellenising Jews against the traditionalists. As the conflict escalated, Antiochus prohibited the practices of the traditionalists, thereby, in a departure from usual Seleucid practice, banning the religion of an entire people. Other scholars argue that while the rising began as a religious rebellion, it was gradually transformed into a war of national liberation. > > The two greatest twentieth-century scholars of the Maccabean revolt, Elias Bickermann and Victor Tcherikover, each placed the blame on the policies of the Jewish leaders and not on the Seleucid ruler, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, but for different reasons. > Bickermann saw the origin of the problem in the attempt of "Hellenised" Jews to reform the "antiquated" and "outdated" religion practised in Jerusalem, and to rid it of superstitious elements. They were the ones who egged on Antiochus IV and instituted the religious reform in Jerusalem. One suspects that [Bickermann] may have been influenced in his view by an antipathy to Reform Judaism in 19th- and 20th-century Germany. Tcherikover, perhaps influenced by socialist concerns, saw the uprising as one of the rural peasants against the rich elite. > > According to I and II Maccabees, the priestly family of Mattathias (Mattitiyahu in Hebrew), which came to be known as the *Maccabees*, called the people forth to holy war against the Seleucids. Mattathias' sons Judas (Yehuda), Jonathan (Yonoson/Yonatan), and Simon (Shimon) began a military campaign, initially with disastrous results: one thousand Jewish men, women, and children were killed by Seleucid troops because they refused to fight, even in self-defence, on the Sabbath. Other Jews then reasoned that they must fight when attacked, even on the Sabbath. The institution of guerrilla warfare practices by Judah over several years led to victory against the Seleucids: > It was now, in the fall of 165, that Judah's successes began to disturb the central government. He appears to have controlled the road from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and thus to have cut off the royal party in Acra from direct communication with the sea and thus with the government. It is significant that this time the Syrian troops, under the leadership of the governor-general Lysias, took the southerly route, by way of Idumea. > > Towards the end of 164, Judah felt strong enough to enter Jerusalem and the formal religious worship of Yahweh was re-established. The feast of Hanukkah was instituted to commemorate the recovery of the temple. Antiochus, who was away on a campaign against the Parthians, died at about the same time in Persis. Antiochus was succeeded by Demetrius I Soter, the nephew whose throne he had usurped. Demetrius sent the general Bacchides to Israel with a large army, in order to install Alcimus with the office of high priest. Bacchides subdued Jerusalem and returned to his King. From revolt to independence --------------------------- ### Judah and Jonathan After five years of war and raids, Judah sought an alliance with the Roman Republic to remove the Greeks: "In the year 161 BCE he sent Eupolemus the son of Johanan and Jason the son of Eleazar, 'to make a league of amity and confederacy with the Romans.'" A Seleucid army under General Nicanor was defeated by Judah (ib. 7:26–50) at the Battle of Adasa, with Nicanor himself killed in action. Next, Bacchides was sent with Alcimus and an army of twenty thousand infantry and two thousand cavalry, and met Judah at the Battle of Elasa (Laisa), where this time it was the Hasmonean commander who was killed. (161/160 BCE). Bacchides now established the Hellenes as rulers in Israel; and upon Judah's death, the persecuted patriots, under Jonathan, brother of Judah, fled beyond the Jordan River. (ib. 9:25–27) They set camp near a morass by the name of Asphar, and remained, after several engagements with the Seleucids, in the swamp in the country east of the Jordan. Following the death of his puppet governor Alcimus, High Priest of Jerusalem, Bacchides felt secure enough to leave the country, but two years after the departure of Bacchides from Israel, the City of Acre felt sufficiently threatened by Maccabee incursions to contact Demetrius and request the return of Bacchides to their territory. Jonathan and Simeon, now more experienced in guerrilla warfare, thought it well to retreat farther, and accordingly fortified in the desert a place called Beth-hogla; there they were besieged several days by Bacchides. Jonathan offered the rival general a peace treaty and exchange of prisoners of war. Bacchides readily consented and even took an oath of nevermore making war upon Jonathan. He and his forces then vacated Israel. The victorious Jonathan now took up his residence in the old city of Michmash. From there he endeavoured to clear the land of "the godless and the apostate". The chief source, 1 Maccabees, says that with this "the sword ceased in Israel", and in fact nothing is reported for the five following years (158–153 BCE). ### Seleucid civil conflict An important external event brought the design of the Maccabeans to fruition. Demetrius I Soter's relations with Attalus II Philadelphus of Pergamon (reigned 159–138 BCE), Ptolemy VI of Egypt (reigned 163–145 BCE), and Ptolemy's co-ruler Cleopatra II of Egypt were deteriorating, and they supported a rival claimant to the Seleucid throne: Alexander Balas, who purported to be the son of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and a first cousin of Demetrius. Demetrius was forced to recall the garrisons of Judea, except those in the City of Acre and at Beth-zur, to bolster his strength. Furthermore, he made a bid for the loyalty of Jonathan, permitting him to recruit an army and to reclaim the hostages kept in the City of Acre. Jonathan gladly accepted these terms, took up residence at Jerusalem in 153 BCE, and began fortifying the city. Alexander Balas offered Jonathan even more favourable terms, including official appointment as High Priest in Jerusalem, and despite a second letter from Demetrius promising prerogatives that were almost impossible to guarantee, Jonathan declared allegiance to Balas. Jonathan became the official religious leader of his people, and officiated at the Feast of Tabernacles of 153 BCE wearing the High Priest's garments. The Hellenistic party could no longer attack him without severe consequences. Hasmoneans held the office of High Priest continuously until 37 BCE. Soon, Demetrius lost both his throne and his life, in 150 BCE. The victorious Alexander Balas was given the further honour of marriage to Cleopatra Thea, daughter of his allies Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II. Jonathan was invited to Ptolemais for the ceremony, appearing with presents for both kings, and was permitted to sit between them as their equal; Balas even clothed him with his own royal garment and otherwise accorded him high honour. Balas appointed Jonathan as strategos and "meridarch" (i.e., civil governor of a province; details not found in Josephus), sent him back with honours to Jerusalem, and refused to listen to the Hellenistic party's complaints against Jonathan. #### Hasmoneans under Balas and Demetrius II In 147 BCE, Demetrius II Nicator, a son of Demetrius I Soter, claimed Balas' throne. The governor of Coele-Syria, Apollonius Taos, used the opportunity to challenge Jonathan to battle, saying that the Jews might for once leave the mountains and venture out into the plain. Jonathan and Simeon led a force of 10,000 men against Apollonius' forces in Jaffa, which was unprepared for the rapid attack and opened the gates in surrender to the Jewish forces. Apollonius received reinforcements from Azotus and appeared in the plain in charge of 3,000 men including superior cavalry forces. Jonathan assaulted, captured and burned Azotus along with the resident temple of Dagon and the surrounding villages. Alexander Balas honoured the victorious High Priest by giving him the city of Ekron along with its outlying territory. The people of Azotus complained to King Ptolemy VI, who had come to make war upon his son-in-law, but Jonathan met Ptolemy at Jaffa in peace and accompanied him as far as the River Eleutherus. Jonathan then returned to Jerusalem, maintaining peace with the King of Egypt despite their support for different contenders for the Seleucid throne. #### Hasmoneans under Demetrius and Diodotus In 145 BCE, the Battle of Antioch resulted in the final defeat of Alexander Balas by the forces of his father-in-law Ptolemy VI. Ptolemy himself, however, was among the casualties of the battle. Demetrius II Nicator remained sole ruler of the Seleucid Empire and became the second husband of Cleopatra Thea. Jonathan owed no allegiance to the new King and took this opportunity to lay siege to the Acra, the Seleucid fortress in Jerusalem and the symbol of Seleucid control over Judea. It was heavily garrisoned by a Seleucid force and offered asylum to Jewish Hellenists. Demetrius was greatly incensed; he appeared with an army at Ptolemais and ordered Jonathan to come before him. Without raising the siege, Jonathan, accompanied by the elders and priests, went to the king and pacified him with presents, so that the king not only confirmed him in his office of high priest, but gave to him the three Samaritan toparchies of Mount Ephraim, Lod, and Ramathaim-Zophim. In consideration of a present of 300 talents the entire country was exempted from taxes, the exemption being confirmed in writing. Jonathan in return lifted the siege of the Acra and left it in Seleucid hands. Soon, however, a new claimant to the Seleucid throne appeared in the person of the young Antiochus VI Dionysus, son of Alexander Balas and Cleopatra Thea. He was three years old at most, but general Diodotus Tryphon used him to advance his own designs on the throne. In the face of this new enemy, Demetrius not only promised to withdraw the garrison from the City of Acre, but also called Jonathan his ally and requested him to send troops. The 3,000 men of Jonathan protected Demetrius in his capital, Antioch, against his own subjects. As Demetrius II did not keep his promise, Jonathan thought it better to support the new king when Diodotus Tryphon and Antiochus VI seized the capital, especially as the latter confirmed all his rights and appointed his brother Simon (Simeon) strategos of the Paralia (the sea coast), from the "Ladder of Tyre" to the frontier of Egypt. Jonathan and Simon were now entitled to make conquests; Ashkelon submitted voluntarily while Gaza was forcibly taken. Jonathan vanquished even the strategoi of Demetrius II far to the north, in the plain of Hazar, while Simon at the same time took the strong fortress of Beth-zur on the pretext that it harboured supporters of Demetrius. Like Judah in former years, Jonathan sought alliances with foreign peoples. He renewed the treaty with the Roman Republic and exchanged friendly messages with Sparta and other places. However, the documents referring to those diplomatic events are of questionable authenticity. Diodotus Tryphon went with an army to Judea and invited Jonathan to Scythopolis for a friendly conference, where he persuaded him to dismiss his army of 40,000 men, promising to give him Ptolemais and other fortresses. Jonathan fell into the trap; he took with him to Ptolemais 1,000 men, all of whom were slain; he himself was taken prisoner. ### Simon assumes leadership When Diodotus Tryphon was about to enter Judea at Hadid, he was confronted by the new Jewish leader, Simon, ready for battle. Tryphon, avoiding an engagement, demanded one hundred talents and Jonathan's two sons as hostages, in return for which he promised to liberate Jonathan. Although Simon did not trust Diodotus Tryphon, he complied with the request so that he might not be accused of the death of his brother. But Diodotus Tryphon did not liberate his prisoner; angry that Simon blocked his way everywhere and that he could accomplish nothing, he executed Jonathan at Baskama, in the country east of the Jordan. Jonathan was buried by Simeon at Modin. Nothing is known of his two captive sons. One of his daughters was an ancestor of Josephus. Simon assumed the leadership (142 BCE), receiving the double office of High Priest and Ethnarch (Prince) of Israel. The leadership of the Hasmoneans was established by a resolution, adopted in 141 BCE, at a large assembly "of the priests and the people and of the elders of the land, to the effect that Simon should be their leader and High Priest forever, until there should arise a faithful prophet" (1 Macc. 14:41). Ironically, the election was performed in Hellenistic fashion. Simon, having made the Jewish people semi-independent of the Seleucid Greeks, reigned from 142 to 135 BCE and formed the Hasmonean dynasty, finally capturing the citadel [Acra] in 141 BCE. The Roman Senate accorded the new dynasty recognition c. 139 BCE, when the delegation of Simon was in Rome. Simon led the people in peace and prosperity, until in February 135 BCE, he was assassinated at the instigation of his son-in-law Ptolemy, son of Abubus (also spelled Abobus or Abobi), who had been named governor of the region by the Seleucids. Simon's eldest sons, Mattathias and Judah, were also murdered. Hasmonean expansion and civil war --------------------------------- After achieving semi-independency from the Seleucid Empire, the dynasty began to expand into the neighboring regions. Perea was conquered already by Jonathan Apphus, subsequently John Hyrcanus conquered Samaria and Idumea, Aristobulus I conquered the territory of Galilee, and Alexander Jannaeus conquered the territory of Iturea. In addition to territorial conquests, the Hasmonean rulers, initially reigning only as rebel leaders, gradually assumed the religious office of High Priest during the reign of Jonathan Apphus in 152 BCE and the monarchical title of Ethnarch during the reign of Simon Thassi in 142 BCE, eventually assuming the title of King (basileus) in 104 BCE by Aristobulus I. In c. 135 BCE, John Hyrcanus, Simon's third son, assumed the leadership as both the High Priest (Kohen Gadol) and Ethnarch, taking a Greek "regnal name" (see Hyrcania) in an acceptance of the Hellenistic culture of his Seleucid suzerains. Within a year of the death of Simon, Seleucid King Antiochus VII Sidetes attacked Jerusalem. According to Josephus, John Hyrcanus opened King David's sepulchre and removed three thousand talents which he paid as tribute to spare the city. He remained governor as a Seleucid vassal. For the next two decades of his reign, Hyrcanus continued, like his father, to rule semi-autonomously from the Seleucids. The Seleucid empire had been disintegrating in the face of the Seleucid–Parthian wars and in 129 BCE Antiochus VII Sidetes was killed in Media by the forces of Phraates II of Parthia, permanently ending Seleucid rule east of the Euphrates. In 116 BCE, a civil war between Seleucid half-brothers Antiochus VIII Grypus and Antiochus IX Cyzicenus broke out, resulting in a further breakup of the already significantly reduced kingdom. This provided opportunity for semi-independent Seleucid client states such as Judea to revolt. In 110 BCE, John Hyrcanus carried out the first military conquests of the newly independent Hasmonean kingdom, raising a mercenary army to capture Madaba and Schechem, significantly increasing his regional influence.[*full citation needed*] Hyrcanus conquered Transjordan, Samaria, and Idumea (also known as Edom), and forced Idumeans to convert to Judaism: > Hyrcanus ... subdued all the Idumeans; and permitted them to stay in that country, if they would circumcise their genitals, and make use of the laws of the Jews; and they were so desirous of living in the country of their forefathers, that they submitted to the use of circumcision, (25) and of the rest of the Jewish ways of living; at which time therefore this befell them, that they were hereafter no other than Jews. > > He desired that his wife succeed him as head of the government, with his eldest of five sons, Aristobulus I, becoming only the high-priest. Upon Hyrcanus' death in 104 BCE, however, Aristobulus I jailed his three brothers (including Alexander Jannaeus) and his mother and allowed her to starve there. By this means he came into possession of the throne and became the first Hasmonean to take the title of King (basileus), asserting the new-found independence of the state. Subsequently he conquered Galilee. Aristobulus I died after a painful illness in 103 BCE. Aristobulus' brothers were freed from prison by his widow; one of them, Alexander Jannaeus, reigned as a king as well as a high priest from 103–76 BCE. During his reign he conquered Iturea and, according to Josephus, forcibly converted Itureans to Judaism. He died during the siege of the fortress Ragaba. In c. 87 BCE, according to Josephus, following a six-year civil war involving Seleucid king Demetrius III Eucaerus, Hasmonean ruler Alexander Jannaeus crucified 800 Jewish rebels in Jerusalem. The Hasmoneans lost the territories acquired in Transjordan during the 93 BCE Battle of Gadara, where the Nabataeans ambushed Jannaeus and his forces in a hilly area. The Nabataeans saw the acquisitions as a threat to their interests, and used a large number of camels to push the Hasmonean forces into a deep valley where Jannaeus was "lucky to escape alive". Jannaeus returned to fierce Jewish opposition in Jerusalem after his defeat, and had to cede the acquired territories to the Nabataeans so that he could dissuade them from supporting his opponents in Judea. Alexander was followed by his wife, Salome Alexandra, who reigned from 76–67 BCE. She was the only *regnant* Jewish Queen in the Second Temple Era, having followed usurper Queen Athalia who had reigned centuries prior. During Alexandra's reign, her son Hyrcanus II held the office of High Priest and was named her successor. ### Pharisee and Sadducee factions It is difficult to state at what time the Pharisees, as a party, arose. Josephus first mentions them in connection with Jonathan, the successor of Judas Maccabeus ("Ant." xiii. 5, § 9). One of the factors that distinguished the Pharisees from other groups prior to the destruction of the Temple was their belief that all Jews had to observe the purity laws (which applied to the Temple service) outside the Temple. The major difference, however, was the continued adherence of the Pharisees to the laws and traditions of the Jewish people in the face of assimilation. As Josephus noted, the Pharisees were considered the most expert and accurate expositors of Jewish law. During the Hasmonean period, the Sadducees and Pharisees functioned primarily as political parties. Although the Pharisees had opposed the wars of expansion of the Hasmoneans and the forced conversions of the Idumeans, the political rift between them became wider when Pharisees demanded that the Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus choose between being king and being High Priest. In response, the king openly sided with the Sadducees by adopting their rites in the Temple. His actions caused a riot in the Temple and led to a brief civil war that ended with a bloody repression of the Pharisees, although at his deathbed the king called for a reconciliation between the two parties. Alexander was succeeded by his widow, Salome Alexandra, whose brother was Shimon ben Shetach, a leading Pharisee. Upon her death her elder son, Hyrcanus, sought Pharisee support, and her younger son, Aristobulus, sought the support of the Sadducees. The conflict between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus culminated in a civil war that ended when the Roman general Pompey captured Jerusalem in 63 BCE and inaugurated the Roman period of Jewish history. Josephus attests that Salome Alexandra was very favourably inclined toward the Pharisees and that their political influence grew tremendously under her reign, especially in the institution known as the Sanhedrin. Later texts such as the Mishnah and the Talmud record a host of rulings ascribed to the Pharisees concerning sacrifices and other ritual practices in the Temple, torts, criminal law, and governance. The influence of the Pharisees over the lives of the common people remained strong, and their rulings on Jewish law were deemed authoritative by many. Although these texts were written long after these periods, many scholars believe that they are a fairly reliable account of history during the Second Temple era. ### Civil war Alexander Jannaeus' son, Hyrcanus II, had scarcely reigned three months when his younger brother, Aristobulus II, rose in rebellion, whereupon Hyrcanus advanced against him at the head of an army of mercenaries and his Pharisee followers: "Now Hyrcanus was heir to the kingdom, and to him did his mother commit it before she died; but Aristobulus was superior to him in power and magnanimity; and when there was a battle between them, to decide the dispute about the kingdom, near Jericho, the greatest part deserted Hyrcanus, and went over to Aristobulus."[*unreliable source?*] Hyrcanus took refuge in the citadel of Jerusalem, but the capture of the Temple by Aristobulus II compelled Hyrcanus to surrender. A peace was then concluded, according to the terms of which Hyrcanus was to renounce the throne and the office of high priest (comp. Emil Schürer, "Gesch." i. 291, note 2), but was to enjoy the revenues of the latter office: "but Hyrcanus, with those of his party who stayed with him, fled to Antonia, and got into his power the hostages (which were Aristobulus's wife, with her children) that he might persevere; but the parties came to an agreement before things should come to extremes, that Aristobulus should be king, and Hyrcanus should resign, but retain all the rest of his dignities, as being the king's brother. Hereupon they were reconciled to each other in the Temple, and embraced one another in a very kind manner, while the people stood round about them; they also changed their houses, while Aristobulus went to the royal palace, and Hyrcanus retired to the house of Aristobulus."[*unreliable source?*] Aristobulus ruled from 67–63 BCE). From 63–40 BCE, the government (by this time reduced to a protectorate of Rome as described below) was in the hands of Hyrcanus II as High Priest and Ethnarch, although effective power was in the hands of his adviser Antipater the Idumaean. ### Intrigues of Antipater The struggle would have ended here but for Antipater the Idumean. Antipater saw clearly that it would be easier to reach the object of his ambition, the control of Judea, under the government of the weak Hyrcanus than under the warlike and energetic Aristobulus. He accordingly began to impress upon Hyrcanus' mind that Aristobulus was planning his death, finally persuading him to take refuge with Aretas, king of the Nabatæans. Aretas, bribed by Antipater, who also promised him the restitution of the Arabian towns taken by the Hasmoneans, readily espoused the cause of Hyrcanus and advanced toward Jerusalem with an army of fifty thousand. During the siege, which lasted several months, the adherents of Hyrcanus were guilty of two acts that greatly incensed the majority of the Jews: they stoned the pious Onias (see Honi ha-Magel) and, instead of a lamb which the besieged had bought of the besiegers for the purpose of the paschal sacrifice, sent a pig. Honi, ordered to curse the besieged, prayed: "Lord of the universe, as the besieged and the besiegers both belong to Thy people, I beseech Thee not to answer the evil prayers of either." The pig incident is derived from rabbinical sources. According to Josephus, the besiegers kept the enormous price of one thousand drachmas they had asked for the lamb. Roman intervention ------------------ ### Pompey the Great While this civil war was going on the Roman general Marcus Aemilius Scaurus went to Syria to take possession, in the name of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, of the kingdom of the Seleucids. The brothers appealed to him, each endeavouring by gifts and promises to win him over to his side. At first Scaurus, moved by a gift of four hundred talents, decided in favour of Aristobulus. Aretas was ordered to withdraw his army from Judea, and while retreating suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Aristobulus. But when Pompey came to Syria (63 BCE), a different situation arose. Pompey, who had just been awarded the title "Conqueror of Asia" due to his decisive victories in Asia Minor over Pontus and the Seleucid Empire, had decided to bring Judea under the rule of the Romans. He took the same view of Hyrcanus' ability, and was moved by much the same motives as Antipater: as a ward of Rome, Hyrcanus would be more acceptable than Aristobulus. When, therefore, the brothers, as well as delegates of the people's party, which, weary of Hasmonean quarrels, desired the extinction of the dynasty, presented themselves before Pompey, he delayed the decision, in spite of Aristobulus' gift of a golden vine valued at five hundred talents. The latter, however, fathomed the designs of Pompey, and assembled his armies. Pompey defeated him multiple times however and captured his cities. Aristobulus II entrenched himself in the fortress of Alexandrium; but, soon realising the uselessness of resistance, surrendered at the first summons of the Romans, and undertook to deliver Jerusalem to them. The patriots, however, were not willing to open their gates to the Romans, and a siege ensued which ended with the capture of the city. Pompey entered the Holy of Holies; this was only the second time that someone had dared to penetrate into this sacred spot. Judaea had to pay tribute to Rome and was placed under the supervision of the Roman governor of Syria: > In 63 BC, Judaea became a protectorate of Rome. Coming under the administration of a governor, Judaea was allowed a king; the governor's business was to regulate trade and maximise tax revenue. > > In 57–55 BCE, Aulus Gabinius, proconsul of Syria, split the former Hasmonean Kingdom into Galilee, Samaria, and Judea, with five districts of legal and religious councils known as *sanhedrin* (Greek: συνέδριον, "synedrion"): "And when he had ordained five councils (συνέδρια), he distributed the nation into the same number of parts. So these councils governed the people; the first was at Jerusalem, the second at Gadara, the third at Amathus, the fourth at Jericho, and the fifth at Sepphoris in Galilee." ### Pompey and Caesar Julius Caesar initially supported Aristobulus against Hyrcanus and Antipater. Between the weakness of Hyrcanus and the ambition of Aristobulus, Judea lost its independence. Aristobulus was taken to Rome a prisoner, and Hyrcanus was reappointed High Priest, but without political authority. When, in 50 BCE, it appeared that Julius Caesar was interested in using Aristobulus and his family as his clients to take control of Judea from Hyrcanus and Antipater, who were beholden to Pompey, supporters of Pompey had Aristobulus poisoned in Rome and executed Alexander in Antioch. However, Pompey's pawns soon had occasion to turn to the other side: > At the beginning of the civil war between [Caesar] and Pompey, Hyrcanus, at the instance of Antipater, prepared to support the man to whom he owed his position; but when Pompey was murdered, Antipater led the Jewish forces to the help of Caesar, who was hard pressed at Alexandria. His timely help and his influence over the Egyptian Jews recommended him to Caesar's favour, and secured for him an extension of his authority in Palestine, and for Hyrcanus the confirmation of his ethnarchy. Joppa was restored to the Hasmonean domain, Judea was granted freedom from all tribute and taxes to Rome, and the independence of the internal administration was guaranteed." > > The timely aid from Antipater and Hyrcanus led the triumphant Caesar to ignore the claims of Aristobulus's younger son, Antigonus the Hasmonean, and to confirm Hyrcanus and Antipater in their authority, despite their previous allegiance to Pompey. Josephus noted, > Antigonus... came to Caesar... and accused Hyrcanus and Antipater, how they had driven him and his brethren entirely out of their native country... and that as to the assistance they had sent [to Caesar] into Egypt, it was not done out of good-will to him, but out of the fear they were in from former quarrels, and in order to gain pardon for their friendship to [his enemy] Pompey. > > Hyrcanus' restoration as ethnarch in 47 BCE coincided with Caesar's appointment of Antipater as the first Roman Procurator, allowing Antipater to promote the interests of his own house: "Caesar appointed Hyrcanus to be high priest, and gave Antipater what principality he himself should choose, leaving the determination to himself; so he made him procurator of Judea." Antipater appointed his sons to positions of influence: Phasael became Governor of Jerusalem, and Herod Governor of Galilee. This led to increasing tension between Hyrcanus and the family of Antipater, culminating in a trial of Herod for supposed abuses in his governorship, which resulted in Herod's flight into exile in 46 BCE. Herod soon returned, however, and the honours to Antipater's family continued. Hyrcanus' incapacity and weakness were so manifest that, when he defended Herod against the Sanhedrin and before Mark Antony, the latter stripped Hyrcanus of his nominal political authority and his title, bestowing them both upon the accused. Caesar was assassinated in 44 BCE and unrest and confusion spread throughout the Roman world, including Judaea. Antipater the Idumean was assassinated in 43 BCE by the Nabatean king, Malichus I, who had bribed one of Hyrcanus' cup-bearers to poison and kill Antipater. However, Antipater's sons managed to maintain their control over Judea and their father's puppet Hasmonean, Hyrcanus. ### Parthian invasion, Antony, Augustus After Julius Caesar was murdered in 44 BCE, Quintus Labienus, a Roman republican general and ambassador to the Parthians, sided with Brutus and Cassius in the Liberators' civil war; after their defeat Labienus joined the Parthians and assisted them in invading Roman territories in 40 BCE. The Parthian army crossed the Euphrates and Labienus was able to entice Mark Antony's Roman garrisons around Syria to rally to his cause. The Parthians split their army, and under Pacorus conquered the Levant: > Antigonus... roused the Parthians to invade Syria and Palestine, [and] the Jews eagerly rose in support of the scion of the Maccabean house, and drove out the hated Idumeans with their puppet Jewish king. The struggle between the people and the Romans had begun in earnest, and though Antigonus, when placed on the throne by the Parthians, proceeded to spoil and harry the Jews, rejoicing at the restoration of the Hasmonean line, thought a new era of independence had come. > > When Phasael and Hyrcanus II set out on an embassy to the Parthians, the Parthians instead captured them. Antigonus, who was present, cut off Hyrcanus's ears to make him unsuitable for the High Priesthood, while Phasael was put to death. Antigonus, whose Hebrew name was Mattathias, bore the double title of king and High Priest for only three years, as he had not disposed of Herod, the most dangerous of his enemies. Herod fled into exile and sought the support of Mark Antony. Herod was designated "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate in 40 BCE: Antony > then resolved to get [Herod] made king of the Jews...[and] told [the Senate] that it was for their advantage in the Parthian war that Herod should be king; so they all gave their votes for it. And when the senate was separated, Antony and Caesar [Augustus] went out, with Herod between them; while the consul and the rest of the magistrates went before them, in order to offer sacrifices [to the Roman gods], and to lay the decree in the Capitol. Antony also made a feast for Herod on the first day of his reign.[*unreliable source?*] > > The struggle thereafter lasted for some years, as the main Roman forces were occupied with defeating the Parthians and had few additional resources to use to support Herod. After the Parthians' defeat, Herod was victorious over his rival in 37 BCE. Antigonus was delivered to Antony and executed shortly thereafter. The Romans assented to Herod's proclamation as King of the Jews, bringing about the end of the Hasmonean rule over Judea. ### Herod and the end of the dynasty Antigonus was not, however, the last Hasmonean. The fate of the remaining male members of the family under Herod was not a happy one. Aristobulus III, grandson of Aristobulus II through his elder son Alexander, was briefly made high priest, but was soon executed (36 BCE) due to Herod's jealousy. His sister Mariamne was married to Herod, but also fell victim to his jealousy. Her sons by Herod, Aristobulus IV and Alexander, were in their adulthood also executed by their father. Hyrcanus II had been held by the Parthians since 40 BCE. For four years, until 36 BCE, he lived amid the Babylonian Jews, who paid him every mark of respect. In that year Herod, who feared that Hyrcanus might induce the Parthians to help him regain the throne, invited him to return to Jerusalem. The Babylonian Jews warned him in vain. Herod received him with every mark of respect, assigning him the first place at his table and the presidency of the state council, while awaiting an opportunity to get rid of him. As the last remaining Hasmonean, Hyrcanus was too dangerous a rival for Herod. In the year 30 BCE, charged with plotting with the King of Arabia, Hyrcanus was condemned and executed. The later Herodian rulers Agrippa I and Agrippa II both had Hasmonean blood, as Agrippa I's father was Aristobulus IV, son of Herod by Mariamne I, but they were not direct male descendants, unless Herod was understood as a Hasmonean as per the following synthesis: According to Josephus, Herod was also of Maccabean descent: * Eleazar Maccabeus called Auran brother of Judas Maccabeus (Josephus Antiquity of the Jews Book XII/Chapter 9/Section 4) * Jason son of Eleazar (Ditto: Book XII/Chapter 10/Section 6) * Antipater I son of Jason (Ditto: Book XIII/Chapter 5/Section 8) * Antipater II Antipas son of Antipater I (Ditto: Book XIV/Chapter 1/Section 3) * Herod Foreign views ------------- In his Histories, Tacitus explains the background for the establishment of the Hasmonean state: > While the East was under the dominion of the Assyrians, Medes, and Persians, the Jews were regarded as the meanest of their subjects: but after the Macedonians gained supremacy, King Antiochus endeavored to abolish Jewish superstition and to introduce Greek civilization; the war with the Parthians, however, prevented his improving this basest of peoples; for it was exactly at that time that Arsaces had revolted. Later on, since the power of Macedon had waned, the Parthians were not yet come to their strength, and the Romans were far away, the Jews selected their own kings. These in turn were expelled by the fickle mob; but recovering their throne by force of arms, they banished citizens, destroyed towns, killed brothers, wives, and parents, and dared essay every other kind of royal crime without hesitation; but they fostered the national superstition, for they had assumed the priesthood to support their civil authority. > > Legacy and scholarship ---------------------- While the Hasmonean dynasty managed to create an independent Jewish kingdom, its successes were rather short-lived, and the dynasty by and large failed to live up to the nationalistic momentum the Maccabee brothers had gained. ### Jewish nationalism The fall of the Hasmonean Kingdom marked an end to a century of Jewish self-governance, but Jewish nationalism and desire for independence continued under Roman rule, beginning with the Census of Quirinius in CE 6 and leading to a series of Jewish-Roman wars in the 1st–2nd centuries, including the Great Revolt (CE 66–73), the Kitos War (115–117), and Bar Kokhba's revolt (132–135). During the wars, temporary commonwealths were established, but they ultimately fell to the sustained might of Rome. Roman legions under Vespasian and Titus besieged and destroyed Jerusalem, looted and burned Herod's Temple (in the year 70) and Jewish strongholds (notably Gamla in 67 and Masada in 73), and enslaved or massacred a large part of the Jewish population. The defeat of the Jewish revolts against the Roman Empire notably contributed to the numbers and geography of the Jewish Diaspora, as many Jews were scattered after losing their state or were sold into slavery throughout the empire. ### Jewish religious scholarship Jewish tradition holds that the claiming of kingship by the later Hasmoneans led to their eventual downfall, since that title was only to be held by descendants of the line of King David. The Hasmonean bureaucracy was filled with men with Greek names, and the dynasty eventually became very Hellenised, to the annoyance of many of its more traditionally-minded Jewish subjects. Frequent dynastic quarrels also contributed to the view among Jews of later generations that the latter Hasmoneans were degenerate. One member of this school was Josephus, whose accounts are in many cases our sole source of information about the Hasmoneans. Numismatics ----------- Hasmonean coins usually featured the Paleo-Hebrew script, an older Phoenician script that was used to write Hebrew. The coins are struck only in bronze. The symbols include a cornucopia, palm-branch, lily, an anchor, star, pomegranate and (rarely) a helmet. Despite the apparent Seleucid influences of most of the symbols, the origin of the star is more obscure. Hasmonean leaders ----------------- The descendants of MattathiasThe descendants of Mattathias ### Maccabees (rebel leaders) 1. Mattathias, 170–167 BCE 2. Judas Maccabeus, 167–160 BCE 3. Jonathan Apphus, 160–143 BCE (High Priest from 152 BCE) ### Monarchs (Ethnarchs and Kings) and High Priests 1. Simon Thassi, 142–135 BCE (Ethnarch and High Priest) 2. John Hyrcanus I, 134–104 BCE (Ethnarch and High Priest) 3. Aristobulus I, 104–103 BCE (King and High Priest) 4. Alexander Jannaeus, 103–76 BCE (King and High Priest) 5. Salome Alexandra, 76–67 BCE (the only Queen regnant) 6. Hyrcanus II, 67–66 BCE (King from 67 BCE; High Priest from 76 BCE) 7. Aristobulus II, 66–63 BCE (King and High Priest) 8. Hyrcanus II (restored), 63–40 BCE (High Priest from 63 BCE; Ethnarch from 47 BCE) 9. Antigonus, 40–37 BCE (King and High Priest) 10. Aristobulus III, 36 BCE (only High Priest) * Territorial expansion of the kingdom, 167–80 BCETerritorial expansion of the kingdom, 167–80 BCE * Judea under Judas MaccabeusJudea under Judas Maccabeus * Judea under Jonathan Apphus (after conquest of Perea)Judea under Jonathan Apphus (after conquest of Perea) * Hasmonean Kingdom under Simon ThassiHasmonean Kingdom under Simon Thassi * Hasmonean Kingdom under John Hyrcanus (after conquest of Samaria and Idumea)Hasmonean Kingdom under John Hyrcanus (after conquest of Samaria and Idumea) * Hasmonean Kingdom under Aristobulus I (after conquest of Galilee)Hasmonean Kingdom under Aristobulus I (after conquest of Galilee) * Hasmonean Kingdom under Alexander Jannaeus (after conquest of Iturea)Hasmonean Kingdom under Alexander Jannaeus (after conquest of Iturea) * Hasmonean Kingdom under Salome AlexandraHasmonean Kingdom under Salome Alexandra * Roman Judea under Hyrcanus IIRoman Judea under Hyrcanus II See also -------- * Hasmonean coinage * History of ancient Israel and Judah * Hasmonean royal winter palaces * List of Jewish states and dynasties * Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC) * Temple in Jerusalem ### Sources * Morkholm, Otto (2008). "Antiochus IV". In William David Davies; Louis Finkelstein (eds.). *The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 2, The Hellenistic Age*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 278–291. ISBN 978-0-521-21929-7. * Grabbe, Lester L. (12 August 2010). *An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus*. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. * Stuckenbruck, Loren T.; Gurtner, Daniel M. (2019). *T&T Clark Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism Volume One*. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 100–. ISBN 978-0-567-65813-5. * Flavius Josephus (1895). Whiston, William (ed.). *The Complete Works of Flavius-Josephus the Celebrated Jewish Historian*. Philadelphia: John E. Potter & Company. * Schäfer, Peter (2003). *The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World*, Second Edition. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-30587-X * Muraoka, T. (1992). *Studies in Qumran Aramaic*. Peeters. ISBN 978-9068314199. * Neusner, J. (1983). "Jews in Iran". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). *The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3 (2); the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521246934. * *The Hasmoneans in Jewish Historiography* Samuel Schafler, Diss, DHL, Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York, 1973 * Vermes, Géza (2014). *The True Herod*. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0567488411. * Schäfer, Peter (2003). *The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World*. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. * Magness, Jodi (2012). *The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon's Temple to the Muslim Conquest*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12413-3. * Schwartz, Seth (2009). *Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E.* Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Further reading --------------- * Atkinson, Kenneth. *A History of the Hasmonean State: Josephus and Beyond*. New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2016. * Berthelot, Katell . *In Search of the Promised Land?: The Hasmonean Dynasty between Biblical Models and Hellenistic Diplomacy.*Göttingen Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 2017. 494 pp. ISBN 978-3-525-55252-0. * Davies, W. D, Louis Finkelstein, and William Horbury. *The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 2: Hellenistic Age*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. * Derfler, Steven Lee. *The Hasmonean Revolt: rebellion or revolution?* Lewiston: E Mellen Press, 1989. * Eshel, Hanan. *Dead Sea scrolls and the Hasmonean state*. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi Pr., 2008. * Schäfer, Peter. *The History of the Jews In the Greco-Roman World*. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2003.

Hasmonean dynasty

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty

**Lydia** (Lydian: ‎𐤮𐤱𐤠𐤭𐤣𐤠, *Śfarda*; Aramaic: *Lydia*; Greek: Λυδία, *Lȳdíā*; Turkish: *Lidya*) was an Iron Age kingdom of western Asia Minor located generally east of ancient Ionia in the modern western Turkish provinces of Uşak, Manisa and inland Izmir. The ethnic group inhabiting this kingdom are known as the Lydians, and their language, known as Lydian, was a member of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family. The capital of Lydia was Sardis. The Kingdom of Lydia existed from about 1200 BC to 546 BC. At its greatest extent, during the 7th century BC, it covered all of western Anatolia. In 546 BC, it became a province of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, known as the satrapy of Lydia or *Sparda* in Old Persian. In 133 BC, it became part of the Roman province of Asia. Lydian coins, made of silver, are among the oldest in existence, dated to around the 7th century BC. Defining Lydia -------------- The endonym *Śfard* (the name the Lydians called themselves) survives in bilingual and trilingual stone-carved notices of the Achaemenid Empire: the satrapy of *Sparda* (Old Persian), *Saparda*, Babylonian *Sapardu*, Elamitic *Išbarda*, Hebrew סְפָרַד‎. These in the Greek tradition are associated with Sardis, the capital city of King Gyges, constructed during the 7th century BC. Lydia is called *Kisitan* by Hayton of Corycus (in *The Flower of the History of the East*), a name which was corrupted to *Quesiton* in *The Travels of Sir John Mandeville*. The region of the Lydian kingdom was during the 15th–14th centuries BC part of the Arzawa kingdom. However, the Lydian language is usually not categorized as part of the Luwic subgroup, unlike the other nearby Anatolian languages Luwian, Carian, and Lycian. Geography --------- The boundaries of historical Lydia varied across the centuries. It was bounded first by Mysia, Caria, Phrygia and coastal Ionia. Later, the military power of Alyattes and Croesus expanded Lydia, which, with its capital at Sardis, controlled all Asia Minor west of the River Halys, except Lycia. After the Persian conquest the River Maeander was regarded as its southern boundary, and during imperial Roman times Lydia comprised the country between Mysia and Caria on the one side and Phrygia and the Aegean Sea on the other. Language -------- The Lydian language was an Indo-European language in the Anatolian language family, related to Luwian and Hittite. Due to its fragmentary attestation, the meanings of many words are unknown but much of the grammar has been determined. Similar to other Anatolian languages, it featured extensive use of prefixes and grammatical particles to chain clauses together. Lydian had also undergone extensive syncope, leading to numerous consonant clusters atypical of most Indo-European languages. Lydian finally became extinct during the 1st century BC. History ------- ### Early history: Maeonia and Lydia Lydia developed after the decline of the Hittite Empire in the 12th century BC. In Hittite times, the name for the region had been Arzawa. According to Greek source, the original name of the Lydian kingdom was *Maionia* (Μαιονία), or *Maeonia*: Homer (*Iliad* ii. 865; v. 43, xi. 431) refers to the inhabitants of Lydia as *Maiones* (Μαίονες). Homer describes their capital not as Sardis but as *Hyde* (*Iliad* xx. 385); Hyde may have been the name of the district in which Sardis was located. Later, Herodotus (*Histories* i. 7) adds that the "Meiones" were renamed Lydians after their king Lydus (Λυδός), son of Atys, during the mythical epoch that preceded the Heracleid dynasty. This etiological eponym served to account for the Greek ethnic name *Lydoi* (Λυδοί). The Hebrew term for Lydians, *Lûḏîm* (לודים), as found in the Book of Jeremiah (46.9), has been similarly considered, beginning with Flavius Josephus, to be derived from Lud son of Shem; however, Hippolytus of Rome (234 AD) offered an alternative opinion that the Lydians were descended from Ludim, son of Mizraim. During Biblical times, the Lydian warriors were famous archers. Some Maeones still existed during historical times in the upland interior along the River Hermus, where a town named Maeonia existed, according to Pliny the Elder (*Natural History* book v:30) and Hierocles (author of Synecdemus). ### In Greek mythology Lydian mythology is virtually unknown, and their literature and rituals have been lost due to the absence of any monuments or archaeological finds with extensive inscriptions; therefore, myths involving Lydia are mainly from Greek mythology. For the Greeks, Tantalus was a primordial ruler of mythic Lydia, and Niobe his proud daughter; her husband Amphion associated Lydia with Thebes in Greece, and through Pelops the line of Tantalus was part of the founding myths of Mycenae's second dynasty. (In reference to the myth of Bellerophon, Karl Kerenyi remarked, in *The Heroes of The Greeks* 1959, p. 83. "As Lykia was thus connected with Crete, and as the person of Pelops, the hero of Olympia, connected Lydia with the Peloponnesos, so Bellerophontes connected another Asian country, or rather two, Lykia and Karia, with the kingdom of Argos".) In Greek myth, Lydia had also adopted the double-axe symbol, that also appears in the Mycenaean civilization, the *labrys*. Omphale, daughter of the river Iardanos, was a ruler of Lydia, whom Heracles was required to serve for a time. His adventures in Lydia are the adventures of a Greek hero in a peripheral and foreign land: during his stay, Heracles enslaved the Itones; killed Syleus, who forced passers-by to hoe his vineyard; slew the serpent of the river Sangarios (which appears in the heavens as the constellation Ophiucus) and captured the simian tricksters, the Cercopes. Accounts tell of at least one son of Heracles who was born to either Omphale or a slave-girl: Herodotus (*Histories* i. 7) says this was Alcaeus who began the line of Lydian Heracleidae which ended with the death of Candaules c. 687 BC. Diodorus Siculus (4.31.8) and Ovid (*Heroides* 9.54) mentions a son called Lamos, while pseudo-Apollodorus (*Bibliotheke* 2.7.8) gives the name Agelaus and Pausanias (2.21.3) names Tyrsenus as the son of Heracles by "the Lydian woman". All three heroic ancestors indicate a Lydian dynasty claiming Heracles as their ancestor. Herodotus (1.7) refers to a Heraclid dynasty of kings who ruled Lydia, yet were perhaps not descended from Omphale. He also mentions (1.94) the legend that the Etruscan civilization was founded by colonists from Lydia led by Tyrrhenus, brother of Lydus. Dionysius of Halicarnassus was skeptical of this story, indicating that the Etruscan language and customs were known to be totally dissimilar to those of the Lydians. In addition, the story of the "Lydian" origins of the Etruscans was not known to Xanthus of Lydia, an authority on the history of the Lydians. Later chronologists ignored Herodotus' statement that Agron was the first Heraclid to be a king, and included his immediate forefathers Alcaeus, Belus, and Ninus in their list of kings of Lydia. Strabo (5.2.2) has Atys, father of Lydus and Tyrrhenus, as a descendant of Heracles and Omphale but that contradicts virtually all other accounts which name Atys, Lydus, and Tyrrhenus among the pre-Heraclid kings and princes of Lydia. The gold deposits in the river Pactolus that were the source of the proverbial wealth of Croesus (Lydia's last king) were said to have been left there when the legendary king Midas of Phrygia washed away the "Midas touch" in its waters. In Euripides' tragedy *The Bacchae*, Dionysus, while maintaining his human disguise, declares his country to be Lydia. ### Lydians, the Tyrrhenians and the Etruscans The relationship between the Etruscans of northern and central Italy and the Lydians has long been a subject of conjecture. While the Greek historian Herodotus stated that the Etruscans originated in Lydia, the 1st-century BC historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek living in Rome, dismissed many of the ancient theories of other Greek historians and postulated that the Etruscans were indigenous people who had always lived in Etruria in Italy and were different from both the Pelasgians and the Lydians. Dionysius noted that the 5th-century historian Xanthus of Lydia, who was originally from Sardis and was regarded as an important source and authority for the history of Lydia, never suggested a Lydian origin of the Etruscans and never named Tyrrhenus as a ruler of the Lydians. In modern times, all the evidence gathered so far by etruscologists points to an indigenous origin of the Etruscans. The classical scholar Michael Grant commented on Herodotus' story, writing that it "is based on erroneous etymologies, like many other traditions about the origins of 'fringe' peoples of the Greek world". Grant writes there is evidence that the Etruscans themselves spread it to make their trading easier in Asia Minor when many cities in Asia Minor, and the Etruscans themselves, were at war with the Greeks. The French scholar Dominique Briquel also disputed the historical validity of Herodotus' text. Briquel demonstrated that "the story of an exodus from Lydia to Italy was a deliberate political fabrication created in the Hellenized milieu of the court at Sardis in the early 6th century BC." Briquel also commented that "the traditions handed down from the Greek authors on the origins of the Etruscan people are only the expression of the image that Etruscans' allies or adversaries wanted to divulge. For no reason, stories of this kind should be considered historical documents". Archaeologically there is no evidence for a migration of the Lydians into Etruria. The most ancient phase of the Etruscan civilization is the Villanovan culture, which begins around 900 BC, which itself developed from the previous late Bronze Age Proto-Villanovan culture in the same region in Italy in the last quarter of the second millennium BC, which in turn derives from the Urnfield culture of Central Europe and has no relation with Asia Minor, and there is nothing about it that suggests an ethnic contribution from Asia Minor or the Near East or that can support a migration theory. Linguists have identified an Etruscan-like language in a set of inscriptions on the island of Lemnos, in the Aegean Sea. Since the Etruscan language was a Pre-Indo-European language and neither Indo-European or Semitic, Etruscan was not related to Lydian, which was a part of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European languages. Instead, Etruscan language and the Lemnian language are considered part of the pre-Indo-European Tyrrhenian language family together with the Rhaetian language of the Alps, which takes its name from the Rhaetian people. A 2013 genetic study suggested that the maternal lineages – as reflected in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) – of western Anatolians, and the modern population of Tuscany had been largely separate for 5,000 to 10,000 years (with a 95% credible interval); the mtDNA of Etruscans was most similar to modern Tuscans and Neolithic populations from Central Europe. This was interpreted as suggesting that the Etruscan population were descended from the Villanovan culture. The study concluded that the Etruscans were indigenous, and that a link between Etruria, modern Tuscany and Lydia dates back to the Neolithic period, at the time of the migrations of Early European Farmers from Anatolia to Europe. A 2019 genetic study published in the journal *Science* analyzed the autosomal DNA of 11 Iron Age samples from the areas around Rome concluding that Etruscans (900–600 BC) and the Latins (900–500 BC) from Latium vetus were genetically similar. Their DNA was a mixture of two-thirds Copper Age ancestry (EEF + WHG; Etruscans ~66–72%, Latins ~62–75%) and one-third Steppe-related ancestry (Etruscans ~27–33%, Latins ~24–37%). The results of this study once again suggested that the Etruscans were indigenous, and that the Etruscans also had Steppe-related ancestry despite continuing to speak a pre-Indo-European language. A 2021 genetic study, published in the journal Science Advances, analyzed the autosomal DNA of 48 Iron Age individuals from Tuscany and Lazio, spanning from 800 to 1 BC, and confirmed that in the Etruscan individuals the ancestral component Steppe was present in the same percentages found in the previously analyzed Iron Age Latins, and in the Etruscan DNA was completely absent a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean, concluding that the Etruscans were autochthonous and they had a genetic profile similar to their Latin neighbors. Both Etruscans and Latins joined firmly the European cluster, west of modern Italians. The Etruscan cluster is a mixture of WHG, EEF, and Steppe ancestry; 75% of the Etruscan male individuals were found to belong to haplogroup R1b, especially R1b-P312 and its derivative R1b-L2 whose direct ancestor is R1b-U152, while the most common mitochondrial DNA haplogroup among the Etruscans was H. ### First coinage According to Herodotus, the Lydians were the first people to use gold and silver coins and the first to establish retail shops in permanent locations. It is not known, however, whether Herodotus meant that the Lydians were the first to use coins of pure gold and pure silver or the first precious metal coins in general. Despite this ambiguity, this statement of Herodotus is one of the pieces of evidence most often cited on behalf of the argument that Lydians invented coinage, at least in the West, although the first coins (under Alyattes I, reigned c.591–c.560 BC) were neither gold nor silver but an alloy of the two called electrum. The dating of these first stamped coins is one of the most frequently debated topics of ancient numismatics, with dates ranging from 700 BC to 550 BC, but the most common opinion is that they were minted at or near the beginning of the reign of King Alyattes (sometimes referred to incorrectly as Alyattes II). The first coins were made of electrum, an alloy of gold and silver that occurs naturally but that was further debased by the Lydians with added silver and copper. CroeseidsGold Croeseid, minted by king Croesus circa 561–546 BCE. (10.7 grams, Sardis mint).Silver Croeseid, minted by king Croesus, circa 560–546 BCE (10.7 grams, Sardis mint) The gold and silver Croeseids formed the world's first bimetallic monetary system circa 550 BCE. The largest of these coins are commonly referred to as a 1/3 stater (*trite*) denomination, weighing around 4.7 grams, though no full staters of this type have ever been found, and the 1/3 stater probably should be referred to more correctly as a stater, after a type of a transversely held scale, the weights used in such a scale (from ancient Greek ίστημι=to stand), which also means "standard." These coins were stamped with a lion's head adorned with what is likely a sunburst, which was the king's symbol. The most prolific mint for early electrum coins was Sardis which produced large quantities of the lion head thirds, sixths and twelfths along with lion paw fractions. To complement the largest denomination, fractions were made, including a *hekte* (sixth), *hemihekte* (twelfth), and so forth down to a 96th, with the 1/96 stater weighing only about 0.15 grams. There is disagreement, however, over whether the fractions below the twelfth are actually Lydian. Alyattes' son was Croesus (Reigned c.560–c.546 BC), who became associated with great wealth. Croesus is credited with issuing the *Croeseid*, the first true gold coins with a standardised purity for general circulation, and the world's first bimetallic monetary system circa 550 BCE. It took some time before ancient coins were used for commerce and trade. Even the smallest-denomination electrum coins, perhaps worth about a day's subsistence, would have been too valuable for buying a loaf of bread. The first coins to be used for retailing on a large-scale basis were likely small silver fractions, Hemiobol, Ancient Greek coinage minted in Cyme (Aeolis) under Hermodike II then by the Ionian Greeks in the late sixth century BC. Sardis was renowned as a beautiful city. Around 550 BC, near the beginning of his reign, Croesus paid for the construction of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, which became one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. Croesus was defeated in battle by Cyrus II of Persia in 546 BC, with the Lydian kingdom losing its autonomy and becoming a Persian satrapy. ### Autochthonous dynasties According to Herodotus, Lydia was ruled by three dynasties from the second millennium BC to 546 BC. The first two dynasties are legendary and the third is historical. Herodotus mentions three early Maeonian kings: Manes, his son Atys and his grandson Lydus. Lydus gave his name to the country and its people. One of his descendants was Iardanus, with whom Heracles was in service at one time. Heracles had an affair with one of Iardanus' slave-girls and their son Alcaeus was the first of the Lydian Heraclids. The Maeonians relinquished control to the Heracleidae and Herodotus says they ruled through 22 generations for a total of 505 years from c. 1192 BC. The first Heraclid king was Agron, the great-grandson of Alcaeus. He was succeeded by 19 Heraclid kings, names unknown, all succeeding father to son. In the 8th century BC, Meles became the 21st and penultimate Heraclid king and the last was his son Candaules (died c. 687 BC). #### The Mermnad Empire ##### Gyges Available historical evidence suggests that Candaules was overthrown by a man named Gyges, of whose origins nothing is known except for the Greek historian Herodotus's claim that he was the son of a man named Dascylus. Gyges was helped in his coup against Candaules by a Carian prince from Mylasa named Arselis, suggesting that Gyges's Mermnad dynasty might have had good relations with Carian aristocrats thanks to which these latter would provide his rebellion with armed support against Candaules. Gyges's rise to power happened in the context of a period of turmoil following the invasion of the Cimmerians, a nomadic people from the Pontic steppe who had invaded Western Asia, who around 675 BCE destroyed the previous major power in Anatolia, the kingdom of Phrygia. Gyges took advantage of the power vacuum created by the Cimmerian invasions to consolidate his kingdom and make it a military power, he contacted the Neo-Assyrian court by sending diplomats to Nineveh to seek help against the Cimmerian invasions, and he attacked the Ionian Greek cities of Miletus, Smyrna, and Colophon. Gyges's extensive alliances with the Carian dynasts allowed him to recruit Carian and Ionian Greek soldiers to send overseas to assist the Egyptian king Psamtik I of the city of Sais, with whom he had established contacts around 662 BCE. With the help of these armed forces, Psamtik I united Egypt under his rule after eliminating the eleven other kinglets with whom he had been co-ruling Lower Egypt. In 644 BCE, Lydia faced a third attack by the Cimmerians, led by their king Lygdamis. This time, the Lydians were defeated, Sardis was sacked, and Gyges was killed. ##### Ardys and Sadyattes Gyges was succeeded by his son Ardys, who resumed diplomatic activity with Assyria and would also have to face the Cimmerians. Ardys attacked the Ionian Greek city of Miletus and succeeded in capturing the city of Priene, after which Priene would remain under direct rule of the Lydian kingdom until its end. Ardys's reign was short-lived, and in 637 BCE, that is in Ardys's seventh regnal year, the Thracian Treres tribe who had migrated across the Thracian Bosporus and invaded Anatolia, under their king Kobos, and in alliance with the Cimmerians and the Lycians, attacked Lydia. They defeated the Lydians again and for a second time sacked the Lydian capital of Sardis, except for its citadel. It is probable that Ardys was killed during this Cimmerian attack. Ardys was succeeded by his son, Sadyattes, who had an even more short-lived reign. Sadyattes died in 635 BCE, and it is possible that, like his grandfather Gyges and maybe his father Ardys as well, he died fighting the Cimmerians. ##### Alyattes Amidst extreme turmoil, Sadyattes was succeeded in 635 BCE by his son Alyattes, who would transform Lydia into a powerful empire. Soon after Alyattes's ascension and early during his reign, with Assyrian approval and in alliance with the Lydians, the Scythians under their king Madyes entered Anatolia, expelled the Treres from Asia Minor, and defeated the Cimmerians so that they no longer constituted a threat again, following which the Scythians extended their domination to Central Anatolia until they were themselves expelled by the Medes from Western Asia in the 590s BCE. This final defeat of the Cimmerians was carried out by the joint forces of Madyes, whom Strabo credits with expelling the Treres and Cimmerians from Asia Minor, and of Alyattes, whom Herodotus of Halicarnassus and Polyaenus claim finally defeated the Cimmerians. Alyattes turned towards Phrygia in the east, where extended Lydian rule eastwards to Phrygia. Alyattes continued his expansionist policy in the east, and of all the peoples to the west of the Halys River whom Herodotus claimed Alyattes's successor Croesus ruled over - the Lydians, Phrygians, Mysians, Mariandyni, Chalybes, Paphlagonians, Thyni and Bithyni Thracians, Carians, Ionians, Dorians, Aeolians, and Pamphylians - it is very likely that a number of these populations had already been conquered under Alyattes, and it is not impossible that the Lydians might have subjected Lycia, given that the Lycian coast would have been important for the Lydians because it was close to a trade route connecting the Aegean region, the Levant, and Cyprus. Alyattes's eastern conquests brought the Lydian Empire in conflict in the 590s BCE with the Medes, and a war broke out between the Median and Lydian Empires in 590 BCE which was waged in eastern Anatolia lasted five years, until a solar eclipse occurred in 585 BCE during a battle (hence called the Battle of the Eclipse) opposing the Lydian and Median armies, which both sides interpreted as an omen to end the war. The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II and the king Syennesis of Cilicia acted as mediators in the ensuing peace treaty, which was sealed by the marriage of the Median king Cyaxares's son Astyages with Alyattes's daughter Aryenis, and the possible wedding of a daughter of Cyaxares with either Alyattes or with his son Croesus. ##### Croesus Alyattes died shortly after the Battle of the Eclipse, in 585 BCE itself, following which Lydia faced a power struggle between his son Pantaleon, born from a Greek woman, and his other son Croesus, born from a Carian noblewoman, out of which the latter emerged successful. Croesus brought Caria under the direct control of the Lydian Empire, and he subjugated all of mainland Ionia, Aeolis, and Doris, but he abandoned his plans of annexing the Greek city-states on the islands of the Aegean Sea and he instead concluded treaties of friendship with them, which might have helped him participate in the lucrative trade the Aegean Greeks carried out with Egypt at Naucratis. According to Herodotus, Croesus ruled over all the peoples to the west of the Halys River, although the actual border of his kingdom was further to the east of the Halys, at an undetermined point in eastern Anatolia. Croesus continued the friendly relations with the Medes concluded between his father Alyattes and the Median king Cyaxares, and he continued these good relations with the Medes after he succeeded Alyattes and Astyages succeeded Cyaxares. And, under Croesus's rule, Lydia continued its good relations started by Gyges with the Saite Egyptian kingdom, then ruled by the pharaoh Amasis II. Croesus also established trade and diplomatic relations with the Neo-Babylonian Empire of Nabonidus, and he further increased his contacts with the Greeks on the European continent by establishing relations with the city-state of Sparta. In 550 BCE, Croesus's brother-in-law, the Median king Astyages, was overthrown by his own grandson, the Persian king Cyrus the Great, and Croesus responded by attacking Pteria, the capital of a Phrygian state vassal to the Lydians which might have attempted to declare its allegiance to the new Persian Empire of Cyrus. Cyrus retaliated by intervening in Cappadocia and defeating the Lydians at Pteria in a battle, and again at Thymbra before besieging and capturing the Lydian capital of Sardis, thus bringing an end to the rule of the Mermnad dynasty and to the Lydian Empire. Lydia would never regain its independence and would remain a part of various successive empires. Although the dates for the battles of Pteria and Thymbra and of end of the Lydian empire have been traditionally fixed to 547 BCE, more recent estimates suggest that Herodotus's account being unreliable chronologically concerning the fall of Lydia means that there are currently no ways of dating the end of the Lydian kingdom; theoretically, it may even have taken place after the fall of Babylon in 539 BC. ### Persian Empire In 547 BC, the Lydian king Croesus besieged and captured the Persian city of Pteria in Cappadocia and enslaved its inhabitants. The Persian king Cyrus The Great marched with his army against the Lydians. The Battle of Pteria resulted in a stalemate, forcing the Lydians to retreat to their capital city of Sardis. Some months later the Persian and Lydian kings met at the Battle of Thymbra. Cyrus won and captured the capital city of Sardis by 546 BC. Lydia became a province (satrapy) of the Persian Empire. ### Hellenistic Empire Lydia remained a satrapy after Persia's conquest by the Macedonian king Alexander III (the Great) of Macedon. When Alexander's empire ended after his death, Lydia was possessed by the major Asian diadoch dynasty, the Seleucids, and when it was unable to maintain its territory in Asia Minor, Lydia was acquired by the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum. Its last king avoided the spoils and ravage of a Roman war of conquest by leaving the realm by testament to the Roman Empire. ### Roman province of Asia When the Romans entered the capital Sardis in 133 BC, Lydia, as the other western parts of the Attalid legacy, became part of the province of Asia, a very rich Roman province, worthy of a governor with the high rank of proconsul. The whole west of Asia Minor had Jewish colonies very early, and Christianity was also soon present there. Acts of the Apostles 16:14–15 mentions the baptism of a merchant woman called "Lydia" from Thyatira, known as Lydia of Thyatira, in what had once been the satrapy of Lydia. Christianity spread rapidly during the 3rd century AD, based on the nearby Exarchate of Ephesus. ### Roman province of Lydia Under the tetrarchy reform of Emperor Diocletian in 296 AD, Lydia was revived as the name of a separate Roman province, much smaller than the former satrapy, with its capital at Sardis. Together with the provinces of Caria, Hellespontus, Lycia, Pamphylia, Phrygia prima and Phrygia secunda, Pisidia (all in modern Turkey) and the Insulae (Ionian islands, mostly in modern Greece), it formed the diocese (under a *vicarius*) of Asiana, which was part of the praetorian prefecture of Oriens, together with the dioceses Pontiana (most of the rest of Asia Minor), Oriens proper (mainly Syria), Aegyptus (Egypt) and Thraciae (on the Balkans, roughly Bulgaria). ### Byzantine (and Crusader) age Under the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (610–641), Lydia became part of Anatolikon, one of the original *themata*, and later of Thrakesion. Although the Seljuk Turks conquered most of the rest of Anatolia, forming the Sultanate of Ikonion (Konya), Lydia remained part of the Byzantine Empire. While the Venetians occupied Constantinople and Greece as a result of the Fourth Crusade, Lydia continued as a part of the Byzantine rump state called the Nicene Empire based at Nicaea until 1261. ### Under Turkish rule Lydia was captured finally by Turkish *beyliks*, which were all absorbed by the Ottoman state in 1390. The area became part of the Ottoman Aidin Vilayet (*province*), and is now in the modern republic of Turkey. Christianity ------------ Lydia had numerous Christian communities and, after Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in the 4th century, Lydia became one of the provinces of the diocese of Asia in the Patriarchate of Constantinople. The ecclesiastical province of Lydia had a metropolitan diocese at Sardis and suffragan dioceses for Philadelphia, Thyatira, Tripolis, Settae, Gordus, Tralles, Silandus, Maeonia, Apollonos Hierum, Mostene, Apollonias, Attalia, Hyrcania, Bage, Balandus, Hermocapella, Hierocaesarea, Acrassus, Dalda, Stratonicia, Cerasa, Gabala, Satala, Aureliopolis and Hellenopolis. Bishops from the various dioceses of Lydia were well represented at the Council of Nicaea in 325 and at the later ecumenical councils. ### Episcopal sees Ancient episcopal sees of the late Roman province of Lydia are listed in the *Annuario Pontificio* as titular sees: * Acrassus (in the upper valley of the Caicus) * Apollonis (Palamit) * Apollonos-Hieron (near Boldan) * Attalea in Lydia (Yanantepe) * Aureliopolis in Lydia * Bagis * Blaundus (ruins of Süleimanli near Uşak) * Caunus * Cerasa (Eliesler) * Daldis (Narikale) * Gordus * Hermocapelia (Yahyaköy) * Hierocaesarea * Hypaepa * Hyrcanis (Papazli) * Lipara (in the upper valley of the Caicus) * Mesotymolus (ruins near Takmak?) * Mostene (Asartepe) * Philadelphia in Lydia * Saittae (Sidaskale) * Sala (Kepecik) * Sardes, Metropolitan Archbishopric * Satala in Lydia (Gölde in Manisa Province) * Silandus * Stratonicea in Lydia * Tabala (Lydia) (Burgazkale) * Thyatira * Tracula (Darkale) * Tralles (ruins near Göne) * Tripolis in Lydia See also -------- * Ancient regions of Anatolia * Digda * List of Kings of Lydia * List of satraps of Lydia * Ludim Sources ------- * Braun, T. F. R. G. (1982). "The Greeks in Egypt". In Boardman, John; Hammond, N. G. L. (eds.). *The Cambridge Ancient History*. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 32–56. ISBN 978-0-521-23447-4. * Bury, J. B.; Meiggs, Russell (1975) [first published 1900]. *A History of Greece* (Fourth ed.). London: MacMillan Press. ISBN 0-333-15492-4. * Cook, J. M. (1988). "The Eastern Greeks". In Boardman, John; Hammond, N. G. L. (eds.). *The Cambridge Ancient History*. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 196–221. ISBN 978-0-521-23447-4. * Diakonoff, I. M. (1985). "Media". In Gershevitch, Ilya (ed.). *The Cambridge History of Iran*. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 36-148. ISBN 978-0-521-20091-2. * Graham, A. J. (1988). "The Colonial Expansion of Greece". In Boardman, John; Hammond, N. G. L. (eds.). *The Cambridge Ancient History*. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 83–162. ISBN 978-0-521-23447-4. * Grousset, René (1970). *The Empire of the Steppes*. Rutgers University Press. pp. 9. ISBN 0-8135-1304-9. * Herodotus (1975) [first published 1954]. Burn, A. R.; de Sélincourt, Aubrey (eds.). *The Histories*. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-051260-8. * Ivantchik, Askold (1993). *Les Cimmériens au Proche-Orient* [*The Cimmerians in the Near East*] (PDF) (in French). Fribourg, Switzerland; Göttingen, Germany: Editions Universitaires (Switzerland); Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (Germany). ISBN 978-3-727-80876-0. * Ivantchik, Askold (2006). Aruz, Joan; Farkas, Ann; Fino, Elisabetta Valtz (eds.). *The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Perspectives on the Steppe Nomads of the Ancient World*. New Haven, Connecticut, United States; New York City, United States; London, United Kingdom: The Metropolitan Museum of Art; Yale University Press. p. 146-153. ISBN 978-1-588-39205-3. * Mellink, M. (1991). "The Native Kingdoms of Anatolia". In Boardman, John; Edwards, I. E. S.; Hammond, N. G. L.; Sollberger, E.; Walker, C. B. F. (eds.). *The Cambridge Ancient History*. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 619–665. ISBN 978-1-139-05429-4. Further reading --------------- * Reid Goldsborough. "World's First Coin". 40°N 30°E / 40°N 30°E / 40; 30

Lydia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydia

**Dhu al-Hijja** (Arabic: ذُو ٱلْحِجَّة, romanized: *Ḏū al-Ḥijja* IPA: [ðu‿l.ħid͡ʒ.d͡ʒah]) is the twelfth and final month in the Islamic calendar. It is the month in which the *Ḥajj* (Pilgrimage) takes place as well as Eid al-Adha, the “Festival of the Sacrifice.” The Arabic name of the month, *Dhu al-Hijja*, means "Possessor of the Pilgrimage" or "The Month of the Pilgrimage". During this month, Muslim pilgrims from all around the world congregate at Mecca to visit the Kaaba. The Hajj is performed on the eighth, ninth and the tenth of this month. The Day of Arafah takes place on the ninth of the month. Eid al-Adha, the "Festival of the Sacrifice", begins on the tenth day and ends on sunset of the 13th. The name of this month is also spelled **Dhul-Hijja** or **Zu al-Hijja**. In Urdu, the month is commonly known as **Zilhaj** or **Zilhij**. In modern Turkish, the name is **Zilhicce**. Hadiths ------- According to Islamic traditions, the first 10 days of Dhu al-Hijja are the most blessed days in which to do good deeds according to Imam Ali: "9-10 Dhu al Hajja are the best days for nikah relations." Narrated Ibn Abbas: The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) said, "No good deeds done on other days are superior to those done on these (first ten days of Dhu al-Hijja)." Then some companions of the Prophet said, "Not even Jihad?" He replied, "Not even Jihad, except that of a man who does it by putting himself and his property in danger (for Allah's sake) and does not return with any of those things." (Reported by Tirmidhi) Prophet Muhammad ﷺ used to fast the first nine days of this month, owing to their perceived virtue . One of the wives[*vague*] of Muhammad said: "Allah's Messenger used to fast the [first] nine days of Dhul-Hijjah, the day of 'Ashurah, and three days of each month." (Reported by Abu Dawud) Timing ------ The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, and months begin when new moon is sighted. Since the Islamic lunar calendar year is 11 to 12 days shorter than the solar year, Dhu al-Hijja migrates throughout the seasons. The estimated start and end dates for Dhu al-Hijja, based on the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia, are: Dhu al-Hijjah dates between 2021 and 2025| AH | First day (CE/AD) | Last day (CE/AD) | | --- | --- | --- | | 1442 | 11 July 2021 | 08 August 2021 | | 1443 | 30 June 2022 | 29 July 2022 | | 1444 | 19 June 2023 | 18 July 2023 | | 1445 | 07 June 2024 | 06 July 2024 | | 1446 | 28 May 2025 | 25 June 2025 | Special days ------------ * The first 9 days of Dhu al-Hijja for fasting * The first 10 nights of Dhu al-Hijja for standing (Qiyaam) in Tahajjud * The 8th, 9th and 10th of Dhu al-Hijja as the days of Hajj * The 9th of Dhu al-Hijja as the Day of Arafah * Takbirut Tashreeq is observed from the 9 Dhu al-Hijja till 13 Dhu al-Hijja * The 10th of Dhu al-Hijja as the Night of Eid * Eid al-Adha (Festival of the Sacrifice) begins on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijja and ends on sunset of the 13th Dhu al-Hijja * 18th Dhu al-Hijja - Eid-al-Ghadeer Prescribed acts of worship -------------------------- The following acts have been prescribed for the first nine days of Dhu al-Hijja: * A person should give extra charity Sadaqah in these 9 days * Better your Salaah in these days * Spend time in the Masjid * Perform voluntary Nafl prayer at home * Recitation, Memorization and Reading of the Qur’an * Dhikr * Dua * Fasting the first nine days sawm * Iʿtikāf On the days of Qurbani, i.e. 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th of Dhu al-Hijja, the greatest action is the spilling of blood of a sacrificial animal (Qurbani). Reward for fasting and *Tahajjud* --------------------------------- According to the hadith, great rewards have been mentioned for fasting the first nine days of Dhu al-Hijja and standing in worship (Tahajjud) in the first 10 nights of Dhu al-Hijja: > The Prophet of Allah said: There are no days more beloved to Allah that he be worshipped in them than the ten days of Dhu al-Hijjah, fasting every day of them is equivalent to fasting a year; and standing every night of them (in Salaah) is equivalent to standing on the Night of Qadr. > > — Tirmidhi, 758 This hadith has been classed as a daeef(weak) hadith by many scholars, Narrated by at-Tirmidhi (no. 758); al-Bazzaar (no. 7816) and Ibn Maajah (1728) via Abu Bakr ibn Naafi‘ al-Basri, who said: Mas‘ood ibn Waasil told us, from Nahhaas ibn Qaham, from Qataadah, from Sa‘eed ibn al-Musayyab, from Abu Hurayrah.  This is a da‘eef isnaad because of an-Nahhaas ibn Qaham and Mas‘ood ibn Waasil. Hence the scholars of hadith unanimously agreed that it is to be classed as da‘eef.  At-Tirmidhi (may Allah have mercy on him) said:  This is a ghareeb hadith, which we know only from the hadith of Mas‘ood ibn Waasil, from an-Nahhaas.  I asked Muhammad – i.e., al-Bukhaari – about this hadith and he did not know it except via this isnaad.  Some of this was also narrated from Qataadah, from Sa‘eed ibn al-Musayyab, from the Prophet (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him) in a mursal report. Yahya ibn Sa‘eed criticised Nahhaas ibn Qaham with regard to his memory. End quote.  Al-Baghawi (may Allah have mercy on him) said:  Its isnaad is da‘eef (end quote)  Sharh as-Sunnah (2/624)  Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (may Allah have mercy on him) said: There is some weakness in it. End quote  Sharh al-‘Umdah (2/555)  Al-Haafiz Ibn Hajar (may Allah have mercy on him) said:  Its isnaad is da‘eef. End quote.  Fath al-Baari (2/534)  It was classed as da‘eef by Shaykh al-Albaani (may Allah have mercy on him) in as-Silsilah ad-Da‘eefah (no. 5142).  The reason for the 10 days being distinguished is due to the combination of worship in this period of prayer, fasting, charity, Takbir and Hajj. From the first nine days of Dhu al-Hijja, it is particularly recommended to fast the Day of Arafah (9 Dhu al-Hijja) as expiation of the sin of two years: > Abu Qatada narrates that Muhammad was asked about fasting on the Day of Arafah. He said: as for the fasting on the Day of Arafah, I anticipate that Allah will forgive the year (i.e. the sins of the year) after it and the year before it. > > — Tirmizi, 758 General events -------------- * 9 Dhu al-Hijja, Day of Arafah. * 10-13 Dhu al-Hijja, Eid al-Adha is observed by Muslims on the hajj and around the world in commemoration of the willingness of Ibrahim (Abraham) to sacrifice his son Isma'il (Ishmael) for Allah. ### Sunni * 18 Dhu al-Hijja, assassination of Uthman, the prominent companion and son-in-law of Muhammad and Khadija. Husband of Ruqayyah and Umm Kulthum. ### Shi'ite * 01 Dhu al-Hijja, *Nikah* (marriage) of Ali and Fatimah – AH 2 (24 February AD 624). * 07 Dhu al-Hijja, martyrdom of Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shīʿite Imām, Muhammad al-Bāqir ‐ AH 114. * 08 Dhu al-Hijja, Husayn ibn ʿAlī began his journey to Karbalāʾ from Mecca. * 09 Dhu al-Hijja, martyrdom of Muslim ibn ʿAqīl and Hani ibn Urwah in Kufah. It is also a day of supererogatory fasting – AH 60. * 15 Dhu al-Hijja, birth of Twelver Imām, ʿAlī al-Naqī - AH 214 [Disputed date]. * 18 Dhu al-Hijja, Shīʿite Muslims celebrate the event of Ghadir Khumm - AH 10. * 19 Dhu al-Hijja, Fatimah went to Ali's house after their marriage. * 23 Dhu al-Hijja, martyrdom of Meesam Tammar, friend of Ali – AH 60. * 23 Dhu al-Hijja, martyrdom of two sons of Muslim ibn ʿAqīl in Kufa - AH 60. * 24 Dhu al-Hijja, event of al-Mubahalah took place ('Eid al-Mubahilah). * 24 Dhu al-Hijja, some historians mention that the Hadith, Ahl al-Kisa', event was also on the same day prior to Muhammad setting out for Mubahila. * 24 Dhu al-Hijja, supplication day and giving of alms with the ring by Ali. In reply verse, "Verily your *Walee* is Allah; and His Messenger and those who establish *Salaat*, and pay *Zakaat* while they be in *Rukooʿ*. (Maa-Idah: 55)" was revealed. * 25 Dhu al-Hijja, Sura Al-Insan or Hal Ata, or Dahar, which records the giving of alms to orphans, the destitute and travellers by Fatimah Hasan and Husain was revealed. * 25 Dhu al-Hijja, Ali becomes the Caliph of Islam – AH 35.

Dhu al-Hijja

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhu_al-Hijja

The **history of Australia** is the story of the land and peoples of the continent of Australia. People first arrived on the Australian mainland by sea from Maritime Southeast Asia between 50,000 and 65,000 years ago, and penetrated to all parts of the continent, from the rainforests in the north, the deserts of the centre, and the sub-Antarctic islands of Tasmania and Bass Strait. The artistic, musical and spiritual traditions they established are among the longest surviving such traditions in human history. The first Torres Strait Islanders – ethnically and culturally distinct from the Aboriginal people – arrived from what is now Papua New Guinea around 2,500 years ago, and settled in the islands of the Torres Strait and the Cape York Peninsula forming the northern tip of the Australian landmass. The first known landing in Australia by Europeans was in 1606 by Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon on Australia's northern coast. Later that year, Spanish explorer Luís Vaz de Torres sailed through, and navigated, what is now called Torres Strait and associated islands. Twenty-nine other Dutch navigators explored the western and southern coasts in the 17th century and named the continent New Holland. Macassan trepangers visited Australia's northern coasts after 1720, possibly earlier. Other European explorers followed until, in 1770, Lieutenant James Cook charted the east coast of Australia and claimed it for Great Britain. He returned to London with accounts favouring colonisation at Botany Bay (now in Sydney). The First Fleet of British ships arrived at Botany Bay in January 1788 to establish a penal colony, the first colony on the Australian mainland. In the century that followed, the British established other colonies on the continent, and European explorers ventured into its interior. Aboriginal people were greatly weakened and their numbers diminished by introduced diseases and conflict with the colonists during this period. Gold rushes and agricultural industries brought prosperity. Transportation of British convicts to Australia was phased out from 1840 to 1868. Autonomous parliamentary democracies began to be established throughout the six British colonies from the mid-19th century. The colonies voted by referendum to unite in a federation in 1901, and modern Australia came into being. Australia fought as part of British Empire and later Commonwealth in the two world wars and was to become a long-standing ally of the United States when threatened by Imperial Japan during World War II. Trade with Asia increased and a post-war immigration program received more than 6.5 million migrants from every continent. Supported by immigration of people from almost every country in the world since the end of World War II, the population increased to more than 25.5 million by 2020, with 30 per cent of the population born overseas. Indigenous prehistory --------------------- Humans are believed to have arrived in Australia 50,000 to 65,000 years ago. As hunter-gatherers, they established enduring spiritual and artistic traditions and used a range of implements adapted to their environments. Recent estimates of the population at the time of British settlement range from 500,000 to one million. There is considerable archaeological discussion as to the route taken by the first population. People appear to have arrived by sea during a period of glaciation, when New Guinea and Tasmania were joined to the continent; however, the journey still required sea travel, making them among the world's earliest mariners. Scott Cane wrote in 2013 that the first wave may have been prompted by the eruption of Lake Toba. If they arrived about 70,000 years ago, they could have crossed the water from Timor, when the sea level was low, but if they came later, around 50,000 years ago, a more likely route would have been through the Moluccas to New Guinea. Given that the likely landfall regions have been under approximately 50 metres of water for the past 15,000 years, it is unlikely that the timing will ever be established with certainty. The oldest known sites of human occupation in Australia are in Arnhem Land in the north of the continent and have been dated to between 50,000 and 65,000 BP. The population spread into a range of very different environments. Devil's Lair in the extreme south-west of the continent was occupied around 47,000 BP and Tasmania by 39,000 BP. The earliest known human remains in Australia, found at Lake Mungo, a dry lake in the southwest of New South Wales, are about 40,000 years old. Remains found at Mungo suggest one of the world's oldest known cremations, thus indicating early evidence for religious ritual among humans. The spread of the population also altered the environment. There is evidence of the deliberate use of fire to shape the Australian environment 46,000 years ago. In many parts of Australia, firestick farming was used to clear vegetation to make travel easier, drive animals into ambushes, and create open grasslands rich in animal and vegetable food sources. More than 60 species of animals, including Australian megafauna, became extinct by 10,000 ago. Researchers have variously attributed these extinctions to human hunting and firing practices, climate change or a combination of these factors. The inhabitants developed other technologies to better exploit diverse environments. Fibre and nets for use in watercraft and fishing developed before 40,000 BP. More complex tools, such as edge-ground axes hafted to wooden handles, appeared by 35,000 BP. Elaborate trade networks also developed. Ochre was transported 250 kilometres from the Barrier Range to Lake Mungo 40,000 years ago. Shells (for decorative beads) were transported 500 kilometres by 30,000 BP. More extensive trade networks developed in later times. The earliest Aboriginal rock art consists of hand-prints, hand-stencils, and engravings of circles, tracks, lines and cupules, and has been dated to 35,000 years ago. Around 20,000 year ago Aboriginal artists were depicting humans and animals. However, the dating is contentious and some researchers believe that known examples of Aboriginal rock art are possibly more recent. The Aboriginal population was confronted with significant changes to climate and environment. About 30,000 years ago, sea levels began to fall, temperatures in the south-east of the continent dropped by as much as 9 degrees Celsius, and the interior of Australia became more arid. About 20,000 years ago, New Guinea and Tasmania were connected to the Australian continent, which was more than a quarter larger than today. About 19,000 years ago temperatures and sea levels began to rise. Tasmania became separated from the mainland some 14,000 years ago, and between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago thousands of islands in the Torres Strait and around the coast of Australia were formed. Josephine Flood writes that the flooding and loss of land as coastlines receded might have led to greater emphasis on territorial boundaries separating groups, stronger clan identity, and the development of the Rainbow Serpent and other mythologies. The warmer climate was associated with new technologies. Small back-bladed stone tools appeared 15–19 thousand years ago. Wooden javelins and boomerangs have been found dating from 10,000 years ago. Stone points for spears have been found dating from 5–7 thousand years ago. Spear throwers were probably developed more recently than 6,500 years ago. Sea levels stabilised at around their current level about 6,500 years ago. Warmer weather, wetter conditions and the new coastlines led to significant changes in Aboriginal social and economic organisation. New coastal societies emerged around tidal reefs, estuaries and flooded river valleys, and coastal islands were incorporated into local economies. There was a proliferation of stone tool, plant processing and landscape modification technologies. Elaborate fish and eel traps involving channels up to three kilometres long were in use in western Victoria from about 6,500 years ago. Semi-permanent collections of wooden huts on mounds also appeared in western Victoria, associated with a more systematic exploitation of new food sources in the wetlands. Aboriginal Tasmanians were isolated from the mainland from about 14,000 years ago. As a result, they only possessed one quarter of the tools and equipment of the adjacent mainland and were without hafted axes, grinding technology, stone tipped weapons, spear throwers and the boomerang. By 3,700 BP they had ceased to eat fish and use bone tools. Coastal Tasmanians switched from fish to abalone and crayfish and more Tasmanians moved to the interior. The Tasmanians built watercraft from reeds and bark and journeyed up to 10 kilometres offshore to visit islands and hunt for seals and muttonbirds. Around 4,000 years ago the first phase of occupation of the Torres Strait Islands began. By 2,500 years ago more of the islands were occupied and a distinctive Torres Strait Island maritime culture emerged. Agriculture also developed on some islands and by 700 years ago villages appeared. One genetic study in 2012 has suggested that about 4,000 years ago, some Indian explorers settled in Australia and assimilated into the local population. However, more recent studies do not support this view. Nevertheless, some innovations were imported to the mainland from neighbouring cultures. The dingo was introduced about 4,000 years ago. Shell fish hooks appeared in Australia about 1,200 years ago and were probably introduced from the Torres Strait or by Polynesian seafarers. From the mid-1660s fishing vessels from Indonesia regularly visited the north coast of Australia in search of trepang (sea cucumber). Trade and social relationships developed which were reflected in Aboriginal art, ceremonies and oral traditions. Aboriginal people adopted dugout canoes and metal harpoon heads from the Indonesians which allowed them to better hunt dugong and turtle off the coast and nearby islands. Despite these interactions with neighbouring cultures, the basic structure of Aboriginal society was unchanged. Family groups were joined in bands and clans averaging about 25 people, each with a defined territory for foraging. Clans were attached to tribes or nations, associated with particular languages and country. At the time of European contact there were about 600 tribes or nations and 250 distinct languages with various dialects. Aboriginal society was egalitarian with no formal government or chiefs. Authority rested with elders who held extensive ritual knowledge gained over many years. Group decisions were generally made through the consensus of elders. The traditional economy was cooperative, with males generally hunting large game while females gathered local staples such as small animals, shellfish, vegetables, fruits, seeds and nuts. Food was shared within groups and exchanged across groups. Aboriginal groups were semi-nomadic, generally ranging over a specific territory defined by natural features. Members of a group would enter the territory of another group through rights established by marriage and kinship or by invitation for specific purposes such as ceremonies and sharing abundant seasonal foods. As all natural features of the land were created by ancestral beings, a group's particular country provided physical and spiritual nourishment. According to Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, the Dreaming is a sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land. The extent to which some Aboriginal societies were agricultural is controversial. In the Lake Condah region of western Victoria the inhabitants built elaborate eel and fish traps and hundreds gathered in semi-permanent stone and bark huts during the eel season. However, these groups still moved across their territory several times a year to exploit other seasonal food sources. In semi-arid areas, millet was harvested, stacked and threshed and the seeds stored for later use. In tropical areas the tops of yams were replanted. Flood argues that such practices are better classified as resource management than agriculture and that Aboriginal societies did not develop the systematic cultivation of crops or permanent villages such as existed in the Torres Strait Islands. Elizabeth Williams has called the inhabitants of the more settled regions of the Murray valley "complex hunter gatherers". Early European exploration -------------------------- ### Dutch discovery and exploration Although a theory of Portuguese discovery in the 1520s exists, it lacks definitive evidence. The Dutch East India Company ship, *Duyfken*, captained by Willem Janszoon, made the first documented European landing in Australia in 1606. That same year, a Spanish expedition sailing in nearby waters and led by Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós had landed in the New Hebrides and, believing them to be the fabled southern continent, named the land "Austrialia del Espiritu Santo" (*Southern Land of the Holy Spirit*), in honour of his queen Margaret of Austria, the wife of Philip III of Spain. Later that year, Queirós' deputy Luís Vaz de Torres sailed to the north of Australia through Torres Strait, along New Guinea's southern coast. The Dutch contributed a great deal to Europe's knowledge of Australia's coast. In 1616, Dirk Hartog, sailing off course, en route from the Cape of Good Hope to Batavia, landed on an island off Shark Bay, Western Australia. In 1622–23 the ship *Leeuwin* made the first recorded rounding of the southwest corner of the continent, where Cape Leeuwin was later named after her (the name of the ship's captain is lost). In 1627, the south coast of Australia was accidentally discovered by François Thijssen and named *'t Land van Pieter Nuyts*, in honour of the highest ranking passenger, Pieter Nuyts, extraordinary Councillor of India. In 1628, a squadron of Dutch ships was sent by the Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies Pieter de Carpentier to explore the northern coast. These ships made extensive examinations, particularly in the Gulf of Carpentaria, named in honour of de Carpentier. Abel Tasman's voyage of 1642 was the first known European expedition to reach Van Diemen's Land (later Tasmania) and New Zealand, and to sight Fiji. On his second voyage of 1644, he also contributed significantly to the mapping of the Australian mainland (which he called New Holland), making observations on the land and people of the north coast below New Guinea. Following Tasman's voyages, the Dutch were able to make almost complete maps of Australia's northern and western coasts and much of its southern and south-eastern Tasmanian coasts, as reflected in the 1648 map by Joan Blaeu, *Nova et Accuratissima Terrarum Orbis Tabula.* ### British and French exploration William Dampier, an English buccaneer and explorer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688 and again in 1699, and published influential descriptions of the Aboriginal people. In 1769, Lieutenant James Cook in command of HMS *Endeavour*, travelled to Tahiti to observe and record the transit of Venus. Cook also carried secret Admiralty instructions to locate the supposed Southern Continent. This continent was not found, a disappointment to Alexander Dalrymple and his fellow members of the Royal Society who had urged the Admiralty to undertake this mission. Cook decided to survey the east coast of New Holland, the only major part of that continent that had not been charted by Dutch navigators. On 19 April 1770 the *Endeavour* reached the east coast of New Holland and ten days later anchored at Botany Bay. Cook charted the coast to its northern extent and formally took possession of the east coast of New Holland on 21/22 August 1770 when on Possession Island off the west coast of Cape York Peninsula. He noted in his journal that he could "land no more upon this Eastern coast of New Holland, and on the Western side I can make no new discovery the honour of which belongs to the Dutch Navigators *and as such they may lay Claim to it as their property* [italicised words crossed out in the original] but the Eastern Coast from the Latitude of 38 South down to this place I am confident was never seen or viseted by any European before us and *therefore by the same Rule belongs to great Brittan*" [italicised words crossed out in the original]. In March 1772 Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne, in command of two French ships, reached Van Diemen's land on his way to Tahiti and the South Seas. His party became the first recorded Europeans to encounter the Indigenous Tasmanians and to kill one of them. In the same year, a French expedition led by Louis Aleno de St Aloüarn, became the first Europeans to formally claim sovereignty over the west coast of Australia, but no attempt was made to follow this with colonisation. Colonisation ------------ ### Plans for colonisation before 1788 Although various proposals for the colonisation of Australia were made prior to 1788, none were attempted. In 1717, Jean-Pierre Purry sent a plan to the Dutch East India Company for the colonisation of an area in modern South Australia. The company rejected the plan with the comment that, "There is no prospect of use or benefit to the Company in it, but rather very certain and heavy costs". In contrast, Emanuel Bowen, in 1747, promoted the benefits of exploring and colonising the country, writing: > It is impossible to conceive a Country that promises fairer from its Situation than this of TERRA AUSTRALIS, no longer incognita, as this Map demonstrates, but the Southern Continent Discovered. It lies precisely in the richest climates of the World... and therefore whoever perfectly discovers and settles it will become infalliably possessed of Territories as Rich, as fruitful, and as capable of Improvement, as any that have hitherto been found out, either in the East Indies or the West. > > John Harris' *Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca, or Voyages and Travels* (1744–1748, 1764) recommended exploration of the east coast of New Holland, with a view to a British colonisation, by way of Abel Tasman's route to Van Diemen's Land. John Callander put forward a proposal in 1766 for Britain to found a colony of banished convicts in the South Sea or in Terra Australis to enable the mother country to exploit the riches of those regions. He said: "this world must present us with many things entirely new, as hitherto we have had little more knowledge of it, than if it had lain in another planet". Sweden's King Gustav III had ambitions to establish a colony for his country at the Swan River in 1786 but the plan was stillborn. Sixteen years after Cook's landfall on the east coast of Australia, the British government decided to establish a colony at Botany Bay. The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) saw Britain lose most of its North American colonies and consider establishing replacement territories. Britain had transported about 50,000 convicts to the New World from 1718 to 1775 and was now searching for an alternative. The temporary solution of floating prison hulks had reached capacity and was a public health hazard, while the option of building more jails and workhouses was deemed too expensive. In 1779, Sir Joseph Banks, the eminent scientist who had accompanied James Cook on his 1770 voyage, recommended Botany Bay as a suitable site for a penal settlement. Banks's plan was to send 200 to 300 convicts to Botany Bay where they could be left to their own devices and not be a burden on the British taxpayer. Under Banks's guidance, the American Loyalist James Matra, who had also travelled with Cook, produced a new plan for colonising New South Wales in 1783. Matra argued that the country was suitable for plantations of sugar, cotton and tobacco; New Zealand timber and hemp or flax could prove valuable commodities; it could form a base for Pacific trade; and it could be a suitable compensation for displaced American Loyalists. Following an interview with Secretary of State Lord Sydney in 1784, Matra amended his proposal to include convicts as settlers, considering that this would benefit both "Economy to the Publick, & Humanity to the Individual". The London newspapers announced in November 1784 that: "A plan has been presented to the [Prime] Minister, and is now before the Cabinet, for instituting a new colony in New Holland. In this vast tract of land....every sort of produce and improvement of which the various soils of the earth are capable, may be expected". The major alternative to Botany Bay was sending convicts to Africa. From 1775 convicts had been sent to garrison British forts in west Africa, but the experiment had proved unsuccessful. In 1783, the Pitt government considered exiling convicts to a small river island in Gambia where they could form a self-governing community, a "colony of thieves", at no expense to the government. In 1785, a parliamentary select committee chaired by Lord Beauchamp recommended against the Gambia plan, but failed to endorse the alternative of Botany Bay. In a second report, Beauchamp recommended a penal settlement at Das Voltas Bay in modern Namibia. The plan was dropped, however, when an investigation of the site in 1786 found it to be unsuitable. Two weeks later, In August 1786, the Pitt government announced its intention to send convicts to Botany Bay. The Government incorporated the settlement of Norfolk Island into their plan, with its attractions of timber and flax, proposed by Banks's Royal Society colleagues, Sir John Call and Sir George Young. There has been a longstanding debate over whether the key consideration in the decision to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay was the pressing need to find a solution to the penal management problem, or whether broader imperial goals — such as trade, securing new supplies of timber and flax for the navy, and the desirability of strategic ports in the region — were paramount. Leading historians in the debate have included Sir Ernest Scott, Geoffrey Blainey, and Alan Frost. The decision to settle was taken when it seemed the outbreak of civil war in the Netherlands might precipitate a war in which Britain would be again confronted with the alliance of the three naval Powers, France, Holland and Spain, which had brought her to defeat in 1783. Under these circumstances a naval base in New South Wales which could facilitate attacks on Dutch and Spanish interests in the region would be attractive. Specific plans for using the colony as a strategic base against Spanish interests were occasionally made after 1788, but never implemented. Macintyre argues that the evidence for a military-strategic motive in establishing the colony is largely circumstantial and hard to reconcile with the strict ban on establishing a shipyard in the colony. Karskens points out that the instructions provided to the first five governors of New South Wales show that the initial plans for the colony were limited. The settlement was to be a self-sufficient penal colony based on subsistence agriculture. Trade, shipping and ship building were banned in order to keep the convicts isolated and so as not to interfere with the trade monopoly of the British East India Company. There was no plan for economic development apart from investigating the possibility of producing raw materials for Britain. Christopher and Maxwell-Stewart argue that whatever the government's original motives were in establishing the colony, by the 1790s it had at least achieved the imperial objective of providing a harbour where vessels could be careened and resupplied. ### The colony of New South Wales #### Establishment of the colony: 1788 to 1792 The territory of New South Wales claimed by Britain included all of Australia eastward of the meridian of 135° East. This included more than half of mainland Australia and reflected the line of division between the claims of Spain and Portugal established in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. Watkin Tench subsequently commented in *A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay*, "By this partition, it may be fairly presumed, that every source of future litigation between the Dutch and us, will be for ever cut off, as the discoveries of English navigators only are comprized in this territory". The claim also included "all the Islands adjacent in the Pacific" between the latitudes of Cape York and the southern tip of Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania). King argues that an unofficial British map published in 1786 (*A General Chart of New Holland*) showed the possible extend of this claim. In 1817, the British government withdrew the extensive territorial claim over the South Pacific, passing an act specifying that Tahiti, New Zealand and other islands of the South Pacific were not within His Majesty's dominions. However, it is unclear whether the claim ever extended to the current islands of New Zealand. The colony of New South Wales was established with the arrival of the First Fleet of 11 vessels under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip in January 1788. It consisted of more than a thousand settlers, including 778 convicts (192 women and 586 men). A few days after arrival at Botany Bay the fleet moved to the more suitable Port Jackson where a settlement was established at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788. This date later became Australia's national day, Australia Day. The colony was formally proclaimed by Governor Phillip on 7 February 1788 at Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Philip described as being, 'with out exception the finest Harbour in the World [...] Here a Thousand Sail of the Line may ride in the most perfect Security'. Governor Phillip was vested with complete authority over the inhabitants of the colony. His personal intent was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony. Phillip and several of his officers—most notably Watkin Tench—left behind journals and accounts of which tell of immense hardships during the first years of settlement. Often Phillip's officers despaired for the future of New South Wales. Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from overseas were scarce. Between 1788 and 1792 about 3546 male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney. Many new arrivals were sick or unfit for work and the conditions of healthy convicts only deteriorated with hard labour and poor sustenance in the settlement. The food situation reached crisis point in 1790 and the Second Fleet which finally arrived in June 1790 had lost a quarter of its 'passengers' through sickness, while the condition of the convicts of the Third Fleet appalled Phillip; however, from 1791 the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and improved supplies. In 1788, Phillip established a subsidiary settlement on Norfolk Island in the South Pacific where he hoped to obtain timber and flax for the navy. The island, however, had no safe harbour, which led the settlement to be abandoned and the settlers evacuated to Tasmania in 1807. The island was subsequently re-established as a site for secondary transportation in 1825. Phillip sent exploratory missions in search of better soils, fixed on the Parramatta region as a promising area for expansion, and moved many of the convicts from late 1788 to establish a small township, which became the main centre of the colony's economic life. This left Sydney Cove only as an important port and focus of social life. Poor equipment and unfamiliar soils and climate continued to hamper the expansion of farming from Farm Cove to Parramatta and Toongabbie, but a building program, assisted by convict labour, advanced steadily. Between 1788 and 1792, convicts and their gaolers made up the majority of the population; however, a free population soon began to grow, consisting of emancipated convicts, locally born children, soldiers whose military service had expired and, finally, free settlers from Britain. Governor Phillip departed the colony for England on 11 December 1792, with the new settlement having survived near starvation and immense isolation for four years. A number of foreign commentators pointed to the strategic importance of the new colony. Spanish naval commander Alessandro Malaspina, who visited Sydney in March–April 1793 reported to his government that: "The transportation of the convicts constituted the means and not the object of the enterprise. The extension of dominion, mercantile speculations and the discovery of mines were the real object." Frenchman François Péron, of the Baudin expedition visited Sydney in 1802 and reported to the French Government: "How can it be conceived that such a monstrous invasion was accomplished, with no complaint in Europe to protest against it? How can it be conceived that Spain, who had previously raised so many objections opposing the occupation of the Malouines (Falkland Islands), meekly allowed a formidable empire to arise to facing her richest possessions, an empire which must either invade or liberate them?" King points out that supporters of the penal colony frequently compared the venture to the foundation of Rome, and that the first Great Seal of New South Wales alluded to this. Phillip, however, wrote, "I would not wish Convicts to lay the foundations of an Empire...[.]" #### Consolidation: 1793 to 1821 After the departure of Phillip, the colony's military officers began acquiring land and importing consumer goods obtained from visiting ships. Former convicts also farmed land granted to them and engaged in trade. Farms spread to the more fertile lands surrounding Paramatta, Windsor and Camden, and by 1803 the colony was self-sufficient in grain. Boat building developed in order to make travel easier and exploit the marine resources of the coastal settlements. Sealing and whaling became important industries. The New South Wales Corps was formed in England in 1789 as a permanent regiment of the British Army to relieve the marines who had accompanied the First Fleet. Officers of the Corps soon became involved in the corrupt and lucrative rum trade in the colony. Governor William Bligh (1806 -– 1808) tried to suppress the rum trade and the illegal use of Crown Land, resulting in the Rum Rebellion of 1808. The Corps, working closely with the newly established wool trader John Macarthur, staged the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history, deposing Bligh and instigating a brief period of military rule prior to the arrival from Britain of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810. Macquarie served as the last autocratic Governor of New South Wales, from 1810 to 1821, and had a leading role in the social and economic development of New South Wales which saw it transition from a penal colony to a budding civil society. He established a bank, a currency and a hospital. He employed a planner to design the street layout of Sydney and commissioned the construction of roads, wharves, churches, and public buildings. He sent explorers out from Sydney and, in 1815, a road across the Blue Mountains was completed, opening the way for large scale farming and grazing in the lightly-wooded pastures west of the Great Dividing Range. Central to Macquarie's policy was his treatment of the emancipists, whom he considered should be treated as social equals to free-settlers in the colony. He appointed emancipists to key government positions including Francis Greenway as colonial architect and William Redfern as a magistrate. His policy on emancipists was opposed by many influential free settlers, officers and officials, and London became concerned at the cost of his public works. In 1819, London appointed J. T. Bigge to conduct an inquiry into the colony, and Macquarie resigned shortly before the report of the inquiry was published. #### Expansion: 1821 to 1850 In 1820, British settlement was largely confined to a 100 kilometre radius around Sydney and to the central plain of Van Diemen's land. The settler population was 26,000 on the mainland and 6,000 in Van Diemen's Land. Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 the transportation of convicts increased rapidly and the number of free settlers grew steadily. From 1821 to 1840, 55,000 convicts arrived in New South Wales and 60,000 in Van Diemen's Land. However, by 1830, free settlers and the locally born exceeded the convict population of New South Wales. From the 1820s squatters increasingly established unauthorised cattle and sheep runs beyond the official limits of the settled colony. In 1836, a system of annual licences authorising grazing on Crown Land was introduced in an attempt to control the pastoral industry, but booming wool prices and the high cost of land in the settled areas encouraged further squatting. By 1844 wool accounted for half of the colony's exports and by 1850 most of the eastern third of New South Wales was controlled by fewer than 2,000 pastoralists. In 1825, the western boundary of New South Wales was extended to longitude 129° East, which is the current boundary of Western Australia. As a result, the territory of New South Wales reached its greatest extent, covering the area of the modern state as well as modern Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and the Northern Territory. By 1850 the settler population of New South Wales had grown to 180,000, not including the 70–75 thousand living in the area which became the separate colony of Victoria in 1851. ### Establishment of further colonies #### Van Diemen's Land After hosting Nicholas Baudin's French naval expedition in Sydney in 1802, Governor Phillip Gidley King decided to establish a settlement in Van Diemen's Land (modern Tasmania) in 1803, partly to forestall a possible French settlement. The British settlement of the island soon centred on Launceston in the north and Hobart in the south. For the first two decades the settlement relied heavily on convict labour, small-scale farming and sheep grazing, sealing, whaling and the "dog and kangaroo" economy where emancipists and escaped convicts hunted native game with guns and dogs. From the 1820s free settlers were encouraged by the offer of land grants in proportion to the capital the settlers would bring. Almost 2 million acres of land was granted to free settlers in the decade, and the number of sheep in the island increased from 170,000 to a million. The land grants created a social division between large landowners and a majority of landless convicts and emancipists. Van Diemen's Land became a separate colony from New South Wales in December 1825 and continued to expand through the 1830s, supported by farming, sheep grazing and whaling. Following the suspension of convict transportation to New South Wales in 1840, Van Diemen's land became the main destination for convicts. Transportation to Van Diemen's Land ended in 1853 and in 1856 the colony officially changed its name to Tasmania. #### Victoria Pastoralists from Van Diemen's land began squatting in the Port Phillip hinterland on the mainland in 1834, attracted by its rich grasslands. In 1835, John Batman and others negotiated the transfer of 100,000 acres of land from the Kulin people. However, the treaty was annulled the same year when the British Colonial Office issued the *Proclamation of Governor Bourke* stating that all unalienated land in the colony was vacant Crown Land, irrespective of whether it was occupied by traditional landowners. Its publication meant that from then, all people found occupying land without the authority of the government would be considered illegal trespassers. In 1836, Port Phillip was officially recognised as a district of New South Wales and opened for settlement. The main settlement of Melbourne was established in 1837 as a planned town on the instructions of Governor Bourke. Squatters and settlers from Van Diemen's Land and New South Wales soon arrived in large numbers, and by 1850 the district had a population of 75,000 Europeans, 2,000 Indigenous inhabitants and 5 million sheep. In 1851, the Port Phillip District separated from New South Wales as the colony of Victoria. #### Western Australia In 1826, the governor of New South Wales, Ralph Darling, sent a military garrison to King George Sound (the basis of the later town of Albany), to deter the French from establishing a settlement in Western Australia. In 1827, the head of the expedition, Major Edmund Lockyer, formally annexed the western third of the continent as a British colony. In 1829, the Swan River colony was established at the sites of modern Fremantle and Perth, becoming the first convict-free and privatised colony in Australia. However, much of the arable land was allocated to absentee owners and the development of the colony was hampered by poor soil, the dry climate, and a lack of capital and labour. By 1850 there were a little more than 5,000 settlers, half of them children. The colony accepted convicts from that year because of the acute shortage of labour. #### South Australia The Province of South Australia was established in 1836 as a privately financed settlement based on the theory of "systematic colonisation" developed by Edward Gibbon Wakefield. The intention was to found a free colony based on private investment at little cost to the British government. Power was divided between the Crown and a Board of Commissioners of Colonisation, responsible to about 300 shareholders. Settlement was to be controlled to promote a balance between land, capital and labour. Convict labour was banned in the hope of making the colony more attractive to "respectable" families and promote an even balance between male and female settlers. The city of Adelaide was to be planned with a generous provision of churches, parks and schools. Land was to be sold at a uniform price and the proceeds used to secure an adequate supply of labour through selective assisted migration. Various religious, personal and commercial freedoms were guaranteed, and the Letters Patent enabling the South Australia Act 1834 included a guarantee of the rights of 'any Aboriginal Natives' and their descendants to lands they 'now actually occupied or enjoyed'. The colony was badly hit by the depression of 1841–44, and overproduction of wheat and overinvestment in infrastructure almost bankrupted it. Conflict with Indigenous traditional landowners also reduced the protections they had been promised. In 1842, the settlement became a Crown colony administered by the governor and an appointed Legislative Council. The economy recovered from 1845, supported by wheat farming, sheep grazing and a boom in copper mining. By 1850 the settler population had grown to 60,000 and the following year the colony achieved limited self-government with a partially elected Legislative Council. #### Queensland In 1824, the Moreton Bay penal settlement was established on the site of present day Brisbane as a place of secondary punishment. In 1842, the penal colony was closed and the area was opened for free settlement. By 1850 the population of Brisbane had reached 8,000 and increasing numbers of pastoralists were grazing cattle and sheep in the Darling Downs west of the town. However, several attempts to establish settlements north of the Tropic of Capricorn had failed, and the settler population in the north remained small. Frontier violence between settlers and the Indigenous population became severe as pastoralism expanded north of the Tweed River. A series of disputes between northern pastoralists and the government in Sydney led to increasing demands from the northern settlers for separation from New South Wales. In 1857, the British government agreed to the separation and in 1859 the colony of Queensland was proclaimed. The settler population of the new colony was 25,000 and the vast majority of its territory was still occupied by its traditional owners. ### Convicts and colonial society #### Convicts and emancipists Between 1788 and 1868, approximately 161,700 convicts (of whom 25,000 were women) were transported to the Australian colonies of New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land and Western Australia. Historian Lloyd Robson has estimated that perhaps two-thirds were thieves from working class towns, particularly from the Midlands and north of England. The majority were repeat offenders. The literacy rate of convicts was above average and they brought a range of useful skills to the new colony including building, farming, sailing, fishing and hunting. The small number of free settlers meant that early governors also had to rely on convicts and emancipists for professions such as lawyers, architects, surveyors and teachers. The first governors saw New South Wales as a place of punishment and reform of convicts. Convicts worked on government farms and public works such as land clearing and building. After 1792 the majority were assigned to work for private employers including emancipists (as transported convicts who had completed their sentence or had been pardoned called themselves). Emancipists were granted small plots of land for farming and a year of government rations. Later they were assigned convict labour to help them work their farms. Some convicts were assigned to military officers to run their businesses because the officers did not want to be directly associated with trade. These convicts learnt commercial skills which could help them work for themselves when their sentence ended or they were granted a "ticket of leave" (a form of parole). Convicts soon established a system of piece work which allowed them to work for wages once their allocated tasks were completed. Due to the shortage of labour, wage rates before 1815 were high for male workers although much lower for females engaged in domestic work. In 1814, Governor Macquarie ordered that convicts had to work until 3 p.m. after which private employers had to pay them wages for any additional work. By 1821 convicts, emancipists and their children owned two-thirds of the land under cultivation, half the cattle and one-third of the sheep. They also worked in trades and small business. Emancipists employed about half of the convicts assigned to private masters. After 1815 wages and employment opportunities for convicts and emancipists deteriorated as a sharp increase in the number of convicts transported led to an oversupply of labour. A series of reforms recommended by J. T. Bigge in 1822 and 1823 also sought to change the nature of the colony and make transportation "an object of real terror". The food ration for convicts was cut and their opportunities to work for wages restricted. More convicts were assigned to rural work gangs, bureaucratic control and surveillance of convicts was made more systematic, isolated penal settlements were established as places of secondary punishment, the rules for tickets of leave were tightened, and land grants were skewed to favour free settlers with large capital. As a result, convicts who arrived after 1820 were far less likely to become property owners, to marry, and to establish families. #### Free settlers The Bigge reforms also aimed to encourage affluent free settlers by offering them land grants for farming and grazing in proportion to their capital. From 1831 the colonies replaced land grants with land sales by auction at a fixed minimum price per acre, the proceeds being used to fund the assisted migration of workers. From 1821 to 1850 Australia attracted 200,000 immigrants from the United Kingdom. Although most immigrants settled in towns, many were attracted to the high wages and business opportunities available in rural areas. However, the system of land grants, and later land sales, led to the concentration of land in the hands of a small number of affluent settlers. Two-thirds of the migrants to Australia during this period received assistance from the British or colonial governments. Healthy young workers without dependants were favoured for assisted migration, especially those with experience as agricultural labourers or domestic workers. Families of convicts were also offered free passage and about 3,500 migrants were selected under the English Poor Laws. Various special-purpose and charitable schemes, such as those of Caroline Chisholm and John Dunmore Lang, also provided migration assistance. #### Women Colonial Australia was characterised by an imbalance of the sexes as women comprised only about 15 per cent of convicts transported. The first female convicts brought a range of skills including experience as domestic workers, dairy women and farm workers. Due to the shortage of women in the colony they were more likely to marry than men and tended to choose older, skilled men with property as husbands. The early colonial courts enforced the property rights of women independently of their husbands, and the ration system also gave women and their children some protection from abandonment. Women were active in business and agriculture from the early years of the colony, among the most successful being the former convict turned entrepreneur Mary Reibey and the agriculturalist Elizabeth Macarthur. One-third of the shareholders of the first colonial bank (founded in 1817) were women. One of the goals of the assisted migration programs from the 1830s was to promote migration of women and families to provide a more even gender balance in the colonies. The philanthropist Caroline Chisholm established a shelter and labour exchange for migrant women in New South Wales in the 1840s and promoted the settlement of single and married women in rural areas where she hoped they would have a civilising influence on rough colonial manners and act as "God's police". Between 1830 and 1850 the female proportion of the Australian settler population increased from 24 per cent to 41 per cent. #### Religion The early chaplains of the colony were also civil magistrates with the power to discipline convicts and grant tickets of leave. The Church of England was the only recognised church before 1820 and its clergy worked closely with the governors. Richard Johnson, (chief chaplain 1788–1802) was charged by Governor Arthur Phillip, with improving "public morality" in the colony and was also heavily involved in health and education. Samuel Marsden (various ministries 1795–1838) became known for his missionary work, the severity of his punishments as a magistrate, and the vehemence of his public denunciations of Catholicism and Irish convicts. About a quarter of convicts were Catholics and they frequently requested a Catholic priest to perform their rites. The lack of official recognition of Catholicism was combined with suspicion of Irish convicts which only increased after the Irish-led Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804. Only two Catholic priests operated temporarily in the colony before Governor Macquarie appointed official Catholic chaplains in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land in 1820. The Bigge reports recommended that the status of the Anglican Church be enhanced as source of stability and moral authority in the colony. An Anglican archdeacon was appointed in 1824 and allocated a seat in the first advisory Legislative Council. The Anglican clergy and schools also received state support. This policy was changed under Governor Burke by the Church Acts of 1836 and 1837. The government now provided state support for the clergy and church buildings of the four largest denominations: Anglican, Catholic, Presbyterian and, later, Methodist. The Church Acts did not alleviate sectarianism as many Anglicans saw state support of the Catholic Church as a threat. The prominent Presbyterian minister John Dunmore Lang also promoted sectarian divisions in the 1840s. State support, however, led to a growth in church activities. Charitable associations such as the Catholic Sisters of Charity, founded in 1838, provided hospitals, orphanages and asylums for the old and disabled. Religious organisations were also the main providers of school education in the first half of the nineteenth century, a notable example being Lang's Australian College which opened in 1831. Many religious associations, such as the Sisters of St Joseph, co-founded by Mary MacKillop in 1866, continued their educational activities after the provision of secular state schools grew from the 1850s. ### Exploration of the continent In 1798–99 George Bass and Matthew Flinders set out from Sydney in a sloop and circumnavigated Tasmania, thus proving it to be an island. In 1801–02 Matthew Flinders in HMS *Investigator* led the first circumnavigation of Australia. Aboard ship was the Aboriginal explorer Bungaree, of the Sydney district, who became the first person born on the Australian continent to circumnavigate the Australian continent. In 1798, the former convict John Wilson and two companions crossed the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney, in an expedition ordered by Governor Hunter. Hunter suppressed news of the feat for fear that it would encourage convicts to abscond from the settlement. In 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Wentworth crossed the mountains by a different route and a road was soon built to the Central Tablelands. In 1824, the Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane, commissioned Hamilton Hume and former Royal Navy Captain William Hovell to lead an expedition to find new grazing land in the south of the colony, and also to find an answer to the mystery of where New South Wales' western rivers flowed. Over 16 weeks in 1824–25, Hume and Hovell journeyed to Port Phillip and back. They made many important discoveries including the Murray River (which they named the Hume), many of its tributaries, and good agricultural and grazing lands between Gunning, New South Wales and Corio Bay, Port Phillip. Charles Sturt led an expedition along the Macquarie River in 1828 and discovered the Darling River. A theory had developed that the inland rivers of New South Wales were draining into an inland sea. Leading a second expedition in 1829, Sturt followed the Murrumbidgee River into a 'broad and noble river', which he named the Murray River. His party then followed this river to its junction with the Darling River. Sturt continued down river on to Lake Alexandrina, where the Murray meets the sea in South Australia. Surveyor General Sir Thomas Mitchell conducted a series of expeditions from the 1830s to 'fill in the gaps' left by these previous expeditions. Mitchell employed three Aboriginal guides and was meticulous in recording the Aboriginal place names around the colony. He also recorded a violent encounter with traditional owners on the Murray in 1836 in which his men pursued them, "shooting as many as they could." The Polish scientist and explorer Count Paul Edmund Strzelecki conducted surveying work in the Australian Alps in 1839 and, led by his two Aboriginal guides Charlie Tarra and Jackie, became the first European to ascend Australia's highest peak, which he named Mount Kosciuszko in honour of the Polish patriot Tadeusz Kościuszko. European explorers penetrated deeper into the interior in the 1840s in a quest to discover new lands for agriculture or answer scientific enquiries. The German scientist Ludwig Leichhardt led three expeditions in northern Australia in this decade, sometimes with the help of Aboriginal guides, identifying the grazing potential of the region and making important discoveries in the fields of botany and geology. He and his party disappeared in 1848 while attempting to cross the continent from east to west. Edmund Kennedy led an expedition into what is now far-western Queensland in 1847 before being speared by Aborigines in the Cape York Peninsula in 1848. In 1860, Burke and Wills led the first south–north crossing of the continent from Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Lacking bushcraft and unwilling to learn from the local Aboriginal people, Burke and Wills died in 1861, having returned from the Gulf to their rendezvous point at Coopers Creek only to discover the rest of their party had departed the location only a matter of hours previously. They became tragic heroes to the European settlers, their funeral attracting a crowd of more than 50,000 and their story inspiring numerous books, artworks, films and representations in popular culture. In 1862, John McDouall Stuart succeeded in traversing Central Australia from south to north. His expedition mapped out the route which was later followed by the Australian Overland Telegraph Line. The completion of the Overland Telegraph Line in 1872 was associated with further exploration of the Gibson Desert and the Nullarbor Plain. While exploring central Australia in 1872, Ernest Giles sighted Kata Tjuta from a location near Kings Canyon and called it Mount Olga. The following year Willian Gosse observed Uluru and named it Ayers Rock, in honour of the Chief Secretary of South Australia, Sir Henry Ayers. In 1879, Alexander Forrest trekked from the north coast of Western Australia to the Overland Telegraph, discovering land suitable for grazing in the Kimberley region. ### Impact of British settlement on Indigenous population When the First Fleet arrived in Sydney Cove with some 1,300 colonists in January 1788 the Aboriginal population of the Sydney region is estimated to have been about 3,000 people. The first governor of New South Wales, Arthur Phillip, arrived with instructions to: "endeavour by every possible means to open an Intercourse with the Natives and to conciliate their affections, enjoining all Our Subjects to live in amity and kindness with them." #### Disease The relative isolation of the Indigenous population for some 60,000 years meant that they had little resistance to many introduced diseases. An outbreak of smallpox in April 1789 killed about half the Aboriginal population of the Sydney region while only one death was recorded among the settlers. The source of the outbreak is controversial; some researchers contend that it originated from contact with Indonesian fisherman in the far north and spread along Aboriginal trade routes while others argue that it is more likely to have been deliberately spread by settlers. There were further smallpox outbreaks devastating Aboriginal populations from the late 1820s (affecting south-eastern Australia), in the early 1860s (travelling inland from the Coburg Peninsula in the north to the Great Australian Bight in the south), and in the late 1860s (from the Kimberley to Geraldton). According to Josphine Flood, the estimated Aboriginal mortality rate from smallpox was 60 per cent on first exposure, 50 per cent in the tropics, and 25 per cent in the arid interior. Other introduced diseases such as measles, influenza, typhoid and tuberculosis also resulted in high death rates in Aboriginal communities. Butlin estimates that the Aboriginal population in the area of modern Victoria was around 50,000 in 1788 before two smallpox outbreaks reduced it to about 12,500 in 1830. Between 1835 (the settlement of Port Phillip) and 1853, the Aboriginal population of Victoria fell from 10,000 to around 2,000. It is estimated that about 60 per cent of these deaths were from introduced diseases, 18 per cent from natural causes and 15 per cent from settler violence. Venereal diseases were also a factor in Indigenous depopulation, reducing Aboriginal fertility rates in south-eastern Australia by an estimated 40 per cent by 1855. By 1890 up to 50 per cent of the Aboriginal population in some regions of Queensland were affected. #### Conflict and dispossession The British settlement was initially planned to be a self-sufficient penal colony based on agriculture. Karskens argues that conflict broke out between the settlers and the traditional owners of the land because of the settlers' assumptions about the superiority of British civilisation and their entitlement to land which they had "improved" through building and cultivation. Broome argues that the British claims of exclusive possession to land and other property was irreconcilable with Aboriginal concepts of communal ownership of land and its food resources. Flood points out that conflict between British law and Aboriginal customary law was also a source of conflict; for example, Aboriginal groups considered they had a right to hunt all animals on their traditional land whereas British settlers considered the killing of their livestock as poaching. Conflict also arose from cross-cultural misunderstandings and from reprisals for previous actions such as the kidnapping of Aboriginal men, women and children. Reprisal attacks and collective punishments were perpetrated by colonists and Aboriginal groups alike. Sustained Aboriginal attacks on settlers, the burning of crops and the mass killing of livestock were more obviously acts of resistance to the loss of traditional land and food resources. As the colony spread to the more fertile lands around the Hawkesbury river, north-west of Sydney, conflict between the settlers and the Darug people intensified, reaching a peak from 1794 to 1810. Bands of Darug people, led by Pemulwuy and later by his son Tedbury, burned crops, killed livestock and raided settler huts and stores in a pattern of resistance that was to be repeated as the colonial frontier expanded. A military garrison was established on the Hawkesbury in 1795. The death toll from 1794 to 1800 was 26 settlers and up to 200 Darug. Conflict again erupted from 1814 to 1816 with the expansion of the colony into Dharawal country in the Nepean region south-west of Sydney. Following the deaths of several settlers, Governor Macquarie despatched three military detachments into Dharawal lands, culminating in the Appin massacre (April 1816) in which at least 14 Aboriginal people were killed. In the 1820s the colony spread to the lightly-wooded pastures west of the Great Dividing Range, opening the way for large scale farming and grazing in Wiradjuri country. From 1822 to 1824 Windradyne led a group of 50-100 Aboriginal men in raids on livestock and stockmen's huts resulting in the death of 15-20 colonists. Martial law was declared in August 1824 and ended five months later when Windradyne and 260 of his followers ended their armed resistance. Estimates of Aboriginal deaths in the conflict range from 15 to 100. After two decades of sporadic violence between settlers and Aboriginal Tasmanians in Van Diemen's land, the Black War broke out in 1824, following a rapid expansion of settler numbers and sheep grazing in the island's interior. When Eumarrah, leader of the North Midlands people, was captured in 1828 he said his patriotic duty was to kill as many white people as possible because they had driven his people off their kangaroo hunting grounds. Martial law was declared in the settled districts of Van Diemen's Land in November 1828 and was extended to the entire island in October 1830. A "Black Line" of around 2,200 troops and settlers then swept the island with the intention of driving the Aboriginal population from the settled districts. From 1830 to 1834 George Augustus Robinson and Aboriginal ambassadors including Truganini led a series of "Friendly Missions" to the Aboriginal tribes which effectively ended the Black War. Flood states that around 200 settler and 330 Aboriginal Tasmanian deaths in frontier violence were recorded during the period 1803 to 1834, but adds that it will never be known how many Aboriginal deaths went unreported. Clements estimates that colonists killed 600 Aboriginal people in eastern Van Diemen's Land during the Black War. Around 220 Aboriginal Tasmanians were eventually relocated to Flinders Island. As settlers and pastoralists spread into the region of modern Victoria in the 1830s, competition for land and natural resources again sparked conflict with traditional landowners. Aboriginal resistance was so intense that it was not unusual for sheep runs to be abandoned after repeated attacks. Broome estimates that 80 settlers and 1,000–1,500 Aboriginal people died in frontier conflict in Victoria from 1835 to 1853. The growth of the Swan River Colony (centred on Fremantle and Perth) in the 1830s led to conflict with a number of clans of the Noongar people. Governor Sterling established a mounted police force in 1834 and in October that year he led a mixed force of soldiers, mounted police and civilians in a punitive expedition against the Pindjarup. The expedition culminated in the Pinjarra massacre in which some 15 to 30 Aboriginal people were killed. According to Neville Green, 30 settlers and 121 Aboriginal people died in violent conflict in Western Australia between 1826 and 1852. The spread of sheep and cattle grazing in grasslands and semi-arid regions of Australia after 1850 brought further conflict with Aboriginal tribes more distant from the closely settled areas. Aboriginal casualty rates in conflicts increased as the colonists made greater use of mounted police, Native Police units, and newly developed revolvers and breech-loaded guns. Civilian colonists often launched punitive raids against Aboriginal groups without the knowledge of colonial authorities. Conflict was particularly intense in NSW in the 1840s and in Queensland from 1860 to 1880. In central Australia, it is estimated that 650 to 850 Aboriginal people, out of a population of 4,500, were killed by colonists from 1860 to 1895. In the Gulf Country of northern Australia five settlers and 300 Aboriginal people were killed before 1886. The last recorded massacre of Aboriginal people by settlers was at Coniston in the Northern Territory in 1928 where at least 31 Aboriginal people were killed. The spread of British settlement also led to an increase in inter-tribal Aboriginal conflict as more people were forced off their traditional lands into the territory of other, often hostile, tribes. Butlin estimated that of the 8,000 Aboriginal deaths in Victoria from 1835 to 1855, 200 were from inter-tribal violence. Broome estimates the total death toll from settler-Aboriginal conflict between 1788 and 1928 as 1,700 settlers and 17–20,000 Aboriginal people. Reynolds has suggested a higher "guesstimate" of 3,000 settlers and up to 30,000 Aboriginals killed. A project team at the University of Newcastle, Australia, has reached a preliminary estimate of 8,270 Aboriginal deaths in frontier massacres from 1788 to 1930. #### Accommodation and protection In the first two years of settlement the Aboriginal people of Sydney, after initial curiosity, mostly avoided the newcomers. Governor Phillip had a number of Aboriginal people kidnapped in an attempt to learn their language and customs. One of these, Bennelong, led the survivors of several clans into Sydney in November 1790, 18 months after the smallpox epidemic that had devastated the Aboriginal population. Bungaree, a Kuringgai man, joined Matthew Flinders in his circumnavigation of Australia from 1801 to 1803, playing an important role as emissary to the various Indigenous peoples they encountered. Governor Macquarie hoped to "effect the civilization of the Aborigines" and reclaim them "from their barbarous practices". In 1815, he established a Native Institution to provide elementary education to Aboriginal children, settled 15 Aboriginal families on farms in Sydney and made the first freehold land grant to Aboriginal people at Black Town, west of Sydney. In 1816, he initiated an annual Native Feast at Parramatta which attracted Aboriginal people from as far as the Bathurst plains. However, by the 1820s the Native Institution and Aboriginal farms had failed. Aboriginal people continued to live on vacant waterfront land and on the fringes of the Sydney settlement, adapting traditional practices to the new semi-urban environment. Escalating frontier conflict in the 1820s and 1830s saw colonial governments develop a number of policies aimed at protecting Aboriginal people. Protectors of Aborigines were appointed in South Australia and the Port Phillip District in 1839, and in Western Australia in 1840. While the aim was to extend the protection of British law to Aboriginal people, more often the result was an increase in their criminalisation. Protectors were also responsible for the distribution of rations, delivering elementary education to Aboriginal children, instruction in Christianity and training in occupations useful to the colonists. However, by 1857 the protection offices had been closed due to their cost and failure to meets their goals. Colonial governments established a small number of reserves and encouraged Christian missions which afforded some protection from frontier violence. In 1825, the NSW governor granted 10,000 acres for an Aboriginal mission at Lake Macquarie. In the 1830s and early 1840s there were also missions in the Wellington Valley, Port Phillip and Moreton Bay. The settlement for Aboriginal Tasmanians on Flinders Island operated effectively as a mission under George Robinson from 1835 to 1838. In New South Wales, 116 Aboriginal reserves were established between 1860 and 1894. Most reserves allowed Aboriginal people a degree of autonomy and freedom to enter and leave. In contrast, the Victorian Board for the Protection of Aborigines (created in 1869) had extensive power to regulate the employment, education and place of residence of Aboriginal Victorians, and closely managed the five reserves and missions established since self government in 1858. In 1886, the protection board gained the power to exclude "half caste" Aboriginal people from missions and stations. The Victorian legislation was the forerunner of the racial segregation policies of other Australian governments from the 1890s. In more densely settled areas, most Aboriginal people who had lost control of their land lived on reserves and missions, or on the fringes of cities and towns. In pastoral districts the British Waste Land Act of 1848 gave traditional landowners limited rights to live, hunt and gather food on Crown land under pastoral leases. Many Aboriginal groups camped on pastoral stations where Aboriginal men were often employed as shepherds and stockmen. These groups were able to retain a connection with their lands and maintain aspects of their traditional culture. From autonomy to federation --------------------------- ### Colonial self-government and the gold rushes #### Towards representative government Imperial legislation in 1823 had provided for a Legislative Council nominated by the governor of New South Wales, and a new Supreme Court, providing additional limits to the power of governors. A number of prominent colonial figures, including William Wentworth. campaigned for a greater degree of self-government, although there were divisions about the extent to which a future legislative body should be popularly elected. Other major issues in the public debate about colonial self-government were traditional British political rights, land policy, transportation and whether colonies with a large population of convicts and former convicts could be trusted with self-government. The Australian Patriotic Association was formed in 1835 to promote representative government for New South Wales. The British government abolished transportation to New South Wales in 1840, and in 1842 granted limited representative government to the colony by establishing a reformed Legislative Council with one-third of its members appointed by the governor and two-thirds elected by male voters who met a property qualification. The property qualification meant that only 20 per cent of males were eligible to vote in the first Legislative Council elections in 1843. The increasing immigration of free settlers, the declining number of convicts, and the growing middle class and working class population led to further agitation for liberal and democratic reforms. Public meetings in Adelaide in 1844 called for more representative government for South Australia. The Constitutional Association, formed in Sydney in 1848, called for manhood suffrage. The Anti-Transportation League, founded in Van Diemen's Land in 1849, also demanded more representative government. In the Port Phillip District, agitation for representative government was closely linked to demands for independence from New South Wales. In 1850, the imperial parliament passed the *Australian Colonies Government Act,* granting Van Diemen's Land, South Australia and the newly-created colony of Victoria semi-elected Legislative Councils on the New South Wales model. The Act also reduced the property requirement for voting. Government officials were to be responsible to the governor rather than the Legislative Council, so the imperial legislation provided for limited representative government rather than responsible government. #### The gold rushes of the 1850s Although gold had been found in Australia as early as 1823 by surveyor James McBrien, a gold rush began when Edward Hargraves widely publicised his discovery of gold near Bathurst, New South Wales, in February 1851. Further discoveries were made later that year in Victoria, where the richest gold fields were found. By British law all minerals belonged to the Crown, and the governors of New South Wales and Victoria quickly introduced laws aimed at avoiding the disorder associated with the California gold rush of 1848. Both colonies introduced a gold mining licence with a monthly fee, the revenue being used to offset the cost of providing infrastructure, administration and policing of the gold fields. As the size of allowable claims was small (6.1 metres square), and much of the gold was near the surface, the licensing system favoured small prospectors over large enterprises. The gold rush initially caused some economic disruption including wage and price inflation and labour shortages as male workers moved to the goldfields. In 1852, the male population of South Australia fell by three per cent and that of Tasmania by 17 per cent. Immigrants from the United Kingdom, continental Europe, the United States and China also poured into Victoria and New South Wales. The Australian population increased from 430,000 in 1851 to 1,170,000 in 1861. Victoria became the most populous colony and Melbourne the largest city. Chinese migration was a particular concern for colonial officials. There were 20,000 Chinese miners on the Victorian goldfields by 1855 and 13,000 on the New South Wales diggings. There was a widespread belief that they represented a danger to white Australian living standards and morality, and colonial governments responded by imposing a range of taxes, charges and restrictions on Chinese migrants and residents. Anti-Chinese riots erupted on the Victorian goldfields in 1856 and in New South Wales in 1860. According to Stuart Macintyre, "The goldfields were the migrant reception centres of the nineteenth century, the crucibles of nationalism and xenophobia[.]" #### The Eureka stockade As more men moved to the gold fields and the quantity of easily-accessible gold diminished, the average income of miners fell. Victorian miners increasingly saw the flat monthly licence fee as a regressive tax and complained of official corruption, heavy-handed administration and the lack of voting rights for itinerant miners. Protests intensified in October 1854 when three miners were arrested following a riot at Ballarat. Protesters formed the Ballarat Reform League to support the arrested men and demanded manhood suffrage, reform of the mining licence and administration, and land reform to promote small farms. Further protests followed and protesters built a stockade on the Eureka Field at Ballarat. On 3 December troops overran the stockade, killing about 20 protesters. Five troops were killed and 12 seriously wounded. Following a Royal Commission, the monthly licence was replaced with an annual miner's right at a lower cost which also gave holders the right to vote and build a dwelling on the gold fields. The administration of the Victorian goldfields was also reformed. Stuart Macintyre states, "The Eureka rebellion was a formative event in the national mythology, the Southern Cross [on the Eureka flag] a symbol of freedom and independence." However, according to A. G. L. Shaw, the Eureka affair "is often painted as a great fight for Australian liberty and the rights of the working man, but it was not that. Its leaders were themselves small capitalists...and even after universal suffrage was introduced...only about a fifth of the miners bothered to vote." #### Self-government and democracy Elections for the semi-representative Legislative Councils, held in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Van Diemen's Land in 1851, produced a greater number of liberal members. That year, the New South Wales Legislative Council petitioned the British Government requesting self-government for the colony. The Anti-Transportation League also saw the convict system as a barrier to the achievement of self-government. In 1852, the British Government announced that convict transportation to Van Diemen's Land would cease and invited the eastern colonies to draft constitutions enabling responsible self-government. The Secretary of State cited the social and economic transformation of the colonies following the discoveries of gold as one of the factors making self-government feasible. The constitutions for New South Wales, Victoria and Van Diemen's Land (renamed Tasmania in 1856) gained Royal Assent in 1855, that for South Australia in 1856. The constitutions varied, but each created a lower house elected on a broad male franchise and an upper house which was either appointed for life (New South Wales) or elected on a more restricted property franchise. Britain retained its right of veto over legislation regarding matters of imperial interest. When Queensland became a separate colony in 1859 it immediately became self-governing, adopting the constitution of New South Wales. Western Australia was granted self-government in 1890. The secret ballot, adopted in Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia in 1856, followed by New South Wales (1858), Queensland (1859) and Western Australia (1877). South Australia introduced universal male suffrage for its lower house in 1856, followed by Victoria in 1857, New South Wales (1858), Queensland (1872), Western Australia (1893) and Tasmania (1900). Queensland excluded Aboriginal males from voting in 1885 (all women were also excluded). In Western Australia, where all women were disenfranchised, a property qualification for voting existed for male Aboriginals, Asians, Africans and people of mixed descent. Societies to promote women's suffrage were formed in Victoria in 1884, South Australia in 1888 and New South Wales in 1891. The Women's Christian Temperance Union also established branches in most Australian colonies in the 1880s, promoting votes for women and a range of social causes. Female suffrage, and the right to stand for office, was first won in South Australia in 1895. Women won the vote in Western Australia in 1900, with some restrictions based on race. Women in the remainder of Australia only won full rights to vote and to stand for elected office in the decade after Federation, although there were some racial restrictions. ### The long boom (1860 to 1890) #### Land reform In the 1860s New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and South Australia introduced Selection Acts intended to promote family farms and mixed farming and grazing. Legislation typically allowed individual "selectors" to select small parcels of unused crown land or leased pastoral land for purchase on credit. The reforms initially had little impact on the concentration of land ownership as large landowners used loopholes in the laws to buy more land. However, refinements to the legislation, improvements in farming technology and the introduction of crops adapted to Australian conditions eventually led to the diversification of rural land use. The expansion of the railways from the 1860s allowed wheat to be cheaply transported in bulk, stimulating the development of a wheat belt from South Australia to Queensland. Land under cultivation increased from 200,000 hectares to 2 million hectares from 1850 to 1890. #### Bushrangers The period 1850 to 1880 saw a revival in bushranging. The first bushrangers had been escaped convicts or former convicts in the early years of British settlement who lived independently in the bush, often supporting themselves by criminal activity. The early association of the bush with freedom was the beginning of an enduring myth. The resurgence of bushranging from the 1850s drew on the grievances of the rural poor (several members of the Kelly gang, the most famous bushrangers, were the sons of impoverished small farmers). The exploits of Ned Kelly and his gang garnered considerable local community support and extensive national press coverage at the time. After Kelly's capture and execution for murder in 1880 his story inspired numerous works of art, literature and popular culture and continuing debate about the extent to which he was a rebel fighting social injustice and oppressive police, or a murderous criminal. #### Economic growth and race From the 1850s to 1871 gold was Australia's largest export and allowed the colony to import a range of consumer and capital goods. More importantly, the increase in population in the decades following the gold rush stimulated demand for housing, consumer goods, services and urban infrastructure. By the 1880s half the Australian population lived in towns, making Australia more urbanised than the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada. Between 1870 and 1890 average income per person in Australia was more than 50 per cent higher than that of the United States, giving Australia one of the highest living standards in the world. The size of the government sector almost doubled from 10 per cent of national expenditure in 1850 to 19 per cent in 1890. Colonial governments spent heavily on infrastructure such as railways, ports, telegraph, schools and urban services. Much of the money for this infrastructure was borrowed on the London financial markets, but land-rich governments also sold land to finance expenditure and keep taxes low. In 1856, building workers in Sydney and Melbourne were the first in the world to win the eight hour working day. The 1880s saw trade unions grow and spread to lower skilled workers and also across colonial boundaries. By 1890 about 20 per cent of male workers belonged to a union, one of the highest rates in the world. Economic growth was accompanied by expansion into northern Australia. Gold was discovered in northern Queensland in the 1860s and 1870s, and in the Kimberley and Pilbara regions of Western Australia in the 1880s. Sheep and cattle runs spread to northern Queensland and on to the Gulf Country of the Northern Territory and the Kimberley region of Western Australia in the 1870s and 1880s. Sugar plantations also expanded in northern Queensland during the same period. The gold discoveries in northern Australia attracted a new wave of Chinese immigrants. The Queensland sugar cane industry also relied heavily on indentured South Sea Island workers, whose low wages and poor working conditions became a national controversy and led to government regulation of the industry. Additionally, a significant population of Japanese, Filipinos and Malays were working in pearling and fishing. In 1890, the population of northern Australia is estimated at about 70,000 Europeans and 20,000 Asians and Pacific Islanders. Indigenous people probably outnumbered these groups, leaving white people a minority north of the Tropic of Capricorn. From the late 1870s trade unions, Anti-Chinese Leagues and other community groups campaigned against Chinese immigration and low-wage Chinese labour. Following intercolonial conferences on the issue in 1880–81 and 1888, colonial governments responded with a series of laws which progressively restricted Chinese immigration and citizenship rights. ### 1890s depression Falling wool prices and the collapse of a speculative property bubble in Melbourne heralded the end of the long boom. When British banks cut back lending to Australia, the heavily indebted Australian economy fell into economic depression. A number of major banks suspended business and the economy contracted by 20 per cent from 1891 to 1895. Unemployment rose to almost a third of the workforce. The depression was followed by the "Federation Drought" from 1895 to 1903. In 1890, a strike in the shipping industry spread to wharves, railways, mines and shearing sheds. Employers responded by locking out workers and employing non-union labour, and colonial governments intervened with police and troops. The strike failed, as did subsequent strikes of shearers in 1891 and 1894, and miners in 1892 and 1896. By 1896, the depression and employer resistance to trade unions saw union membership fall to only about five per cent of the workforce. The defeat of the 1890 Maritime Strike led trade unions to form political parties. In New South Wales, the Labor Electoral League won a quarter of seats in the elections of 1891 and held the balance of power between the Free Trade Party and the Protectionist Party. Labor parties also won seats in the South Australian and Queensland elections of 1893. The world's first Labor government was formed in Queensland in 1899, but it lasted only a week. From the mid-1890s colonial governments, often with Labor support, passed acts regulating wages, working conditions and "coloured" labour in a number of industries. At an Intercolonial Conference in 1896, the colonies agreed to extend restrictions on Chinese immigration to "all coloured races". Labor supported the Reid government of New South Wales in passing the *Coloured Races Restriction and Regulation Act*, a forerunner of the White Australia Policy. However, after Britain and Japan voiced objections to the legislation, New South Wales, Tasmania and Western Australia instead introduced European language tests to restrict "undesirable" immigrants. ### Growth of nationalism By the late 1880s, a majority of people living in the Australian colonies were native born, although more than 90 per cent were of British and Irish heritage. The Australian Natives Association, a friendly society open to Australian-born males, flourished in the 1880s. It campaigned for an Australian federation within the British Empire, promoted Australian literature and history, and successfully lobbied for the 26 January to be Australia's national day. Australian nationalists often claimed that unification of the colonies was Australia's destiny. Australians lived on a single continent, and the vast majority shared a British heritage and spoke English. Many nationalists spoke of Australians sharing common blood as members of the British "race". Henry Parkes stated in 1890, "The crimson thread of kinship runs through us all...we must unite as one great Australian people." A minority of nationalists saw a distinctive Australian identity rather than shared "Britishness" as the basis for a unified Australia. Some, such as the radical magazine *The Bulletin* and the Tasmanian Attorney-General Andrew Inglis Clark, were republicans, while others were prepared to accept a fully independent country of Australia with only a ceremonial role for the British monarch. In 1887, poet Henry Lawson wrote of a choice between "The Old Dead Tree and the Young Tree Green/ The Land that belongs to the lord and the Queen,/And the land that belongs to you." A unified Australia was usually associated with a white Australia. In 1887, *The Bulletin* declared that all white men who left the religious and class divisions of the old world behind were Australians. The 1880s and 1890s saw a proliferation of books and articles depicting Australia as a sparsely populated white nation threatened by populous Asian neighbours. A white Australia also meant the exclusion of cheap Asian labour, an idea strongly promoted by the labour movement. According to historian John Hirst, "Federation was not needed to make the White Australia policy, but that policy was the most popular expression of the national ideal that inspired federation." The growing nationalist sentiment in the 1880s and 1890s was associated with the development of a distinctively Australian art and literature. Artists of the Heidelberg School such as Arthur Streeton, Frederick McCubbin and Tom Roberts followed the example of the European Impressionists by painting in the open air. They applied themselves to capturing the light and colour of the Australian landscape and exploring the distinctive and the universal in the "mixed life of the city and the characteristic life of the station and the bush". In the 1890s Henry Lawson, Banjo Paterson and other writers associated with *The Bulletin* produced poetry and prose exploring the nature of bush life and themes of independence, stoicism, masculine labour, egalitarianism, anti-authoritarianism and mateship. Protagonists were often shearers, boundary riders and itinerant bush workers. In the following decade Lawson, Paterson and other writers such as Steele Rudd, Miles Franklin, and Joseph Furphy helped forge a distinctive national literature. Paterson's ballad "The Man from Snowy River" (1890) achieved popularity, and his lyrics to the song "Waltzing Matilda" (c. 1895) helped make it the unofficial national anthem for many Australians. According to Macintyre, however, even in the 1890s the "bush legend was just that, a myth that enshrined lost possibilities[.]" ### Federation movement Growing nationalist sentiment coincided with business concerns about the economic inefficiency of customs barriers between the colonies, the duplication of services by colonial governments and the lack of a single national market for goods and services. Colonial concerns about German and French ambitions in the region also led to British pressure for a federated Australian defence force and a unified, single-gauge railway network for defence purposes. A Federal Council of Australasia was formed in 1885 but it had few powers and New South Wales and South Australia declined to join. An obstacle to federation was the fear of the smaller colonies that they would be dominated by New South Wales and Victoria. Queensland, in particular, although generally favouring a white Australia policy, wished to maintain an exception for South Sea Islander workers in the sugar cane industry. Another major barrier was the free trade policies of New South Wales which conflicted with the protectionist policies dominant in Victoria and most of the other colonies. Nevertheless, the NSW premier Henry Parkes was a strong advocate of federation and his Tenterfield Oration in 1889 was pivotal in gathering support for the cause. Parkes also struck a deal with Edmund Barton, leader of the NSW Protectionist Party, whereby they would work together for federation and leave the question of a protective tariff for a future Australian government to decide. In 1890, representatives of the six colonies and New Zealand met in Melbourne and agreed in principle to a federation of the colonies and for the colonial legislatures to nominate representatives to attend a constitutional convention. The following year, the National Australasian Convention was held in Sydney, with all the future states and New Zealand represented. A draft constitutional Bill was adopted and transmitted to the colonial parliaments for approval by the people. The worsening economic depression and parliamentary opposition, however, delayed progress. In early 1893 the first citizens' Federation League was established in the Riverina region of New South Wales and many other leagues were soon formed in the colonies. The leagues organised a conference in Corowa in July 1893 which developed a new plan for federation involving a constitutional convention with directly elected delegates and a referendum in each colony to endorse the proposed constitution. The new NSW premier, George Reid, endorsed the "Corowa plan" and in 1895 convinced the majority of other premiers to adopt it. Most of the colonies sent directly elected representatives to the constitutional convention, although those of Western Australia were chosen by its parliament. Queensland did not send delegates. The convention held sessions in 1897 and 1898 which resulted in a proposed constitution for a Commonwealth of federated states under the British Crown. Referendums held in 1898 resulted in solid majorities for the constitution in Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. However, the referendum failed to gain the required majority in New South Wales after that colony's Labor Party campaigned against it and premier Reid gave it such qualified support that he earned the nickname "yes-no Reid". The premiers of the other colonies agreed to a number of concessions to New South Wales (particularly that the future Commonwealth capital would be located in that state), and in 1899 further referendums were held in all the colonies except Western Australia. All resulted in yes votes. In March 1900, delegates were dispatched to London, including Barton and the Victorian parliamentarian Alfred Deakin, who had been a leading advocate for federation. Following intense negotiations with the British government, the federation Bill was passed by the imperial government on 5 July 1900 and gained Royal Assent on 9 July. Western Australia subsequently voted to join the new federation. Federation ---------- ### White Australia, protectionism and rise of Labor The Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed by the Governor-General, Lord Hopetoun on 1 January 1901, and Barton was sworn in as Australia's first prime minister. The first Federal elections were held in March 1901 and resulted in a narrow plurality for the Protectionist Party over the Free Trade Party with the Australian Labor Party (ALP) polling third. Labor declared it would support the party which offered concessions to its program, and Barton's Protectionists formed a government, with Deakin as Attorney-General. The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 was one of the first laws passed by the new Australian parliament. This centrepiece of the White Australia policy aimed to extend the restrictions on the immigration of Asians that had previously been enacted by the colonies. Like the colonial legislation, the Immigration Restriction Act used a dictation test in a European language to exclude Asian migrants, who were considered a threat to Australia's living standards and majority British culture. The government also ended the use of indentured South Sea Islander labour in the Queensland sugar cane industry and announced that the workers would be repatriated to their islands by 1906. Deakin stated that White Australia, "is not a surface, but a reasoned policy which goes to the roots of national life, and by which the whole of our social, industrial and political organisation is governed." In 1902, the government introduced female suffrage in the Commonwealth jurisdiction, but at the same time excluded Aboriginal people from the franchise unless they already had the vote in a state jurisdiction. The Barton government also introduced a tariff on imports designed to raise revenue and protect Australian industry. However, the tariff was lower and less extensive than many protectionists wanted due to the need to attract sufficient support from Labor parliamentarians, who had a free vote on the issue and many of whom favoured free trade. The three major parties all supported a system of Commonwealth conciliation and arbitration to settle industrial disputes extending across state borders, but Labor insisted that railway workers should be included in the system and preference be given to unionised labour. Disagreements about the legislation were instrumental in the fall of Deakin's Protectionist government in April 1904 and the appointment of the first national Labor government under prime minister Chris Watson. The Watson government itself fell in April and a Free Trade government under prime minister Reid successfully introduced legislation for a Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Court. In July 1905 Deakin withdrew his support for the Reid government and again formed a Protectionist government with the support of Labor. The new government embarked on a series of social reforms and a program dubbed "new protection" under which tariff protection for Australian industries would be linked to their provision of "fair and reasonable" wages. In the Harvester case of 1907, H. B. Higgins of the Conciliation and Arbitration Court set a fair and reasonable wage based on the needs of a male breadwinner supporting a wife and three children. In 1908, the High Court of Australia struck down the New Protection legislation as unconstitutional. However, the Harvester case set a standard for a basic wage which was subsequently used by the Conciliation and Arbitration Court when settling industrial disputes. By 1914 the Commonwealth, New South Wales, Queensland and Western Australia used arbitration courts to settle industrial disputes and fix wages and conditions, while Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania used wage boards to achieve the same goals. ### Labor and anti-Labor The base of the Labor Party was the Australian Trade Union movement which grew from under 100,000 members in 1901 to more than half a million in 1914. The party also drew considerable support from clerical workers, Catholics and small farmers. In 1905, the Labor party adopted objectives at the federal level which included the "cultivation of an Australian sentiment based upon the maintenance of racial purity" and "the collective ownership of monopolies". In the same year, the Queensland branch of the party adopted an overtly socialist objective. In 1906, the federal Free Trade Party changed its name to the Anti-Socialist party and in the December 1906 elections became the largest party with 38 per cent of the vote (compared with 37 per cent for Labor and 21 per cent for the Protectionists). Deakin's Protectionist government remained in power, but following the passage of legislation for old age pensions and a new protective tariff in 1908, Labor withdrew its support for the government and in November Andrew Fisher became the second Labor prime minister. In response, the Liberal-Protectionists, Anti-Socialists and conservative "Corner" group entered into a coalition known as the Fusion which formed a government under prime minister Deakin in June 1909. Reid stated that the question was whether Australia should follow a course of free enterprise or state control. In the elections of May 1910, Labor won a majority in both houses of parliament and Fisher again became prime minister. The Labor government introduced a series of reforms including a progressive land tax (1910), invalid pensions (1910) and a maternity allowance (1912). The government established the Commonwealth Bank (1911) but referendums to nationalise monopolies and extend Commonwealth trade and commerce powers were defeated in 1911 and 1913. The Commonwealth took over responsibility for the Northern Territory from South Australia in 1911. The anti-Labor parliamentary fusion was formalised as the Commonwealth Liberal Party under the former New South Wales Labor Party leader Joseph Cook. The Liberal Party narrowly won the May 1913 elections but Labor still controlled the Senate. The Cook government's attempt to pass legislation abolishing preferential treatment for union members in the Commonwealth Public Service triggered a double dissolution of parliament. Labor comfortably won the September 1914 elections and Fisher resumed office. ### External affairs and defence With Federation, the Commonwealth inherited the small defence forces of the six former Australian colonies. By 1901, units of soldiers from all six Australian colonies had been active as part of British forces in the Boer War. When the British government asked for more troops from Australia in early 1902, the Australian government obliged with a national contingent. Some 16,500 men had volunteered for service by the war's end in June 1902. In 1884, Britain and Germany had agreed to partition the eastern half of New Guinea. In 1902, British New Guinea was placed under the authority of Australia which saw the territory as vital for the protection of shipping lanes. With the passage of the Papua Act of 1905, British New Guinea became the Australian Territory of Papua. Formal Australian administration of the territory began in 1906. Under a 1902 agreement, Australia contributed to the cost of a Royal Navy Pacific fleet to provide for the nation's defence, but Britain reserved the right to deploy the fleet outside Australian waters. Following Japan's defeat of Russia in the 1904–05 war, concern about Japanese naval power led to calls for an Australian fleet. Deakin proposed the purchase of destroyers in 1906 and his government's Surplus Revenue Act of 1908 provided £250,000 for naval expenditure. The Fisher Labor government increased the naval budget and in 1911 established the Royal Australian Navy. In October 1913, the navy's first battle cruiser, *Australia*, arrived in Sydney harbour, accompanied by the new light cruisers *Sydney* and *Melbourne*. In 1907, Deakin proposed compulsory military training for home defence, a measure that was supported by Watson and Hughes of the Labor party. The Labor party adopted the measure at its 1908 annual conference and in 1911 the Fisher government expanded the system of compulsory military training which had been introduced by the Deakin government the previous year. Defence expenditure increased from £1 million in 1908–09 to £4.3 million in 1913–14, when it accounted for a third of the Commonwealth budget. ### Economy and population The breaking of the Federation Drought in 1903 heralded a period of strong economic growth. The economy grew by 75 per cent in the fourteen years to the outbreak of the First World War, with pastoralism, construction, manufacturing and government services leading the way. Rural industries were still the major employer (accounting for a quarter of all jobs) but manufacturing was fast catching up. While employment grew by 30 per cent during the period, employment in manufacturing increased by almost 70 per cent. The Australian population also grew strongly, driven by a fall in infant mortality, increasing adult life expectancy, and a revival in state-subsidised immigration. The population increased from four million in 1901 to five million in 1914. From 1910 to 1914 just under 300,000 migrants arrived, all white, and almost all from Britain. First World War --------------- ### Australia at war 1914–18 When the United Kingdom declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914, the declaration automatically involved all of Britain's colonies and dominions. The outbreak of war came in the middle of the 1914 federal election campaign during which Labor leader Andrew Fisher promised to defend Britain "to the last man and the last shilling." Both major parties offered Britain 20,000 Australian troops. As the *Defence Act 1903* precluded sending conscripts overseas, a new volunteer force, the Australian Imperial Force (AIF), was raised to meet this commitment. Public enthusiasm for the war was high, and the initial quota for the AIF was quickly filled. The troops left for Egypt on 1 November 1914, one of the escort ships, HMAS *Sydney*, sinking the German cruiser *Emden* along the way. Meanwhile, in September, a separate Australian expeditionary force had captured German New Guinea. After arriving in Egypt, the AIF was incorporated into an Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) under the British general William Birdwood. The Anzacs formed part of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force with the task of opening the Dardanelles to allied battleships, threatening Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire which had entered the war on the side of the Central Powers. The Anzacs, along with French, British and Indian troops, landed on the Gallipoli peninsula on 25 April 1915. The Australian and New Zealand position at Anzac Cove was vulnerable to attack and the troops suffered heavy losses in establishing a narrow beachhead. After it had become clear that the expeditionary force would be unable to achieve its objectives in the face of determined Turkish resistance, the Anzacs were evacuated in December, followed by the British and French in early January. The Australians suffered about 8,000 deaths in the campaign. Australian war correspondents variously emphasised the bravery and fighting qualities of the Australians and the errors of their British commanders. By 1916, Australian servicemen were commemorating 25 April, and the date soon became an Australian national holiday known as Anzac Day, centring on themes of "nationhood, brotherhood and sacrifice". In 1916, five infantry divisions of the AIF were sent to the Western Front. In July 1916, at Fromelles, in a diversionary attack during the Battle of the Somme, the AIF suffered 5,533 casualties in 24 hours, the most costly single encounter in Australian military history. Elsewhere on the Somme, 23,000 Australians were killed or wounded in seven weeks of attacks on German positions. In Spring 1917, as the Germans retreated to the Hindenburg Line, pursuing Australian troops engaged them at the First Battle of Bullecourt and the Second Battle of Bullecourt, suffering 10,000 casualties. In the summer and autumn of 1917, Australian troops also sustained heavy losses during the British offensive around Ypres. Overall, almost 22,000 Australian troops were killed in 1917. In November 1917 the five Australian divisions were united in the Australian Corps, and in May 1918 the Australian general John Monash took over command. The Australian Corps was heavily involved in halting the German Spring Offensive of 1918 and in the allied counter-offensive of August that year. Constituting about one tenth of the British and dominion soldiers on the Western Front, the Australian Corps was responsible for more than 20 per cent of the territory reconquered, prisoners captured and field guns taken in the counter offensive. In the Middle East, the Australian Light Horse brigades were prominent in halting the Ottoman and German threat to the Suez Canal at Romani in August 1916. In 1917, they participated in the allied advance through the Sinai Peninsula and into Palestine. This included a light horse mounted charge at Beersheba in October which helped win the Third Battle of Gaza. In 1918, they pressed on through Palestine and into Syria in an advance that led to the Ottoman surrender on 31 October. By the time the war ended on 11 November 1918, 324,000 Australians had served overseas. Casualties included 60,000 dead and 150,000 wounded—the highest casualty rate of any allied force. Australian troops also had higher rates of unauthorised absence, crime and imprisonment than other allied forces. ### The home front Few Australians publicly opposed the war in 1914, and volunteers for the AIF outstripped the capacity to enlist and train them. There was also a surge in female participation in voluntary organisations such as the Red Cross and patriotic groups such as the One Woman, One Recruit League. Anti-German leagues were formed and 7,000 Germans and other "enemy aliens" were sent to internment camps during the war. In October 1914, the Fisher Labor government introduced the *War Precautions Act* which gave it the power to make regulations "for securing the public safety and defence of the Commonwealth". After Billy Hughes replaced Fisher as prime minister in October 1915, regulations under the act were increasingly used to censor publications, penalise public speech and suppress organisations that the government considered detrimental to the war effort. Business uncertainty, the enlistment of young male workers, and the disruption of shipping and export markets led to a decline in economic output. The economy contracted by 10 per cent during the course of hostilities. Inflation rose in the first two years of war and real wages fell. Soon after becoming prime minister, Hughes abandoned a promised referendum to give the Commonwealth the power to control prices, although the government later used its wartime powers to regulate the prices of some basic goods. Lower wages and perceptions of profiteering by some businesses led, in 1916, to a wave of strikes by miners, waterside workers and shearers. Enlistments also declined, falling from 35,000 a month at its peak in 1915 to 6,000 a month in 1916. Hughes returned from a trip to England and the Western Front in July 1916 and narrowly won a Cabinet vote to hold a referendum on conscription for overseas service. In September the New South Wales Labor Party expelled Hughes on account of the issue. Following the narrow defeat of the October 1916 conscription referendum, the state branches of the Labor party began expelling other prominent pro-conscriptionists. In November, Hughes and 23 of his supporters left the parliamentary party, and in January 1917 they formed a new Nationalist government with the former opposition. The Nationalists comfortably won the May 1917 elections and Hughes continued as prime minister. Political and industrial unrest intensified in 1917. From August to October there was a major strike of New South Wales railway, transport, waterside and coal workers which was defeated after the Commonwealth and New South Wales governments arrested strike leaders and organised special constables and non-union labour. The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) was declared an unlawful organisation and more than 100 of its members were arrested. In September, protests by the Women's Peace Army in Melbourne resulted in extensive damage to shops and offices. Following further falls in enlistments in 1917, Hughes announced a second referendum on conscription to be held in December. The referendum campaign proved divisive, with Hughes denouncing opponents of the measure as "the Germans of Australia, the Sinn Féin and the IWW." The Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne, Daniel Mannix, and the Labor premier of Queensland T. J. Ryan were prominent campaigners against conscription. The referendum was defeated by a wider margin than in 1916. An April 1918 recruiting conference including representatives of the Commonwealth government, State governments, employers and labour leaders also failed to reach agreement on measures to increase troop numbers. Enlistments in 1918 were the lowest for the war, leading to the disbandment of 12 battalions and mutinies in the AIF. ### Paris peace conference Hughes attended the Imperial War Conference and Imperial War Cabinet in London from June 1918 where Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa won British support for their separate representation at the eventual peace conference. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Hughes argued that Germany should pay the full cost of the war, but ultimately gained only £5 million in war reparations for Australia. Australia and the other self-governing British dominions won the right to become full members of the new League of Nations, and Australia obtained a special League of Nations mandate over German New Guinea allowing Australia to control trade and immigration. Australia also gained a 42 per cent share of the formerly German-ruled island of Nauru, giving access to its rich superphosphate reserves. Australia argued successfully against a Japanese proposal for a racial equality clause in the League of Nations covenant, as Hughes feared that it would jeopardise the White Australia policy. As a signatory to the Treaty of Versailles and a full member of the League of Nations, Australia took an important step towards international recognition as a sovereign nation. Inter-war years --------------- ### 1920s: men, money and markets After the war, Prime Minister Billy Hughes led a new conservative force, the Nationalist Party, formed from the old Liberal party and breakaway elements of Labor (of which he was the most prominent), after the deep and bitter split over Conscription. An estimated 12,000 Australians died as a result of the Spanish flu pandemic of 1919, almost certainly brought home by returning soldiers. The success of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia posed a threat in the eyes of many Australians, although to a small group of socialists it was an inspiration. The Communist Party of Australia was formed in 1920 and, though remaining electorally insignificant, it obtained some influence in the trade union movement and was banned during World War II for its support for the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the Menzies Government unsuccessfully tried to ban it again during the Korean War. Despite splits, the party remained active until its dissolution at the end of the Cold War. The Country Party (today's National Party) formed in 1920 to promulgate its version of agrarianism, which it called "Countrymindedness". The goal was to enhance the status of the graziers (operators of big sheep ranches) and small farmers, and secure subsidies for them. Enduring longer than any other major party save the Labor party, it has generally operated in Coalition with the Liberal Party (since the 1940s), becoming a major party of government in Australia—particularly in Queensland. Other significant after-effects of the war included ongoing industrial unrest, which included the 1923 Victorian Police strike. Industrial disputes characterised the 1920s in Australia. Other major strikes occurred on the waterfront, in the coalmining and timber industries in the late 1920s. The union movement had established the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) in 1927 in response to the Nationalist government's efforts to change working conditions and reduce the power of the unions. The consumerism, entertainment culture, and new technologies that characterised the 1920s in the United States were also found in Australia. Prohibition was not implemented in Australia, though anti-alcohol forces were successful in having hotels closed after 6 pm, and closed altogether in a few city suburbs. The fledgling film industry declined through the decade, despite more than 2 million Australians attending cinemas weekly at 1250 venues. A Royal Commission in 1927 failed to assist and the industry that had begun so brightly with the release of the world's first feature film, The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), atrophied until its revival in the 1970s. Stanley Bruce became Prime Minister in 1923, when members of the Nationalist Party Government voted to remove W.M. Hughes. Speaking in early 1925, Bruce summed up the priorities and optimism of many Australians, saying that "men, money and markets accurately defined the essential requirements of Australia" and that he was seeking such from Britain. The migration campaign of the 1920s, operated by the Development and Migration Commission, brought almost 300,000 Britons to Australia, although schemes to settle migrants and returned soldiers "on the land" were generally not a success. "The new irrigation areas in Western Australia and the Dawson Valley of Queensland proved disastrous" In Australia, the costs of major investment had traditionally been met by state and Federal governments and heavy borrowing from overseas was made by the governments in the 1920s. A Loan Council was set up in 1928 to co-ordinate loans, three-quarters of which came from overseas. Despite Imperial Preference, a balance of trade was not successfully achieved with Britain. "In the five years from 1924. .. to ... 1928, Australia bought 43.4% of its imports from Britain and sold 38.7% of its exports. Wheat and wool made up more than two-thirds of all Australian exports", a dangerous reliance on just two export commodities. Australia embraced the new technologies of transport and communication. Coastal sailing ships were finally abandoned in favour of steam, and improvements in rail and motor transport heralded dramatic changes in work and leisure. In 1918, there were 50,000 cars and lorries in the whole of Australia. By 1929 there were 500,000. The stage coach company Cobb and Co, established in 1853, finally closed in 1924. In 1920, the Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Service (to become the Australian airline Qantas) was established. The Reverend John Flynn, founded the Royal Flying Doctor Service, the world's first air ambulance in 1928. Daredevil pilot, Sir Charles Kingsford Smith pushed the new flying machines to the limit, completing a round Australia circuit in 1927 and in 1928 traversed the Pacific Ocean, via Hawaii and Fiji from the US to Australia in the aircraft *Southern Cross*. He went on to global fame and a series of aviation records before vanishing on a night flight to Singapore in 1935. ### Dominion status Australia achieved independent Sovereign Nation status after World War I, under the Statute of Westminster. This formalised the Balfour Declaration of 1926, a report resulting from the 1926 Imperial Conference of British Empire leaders in London, which defined Dominions of the British empire in the following way: "They are autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations."; however, Australia did not ratify the Statute of Westminster until 1942. According to historian Frank Crowley, this was because Australians had little interest in redefining their relationship with Britain until the crisis of World War II. The Australia Act 1986 removed any remaining links between the British Parliament and the Australian states. From 1 February 1927 until 12 June 1931, the Northern Territory was divided up as North Australia and Central Australia at latitude 20°S. New South Wales has had one further territory surrendered, namely Jervis Bay Territory comprising 6,677 hectares, in 1915. The external territories were added: Norfolk Island (1914); Ashmore Island, Cartier Islands (1931); the Australian Antarctic Territory transferred from Britain (1933); Heard Island, McDonald Islands, and Macquarie Island transferred to Australia from Britain (1947). The Federal Capital Territory (FCT) was formed from New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of Canberra (Melbourne was the seat of government from 1901 to 1927). The FCT was renamed the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) in 1938. The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911. ### Great Depression Australia was deeply affected by the Great Depression of the 1930s, particularly due to its heavy dependence on exports, especially primary products such as wool and wheat. Exposed by continuous borrowing to fund capital works in the 1920s, the Australian and state governments were "already far from secure in 1927, when most economic indicators took a turn for the worse. Australia's dependence of exports left her extraordinarily vulnerable to world market fluctuations", according to economic historian Geoff Spenceley. Debt by the state of New South Wales accounted for almost half of Australia's accumulated debt by December 1927. The situation caused alarm amongst a few politicians and economists, notably Edward Shann of the University of Western Australia, but most political, union and business leaders were reluctant to admit to serious problems. In 1926, *Australian Finance* magazine described loans as occurring with a "disconcerting frequency" unrivalled in the British Empire: "It may be a loan to pay off maturing loans or a loan to pay the interest on existing loans, or a loan to repay temporary loans from the bankers..." Thus, well before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the Australian economy was already facing significant difficulties. As the economy slowed in 1927, so did manufacturing and the country slipped into recession as profits slumped and unemployment rose. At elections held in October 1929, the Labor Party was swept into power in a landslide victory; Stanley Bruce, the former Prime Minister, lost his own seat. The new Prime Minister, James Scullin, and his largely inexperienced government were almost immediately faced with a series of crises. Hamstrung by their lack of control of the Senate, a lack of control of the banking system and divisions within their party about how best to deal with the situation, the government was forced to accept solutions that eventually split the party, as it had in 1917. Some gravitated to New South Wales Premier Lang, others to Prime Minister Scullin. Various "plans" to resolve the crisis were suggested; Sir Otto Niemeyer, a representative of the English banks who visited in mid-1930, proposed a deflationary plan, involving cuts to government spending and wages. Treasurer Ted Theodore proposed a mildly inflationary plan, while the Labor Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, proposed a radical plan which repudiated overseas debt. The "Premier's Plan" finally accepted by federal and state governments in June 1931, followed the deflationary model advocated by Niemeyer and included a reduction of 20 per cent in government spending, a reduction in bank interest rates and an increase in taxation. In March 1931, Lang announced that interest due in London would not be paid and the Federal government stepped in to meet the debt. In May, the Government Savings Bank of New South Wales was forced to close. The Melbourne Premiers' Conference agreed to cut wages and pensions as part of a severe deflationary policy but Lang renounced the plan. The grand opening of the Sydney Harbour Bridge in 1932 provided little respite to the growing crisis straining the young federation. With multimillion-pound debts mounting, public demonstrations and move and counter-move by Lang and then Scullin, then Lyons federal governments, the Governor of New South Wales, Philip Game, had been examining Lang's instruction not to pay money into the Federal Treasury. Game judged it was illegal. Lang refused to withdraw his order and, on 13 May, he was dismissed by Governor Game. At June elections, Lang Labor's seats collapsed. May 1931 had seen the creation of a new conservative political force, the United Australia Party formed by breakaway members of the Labor Party combining with the Nationalist Party. At Federal elections in December 1931, the United Australia Party, led by former Labor member Joseph Lyons, easily won office. They remained in power until September 1940. The Lyons government has often been credited with steering recovery from the depression, although just how much of this was owed to their policies remains contentious. Stuart Macintyre also points out that although Australian GDP grew from £386.9 million to £485.9 million between 1931 and 1932 and 1938–39, real domestic product per head of population was still "but a few shillings greater in 1938–39 (£70.12), than it had been in 1920–21 (£70.04)." Australia recovered relatively quickly from the financial downturn of 1929–1930, with recovery beginning around 1932. The Prime Minister, Joseph Lyons, favoured the tough economic measures of the Premiers' Plan, pursued an orthodox fiscal policy and refused to accept the proposals of the Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, to default on overseas debt repayments. According to author Anne Henderson of the Sydney Institute, Lyons held a steadfast belief in "the need to balance budgets, lower costs to business and restore confidence" and the Lyons period gave Australia "stability and eventual growth" between the drama of the Depression and the outbreak of the Second World War. A lowering of wages was enforced and industry tariff protections maintained, which together with cheaper raw materials during the 1930s saw a shift from agriculture to manufacturing as the chief employer of the Australian economy—a shift which was consolidated by increased investment by the commonwealth government into defence and armaments manufacture. Lyons saw restoration of Australia's exports as the key to economic recovery. The extent of unemployment in Australia, often cited as peaking at 29 per cent in 1932 is debated. "Trade union figures are the most often quoted, but the people who were there...regard the figures as wildly understating the extent of unemployment" wrote historian Wendy Lowenstein in her collection of oral histories of the depression; however, David Potts argued that "over the last thirty years ...historians of the period have either uncritically accepted that figure (29% in the peak year 1932) including rounding it up to 'a third', or they have passionately argued that a third is far too low." Potts himself though suggested a peak national figure of 25 per cent unemployed. Measurement is difficult in part because there was great variation, geographically, by age and by gender, in the level of unemployment. Statistics collected by historian Peter Spearritt show 17.8 per cent of men and 7.9 per cent of women unemployed in 1933 in the comfortable Sydney suburb of Woollahra. (This is not to say that 81.9 per cent of women were working but that 7.9 per cent of the women interested/looking for work were unable to find it, a much lower figure than maybe first thought, as many women stayed home and were not in the job force in those years, especially if they were unable to find work.) In the working class suburb of Paddington, 41.3 per cent of men and 20.7 per cent of women were listed as unemployed. Geoffrey Spenceley stated that apart from variation between men and women, unemployment was also much higher in some industries, such as the building and construction industry, and comparatively low in the public administrative and professional sectors. In country areas, worst hit were small farmers in the wheat belts as far afield as north-east Victoria and Western Australia, who saw more and more of their income absorbed by interest payments. Extraordinary sporting successes did something to alleviate the spirits of Australians during the economic downturn. In a Sheffield Shield cricket match at the Sydney Cricket Ground in 1930, Don Bradman, a young New South Welshman of just 21 years of age wrote his name into the record books by smashing the previous highest batting score in first-class cricket with 452 runs not out in just 415 minutes. The rising star's world beating cricketing exploits were to provide Australians with much needed joy through the emerging Great Depression in Australia and post-World War II recovery. Between 1929 and 1931 the racehorse Phar Lap dominated Australia's racing industry, at one stage winning fourteen races in a row. Famous victories included the 1930 Melbourne Cup, following an assassination attempt and carrying 9 stone 12 pounds weight. Phar Lap sailed for the United States in 1931, going on to win North America's richest race, the Agua Caliente Handicap in 1932. Soon after, on the cusp of US success, Phar Lap developed suspicious symptoms and died. Theories swirled that the champion race horse had been poisoned and a devoted Australian public went into shock. The 1938 British Empire Games were held in Sydney from 5–12 February, timed to coincide with Sydney's sesqui-centenary (150 years since the foundation of British settlement in Australia). ### Indigenous policy Following federation Aboriginal affairs was a state responsibility, although the Commonwealth became responsible for the Aboriginal population of the Northern Territory from 1911. By that date the Commonwealth and all states except Tasmania had passed legislation establishing Protectors of Aborigines and Protection Boards with extensive powers to regulate the lives of Aboriginal Australians including their ownership of property, place of residence, employment, sexual relationships and custody of their children. Reserves were established, ostensibly for the protection of the Aboriginal population who had been dispossessed of their land. Church groups also ran missions throughout Australia providing shelter, food, religious instruction and elementary schooling for Indigenous people. Some officials were concerned by the growing number of Aboriginal children of mixed heritage, particularly in northern Australia where large Indigenous, South Sea Islander and Asian populations were seen as inconsistent with the white Australia policy. Laws concerning Aboriginal Australians were progressively tightened to make it easier for officials to remove Aboriginal children of mixed descent from their parents and place them in reserves, missions, institutions and employment with white employers. The segregation of Aboriginal people on reserves and in institutions was never systematically accomplished due to funding constraints, differing policy priorities in the states and territories, and resistance from Aboriginal people. In the more densely settled areas of Australia, about 20 per cent of Aboriginal people lived on reserves in the 1920s. The majority lived in camps on the fringes of country towns and a small percentage lived in cities. During the Great Depression more Aboriginal people moved to reserves and missions for food and shelter. By 1941 almost half of the Aboriginal population of New South Wales lived on reserves. In northern Australia, the majority of employed Aboriginal people worked in the pastoral industry where they lived in camps, often with their extended families. Many also camped on the margins of towns and reserves where they could avoid most of the controls imposed by the administrators of reserves, compounds and missions. The 1937 Native Welfare conference of state and Commonwealth officials endorsed a policy of biological absorption of mixed-descent Aboriginal Australians into the white community. > [T]he destiny of the natives of aboriginal origin, but not of the full blood, lies in their ultimate absorption by the people of the Commonwealth and it therefore recommends that all efforts be directed to that end. > > The officials saw the policy of Aboriginal assimilation by absorption into the white community as progressive, aimed at eventually achieving civil and economic equality for mixed-descent Aboriginal people. > "... efforts of all State authorities should be directed towards the education of children of mixed aboriginal blood at white standards, and their subsequent employment under the same conditions as whites with a view to their taking their place in the white community on an equal footing with the whites." > > The following decades saw an increase in the number of Aboriginal Australians of mixed descent removed from their families, although the states and territories progressively adopted a policy of cultural, rather than biological, assimilation, and justified removals on the grounds of child welfare. In 1940, New South Wales became the first state to introduce a child welfare model whereby Aboriginal children of mixed descent were removed from their families under general welfare provisions by court order. Other jurisdictions introduced a welfare model after the war. Second World War ---------------- ### Defence policy in the 1930s Until the late 1930s, defence was not a significant issue for Australians. At the 1937 elections, both political parties advocated increased defence spending, in the context of increased Japanese aggression in China and Germany's aggression in Europe; however, there was a difference in opinion about how the defence spending should be allocated. The United Australia Party government emphasised co-operation with Britain in "a policy of imperial defence". The lynchpin of this was the British naval base at Singapore and the Royal Navy battle fleet "which, it was hoped, would use it in time of need". Defence spending in the inter-war years reflected this priority. In the period 1921–1936 totalled £40 million on the Royal Australian Navy, £20 million on the Australian Army and £6 million on the Royal Australian Air Force (established in 1921, the "youngest" of the three services). In 1939, the Navy, which included two heavy cruisers and four light cruisers, was the service best equipped for war. Fearing Japanese intentions in the Pacific, Menzies established independent embassies in Tokyo and Washington to receive independent advice about developments. Gavin Long argues that the Labor opposition urged greater national self-reliance through a buildup of manufacturing and more emphasis on the Army and RAAF, as Chief of the General Staff, John Lavarack also advocated. In November 1936, Labor leader John Curtin said "The dependence of Australia upon the competence, let alone the readiness, of British statesmen to send forces to our aid is too dangerous a hazard upon which to found Australia's defence policy." According to John Robertson, "some British leaders had also realised that their country could not fight Japan and Germany at the same time." But "this was never discussed candidly at...meeting(s) of Australian and British defence planners", such as the 1937 Imperial Conference. By September 1939 the Australian Army numbered 3,000 regulars. A recruiting campaign in late 1938, led by Major-General Thomas Blamey increased the reserve militia to almost 80,000. The first division raised for war was designated the 6th Division, of the 2nd AIF, there being 5 Militia Divisions on paper and a 1st AIF in the First World War. ### War On 3 September 1939, the Prime Minister, Robert Menzies, made a national radio broadcast: "My fellow Australians. It is my melancholy duty to inform you, officially, that, in consequence of the persistence by Germany in her invasion of Poland, Great Britain has declared war upon her, and that, as a result, Australia is also at war." Thus began Australia's involvement in the six-year global conflict. Australians were to fight in an extraordinary variety of locations, including withstanding the advance of German Panzers in the Siege of Tobruk, turning back the advance of the Imperial Japanese Army in the New Guinea Campaign, undertaking bomber missions over Europe, engaging in naval battles in the Mediterranean. At home, Japanese attacks included mini-submarine raids on Sydney Harbour and very heavy air raids on and near the Northern Territory's capital, Darwin. The recruitment of a volunteer military force for service at home and abroad was announced, the 2nd Australian Imperial Force and a citizen militia organised for local defence. Troubled by Britain's failure to increase defences at Singapore, Menzies was cautious in committing troops to Europe. By the end of June 1940, France, Norway, Denmark and the Low Countries had fallen to Nazi Germany. Britain stood alone with its dominions. Menzies called for "all-out war", increasing federal powers and introducing conscription. Menzies' minority government came to rely on just two independents after the 1940 election. In January 1941, Menzies flew to Britain to discuss the weakness of Singapore's defences. Arriving in London during The Blitz, Menzies was invited into Winston Churchill's British War Cabinet for the duration of his visit. Returning to Australia, with the threat of Japan imminent and with the Australian army suffering badly in the Greek and Crete campaigns, Menzies re-approached the Labor Party to form a War Cabinet. Unable to secure their support, and with an unworkable parliamentary majority, Menzies resigned as prime minister. The Coalition held office for another month, before the independents switched allegiance and John Curtin was sworn in as prime minister. Eight weeks later, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. From 1940 to 1941, Australian forces played prominent roles in the fighting in the Mediterranean theatre, including Operation Compass, the Siege of Tobruk, the Greek campaign, the Battle of Crete, the Syria–Lebanon Campaign and the Second Battle of El Alamein. A garrison of around 14,000 Australian soldiers, commanded by Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead was besieged in Tobruk, Libya, by the German-Italian army of General Erwin Rommel between April and August 1941. The Nazi propagandist Lord Haw Haw derided the defenders as 'rats', a term the soldiers adopted as an ironic compliment: "The Rats of Tobruk". Vital in the defence of Egypt and the Suez Canal, the siege saw the advance of the German army halted for the first time and provided a morale boost for the British Commonwealth, which was then standing alone against Hitler. The war came closer to home when HMAS *Sydney* was lost with all hands in battle with the German raider *Kormoran* in November 1941. With most of Australia's best forces committed to fight against Hitler in the Middle East, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, the US naval base in Hawaii, on 8 December 1941 (eastern Australia time). The British battleship HMS *Prince of Wales* and battlecruiser HMS *Repulse* sent to defend Singapore were sunk soon afterwards. Australia was ill-prepared for an attack, lacking armaments, modern fighter aircraft, heavy bombers, and aircraft carriers. While demanding reinforcements from Churchill, on 27 December 1941 Curtin published an historic announcement: "The Australian Government... regards the Pacific struggle as primarily one in which the United States and Australia must have the fullest say in the direction of the democracies' fighting plan. Without inhibitions of any kind, I make it clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom." British Malaya quickly collapsed, shocking the Australian nation. British, Indian and Australian troops made a disorganised last stand at Singapore, before surrendering on 15 February 1942. Around 15,000 Australian soldiers became prisoners of war. Curtin predicted that the "battle for Australia" would now follow. On 19 February, Darwin suffered a devastating air raid, the first time the Australian mainland had ever been attacked by enemy forces. For the following 19 months, Australia was attacked from the air almost 100 times. Two battle-hardened Australian divisions were already steaming from the Middle East for Singapore. Churchill wanted them diverted to Burma, but Curtin refused, and anxiously awaited their return to Australia. US President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered his commander in the Philippines, General Douglas MacArthur, to formulate a Pacific defence plan with Australia in March 1942. Curtin agreed to place Australian forces under the command of General MacArthur, who became "Supreme Commander of the South West Pacific". Curtin had thus presided over a fundamental shift in Australia's foreign policy. MacArthur moved his headquarters to Melbourne in March 1942 and American troops began massing in Australia. In late May 1942, Japanese midget submarines sank an accommodation vessel in a daring raid on Sydney Harbour. On 8 June 1942, two Japanese submarines briefly shelled Sydney's eastern suburbs and the city of Newcastle. In an effort to isolate Australia, the Japanese planned a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby, in the Australian Territory of New Guinea. In May 1942, the US Navy engaged the Japanese in the Battle of the Coral Sea and halted the attack. The Battle of Midway in June effectively defeated the Japanese navy and the Japanese army launched a land assault on Moresby from the north. Between July and November 1942, Australian forces repulsed Japanese attempts on the city by way of the Kokoda Track, in the highlands of New Guinea. The Battle of Milne Bay in August 1942 was the first Allied defeat of Japanese land forces. Meanwhile, in North Africa, the Axis Powers had driven Allies back into Egypt. A turning point came between July and November 1942, when Australia's 9th Division played a crucial role in some of the heaviest fighting of the First and Second Battle of El Alamein, which turned the North Africa Campaign in favour of the Allies. The Battle of Buna–Gona, between November 1942 and January 1943, set the tone for the bitter final stages of the New Guinea campaign, which persisted into 1945. The offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943–44 were the single largest series of connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces. On 14 May 1943, the Australian Hospital Ship *Centaur*, though clearly marked as a medical vessel, was sunk by Japanese raiders off the Queensland coast, killing 268, including all but one of the nursing staff, further enraging popular opinion against Japan. Australian prisoners of war were at this time suffering severe ill-treatment in the Pacific Theatre. In 1943, 2,815 Australian Pows died constructing Japan's Burma-Thailand Railway In 1944, the Japanese inflicted the Sandakan Death March on 2,000 Australian and British prisoners of war—only 6 survived. This was the single worst war crime perpetrated against Australians in war. MacArthur largely excluded Australian forces from the main push north into the Philippines and Japan. It was left to Australia to lead amphibious assaults against Japanese bases in Borneo. Curtin suffered from ill health from the strains of office and died weeks before the war ended, replaced by Ben Chifley. Of Australia's wartime population of seven million, almost one million men and women served in a branch of the services during the six years of warfare. By war's end, gross enlistments totalled 727,200 men and women in the Australian Army (of whom 557,800 served overseas), 216,900 in the RAAF and 48,900 in the RAN. More than 39,700 were killed or died as prisoners of war, about 8,000 of whom died as prisoners of the Japanese. ### Australian home front While the Australian civilian population suffered less at the hands of the Axis powers than did other Allied nations in Asia and Europe, Australia nevertheless came under direct attack by Japanese naval forces and aerial bombardments, particularly through 1942 and 1943, resulting in hundreds of fatalities and fuelling fear of Japanese invasion. Axis naval activity in Australian waters also brought the war close to home for Australians. Austerity measures, rationing and labour controls measures were all implemented to assist the war effort. Australian civilians dug air raid shelters, trained in civil defence and first aid, and Australian ports and cities were equipped with anti aircraft and sea defences. The Australian economy was markedly affected by World War II. Expenditure on war reached 37 per cent of GDP by 1943–44, compared to 4 per cent expenditure in 1939–1940. Total war expenditure was £2,949 million between 1939 and 1945. Although the peak of army enlistments occurred in June–July 1940, when more than 70,000 enlisted, it was the Curtin Labor government, formed in October 1941, that was largely responsible for "a complete revision of the whole Australian economic, domestic and industrial life". Rationing of fuel, clothing and some food was introduced, (although less severely than in Britain) Christmas holidays curtailed, "brown outs" introduced and some public transport reduced. From December 1941, the Government evacuated all women and children from Darwin and northern Australia, and more than 10,000 refugees arrived from South East Asia as Japan advanced. In January 1942, the Manpower Directorate was set up "to ensure the organisation of Australians in the best possible way to meet all defence requirements." Minister for War Organisation of Industry, John Dedman introduced a degree of austerity and government control previously unknown, to such an extent that he was nicknamed "the man who killed Father Christmas". In May 1942 uniform tax laws were introduced in Australia, ending state governments' control of income taxation. "The significance of this decision was greater than any other... made throughout the war, as it added extensive powers to the Federal Government and greatly reduced the financial autonomy of the states." Manufacturing grew significantly because of the war. "In 1939, there were only three Australian firms producing machine tools, but by 1943 there were more than one hundred doing so." From having few front line aircraft in 1939, the RAAF had become the fourth largest allied Air force by 1945. A number of aircraft were built under licence in Australia before the war's end, notably the Beaufort and Beaufighter, although the majority of aircraft were from Britain and later, the US. The Boomerang fighter, designed and built in four months of 1942, emphasised the desperate state Australia found itself in as the Japanese advanced. Australia also created, virtually from nothing, a significant female workforce engaged in direct war production. Between 1939 and 1944 the number of women working in factories rose from 171,000 to 286,000. Dame Enid Lyons, widow of former Prime Minister Joseph Lyons, became the first woman elected to the House of Representatives in 1943, joining the Robert Menzies' new centre-right Liberal Party of Australia, formed in 1945. At the same election, Dorothy Tangney became the first woman elected to the Senate. Post-war boom ------------- ### Menzies and Liberal dominance: 1949–72 Politically, Robert Menzies and the Liberal Party of Australia dominated much of the immediate post war era, defeating the Labor government of Ben Chifley in 1949, in part because of a Labor proposal to nationalise banks and following a crippling coal strike led by the Australian Communist Party. Menzies became the country's longest-serving Prime Minister and the Liberal party, in coalition with the rural based Country Party, won every federal election until 1972. As in the United States in the early 1950s, allegations of communist influence in society saw tensions emerge in politics. Refugees from Soviet dominated Eastern Europe immigrated to Australia, while to Australia's north, Mao Zedong's Chinese Communist Party won the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and in June 1950, Communist North Korea invaded South Korea. The Menzies government responded to a United States led United Nations Security Council request for military aid for South Korea and diverted forces from occupied Japan to begin Australia's involvement in the Korean War. After fighting to a bitter standstill, the UN and North Korea signed a ceasefire agreement in July 1953. Australian forces had participated in such major battles as Kapyong and Maryang San. 17,000 Australians had served and casualties amounted to more than 1,500, of whom 339 were killed. During the course of the Korean War, the Liberal government attempted to ban the Communist Party of Australia, first by legislation in 1950 and later by referendum, in 1951. While both attempts were unsuccessful, further international events such as the defection of minor Soviet Embassy official Vladimir Petrov, added to a sense of impending threat that politically favoured Menzies' Liberal-CP government, as the Labor Party split over concerns about the influence of the Communist Party on the trade union movement. The tensions led to another bitter split and the emergence of the breakaway Democratic Labor Party (DLP). The DLP remained an influential political force, often holding the balance of power in the Senate, until 1974. Its preferences supported the Liberal and Country Party. The Labor party was led by H.V. Evatt after Chifley's death in 1951. Evatt had served as President of the United Nations General Assembly during 1948–49 and helped draft the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Evatt retired in 1960 amid signs of mental ill-health, and Arthur Calwell succeeded him as leader, with a young Gough Whitlam as his deputy. Menzies presided during a period of sustained economic boom and the beginnings of sweeping social change, which included youth culture and its rock and roll music and, in the late 1950s, the arrival of television broadcasting. In 1958, Australian country music singer Slim Dusty, who would become the musical embodiment of rural Australia, had Australia's first international music chart hit with his bush ballad "Pub With No Beer", while rock and roller Johnny O'Keefe's "Wild One" became the first local recording to reach the national charts, peaking at No. 20. Australian cinema produced little of its own content in the 1950s, but British and Hollywood studios produced a string of successful epics from Australian literature, featuring home grown stars Chips Rafferty and Peter Finch. Menzies remained a staunch supporter of links to the monarchy and Commonwealth of Nations and formalised an alliance with the United States, but also launched post-war trade with Japan, beginning a growth of Australian exports of coal, iron ore and mineral resources that would steadily climb until Japan became Australia's largest trading partner. When Menzies retired in 1965, he was replaced as Liberal leader and Prime Minister by Harold Holt. Holt drowned while swimming at a surf beach in December 1967 and was replaced by John Gorton (1968–1971) and then by William McMahon (1971–1972). ### Post-war immigration Following World War II, the Chifley Labor government instigated a massive programme of European immigration. In 1945, Minister for Immigration, Arthur Calwell wrote "If the experience of the Pacific War has taught us one thing, it surely is that seven million Australians cannot hold three million square miles of this earth's surface indefinitely." All political parties shared the view that the country must "populate or perish". Calwell stated a preference for ten British immigrants for each one from other countries; however, the numbers of British migrants fell short of what was expected, despite government assistance. Migration brought large numbers of southern and central Europeans to Australia for the first time. A 1958 government leaflet assured readers that unskilled non-British migrants were needed for "labour on rugged projects ... work which is not generally acceptable to Australians or British workers". The Australian economy stood in sharp contrast to war-ravaged Europe, and newly arrived migrants found employment in a booming manufacturing industry and government assisted programmes such as the Snowy Mountains Scheme. This hydroelectricity and irrigation complex in south-east Australia consisted of sixteen major dams and seven power stations constructed between 1949 and 1974. It remains the largest engineering project undertaken in Australia. Necessitating the employment of 100,000 people from more than 30 countries, to many it denoted the birth of multicultural Australia. Some 4.2 million immigrants arrived between 1945 and 1985, about 40 per cent of whom came from Britain and Ireland. The 1957 novel *They're a Weird Mob* was a popular account of an Italian migrating to Australia, although written by Australian-born author John O'Grady. The Australian population reached 10 million in 1959–with Sydney its most populous city. In May 1958, the Menzies Government passed the Migration Act 1958 which replaced the Immigration Restriction Act's arbitrarily applied dictation test with an entry permit system, that reflected economic and skills criteria. Further changes in the 1960s effectively ended the White Australia Policy. It legally ended in 1973. ### Economic growth and suburban living Australia enjoyed significant growth in prosperity in the 1950s and 1960s, with increases in both living standards and in leisure time. The manufacturing industry, previously playing a minor part in an economy dominated by primary production, greatly expanded. The first Holden motor car came out of General Motors-Holden's Fisherman's Bend factory in November 1948. Car ownership rapidly increased—from 130 owners in every 1,000 in 1949 to 271 owners in every 1,000 by 1961. By the early 1960s, four competitors to Holden had set up Australian factories, employing between 80,000 and 100,000 workers, "at least four-fifths of them migrants". In the 1960s, about 60 per cent of Australian manufacturing was protected by tariffs. Pressure from business interests and the union movement ensured these remained high. Historian Geoffrey Bolton suggests that this high tariff protection of the 1960s caused some industries to "lapse into lethargy", neglecting research and development and the search for new markets. The CSIRO was expected to fulfil research and development. Prices for wool and wheat remained high, with wool the mainstay of Australia's exports. Sheep numbers grew from 113 million in 1950 to 171 million in 1965. Wool production increased from 518,000 to 819,000 tonnes in the same period. Wheat, wool and minerals ensured a healthy balance of trade between 1950 and 1966. The great housing boom of the post war period saw rapid growth in the suburbs of the major Australian cities. By the 1966 census, only 14 per cent lived in rural Australia, down from 31 per cent in 1933, and only 8 per cent lived on farms. Virtual full employment meant high standards of living and dramatic increases in home ownership, and by the sixties, Australia had the most equitable spread of income in the world. By the beginning of the sixties, an Australia-wide McNair survey estimated that 94% of homes had a fridge, 50% a telephone, 55% a television, 60% a washing machine, and 73% a vacuum cleaner. In addition, most households had now acquired a car. According to one study, "In 1946, there was one car for every 14 Australians; by 1960, it was one to 3.5. The vast majority of families had access to a car." Car ownership flourished during the postwar period, with 1970/1971 census data estimating that 96.4 per cent of Australian households in the early Seventies owned at least one car; however, not all felt the rapid suburban growth was desirable. Distinguished Architect and designer Robin Boyd, a critic of Australia's built surroundings, described Australia as "'the constant sponge lying in the Pacific', following the fashions of overseas and lacking confidence in home-produced, original ideas". In 1956, dadaist comedian Barry Humphries performed the character of Edna Everage as a parody of a house-proud housewife of staid 1950s Melbourne suburbia (the character only later morphed into a critique of self-obsessed celebrity culture). It was the first of many of his satirical stage and screen creations based around quirky Australian characters: Sandy Stone, a morose elderly suburbanite, Barry McKenzie a naive Australian expat in London and Sir Les Patterson, a vulgar parody of a Whitlam-era politician. Some writers defended suburban life. Journalist Craig Macgregor saw suburban life as a "...solution to the needs of migrants..." Hugh Stretton argued that "plenty of dreary lives are indeed lived in the suburbs... but most of them might well be worse in other surroundings". Historian Peter Cuffley has recalled life for a child in a new outer suburb of Melbourne as having a kind of joyous excitement. "Our imaginations saved us from finding life too humdrum, as did the wild freedom of being able to roam far and wide in different kinds of (neighbouring) bushland...Children in the suburbs found space in backyards, streets and lanes, playgrounds and reserves..." In 1954, the Menzies Government formally announced the introduction of the new two-tiered TV system—a government-funded service run by the ABC, and two commercial services in Sydney and Melbourne, with the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne being a major driving force behind the introduction of television to Australia. Colour TV began broadcasting in 1975. ### Indigenous assimilation and child removal The 1951 Native Welfare Conference of state and Commonwealth officials agreed on a policy of cultural assimilation for all Aboriginal Australians. Paul Hasluck, the Commonwealth Minister for Territories, stated: "Assimilation means, in practical terms, that, in the course of time, it is expected that all persons of aboriginal blood or mixed blood in Australia will live like other white Australians do." Controls over the daily lives of Aboriginal people and the removal of Aboriginal children of mixed descent continued under the policy of assimilation, although the control was now largely exercised by Welfare Boards and removals were justified on welfare grounds. The number of Aboriginal people deemed to be wards of the state under Northern Territory welfare laws doubled to 11,000 from 1950 to 1965. The policy of assimilation attracted increasing criticism from Aboriginal people and their supporters on the grounds of its negative effects on Aboriginal families and its denial of Aboriginal cultural autonomy. Removals of Aboriginal children of mixed descent from their families slowed by the late 1960s and by 1973 the Commonwealth had adopted a policy of self-determination for Indigenous Australians. In 1997, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission estimated that between 10 per cent and one-third of Aboriginal children had been removed from their families from 1910 to 1970. Regional studies indicate that 15 per cent of Aboriginal children were removed in New South Wales from 1899 to 1968, while the figure for Victoria was about 10 per cent. Robert Manne estimates that the figure for Australia as a whole was closer to 10 per cent. Summarising the policy of assimilation and forced removals of Aboriginal children of mixed descent, Richard Broome concludes: "Even though the children's material conditions and Western education may have been improved by removal, even though some removals were necessary, and even though some people were thankful for it in retrospect, overall it was a disaster....It was a rupturing of tens of thousands of Aboriginal families, aimed at eradicating Aboriginality from the nation in the cause of homogeneity and in fear of difference." ### Alliances 1950–1972 In the early 1950s, the Menzies government saw Australia as part of a "triple alliance" in concert with both the US and traditional ally Britain. At first, "the Australian leadership opted for a consistently pro-British line in diplomacy", while at the same time looking for opportunities to involve the US in South East Asia. Thus, the government committed military forces to the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency and hosted British nuclear tests after 1952. Australia was also the only Commonwealth country to offer support to the British during the Suez Crisis. Menzies oversaw an effusive welcome to Queen Elizabeth II on the first visit to Australia by a reigning monarch, in 1954. He made the following remarks during a light-hearted speech to an American audience in New York, while on his way to attend her coronation in 1953: "We in Australia, of course, are British, if I may say so, to the boot heels...but we stand together – our people stand together – till the crack of doom." As British influence declined in South East Asia, the US alliance came to have greater significance for Australian leaders and the Australian economy. British investment in Australia remained significant until the late 1970s, but trade with Britain declined through the 1950s and 1960s. In the late 1950s the Australian Army began to re-equip using US military equipment. In 1962, the US established a naval communications station at North West Cape, the first of several built during the next decade. Most significantly, in 1962, Australian Army advisors were sent to help train South Vietnamese forces, in a developing conflict in which the British had no part. According to diplomat Alan Renouf, the dominant theme in Australia's foreign policy under Australia's Liberal–Country Party governments of the 1950s and 1960s was anti-communism. Another former diplomat, Gregory Clark, suggested that it was specifically a fear of China that drove Australian foreign policy decisions for twenty years. The ANZUS security treaty, which had been signed in 1951, had its origins in Australia's and New Zealand's fears of a rearmed Japan. Its obligations on the US, Australia and New Zealand are vague, but its influence on Australian foreign policy thinking, at times has been significant. The SEATO treaty, signed only three years later, clearly demonstrated Australia's position as a US ally in the emerging Cold War. As Britain struggled to enter the Common Market in the 1960s, Australia saw that its historic ties with the mother country were rapidly fraying. Canberra was alarmed but kept a low profile, not wanting to alienate London. Russel Ward states that the implications of British entry into Europe in 1973: "seemed shattering to most Australians, particularly to older people and conservatives." Carl Bridge, however, points out that Australia had been "hedging its British bets" for some time. The ANZUS treaty and Australia's decision to enter the Vietnam War did not involve Britain and by 1967 Japan was Australia's leading export partner and the US her largest source of imports. According to Bridge, Australia's decision not to follow Britain's devaluation of her currency in 1967 "marked the demise of British Australia." ### Vietnam War By 1965, Australia had increased the size of the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV), and in April the Government made a sudden announcement that "after close consultation with the United States", a battalion of troops was to be sent to South Vietnam. In parliament, Menzies emphasised the argument that "our alliances made demands on us". The alliance involved was presumably, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), and Australia was providing military assistance because South Vietnam, a signatory to SEATO, had apparently requested it. Documents released in 1971 indicated that the decision to commit troops was made by Australia and the US, not at the request of South Vietnam. By 1968, there were three Australian Army battalions at any one time at the 1st Australian Task Force (1ATF) base at Nui Dat in addition to the advisers of the AATTV placed throughout Vietnam, and personnel reached a peak total of almost 8,000, comprising about one third of the Army's combat capacity. Between 1962 and 1972 almost 60,000 personnel served in Vietnam, including ground troops, naval forces and air assets. In July 1966, new Prime Minister Harold Holt expressed his government's support for the US and its role in Vietnam in particular. "I don't know where people would choose to look for the security of this country were it not for the friendship and strength of the United States." While on a visit in the same year to the US, Holt assured President Lyndon B. Johnson "...I hope there is corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend, a staunch friend, [Australia] that will be all the way with LBJ." The Liberal-CP Government was returned with a massive majority in elections held in December 1966, fought over national security issues including Vietnam. The opposition Labor Party had advocated the withdrawal of all conscripts from Vietnam, but its deputy leader Gough Whitlam had stated that a Labor government might maintain regular army troops there. Arthur Calwell, who had been leader of the Labor Party since 1960, retired in favour of Whitlam a few months later. Despite Holt's sentiments and his government's electoral success in 1966, the war became unpopular in Australia, as it did in the United States. The movements to end Australia's involvement gathered strength after the Tet Offensive of early 1968 and compulsory national service (selected by ballot) became increasingly unpopular. In the 1969 elections, the government hung on despite a significant decline in popularity. Moratorium marches held across Australia in mid-1970 attracted large crowds- the Melbourne march of 100,000 being led by Labor MP Jim Cairns. As the Nixon administration proceeded with Vietnamization of the war and began the withdrawal of troops, so did the Australian Government. In November 1970 1st Australian Task Force was reduced to two battalions and in November 1971, 1ATF was withdrawn from Vietnam. The last military advisors of the AATTV were withdrawn by the Whitlam Labor government in mid-December 1972. The Australian military presence in Vietnam had lasted 10 years, and in purely human cost, more than 500 had been killed and more than 2,000 wounded. The war cost Australia $218 million between 1962 and 1972. Reform and reaction: 1972–1996 ------------------------------ ### The Whitlam government: 1972–75 Elected in December 1972 after 23 years in opposition, Labor won office under Gough Whitlam, introducing significant reforms and expanding the Federal budget. Welfare benefits were extended and payment rates increased, a national health insurance scheme was introduced, and divorce laws liberalised. Commonwealth expenditure on schools trebled in the two years to mid-1975 and the Commonwealth assumed responsibility for funding higher education, abolishing tuition fees. In foreign affairs the new government prioritised the Asia Pacific region, formally abolishing the White Australia Policy, recognising Communist China and enhancing ties with Indonesia. Conscription was abolished and the remaining Australian troops in Vietnam withdrawn. The Australian national anthem was changed from God Save the Queen to Advance Australia Fair, the imperial honours system was replaced at the Commonwealth level by the Order of Australia, and Queen Elizabeth II was officially styled Queen of Australia. Relations with the US, however, became strained after government members criticised the resumption of the US bombing campaign in North Vietnam. In Indigenous affairs, the government introduced a policy of self-determination for Aboriginal people in economic, social and political affairs. Federal expenditure on Aboriginal services increased from $23 million to $141 million during the three years of the government. One of the first acts of the Whitlam government was to establish a Royal Commission into land rights in the Northern Territory under Justice Woodward. Legislation based on its findings was passed into law by the Fraser government in 1976, as the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976. As the Whitlam government did not control the Senate, much of its legislation was rejected or amended. After Labor was re-elected with a reduced majority at elections in May 1974, the Senate remained an obstacle to its political agenda. The government's popularity was also harmed by deteriorating economic conditions and a series of political scandals. Increased government spending, rapid wage growth, booming commodity prices and the first OPEC oil shock led to economic instability. The unemployment rate reached post-war high of 3.6 per cent in late 1974 and the annual inflation rate hit 17 per cent. In 1974–75 the government began negotiations for US$4 billion in foreign loans to fund state development of Australia's mineral and energy resources. Minister Rex Connor conducted secret discussions with a loan broker from Pakistan, and the Treasurer, Jim Cairns, misled parliament about the issue. Arguing the government was incompetent following the Loans Affair, the opposition Liberal-Country Party Coalition delayed passage of the government's money bills in the Senate, until the government would promise a new election. Whitlam refused and the deadlock ended when his government was controversially dismissed by the Governor-General, John Kerr on 11 November 1975. Opposition leader Malcolm Fraser was installed as caretaker Prime Minister, pending an election. ### Fraser government: 1975–83 The Federal elections of December 1975 resulted in a landslide victory for the Liberal-Country Party Coalition and Malcolm Fraser continued as Prime Minister. The coalition government won subsequent elections in 1977 and 1980, making Fraser the second longest serving Australian Prime Minister up to that time. The Fraser government espoused a policy of administrative competence and economic austerity leavened by progressive humanitarian, social and environmental interventions. The government enacted the Whitlam government's land rights bill with few changes, increased immigration, and resettled Indochinese refugees. It promoted multiculturalism and in 1978 established the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) as a multicultural broadcaster. In foreign policy, the government continued Labor's friendly relations with China and Indonesia, repaired the frayed relationship with the US and opposed white minority rule in South Africa and Rhodesia. The government also attempted to use its influence with the US and China to limit Soviet expansionism. Environmental policies included banning resource development on Fraser Island and the Great Barrier Reef, creating Kakadu National Park and banning whaling. However, the government refused to use Commonwealth powers to stop the construction of the Franklin Dam in Tasmania in 1982 and the resulting grassroots campaign against the dam contributed to the emergence of an influential Environmental movement in Australia, On the economic front, the Fraser government followed a "fight inflation first" strategy centred on budget cuts and wage restraint. Welfare benefits were restricted, the universal healthcare system was partially dismantled, and university funding per student cut. However, by the early 1980s economic conditions were deteriorating. The second oil shock in 1979 increased inflation which was exacerbated by a boom in commodity prices and a sharp increase in real wages. An international recession, the collapse of the resources boom and a severe drought in eastern Australia saw unemployment rise. The government responded with Keynesian deficit spending in its 1982 Budget, but by 1983 both unemployment and annual inflation exceeded 10 per cent. At the Federal elections in March 1983 the coalition government was comfortably defeated by Labor under its popular new leader Bob Hawke. ### Labor governments: 1983–1996 The Hawke government pursued a mixture of free market reforms and consensus politics featuring "summits" of government representatives, business leaders, trade unions and non-government organisations in order to reach consensus on key issues such as economic policy and tax reform. The centrepiece of this policy mix was an Accord with trade unions under which wage demands would be curtailed in return for increased social benefits. Welfare payments were increased and better targeted to those on low incomes, and a retirement benefits scheme (superannuation) was extended to most employees. A new universal health insurance scheme, Medicare, was introduced. The Treasurer Paul Keating oversaw a program of deregulation and micro-economic reforms which broke with the Keynesian economics that had traditionally been favoured by the Labor party. These reforms included floating the Australian dollar, deregulating capital markets and allowing competition from foreign banks. Business regulation and competition policy was streamlined, tariffs and quotas on Australian manufactured goods and rural commodities were gradually reduced, and a number of government enterprises and services were progressively privatised. The higher education system was restructured and significantly expanded, partly funded by the reintroduction of fees in the form of student loans and "contributions" (HECS). Paul Kelly concludes that, "In the 1980s both Labor and non-Labor underwent internal philosophical revolutions to support a new set of ideas—faith in markets, deregulation, a reduced role for government, low protection and the creation of a new cooperative enterprise culture." The Hawke government courted the growing environmental movement with a series of actions including using Federal powers to stop the Franklin Dam development in Tasmania, banning new uranium mines at Jabiluka, and proposing Kakadu National park for world heritage listing. In foreign policy, the Hawke government maintained strong relations with the US and was instrumental in the formation of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) group. Australia contributed naval ships and troops to UN forces in the Gulf War after Iraq had invaded Kuwait in 1990. The government complemented its consensus politics with other initiatives aimed at fostering national unity. The Australia Act 1986 eliminated the last vestiges of British legal authority at the Federal level. The Australian Bicentenary in 1988 was the focus of year-long celebrations with multicultural themes. The World Expo 88 was held in Brisbane and a new Parliament House in Canberra was opened. Strong economic growth, falling unemployment, an unstable opposition, and Bob Hawke's popularity with the public contributed to the re-election of the Hawke government in 1984, 1987 and 1990. However, the economy went into recession in 1990 and by late 1991 the unemployment rate had risen above 10 per cent. With the government's popularity falling, Paul Keating successfully challenged for the leadership and became Prime Minister in December 1991. The Keating government's first priority was economic recovery. In February 1992 it released the "One Nation" job creation package and later legislated tax cuts to corporations and individuals to boost economic growth. Unemployment reached 11.4 per cent in 1992—the highest since the Great Depression in Australia. The Liberal-National Opposition had proposed an ambitious plan of economic reform to take to the 1993 Election, including the introduction of a Goods and Services Tax. Keating campaigned strongly against the tax and was returned to office in March 1993. In May 1994 a more ambitious "Working Nation" jobs program was introduced. The Keating government also pursued a number of "big picture" issues throughout its two terms including increased political and economic engagement in the Asia Pacific region, Indigenous reconciliation, an Australian republic and "efficiency with equity". The government engaged closely with the Indonesian President, Suharto and other regional partners, and successfully campaigned to increase the role of APEC as a major forum for strategic and economic co-operation. A Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation was established and, following the High Court of Australia's historic Mabo decision in 1992, the first national Native Title legislation was introduced to regulate claims and provide compensation for loss of native title. In 1993, Keating established a Republic Advisory Committee to examine options for Australia becoming a republic. The government also introduced family payments and a superannuation guarantee with compulsory employer contributions. Under the Hawke government the annual migration intake had more than doubled from 54,500 in 1984–85 to more than 120,000 in 1989–90. The Keating government responded to community concerns about the pace of immigration by cutting the immigration intake and introducing mandatory detention for illegal immigrants arriving without a valid visa. Immigration fell to 67,900 in 1992–93. With foreign debt, inflation and unemployment still stubbornly high, and after a series of ministerial resignations, Keating lost the March 1996 Election to the Liberals' John Howard. Australia in a globalised world: 1996 – 2022 -------------------------------------------- ### Howard government: 1996–2007 John Howard with a Liberal–National Party coalition served as Prime Minister from 1996 until 2007, winning re-election in 1998, 2001 and 2004 to become the second-longest serving prime minister after Menzies. One of the first programs instigated by the Howard government was a nationwide gun control scheme following a mass shooting at Port Arthur. The new government saw industrial relations and taxation as two key areas of economic reform which had been left undone by the Hawke-Keating governments. The coalition introduced industrial relations reforms in 1996 which promoted individual contracts and enterprise bargaining. In 2006, it controversially introduced the WorkChoices legislation, which made it easier for small businesses to terminate employment. After the 1996 election, Howard and treasurer Peter Costello proposed a Goods and Services Tax (GST) which they successfully took to the electorate in 1998 and implemented in July 2000. A political concern for the new government was the significant public support for Pauline Hanson and, later, her One Nation party, which espoused populist policies including winding back free market reforms, Asian immigration and programs for Indigenous Australians. The government responded with public messaging criticising elites and political correctness and emphasising Australian values. The coalition initially cut immigration intakes, abolished the Office of Multicultural Affairs and other multicultural agencies, and introduced citizenship tests for migrants. Following a sharp increase in unauthorised arrivals by boat from 1999, the government opened new mandatory detention centres in remote areas of Australia and issued temporary visas for those found to be refugees. Following the Children Overboard affair and the Tampa Affair in 2001, the government introduced the Pacific Solution, which involved detaining unauthorised immigrants in detention centres in Nauru and Papua New Guinea while their refugee status was determined, as well as a policy of turning back vessels intercepted at sea. In Indigenous affairs the Prime Minister rejected calls for a treaty with Indigenous Australians and an apology for past actions which had harmed them. Instead, the government pursued a policy of "practical reconciliation" involving specific measures to improve Indigenous education, health, employment and housing. In response to the High Court's decision in *Wik Peoples v Queensland*, in 1996, the Howard government amended native title legislation to limit native title claims. In 2007, following the release of the "Little Children are Sacred" report detailing widespread abuse in Aboriginal communities, the Howard government launched the Northern Territory Intervention in order to create a safe environment for Indigenous children. The government's response was criticised by the co-chairs of the report, received a divided response from the Indigenous community, but was supported by the Labor opposition. Honouring a commitment made during the 1996 election campaign, the Howard government set up a people's convention on an Australian republic. The resulting 1999 referendum on a republic failed. Howard, an avowed monarchist, became the only Australian Prime Minister to publicly oppose a constitutional amendment he had put to the people. In 1999, Australia led a United Nations force into East Timor to help establish democracy and independence for that nation, following political violence. During this period Australia committed to a number of other peacekeeping and stabilisation operations: notably in Bougainville, including Operation Bel Isi (1998–2003); as well as Operation Helpem Fren and the Australian-led Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI) in the early 2000s; and the 2006 East Timorese crisis. Following the September 2001 terrorist attacks on the US and the subsequent War on Terror, Australia committed troops to the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War. These events, along with the 2002 Bali Bombings and other terrorist incidents, led to the creation of a National Security Committee and further anti-terrorist legislation. In foreign affairs, the government advocated a policy of "Asia first, but not Asia only", emphasising traditional links to the Commonwealth and the US. Relations with Indonesia became strained over East Timor but generally improved after the Bali bombings. Australia's support of US policy during the War on Terror was followed by an Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement in 2004. Trade agreements with Singapore and Thailand were also secured and relations with China improved. Australia joined the US in refusing to ratify the Kyoto Protocol on greenhouse gas emissions, arguing that it would harm Australia's economy and would be ineffective without the participation of China and India. After initial cuts, the immigration intake increased from 92,270 in 1999–2000 to 157,000 in 2005–06, with a bias towards skilled workers to meet the needs of a rapidly growing economy. The immigration intake also became increasingly diverse, with the proportion of immigrants from South Asia increasing from 8 per cent in 1996–97 to 20 per cent in 2007–08. Inbound tourism also grew, helped by the Sydney Olympic games in 2000. The economy continued its uninterrupted expansion since the early 1990s recession, with record jobs growth and the lowest unemployment rates since the 1970s. Exports and imports grew from a value of about a third of Australia's economic output in the early 1990s to 40 per cent in 2005. China became Australia's second largest trading partner after Japan, and foreign investment in Australia more than doubled. The coalition delivered Budget surpluses in most years which, along with the proceeds of government asset sales – most notably of Telstra – were partly invested in a Future Fund to reduce the national debt. Income inequality and private debt increased as the economy expanded, with the biggest increase in incomes accruing to the top 10 per cent of income earners. By 2007 the Howard government was consistently trailing the Labor opposition in opinion polls, with key issues being rising interest rates, the unpopular Work Choices industrial relations reforms, and climate change policy. The government was also hampered by leadership tensions between Howard and Costello and opinion polls indicating a desire for a generational change in leadership (opposition leader Kevin Rudd was eighteen years younger than Howard and widely seen as more vibrant). Labor won the November 2007 election with a swing of more than 5 per cent and Howard became only the second sitting Prime Minister to lose his seat in an election. ### Labor governments: 2007–2013 Kevin Rudd became Prime Minister in December 2007 and held office until June 2010, when he was replaced as leader by Julia Gillard, Australia's first female Prime Minister. Following the August 2010 federal election, Gillard formed a minority Labor government with the support of the Australian Greens and three independents. Gillard was replaced as Prime Minister by Rudd in June 2013, and Labor lost the subsequent September 2013 election. The first Rudd government moved quickly to ratify the Kyoto protocols, dismantle the previous government's Work Choices industrial relations reforms, and issue an apology to Aboriginal Australians for past policies, particularly the removal of Aboriginal children from their families. The government was soon confronted by the Global Financial Crisis and subsequent global recession, responding with a series of economic stimulus measures worth A$75 billion. Although economic growth slowed in 2008, Australia was one of the few advanced economies in the world to avoid recession. Rudd declared climate change "the great moral challenge of our generation" and his government proposed an emissions trading scheme (ETS) to address the issue. The necessary legislation, however, was twice rejected in the Senate when the Opposition and Greens refused to support it. After the December 2009 UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen failed to produce an agreed international response to global warming the government decided to postpone its ETS until 2013, a decision which saw Labor lose some electoral support to the Greens. The government also lost some public support when it proposed a Resources Super Profits Tax following the release of the Henry Tax Review in May 2010. The resulting media campaign against the tax by the mining industry particularly affected Labor's support in the resource-rich states of Queensland and Western Australia. Illegal immigration policy proved another difficult issue for the government, which initially closed the Nauru processing centre, abolished temporary protection visas and took measures to improve the legal rights and processing time for applicants for asylum. However, unauthorised arrivals by boat increased sharply from 2009 and the number in mandatory detention stretched capacity. The new leader of the Opposition, Tony Abbot, promised that a Coalition government would "stop the boats." In June 2010, with the government behind the Opposition in polls and Rudd's popularity rating falling, the Labor caucus replaced Rudd with Gillard as leader. The new leader was able to negotiate concessions on a new mining tax with large mining companies but failed to reach agreement with East Timor on a proposed migration processing centre there. Following the September 2010 election, the Gillard government passed a series of legislation with the support of the Greens who now held the balance of power in the Senate. This included enabling legislation for a National Broadband Network, a carbon pricing scheme, a mining tax, a National Disability Insurance Scheme, and school funding reforms. Illegal immigration policy, however, remained a politically sensitive issue. The government negotiated an agreement with Malaysia to process some people there but the plan did not gain the support of the Opposition or the Greens and was struck down by the High Court. As the number of unauthorised immigrants arriving by boat continued to climb, the government reopened offshore processing centres on Manus Island and Nauru. In Indigenous affairs, the government introduced, in 2012, a modified policy in the Northern Territory ('Stronger Futures in the Northern Territory') under a 10-year funding agreement. The new policy retained many features of the Northern Territory Intervention but was broader in scope and involved more collaboration with Indigenous stakeholders. Following mounting leadership speculation and poor polling for the government, Rudd defeated Gillard in a leadership ballot in June 2013 and returned as Prime Minister, promising to replace the carbon tax with an emissions trading scheme and to ensure that people arriving without authority by boat would not be settled in Australia. The Opposition, promising to "stop the boats," abolish the carbon tax and mining tax, and reduce the Budget deficit and government debt, won the September 2013 election. ### Liberal-National Coalition governments: (2013–2022) The return of the Liberal-National Coalition to power after six years in opposition initially failed to restore stability to the office of prime minister. Prime Minister Tony Abbott's rival Malcolm Turnbull challenged for and won the leadership of the Liberals within Abbott's first term. After Turnbull narrowly returned the Coalition to office in 2016, Party dissatisfaction with his leadership saw him replaced by Scott Morrison in 2018. Abbott government (2013–2015) Prime Minister Tony Abbott's Liberal-National Coalition government began implementing its policies on unauthorised maritime arrivals, including Operation Sovereign Borders, boat turnbacks, the reintroduction of temporary protection visas, and the resettlement in third countries of those found to be refugees. The new policy strained relations with Indonesia, but the number of people arriving by boat fell from 20,587 in 2013 to none in 2015. The government continued Australia's economic engagement with Asia, signing trade agreements with China, South Korea and Japan. The government also embraced the intervention against Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, joining the air campaign, sending special forces and providing training for the Iraqi army. The government made cuts to Indigenous programs, brought the Indigenous Affairs portfolio into the Cabinet, and established the Indigenous Advisory Council. The government's May 2014 Budget, which included measures such as the deregulation of university fees, welfare cuts and projected cuts to funding to the states for health and education, proved unpopular, with the perception that it had involved breaking a number of election promises. The government secured the passage of legislation abolishing the carbon tax (July 2014) and the mining tax (September 2014). The Prime Minister announced a number of decisions – most notably the reintroduction of knighthoods and a knighthood for Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh – which had not been approved by cabinet and which were widely criticised in the media. By September 2015 the government had lost 30 Newspolls in a row and Malcolm Turnbull successfully challenged for the leadership. Turnbull government (2015–2018) The new Turnbull government promised to promote a "smart, agile and innovative Australia" and "jobs and growth". The government announced a National Innovation and Science Agenda and delivered a Budget featuring cuts to company tax. However, the elections of July 2016 saw the government returned with a majority on only one and a minority in the Senate, making it more difficult to secure the passage of government legislation. Following a national postal plebiscite, the government legalised same-sex marriage in December 2017. In foreign affairs, Australia signed a refugee exchange deal with the US in September 2016, allowing those in detention on Manus Island and Nauru to be settled in the US. There was increased tension with China because of Australia's criticism of China's policies in the South China Sea, Australia's new laws targeting foreign influence in domestic politics, and a ban, on national security grounds, on Chinese companies supplying Australia's 5G communications network. Trade with China, however, continued to grow. In 2017, the United States, Japan, India and Australia agreed to revive the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue in order to counter Chinese ambitions in the South China Sea. Australia signed a modified Trans-Pacific Partnership trade agreement with 10 other nations in March 2018 after the US withdrew from the original agreement. The government lost five by-elections in July 2018. When, in August, the government sought to introduce legislation for a National Energy Guarantee, including a commitment to meet Australia's emissions target under the Paris Agreement, a number of Coalition members vowed to vote against the bill. The resulting controversy further harmed the government, which had already lost more than 30 consecutive Newspolls. The parliamentary Liberal Party elected Scott Morrison as its new leader and he was sworn in as Prime Minister. Morrison government (2018–2022) The Morrison government committed to remaining in the Paris Agreement, but promised a greater focus on reduction of energy prices. In foreign affairs the government signed the Indonesia–Australia Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (IA-CEPA) in March 2019. In April, the treasurer delivered a Budget focusing on tax cuts, increased spending on roads and other infrastructure, and a forecast return to a surplus. The government was returned at the elections of May 2019 with a three-seat majority. In 2017, a constitutional convention of 250 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander delegates had issued the Uluru Statement from the Heart, calling for the recognition of Indigenous sovereignty, a Makarrata (truth telling and agreement-making) Commission, constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians and a "voice to parliament". In 2019, the government announced a process to "develop options for a model that will ensure that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are heard at all levels of government". Within a year the government was confronted with the international COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent recession, Australia's first in 29 years. From 1 February 2020, Australia progressively closed its borders to foreign nationals who had recently visited high-risk countries, culminating, on 20 March, in a general ban on the entry of foreign nationals. On 13 March 2020, a National Cabinet, including Australian government, state government and territory government leaders, was created to address the crisis. The national cabinet announced a series of increasingly tighter restrictions on non-essential business, travel and gatherings of people with the aim of suppressing COVID. These restrictions were progressively eased from early May, although individual states and territories intermittently reimposed restrictions in response to particular outbreaks of COVID-19. The Australian government made provision for $267 billion in economic stimulus measures, and $16.6 billion in health measures in response to COVID-19. As a result of the COVID-19 recession, the unemployment rate rose from about 5 per cent in February 2020 to 7.5 per cent in July 2020. As the economy began to recover from the second half of 2020, the unemployment rate fell to 5.6 per cent in March 2021 and hours worked returned to pre-recession levels. As at 17 April 2021, Australia was ranked 134 out of 177 countries in the number of COVID-19 deaths per capita. In June 2021 Australia and the United Kingdom announced that they had struck a preliminary deal on a free-trade agreement. On 16 September 2021, the government announced that Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States had agreed to the creation of an enhanced trilateral security partnership, dubbed AUKUS. The first initiative under AUKUS would be for Australia to acquire nuclear-powered submarine technology. As a result of the agreement, Australia cancelled its 2016 contract for the diesel-electric *Attack*-class submarine with the French company Naval Group. China condemned the AUKUS agreement, stating it "seriously undermines regional peace and stability and intensifies the arms race". France announced it would withdraw its ambassador from Australia in protest against the lack of consultation on the security agreement and the cancellation of the $90 billion dollar contract for French submarines. Post-pandemic: 2022 to present ------------------------------ ### Albanese government (2022– present) On 23 May 2022, Anthony Albanese was sworn in as Australia's new prime minister. His Labor Party defeated Scott Morrison's conservative government in the election. Prime Minister Albanese formed Australia's first Labor government in almost a decade. In December 2022, the prime minister announced that a referendum for an Indigenous Voice to parliament would be held before December 2023. On 30 January 2023, Albanese unveiled a new national cultural policy 'Revive' with $286 million in funding over four years, labelled the most significant investment in Australian culture since the Keating government. The Revive policy's centrepiece establishes 'Creative Australia', with four new bodies; a First Nations-led body, Music Australia, Writers Australia and the Centre for Arts and Entertainment Workplaces. Revive's legislation also granted protection for First Nations culture as well as funding toward a First Nations languages partnership between First Nations representatives and Australian governments and funding the establishment of a National Aboriginal Art Gallery in Alice Springs and an Aboriginal Cultural Centre in Perth. The policy also provided regulation for a revenue levy for streaming services to reinvest in locally produced cinema and television productions. Revive policy also included the first establishment of a poet laureate for Australia. Society and culture: 1960s to present ------------------------------------- ### Social developments #### Indigenous Australians In 1960, Aboriginal affairs were still regulated by state governments and, in the Northern Territory, by the Australian government. In most states Aboriginal Australians were banned from drinking alcohol and their freedom of association, movement and control of property was restricted. Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory banned Aboriginal people from voting and Queensland and Western Australia controlled their right to marry. Aboriginals were often subjected to unofficial "colour bars" restricting their access to many goods, services and public facilities, especially in country towns. The official policy of the Australian government and most state governments, however, was the assimilation of Aboriginal people into mainstream culture: "all aborigines and part-aborigines are expected to eventually attain the same manner of living as other Australians and to live as members of a single Australian community enjoying the same rights and privileges, accepting the same responsibilities, observing the same customs and influenced by the same beliefs, hopes and loyalties as other Australians." The 1960s was a key decade for Indigenous rights, with the demand for change led by Indigenous activists and organisations such as the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. In 1962, the Menzies Government's *Commonwealth Electoral Act* gave Indigenous people the right to vote at federal elections. In 1965, Queensland became the last state to confer state voting rights on Aboriginal people. In 1963, the Yolngu people of Arnhem Land sent a bark petition to the Australian parliament asking for recognition of their traditional land rights. They subsequently took their case to the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory which ruled against them in September 1971. In 1965, Charles Perkins, helped organise freedom rides into parts of Australia to expose discrimination and inequality. In 1966, the Gurindji people of Wave Hill station commenced the Gurindji strike in a quest for equal pay and recognition of land rights. In 1966, the Australian government gave Aboriginal people the same rights to social security benefits as other Australians. A 1967 referendum called by the Holt government saw Australians vote by a 91 per cent majority to change the Australian constitution to include all Aboriginal Australians in the national census and allow the Federal parliament to legislate on their behalf. A Council for Aboriginal Affairs was established. Demands for Indigenous self-determination and the preservation of cultural identity were increasingly promoted. In January 1972 Aboriginal activists erected an Aboriginal "tent embassy" on the lawns of parliament house, Canberra and issued a number demands including land rights, compensation for past loss of land and self-determination. The leader of the opposition Gough Whitlam was among those who visited the tent embassy to discuss their demands. The Whitlam government came to power in December 1972 with a policy of self-determination for Aboriginal people. The government also passed legislation against racial discrimination and established a Royal Commission into land rights in the Northern Territory, which formed the basis for the Fraser government's Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976. The Land Rights Act only applied to the Northern Territory, but Aboriginal communities could also acquire land through various state land rights acts or other legislation. By the early 1980s Aboriginal communities had gained title to about 30 per cent of Northern Territory land and 20 per cent of South Australian land. In 1982, the Queensland government granted Aboriginal reserve land to its occupiers but the grants gave limited rights and was revocable at any time. Only a small proportion of land in other states had been transferred to traditional owners. In 1985, the Hawke government handed over Uluru (Ayers Rock) to traditional owners with a lease back to the Commonwealth. In 1987, the West Australian government granted Aboriginal reserve land (amounting to 7 per cent of the state's land) to traditional owners on 50 year and 99 year leases. Key issues for Indigenous communities with recognised land rights included security of title, the protection of culturally significant sites, and the right to veto, or to be adequately compensated for, mining and development on their land. Compensation for previous dispossession of land was an unresolved issue. In 1992, the High Court of Australia handed down its decision in the Mabo Case, holding that Indigenous native title survived reception of English law and continued to exist unless extinguished by conflicting law or interests in land. The Keating government passed a Native Title Act in 1993 to regulate native title claims and established a Native Title Tribunal to hear those claims. In the subsequent Wik decision of 1996, the High Court found that a pastoral lease did not necessarily extinguish native title. In response, the Howard government amended the Native Title Act to provide better protection for pastoralists and others with an interest in land. By March 2019 the Native Titles Tribunal had determined that 375 Indigenous communities had established native title over 39 per cent of the Australian continent, with one third under exclusive title. From 1960 the Indigenous population grew faster than the Australian population as a whole and increasingly lived in urban areas. The Aboriginal population was 106,000 in 1961 (1 per cent of the total population), with 20 per cent living in capital cities compared with 40 per cent for the population as a whole. In 2016, the Indigenous population was 786,900 (3 per cent of the population), with a third living in major cities compared with more than two-thirds of people who were not indigenous. While most of this growth was due to a higher Indigenous birth rate, people of Indigenous descent were also more willing to identify as Indigenous. According to Richard Broome: "identification as Indigenous is almost universal among those with a claim due to the growing pride in Indigenous identity in the face of stronger community acceptance." Despite the drift to large cities, the period from 1965 to 1980 also saw a movement of Indigenous Australians away from towns and settlements to small outstations (or homelands), particularly in Arnhem Land and Central Australia. The movement to outstations was associated with a wider trend for the revival of traditional culture. However, the expense of providing infrastructure to small remote communities has seen pressure from federal, state and territory governments to redirect funding towards larger Indigenous communities. From 1971 to 2006, indicators for Indigenous employment, median incomes, home ownership, education and life expectancy all improved, although they remained well below the level for those who were not indigenous. In 2008, the Council of Australian Governments created targets for "closing the gap" in inequality in a number of key areas of education, employment, literacy and child mortality. By 2020, the outcomes for Indigenous Australians improved in most of these areas. However, the gap widened for child mortality and school attendance, and targets for closing the inequality gap were not met for employment and child literacy and numeracy. Targets for closing the gap in early childhood education and Year 12 school attainment were on track. High rates of Indigenous incarceration and deaths in custody were highlighted by the report of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody in April 1991. The Keating government responded with $400 million in new spending to address some of the recommendations of the report. However, by 2001 Indigenous incarceration rates and deaths in custody had increased. Deaths in custody continued at an average of 15 per year during the decade to 2018. Richard Broome has concluded: "To close the gap [between Indigenous and other Australians] on inequality and well being will take many years; some despairingly say generations. Compensation for lost wages, for missing out on native title settlements and for being removed from one's family and kin remain unresolved." #### Women Holmes and Pinto point out that in 1960 domesticity and motherhood were still the dominant conceptions of femininity. In 1961, women made up only 25 per cent of employed adults and twice as many women described their occupation as "home duties" compared with those in paid employment. The fertility rate fell from a post-war high of 3.5 to less than 2 in the 1970s and 1980s. The reforming drive of the 1960s and the increasing influence of the women's movement led to a series of legislative and institutional changes. These included the abolition of the "marriage bar" in the Australian public service in 1966, the Arbitration Commission's equal pay decisions of 1969 and 1972, the introduction of paid maternity leave in the Australian public service in 1973, and the enactment of the federal Sex Discrimination Act in 1984 and the Affirmative Action Act of 1986. Single mothers' benefits were introduced in 1973 and the Family Law Act 1975 bought in no-fault divorce. From the 1980s there was an increase in government funding of women's refuges, health centres, rape crisis centres and information services. The Australian government began funding child care with the Child Care Act of 1972, although state, territory and local government were still the main providers of funding. In 1984, the Australian government introduced standardised fee relief for child care, and funding was greatly expanded in 1990 by the decision to extend fee relief to commercial child care centres. According to Holmes and Pinto, reliable birth control, increased employment opportunities, and improved family welfare and childcare provision increased opportunities for women outside motherhood and domesticity. In 2019–20, women were more likely than men to hold a bachelor's degree or higher qualification. Sixty-eight per cent of women aged 20–74 years old participated in the labour force, compared with 78 per cent of men. However, 43 per cent of employed women were working part-time, compared with 16 per cent of men, and the average earnings of women working full-time was 14 per cent below that of men. In the five-to-ten years to 2020, the number of women in private sector leadership roles, female federal Justices and Judges, and federal parliamentarians have all increased gradually. However, between 1999 and 2021, Australia has fallen from ninth to 50th in the Inter-Parliamentary Union's ranking of countries by women's representation in national parliaments. #### Migrants and cultural diversity In 1961, just over 90 per cent of the Australian population had been born in Australia, New Zealand, the UK or Ireland. Another eight per cent had been born in continental Europe. The White Australia policy was in force and migrants were expected to assimilate into the Australian way of life. As the White Australia policy was gradually dismantled in the 1960s and formally abolished in 1973, governments developed a policy of multiculturalism to manage Australia's increasing cultural diversity. In August 1973 Labor's immigration minister Al Grassby announced his vision of *A Multi‐Cultural Society for the Future* and a policy of cultural pluralism based on principles of social cohesion, equality of opportunity and cultural identity soon gained bipartisan support. The Galbally Report on migrant services in 1978 recommended that: "every person should be able to maintain his or her culture without prejudice or disadvantage and should be encouraged to understand and embrace other cultures." In response to the report, the Fraser government expanded funding for settlement services, established the Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs (AIMA), funded multicultural and community language education programs in schools and established the multi-lingual Special Broadcasting Service (SBS). State and territory government programs to support multiculturalism followed. By the late 1980s Australia had a high migrant intake which included significant numbers of new arrivals from Asian and Middle‐Eastern countries, leading to public debate on immigration policy. In 1984, the historian Geoffrey Blainey called for a reduction in Asian immigration in the interests of social cohesion. In 1988, the opposition Leader, John Howard called for the abandonment of multiculturalism, a reduction in Asian immigration, and a focus on 'One Australia'. In the same year, the government's FitzGerald review of immigration recommended a sharper economic focus in the selection of immigrants. In 1989, the Hawke government released its *National Agenda for a Multicultural Australia* which endorsed respect for cultural diversity and the need for settlement services, but indicated that pluralism was limited by the need for "an overriding and unifying commitment to Australia". The Pai Lau Gate in the ethnically diverse suburb of Cabramatta in SydneyA mosque in Blacktown Multicultural programs continued to expand between 1986 and 1996 with an emphasis on addressing disadvantage in migrant communities as well as settlement services for recent migrants. James Walter argues that the Hawke and Keating governments (1983–96) also promoted high migration as a means of improving Australia's competitive advantage in a globalised market. In 1996, Pauline Hanson, a newly elected independent member of parliament, called for a cut in Asian immigration and an end to multiculturalism. In 1998, her One Nation Party gained 23 per cent of the vote in the Queensland elections. The Howard government (1996 to 2007) initially abolished a number of multicultural agencies and reduced funding to some migrant services as part of a general program of budget cuts. In 1999, the government adopted a policy of "Australian multiculturalism" with an emphasis on citizenship and adherence to "Australian values". Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the US, the Bali bombings and other terrorist incidents, some media and political commentary sought to link terrorism with Islam. In 2004, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) reported an increase in vilification and violence against Australian Muslims and some other minority ethnic groups. The government increased funding for multicultural, citizenship and settlement programs, with an emphasis on the promotion of social cohesion and security. The annual immigration intake also increased substantially as the economy boomed, from 67,900 in 1998–99 to 148,200 in 2006–07. The proportion of migrants selected for their skills increased from 30 per cent in 1995–96 to 68 per cent in 2006–07. Immigration continued to grow under the Labor government (2007–13) with prime minister Kevin Rudd proclaiming a "big Australia" policy. The immigration intake averaged around 190,000 a year from 2011–12 to 2015–16, a level based on research indicating the optimum level to increase economic output per head of population. India and China became the largest source countries of new migrants. The immigration intake was reduced to 160,000 in 2018–19 as some State governments complained that high immigration was adding to urban congestion. The opposition also linked high immigration with low wages growth while the One Nation party continued to oppose high immigration while proclaiming: "It's okay to be white.". By 2020, 30 per cent of the Australian population were born overseas. The top five countries of birth for those born overseas were England, China, India, New Zealand and the Philippines. Australia's population encompassed migrants born in almost every country in the world, ### Arts and culture The 1960s and 1970s saw increased government support for the arts and the flourishing of distinctively Australian artistic works. The Gorton government (1968–71) established the Australian Council for the Arts, the Australian Film Development Corporation (AFDC) and the National Film and Television Training School. The Whitlam government (1972–75) established the Australia Council with funding to promote crafts, Aboriginal arts, literature, music, visual arts, theatre, film and television. In 1966, a television drama quota was introduced requiring broadcasters to show 30 minutes of locally produced drama each week. The police series *Homicide* (1964–67) became the highest rating program and the family drama *Skippy the Bush Kangaroo* became a local and international success. By 1969 eight of the twelve most popular television programs were Australian. With these successes, locally produced dramas became a staple of Australian television in the 1970s and 1980s. Notable examples include *Rush* (1973–76), *The Sullivans* (1976–83) and *Neighbours* (1985–present). From the late 1960s a "new wave" of Australian theatre emerged, initially centred on small theatre groups such as the Pram Factory, La Mama and the Australian Performing Group in Melbourne and the Jane Street Theatre and Nimrod Theatre Company in Sydney. Playwrights associated with the new wave included David Williamson, Alex Buzo, Jack Hibberd and John Romeril. Features of the new wave were the extensive use of Australian colloquial speech (including obscenities), the exploration of the Australian identity, and the critique of cultural myths. By the end of the 1970s new Australian plays were a feature of small and large theatre companies in most states. Support through the AFDC (from 1975 the Australian Film Commission) and state funding bodies, and generous tax concessions for investors introduced in 1981, led to a large increase in Australian produced films. Almost 400 were produced between 1970 and 1985. Notable films include *The Adventures of Barry McKenzie* (1972), *Picnic at Hanging Rock* (1975), *My Brilliant Career* (1979), *Breaker Morant* (1980), *Gallipoli* (1981), the *Mad Max* trilogy (1979–85) and *Crocodile Dundee* (1986). In 1973, Patrick White became the first Australian to win a Nobel Prize for Literature. While there were only around twenty Australian novels published in 1973, this had grown to around 300 in 1988. By 1985 more than 1,000 writers had received grants and more than 1,000 books had been subsidised by the Literature Board. Writers who published their first book between 1975 and 1985 include Peter Carey, David Malouf, Murray Bail, Elizabeth Jolley, Helen Garner and Tim Winton. There was also a growing recognition of Indigenous cultural movements. In the early 1970s Aboriginal elders at Papunya began using acrylic paints to make "dot" paintings based on the traditional Honey Ant Dreaming. Indigenous artists from other regions also developed distinctive styles based on a fusion of modern art materials and traditional stories and iconography. Indigenous writers such as Oodgeroo Noonuccal (Kath Walker), Jack Davis and Kevin Gilbert produced significant work in the 1970s and 1980s. A National Black Theatre was established in Sydney in the early 1970s. The Aboriginal Islander Dance Theatre was established in 1976 and the Bangarra Dance Theatre in 1989. In 1991, the rock band Yothu Yindi, which drew on traditional Aboriginal music and dance, achieved commercial and critical success. In music, ABC television's popular music show *Countdown* (1974–87) helped promote Australian music while radio station 2JJ (later JJJ) in Sydney promoted live performances and recordings by Australian independent artists and record labels. Carter and Griffen-Foley state that by the end of the 1970s: "There was a widely shared sense of Australian culture as independent, no longer troubled by its relationship with Britain." However, by 1990 commentators as diverse as P. P. McGuiness and Geoffrey Serle were complaining that the large increase in artistic works had led to the celebration of mediocrity. Poet Chris Wallace-Crabbe questioned whether Australia had overcome its former "cultural cringe" only to fall into cultural overconfidence. In the new millennium, the globalisation of the Australian economy and society, and developments in jet travel and the internet have largely overcome the "tyranny of distance" which had influenced Australian arts and culture. Overseas cultural works could be more readily accessed in person or virtually. Australian performers such as the Australian Ballet and Australian Chamber Orchestra frequently toured abroad. The growing number of international art exhibitions, such as Art Basel Hong Kong and the Queensland Art Gallery's Asia-Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art, have increased the exposure of Australian art in the region and the wider global market. In film, the number of Australian productions averaged 14 per year in the 1970s but grew to 31 per year in the 2000s and 37 per year in the 2010s. A number of Australian directors and actors, including Baz Luhrmann, George Miller, Peter Weir, Cate Blanchett, Nicole Kidman, Geoffrey Rush and others, have been able to establish careers both in Australia and abroad. The technical expertise developed in the Australian industry, and the increasing number of internationally successful Australian directors and actors, encouraged foreign producers to make more films in Australia. Major international productions made in Australia in the past decade include *Mad Max: Fury Road* and *The Great Gatsby*. Carter and Griffen-Follet conclude: "Australia is no longer a Dominion or client state within a closed imperial market, but a medium-sized player, exporter as well as importer, within globalised cultural industries and markets." Historiography -------------- According to Stuart MacIntyre, the first Australian histories, such as those by William Wentworth and James Macarthur, were polemical works written to influence public opinion and British government policy in the colony. After the Australian colonies became self-governing in the 1850s, colonial governments commissioned histories aimed at promoting migration and investment from Britain. The beginning of professional academic history in Australian universities from 1891 saw the dominance of an Imperial framework for interpreting Australian history, in which Australia emerged from the successful transfer of people, institutions, and culture from Britain. The apogee of the imperial school of Australian history was the Australian volume of the *Cambridge History of the British Empire* published in 1933. Military history received government support after the First World War, most prominently with Charles Bean's 12 volume *History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918* (1921–42). Bean's earlier work as Australia's official war correspondent had helped establish the Anzac legend which, according to McKenna: "immediately supplanted all other narratives of nationhood – the march of the explorers, the advance of settlement, Eureka, Federation and Australia's record of progressive democratic legislation." Radical nationalist interpretations of Australian history became more prominent from the 1930s. Brian Fitzpatrick published a series of histories from 1939 to 1941 which sought to demonstrate the exploitative nature of Britain's economic relationship with Australia and the role of the labour movement in a struggle for social justice and economic independence. One of the most influential works of the radical nationalist trend was Russel Ward's *The Australian Legend* (1958) which sought to trace the origins of a distinctive democratic national ethos from the experiences of the convicts, bushrangers, gold-diggers, drovers and shearers. In the 1960s Marxist historians such as Bob Gollan and Ian Turner explored the relationship of the labour movement to radical nationalist politics. The rapid expansion of university history departments in the 1950s and 1960s saw an increasing diversity of interpretations and specialisations in Australian history. A number of academic historians still worked within the imperial history tradition, while others explored the contribution of liberal, conservative and other traditions to Australia's distinctive political, cultural and economic development. In the first two volumes of his *History of Australia* (1962, 1968) Manning Clark developed an idiosyncratic interpretation of Australian history telling the story of "epic tragedy" in which "the explorers, Governors, improvers, and perturbators vainly endeavoured to impose their received schemes of redemption on an alien, intractable setting". According to MacIntyre, Clark "had few imitators and the successive volumes had a much greater impact on the public than the profession." The 1964 book *The Lucky Country* by Donald Horne was scathing in its observations of a complacent, dull, anti-intellectual and provincial Australia, with a swollen suburbia and absence of innovation–its title has been frequently misinterpreted as complimentary, though Horne meant it unfavourably. Another notable "big picture" interpretation of Australian history from this period is Geoffrey Blainey's *The Tyranny of Distance* (1966). The 1970s saw a number of challenges to traditional imperial and nationalist interpretations of Australian history. Humphrey McQueen in *A New Britannia* (1970) attacked radical nationalist historical narratives from a Marxist New Left perspective. Anne Summers in *Damned Whores and God's Police* (1975) and Miriam Dixson in *The Real Matilda* (1976) analysed the role of women in Australian history. Others explored the history of those marginalised because of their sexuality or ethnicity. Oral history became an increasingly prominent addition to traditional archival sources in a number of topic areas. Wendy Lowenstein's *Weevils in the Flour* (1978), a social history of the Great Depression, is a notable early example. There was also a revival in Aboriginal history. Notable works include Charles Rowley's *The Destruction of Aboriginal Society* (1970), Henry Reynolds' *The Other Side of the Frontier* (1981) and Peter Reid's work on Aboriginal children who had been removed from their parents. While Indigenous-settler relations remains an important field, Reid states that in the past few decades historians of Indigenous Australia have increasingly explored local histories and "the changing internal relations between individuals and family, clan and community." Academic history continued to be influenced by British, American and European trends in historical method and modes of interpretation. Post-structuralist ideas on the relationship between language and meaning were influential in the 1980s and 1990s, for example, in Greg Dening's *Mr Bligh's Bad Language* (1992)*.* Memory studies and Pierre Nora's ideas on the relationship between memory and history influenced work in a number of fields including military history, ethnographic history, oral history and historical work in Australian museums. Interdisciplinary histories drawing on the insights of fields such as sociology, anthropology, cultural studies and environmental studies have become more common since the 1980s. Transnational approaches which analyse Australian history in a global and regional context have also flourished in recent decades. Historians such as McKenna, MacIntyre and others point out that in the 21st century most historical works are not created by academic historians, and public conceptions of Australia's history are more likely to be shaped by popular histories, historical fiction and drama, the media, the internet, museums and public institutions. Popular histories by amateur historians regularly outsell work by academic historians. The internet and developments in digital technology mean that individuals and community groups can readily research, produce and distribute their own historical works. Local histories and family histories have proliferated in recent decades. A 2003 survey by the University of Technology, Sydney found that 32 per cent of respondents had engaged in family history or a history-related hobby. These developments, along with the prevalence of interdisciplinary histories, have led some Australian historians to question the boundaries of history as an academic discipline. MacIntyre has questioned the claim that specialised procedures and forms of communication can protect the discipline from "the natural impulses of humanity" and "popular history". Clark and Ashton have stated that: "The accessibility of history has fundamentally changed how we perceive the discipline and raises an important question: Can anyone be an historian today?" Historians have also questioned the boundaries between historical writing and other activities, particularly when they argue that groups have been marginalised by academic histories. Peter Reid states that "Aboriginal history today takes form in dance, art, novel, biography, autobiography, oral history, archival research, family papers, drama, poetry and film." ### History wars The history wars were a series of public disputes about interpretations of Australian history involving historians, politicians and media commentators which occurred between approximately 1993 and 2007 but which had their roots in the revisionist histories from the 1970s and political debates about multiculturalism, Indigenous land rights, the stolen generations and national identity. In a 1993 lecture, Geoffrey Blainey made a distinction between a "three cheers" view of history which saw Australian history as largely a success, and a "black armband" view which claimed that "much of Australian history was a disgrace". He opined that the "black armband view of history might well represent the swing of the pendulum from a position that had been too favourable, too self-congratulatory, to an opposite extreme that is even more unreal and decidedly jaundiced". Three years later, the Prime Minister John Howard referred to Blainey's speech stating, "I profoundly reject the black armband view of Australian history. I believe the balance sheet of Australian history is a very generous and benign one. I believe that, like any other nation, we have black marks upon our history but amongst the nations of the world we have a remarkably positive history." He later defined black armband history as the view "that most Australian history since 1788 has been little more than a disgraceful story of imperialism, exploitation, racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination" and stated his intention to "ensure that our history as a nation is not written definitively by those who take the view that we should apologise for most of it." In 1997, Howard repeated his criticism of black armband history in the context of the political controversies about Indigenous native title and the Stolen Generations, stating that contemporary Australians should not be held accountable for wrongs committed by past generations. A number of historians, including Henry Reynolds, Elaine Thompson and Don Watson, responded publicly, variously accusing the prime minister of seeking to rewrite history to exclude the critical analysis of Australia's past and of misrepresenting recent Australian historiography for political purposes. However, historian Patrick O'Farrell, agreed with John Howard that the "guilt school of Australian history has gone too far". In August 1996, the Brisbane newspaper The *Courier-Mail* published a series of articles alleging that Manning Clark (who had died in 1991 and had been closely associated with the opposition Labor party since 1972) had been "an agent of influence" for the Soviet Union. The newspaper explicitly linked its allegations to current political debates about Australia's history. John Howard commented that he considered Clark an unduly pessimistic black armband historian. The Press Council later found that the newspaper had had insufficient evidence for its allegation that Clark had been a Soviet agent. The Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission (HREOC), in 1997, released its *Bringing Them Home* report on the forced removal of Indigenous children from their families. The report found that between 10 per cent and 33 per cent of Aboriginal children had been forcibly separated from their parents between 1910 and 1970. The authors of the report stated that the policy of forced removals amounted to genocide and called for an apology to, and compensation for, the victims. Prime minister Howard offered his personal regret for the forced removals but he refused to offer a parliamentary apology, arguing that it might prejudice future legal actions and no government should be expected to apologise for the actions of previous governments. The release of the report and the government's response sparked a heated political, media and public debate about the facts of forced removals and the appropriate political response. The anthropologist Ron Brunton published a paper in 1998 criticising the HREOC inquiry on various grounds including that the inquiry has not tested the claims of witnesses against the historical record. In 2000, the government claimed that a maximum of 10 per cent of Aboriginal children had been separated from their parents and that the policy was lawful and well-intentioned. A number of historians, including Janet McCalman and Anna Haebich, contributed to the political and academic debate. Keith Windschuttle published a series of articles in 2000 in which he argued that claims of frontier massacres and the Aboriginal death toll in frontier violence had been exaggerated by historians. In a subsequent book *The Fabrication of Aboriginal History* (2002) Windschuttle argued that there had been no genocide of Aboriginal Tasmanians and that historians had systematically misrepresented evidence about the nature and extent of violence against Aboriginal Tasmanians for political reasons. Geoffrey Blainey praised the book and it sparked a widespread and often acrimonious academic, media and public debate about settler violence against Aboriginal people and about Windschuttle's criticisms of particular historians. A new battlefront in the history wars opened in 2000 when the council of the National Museum of Australia commissioned the historian Graeme Davison to review the explanatory labels for the museum's inaugural exhibition to determine whether they amounted to "the reworking of Australian history into political correctness." Davison found no political bias in the labels and the exhibition went ahead with the opening of the museum in March 2001. Following a number of media allegations of left-wing political bias in the museum's exhibitions, the museum council initiated another review which, in 2003, found that there was no systemic political or cultural bias in the museum. A number of historians publicly criticised the inquiry as political interference in the independence of the museum. In 2006, a Sydney newspaper reported that the director of the museum, Peter Morton was systematically reworking the collection, stating: "I want people to come out feeling good about Australia." See also -------- * Australian archaeology * Australian telegraphic history * Economic history of Australia * Europeans in Oceania * History of Oceania * History of broadcasting#Australia * History of monarchy in Australia * Immigration history of Australia * LGBT history in Australia * List of conflicts in Australia * List of towns and cities in Australia by year of foundation * Military history of Australia * Territorial evolution of Australia * Timeline of Australian history * Whaling in Australia * Women in Australia ### Reference books * Bach, John (1976). *A Maritime History of Australia*. Melbourne: Nelson. 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The Middle Way* (2005) online * Clarke, Frank G. *The History of Australia* (2002). online edition * Day, David. *Claiming a Continent: A New History of Australia* (2001) * Dickey, Brian. *No charity there: A short history of social welfare in Australia* (Routledge, 2020). * Edwards, John. *Curtin's Gift: Reinterpreting Australia's Greatest Prime Minister*, (2005) online edition * Firth, Stewart. *Australia in international politics: an introduction to Australian foreign policy* (Routledge, 2020). * Hughes, Robert. *The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia's Founding* (1988). ISBN 0099448548 * Irving, Terry and Connell, Raewyn. *Class Structure in Australian History* (1992), Longman Cheshire: Melbourne. * Kelly, Paul. *The End of Certainty: Power, Politics & Business in Australia* (2008); originally published as *The End of Certainty: The Story of the 1980s* (1994) * Kingston, Beverley. *The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 3: 1860–1900 Glad, Confident Morning* (1993) * Kociumbas, Jan *The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 2: 1770–1860 Possessions* (1995) * Macintyre, Stuart. *The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 4: 1901–42, the Succeeding Age* (1993) online * Macintyre, Stuart. *A Concise History of Australia* (2nd. ed. 2009) excerpt and text search ISBN 0-521-60101-0 * Martin, A. W. *Robert Menzies: A Life* (2 vol 1993–99), online at ACLS e-books * McQueen, Humphrey. *A New Britannia* (1970) University of Queensland Press, Brisbane. * Megalogenis, George. *The Longest Decade* (2nd ed. 2008), politics 1990–2008 * Millar, T. B. *Australia in peace and war : external relations 1788–1977* (1978) online, 612pp * Schreuder, Deryck, and Stuart Ward, eds. *Australia's Empire* (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series) (2008) excerpt and text search DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199563739.001.0001 online * Taflaga, Marija. *A short political history of Australia*. In Peter J. Chen, et al. eds. *Australian politics and policy* (Sydney UP, 2019). . online * Welsh, Frank. *Australia: A New History of the Great Southern Land* (2008) * White, Richard. *Inventing Australia* (Routledge, 2020), historiography. #### Early recorded history ##### Books * Anderson, Grahame: *The Merchant of the Zeehaen: Isaac Gilsemans and the Voyages of Abel Tasman*. (Wellington: Te Papa Press, 2001) * Ariese, Csilla: *Databases of the People Aboard the VOC Ships Batavia (1629) & Zeewijk (1727): An Analysis of the Potential for Finding the Dutch Castaways' Human Remains in Australia*. (Australian National Centre of Excellence for Maritime Archaeology, Department of Maritime Archaeology, Western Australian Museum, 2012) * Bonke, H.: *De zeven reizen van de Jonge Lieve: Biografie van een VOC-schip, 1760–1781* [The seven voyages of the Jonge Lieve: A biography of a VOC ship]. (Nijmegen: SUN, 1999) [in Dutch] * Bontekoe, Willem Ysbrandsz: *Memorable Description of the East Indian Voyage, 1618–25*. Translated from the Dutch by C.B. Bodde-Hodgkinson, with an introduction and notes by Pieter Geyl. (London: G. Routledge & Sons, 1929) * Dash, Mike: *Batavia's Graveyard: The True Story of the Mad Heretic Who Led History's Bloodiest Mutiny*. (New York: Crown, 2002, ISBN 9780609607664) * Day, Alan: *The A to Z of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia*. (Scarecrow Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-8108-6810-6) * De Vlamingh, Willem: *De ontdekkingsreis van Willem Hesselsz. de Vlamingh in de jaren 1696–1697*. Edited by Günter Schilder. 2 vols. "WLV," Vols. LXXVIII, LXXIX. (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976) [in Dutch] * Drake-Brockman, Henrietta: *Voyage to Disaster: The Life of Francisco Pelsaert Covering His Indian Report to the Dutch East India Company and the Wreck of the Ship 'Batavia' in 1629 Off the Coast of Western Australia Together With the Full Text of His Journals, Concerning the Rescue Voyages, the Mutiny On the Abrolhos Islands and the Subsequent Trials of the Mutineers*. [Translated from the Dutch by E. D. Drok]. (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1963) * Duyker, Edward: *The Dutch in Australia* [Australian Ethnic Heritage series]. (Melbourne: AE Press, 1987) * Duyker, Edward (ed.): *The Discovery of Tasmania: Journal Extracts from the Expeditions of Abel Janszoon Tasman and Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne 1642 & 1772*. (Hobart: St David's Park Publishing/Tasmanian Government Printing Office, 1992, pp. 106) * Duyker, Edward: *Mirror of the Australian Navigation by Jacob Le Maire: A Facsimile of the 'Spieghel der Australische Navigatie.' Being an Account of the Voyage of Jacob Le Maire and Willem Schouten (1615–1616), published in Amsterdam in 1622*. Hordern House for the Australian National Maritime Museum, Sydney, 1999, 202 pp * Edwards, Hugh: *Islands of Angry Ghosts: Murder, Mayhem and Mutiny: The Story of the Batavia*. Originally published in 1966. (New York: William Morrow & Co., 1966; HarperCollins, 2000) * Edwards, Hugh: *The Wreck on the Half-Moon Reef*. (Adelaide: Rigby Limited, 1970) * Fitzsimons, Peter: *Batavia: Betrayal, Shipwreck, Murder, Sexual Slavery, Courage: A Spine-Chilling Chapter in Australian History*. (Sydney: Random House Australia, 2011) * Gerritsen, Rupert; Cramer, Max; Slee, Colin: *The Batavia Legacy: The Location of the First European Settlement in Australia, Hutt River, 1629*. (Geraldton: Sun City Print, 2007) * Godard, Philippe: *The First and Last Voyage of the Batavia*. (Perth: Abrolhos, 1994) * Green, Jeremy N.: *Treasures from the 'Vergulde Draeck' (Gilt Dragon)*. (Perth: Western Australian Museum, 1974) * Green, Jeremy N.: *The Loss of the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie Jacht 'Vergulde Draeck', Western Australia 1656. An Historical Background and Excavation Report With an Appendix On Similar Loss of the Fluit 'Lastdrager' [2 volumes]*. (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1977) * Green, Jeremy N.: *The Loss of the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie Retourschip 'Batavia', Western Australia, 1629. An Excavation Report and Catalogue of Artefacts*. (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1989) * Heeres, J. E.: *Het aandeel der Nederlanders in de ontdekking van Australië, 1606–1765*. (Leiden: Brill, 1899) [in Dutch] * Heeres, J. E.: *The Part Borne by the Dutch in the Discovery of Australia, 1606–1765*. (Published by the Royal Dutch Geographical Society in Commemoration of the XXVth Anniversary of Its Foundation, 1899) * Heeres J. E. (ed.): *Abel Janszoon Tasman's Journal of His Discovery of Van Diemens Land and New Zealand in 1642: With Documents Relating to His Exploration of Australia in 1644*. (Amsterdam: Frederick Muller, 1898) * Henderson, Graeme: *Unfinished Voyages: Western Australian Shipwrecks, 1622–1850*. (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 1980) * Henderson, J.: *Sent Forth a Dove: The Discovery of Duyfken*. (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 1999, 232pp) * Hiatt, Alfred; Wortham, Christopher; et al. (eds.): *European Perceptions of Terra Australis*. (Farnham: Ashgate, 2011) * Hoving, Ab; Emke, Cor: *De schepen van Abel Tasman* [The Ships of Abel Tasman]. (Hilversum: Uitgeverij Verloren, 2000) [in Dutch] * Kenny, John: *Before the First Fleet: European Discovery of Australia, 1606–1777*. Kangaroo Press, 1995, 192 pp * Leys, Simon: *The Wreck of the Batavia. A True Story*. (New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 2005) * McHugh, Evan: *1606: An Epic Adventure*. (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2006) * Mundle, Rob: *Great South Land: How Dutch Sailors found Australia and an English Pirate almost beat Captain Cook*. (ABC Books, 2016, ISBN 978-0733332371) * Murdoch, Priscilla: *Duyfken and the First Discoveries of Australia*. Artarmon, N.S.W.: Antipodean Publishers, 1974 * Mutch, T. D.: *The First Discovery of Australia – With an Account of the Voyage of the "Duyfken" and the Career of Captain Willem Jansz*. (Sydney, 1942) Reprinted from the Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society, Vol. XXVIII., Part V * Nichols, Robert; Woods, Martin (eds.): *Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia*. (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 2013, ISBN 978-0-642-27809-8) * Pelsaert, Francisco: *The Batavia Journal of Francisco Pelsaert (1629)*. Edited and translated by Marit van Huystee. (Fremantle, W.A.: Western Australian Maritime Museum, 1998) * Peters, Nonja: *The Dutch Down Under, 1606–2006*. (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 2006) * Playford, Phillip: *The Wreck of the Zuytdorp on the Western Australian Coast in 1712*. (Nedlands: Royal Western Australian Historical Society, 1960) * Playford, Phillip: *Carpet of Silver: The Wreck of the Zuytdorp*. (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 1996) * Playford, Phillip: *Voyage of Discovery to Terra Australis by Willem de Vlamingh in 1696–97*. [Includes journal of Willem Vlamingh translated from an early 18th-century manuscript held in the Archives Nationales de France]. (Perth: Western Australian Museum, 1998) * Pearson, Michael: *Great Southern Land: The Maritime Exploration of Terra Australis*. (Canberra: Department of Environment and Heritage, 2005) * Quanchi, Max; Robson, John: *Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands*. (Lanham, MD and Oxford: Scarecrow Press, 2005) * Richards, Michael; O'Connor, Maura (eds.): *Changing Coastlines: Putting Australia on the World Map, 1493–1993*. (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1993) * Robert, Willem C. H.: *The Explorations, 1696–1697, of Australia by Willem de Vlamingh. Extracts from Two Log-Books Concerning the Voyage to and Explorations on the Coast of Western Australia and from Other Documents Relating to this Voyage*. [Original Dutch texts]. (Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1972) * Robert, Willem C. H.: *The Dutch Explorations, 1605–1756, of the North and Northwest Coast of Australia. Extracts from Journals, Log-books and Other Documents Relating to These Voyages*. [Original Dutch texts]. (Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1973) * Ryan, Simon: *The Cartographic Eye: How Explorers Saw Australia*. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996) * Schilder, Günter: *Australia Unveiled: The Share of the Dutch Navigators in the Discovery of Australia*. Translated from the German by Olaf Richter. (Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1976) * Schilder, Günter: *Voyage to the Great South Land, Willem de Vlamingh, 1696–1697*. Translated by C. de Heer. (Sydney: Royal Australian Historical Society, 1985) * Schilder, Günter: *In the Steps of Tasman and De Vlamingh. An Important Cartographic Document for the Discovery of Australia*. (Amsterdam: Nico Israel, 1988) * Schilder, Günter; Kok, Hans: *Sailing for the East: History and Catalogue of Manuscript Charts on Vellum of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), 1602–1799*. (BRILL, 2010, ISBN 9789061942603) * Sharp, Andrew: *The Discovery of Australia*. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963) * Sharp, Andrew: *The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman*. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968) * Shaw, Lindsey; Wilkins, Wendy (eds.): *Dutch Connections: 400 Years of Australian-Dutch Maritime Links, 1606–2006*. (Sydney: Australian National Maritime Museum, 2006) * Sigmond, J. P.; Zuiderbaan, L. H.: *Dutch Discoveries of Australia: Shipwrecks, Treasures and Early Voyages off the West Coast*. (Adelaide: Rigby, 1979) * Sigmond, J. P.; Zuiderbaan, L. H.: *Nederlanders ontdekken Australië: Scheepsarcheologische vondsten op het Zuidland*. (Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw, 1988) [in Dutch] * Stapel, F.W.: *De Oostindische Compagnie en Australië*. (Amsterdam: Van Kampen, 1937) [in Dutch] * Stein, Stephen K.: *The Sea in World History: Exploration, Travel, and Trade*. (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2017) * Suárez, Thomas: *Early Mapping of the Pacific: The Epic Story of Seafarers, Adventurers, and Cartographers Who Mapped the Earth's Greatest Ocean*. (Singapore: Periplus Editions, 2004) * Tasman, Abel: *The Journal of Abel Jansz Tasman, 1642; with Documents Relating to His Exploration of Australia in 1644*. Edited by G.H. Kenihan. (Adelaide: Australian Heritage Press, 1960) * Tasman, Abel: *Het Journaal van Abel Tasman, 1642–1643*. [eds.: Vibeke Roeper & Diederick Wilderman]. (The Hague: Nationaal Archief, 2006) [in Dutch] * Van Duivenvoorde, Wendy: *The Batavia Shipwreck: An Archaeological Study of an Early Seventeenth-Century Dutch East Indiaman*. (PhD diss., Texas A&M University, Dept of Anthropology, 2008) * Van Zanden, Henry: *1606: Discovery of Australia*. (Perth: Rio Bay Enterprises, 1997) * Veth, Peter; Sutton, Peter; Neale, Margo: *Strangers on the Shore: Early Coastal Contacts in Australia*. (Canberra: National Museum of Australia Press, 2008, ISBN 9781876944636) * Walker, James Backhouse: *Abel Janszoon Tasman: His Life and Voyages, and The Discovery of Van Diemen's Land in 1642*. (Hobart: Government Printer, 1896) ##### Journal articles, scholarly papers, essays * Beaumont, Joan. "Australian military historiography" *War & Society* 42#1 (2023) pp. 99–121 doi.org/10.1080/07292473.2023.2150485 * Broomhall, Susan (2014), "Emotional Encounters: Indigenous Peoples in the Dutch East India Company's Interactions with the South Lands," *Australian Historical Studies* 45(3): pp. 350–367 * Broomhall, Susan (2015), " 'Quite indifferent to these things': The Role of Emotions and Conversion in the Dutch East India Company's Interactions with the South Lands,". *Journal of Religious History* 39(4): 524–44. doi:10.1111/1467-9809.12267 * Broomhall, Susan (2016), 'Dishes, Coins and Pipes: The Epistemological and Emotional Power of VOC Material Culture in Australia,'. In *The Global Lives of Things: The Material Culture of Connections in the Early Modern World*, edited by Anne Gerritsen & Giorgio Riello. (London: Routledge, 2016), pp. 145–61 * Broomhall, Susan (2017), 'Fire, Smoke and Ashes: Communications of Power and Emotions by Dutch East India Company Crews on the Australian Continent,'. In *Fire Stories*, edited by G. Moore. (New York: Punctum Books, 2017) * Broomhall, Susan (2017), 'Shipwrecks, Sorrow, Shame and the Great Southland: The Use of Emotions in Seventeenth-Century Dutch East India Company Communicative Ritual,'. In *Emotion, Ritual and Power in Europe, 1200–1920: Family, State and Church*, edited by M. Bailey and K. Barclay. (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), pp. 83–103 * Broomhall, Susan (2018), 'Dirk Hartog's Sea Chest: An Affective Archaeology of VOC Objects in Australia,'; in *Feeling Things: Objects and Emotions through History*, edited by Stephanie Downes, Sally Holloway and Sarah Randles. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), pp. 175–91 * Donaldson, Bruce (2006), 'The Dutch Contribution to the European Discovery of Australia,'. In Nonja Peters (ed.), *The Dutch Down Under, 1606–2006*. (Crawley: University of Western Australia Press, 2006) * Gaastra, Femme (1997), 'The Dutch East India Company: A Reluctant Discoverer,'. Great Circle – Journal of the Australian Association for Maritime History 19(2): 109–123 * Gentelli, Liesel (2016), 'Provenance Determination of Silver Artefacts from the 1629 VOC Wreck Batavia using LA-ICP-MS,'. Journal of Archaeological Science [Reports] 9: 536–542. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.08.044 * Gerritsen, Rupert (2006), 'The evidence for cohabitation between Indigenous Australians, marooned Dutch mariners and VOC passengers,'; in Nonja Peters (ed.), *The Dutch Down Under: 1606–2006*. (University of WA Press, Sydney, 2006), pp. 38–55 * Gerritsen, Rupert (2008), 'The landing site debate: Where were Australia's first European residents marooned in 1629?', pp. 105–129; in P. Hornsby & J. Maschke (eds.) *Hydro 2007 Conference Proceedings: Focus on Asia*. (International Federation of Hydrographic Societies, Belrose) * Gerritsen, Rupert (2009), 'The Batavia Mutiny: Australia's first military conflict in 1629,'. Sabretache: Journal and Proceedings of the Military Historical Society of Australia 50(4): 5–10 * Gerritsen, Rupert (2011), 'Australia's First Criminal Prosecutions in 1629'. (Canberra: Batavia Online Publishing) * Gibbs, Martin (2002), 'Maritime Archaeology and Behavior during Crisis: The Wreck of the VOC Ship Batavia (1629),'; in John Grattan & Robin Torrence (eds.), *Natural Disasters and Cultural Change*. (New York: Routledge, 2002), pp. 66–86 * Green, Jeremy N. (1975), 'The VOC ship Batavia wrecked in 1629 on the Houtman Abrolhos, Western Australia,'. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 4(1): 43–63. doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.1975.tb00902.x * Green, Jeremy N. (2006), 'The Dutch Down Under: Sailing Blunders,'. In Nonja Peters (ed.), *The Dutch Down Under, 1606–2006*. (Crawley: University of Western Australia Press, 2006) * Guy, Richard (2015), 'Calamitous Voyages: the social space of shipwreck and mutiny narratives in the Dutch East India Company,'. Itinerario 39(1): 117–140. doi:10.1017/S0165115315000157 * Ketelaar, Eric (2008), 'Exploration of the Archived World: From De Vlamingh's Plate to Digital Realities,'. Archives and Manuscripts 36(2): 13–33 * McCarthy, M. (2006), 'Dutch place names in Australia,'. In Nonja Peters (ed.), *The Dutch Down Under, 1606–2006*. (Crawley: University of Western Australia Press, 2006) * McCarthy, M. (2006), 'The Dutch on Australian shores: The Zuytdorp tragedy – unfinished business,'. In L. Shaw & W. Wilkins (eds.), *Dutch Connections: 400 Years of Australian–Dutch Maritime Links, 1606–2006* (Sydney: Australian National Maritime Museum, 2006), pp. 94–109 * Mutch, T. D. (1942), 'The First Discovery of Australia with an Account of the Voyages of the Duyfken and the Career of William Jansz.,'. JRAHS 28(5): 303–352 * Schilder, Günter (1976), 'Organisation and Evolution of the Dutch East India Company's Hydrographic Office in the Seventeenth Century,'. Imago Mundi 28: 61–78 * Schilder, Günter (1988), 'New Holland: The Dutch Discoveries,'; in Glyndwr Williams and Alan Frost (eds.), *Terra Australis to Australia*. (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 83–115 * Schilder, Günter (1984), 'The Dutch Conception of New Holland in the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries,'. The Globe: Journal of the Australian Map Circle 22: 38–46 * Schilder, Günter (1989), 'From Secret to Common Knowledge – The Dutch Discoveries,'; in John Hardy and Alan Frost (eds.), *Studies from Terra Australis to Australia*. (Canberra, 1989) * Schilder, Günter (1993), 'A Continent Takes Shape: The Dutch mapping of Australia,'; in *Changing Coastlines*, edited by Michael Richards & Maura O'Connor. (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1993), pp. 10–16 * Sheehan, Colin (2008), 'Strangers and Servants of the Company: The United East India Company and the Dutch Voyages to Australia,'; in Peter Veth, Margo Neale, et al. (eds.), *Strangers on the Shore: Early Coastal Contacts in Australia*. (Canberra: National Museum of Australia Press, ISBN 9781876944636) * Sigmond, Peter (2006), 'Cultural Heritage and a Piece of Pewter,'; in L. Shaw & W. Wilkins (eds.), *Dutch Connections: 400 Years of Australian–Dutch Maritime Links, 1606–2006*. (Sydney: Australian National Maritime Museum, 2006) * Van Duivenvoorde, Wendy; Kaiser, Bruce; Megens, Luc; van Bronswijk, Wilhelm (2015), 'Pigments from the Zuiddorp (Zuytdorp) ship sculpture: red, white and blue?,'. Post-Medieval Archaeology 49(2): 268–290 * Yahya, Padillah; Gaudieri, Silvana; Franklin, Daniel (2010), 'DNA Analysis of Human Skeletal Remains Associated with the Batavia Mutiny of 1629,'. Records of the Western Australian Museum 26: 98–108 ### Primary sources * Clark, C.M.H. ed. *Select Documents in Australian History* (2 vol. 1950) * Kemp, Rod, and Marion Stanton, eds. *Speaking for Australia: Parliamentary Speeches That Shaped Our Nation* Allen & Unwin, 2004 online edition * Crowley, Frank, ed. *A Documentary History of Australia* (5 vol. Melbourne: Wren, 1973); *v.1. Colonial Australia, 1788–1840 – v.2. Colonial Australia, 1841–1874 -v.3. Colonial Australia, 1875–1900 -v.4. Modern Australia, 1901–1939 -v.5. Modern Australia, 1939–1970* * Daniels, Kay, ed. *Australia's Women, a Documentary History: From a Selection of Personal Letters, Diary Entries, Pamphlets, Official Records, Government and Police Reports, Speeches, and Radio Talks* (2nd ed. U of Queensland Press, 1989) 335pp. The first edition was entitled *Uphill All the Way: A Documentary History of Women in Australia* (1980). * Teale, Ruth, ed. *Colonial Eve: Sources On Women in Australia, 1788–1914* (Melbourne : Oxford University Press, 1978) Further reading ---------------

History of Australia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Australia

**Late antiquity** is the time of transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages, generally spanning the 3rd–7th century in Europe and adjacent areas bordering the Mediterranean Basin. The popularization of this periodization in English has generally been credited to historian Peter Brown, after the publication of his seminal work *The World of Late Antiquity* (1971). Precise boundaries for the period are a continuing matter of debate, but Brown proposes a period between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Generally, it can be thought of as from the end of the Roman Empire's Crisis of the Third Century (235–284) to the early Muslim conquests (622–750), or as roughly contemporary with the Sasanian Empire (224–651). In the West, its end was earlier, with the start of the Early Middle Ages typically placed in the 6th century, or earlier on the edges of the Western Roman Empire. The Roman Empire underwent considerable social, cultural and organizational changes starting with the reign of Diocletian, who began the custom of splitting the Empire into Eastern and Western portions ruled by multiple emperors simultaneously. The Sasanian Empire supplanted the Parthian Empire and began a new phase of the Roman–Persian Wars, the Roman–Sasanian Wars. The divisions between the Greek East and Latin West became more pronounced. The Diocletianic Persecution of Christians in the early 4th century was ended by Galerius and under Constantine the Great, Christianity was made legal in the Empire. The 4th century Christianization of the Roman Empire was extended by the conversions of Tiridates the Great of Armenia, Mirian III of Iberia and Ezana of Axum, who later invaded and ended the Kingdom of Kush. During the late 4th century reign of Theodosius I, Nicene Christianity was proclaimed the state church of the Roman Empire. The city of Constantinople became the permanent imperial residence in the East by the 5th century and superseded Rome as the largest city in the Late Roman Empire and the Mediterranean Basin. The longest Roman aqueduct system, the 250 km (160 mi)-long Aqueduct of Valens was constructed to supply it with water, and the tallest Roman triumphal columns were erected there. Migrations of Germanic, Hunnic, and Slavic tribes disrupted Roman rule from the late 4th century onwards, culminating first in the Sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410 and subsequent Sack of Rome by the Vandals in 455, part of the eventual collapse of the Empire in the West itself by 476. The Western Empire was replaced by the so-called barbarian kingdoms, with the Arian Christian Ostrogothic Kingdom ruling Rome from Ravenna. The resultant cultural fusion of Greco-Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions formed the foundations of the subsequent culture of Europe. In the 6th century, Roman imperial rule continued in the East, and the Byzantine-Sasanian wars continued. The campaigns of Justinian the Great led to the fall of the Ostrogothic and Vandal Kingdoms, and their reincorporation into the Empire, when the city of Rome and much of Italy and North Africa returned to imperial control. Though most of Italy was soon part of the Kingdom of the Lombards, the Roman Exarchate of Ravenna endured, ensuring the so-called Byzantine Papacy. Justinian constructed the Hagia Sophia, a great example of Byzantine architecture, and the first outbreak of the centuries-long first plague pandemic took place. At Ctesiphon, the Sasanians completed the Taq Kasra, the colossal *iwan* of which is the largest single-span vault of unreinforced brickwork in the world and the triumph of Sasanian architecture. The middle of the 6th century was characterized by extreme climate events (the volcanic winter of 535–536 and the Late Antique Little Ice Age) and a disastrous pandemic (the Plague of Justinian in 541). The effects of these events in the social and political life are still under discussion. In the 7th century the disastrous Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 and the campaigns of Khosrow II and Heraclius facilitated the emergence of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula during the lifetime of Muhammad. Subsequent Muslim conquest of the Levant and Persia overthrew the Sasanian Empire and permanently wrested two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire's territory from Roman control, forming the Rashidun Caliphate. The Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty began the middle Byzantine period, and together with the establishment of the later 7th century Umayyad Caliphate, generally marks the end of late antiquity. Terminology ----------- The term *Spätantike*, literally "late antiquity", has been used by German-speaking historians since its popularization by Alois Riegl in the early 20th century. It was given currency in English partly by the writings of Peter Brown, whose survey *The World of Late Antiquity* (1971) revised the Gibbon view of a stale and ossified Classical culture, in favour of a vibrant time of renewals and beginnings, and whose *The Making of Late Antiquity* offered a new paradigm of understanding the changes in Western culture of the time in order to confront Sir Richard Southern's *The Making of the Middle Ages*. The continuities between the later Roman Empire, as it was reorganized by Diocletian (r. 284–305), and the Early Middle Ages are stressed by writers who wish to emphasize that the seeds of medieval culture were already developing in the Christianized empire, and that they continued to do so in the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantine Empire at least until the coming of Islam. Concurrently, some migrating Germanic tribes such as the Ostrogoths and Visigoths saw themselves as perpetuating the "Roman" tradition. While the usage "Late Antiquity" suggests that the social and cultural priorities of Classical Antiquity endured throughout Europe into the Middle Ages, the usage of "Early Middle Ages" or "Early Byzantine" emphasizes a break with the classical past, and the term "Migration Period" tends to de-emphasize the disruptions in the former Western Roman Empire caused by the creation of Germanic kingdoms within her borders beginning with the *foedus* with the Goths in Aquitania in 418. The general decline of population, technological knowledge and standards of living in Europe during this period became the archetypal example of societal collapse for writers from the Renaissance. As a result of this decline, and the relative scarcity of historical records from Europe in particular, the period from roughly the early fifth century until the Carolingian Renaissance (or later still) was referred to as the "Dark Ages". This term has mostly been abandoned as a name for a historiographical epoch, being replaced by "Late Antiquity" in the periodization of the late West Roman Empire, the early Byzantine empire and the Early Middle Ages. Religion -------- One of the most important transformations in Late Antiquity was the formation and evolution of the Abrahamic religions: Christianity, Rabbinic Judaism and, eventually, Islam. A milestone in the spread of Christianity was the conversion of Emperor Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) in 312, as claimed by his Christian panegyrist Eusebius of Caesarea, although the sincerity of his conversion is debated. Constantine confirmed the legalization of the religion through the so-called Edict of Milan in 313, jointly issued with his rival in the East, Licinius (r. 308–324). By the late 4th century, Emperor Theodosius the Great had made Christianity the State religion, thereby transforming the Classical Roman world, which Peter Brown characterized as "rustling with the presence of many divine spirits." Constantine I was a key figure in many important events in Christian history, as he convened and attended the first ecumenical council of bishops at Nicaea in 325, subsidized the building of churches and sanctuaries such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, and involved himself in questions such as the timing of Christ's resurrection and its relation to the Passover. The birth of Christian monasticism in the deserts of Egypt in the 3rd century, which initially operated outside the episcopal authority of the Church, would become so successful that by the 8th century it penetrated the Church and became the primary Christian practice. Monasticism was not the only new Christian movement to appear in late antiquity, although it had perhaps the greatest influence. Other movements notable for their unconventional practices include the Grazers, holy men who ate only grass and chained themselves up; the Holy Fool movement, in which acting like a fool was considered more divine than folly; and the Stylites movement, where one practitioner lived atop a 50-foot pole for 40 years. Late Antiquity marks the decline of Roman state religion, circumscribed in degrees by edicts likely inspired by Christian advisors such as Eusebius to 4th-century emperors, and a period of dynamic religious experimentation and spirituality with many syncretic sects, some formed centuries earlier, such as Gnosticism or Neoplatonism and the Chaldaean oracles, some novel, such as hermeticism. Culminating in the reforms advocated by Apollonius of Tyana being adopted by Aurelian and formulated by Flavius Claudius Julianus to create an organized but short-lived pagan state religion that ensured its underground survival into the Byzantine age and beyond. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India and along the Silk Road in Central Asia, while Manichaeism, a Dualist faith, arose in Mesopotamia and spread both East and West, for a time contending with Christianity in the Roman Empire. Many of the new religions relied on the emergence of the parchment *codex* (bound book) over the papyrus *volumen* (scroll), the former allowing for quicker access to key materials and easier portability than the fragile scroll, thus fueling the rise of synoptic exegesis, papyrology. Notable in this regard is the topic of the Fifty Bibles of Constantine. ### Laity vs clergy Within the recently legitimized Christian community of the 4th century, a division could be more distinctly seen between the laity and an increasingly celibate male leadership. These men presented themselves as removed from the traditional Roman motivations of public and private life marked by pride, ambition and kinship solidarity, and differing from the married pagan leadership. Unlike later strictures on priestly celibacy, celibacy in Late Antique Christianity sometimes took the form of abstinence from sexual relations after marriage, and it came to be the expected norm for urban clergy. Celibate and detached, the upper clergy became an elite equal in prestige to urban notables, the *potentes* or *dynatoi* (Brown (1987) p. 270). ### The rise of Islam Islam appeared in the 7th century, spurring Arab armies to invade the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sassanian Empire of Persia, destroying the latter. After conquering all of North Africa and Visigothic Spain, the Islamic invasion was halted by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in modern France. On the rise of Islam, two main theses prevail. On the one hand, there is the traditional view, as espoused by most historians prior to the second half of the twentieth century (and after) and by Muslim scholars. This view, the so-called "out of Arabia"-thesis, holds that Islam as a phenomenon was a new, alien element in the late antique world. Related to this is the Pirenne Thesis, according to which the Arab invasions marked—through conquest and the disruption of Mediterranean trade routes—the cataclysmic end of Late Antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages. On the other hand, there is a more recent thesis, associated with scholars in the tradition of Peter Brown, in which Islam is seen to be a product of the Late Antique world, not foreign to it. This school suggests that its origin within the shared cultural horizon of the late antique world explains the character of Islam and its development. Such historians point to similarities with other late antique religions and philosophies—especially Christianity—in the prominent role and manifestations of piety in Islam, in Islamic asceticism and the role of "holy persons", in the pattern of universalist, homogeneous monotheism tied to worldly and military power, in early Islamic engagement with Greek schools of thought, in the apocalypticism of Islamic theology and in the way the Quran seems to react to contemporary religious and cultural issues shared by the late antique world at large. Further indication that Arabia (and thus the environment in which Islam first developed) was a part of the late antique world is found in the close economic and military relations between Arabia, the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanian Empire. Political transformations ------------------------- The Late Antique period also saw a wholesale transformation of the political and social basis of life in and around the Roman Empire. The Roman citizen elite in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, under the pressure of taxation and the ruinous cost of presenting spectacular public entertainments in the traditional *cursus honorum*, had found under the Antonines that security could only be obtained by combining their established roles in the local town with new ones as servants and representatives of a distant Emperor and his traveling court. After Constantine centralized the government in his new capital of Constantinople (dedicated in 330), the Late Antique upper classes were divided among those who had access to the far-away centralized administration (in concert with the great landowners), and those who did not—though they were well-born and thoroughly educated, a classical education and the election by the Senate to magistracies was no longer the path to success. Room at the top of Late Antique society was more bureaucratic and involved increasingly intricate channels of access to the emperor: the plain toga that had identified all members of the Republican senatorial class was replaced with the silk court vestments and jewelry associated with Byzantine imperial iconography. Also indicative of the times is the fact that the imperial cabinet of advisors came to be known as the *consistorium*, or those who would stand in courtly attendance upon their seated emperor, as distinct from the informal set of friends and advisors surrounding the *Augustus*. Cities ------ The later Roman Empire was in a sense a network of cities. Archaeology now supplements literary sources to document the transformation followed by collapse of cities in the Mediterranean basin. Two diagnostic symptoms of decline—or as many historians prefer, 'transformation'—are subdivision, particularly of expansive formal spaces in both the *domus* and the public basilica, and encroachment, in which artisans' shops invade the public thoroughfare, a transformation that was to result in the *souk* (marketplace). Burials within the urban precincts mark another stage in dissolution of traditional urbanistic discipline, overpowered by the attraction of saintly shrines and relics. In Roman Britain, the typical 4th- and 5th-century layer of dark earth within cities seems to be a result of increased gardening in formerly urban spaces. The city of Rome went from a population of 800,000 in the beginning of the period to a population of 30,000 by the end of the period, the most precipitous drop coming with the breaking of the aqueducts during the Gothic War. A similar though less marked decline in urban population occurred later in Constantinople, which was gaining population until the outbreak of the Plague of Justinian in 541. In Europe there was also a general decline in urban populations. As a whole, the period of late antiquity was accompanied by an overall population decline in almost all Europe, and a reversion to more of a subsistence economy. Long-distance markets disappeared, and there was a reversion to a greater degree of local production and consumption, rather than webs of commerce and specialized production. Concurrently, the continuity of the Eastern Roman Empire at Constantinople meant that the turning-point for the Greek East came later, in the 7th century, as the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine Empire centered around the Balkans, North Africa (Egypt and Carthage), and Asia Minor. The degree and extent of discontinuity in the smaller cities of the Greek East is a moot subject among historians. The urban continuity of Constantinople is the outstanding example of the Mediterranean world; of the two great cities of lesser rank, Antioch was devastated by the Persian sack of 540, followed by the plague of Justinian (542 onwards) and completed by earthquake, while Alexandria survived its Islamic transformation, to suffer incremental decline in favour of Cairo in the medieval period. Justinian rebuilt his birthplace in Illyricum, as *Justiniana Prima*, more in a gesture of *imperium* than out of an urbanistic necessity; another "city", was reputed to have been founded, according to Procopius' panegyric on Justinian's buildings, precisely at the spot where the general Belisarius touched shore in North Africa: the miraculous spring that gushed forth to give them water and the rural population that straightway abandoned their ploughshares for civilised life within the new walls, lend a certain taste of unreality to the project. In mainland Greece, the inhabitants of Sparta, Argos and Corinth abandoned their cities for fortified sites in nearby high places; the fortified heights of Acrocorinth are typical of Byzantine urban sites in Greece. In Italy, populations that had clustered within reach of Roman roads began to withdraw from them, as potential avenues of intrusion, and to rebuild in typically constricted fashion round an isolated fortified promontory, or *rocca*; Cameron notes similar movement of populations in the Balkans, 'where inhabited centres contracted and regrouped around a defensible acropolis, or were abandoned in favour of such positions elsewhere." In the western Mediterranean, the only new cities known to be founded in Europe between the 5th and 8th centuries were the four or five Visigothic "victory cities". Reccopolis in the province of Guadalajara is one: the others were *Victoriacum*, founded by Leovigild, which may survive as the city of Vitoria, though a 12th-century (re)foundation for this city is given in contemporary sources; *Lugo id est Luceo* in the Asturias, referred to by Isidore of Seville, and *Ologicus* (perhaps *Ologitis*), founded using Basque labour in 621 by Suinthila as a fortification against the Basques, modern Olite. All of these cities were founded for military purposes and at least Reccopolis, Victoriacum, and Ologicus in celebration of victory. A possible fifth Visigothic foundation is *Baiyara* (perhaps modern Montoro), mentioned as founded by Reccared in the 15th-century geographical account, *Kitab al-Rawd al-Mitar*. The arrival of a highly urbanized Islamic culture in the decade following 711 ensured the survival of cities in the *Hispaniae* into the Middle Ages. Beyond the Mediterranean world, the cities of Gaul withdrew within a constricted line of defense around a citadel. Former imperial capitals such as Cologne and Trier lived on in diminished form as administrative centres of the Franks. In Britain, where the break with Late Antiquity comes earliest in the 5th and the 6th century, most towns and cities had been in rapid decline during the 4th century during a time of prosperity until the last decades of the century, well before the withdrawal of Roman governors and garrisons; historians emphasizing urban continuities with the Anglo-Saxon period depend largely on the post-Roman survival of Roman toponymy. Aside from a mere handful of its continuously inhabited sites, like York and London and possibly Canterbury, however, the rapidity and thoroughness with which its urban life collapsed with the dissolution of centralized bureaucracy calls into question the extent to which Roman Britain had ever become authentically urbanized: "in Roman Britain towns appeared a shade exotic," observes H. R. Loyn, "owing their reason for being more to the military and administrative needs of Rome than to any economic virtue". The other institutional power centre, the Roman villa, did not survive in Britain either. Gildas lamented the destruction of the twenty-eight cities of Britain; though not all in his list can be identified with known Roman sites, Loyn finds no reason to doubt the essential truth of his statement. Classical Antiquity can generally be defined as an age of cities; the Greek polis and Roman municipium were locally organised, self-governing bodies of citizens governed by written constitutions. When Rome came to dominate the known world, local initiative and control were gradually subsumed by the ever-growing Imperial bureaucracy; by the Crisis of the Third Century the military, political and economic demands made by the Empire had crushed the civic spirit, and service in local government came to be an onerous duty, often imposed as punishment. Harassed urban dwellers fled to the walled estates of the wealthy to avoid taxes, military service, famine and disease. In the Western Roman Empire especially, many cities destroyed by invasion or civil war in the 3rd century could not be rebuilt. Plague and famine hit the urban class in greater proportion, and thus the people who knew how to keep civic services running. Perhaps the greatest blow came in the wake of the extreme weather events of 535–536 and subsequent Plague of Justinian, when the remaining trade networks ensured the Plague spread to the remaining commercial cities. The impact of this outbreak of plague has recently been disputed. The end of Classical Antiquity is the end of the Polis model, and the general decline of cities is a defining feature of Late Antiquity. Column of Arcadius, Constantinople (built 401–421)Side view of the Column of Arcadius, with carved reliefs of scenes and figures on the pedestal, on the socle and spiralling up the column shaft, capped by a capital and a statue's empty plinthSide view of the Column of Arcadius, with carved reliefs of scenes and figures on the pedestal, on the socle and spiralling up the column shaft, capped by a capital and a statue's empty plinth. A door is visible in the top-most section.Side view of the Column of Arcadius, with carved reliefs of scenes and figures on the pedestal, on the socle and spiralling up the column shaft, capped by a capital and a statue's empty plinth. A door at ground level giving access to the spiral staircase within is visible.Library of Trinity College, Cambridge: ms. O.17.2 (the "Freshfield album"), folios 11–13 ### Public building In the cities the strained economies of Roman over-expansion arrested growth. Almost all new public building in Late Antiquity came directly or indirectly from the emperors or imperial officials. Attempts were made to maintain what was already there. The supply of free grain and oil to 20% of the population of Rome remained intact the last decades of the 5th century. It was once thought that the elite and rich had withdrawn to the private luxuries of their numerous villas and town houses. Scholarly opinion has revised this. They monopolized the higher offices in the imperial administration, but they were removed from military command by the late 3rd century. Their focus turned to preserving their vast wealth rather than fighting for it. The basilica, which had functioned as a law court or for imperial reception of foreign dignitaries, became the primary public building in the 4th century. Due to the stress on civic finances, cities spent money on walls, maintaining baths and markets at the expense of amphitheaters, temples, libraries, porticoes, gymnasia, concert and lecture halls, theaters and other amenities of public life. In any case as Christianity took over many of these building which were associated with pagan cults were neglected in favor of building churches and donating to the poor. The Christian basilica was copied from the civic structure with variations. The bishop took the chair in the apse reserved in secular structures for the magistrate—or the Emperor himself—as the representative here and now of Christ Pantocrator, the Ruler of All, his characteristic Late Antique icon. These ecclesiastical basilicas (e.g., St. John Lateran and St. Peter's in Rome) were themselves outdone by Justinian's Hagia Sophia, a staggering display of later Roman/Byzantine power and architectural taste, though the building is not architecturally a basilica. In the former Western Roman Empire almost no great buildings were constructed from the 5th century. A most outstanding example is the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna constructed c. 530 at a cost of 26,000 gold solidi or 360 Roman pounds of gold. City life in the East, though negatively affected by the plague in the 6th–7th centuries, finally collapsed due to Slavic invasions in the Balkans and Persian destructions in Anatolia in the 620s. City life continued in Syria, Jordan and Palestine into the 8th. In the later 6th century street construction was still undertaken in Caesarea Maritima in Palestine, and Edessa was able to deflect Chosroes I with massive payments in gold in 540 and 544, before it was overrun in 609. Sculpture and art ----------------- The stylistic changes characteristic of Late Antique art mark the end of classical Roman art and the beginnings of medieval art. As a complicated period bridging between Roman art and later medieval styles (such as that of the Byzantines), the Late Antique period saw a transition from the classical idealized realism tradition largely influenced by Ancient Greek art to the more iconic, stylized art of the Middle Ages. Unlike classical art, Late Antique art does not emphasize the beauty and movement of the body, but rather, hints at the spiritual reality behind its subjects. Additionally, mirroring the rise of Christianity and the collapse of the western Roman Empire, painting and freestanding sculpture gradually fell from favor in the artistic community. Replacing them were greater interests in mosaics, architecture, and relief sculpture. As the soldier emperors such as Maximinus Thrax (r. 235–238) emerged from the provinces in the 3rd century, they brought with them their own regional influences and artistic tastes. For example, artists jettisoned the classical portrayal of the human body for one that was more rigid and frontal. This is markedly evident in the combined porphyry Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs in Venice. With these stubby figures clutching each other and their swords, all individualism, naturalism, Roman verism, and Greek idealism diminish. The Arch of Constantine in Rome, which re-used earlier classicising reliefs together with ones in the new style, shows the contrast especially clearly. In nearly all artistic media, simpler shapes were adopted and once natural designs were abstracted. Additionally hierarchy of scale overtook the preeminence of perspective and other classical models for representing spatial organization. From c. 300 Early Christian art began to create new public forms, which now included sculpture, previously distrusted by Christians as it was so important in pagan worship. Sarcophagi carved in relief had already become highly elaborate, and Christian versions adopted new styles, showing a series of different tightly packed scenes rather than one overall image (usually derived from Greek history painting) as was the norm. Soon the scenes were split into two registers, as in the Dogmatic Sarcophagus or the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (the last of these exemplifying a partial revival of classicism). Nearly all of these more abstracted conventions could be observed in the glittering mosaics of the era, which during this period moved from being decoration derivative from painting used on floors (and walls likely to become wet) to a major vehicle of religious art in churches. The glazed surfaces of the tesserae sparkled in the light and illuminated the basilica churches. Unlike their fresco predecessors, much more emphasis was placed on demonstrating a symbolic fact rather than on rendering a realistic scene. As time progressed during the Late Antique period, art become more concerned with biblical themes and influenced by interactions of Christianity with the Roman state. Within this Christian subcategory of Roman art, dramatic changes were also taking place in the Depiction of Jesus. Jesus Christ had been more commonly depicted as an itinerant philosopher, teacher or as the "Good Shepherd", resembling the traditional iconography of Hermes. He was increasingly given Roman elite status, and shrouded in purple robes like the emperors with orb and scepter in hand — this new type of depiction is variously thought to be derived from either the iconography of Jupiter or of classical philosophers. As for luxury arts, manuscript illumination on vellum and parchment emerged from the 5th century, with a few manuscripts of Roman literary classics like the Vergilius Vaticanus and the Vergilius Romanus, but increasingly Christian texts, of which Quedlinburg Itala fragment (420–430) is the oldest survivor. Carved ivory diptychs were used for secular subjects, as in the imperial and consular diptychs presented to friends, as well as religious ones, both Christian and pagan – they seem to have been especially a vehicle for the last group of powerful pagans to resist Christianity, as in the late 4th century Symmachi–Nicomachi diptych. Extravagant hoards of silver plate are especially common from the 4th century, including the Mildenhall Treasure, Esquiline Treasure, Hoxne Hoard, and the imperial Missorium of Theodosius I. Literature ---------- In the field of literature, Late Antiquity is known for the declining use of classical Greek and Latin, and the rise of literary cultures in Syriac, Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Arabic, and Coptic. It also marks a shift in literary style, with a preference for encyclopedic works in a dense and allusive style, consisting of summaries of earlier works (anthologies, epitomes) often dressed up in elaborate allegorical garb (e.g., *De nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae* [The Marriage of Mercury and Philology] of Martianus Capella and the *De arithmetica*, *De musica*, and *De consolatione philosophiae* of Boethius—both later key works in medieval education). The 4th and 5th centuries also saw an explosion of Christian literature, of which Greek writers such as Eusebius of Caesarea, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus and John Chrysostom and Latin writers such as Ambrose of Milan, Jerome and Augustine of Hippo are only among the most renowned representatives. On the other hand, authors such as Ammianus Marcellinus (4th century) and Procopius of Caesarea (6th century) were able to keep the tradition of classical Hellenistic historiography alive in the Byzantine empire. ### Poetry Greek poets of the Late Antique period included Antoninus Liberalis, Quintus Smyrnaeus, Nonnus, Romanus the Melodist and Paul the Silentiary. Latin poets included Ausonius, Paulinus of Nola, Claudian, Rutilius Namatianus, Orientius, Sidonius Apollinaris, Corippus and Arator. Jewish poets included Yannai, Eleazar ben Killir and Yose ben Yose. Timeline -------- * 284: Diocletian becomes emperor, bringing an end to the Crisis of the Third Century. * 285: Emperor Diocletian splits the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western halves. Beginning of the Tetrarchy. * 298: Eastern Emperor Galerius defeats Sasanian king Narseh at the Battle of Satala, capturing Ctesiphon and forcing the Peace of Nisibis upon Persia, ending hostilities between the Roman and Sasanian Empires. * 311: The emperor Galerius issues the Edict of Serdica, ending the Diocletianic Persecution of Christianity in the Roman Empire. * 313: Constantine I defeats the *augustus* Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge and becomes *augustus* of the West. Constantine and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan. * 324: Constantine I and Crispus defeat Licinius and Licinius II at the Battles of Chrysopolis and of the Hellespont. * 325: First Council of Nicaea is convened by Constantine I. * 330: 11 May dedication of the Column of Constantine at Constantinople marks the inauguration of the new city, New Rome. * 363: The pagan emperor Julian attacks the Sasanian Empire in his Persian War and is decisively defeated by Shapur II. Jovian becomes the new emperor and cedes lands in a Perso-Roman Peace Treaty. * 376: The Thervingi under Fritigern, fleeing the Hunnic Invasion, are allowed to cross the Danube into Moesia. * 378: At the Battle of Adrianople, Eastern Roman Emperor Valens is defeated and killed by Gothic rebels. First Siege of Constantinople by the Goths. * 380: Theodosius I, Gratian, and Valentinian II issue the Edict of Thessalonica, establishing Nicene Christianity as the state church of the Roman Empire. * 381: First Council of Constantinople is convened by Theodosius in the Church of Hagia Irene. * 382: Influenced by Saint Ambrose, Roman Emperor Gratian persecutes paganism, removing the Altar of Victory. * 394: At the Battle of the Frigidus, Theodosius I defeats Eugenius, last pagan Roman *augustus*. * 395: The Huns invade Persia. * 395: Roman Emperor Theodosius I outlaws all pagan religions in favour of Christianity. * 405: The Vulgate Bible is completed, mostly by the theologian Jerome. The Vulgate will be the only Bible widely used in the Latin West until the Reformation. * 406: The Crossing of the Rhine by a confederacy of Germanic tribes marks a turning point in the Migration Period. * 410: Alaric I sacks Rome for the first time since 390 BC. Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon convoked by Yazdegerd I, organizing the Church of the East. Final Roman departure from Britain. * 413: Theodosian Walls around Constantinople are completed, as the largest system of fortifications in Europe. Constantinople as a result will not be conquered by a siege until 1204. * 415: Hypatia of Alexandria, pagan female mathematician is murdered by a Christian mob. The murder of an academic was unusual, and sent shock waves through the Roman Empire. * 431: Council of Ephesus is convened by Theodosius II. * 432: Saint Patrick begins his conversion of Ireland to Christianity, Ireland becomes the first European nation outside of Roman territory to be converted. Celtic Christianity, otherwise known as insular Christianity begins to set traditions and customs unique to speakers of Celtic languages, while still venerating the Pope. * 451: Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, the Hunnic Confederation and an alliance of Western Romans and Visigoths fight to a draw. Council of Chalcedon convened by Pulcheria and Marcian. * 453: Attila the Hun dies. * 454: Battle of Nedao: Various germanic vassals rebel against and defeat Attila son: Ellac. End of the Hunnic Empire in Western Europe * 455: Vandals under Genseric sack Rome. * 476: Romulus Augustus, last Western Roman Emperor is forced to abdicate by Odoacer, a half Hunnish and half Scirian chieftain of the Germanic Heruli; Odoacer returns the imperial regalia to Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno in Constantinople in return for the title of *dux* of Italy; this marks the end of the Western Roman Empire and is often taken as marking the end of Classical Antiquity. * 486: In the Battle of Soissons, Clovis I defeats the Roman rump state of Soissons, establishing Merovingian Francia. * c. 500: Battle of Badon: Major victory of the Celtic Britons upon the Anglo-Saxons in Britain. * 502: Beginning of the Anastasian War between Rome and Sasanid Persia, lasting until 506. * 507: Battle of Vouillé: Clovis I of the Franks conquers Gallia Aquitania after defeating the Visigoths. * 526-532: Iberian War between Eastern Rome and Sasanid Persia. Iberia becomes a Sasanid vassal. * 529: The Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I orders the prominent philosophical schools of antiquity throughout the Eastern Roman Empire (including the famous Academy in Athens, among others) to close down—allegedly, because Justinian frowned upon the pagan nature of these schools. * 532: Battle of Autun (532): Fall of the Kingdom of the Burgundians to the Franks. * 533-534: Vandalic War: The Eastern Roman General Belisarius reconquers Africa and destroys the Vandal Kingdom. * 534: The *Corpus Juris Civilis*, otherwise known as the *Code of Justinian* is completed. The new law code will influence Medieval European Law and the Napoleonic Code. * 535-536: A volcanic explosion (presumably in Central America) causes the Extreme weather events of 535–536: For 18 months a veil of dust and ash darkens the sky, causing unseasonable weather, crop failures, and famines worldwide. * 536: Belisarius captures Rome during the Gothic War (535–554). Beginning of the Byzantine Papacy. * 537: The Hagia Sophia, the largest Christian building ever created, is built in Constantinople, becoming a center of Byzantine society for the next millennium. * 539/540: Another eruption in the tropics causes another volcanic winter and the Late Antique Little Ice Age. * 541-562: Long Lazic War between Eastern Rome and Persia. * 542: Plague of Justinian arrives in Constantinople and spreads throughout the Mediterranean Basin and Europe in the 540s, beginning the First plague pandemic which lasted until the 8th century. * 546: Ostrogoths under Totila sack Rome. * 547: Final volcanic winter of the Late Antique Little Ice Age. * 550: Justinianic Church of the Holy Apostles is consecrated in Constantinople. * 553: Second Council of Constantinople is convoked by Emperor Justinian I and presided over by Patriarch Eutychius of Constantinople. * c. 560: Battle of Gol-Zarriun: The Hephthalite Empire is dissolved into minor kingdoms by a combined attack of Persia and the Western Turkic Khaganate. * 567: Lombard–Gepid War (567): The Gepid kingdom in Pannonia is destroyed by the Lombards and Avars. The Lombards will invade Italy the following year. * 572-591: Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591: Long conflict in the Caucasus. * 575/578: Sasanian reconquest of Yemen. * 582-602: Maurice's Balkan campaigns are the last defense of the Danube frontier. * 585: The Kingdom of the Suebi in Gallaecia is destroyed by the Visigothic King Liuvigild. * 602: The beginning of the final Byzantine-Sassanian War, lasting until 628. War encompasses entire Near East, exhausting both combatants. * 609: The emperor Phocas gives the Pantheon, Rome to Pope Boniface IV and it becomes a church. * 622: The Hijrah: Muhammad and Abu Bakr flee Mecca for Medina and begin the Islamic community. * 626: Avar, Slav, and Sasanian Siege of Constantinople. * 626: Slav tribes in Moravia and Pannonia, led by the Frankish merchant Samo rebel against the Avar khagan, establishing the Samo's Empire, the first Slavic state. * 630: In the Pontic steppes, the Khazar Khaganate is formed, after the disintegration of the Western Turkic Khaganate. * 632: Old Great Bulgaria is established north of the Black Sea in Eastern Europe * 634: The Battle of al-Qaryatayn: beginning of the Arab conquest of Syria. * 636: Battle of al-Qadisiyyah: Conquest of Mesopotamia by the Rashidun Caliphate. * 636: Battle of the Yarmuk: Conquest of Levant by the Arab general Khalid ibn al-Walid. * 640: Battle of Heliopolis: Arab general Amr ibn al-A'as begins the Muslim conquest of Egypt. * 641: Battle of Nahavand: Near collapse of the Sasanian Empire. * 650s: Battle of Balanjar (650s): Khazar Turks defeat the armies of the Rashidun Caliphate. Beginning of the Arab–Khazar wars * 651: Muslim conquest of Persia results in the Fall of the Sasanian Empire with the defeat, flight, and death of its last emperor Yazdegerd III after the Battle of the Oxus. * 654: Abu'l-Awar defeats Constans II at the Battle of the Masts. First decisive naval victory of the Arab–Byzantine wars. * 661: First Fitna ends with the Hasan–Muawiya treaty between Hasan ibn Ali and Muawiyah I, recognizing the latter as the first Umayyad Caliph. * 663: Constans II removes the bronze tiles from the Pantheon, Rome. * 674: First Arab Siege of Constantinople, lasting until 678. * 680: Second Fitna begins after the death of Muawiyah I and lasts twelve years. Husayn ibn Ali is defeated by Yazid I at the Battle of Karbala. Third Council of Constantinople is convened by Constantine IV and Patriarch George I of Constantinople. * 681: First Bulgarian Empire is established under *khan* Asparuh by treaty with Constantine IV. * 688: Battle of Mamma: The Umayadd general Zuhayr ibn Qays defeats the berber king Kusaila. Collapse of the Kingdom of Altava * 691: Construction of the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem begins under Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik. * 698: Roman Carthage is razed by Hassan ibn al-Nu'man after the Battle of Carthage. End of the Exarchate of Africa. See also -------- * Byzantine Empire * Peter Brown * Henri Pirenne * Fall of the Western Roman Empire * Early Middle Ages * Migration Period * Roman–Persian Wars

Late antiquity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_antiquity

**Palestine** (Greek: Παλαιστίνη, *Palaistínē*; Latin: *Palaestina*; Arabic: فِلَسْطِينَ, *Filasṭīn*, *Falasṭīn*, *Filisṭīn*; Hebrew: פלשתינה, *Palestīna*) is a geographic region in Western Asia. It is usually considered to include Israel and the State of Palestine (i.e. West Bank and Gaza Strip), though some definitions also include part of northwestern Jordan. The first written records to attest the name of the region were those of the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt, which used the term "Peleset" in reference to the neighboring people or land. In the 8th century, Assyrian inscriptions refer to the region of "Palashtu" or "Pilistu". In the Hellenistic period, these names were carried over into Greek, appearing in the Histories of Herodotus in the more recognizable form of "Palaistine". The Roman Empire initially used other terms for the region, such as Judaea, but renamed the region Syria Palaestina after the Bar Kokhba revolt. During the Byzantine period, the region was split into the provinces of Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda and Palaestina Tertia. Following the Muslim conquest of the Levant, the military district of Jund Filastin was established. Palestine's boundaries have changed throughout history; the politically defined region comprises most of the territory of the biblical Land of Israel (אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל, *ʾEreṣ Yīsrāʾēl*), also known as the Promised Land or the Holy Land, and represents the southern portion of wider regional designations such as Canaan, Syria, and the Levant. As the birthplace of Judaism and Christianity, the region of Palestine has a tumultuous history as a crossroads for religion, culture, commerce, and politics. In the Bronze Age, it was inhabited by the Canaanites; the Iron Age saw the emergence of Israel and Judah, two related kingdoms inhabited by the Israelites. It has since come under the sway of various empires, including the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Revolts by the region's Jews against Hellenistic rule brought a brief period of regional independence under the Hasmonean dynasty, which ended with its gradual incorporation into the Roman Empire (later the Byzantine Empire). In the 7th century, Palestine was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate, ending Byzantine rule in the region; Rashidun rule was succeeded by the Umayyad Caliphate, the Abbasid Caliphate, and the Fatimid Caliphate. Following the collapse of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which had been established through the Crusades, the population of Palestine became predominantly Muslim. In the 13th century, it became part of the Mamluk Sultanate, and after 1516, part of the Ottoman Empire. During World War I, it was captured by the United Kingdom as part of the Sinai and Palestine campaign. Between 1919 and 1922, the League of Nations created the Mandate for Palestine, which directed the region to be under British administration as Mandatory Palestine. Tensions between Jews and Arabs escalated into the 1947–1949 Palestine war, which ended with the territory of the former British Mandate divided between Israel vis-à-vis Jordan (in the West Bank) and Egypt (in the Gaza Strip); later developments in the Arab–Israeli conflict culminated in Israel's seizure of both territories, which has been among the core issues of the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict. History of the name ------------------- The name is found throughout recorded history. Examples of historical maps of Palestine are shown above: (1) Pomponius Mela (Latin, c. 43 CE); (2) Notitia Dignitatum (Latin, c. 410 CE); (3) Tabula Rogeriana (Arabic, 1154 CE); (4) Cedid Atlas (Ottoman Turkish, 1803 CE) Modern archaeology has identified 12 ancient inscriptions from Egyptian and Assyrian records recording likely cognates of Hebrew *Pelesheth*. The term "Peleset" (transliterated from hieroglyphs as *P-r-s-t*) is found in five inscriptions referring to a neighboring people or land starting from c. 1150 BCE during the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt. The first known mention is at the temple at Medinet Habu which refers to the Peleset among those who fought with Egypt in Ramesses III's reign, and the last known is 300 years later on Padiiset's Statue. Seven known Assyrian inscriptions refer to the region of "Palashtu" or "Pilistu", beginning with Adad-nirari III in the Nimrud Slab in c. 800 BCE through to a treaty made by Esarhaddon more than a century later. Neither the Egyptian nor the Assyrian sources provided clear regional boundaries for the term. The first clear use of the term Palestine to refer to the entire area between Phoenicia and Egypt was in 5th century BCE Ancient Greece, when Herodotus wrote of a "district of Syria, called *Palaistinê*" (Ancient Greek: Συρίη ἡ Παλαιστίνη καλεομένη) in *The Histories*, which included the Judean mountains and the Jordan Rift Valley. Approximately a century later, Aristotle used a similar definition for the region in *Meteorology*, in which he included the Dead Sea. Later Greek writers such as Polemon and Pausanias also used the term to refer to the same region, which was followed by Roman writers such as Ovid, Tibullus, Pomponius Mela, Pliny the Elder, Dio Chrysostom, Statius, Plutarch as well as Romano-Jewish writers Philo of Alexandria and Josephus. The term was first used to denote an official province in c. 135 CE, when the Roman authorities, following the suppression of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, renamed the province of Judaea "Syria Palaestina". There is circumstantial evidence linking Hadrian with the name change, but the precise date is not certain. The term is generally accepted to be a cognate of the biblical name *Peleshet* (פלשת *Pəlésheth*, usually transliterated as Philistia). The term and its derivates are used more than 250 times in Masoretic-derived versions of the Hebrew Bible, of which 10 uses are in the Torah, with undefined boundaries, and almost 200 of the remaining references are in the Book of Judges and the Books of Samuel. The term is rarely used in the Septuagint, which used a transliteration *Land of Phylistieim* (*Γῆ τῶν Φυλιστιείμ*) different from the contemporary Greek place name *Palaistínē* (*Παλαιστίνη*). The Septuagint instead used the term "allophuloi" (άλλόφυλοι, "other nations") throughout the Books of Judges and Samuel, such that the term "Philistines" has been interpreted to mean "non-Israelites of the Promised Land" when used in the context of Samson, Saul and David, and Rabbinic sources explain that these peoples were different from the Philistines of the Book of Genesis. During the Byzantine period, the region of Palestine within Syria Palaestina was subdivided into Palaestina Prima and Secunda, and an area of land including the Negev and Sinai became Palaestina Salutaris. Following the Muslim conquest, place names that were in use by the Byzantine administration generally continued to be used in Arabic. The use of the name "Palestine" became common in Early Modern English, was used in English and Arabic during the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem and was revived as an official place name with the British Mandate for Palestine. Some other terms that have been used to refer to all or part of this land include Canaan, Land of Israel (Eretz Yisrael or Ha'aretz), the Promised Land, Greater Syria, the Holy Land, Iudaea Province, Judea, Coele-Syria, "Israel HaShlema", Kingdom of Israel, Kingdom of Jerusalem, Zion, *Retenu* (Ancient Egyptian), Southern Syria, Southern Levant and Syria Palaestina. History ------- ### Overview Situated at a strategic location between Egypt, Syria and Arabia, and the birthplace of Judaism and Christianity, the region has a long and tumultuous history as a crossroads for religion, culture, commerce, and politics. The region has been controlled by numerous peoples, including Ancient Egyptians, Canaanites, Israelites, Assyrians, Babylonians, Achaemenids, Ancient Greeks, Romans, Parthians, Sasanians, Byzantines, the Arab Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates, Crusaders, Ayyubids, Mamluks, Mongols, Ottomans, the British, and modern Israelis and Palestinians. ### Ancient period The region was among the earliest in the world to see human habitation, agricultural communities and civilization. During the Bronze Age, independent Canaanite city-states were established, and were influenced by the surrounding civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, and Syria. Between 1550 and 1400 BCE, the Canaanite cities became vassals to the Egyptian New Kingdom who held power until the 1178 BCE Battle of Djahy (Canaan) during the wider Bronze Age collapse. The Israelites emerged from a dramatic social transformation that took place in the people of the central hill country of Canaan around 1200 BCE, with no signs of violent invasion or even of peaceful infiltration of a clearly defined ethnic group from elsewhere. During the Iron Age, the Israelites established two related kingdoms, Israel and Judah. The Kingdom of Israel emerged as an important local power by the 10th century BCE before falling to the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 722 BCE. Israel's southern neighbor, the Kingdom of Judah, emerged in the 8th or 9th century BCE and later became a client state of first the Neo-Assyrian and then the Neo-Babylonian Empire before a revolt against the latter led to its destruction in 586 BCE. The region became part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from c. 740 BCE, which was itself replaced by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in c. 627 BCE. In 587/6 BCE, Jerusalem was besieged and destroyed by the second Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar II, who subsequently exiled the Judeans to Babylon. The Kingdom of Judah was then annexed as a Babylonian province. The Philistines were also exiled. The defeat of Judah was recorded by the Babylonians. In 539 BCE, the Babylonian empire was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. According to the Hebrew Bible and implications from the Cyrus Cylinder, the exiled Jews were eventually allowed to return to Jerusalem. The returned population in Judah were allowed to self-rule under Persian governance, and some parts of the fallen kingdom became a Persian province known as Yehud. Except Yehud, at least another four Persian provinces existed in the region: Samaria, Gaza, Ashdod, and Ascalon, in addition to the Phoenician city states in the north and the Arabian tribes in the south. During the same period, the Edomites migrated from Transjordan to the southern parts of Judea, which became known as Idumaea. The Qedarites were the dominant Arab tribe; their territory ran from the Hejaz in the south to the Negev in the north through the period of Persian and Hellenistic dominion. ### Classical antiquity In the 330s BCE, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered the region, which changed hands several times during the wars of the Diadochi and later Syrian Wars. It ultimately fell to the Seleucid Empire between 219 and 200 BCE. During that period, the region became heavily hellenized, building tensions between Greeks and locals. In 167 BCE, the Maccabean Revolt erupted, leading to the establishment of an independent Hasmonean Kingdom in Judea. From 110 BCE, the Hasmoneans extended their authority over much of Palestine, including Samaria, Galilee, Iturea, Perea, and Idumea. The Jewish control over the wider region resulted in it also becoming known as Judaea, a term that had previously only referred to the smaller region of the Judaean Mountains. During the same period, the Edomites were converted to Judaism. Between 73 and 63 BCE, the Roman Republic extended its influence into the region in the Third Mithridatic War. Pompey conquered Judea in 63 BCE, splitting the former Hasmonean Kingdom into five districts. In around 40 BCE, the Parthians conquered Palestine, deposed the Roman ally Hyrcanus II, and installed a puppet ruler of the Hasmonean line known as Antigonus II. By 37 BCE, the Parthians withdrew from Palestine. Palestine is generally considered the "Cradle of Christianity". Christianity, a religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, arose as a messianic sect from within Second Temple Judaism. The three-year Ministry of Jesus, culminating in his crucifixion, is estimated to have occurred from 28 to 30 CE, although the historicity of Jesus is disputed by a minority of scholars. In the first and second centuries CE, the Province of Judea became the site of two large-scale Jewish revolts against Rome. During the First Jewish-Roman War, which lasted from 66 to 73 CE, the Romans razed Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple. In Masada, Jewish zealots preferred to commit suicide than endure Roman captivity. In 132 CE, another Jewish rebellion erupted. The Bar Kokhba revolt took three years to put down, incurred massive costs on both the Romans and the Jews, and desolated much of Judea. The center of Jewish life in Palestine moved to the Galilee. During or after the revolt, Hadrian joined the province of Iudaea with Galilee and the Paralia to form the new province of Syria Palaestina, and Jerusalem was renamed "Aelia Capitolina". Some scholars view these actions as an attempt to disconnect the Jewish people from their homeland, but this theory is debated. Between 259 and 272, the region fell under the rule of Odaenathus as King of the Palmyrene Empire. Following the victory of Christian emperor Constantine in the Civil wars of the Tetrarchy, the Christianization of the Roman Empire began, and in 326, Constantine's mother Saint Helena visited Jerusalem and began the construction of churches and shrines. Palestine became a center of Christianity, attracting numerous monks and religious scholars. The Samaritan Revolts during this period caused their near extinction. In 614 CE, Palestine was annexed by another Persian dynasty; the Sassanids, until returning to Byzantine control in 628 CE. ### Early Muslim period The Dome of the Rock, the world's first great work of Islamic architecture, constructed in 691.Minaret of the White Mosque in Ramla, constructed in 1318Arab architecture in the Umayyad and Mamluk periods Palestine was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate, beginning in 634 CE. In 636, the Battle of Yarmouk during the Muslim conquest of the Levant marked the start of Muslim hegemony over the region, which became known as the military district of Jund Filastin within the province of Bilâd al-Shâm (Greater Syria). In 661, with the Assassination of Ali, Muawiyah I became the Caliph of the Islamic world after being crowned in Jerusalem. The Dome of the Rock, completed in 691, was the world's first great work of Islamic architecture. The majority of the population was Christian and was to remain so until the conquest of Saladin in 1187. The Muslim conquest apparently had little impact on social and administrative continuities for several decades. The word 'Arab' at the time referred predominantly to Bedouin nomads, though Arab settlement is attested in the Judean highlands and near Jerusalem by the 5th century, and some tribes had converted to Christianity. The local population engaged in farming, which was considered demeaning, and were called *Nabaț*, referring to Aramaic-speaking villagers. A ḥadīth, brought in the name of a Muslim freedman who settled in Palestine, ordered the Muslim Arabs not to settle in the villages, "for he who abides in villages it is as if he abides in graves". The Umayyads, who had spurred a strong economic resurgence in the area, were replaced by the Abbasids in 750. Ramla became the administrative centre for the following centuries, while Tiberias became a thriving centre of Muslim scholarship. From 878, Palestine was ruled from Egypt by semi-autonomous rulers for almost a century, beginning with the Turkish freeman Ahmad ibn Tulun, for whom both Jews and Christians prayed when he lay dying and ending with the Ikhshidid rulers. Reverence for Jerusalem increased during this period, with many of the Egyptian rulers choosing to be buried there. However, the later period became characterized by persecution of Christians as the threat from Byzantium grew. The Fatimids, with a predominantly Berber army, conquered the region in 970, a date that marks the beginning of a period of unceasing warfare between numerous enemies, which destroyed Palestine, and in particular, devastating its Jewish population. Between 1071 and 1073, Palestine was captured by the Great Seljuq Empire, only to be recaptured by the Fatimids in 1098. ### Crusader/Ayyubid period The Fatimids again lost the region to the Crusaders in 1099. The Crusaders set up the Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099–1291). Their control of Jerusalem and most of Palestine lasted almost a century until their defeat by Saladin's forces in 1187, after which most of Palestine was controlled by the Ayyubids, except for the years 1229–1244 when Jerusalem and other areas were retaken by the Second Kingdom of Jerusalem, by then ruled from Acre (1191–1291), but, despite seven further crusades, the Franks were no longer a significant power in the region. The Fourth Crusade, which did not reach Palestine, led directly to the decline of the Byzantine Empire, dramatically reducing Christian influence throughout the region. ### Mamluk period The Mamluk Sultanate was created in Egypt as an indirect result of the Seventh Crusade. The Mongol Empire reached Palestine for the first time in 1260, beginning with the Mongol raids into Palestine under Nestorian Christian general Kitbuqa, and reaching an apex at the pivotal Battle of Ain Jalut, where they were pushed back by the Mamluks. ### Ottoman period In 1486, hostilities broke out between the Mamluks and the Ottoman Empire in a battle for control over western Asia, and the Ottomans conquered Palestine in 1516. Between the mid-16th and 17th centuries, a close-knit alliance of three local dynasties, the Ridwans of Gaza, the Turabays of al-Lajjun and the Farrukhs of Nablus, governed Palestine on behalf of the Porte (imperial Ottoman government). In the 18th century, the Zaydani clan under the leadership of Zahir al-Umar ruled large parts of Palestine autonomously until the Ottomans were able to defeat them in their Galilee strongholds in 1775–76. Zahir had turned the port city of Acre into a major regional power, partly fueled by his monopolization of the cotton and olive oil trade from Palestine to Europe. Acre's regional dominance was further elevated under Zahir's successor Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar at the expense of Damascus. In 1830, on the eve of Muhammad Ali's invasion, the Porte transferred control of the sanjaks of Jerusalem and Nablus to Abdullah Pasha, the governor of Acre. According to Silverburg, in regional and cultural terms this move was important for creating an Arab Palestine detached from greater Syria (*bilad al-Sham*). According to Pappe, it was an attempt to reinforce the Syrian front in face of Muhammad Ali's invasion. Two years later, Palestine was conquered by Muhammad Ali's Egypt, but Egyptian rule was challenged in 1834 by a countrywide popular uprising against conscription and other measures considered intrusive by the population. Its suppression devastated many of Palestine's villages and major towns. In 1840, Britain intervened and returned control of the Levant to the Ottomans in return for further capitulations. The death of Aqil Agha marked the last local challenge to Ottoman centralization in Palestine, and beginning in the 1860s, Palestine underwent an acceleration in its socio-economic development, due to its incorporation into the global, and particularly European, economic pattern of growth. The beneficiaries of this process were Arabic-speaking Muslims and Christians who emerged as a new layer within the Arab elite. From 1880 large-scale Jewish immigration began, almost entirely from Europe, based on an explicitly Zionist ideology. There was also a revival of the Hebrew language and culture. Christian Zionism in the United Kingdom preceded its spread within the Jewish community. The government of Great Britain publicly supported it during World War I with the Balfour Declaration of 1917. ### British mandate and partition Palestine passport and Palestine coin. The Mandatory authorities agreed a compromise position regarding the Hebrew name: in English and Arabic the name was simply "Palestine" ("فلسطين"), but the Hebrew version "(פלשתינה)" also included the acronym "(א״י)" for *Eretz Yisrael* (Land of Israel). Metulla Haifa Safad Zikhron Yaaqov Nazareth TelAviv Nablus Yibna Ramle Jerusalem Gaza Hebron Dead Sea Rafa Beersheba Jebel Usdum Nitsana Ovdat Nahal Haarava Har Lotz Har Omer Har Tzenifim Yotvata Eilat Survey of Palestine 1942–1958 1–100,000 Topographical maps. Click on each blue link to see the individual original maps in high resolution. The British began their Sinai and Palestine Campaign in 1915. The war reached southern Palestine in 1917, progressing to Gaza and around Jerusalem by the end of the year. The British secured Jerusalem in December 1917. They moved into the Jordan valley in 1918 and a campaign by the Entente into northern Palestine led to victory at Megiddo in September. The British were formally awarded the mandate to govern the region in 1922. The non-Jewish Palestinians revolted in 1920, 1929, and 1936. In 1947, following World War II and The Holocaust, the British Government announced its desire to terminate the Mandate, and the United Nations General Assembly adopted in November 1947 a Resolution 181(II) recommending partition into an Arab state, a Jewish state and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem. The Jewish leadership accepted the proposal, but the Arab Higher Committee rejected it; a civil war began immediately after the Resolution's adoption. The State of Israel was declared in May 1948. ### Post-1948 In the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Israel captured and incorporated a further 26% of the Mandate territory, Jordan captured the regions of Judea and Samaria, renaming it the "West Bank", while the Gaza Strip was captured by Egypt. Following the 1948 Palestinian exodus, also known as al-Nakba, the 700,000 Palestinians who fled or were driven from their homes were not allowed to return following the Lausanne Conference of 1949. In the course of the Six-Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the rest of Mandate Palestine from Jordan and Egypt, and began a policy of establishing Jewish settlements in those territories. From 1987 to 1993, the First Palestinian Intifada against Israel took place, which included the Declaration of the State of Palestine in 1988 and ended with the 1993 Oslo Peace Accords and the creation of the Palestinian National Authority. In 2000, the Second Intifada (also called al-Aqsa Intifada) began, and Israel built a separation barrier. In the 2005 Israeli disengagement from Gaza, Israel withdrew all settlers and military presence from the Gaza Strip, but maintained military control of numerous aspects of the territory including its borders, air space and coast. Israel's ongoing military occupation of the Gaza Strip, the West Bank and East Jerusalem continues to be the world's longest military occupation in modern times. In November 2012, the status of Palestinian delegation in the United Nations was upgraded to non-member observer state as the State of Palestine. Boundaries ---------- ### Pre-modern The boundaries of Palestine have varied throughout history. The Jordan Rift Valley (comprising Wadi Arabah, the Dead Sea and River Jordan) has at times formed a political and administrative frontier, even within empires that have controlled both territories. At other times, such as during certain periods during the Hasmonean and Crusader states for example, as well as during the biblical period, territories on both sides of the river formed part of the same administrative unit. During the Arab Caliphate period, parts of southern Lebanon and the northern highland areas of Palestine and Jordan were administered as *Jund al-Urdun*, while the southern parts of the latter two formed part of *Jund Dimashq*, which during the 9th century was attached to the administrative unit of *Jund Filastin*. The boundaries of the area and the ethnic nature of the people referred to by Herodotus in the 5th century BCE as Palaestina vary according to context. Sometimes, he uses it to refer to the coast north of Mount Carmel. Elsewhere, distinguishing the Syrians in Palestine from the Phoenicians, he refers to their land as extending down all the coast from Phoenicia to Egypt. Pliny, writing in Latin in the 1st century CE, describes a region of Syria that was "formerly called *Palaestina*" among the areas of the Eastern Mediterranean. Since the Byzantine Period, the Byzantine borders of *Palaestina* (*I* and *II*, also known as *Palaestina Prima*, "First Palestine", and *Palaestina Secunda*, "Second Palestine"), have served as a name for the geographic area between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea. Under Arab rule, *Filastin* (or *Jund Filastin*) was used administratively to refer to what was under the Byzantines *Palaestina Secunda* (comprising Judaea and Samaria), while *Palaestina Prima* (comprising the Galilee region) was renamed *Urdunn* ("Jordan" or *Jund al-Urdunn*). ### Modern period Nineteenth-century sources refer to Palestine as extending from the sea to the caravan route, presumably the Hejaz-Damascus route east of the Jordan River valley. Others refer to it as extending from the sea to the desert. Prior to the Allied Powers victory in World War I and the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, which created the British mandate in the Levant, most of the northern area of what is today Jordan formed part of the Ottoman Vilayet of Damascus (Syria), while the southern part of Jordan was part of the Vilayet of Hejaz. What later became Mandatory Palestine was in late Ottoman times divided between the Vilayet of Beirut (Lebanon) and the Sanjak of Jerusalem. The Zionist Organization provided its definition of the boundaries of Palestine in a statement to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. The British administered Mandatory Palestine after World War I, having promised to establish a homeland for the Jewish people. The modern definition of the region follows the boundaries of that entity, which were fixed in the North and East in 1920–23 by the British Mandate for Palestine (including the Transjordan memorandum) and the Paulet–Newcombe Agreement, and on the South by following the 1906 Turco-Egyptian boundary agreement. Modern evolution of Palestine **1916–1922 various proposals**: Three proposals for the post World War I administration of Palestine. The red line is the "International Administration" proposed in the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement, the dashed blue line is the 1919 Zionist Organization proposal at the Paris Peace Conference, and the thin blue line refers to the final borders of the 1923–48 Mandatory Palestine.**1937 British proposal**: The first official proposal for partition, published in 1937 by the Peel Commission. An ongoing British Mandate was proposed to keep "the sanctity of Jerusalem and Bethlehem", in the form of an enclave from Jerusalem to Jaffa, including Lydda and Ramle.**1947 UN proposal**: Proposal per the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine (UN General Assembly Resolution 181 (II), 1947), prior to the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The proposal included a Corpus Separatum for Jerusalem, extraterritorial crossroads between the non-contiguous areas, and Jaffa as an Arab exclave. **1947 Jewish private land ownership**: Jewish-owned lands in Mandatory Palestine as of 1947 in blue, constituting 7.4% of the total land area, of which more than half was held by the JNF and PICA. White is either public land or foreign-owned lands including related religious trusts, while green is Palestinian-Arab-owned land.**1949 armistice lines**: The Jordanian-annexed West Bank (light green) and Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip (dark green), after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, showing 1949 armistice lines.**1967 territorial changes**: During the Six-Day War, Israel captured the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights, together with the Sinai Peninsula (later traded for peace after the Yom Kippur War). In 1980–81 Israel annexed East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights. Neither Israel's annexation nor the PLO claim over East Jerusalem gained international recognition. **1995 Oslo II Accord**: Under the Oslo Accords, the Palestinian National Authority was created to provide a Palestinian interim self-government in the West Bank and the interior of the Gaza Strip. Its second phase envisioned "Palestinian enclaves".**2005–present**: After the Israeli disengagement from Gaza and clashes between the two main Palestinian parties following the Hamas electoral victory, two separate executive governments took control in the Palestinian territories of the West Bank and Gaza.**Ethnic majority by settlement (present)**: The map indicates the ethnic majority of settlements (cities, villages and other communities). ### Current usage The region of Palestine is the eponym for the Palestinian people and the culture of Palestine, both of which are defined as relating to the whole historical region, usually defined as the localities within the border of Mandatory Palestine. The 1968 Palestinian National Covenant described Palestine as the "homeland of the Arab Palestinian people", with "the boundaries it had during the British Mandate". However, since the 1988 Palestinian Declaration of Independence, the term State of Palestine refers only to the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. This discrepancy was described by the Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas as a negotiated concession in a September 2011 speech to the United Nations: "... we agreed to establish the State of Palestine on only 22% of the territory of historical Palestine – on all the Palestinian Territory occupied by Israel in 1967." The term *Palestine* is also sometimes used in a limited sense to refer to the parts of the Palestinian territories currently under the administrative control of the Palestinian National Authority, a quasi-governmental entity which governs parts of the State of Palestine under the terms of the Oslo Accords. Administration -------------- Overview of administration and sovereignty in Israel and the Palestinian territories | Area | Administered by | Recognition of governing authority | Sovereignty claimed by | Recognition of claim | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Gaza Strip | Palestinian National Authority (*de jure*) Controlled by Hamas (*de facto*) | Witnesses to the Oslo II Accord | State of Palestine | 137 UN member states | | West Bank | Palestinian enclaves | Palestinian National Authority and Israeli military | | Area C | Israeli enclave law (Israeli settlements) and Israeli military (Palestinians under Israeli occupation) | | East Jerusalem | Israeli administration | Honduras, Guatemala, Nauru, and the United States | China, Russia | | West Jerusalem | Russia, Czech Republic, Honduras, Guatemala, Nauru, and the United States | United Nations as an international city along with East Jerusalem | Various UN member states and the European Union; joint sovereignty also widely supported | | Golan Heights | United States | Syria | All UN member states except the United States | | Israel (proper) | 163 UN member states | Israel | 163 UN member states | Demographics ------------ ### Early demographics | Year | Jews | Christians | Muslims | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | First half 1st century CE | Majority | – | – | ~2,500 | | 5th century | Minority | Majority | – | >1st C | | End 12th century | Minority | Minority | Majority | >225 | | 14th century before Black Death | Minority | Minority | Majority | 225 | | 14th century after Black Death | Minority | Minority | Majority | 150 | | Historical population table compiled by Sergio DellaPergola. Figures in thousands. | Estimating the population of Palestine in antiquity relies on two methods – censuses and writings made at the times, and the scientific method based on excavations and statistical methods that consider the number of settlements at the particular age, area of each settlement, density factor for each settlement. The Bar Kokhba revolt in the 2nd century CE saw a major shift in the population of Palestine. The sheer scale and scope of the overall destruction has been described by Dio Cassius in his *Roman History*, where he notes that Roman war operations in the country had left some 580,000 Jews dead, with many more dying of hunger and disease, while 50 of their most important outposts and 985 of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. "Thus," writes Dio Cassius, "nearly the whole of Judaea was made desolate." According to Israeli archaeologists Magen Broshi and Yigal Shiloh, the population of ancient Palestine did not exceed one million. By 300 CE, Christianity had spread so significantly that Jews comprised only a quarter of the population. ### Late Ottoman and British Mandate periods In a study of Ottoman registers of the early Ottoman rule of Palestine, Bernard Lewis reports: > [T]he first half century of Ottoman rule brought a sharp increase in population. The towns grew rapidly, villages became larger and more numerous, and there was an extensive development of agriculture, industry, and trade. The two last were certainly helped to no small extent by the influx of Spanish and other Western Jews. > > > From the mass of detail in the registers, it is possible to extract something like a general picture of the economic life of the country in that period. Out of a total population of about 300,000 souls, between a fifth and a quarter lived in the six towns of Jerusalem, Gaza, Safed, Nablus, Ramle, and Hebron. The remainder consisted mainly of peasants, living in villages of varying size, and engaged in agriculture. Their main food-crops were wheat and barley in that order, supplemented by leguminous pulses, olives, fruit, and vegetables. In and around most of the towns there was a considerable number of vineyards, orchards, and vegetable gardens. > > > | Year | Jews | Christians | Muslims | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1533–1539 | 5 | 6 | 145 | 157 | | 1690–1691 | 2 | 11 | 219 | 232 | | 1800 | 7 | 22 | 246 | 275 | | 1890 | 43 | 57 | 432 | 532 | | 1914 | 94 | 70 | 525 | 689 | | 1922 | 84 | 71 | 589 | 752 | | 1931 | 175 | 89 | 760 | 1,033 | | 1947 | 630 | 143 | 1,181 | 1,970 | | Historical population table compiled by Sergio DellaPergola. Figures in thousands. | According to Alexander Scholch, the population of Palestine in 1850 was about 350,000 inhabitants, 30% of whom lived in 13 towns; roughly 85% were Muslims, 11% were Christians and 4% Jews. According to Ottoman statistics studied by Justin McCarthy, the population of Palestine in the early 19th century was 350,000, in 1860 it was 411,000 and in 1900 about 600,000 of whom 94% were Arabs. In 1914 Palestine had a population of 657,000 Muslim Arabs, 81,000 Christian Arabs, and 59,000 Jews. McCarthy estimates the non-Jewish population of Palestine at 452,789 in 1882; 737,389 in 1914; 725,507 in 1922; 880,746 in 1931; and 1,339,763 in 1946. In 1920, the League of Nations' *Interim Report on the Civil Administration of Palestine* described the 700,000 people living in Palestine as follows: > Of these, 235,000 live in the larger towns, 465,000 in the smaller towns and villages. Four-fifths of the whole population are Moslems. A small proportion of these are Bedouin Arabs; the remainder, although they speak Arabic and are termed Arabs, are largely of mixed race. Some 77,000 of the population are Christians, in large majority belonging to the Orthodox Church, and speaking Arabic. The minority are members of the Latin or of the Uniate Greek Catholic Church, or—a small number—are Protestants. > > The Jewish element of the population numbers 76,000. Almost all have entered Palestine during the last 40 years. Prior to 1850, there were in the country only a handful of Jews. In the following 30 years, a few hundreds came to Palestine. Most of them were animated by religious motives; they came to pray and to die in the Holy Land, and to be buried in its soil. After the persecutions in Russia forty years ago, the movement of the Jews to Palestine assumed larger proportions. > > ### Current demographics According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, as of 2015[update], the total population of Israel was 8.5 million people, of which 75% were Jews, 21% Arabs, and 4% "others." Of the Jewish group, 76% were Sabras (born in Israel); the rest were olim (immigrants)—16% from Europe, the former Soviet republics, and the Americas, and 8% from Asia and Africa, including the Arab countries. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics evaluations, in 2015 the Palestinian population of the West Bank was approximately 2.9 million and that of the Gaza Strip was 1.8 million. Gaza's population is expected to increase to 2.1 million people in 2020, leading to a density of more than 5,800 people per square kilometre. Both Israeli and Palestinian statistics include Arab residents of East Jerusalem in their reports. According to these estimates the total population in the region of Palestine, as defined as Israel and the Palestinian territories, stands approximately 12.8 million. Flora and fauna --------------- ### Flora distribution The World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions is widely used in recording the distribution of plants. The scheme uses the code "PAL" to refer to the region of Palestine – a Level 3 area. The WGSRPD's Palestine is further divided into Israel (PAL-IS), including the Palestinian territories, and Jordan (PAL-JO), so is larger than some other definitions of "Palestine". ### Birds See also -------- * Levantine archaeology (a.k.a. Palestinian archaeology) * Palestine Exploration Fund * Place names of Palestine Bibliography ------------ * "1st Aliyah to Israel". Jewish Virtual Library. n.d. Retrieved 15 December 2017. * Abu-Lughod, Ibrahim, ed. (1971). *The Transformation of Palestine*. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern Press. * Abu-Manneh, Butrus (1999). "The Rise of the Sanjak of Jerusalem in the Late Nineteenth Century". In Pappé, Ilan (ed.). *The Israel/Palestine Question*. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16948-6. * Adwan, Sami (2006). "Textbooks in the Palestinian National Authority". In Greenbaum, Charles W.; Veerman, Philip E.; Bacon-Shnoor, Naomi (eds.). *Protection of Children During Armed Political Conflict: A Multidisciplinary Perspective*. Intersentia. pp. 231–256. ISBN 978-905095341-2. * Aharoni, Yohanan (1 January 1979). *The Land of the Bible: A Historical Geography*. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-664-24266-4. The desert served as an eastern boundary in times when Transjordan was occupied. But when Transjordan became an unsettled region, a pasturage for desert nomads, then the Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea formed the natural eastern boundary of Western Palestine. * Ahlström, Gösta Werner (1993). *The history of ancient Palestine*. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-2770-6. * Alexandrowicz, Ra'anan (2012), "The Justice of Occupation", *The New York Times* * Anderson, Perry (2001). "Editorial: Scurrying Towards Bethlehem". *New Left Review*. Vol. 10. Archived from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2015. * Anspacher, Abraham Samuel (1912). *Tiglath Pileser III* – via Internet Archive. * Avneri, Arieh L. (1984). *The Claim of Dispossession*. Tel Aviv: Hidekel Press. ISBN 978-0-87855-964-0. * Avni, Gideon (2014). *The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-019968433-5. * Bachi, Roberto (1974). *The Population of Israel*. Jerusalem: Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew University. * Belfer-Cohen, Anna; Bar-Yosef, Ofer (2000). "Early Sedentism in the Near East: A Bumpy Ride to Village Life". In Kuijt, Ian (ed.). *Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: social organization, identity, and differentiation*. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. ISBN 0-306-46122-6. * Bianquis, Thierry (1998). "Autonomous Egypt from Ibn Tulun to Kafur 868-969". In Daly, Martin W.; Petry, Carl F. (eds.). *The Cambridge History of Egypt*. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 86–119. ISBN 978-052147137-4. * Biger, Gideon (1981). "Where was Palestine? pre-World War I perception". *AREA (Journal of the Institute of British Geographers)*. **13** (2): 153–160. * Biger, Gideon (2004). *The Boundaries of Modern Palestine, 1840–1947*. RoutledgeCurzon. passim. ISBN 978-113576652-8. * Boas, Adrian J. (2001). *Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades: Society, Landscape and Art in the Holy City Under Frankish Rule*. London: Routledge. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-041523000-1. * Breasted, James Henry (2001). *Ancient Records of Egypt: The first through the seventeenth dynasties*. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06990-0. * Broshi, Magen (1979). "The Population of Western Palestine in the Roman-Byzantine Period". *Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research*. **236** (236): 1–10. doi:10.2307/1356664. JSTOR 1356664. PMID 12338473. S2CID 24341643. * Brown, Daniel W. *A New Introduction to Islam* (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. * Brummitt, R.K. (2001). *World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions: Edition 2* (PDF). International Working Group on Taxonomic Databases For Plant Sciences (TDWG). ISBN 0-913196-72-X. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2016. * Burns, Ross (2005). *Damascus: A History*. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-27105-3. * Büssow, Johann (2011). *Hamidian Palestine: Politics and Society in the District of Jerusalem 1872–1908*. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-20569-7. * Byatt, Anthony (1973). "Josephus and Population Numbers in First-century Palestine". *Palestine Exploration Quarterly*. **105**: 51–60. doi:10.1179/peq.1973.105.1.51. * Cavendish, Marshall (2007). *Peoples of Western Asia* (Illustrated ed.). Marshall Cavendish Corporation. ISBN 978-0-7614-7677-1. * Chancey, Mark A (2005). *Greco-Roman Culture and the Galilee of Jesus*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84647-1. * Chase, Kenneth (2003). *Firearms: a Global History to 1700*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82274-2. * Crotty, Robert Brian (2017). *The Christian Survivor: How Roman Christianity Defeated Its Early Competitors*. Springer. p. 25 f.n. 4. ISBN 978-981103214-1. The Babylonians translated the Hebrew name [Judah] into Aramaic as Yehud Medinata ('the province of Judah') or simply 'Yehud' and made it a new Babylonian province. This was inherited by the Persians. Under the Greeks, Yehud was translated as Judaea and this was taken over by the Romans. After the Jewish rebellion of 135 CE, the Romans renamed the area Syria Palaestina or simply Palestine. The area described by these land titles differed to some extent in the different periods. * Crouch, C. L. (1 October 2014). *Israel and the Assyrians: Deuteronomy, the Succession Treaty of Esarhaddon, and the Nature of Subversion*. SBL Press. ISBN 978-1-62837-026-3. Judah's reason(s) for submitting to Assyrian hegemony, at least superficially, require explanation, while at the same time indications of its read-but-disguised resistance to Assyria must be uncovered... The political and military sprawl of the Assyrian empire during the late Iron Age in the southern Levant, especially toward its outer borders, is not quite akin to the single dominating hegemony envisioned by most discussions of hegemony and subversion. In the case of Judah it should be reiterated that Judah was always a vassal state, semi-autonomous and on the periphery of the imperial system, it was never a fully-integrated provincial territory. The implications of this distinction for Judah's relationship with and experience of the Assyrian empire should not be underestimated; studies of the expression of Assyria's cultural and political powers in its provincial territories and vassal states have revealed notable differences in the degree of active involvement in different types of territories. Indeed, the mechanics of the Assyrian empire were hardly designed for direct control over all its vassals' internal activities, provided that a vassal produced the requisite tribute and did not provoke trouble among its neighbors, the level of direct involvement from Assyria remained relatively low. For the entirety of its experience of the Assyrian empire, Judah functioned as a vassal state, rather than a province under direct Assyrian rule, thereby preserving at least a certain degree of autonomy, especially in its internal affairs. Meanwhile, the general atmosphere of Pax Assyriaca in the southern Levant minimized the necessity of (and opportunities for) external conflict. That Assyrians, at least in small numbers, were present in Judah is likely – probably a qipu and his entourage who, if the recent excavators of Ramat Rahel are correct, perhaps resided just outside the capital – but there is far less evidence than is commonly assumed to suggest that these left a direct impression of Assyria on this small vassal state... The point here is that, despite the wider context of Assyria's political and economic power in the ancient Near East in general and the southern Levant in particular, Judah remained a distinguishable and semi-independent southern Levantine state, **part of but not subsumed by the Assyrian empire** and, indeed, benefitting from it in significant ways. * "Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605-594 BC)". British Museum. n.d. Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014. * DellaPergola, Sergio (2001), "Demography in Israel/Palestine: Trends, Prospects, Policy Implications" (PDF), *IUSSP XXIVth General Population Conference in Salvador de Bahia, Brazil, 18–24 August 2001*, archived from the original (PDF) on 2 December 2016 * Doumani, Beshara (1995). *Rediscovering Palestine: merchants and peasants in Jabal Nablus 1700–1900*. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20370-4. * Drews, Robert (1998), "Canaanites and Philistines", *Journal for the Study of the Old Testament*, **23** (81): 39–61, doi:10.1177/030908929802308104, S2CID 144074940 * "Early Years of Nebuchadnezzar II (ABC 5)". 1 April 2006. Archived from the original on 5 May 2019. Retrieved 20 January 2019. * Ehrman, B. (2011). *Forged: writing in the name of God*. ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6. * Ember, Melvin; Peregrine, Peter Neal, eds. (2001). *Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Vol. 8: South and Southwest Asia* (1st ed.). New York and London: Springer. p. 185. ISBN 0-306-46262-1. * Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". *The Cambridge Ancient History*. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. * Eshel, Hanan (2008). *Dead Sea Scrolls and the Hasmonean State*. Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature (SDSS). Grand Rapids, Michigan/Cambridge and Jerusalem, Israel: William B. Eerdmans and Yad Ben-Zvi Press. ISBN 978-080286285-3. * "Estimated Population in the Palestinian Territory Mid-Year by Governorate, 1997–2016". Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics. 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2016. * Evenari, Michael (1982). *The Negev: The Challenge of a Desert*. Harvard University Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-067460672-2. As the cradle of Christianity, Palestine became the center of religious worship for a vast empire * Fahlbusch, Erwin; Lochman, Jan Milic; Bromiley, Geoffrey William; Barrett, David B. (2005). *The encyclopedia of Christianity*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. 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Archived from the original on 10 January 2013. Israel remains in charge of territories the world says should one day make up that state. * Tamari, Salim (2011). "Shifting Ottoman Conceptions of Palestine-Part 1: Filistin Risalesi and the two Jamals" (PDF). *Jerusalem Quarterly* (49): 28–37. * Taylor, Joan E. (15 November 2012). *The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-955448-5. Up until this date the Bar Kokhba documents indicate that towns, villages and ports where Jews lived were busy with industry and activity. Afterwards there is an eerie silence, and the archaeological record testifies to little Jewish presence until the Byzantine era, in En Gedi. This picture coheres with what we have already determined in Part I of this study, that the crucial date for what can only be described as genocide, and the devastation of Jews and Judaism within central Judea, was 135 CE and not, as usually assumed, 70 CE, despite the siege of Jerusalem and the Temple's destruction * "Temple of Jerusalem | Description, History, & Significance | Britannica". Retrieved 28 February 2022. * Tessler, Mark (1994). *A History of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict*. ISBN 025320873-4. * Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla, eds. (2008). *The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History*. ABC-CLIO. p. 1553. ISBN 978-185109842-2. * UN News Centre (2012). "Lack of sufficient services in Gaza could get worse without urgent action, UN warns". UN Publications. Retrieved 22 January 2013. * Vermes, Géza (2014). *The True Herod*. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-056748841-1. * Walmsley, Alan (2000). "Production, exchange and regional trade in the Islamic Wast Mediterranean: old structures, new systems?". In Hansen, Inge Lyse; Wickham, Chris (eds.). *The Long Eighth Century: Production, Distribution and Demand*. BRILL. ISBN 978-900411723-5. * Weill, Sharon (2014). *The Role of National Courts in Applying International Humanitarian Law*. Oxford University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-019968542-4. * Wenning, Robert (2007). "The Nabataeans in History (Before AD 106)". In Politis, Konstantinos D (ed.). *The World of the Nabataeans: Volume 2 of the International Conference the World of the Herods and the Nabataeans Held at the British Museum, 17-19 April, 2001*. Oriens Et Occidens. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-351508816-9. * Whitelam, Keith W. (1996). *The Invention of Ancient Israel: The Silencing of Palestinian History*. Routledge. ISBN 978-131779916-0. * Yazbak, Mahmoud (1998). *Haifa in the Late Ottoman Period, A Muslim Town in Transition, 1864–1914*. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN 90-04-11051-8. * Zeevi, Dror (1996), *An Ottoman century: the district of Jerusalem in the 1600s*, SUNY Press, ISBN 0-7914-2915-6 * Zissu, Boaz (2018). "Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective". *Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE*. Joshua Schwartz, Peter J. Tomson. Leiden, The Netherlands. p. 19. ISBN 978-90-04-34986-5. OCLC 988856967. 31°37′31″N 35°08′43″E / 31.6253°N 35.1453°E / 31.6253; 35.1453

Palestine (region)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_(region)

The concept of Germany as a distinct region in Central Europe can be traced to Julius Caesar, who referred to the unconquered area east of the Rhine as *Germania*, thus distinguishing it from Gaul. The victory of the Germanic tribes in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (AD 9) prevented annexation by the Roman Empire, although the Roman provinces of Germania Superior and Germania Inferior were established along the Rhine. Following the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Franks conquered the other West Germanic tribes. When the Frankish Empire was divided among Charles the Great's heirs in 843, the eastern part became East Francia. In 962, Otto I became the first Holy Roman Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the medieval German state. During the High Middle Ages, the Hanseatic League dominated by German port cities established itself along the Baltic and North Seas. The growth of a crusading element within German Christendom led to the State of the Teutonic Order along the Baltic coast in what would later become Prussia. In the Investiture Controversy, the German Emperors resisted Catholic Church authority. In the Late Middle Ages, the regional dukes, princes, and bishops gained power at the expense of the emperors. Martin Luther led the Protestant Reformation within the Catholic Church after 1517, as the northern and eastern states became Protestant, while most of the southern and western states remained Catholic. the Thirty Years' War, a civil war from 1618 to 1648 brought tremendous destruction to the Holy Roman Empire. The estates of the empire attained great autonomy in the Peace of Westphalia, the most important being Austria, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony. With the Napoleonic Wars, feudalism fell away and the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806. Napoleon established the Confederation of the Rhine as a German puppet state, but after the French defeat, the German Confederation was established under Austrian presidency. The German revolutions of 1848–1849 failed but the Industrial Revolution modernized the German economy, leading to rapid urban growth and the emergence of the socialist movement. Prussia, with its capital Berlin, grew in power. German universities became world-class centers for science and humanities, while music and art flourished. The unification of Germany was achieved under the leadership of the Chancellor Otto von Bismarck with the formation of the German Empire in 1871. The new *Reichstag*, an elected parliament, had only a limited role in the imperial government. Germany joined the other powers in colonial expansion in Africa and the Pacific. By 1900, Germany was the dominant power on the European continent and its rapidly expanding industry had surpassed Britain's while provoking it in a naval arms race. Germany led the Central Powers in World War I, but was defeated, partly occupied, forced to pay war reparations, and stripped of its colonies and significant territory along its borders. The German Revolution of 1918–1919 ended the German Empire with the abdication of Wilhelm II in 1918 and established the Weimar Republic, an ultimately unstable parliamentary democracy. In January 1933, Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi Party, used the economic hardships of the Great Depression along with popular resentment over the terms imposed on Germany at the end of World War I to establish a totalitarian regime. This Nazi Germany made racism, especially antisemitism, a central tenet of its policies, and became increasingly aggressive with its territorial demands, threatening war if they were not met. Germany quickly remilitarized, annexed its German-speaking neighbors and invaded Poland, triggering World War II. During the war, the Nazis established a systematic genocide program known as the Holocaust which killed 17 million people, including 6 million Jews (representing 2/3rds of the European Jewish population). By 1944, the German Army was pushed back on all fronts until the finalling collapsing in May 1945. Under occupation by the Allies, denazification efforts took place, large populations under former German-occupied territories were displaced, German territories were split up by the victorious powers. Germany spent the entirety of the Cold War era divided into the NATO-aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact-aligned East Germany. Germans also fled from Communist areas into West Germany, which experienced rapid economic expansion, and became the dominant economy in Western Europe. In 1989, the Berlin Wall was opened, the Eastern Bloc collapsed, and East and West Germany were reunited in 1990. The Franco-German friendship became the basis for the political integration of Western Europe in the European Union. In 1998–1999, Germany was one of the founding countries of the eurozone. Germany remains one of the economic powerhouses of Europe, contributing about 1/4 of the eurozone's annual gross domestic product. In the early 2010s, Germany played a critical role in trying to resolve the escalating euro crisis, especially concerning Greece and other Southern European nations. In 2015, Germany faced the European migrant crisis as the main receiver of asylum seekers from Syria and other troubled regions. Germany opposed Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine and decided to strengthen its armed forces. Prehistory ---------- Archaeological findsLeft: The Lion-Man of Hohlenstein-Stadel. Right: Bone flute from Geißenklösterle. Aurignacian culture, 38,000–35,000 BC Pre-human ancestors, the Danuvius guggenmosi, who were present in Germany over 11 million years ago, are theorized to be among the earliest ones to walk on two legs. The discovery of the Homo heidelbergensis mandible in 1907 affirms archaic human presence in Germany by at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete set of hunting weapons ever found anywhere in the world was excavated from a coal mine in Schöningen, Lower Saxony. Between 1994 and 1998, eight 380,000-year-old wooden javelins between 1.82 and 2.25 m (5.97 and 7.38 ft) in length were eventually unearthed. In 1856, the fossilized bones of an extinct human species were salvaged from a limestone grotto in the Neander valley near Düsseldorf, North Rhine-Westphalia. The archaic nature of the fossils, now known to be around 40,000 years old, was recognized and the characteristics published in the first-ever paleoanthropologic species description in 1858 by Hermann Schaaffhausen. The species was named *Homo neanderthalensis* – Neanderthal man in 1864. The remains of Paleolithic early modern human occupation uncovered and documented in several caves in the Swabian Jura include various mammoth ivory sculptures that rank among the oldest uncontested works of art and several flutes, made of bird bone and mammoth ivory that are confirmed to be the oldest musical instruments ever found. The 40,000-year-old Löwenmensch figurine represents the oldest uncontested figurative work of art and the 35,000-year-old Venus of Hohle Fels has been asserted as the oldest uncontested object of human figurative art ever discovered. These artefacts are attributed to the Aurignacian culture. Between 12,900 and 11,700 years ago, north-central Germany was part of the Ahrensburg culture (named for Ahrensburg). The first groups of early farmers different from the indigenous hunter-gatherers to migrate into Europe came from a population in western Anatolia at the beginning of the Neolithic period between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago. Central Germany was one of the primary areas of the Linear Pottery culture (c. 5500 BC – c. 4500 BC), which was partially contemporary with the Ertebølle culture (c. 5300 BC – c. 3950 BC) of Denmark and northern Germany. The construction of the Central European Neolithic circular enclosures falls in this time period with the best known and oldest being the Goseck circle, constructed c. 4900 BC. Afterwards, Germany was part of the Rössen culture, Michelsberg culture and Funnelbeaker culture (c. 4600 BC – c. 2800 BC). The oldest traces for the use of wheel and wagon ever found are located at a northern German Funnelbeaker culture site and date to around 3400 BC. The settlers of the Corded Ware culture (c. 2900 BC – c. 2350 BC), that had spread all over the fertile plains of Central Europe during the Late Neolithic were of Indo-European ancestry. The Indo-Europeans had, via mass-migration, arrived into the heartland of Europe around 4,500 years ago. By the late Bronze Age, the Urnfield culture (c. 1300 BC – c. 750 BC) had replaced the Bell Beaker, Unetice and Tumulus cultures in central Europe, whilst the Nordic Bronze Age had developed in Scandinavia and northern Germany. The Hallstatt culture, which had developed from the Urnfield culture, was the predominant Western and Central European culture from the 12th to 8th centuries BC and during the early Iron Age (8th to 6th centuries BC). It was followed by the La Tène culture (5th to 1st centuries BC). The people who had adopted these cultural characteristics in central and southern Germany are regarded as Celts. How and if the Celts are related to the Urnfield culture remains disputed. However, Celtic cultural centres developed in central Europe during the late Bronze Age (circa 1200 BC until 700 BC). Some, like the Heuneburg, the oldest city north of the Alps, grew to become important cultural centres of the Iron Age in Central Europe, that maintained trade routes to the Mediterranean. In the 5th century BC the Greek historian Herodotus mentioned a Celtic city at the Danube – *Pyrene*, that historians attribute to the Heuneburg. Beginning around 700 BC (or later), Germanic peoples (Germanic tribes) from southern Scandinavia and northern Germany expanded south and gradually replaced the Celtic peoples in Central Europe. Early history: Germanic tribes, Roman conquests, and the Migration Period ------------------------------------------------------------------------- ### Early migrations, the Suebi and the Roman Republic Expansion of early Germanic tribes into previously mostly Celtic Central Europe:    Settlements before 750 BC    New settlements by 500 BC    New settlements by 250 BC    New settlements by AD 1 The ethnogenesis of the Germanic tribes remains debated. However, for author Averil Cameron "it is obvious that a steady process" occurred during the Nordic Bronze Age, or at the latest during the Pre-Roman Iron Age (Jastorf culture). From their homes in southern Scandinavia and northern Germany the tribes began expanding south, east and west during the 1st century BC, and came into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul, as well as with Iranic, Baltic, and Slavic cultures in Central/Eastern Europe. Factual and detailed knowledge about the early history of the Germanic tribes is rare. Researchers have to be content with the recordings of the tribes' affairs with the Romans, linguistic conclusions, archaeological discoveries and the rather new yet auspicious results of archaeogenetic study. In the mid-1st century BC, Republican Roman statesman Julius Caesar erected the first known bridges across the Rhine during his campaign in Gaul and led a military contingent across and into the territories of the local Germanic tribes. After several days and having made no contact with Germanic troops (who had retreated inland) Caesar returned to the west of the river. By 60 BC, the Suebi tribe under chieftain Ariovistus, had conquered lands of the Gallic Aedui tribe to the west of the Rhine. Consequent plans to populate the region with Germanic settlers from the east were vehemently opposed by Caesar, who had already launched his ambitious campaign to subjugate all Gaul. Julius Caesar defeated the Suebi forces in 58 BC in the Battle of Vosges and forced Ariovistus to retreat across the Rhine. ### Roman settlement of the Rhine Augustus, first Roman emperor, considered conquest beyond the Rhine and the Danube not only regular foreign policy but also necessary to counter Germanic incursions into a still rebellious Gaul. Forts and commercial centers were established along the rivers. Some tribes, such as the Ubii consequently allied with Rome and readily adopted advanced Roman culture. During the 1st century CE Roman legions conducted extended campaigns into Germania magna, the area north of the Upper Danube and east of the Rhine, attempting to subdue the various tribes. Roman ideas of administration, the imposition of taxes and a legal framework were frustrated by the total absence of an infrastructure. Germanicus's campaigns, for example, were almost exclusively characterized by frequent massacres of villagers and indiscriminate pillaging. The tribes, however maintained their elusive identities. A coalition of tribes under the Cherusci chieftain Arminius, who was familiar with Roman tactical doctrines, defeated a large Roman force in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Consequently, Rome resolved to permanently establish the Rhine/Danube border and refrain from further territorial advance into Germania. By AD 100 the frontier along the Rhine and the Danube and the Limes Germanicus was firmly established. Several Germanic tribes lived under Roman rule south and west of the border, as described in Tacitus's *Germania*. Austria formed the regular provinces of Noricum and Raetia. The provinces Germania Inferior (with the capital situated at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, modern Cologne) and Germania Superior (with its capital at Mogontiacum, modern Mainz), were formally established in 85 AD, after long campaigns as lasting military control was confined to the lands surrounding the rivers. Christianity was introduced to Roman controlled western Germania before the Middle Ages, with Christian religious structures such as the Aula Palatina of Trier built during the reign of Constantine I (r. 306–337). ### Migration Period and decline of the Western Roman Empire Rome's Third Century Crisis coincided with the emergence of a number of large West Germanic tribes: the Alamanni, Franks, Bavarii, Chatti, Saxons, Frisii, Sicambri, and Thuringii. By the 3rd century the Germanic speaking peoples began to migrate beyond the *limes* and the Danube frontier. Several large tribes – the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians, Lombards, Saxons and Franks – migrated and played their part in the decline of the Roman Empire and the transformation of the old Western Roman Empire. By the end of the 4th century the Huns invaded eastern and central Europe, establishing the Hunnic Empire. The event triggered the Migration Period. Hunnic hegemony over a vast territory in central and eastern Europe lasted until the death of Attila's son Dengizich in 469. Another pivotal moment in the Migration Period was the Crossing of the Rhine in December of 406 by a large group of tribes including Vandals, Alans and Suebi who settled permanently within the crumbling Western Roman Empire. ### Stem duchies and marches Stem duchies (German: *Stammesherzogtümer*) in Germany refer to the traditional territory of the various Germanic tribes. The concept of such duchies survived especially in the areas which by the 9th century would constitute East Francia, which included the Duchy of Bavaria, the Duchy of Swabia, the Duchy of Saxony, the Duchy of Franconia and the Duchy of Thuringia, unlike further west the County of Burgundy or Lorraine in Middle Francia. The Salian emperors (reigned 1027–1125) retained the stem duchies as the major divisions of Germany, but they became increasingly obsolete during the early high-medieval period under the Hohenstaufen, and Frederick Barbarossa finally abolished them in 1180 in favour of more numerous territorial duchies. Successive kings of Germany founded a series of border counties or marches in the east and the north. These included Lusatia, the North March (which would become Brandenburg and the heart of the future Prussia), and the Billung March. In the south, the marches included Carniola, Styria, and the March of Austria that would become Austria. Middle Ages ----------- ### Frankish Empire The Aula Palatina of Trier, a basilica constructed during the reign of the Roman emperor Constantine I (r. 306–337 AD)The Palatine Chapel, Aachen, built during the reign of the Carolingian emperor Charlemagne (r. 800–814 AD) The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 with the deposition of Romulus Augustus by the Germanic *foederati* leader Odoacer, who became the first King of Italy. Afterwards, the Franks, like other post-Roman Western Europeans, emerged as a tribal confederacy in the Middle Rhine-Weser region, among the territory soon to be called Austrasia (the "eastern land"), the northeastern portion of the future Kingdom of the Merovingian Franks. As a whole, Austrasia comprised parts of present-day France, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Unlike the Alamanni to their south in Swabia, they absorbed large swaths of former Roman territory as they spread west into Gaul, beginning in 250. Clovis I of the Merovingian dynasty conquered northern Gaul in 486 and in the Battle of Tolbiac in 496 the Alemanni tribe in Swabia, which eventually became the Duchy of Swabia. By 500, Clovis had united all the Frankish tribes, ruled all of Gaul and was proclaimed *King of the Franks* between 509 and 511. Clovis, unlike most Germanic rulers of the time, was baptized directly into Roman Catholicism instead of Arianism. His successors would cooperate closely with papal missionaries, among them Saint Boniface. After the death of Clovis in 511, his four sons partitioned his kingdom including Austrasia. Authority over Austrasia passed back and forth from autonomy to royal subjugation, as successive Merovingian kings alternately united and subdivided the Frankish lands. During the 5th and 6th centuries the Merovingian kings conquered the Thuringii (531 to 532), the Kingdom of the Burgundians and the principality of Metz and defeated the Danes, the Saxons and the Visigoths. King Chlothar I (558 to 561) ruled the greater part of what is now Germany and undertook military expeditions into Saxony, while the South-east of what is modern Germany remained under the influence of the Ostrogoths. Saxons controlled the area from the northern sea board to the Harz Mountains and the Eichsfeld in the south. The Merovingians placed the various regions of their Frankish Empire under the control of semi-autonomous dukes – either Franks or local rulers, and followed imperial Roman strategic traditions of social and political integration of the newly conquered territories. While allowed to preserve their own legal systems, the conquered Germanic tribes were pressured to abandon the Arian Christian faith. In 718 Charles Martel waged war against the Saxons in support of the Neustrians. In 743 his son Carloman in his role as Mayor of the Palace renewed the war against the Saxons, who had allied with and aided the duke Odilo of Bavaria. The Catholic Franks, who by 750 controlled a vast territory in Gaul, north-western Germany, Swabia, Burgundy and western Switzerland, that included the alpine passes allied with the Curia in Rome against the Lombards, who posed a permanent threat to the Holy See. Pressed by Liutprand, King of the Lombards, a Papal envoy for help had already been sent to the de facto ruler Charles Martel after his victory in 732 over the forces of the Umayyad Caliphate at the Battle of Tours, however a lasting and mutually beneficial alliance would only materialize after Charles' death under his successor Duke of the Franks, Pepin the Short. In 751 Pippin III, Mayor of the Palace under the Merovingian king, himself assumed the title of king and was anointed by the Church. Pope Stephen II bestowed him the hereditary title of *Patricius Romanorum* as protector of Rome and St. Peter in response to the Donation of Pepin, that guaranteed the sovereignty of the Papal States. Charles the Great (who ruled the Franks from 774 to 814) launched a decades-long military campaign against the Franks' heathen rivals, the Saxons and the Avars. The campaigns and insurrections of the Saxon Wars lasted from 772 to 804. The Franks eventually overwhelmed the Saxons and Avars, forcibly converted the people to Christianity, and annexed their lands to the Carolingian Empire. ### Foundation of the Holy Roman Empire After the death of Frankish king Pepin the Short in 768, his oldest son "Charlemagne" ("Charles the Great") consolidated his power over and expanded the Kingdom. Charlemagne ended 200 years of Royal Lombard rule with the Siege of Pavia, and in 774 he installed himself as King of the Lombards. Loyal Frankish nobles replaced the old Lombard aristocracy following a rebellion in 776. The next 30 years of his reign were spent ruthlessly strengthening his power in Francia and on the conquest of the Slavs and Pannonian Avars in the east and all tribes, such as the Saxons and the Bavarians. On Christmas Day, 800 AD, Charlemagne was crowned *Imperator Romanorum* (Emperor of the Romans) in Rome by Pope Leo III. Fighting among Charlemagne's three grandsons over the continuation of the custom of partible inheritance or the introduction of primogeniture caused the Carolingian empire to be partitioned into three parts by the Treaty of Verdun of 843. Louis the German received the Eastern portion of the kingdom, East Francia, all lands east of the Rhine river and to the north of Italy. This encompassed the territories of the German stem duchies – Franks, Saxons, Swabians, and Bavarians – that were united in a federation under the first non-Frankish king Henry the Fowler, who ruled from 919 to 936. The royal court permanently moved in between a series of strongholds, called *Kaiserpfalzen*, that developed into economic and cultural centers. Aachen Palace played a central role, as the local Palatine Chapel served as the official site for all royal coronation ceremonies during the entire Medieval period until 1531. The Holy Roman Empire, maps* The division of the Carolingian Empire by the Treaty of Verdun in 843The division of the Carolingian Empire by the Treaty of Verdun in 843 * Territorial evolution of the Holy Roman Empire from 962 to 1806Territorial evolution of the Holy Roman Empire from 962 to 1806 * The Holy Roman Empire at its greatest territorial extent under Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick II, 13th centuryThe Holy Roman Empire at its greatest territorial extent under Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick II, 13th century * The Holy Roman Empire under Ottonian and Salian rule, 10th and 11th centuriesThe Holy Roman Empire under Ottonian and Salian rule, 10th and 11th centuries * The Holy Roman Empire around the year 1700The Holy Roman Empire around the year 1700 ### Otto the Great In 936, Otto I was crowned German king at Aachen, in 961 *King of Italy* in Pavia and crowned emperor by Pope John XII in Rome in 962. The tradition of the German King as protector of the Kingdom of Italy and the Latin Church resulted in the term Holy Roman Empire in the 12th century. The name, that was to identify with Germany continued to be used officially, with the extension added: *Nationis Germanicæ (of the German nation)* after the last imperial coronation in Rome in 1452 until its dissolution in 1806. Otto strengthened the royal authority by re-asserting the old Carolingian rights over ecclesiastical appointments. Otto wrested from the nobles the powers of appointment of the bishops and abbots, who controlled large land holdings. Additionally, Otto revived the old Carolingian program of appointing missionaries in the border lands. Otto continued to support celibacy for the higher clergy, so ecclesiastical appointments never became hereditary. By granting lands to the abbots and bishops he appointed, Otto actually turned these bishops into "princes of the Empire" (*Reichsfürsten*). In this way, Otto was able to establish a national church. Outside threats to the kingdom were contained with the decisive defeat of the Hungarian Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. The Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder rivers were also subjugated. Otto marched on Rome and drove John XII from the papal throne and for years controlled the election of the pope, setting a firm precedent for imperial control of the papacy for years to come. During the reign of Conrad II's son, Henry III (1039 to 1056), the empire supported the Cluniac reforms of the Church, the Peace of God, prohibition of simony (the purchase of clerical offices), and required celibacy of priests. Imperial authority over the Pope reached its peak. However, Rome reacted with the creation of the College of Cardinals and Pope Gregory VII's series of clerical reforms. Pope Gregory insisted in his *Dictatus Papae* on absolute papal authority over appointments to ecclesiastical offices. The subsequent conflict in which emperor Henry IV was compelled to submit to the Pope at Canossa in 1077, after having been excommunicated came to be known as the Investiture Controversy. In 1122, a temporary reconciliation was reached between Henry V and the Pope with the Concordat of Worms. With the conclusion of the dispute the Roman church and the papacy regained supreme control over all religious affairs. Consequently, the imperial Ottonian church system (*Reichskirche*) declined. It also ended the royal/imperial tradition of appointing selected powerful clerical leaders to counter the Imperial secular princes. Between 1095 and 1291 the various campaigns of the crusades to the Holy Land took place. Knightly religious orders were established, including the Knights Templar, the Knights of St John (Knights Hospitaller), and the Teutonic Order. The term *sacrum imperium* (Holy Empire) was first used officially by Friedrich I in 1157, but the words *Sacrum Romanum Imperium*, Holy Roman Empire, were only combined in July 1180 and would never consistently appear on official documents from 1254 onwards. ### Hanseatic League The Hanseatic League was a commercial and defensive alliance of the merchant guilds of towns and cities in northern and central Europe that dominated marine trade in the Baltic Sea, the North Sea and along the connected navigable rivers during the Late Middle Ages ( 12th to 15th centuries ). Each of the affiliated cities retained the legal system of its sovereign and, with the exception of the Free imperial cities, had only a limited degree of political autonomy. Beginning with an agreement of the cities of Lübeck and Hamburg, guilds cooperated in order to strengthen and combine their economic assets, like securing trading routes and tax privileges, to control prices and better protect and market their local commodities. Important centers of commerce within the empire, such as Cologne on the Rhine river and Bremen on the North Sea joined the union, which resulted in greater diplomatic esteem. Recognized by the various regional princes for the great economic potential, favorable charters for, often exclusive, commercial operations were granted. During its zenith the alliance maintained trading posts and *kontors* in virtually all cities between London and Edinburgh in the west to Novgorod in the east and Bergen in Norway. By the late 14th century the powerful league enforced its interests with military means, if necessary. This culminated in a war with the sovereign Kingdom of Denmark from 1361 to 1370. Principal city of the Hanseatic League remained Lübeck, where in 1356 the first general diet was held and its official structure was announced. The league declined after 1450 due to a number of factors, such as the 15th-century crisis, the territorial lords' shifting policies towards greater commercial control, the silver crisis and marginalization in the wider Eurasian trade network, among others. ### Eastward expansion The *Ostsiedlung* (lit. Eastern settlement) is the term for a process of largely uncoordinated immigration and chartering of settlement structures by ethnic Germans into territories, already inhabited by Slavs and Balts east of the Saale and Elbe rivers, such as modern Poland and Silesia and to the south into Bohemia, modern Hungary and Romania during the High Middle Ages from the 11th to the 14th century. The primary purpose of the early imperial military campaigns into the lands to the east during the 10th and 11th century, was to punish and subjugate the local heathen tribes. Conquered territories were mostly lost after the troops had retreated, but eventually were incorporated into the empire as marches, fortified borderlands with garrisoned troops in strongholds and castles, who were to ensure military control and enforce the exaction of tributes. Contemporary sources do not support the idea of policies or plans for the organized settlement of civilians. Emperor Lothair II re-established feudal sovereignty over Poland, Denmark and Bohemia from 1135 and appointed margraves to turn the borderlands into hereditary fiefs and install a civilian administration. There is no discernible chronology of the immigration process as it took place in many individual efforts and stages, often even encouraged by the Slavic regional lords. However, the new communities were subjected to German law and customs. Total numbers of settlers were generally rather low and, depending on who held a numerical majority, populations usually assimilated into each other. In many regions only enclaves would persist, like Hermannstadt, founded by the Transylvanian Saxons in the medieval Hungarian Kingdom(today in Romania) who called on by Geza II. in 1147[Saxons called those part of Transylvania as "Altland" to distinguish it from later immigrant Saxon settlements what established about 1220 by Teutonic Order] In 1230, the Catholic monastic order of the Teutonic Knights launched the Prussian Crusade. The campaign, that was supported by the forces of Polish duke Konrad I of Masovia, initially intended to Christianize the Baltic Old Prussians, succeeded primarily in the conquest of large territories. The order, emboldened by imperial approval, quickly resolved to establish an independent state, without the consent of duke Konrad. Recognizing only papal authority and based on a solid economy, the order steadily expanded the Teutonic state during the following 150 years, engaging in several land disputes with its neighbors. Permanent conflicts with the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Novgorod Republic, eventually led to military defeat and containment by the mid-15th century. The last Grand Master Albert of Brandenburg converted to Lutheranism in 1525 and turned the remaining lands of the order into the secular Duchy of Prussia. ### Church and state Henry V, great-grandson of Conrad II, who had overthrown his father Henry IV became Holy Roman Emperor in 1111. Hoping to gain greater control over the church inside the Empire, Henry V appointed Adalbert of Saarbrücken as the powerful archbishop of Mainz in the same year. Adalbert began to assert the powers of the Church against secular authorities, that is, the Emperor. This precipitated the "Crisis of 1111" as yet another chapter of the long-term Investiture Controversy. In 1137, the prince-electors turned back to the Hohenstaufen family for a candidate, Conrad III. Conrad tried to divest his rival Henry the Proud of his two duchies—Bavaria and Saxony—that led to war in southern Germany as the empire was divided into two powerful factions. The faction of the *Welfs* or *Guelphs* (in Italian) supported the House of Welf of Henry the Proud, which was the ruling dynasty in the Duchy of Bavaria. The rival faction of the *Waiblings* or *Ghibellines* (in Italian) pledged allegiance to the Swabian House of Hohenstaufen. During this early period, the Welfs generally maintained ecclesiastical independence under the papacy and political particularism (the focus on ducal interests against the central imperial authority). The Waiblings, on the other hand, championed strict control of the church and a strong central imperial government. During the reign of the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa), an accommodation was reached in 1156 between the two factions. The Duchy of Bavaria was returned to Henry the Proud's son Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, who represented the Guelph party. However, the Margraviate of Austria was separated from Bavaria and turned into the independent Duchy of Austria by virtue of the Privilegium Minus in 1156. Having become wealthy through trade, the confident cities of Northern Italy, supported by the Pope, increasingly opposed Barbarossa's claim of feudal rule *(Honor Imperii)* over Italy. The cities united in the Lombard League and finally defeated Barbarossa in the Battle of Legnano in 1176. The following year a reconciliation was reached between the emperor and Pope Alexander III in the Treaty of Venice. The 1183 Peace of Constance eventually settled that the Italian cities remained loyal to the empire but were granted local jurisdiction and full regal rights in their territories. In 1180, Henry the Lion was outlawed, Saxony was divided, and Bavaria was given to Otto of Wittelsbach, who founded the Wittelsbach dynasty, which was to rule Bavaria until 1918. From 1184 to 1186, the empire under Frederick I Barbarossa reached its cultural peak with the *Diet of Pentecost* held at Mainz and the marriage of his son Henry in Milan to the Norman princess Constance of Sicily. The power of the feudal lords was undermined by the appointment of ministerials (unfree servants of the Emperor) as officials. Chivalry and the court life flowered, as expressed in the scholastic philosophy of Albertus Magnus and the literature of Wolfram von Eschenbach. Between 1212 and 1250, Frederick II established a modern, professionally administered state from his base in Sicily. He resumed the conquest of Italy, leading to further conflict with the Papacy. In the Empire, extensive sovereign powers were granted to ecclesiastical and secular princes, leading to the rise of independent territorial states. The struggle with the Pope sapped the Empire's strength, as Frederick II was excommunicated three times. After his death, the Hohenstaufen dynasty fell, followed by an interregnum during which there was no Emperor (1250–1273). This interregnum came to an end with the election of a small Swabian count, Rudolf of Habsburg, as emperor. The failure of negotiations between Emperor Louis IV and the papacy led to the 1338 Declaration at Rhense by six princes of the Imperial Estate to the effect that election by all or the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and rule over the empire, without papal confirmation. As result, the monarch was no longer subject to papal approbation and became increasingly dependent on the favour of the electors. Between 1346 and 1378 Emperor Charles IV of Luxembourg, king of Bohemia, sought to restore imperial authority. The 1356 decree of the Golden Bull stipulated that all future emperors were to be chosen by a college of only seven – four secular and three clerical – electors. The secular electors were the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg, the clerical electors were the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne. Between 1347 and 1351 Germany and almost the entire European continent were consumed by the most severe outbreak of the Black Death pandemic. Estimated to have caused the abrupt death of 30 to 60% of Europe's population, it led to widespread social and economic disruption and deep religious disaffection and fanaticism. Minority groups, and Jews in particular were blamed, singled out and attacked. As a consequence, many Jews fled and resettled in Eastern Europe. ### Towns and cities Towns and cities of the Medieval and Early Modern Holy Roman EmpireCologne, around 1411Munich 1493 (Nuremberg Chronicle)Nuremberg, in 1493Bamberg 1493 (Nuremberg Chronicle)Regensburg, in 1572Nordhausen, 17th century Total population estimates of the German territories range around 5 to 6 million by the end of Henry III's reign in 1056 and about 7 to 8 million after Friedrich Barabarossa's rule in 1190. The vast majority were farmers, typically in a state of serfdom under feudal lords and monasteries. Towns gradually emerged and in the 12th century many new cities were founded along the trading routes and near imperial strongholds and castles. The towns were subjected to the municipal legal system. Cities such as Cologne, that had acquired the status of Imperial Free Cities, were no longer answerable to the local landlords or bishops, but immediate subjects of the Emperor and enjoyed greater commercial and legal liberties. The towns were ruled by a council of the – usually mercantile – elite, the patricians. Craftsmen formed guilds, governed by strict rules, which sought to obtain control of the towns; a few were open to women. Society had diversified, but was divided into sharply demarcated classes of the clergy, physicians, merchants, various guilds of artisans, unskilled day labourers and peasants. Full citizenship was not available to paupers. Political tensions arose from issues of taxation, public spending, regulation of business, and market supervision, as well as the limits of corporate autonomy. Cologne's central location on the Rhine river placed it at the intersection of the major trade routes between east and west and was the basis of Cologne's growth. The economic structures of medieval and early modern Cologne were characterized by the city's status as a major harbor and transport hub upon the Rhine. It was the seat of an archbishop, under whose patronage the vast Cologne Cathedral was built since 1240. The cathedral houses sacred Christian relics and it has since become a well known pilgrimage destination. By 1288 the city had secured its independence from the archbishop (who relocated to Bonn), and was ruled by its burghers. ### Learning and culture Benedictine abbess Hildegard von Bingen wrote several influential theological, botanical, and medicinal texts, as well as letters, liturgical songs, poems, and arguably the oldest surviving morality play, *Ordo Virtutum*, while supervising brilliant miniature Illuminations. About 100 years later, Walther von der Vogelweide became the most celebrated of the Minnesänger, who were Middle High German lyric poets. Around 1439, Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz, used movable type printing and issued the Gutenberg Bible. He was the global inventor of the printing press, thereby starting the Printing Revolution. Cheap printed books and pamphlets played central roles for the spread of the Reformation and the Scientific Revolution. Around the transition from the 15th to the 16th century, Albrecht Dürer from Nuremberg established his reputation across Europe as painter, printmaker, mathematician, engraver, and theorist when he was still in his twenties and secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance. influential German speaking authors, artists and scholars of the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance* Hildegard von Bingen, Benedictine abbess, philosopher, author, artist and visionary naturalistHildegard von Bingen, Benedictine abbess, philosopher, author, artist and visionary naturalist * Walther von der Vogelweide, most celebrated Middle High German language MinnesängerWalther von der Vogelweide, most celebrated Middle High German language Minnesänger * Albertus Magnus, bishop, philosopher, theologian, Doctor of the ChurchAlbertus Magnus, bishop, philosopher, theologian, Doctor of the Church * Johannes Gutenberg, pioneering user of the printing press with movable typesJohannes Gutenberg, pioneering user of the printing press with movable types * Albrecht Dürer, one of the most influential artists of the Northern RenaissanceAlbrecht Dürer, one of the most influential artists of the Northern Renaissance * Tilman Riemenschneider, most accomplished sculptor, woodcarver and master in stone from the late Gothic to the RenaissanceTilman Riemenschneider, most accomplished sculptor, woodcarver and master in stone from the late Gothic to the Renaissance * Georgius Agricola, metallurgist and Father of mineralogy, author of De re metallicaGeorgius Agricola, metallurgist and *Father of mineralogy*, author of *De re metallica* Early modern Germany -------------------- *See List of states in the Holy Roman Empire for subdivisions and the political structure* ### Social changes The early-modern European society gradually developed after the disasters of the 14th century as religious obedience and political loyalties declined in the wake of the Great Plague, the schism of the Church and prolonged dynastic wars. The rise of the cities and the emergence of the new burgher class eroded the societal, legal and economic order of feudalism. The commercial enterprises of the mercantile elites in the quickly developing cities in South Germany (such as Augsburg and Nuremberg), with the most prominent families being the Gossembrots, Fuggers (the wealthiest family in Europe during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries), Welsers, Hochstetters, Imholts, generated unprecedented financial means. As financiers to both the leading ecclesiastical and secular rulers, these families fundamentally influenced the political affairs in the empire during the fifteenth and sixteenth century. The increasingly money based economy also provoked social discontent among knights and peasants and predatory "robber knights" became common. From 1438 the Habsburg dynasty, who had acquired control in the south-eastern empire over the Duchy of Austria, Bohemia and Hungary after the death of King Louis II in 1526, managed to permanently occupy the position of the Holy Roman Emperor until 1806 (with the exception of the years between 1742 and 1745). Some Europe-wide revolutions were born in the Empire: the combination of the first modern postal system established by Maximilian (with the management under the Taxis family) with the printing system invented by Gutenberg produced a communication revolution – the Empire's decentralized nature made censorship difficult and this combined with the new communication system to facilitate free expression, thus elevating cultural life. The system also helped the authorities to disseminate orders and policies, boosted the Empire's coherence in general, and helped reformers like Luther to broadcast their views and communicate with each other effectively, thus contributing to the religious Reformation. Maximilian's military reforms, especially his development of the Landsknechte, caused a military revolution that broke the back of the knight class and spread all over Europe shortly after his death. ### Imperial reform During his reign from 1493 to 1519, Maximilian I, in a combined effort with the Estates (who sometimes acted as opponents and sometimes as cooperators to him), his officials and his humanists, reformed the empire. A dual system of Supreme Courts (the *Reichskammergericht* and the *Reichshofrat*) was established (with the *Reichshofrat* playing a more efficient role during the Early Modern period), together with the formalized Reception of Roman Law; the Imperial Diet (*Reichstag*) became the all-important political forum and the supreme legal and constitutional institution, which would act as a guarantee for the preservation of the Empire in the long run; a Permanent Land Piece (*Ewiger Landfriede*) was declared in 1495 with regional leagues and unions providing the supporting structure, together with the creation of the *Reichskreise* (*Imperial Circles*, which would serve the purpose of organize imperial armies, collect taxes and enforce orders of the imperial institutions); the Imperial and Court Chanceries were combined to become the decisive government institution; the Landsknechte that Maximilian created became a form of imperial army; a national political culture began to emerge; and the German language began to attain an unified form. The political structure remained incomplete and piecemeal though, mainly due to the failure of the Common Penny (an imperial tax) that the Estates resisted. Through many compromises between emperor and estates though, a flexible, future-oriented problem-solving mechanism for the Empire was formed, together with a monarchy through which the emperor shared power with the Estates. Whether the Reform also equated to a (successful or unsuccessful) nation building process remains a debate. The addition *Nationis Germanicæ* (of German Nation) to the emperor's title appeared first in the 15th century: in a 1486 law decreed by Frederick III and in 1512 in reference to the Imperial Diet in Cologne by Maximilian I. In 1525, the Heilbronn reform plan – the most advanced document of the German Peasants' War (*Deutscher Bauernkrieg*) – referred to the *Reich* as *von Teutscher Nation* (of German nation). During the fifteen century, the term "German nation" had witness a rise in use due to the growth of a "community of interests". The Estates also increasingly distinguished between their German Reich and the wider, "universal" Reich. ### Protestant Reformation In order to manage their ever growing expenses, the Renaissance Popes of the 15th and early 16th century promoted the excessive sale of indulgences and offices and titles of the Roman Curia. In 1517, the monk Martin Luther published a pamphlet with 95 Theses that he posted in the town square of Wittenberg and handed copies to feudal lords. Whether he nailed them to a church door at Wittenberg remains unclear. The list detailed 95 assertions, he argued, represented corrupt practice of the Christian faith and misconduct within the Catholic Church. Although perhaps not Luther's chief concern, he received popular support for his condemnation of the sale of indulgences and clerical offices, the pope's and higher clergy's abuse of power and his doubts of the very idea of the institution of the Church and the papacy. The Protestant Reformation was the first successful challenge to the Catholic Church and began in 1521 as Luther was outlawed at the Diet of Worms after his refusal to repent. The ideas of the reformation spread rapidly, as the new technology of the modern printing press ensured cheap mass copies and distribution of the theses and helped by the Emperor Charles V's wars with France and the Turks. Hiding in the Wartburg Castle, Luther translated the Bible into German, thereby greatly contributing to the establishment of the modern German language. This is highlighted by the fact that Luther spoke only a local dialect of minor importance during that time. After the publication of his Bible, his dialect suppressed others and constitutes to a great extent what is now modern German. With the protestation of the Lutheran princes at the Imperial Diet of Speyer in 1529 and the acceptance and adoption of the Lutheran Augsburg Confession by the Lutheran princes beginning in 1530, the separate Lutheran church was established. The German Peasants' War, which began in the southwest in Alsace and Swabia and spread further east into Franconia, Thuringia and Austria, was a series of economic and religious revolts of the rural lower classes, encouraged by the rhetoric of various radical religious reformers and Anabaptists against the ruling feudal lords. Although occasionally assisted by war-experienced noblemen like Götz von Berlichingen and Florian Geyer (in Franconia) and the theologian Thomas Müntzer (in Thuringia), the peasant forces lacked military structure, skill, logistics and equipment and as many as 100,000 insurgents were eventually defeated and massacred by the territorial princes. The Catholic Counter-Reformation, initiated in 1545 at the Council of Trent was spearheaded by the scholarly religious Jesuit order, that was founded just five years prior by several clerics around Ignatius of Loyola. Its intent was to challenge and contain the Protestant Reformation via apologetic and polemical writings and decrees, ecclesiastical reconfiguration, wars and imperial political maneuverings. In 1547, emperor Charles V defeated the Schmalkaldic League, a military alliance of Protestant rulers. The 1555 Peace of Augsburg decreed the recognition of the Lutheran Faith and religious division of the empire. It also stipulated the ruler's right to determine the official confession in his principality (*Cuius regio, eius religio*). The Counter-Reformation eventually failed to reintegrate the central and northern German Lutheran states. In 1608/1609 the Protestant Union and the Catholic League were formed. ### Thirty Years' War, 1618–1648 The 1618 to 1648 Thirty Years' War, that took place almost exclusively in the Holy Roman Empire has its origins, which remain widely debated, in the unsolved and recurring conflicts of the Catholic and Protestant factions. The Catholic emperor Ferdinand II attempted to achieve the religious and political unity of the empire, while the opposing Protestant Union forces were determined to defend their religious rights. The religious motive served as the universal justification for the various territorial and foreign princes, who over the course of several stages joined either of the two warring parties in order to gain land and power. The conflict was sparked by the revolt of the Protestant nobility of Bohemia against emperor Matthias' succession policies. After imperial triumph at the Battle of White Mountain and a short-lived peace, the war grew to become a political European conflict by the intervention of King Christian IV of Denmark from 1625 to 1630, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden from 1630 to 1648 and France under Cardinal Richelieu from 1635 to 1648. The conflict increasingly evolved into a struggle between the French House of Bourbon and the House of Habsburg for predominance in Europe, for which the central German territories of the empire served as the battleground. The war ranks among the most catastrophic in history as three decades of constant warfare and destruction had left the land devastated. Marauding armies incessantly pillaged the countryside, seized and levied heavy taxes on cities and indiscriminately plundered the food stocks of the peasantry. There were also the countless bands of murderous outlaws, sick, homeless, disrupted people and invalid soldiery. Overall social and economic disruption caused a dramatic decline in population as a result of pandemic murder and random rape and killings, endemic infectious diseases, crop failures, famine, declining birth rates, wanton burglary, witch-hunts and the emigration of terrified people. Estimates vary between a 38% drop from 16 million people in 1618 to 10 million by 1650 and a mere 20% drop from 20 million to 16 million. The Altmark and Württemberg regions were especially hard hit, where it took generations to fully recover. The war was the last major religious struggle in mainland Europe and ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. It resulted in increased autonomy for the constituent states of the Holy Roman Empire, limiting the power of the emperor. Most of Alsace was ceded to France, Western Pomerania and Bremen-Verden were given to Sweden as Imperial fiefs, and the Netherlands officially left the Empire. ### Culture and literacy The population of Germany reached about twenty million people by the mid-16th century, the great majority of whom were peasant farmers. The Protestant Reformation was a triumph for literacy and the new printing press. Luther's translation of the Bible into High German (the New Testament was published in 1522; the Old Testament was published in parts and completed in 1534) was a decisive impulse for the increase of literacy of literacy in early modern Germany, and stimulated printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517 onward religious pamphlets flooded Germany and much of Europe. The Reformation instigated a media revolution as by 1530 over 10,000 individual works are published with a total of ten million copies. Luther strengthened his attacks on Rome by depicting a "good" against "bad" church. It soon became clear that print could be used for propaganda in the Reformation for particular agendas. Reform writers used pre-Reformation styles, clichés, and stereotypes and changed items as needed for their own purposes. Especially effective were Luther's *Small Catechism*, for use of parents teaching their children, and *Larger Catechism,* for pastors. Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. Illustrations in the newly translated Bible and in many tracts popularized Luther's ideas. Lucas Cranach the Elder, the painter patronized by the electors of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Luther, and illustrated Luther's theology for a popular audience. He dramatized Luther's views on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, while remaining mindful of Luther's careful distinctions about proper and improper uses of visual imagery. Luther's translation of the Bible into High German was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from Early New High German to Modern Standard German. The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy in early modern Germany, and promoted the development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area. ### Science Notable late fifteenth to early eighteenth-century polymaths include: Johannes Trithemius, one of the founder of modern cryptography, founder of steganography, as well as bibliography and literary studies as branches of knowledge; Conrad Celtes, the first and foremost German cartographic writer and "the greatest lyric genius and certainly the greatest organizer and popularizer of German Humanism"; Athanasius Kircher, described by Fletcher as "a founder figure of various disciplines—of geology (certainly vulcanology), musicology (as a surveyor of musical forms), museum curatorship, Coptology, to name a few—and might be claimed today as the first theorist of gravity and a long-term originator of the moving pictures (with his magic lantern shows). Through his many enthusiasms, moreover, he was the conduit of others' pursuits in the rapidly widening horizon of knowledge that marks the later Renaissance."; and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, one of the greatest, if not the greatest "Universal genius", of all times. Cartography developed strongly, with the center being Nuremberg, at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann's *Universalis Cosmographia* and the 1513 edition of *Geography* marked the climax of a cartography revolution. The emperor himself dabbled in cartography. In 1515, Johannes Stabius (court astronomer under Maximilian I), Albrecht Dürer and the astronomer Konrad Heinfogel produced the first planispheres of both southern and northerns hemispheres, also the first printed celestial maps. These maps prompted the revival of interest in the field of uranometry throughout Europe. Astronomer Johannes Kepler from Weil der Stadt was one of the pioneering minds of empirical and rational research. Through rigorous application of the principles of the Scientific method he construed his laws of planetary motion. His ideas influenced contemporary Italian scientist Galileo Galilei and provided fundamental mechanical principles for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation. Scientists, scholars and artists of the Early modern period in Germany* Johannes Kepler, astronomer and mathematicianJohannes Kepler, astronomer and mathematician * Otto von Guericke, scientist, inventor and politician, famous for demonstrating the power of atmospheric pressure with the Magdeburg hemispheresOtto von Guericke, scientist, inventor and politician, famous for demonstrating the power of atmospheric pressure with the Magdeburg hemispheres * Elisabeth of the Palatinate, philosopher, critic of René Descartes' dualistic metaphysicsElisabeth of the Palatinate, philosopher, critic of René Descartes' dualistic metaphysics * Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, author of the novel Simplicius SimplicissimusHans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, author of the novel *Simplicius Simplicissimus* * Athanasius Kircher, polymathAthanasius Kircher, polymath * Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, philosopher and mathematicianGottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, philosopher and mathematician * Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, mathematician, physicist, physician, philosopher, co-inventor of European porcelainEhrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, mathematician, physicist, physician, philosopher, co-inventor of European porcelain ### Colonies German Colonies in the Americas existed because the Free Imperial Cities of Augsburg and Nuremberg got colonial rights in the Province of Venezuela or North of South America in return for debts owed by the Holy Roman Empire Charles V, who was also King of Spain. In 1528, Charles V issued a charter by which the Welser family possessed the rights to explore, rule and colonize the area, also with the motivation of searching for the legendary golden city of El Dorado.c Their principal colony was Klein-Venedig. A never realized colonial project was Hanauish-Indies intended by Friedrich Casimir, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg as a fief of the Dutch West India Company. The project failed due to a lack of funds and the outbreak of the Franco-Dutch War in 1672. 1648–1815 --------- ### Rise of Prussia Frederick William, ruler of Brandenburg-Prussia since 1640 and later called the Great Elector, acquired East Pomerania via the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. He reorganized his loose and scattered territories and managed to throw off the vassalage of Prussia under the Kingdom of Poland during the Second Northern War. In order to address the demographic problem of Prussia's largely rural population of about three million, he attracted the immigration and settlement of French Huguenots in urban areas. Many became craftsmen and entrepreneurs. King Frederick William I, known as the *Soldier King*, who reigned from 1713 to 1740, established the structures for the highly centralized Prussian state and raised a professional army, that was to play a central role. He also successfully operated a command economy that some historians consider mercantilist. The total population of Germany (in its 1914 territorial extent) grew from 16 million in 1700 to 17 million in 1750 and reached 24 million in 1800. The 18th-century economy noticeably profited from widespread practical application of the Scientific method as greater yields and a more reliable agricultural production and the introduction of hygienic standards positively affected the birth rate – death rate balance. ### Wars Louis XIV of France waged a series of successful wars in order to extend the French territory. He occupied Lorraine (1670) and annexed the remainder of Alsace (1678–1681) that included the free imperial city of Straßburg. At the start of the Nine Years' War, he also invaded the Electorate of the Palatinate (1688–1697). Louis established a number of courts whose sole function was to reinterpret historic decrees and treaties, the Treaties of Nijmegen (1678) and the Peace of Westphalia (1648) in particular in favor of his policies of conquest. He considered the conclusions of these courts, the *Chambres de réunion* as sufficient justification for his boundless annexations. Louis' forces operated inside the Holy Roman Empire largely unopposed, because all available imperial contingents fought in Austria in the Great Turkish War. The Grand Alliance of 1689 took up arms against France and countered any further military advances of Louis. The conflict ended in 1697 as both parties agreed to peace talks after either side had realized, that a total victory was financially unattainable. The Treaty of Ryswick provided for the return of the Lorraine and Luxembourg to the empire and the abandoning of French claims to the Palatinate. After the last-minute relief of Vienna from a siege and the imminent seizure by a Turkish force in 1683, the combined troops of the Holy League, that had been founded the following year, embarked on the military containment of the Ottoman Empire and reconquered Hungary in 1687. The Papal States, the Holy Roman Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Republic of Venice and since 1686 Russia had joined the league under the leadership of Pope Innocent XI. Prince Eugene of Savoy, who served under emperor Leopold I, took supreme command in 1697 and decisively defeated the Ottomans in a series of spectacular battles and manoeuvres. The 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz marked the end of the Great Turkish War and Prince Eugene continued his service for the Habsburg monarchy as president of the War Council. He effectively ended Turkish rule over most of the territorial states in the Balkans during the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–1718. The Treaty of Passarowitz left Austria to freely establish royal domains in Serbia and the Banat and maintain hegemony in Southeast Europe, on which the future Austrian Empire was based. ### Enlightened absolutism Frederick II "the Great" is best known for his military genius and unique utilisation of the highly organized army to make Prussia one of the great powers in Europe as well as escaping from almost certain national disaster at the last minute. He was also an artist, author and philosopher, who conceived and promoted the concept of enlightened absolutism. Austrian empress Maria Theresa succeeded in bringing about a favorable conclusion for her in the 1740 to 1748 war for recognition of her succession to the throne. However, Silesia was permanently lost to Prussia as a consequence of the Silesian Wars and the Seven Years' War. The 1763 Treaty of Hubertusburg ruled that Austria and Saxony had to relinquish all claims to Silesia. Prussia, that had nearly doubled its territory was eventually recognized as a great European power with the consequence that the politics of the following century were fundamentally influenced by German dualism, the rivalry of Austria and Prussia for supremacy in Central Europe. The concept of enlightened absolutism, although rejected by the nobility and citizenry, was advocated in Prussia and Austria and implemented since 1763. Prussian king Frederick II defended the idea in an essay and argued that the benevolent monarch simply is the *first servant of the state*, who effects his absolute political power for the benefit of the population as a whole. A number of legal reforms (e.g. the abolition of torture and the emancipation of the rural population and the Jews), the reorganization of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the introduction of compulsory education for boys and girls and promotion of religious tolerance, among others, caused rapid social and economic development. During 1772 to 1795 Prussia instigated the partitions of Poland by occupying the western territories of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria and Russia resolved to acquire the remaining lands with the effect that Poland ceased to exist as a sovereign state until 1918. ### Smaller states The smaller German states were overshadowed by Prussia and Austria. Bavaria had a rural economy. Saxony was in economically good shape, although numerous wars had taken their toll. During the time when Prussia rose rapidly within Germany, Saxony was distracted by foreign affairs. The House of Wettin concentrated on acquiring and then holding on to the Polish throne which was ultimately unsuccessful.[*clarification needed*] Many of the smaller states of Germany were run by bishops, who in reality were from powerful noble families and showed scant interest in religion. While none of the later ecclesial rulers reached the outstanding reputation of Mainz' Johann Philipp von Schönborn or Münster's Christoph Bernhard von Galen, some of them promoted Enlightenment like the benevolent and progressive Franz Ludwig von Erthal in Würzburg and Bamberg. In Hesse-Kassel, the Landgrave Frederick II, ruled from 1760 to 1785 as an enlightened despot, and raised money by renting soldiers (called "Hessians") to Great Britain to help fight the American Revolutionary War. He combined Enlightenment ideas with Christian values, cameralist plans for central control of the economy, and a militaristic approach toward diplomacy. Hanover did not have to support a lavish court—its rulers were also kings of England and resided in London. George III, elector (ruler) from 1760 to 1820, never once visited Hanover. The local nobility who ran the country opened the University of Göttingen in 1737; it soon became a world-class intellectual center. Baden sported perhaps the best government of the smaller states. Karl Friedrich ruled for 73 years and was an enthusiast for the Enlightenment; he abolished serfdom in 1783. The smaller states failed to form coalitions with each other, and were eventually overwhelmed by Prussia who swallowed up many of them between 1807 and 1871. ### Social changes Prussia underwent major social change between the mid-17th and mid-18th centuries as the nobility declined as the traditional aristocracy struggled to compete with the rising merchant class, which developed into a new Bourgeoisie middle class, while the emancipation of the serfs granted the rural peasantry land purchasing rights and freedom of movement, and a series of agrarian reforms in northwestern Germany abolished feudal obligations and divided up feudal land, giving rise to wealthier peasants and paved the way for a more efficient rural economy. ### Enlightenment Since the mid-18th century recognition and application of Enlightenment ideas, higher cultural, intellectual and spiritual standards have led to higher quality works of art in music, philosophy, science and literature. Philosopher Christian Wolff was a pioneering author on a near universal number of Enlightenment rationality topics in Germany and established German as the language of philosophic reasoning, scholarly instruction and research. In 1685, Margrave Frederick William of Prussia issued the Edict of Potsdam within a week after French king Louis XIV's Edict of Fontainebleau, that decreed the abolishment of the 1598 concession to free religious practice for Protestants. Frederick William offered his *co-religionists, who are oppressed and assailed for the sake of the Holy Gospel and its pure doctrine...a secure and free refuge in all Our Lands*. Around 20,000 Huguenot refugees arrived in an immediate wave and settled in the cities, 40% in Berlin, the ducal residence alone. The French Lyceum in Berlin was established in 1689 and the French language had by the end of the 17th century replaced Latin to be spoken universally in international diplomacy. The nobility and the educated middle-class of Prussia and the various German states increasingly used the French language in public conversation in combination with universal cultivated manners. Like no other German state, Prussia had access to and the skill set for the application of pan-European Enlightenment ideas to develop more rational political and administrative institutions. The princes of Saxony carried out a comprehensive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country's strong urban structure and influential commercial groups, who modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles. Johann Gottfried von Herder broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the Sturm und Drang movement of proto-Romanticism. Weimar Classicism ("Weimarer Klassik") was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical, and Enlightenment ideas. The movement, from 1772 until 1805, involved Herder as well as polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller, a poet and historian. Herder argued that every folk had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller's plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero's struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny. German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers Johann Sebastian Bach, Joseph Haydn, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Königsberg philosopher Immanuel Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom, and political authority. Kant's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought – and indeed all of European philosophy – well into the 20th century. The ideas of the Enlightenment and their implementation received general approval and recognition as principal cause for widespread cultural progress. ### French Revolution, 1789–1815 German reaction to the French Revolution was mixed at first. German intellectuals celebrated the outbreak, hoping to see the triumph of Reason and The Enlightenment. The royal courts in Vienna and Berlin denounced the overthrow of the king and the threatened spread of notions of liberty, equality, and fraternity. By 1793, the execution of the French king and the onset of the Terror disillusioned the Bildungsbürgertum (educated middle classes). Reformers said the solution was to have faith in the ability of Germans to reform their laws and institutions in peaceful fashion. Europe was racked by two decades of war revolving around France's efforts to spread its revolutionary ideals, and the opposition of reactionary royalty. War broke out in 1792 as Austria and Prussia invaded France, but were defeated at the Battle of Valmy (1792). The German lands saw armies marching back and forth, bringing devastation (albeit on a far lower scale than the Thirty Years' War, almost two centuries before), but also bringing new ideas of liberty and civil rights for the people. Prussia and Austria ended their failed wars with France but (with Russia) partitioned Poland among themselves in 1793 and 1795. #### French consulate suzereignity France took control of the Rhineland, imposed French-style reforms, abolished feudalism, established constitutions, promoted freedom of religion, emancipated Jews, opened the bureaucracy to ordinary citizens of talent, and forced the nobility to share power with the rising middle class. Napoleon created the Kingdom of Westphalia as a model state. These reforms proved largely permanent and modernized the western parts of Germany. When the French tried to impose the French language, German opposition grew in intensity. A Second Coalition of Britain, Russia, and Austria then attacked France but failed. Napoleon established direct or indirect control over most of western Europe, including the German states apart from Prussia and Austria. The old Holy Roman Empire was little more than a farce; Napoleon simply abolished it in 1806 while forming new countries under his control. In Germany Napoleon set up the "Confederation of the Rhine", comprising most of the German states except Prussia and Austria. #### Imperial French suzereignity Under Frederick William II's weak rule (1786—1797) Prussia had undergone a serious economic, political and military decline. His successor king Frederick William III tried to remain neutral during the War of the Third Coalition and French emperor Napoleon's dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and reorganisation of the German principalities. Induced by the queen and a pro-war party Frederick William joined the Fourth Coalition in October 1806. Napoleon easily defeated the Prussian army at the Battle of Jena and occupied Berlin. Prussia lost its recently acquired territories in western Germany, its army was reduced to 42,000 men, no trade with Britain was allowed and Berlin had to pay Paris high reparations and fund the French army of occupation. Saxony changed sides to support Napoleon and joined the Confederation of the Rhine. Ruler Frederick Augustus I was rewarded with the title of king and given a part of Poland taken from Prussia, which became known as the Duchy of Warsaw. After Napoleon's military fiasco in Russia in 1812, Prussia allied with Russia in the Sixth Coalition. A series of battles followed and Austria joined the alliance. Napoleon was decisively defeated in the Battle of Leipzig in late 1813. The German states of the Confederation of the Rhine defected to the Coalition against Napoleon, who rejected any peace terms. Coalition forces invaded France in early 1814, Paris fell and in April Napoleon surrendered. Prussia as one of the winners at the Congress of Vienna, gained extensive territory. 1815–1871 --------- ### Overview In 1815, continental Europe was in a state of overall turbulence and exhaustion, as a consequence of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. The liberal spirit of the Enlightenment and Revolutionary era diverged toward Romanticism. The victorious members of the Coalition had negotiated a new peaceful balance of powers in Vienna and agreed to maintain a stable German heartland that keeps French imperialism at bay. However, the idea of reforming the defunct Holy Roman Empire was discarded. Napoleon's reorganization of the German states was continued and the remaining princes were allowed to keep their titles. In 1813, in return for guarantees from the Allies that the sovereignty and integrity of the Southern German states (Baden, Württemberg, and Bavaria) would be preserved, they broke with France. ### German Confederation During the 1815 Congress of Vienna the 39 former states of the *Confederation of the Rhine* joined the German Confederation, a loose agreement for mutual defense. Attempts of economic integration and customs coordination were frustrated by repressive anti-national policies. Great Britain approved of the union, convinced that a stable, peaceful entity in central Europe could discourage aggressive moves by France or Russia. Most historians, however, concluded, that the Confederation was weak and ineffective and an obstacle to German nationalism. The union was undermined by the creation of the Zollverein in 1834, the 1848 revolutions, the rivalry between Prussia and Austria and was finally dissolved in the wake of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, to be replaced by the North German Confederation during the same year. ### Society and economy Increasingly after 1815, a centralized Prussian government based in Berlin took over the powers of the nobles, which in terms of control over the peasantry had been almost absolute. To help the nobility avoid indebtedness, Berlin set up a credit institution to provide capital loans in 1809, and extended the loan network to peasants in 1849. When the German Empire was established in 1871, the Junker nobility controlled the army and the navy, the bureaucracy, and the royal court; they generally set governmental policies. #### Population Between 1815 and 1865 the population of the German Confederation (excluding Austria) grew around 60% from 21 million to 34 million. Simultaneously the Demographic Transition took place as the high birth rates and high death rates of the pre-industrial country shifted to low birth and death rates of the fast-growing industrialized urban economic and agricultural system. Increased agricultural productivity secured a steady food supply, as famines and epidemics declined. This allowed people to marry earlier, and have more children. The high birthrate was offset by a very high rate of infant mortality and after 1840, large-scale emigration to the United States. Emigration totaled at 480,000 in the 1840s, 1,200,000 in the 1850s, and at 780,000 in the 1860s. The upper and middle classes first practiced birth control, soon to be universally adopted. #### Industrialization In 1800, Germany's social structure was poorly suited to entrepreneurship or economic development. Domination by France during the French Revolution (1790s to 1815), however, produced important institutional reforms, that included the abolition of feudal restrictions on the sale of large landed estates, the reduction of the power of the guilds in the cities, and the introduction of a new, more efficient commercial law. The idea, that these reforms were beneficial for Industrialization has been contested. In the early 19th century the Industrial Revolution was in full swing in Britain, France, and Belgium. The various small federal states in Germany developed only slowly and independently as competition was strong. Early investments for the railway network during the 1830s came almost exclusively from private hands. Without a central regulatory agency the construction projects were quickly realized. Actual industrialization only took off after 1850 in the wake of the railroad construction. The textile industry grew rapidly, profiting from the elimination of tariff barriers by the Zollverein. During the second half of the 19th century the German industry grew exponentially and by 1900, Germany was an industrial world leader along with Britain and the United States.</ref> #### Urbanization In 1800, the population was predominantly rural, as only 10% lived in communities of 5,000 or more people, and only 2% lived in cities of more than 100,000 people. After 1815, the urban population grew rapidly, due to the influx of young people from the rural areas. Berlin grew from 172,000 in 1800, to 826,000 inhabitants in 1870, Hamburg from 130,000 to 290,000, Munich from 40,000 to 269,000 and Dresden from 60,000 to 177,000. #### Railways The takeoff stage of economic development came with the railroad revolution in the 1840s, which opened up new markets for local products, created a pool of middle managers, increased the demand for engineers, architects and skilled machinists and stimulated investments in coal and iron. Political disunity of three dozen states and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s. However, by the 1840s, trunk lines did link the major cities; each German state was responsible for the lines within its own borders. Economist Friedrich List summed up the advantages to be derived from the development of the railway system in 1841: * 1. As a means of national defence, it facilitates the concentration, distribution and direction of the army. * 2. It is a means to the improvement of the culture of the nation. It brings talent, knowledge and skill of every kind readily to market. * 3. It secures the community against dearth and famine, and against excessive fluctuation in the prices of the necessaries of life. * 4. It promotes the spirit of the nation, as it has a tendency to destroy the Philistine spirit arising from isolation and provincial prejudice and vanity. It binds nations by ligaments, and promotes an interchange of food and of commodities, thus making it feel to be a unit. The iron rails become a nerve system, which, on the one hand, strengthens public opinion, and, on the other hand, strengthens the power of the state for police and governmental purposes. Lacking a technological base at first, engineering and hardware was imported from Britain. In many cities, the new railway shops were the centres of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self-sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry. Observers found that even as late as 1890, their engineering was inferior to Britain. However, German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state-owned companies, and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France, the goal was the support of industrialisation. Eventually numerous lines criss-crossed the Ruhr area and other industrial centers and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880, 9,400 locomotives pulled 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight a day. #### Newspapers and magazines While there existed no national newspaper the many states issued a great variety of printed media, although they rarely exceeded regional significance. In a typical town existed one or two outlets, urban centers, such as Berlin and Leipzig had dozens. The audience was limited to a few percent of male adults, chiefly from the aristocratic and upper middle class. Liberal publishers outnumbered conservative ones by a wide margin. Foreign governments bribed editors to guarantee a favorable image. Censorship was strict, and the imperial government issued the political news that was supposed to be published. After 1871, strict press laws were enforced by Bismarck to contain the Socialists and hostile editors. Editors focused on political commentary, culture, the arts, high culture and the popular serialized novels. Magazines were politically more influential and attracted intellectual authors. #### Science and culture during the 18th and 19th century 19th-century artists and intellectuals were greatly inspired by the ideas of the French Revolution and the great poets and writers Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Friedrich Schiller. The Sturm und Drang romantic movement was embraced and emotion was given free expression in reaction to the perceived rationalism of the Enlightenment. Philosophical principles and methods were revolutionized by Immanuel Kant's paradigm shift. Ludwig van Beethoven was the most influential composer of the period from classical to Romantic music. His use of tonal architecture in such a way as to allow significant expansion of musical forms and structures was immediately recognized as bringing a new dimension to music. His later piano music and string quartets, especially, showed the way to a completely unexplored musical universe, and influenced Franz Schubert and Robert Schumann. In opera, a new Romantic atmosphere combining supernatural terror and melodramatic plot in a folkloric context was first successfully achieved by Carl Maria von Weber and perfected by Richard Wagner in his Ring Cycle. The Brothers Grimm collected folk stories into the popular Grimm's Fairy Tales and are ranked among the founding fathers of German studies, who initiated the work on the Deutsches Wörterbuch ("The German Dictionary"), the most comprehensive work on the German language. University professors developed international reputations, especially in the humanities led by history and philology, which brought a new historical perspective to the study of political history, theology, philosophy, language, and literature. With Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Max Weber, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in philosophy, Friedrich Schleiermacher in theology and Leopold von Ranke in history became famous. The University of Berlin, founded in 1810, became the world's leading university. Von Ranke, for example, professionalized history and set the world standard for historiography. By the 1830s mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology had emerged with world class science, led by Alexander von Humboldt in natural science and Carl Friedrich Gauss in mathematics. Young intellectuals often turned to politics, but their support for the failed revolution of 1848 forced many into exile. 18th- and 19th-century German artists, scientists and philosophers* Immanuel KantImmanuel Kant * Gotthold Ephraim LessingGotthold Ephraim Lessing * Johann Wolfgang von GoetheJohann Wolfgang von Goethe * Friedrich SchillerFriedrich Schiller * Alexander von HumboldtAlexander von Humboldt * Ludwig van BeethovenLudwig van Beethoven * Friedrich HegelFriedrich Hegel * Carl Friedrich GaussCarl Friedrich Gauss * Brothers GrimmBrothers Grimm * Joseph von Fraunhofer, physicist and optical lens manufacturerJoseph von Fraunhofer, physicist and optical lens manufacturer * Werner von SiemensWerner von Siemens * Karl MarxKarl Marx #### Religion Two main developments reshaped religion in Germany. Across the land, there was a movement to unite the larger Lutheran and the smaller Reformed Protestant churches. The churches themselves brought this about in Baden, Nassau, and Bavaria. However, in Prussia King Frederick William III was determined to handle unification entirely on his own terms, without consultation. His goal was to unify the Protestant churches, and to impose a single standardized liturgy, organization and even architecture. The long-term goal was to have fully centralized royal control of all the Protestant churches. In a series of proclamations over several decades the *Church of the Prussian Union* was formed, bringing together the more numerous Lutherans, and the less numerous Reformed Protestants. The government of Prussia now had full control over church affairs, with the king himself recognized as the leading bishop. Opposition to unification came from the "Old Lutherans" in Silesia who clung tightly to the theological and liturgical forms they had followed since the days of Luther. The government attempted to crack down on them, so they went underground. Tens of thousands migrated, to South Australia, and especially to the United States, where they formed the Missouri Synod, which is still in operation as a conservative denomination. Finally in 1845 a new king Frederick William IV offered a general amnesty and allowed the Old Lutherans to form a separate church association with only nominal government control. From the religious point of view of the typical Catholic or Protestant, major changes were underway in terms of a much more personalized religiosity that focused on the individual more than the church or the ceremony. The rationalism of the late 19th century faded away, and there was a new emphasis on the psychology and feeling of the individual, especially in terms of contemplating sinfulness, redemption, and the mysteries and the revelations of Christianity. Pietistic revivals were common among Protestants. Among, Catholics there was a sharp increase in popular pilgrimages. In 1844 alone, half a million pilgrims made a pilgrimage to the city of Trier in the Rhineland to view the Seamless robe of Jesus, said to be the robe that Jesus wore on the way to his crucifixion. Catholic bishops in Germany had historically been largely independent of Rome, but now the Vatican exerted increasing control, a new "ultramontanism" of Catholics highly loyal to Rome. A sharp controversy broke out in 1837–1838 in the largely Catholic Rhineland over the religious education of children of mixed marriages, where the mother was Catholic and the father Protestant. The government passed laws to require that these children always be raised as Protestants, contrary to Napoleonic law that had previously prevailed and allowed the parents to make the decision. It put the Catholic Archbishop under house arrest. In 1840, the new King Frederick William IV sought reconciliation and ended the controversy by agreeing to most of the Catholic demands. However Catholic memories remained deep and led to a sense that Catholics always needed to stick together in the face of an untrustworthy government. ### Politics of restoration and revolution #### After Napoleon After the fall of Napoleon, Europe's statesmen convened in Vienna in 1815 for the reorganisation of European affairs, under the leadership of the Austrian Prince Metternich. The political principles agreed upon at this Congress of Vienna included the restoration, legitimacy and solidarity of rulers for the repression of revolutionary and nationalist ideas. The German Confederation (German: *Deutscher Bund*) was founded, a loose union of 39 states (35 ruling princes and 4 free cities) under Austrian leadership, with a Federal Diet (German: *Bundestag*) meeting in Frankfurt am Main. It was a loose coalition that failed to satisfy most nationalists. The member states largely went their own way, and Austria had its own interests. In 1819, a student radical assassinated the reactionary playwright August von Kotzebue, who had scoffed at liberal student organisations. In one of the few major actions of the German Confederation, Prince Metternich called a conference that issued the repressive Carlsbad Decrees, designed to suppress liberal agitation against the conservative governments of the German states. The Decrees terminated the fast-fading nationalist fraternities (German: *Burschenschaften*), removed liberal university professors, and expanded the censorship of the press. The decrees began the "persecution of the demagogues", which was directed against individuals who were accused of spreading revolutionary and nationalist ideas. Among the persecuted were the poet Ernst Moritz Arndt, the publisher Johann Joseph Görres and the "Father of Gymnastics" Ludwig Jahn. In 1834, the Zollverein was established, a customs union between Prussia and most other German states, but excluding Austria. As industrialisation developed, the need for a unified German state with a uniform currency, legal system, and government became more and more obvious. #### 1848 Growing discontent with the political and social order imposed by the Congress of Vienna led to the outbreak, in 1848, of the March Revolution in the German states. In May the German National Assembly (the Frankfurt Parliament) met in Frankfurt to draw up a national German constitution. But the 1848 revolution turned out to be unsuccessful: King Frederick William IV of Prussia refused the imperial crown, the Frankfurt parliament was dissolved, the ruling princes repressed the risings by military force, and the German Confederation was re-established by 1850. Many leaders went into exile, including a number who went to the United States and became a political force there. #### 1850s The 1850s were a period of extreme political reaction. Dissent was vigorously suppressed, and many Germans emigrated to America following the collapse of the 1848 uprisings. Frederick William IV became extremely depressed and melancholic during this period, and was surrounded by men who advocated clericalism and absolute divine monarchy. The Prussian people once again lost interest in politics. Prussia not only expanded its territory but began to industrialize rapidly, while maintaining a strong agricultural base. #### Bismarck takes charge (1862–1866) In 1857, the Prussian king Frederick William IV suffered a stroke and his brother William served as regent until 1861 when he became King William I. Although conservative, William was very pragmatic. His most significant accomplishment was the naming of Otto von Bismarck as Prussian minister president in 1862. The cooperation of Bismarck, Defense Minister Albrecht von Roon, and Field Marshal Helmut von Moltke set the stage for the military victories over Denmark, Austria, and France, that led to the unification of Germany. In 1863–1864, disputes between Prussia and Denmark over Schleswig escalated, which was not part of the German Confederation, and which Danish nationalists wanted to incorporate into the Danish kingdom. The conflict led to the Second War of Schleswig in 1864. Prussia, joined by Austria, easily defeated Denmark and occupied Jutland. The Danes were forced to cede both the Duchy of Schleswig and the Duchy of Holstein to Austria and Prussia. The subsequent management of the two duchies led to tensions between Austria and Prussia. Austria wanted the duchies to become an independent entity within the German Confederation, while Prussia intended to annex them. The disagreement served as a pretext for the Seven Weeks War between Austria and Prussia, that broke out in June 1866. In July, the two armies clashed at Sadowa-Königgrätz (Bohemia) in an enormous battle involving half a million men. Prussian superior logistics and the modern breech-loading needle guns superiority over the slow muzzle-loading rifles of the Austrians, proved to be elementary for Prussia's victory. The battle had also decided the struggle for hegemony in Germany and Bismarck was deliberately lenient with defeated Austria, that was to play only a subordinate role in future German affairs. #### North German Confederation, 1866–1871 After the Seven Weeks War, the German Confederation was dissolved and the North German Federation (German *Norddeutscher Bund*) was established under the leadership of Prussia. Austria was excluded and its immense influence over Germany finally came to an end. The North German Federation was a transitional organisation that existed from 1867 to 1871, between the dissolution of the German Confederation and the founding of the German Empire. German Empire, 1871–1918 ------------------------ ### Overview Chancellor Otto von Bismarck determined the political course of the German Empire until 1890. He fostered alliances in Europe to contain France on the one hand and aspired to consolidate Germany's influence in Europe on the other. His principal domestic policies focused on the suppression of socialism and the reduction of the strong influence of the Roman Catholic Church on its adherents. He issued a series of anti-socialist laws in accord with a set of social laws, that included universal health care, pension plans and other social security programs. His Kulturkampf policies were vehemently resisted by Catholics, who organized political opposition in the Center Party (Zentrum). German industrial and economic power had grown to match Britain by 1900. In 1888, the young and ambitious Kaiser Wilhelm II became emperor. He rejected advice from experienced politicians and ordered Bismarck's resignation in 1890. He opposed Bismarck's careful and delicate foreign policy and was determined to pursue colonialist policies, as Britain and France had been doing for centuries. The Kaiser promoted the active colonization of Africa and Asia for the lands that were not already colonies of other European powers. The Kaiser took a mostly unilateral approach in Europe only allied with the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and embarked on a dangerous naval arms race with Britain. His aggressive and erroneous policies greatly contributed to the situation in which the assassination of the Austrian-Hungarian crown prince would spark off World War I. ### Bismarck era Bismarck was the dominant personality not just in Germany but in all of Europe and indeed the entire diplomatic world 1870–1890, but historians continue to debate his personality. Lothar Gall and Ernst Engelberg consider Bismarck was a future-oriented modernizer. In sharp contrast, Jonathan Steinberg decided he was basically a traditional Prussian whose highest priorities were to reinforce the monarchy, the Army, and the social and economic dominance of his own Junker class, thereby being responsible for a tragic history after his removal in 1890. #### The new empire In 1868, the Spanish queen Isabella II was deposed in the Glorious Revolution, leaving the country's throne vacant. When Prussia suggested the Hohenzollern candidate, Prince Leopold as successor, France vehemently objected. The matter evolved into a diplomatic scandal and in July 1870, France resolved to end it in a full-scale war. The conflict was quickly decided as Prussia, joined by forces of a pan-German alliance never gave up the tactical initiative. A series of victories in north-eastern France followed and another French army group was simultaneously encircled at Metz. A few weeks later, the French army contingent under Emperor Napoleon III's personal command was finally forced to capitulate in the fortress of Sedan. Napoleon was taken prisoner and a provisional government hastily proclaimed in Paris. The new government resolved to fight on and tried to reorganize the remaining armies while the Germans settled down to besiege Paris. The starving city surrendered in January 1871 and Jules Favre signed the surrender at Versailles. France was forced to pay indemnities of 5 billion francs and cede Alsace-Lorraine to Germany. This conclusion left the French national psyche deeply humiliated and further aggravated the French–German enmity. During the Siege of Paris, the German princes assembled in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles on 18 January 1871 and announced the establishment of the German Empire and proclaimed the Prussian King Wilhelm I as German Emperor. The act unified all ethnic German states with the exception of Austria in the Little German solution of a federal economic, political and administrative unit. Bismarck, was appointed to serve as Chancellor. #### A federal empire The new empire was a federal union of 25 states that varied considerably in size, demography, constitution, economy, culture, religion and socio-political development. However, even Prussia itself, which accounted for two-thirds of the territory as well as of the population, had emerged from the empire's periphery as a newcomer. It also faced colossal cultural and economic internal divisions. The Prussian provinces of Westphalia and the Rhineland for example had been under French control during the previous decades. The local people, who had benefited from the liberal, civil reforms, that were derived from the ideas of the French Revolution, had only little in common with predominantly rural communities in authoritarian and disjointed Junker estates of Pommerania. The inhabitants of the smaller territorial lands, especially in central and southern Germany greatly rejected the Prussianized concept of the nation and preferred to associate such terms with their individual home state. The Hanseatic port cities of Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck ranked among the most ferocious opponents of the *so-called contract with Prussia*. As advocates of free trade, they objected to Prussian ideas of economic integration and refused to sign the renewed Zollverein (Custom Union) treaties until 1888. The Hanseatic merchants' overseas economic success corresponded with their globalist mindset. The citizen of Hamburg, whom Bismark characterized as *extremely irritating* and the German ambassador in London as *the worst Germans we have*, were particularly appalled by Prussian militarism and its unopposed growing influence.[*unreliable source?*] The Prusso-German authorities were aware of necessary integration concepts as the results and the 52% voter turnout of the first imperial elections had clearly demonstrated. Historians increasingly argue, that the nation-state was *forged through empire*. National identity was expressed in bombastic imperial stone iconography and was to be achieved as an imperial people, with *an emperor as head of state and it was to develop imperial ambitions* – domestic, European and global. Bismarck's domestic policies as Chancellor of Germany were based on his effort to universally adopt the idea of the Protestant Prussian state and achieve the clear separation of church and state in all imperial principalities. In the Kulturkampf (lit.: culture struggle) from 1871 to 1878, he tried to minimize the influence of the Roman Catholic Church and its political arm, the Catholic Centre Party, via secularization of all education and introduction of civil marriage, but without success. The Kulturkampf antagonised many Protestants as well as Catholics and was eventually abandoned. The millions of non-German imperial subjects, like the Polish, Danish and French minorities, were left with no choice but to endure discrimination or accept the policies of Germanisation. #### A three-class system: Aristocracy, middle class, and working class The new Empire provided attractive top level career opportunities for the national nobility in the various branches of the consular and civil services and the army. As a consequence the aristocratic near total control of the civil sector guaranteed a dominant voice in the decision making in the universities and the churches. The 1914 German diplomatic corps consisted of 8 princes, 29 counts, 20 barons, 54 representants of the lower nobility and a mere 11 commoners. These commoners were indiscriminately recruited from elite industrialist and banking families. The consular corps employed numerous commoners, that however, occupied positions of little to no executive power. The Prussian tradition to reserve the highest military ranks for young aristocrats was adopted and the new constitution put all military affairs under the direct control of the Emperor and beyond control of the Reichstag. With its large corps of reserve officers across Germany, the military strengthened its role as *"The estate which upheld the nation"*, and historian Hans-Ulrich Wehler added: *"it became an almost separate, self-perpetuating caste".* Power increasingly was centralized among the 7000 aristocrats, who resided in the national capital of Berlin and neighboring Potsdam. Berlin's rapidly increasing rich middle-class copied the aristocracy and tried to marry into it. A peerage could permanently boost a rich industrial family into the upper reaches of the establishment. However, the process tended to work in the other direction as the nobility became industrialists. For example, 221 of the 243 mines in Silesia were owned by nobles or by the King of Prussia himself. The middle class in the cities grew exponentially, although it never acquired the powerful parliamentary representation and legislative rights as in France, Britain or the United States. The Association of German Women's Organizations or BDF was established in 1894 to encompass the proliferating women's organizations that had emerged since the 1860s. From the beginning the BDF was a bourgeois organization, its members working toward equality with men in such areas as education, financial opportunities, and political life. Working-class women were not welcome and were organized by the Socialists. The rise of the Socialist Workers' Party (later known as the Social Democratic Party of Germany, SPD), aimed to peacefully establish a socialist order through the transformation of the existing political and social conditions. From 1878, Bismarck tried to oppose the growing social democratic movement by outlawing the party's organisation, its assemblies and most of its newspapers. Nonetheless, the Social Democrats grew stronger and Bismarck initiated his social welfare program in 1883 in order to appease the working class. Bismarck built on a tradition of welfare programs in Prussia and Saxony that began as early as the 1840s. In the 1880s he introduced old age pensions, accident insurance, medical care, and unemployment insurance that formed the basis of the modern European welfare state. His paternalistic programs won the support of German industry because its goals were to win the support of the working classes for the Empire and reduce the outflow of immigrants to America, where wages were higher but welfare did not exist. Bismarck further won the support of both industry and skilled workers by his high tariff policies, which protected profits and wages from American competition, although they alienated the liberal intellectuals who wanted free trade. #### Kulturkampf Bismarck would not tolerate any power outside Germany—as in Rome—having a say in domestic affairs. He launched the Kulturkampf ("culture war") against the power of the pope and the Catholic Church in 1873, but only in the state of Prussia. This gained strong support from German liberals, who saw the Catholic Church as the bastion of reaction and their greatest enemy. The Catholic element, in turn, saw in the National-Liberals the worst enemy and formed the Center Party. Catholics, although nearly a third of the national population, were seldom allowed to hold major positions in the Imperial government, or the Prussian government. After 1871, there was a systematic purge of the remaining Catholics; in the powerful interior ministry, which handled all police affairs, the only Catholic was a messenger boy. Jews were likewise heavily discriminated against. Most of the Kulturkampf was fought out in Prussia, but Imperial Germany passed the Pulpit Law which made it a crime for any cleric to discuss public issues in a way that displeased the government. Nearly all Catholic bishops, clergy, and laymen rejected the legality of the new laws and defiantly faced the increasingly heavy penalties and imprisonments imposed by Bismarck's government. Historian Anthony Steinhoff reports the casualty totals: > As of 1878, only three of eight Prussian dioceses still had bishops, some 1,125 of 4,600 parishes were vacant, and nearly 1,800 priests ended up in jail or in exile ... Finally, between 1872 and 1878, numerous Catholic newspapers were confiscated, Catholic associations and assemblies were dissolved, and Catholic civil servants were dismissed merely on the pretence of having Ultramontane sympathies. > > Bismarck underestimated the resolve of the Catholic Church and did not foresee the extremes that this struggle would attain. The Catholic Church denounced the harsh new laws as anti-Catholic and mustered the support of its rank and file voters across Germany. In the following elections, the Center Party won a quarter of the seats in the Imperial Diet. The conflict ended after 1879 because Pope Pius IX died in 1878 and Bismarck broke with the Liberals to put his main emphasis on tariffs, foreign policy, and attacking socialists. Bismarck negotiated with the conciliatory new pope Leo XIII. Peace was restored, the bishops returned and the jailed clerics were released. Laws were toned down or taken back, but the laws concerning education, civil registry of marriages and religious disaffiliation remained in place. The Center Party gained strength and became an ally of Bismarck, especially when he attacked socialism. Historians have cited the campaign against the Catholic church, as well as a similar campaign against the Social Democratic Party, as leaving a lasting influence on the German consciousness, whereby national unity can be encouraged by excluding or persecuting a minority. This strategy, later referred to as "negative integration", set a tone of either being loyal to the government or an enemy of the state, which directly influenced German nationalist sentiment and the later Nazi movement. #### Foreign policies and relations Chancellor Bismarck's imperial foreign policy basically aimed at security and the prevention of a Franco-Russian alliance, in order to avoid a likely Two-front war. The League of Three Emperors was signed in 1873 by Russia, Austria, and Germany. It stated that republicanism and socialism were common enemies and that the three powers would discuss any matters concerning foreign policy. Bismarck needed good relations with Russia in order to keep France isolated. Russia fought a victorious war against the Ottoman Empire from 1877 to 1878 and attempted to establish the Principality of Bulgaria, that was strongly opposed by France and Britain in particular, as they were long concerned with the preservation of the Ottoman Empire and Russian containment at the Bosphorus Strait and the Black Sea. Germany hosted the Congress of Berlin in 1878, where a more moderate peace settlement was agreed upon. In 1879, Germany formed the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary, an agreement of mutual military assistance in the case of an attack from Russia, which was not satisfied with the agreement of the Congress of Berlin. The establishment of the Dual Alliance led Russia to take a more conciliatory stance and in 1887, the so-called Reinsurance Treaty was signed between Germany and Russia. In it, the two powers agreed on mutual military support in the case that France attacked Germany or an Austrian attack on Russia. Russia turned its attention eastward to Asia and remained largely inactive in European politics for the next 25 years. In 1882, Italy, seeking supporters for its interests in North Africa against France's colonial policy, joined the Dual Alliance, which became the Triple Alliance. In return for German and Austrian support, Italy committed itself to assisting Germany in the case of a French attack. Bismarck had always argued that the acquisition of overseas colonies was impractical and the burden of administration and maintenance would outweigh the benefits. Eventually, Bismarck gave way, and a number of colonies were established in Africa (Togo, the Cameroons, German South-West Africa, and German East Africa) and in Oceania (German New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, and the Marshall Islands). Consequently, Bismarck initiated the Berlin Conference of 1885, a formal meeting of the European colonial powers, who sought to "established international guidelines for the acquisition of African territory" (see Colonisation of Africa). Its outcome, the *General Act of the Berlin Conference*, can be seen as the formalisation of the "Scramble for Africa" and "New Imperialism". ### Wilhelminian Era (1888–1918) #### Wilhelm II Emperor William I died in 1888. His son Frederick III, open for a more liberal political course, reigned only for ninety-nine days, as he was stricken with throat cancer and died three months after his coronation. His son Wilhelm II followed him on the throne at the age of 29. Wilhelm rejected the liberal ideas of his parents and embarked on a conservative autocratic rule. He early on decided to replace the political elite and in March 1890 he forced chancellor Bismarck into retirement. Following his principle of "Personal Regiment", Wilhelm was determined to exercise maximum influence on all government affairs. #### Alliances and diplomacy The young Kaiser Wilhelm set out to apply his imperialist ideas of *Weltpolitik* (German: [ˈvɛltpoliˌtiːk], "world politics"), as he envisaged a gratuitously aggressive political course to increase the empire's influence in and control over the world. After the removal of Bismarck, foreign policies were tackled with by the Kaiser and the Federal Foreign Office under Friedrich von Holstein. Wilhelm's increasingly erratic and reckless conduct was unmistakably related to character deficits and the lack of diplomatic skills. The foreign office's rather sketchy assessment of the current situation and its recommendations for the empire's most suitable course of action were: > First a long-term coalition between France and Russia had to fall apart, secondly, Russia and Britain would never get together, and finally, Britain would eventually seek an alliance with Germany. > > Subsequently, Wilhelm refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia. Russia promptly formed a closer relationship with France in the Dual Alliance of 1894, as both countries were concerned about the novel disagreeability of Germany. Furthermore, Anglo–German relations provided, from a British point of view, no basis for any consensus as the Kaiser refused to divert from his, although somewhat peculiarly desperate and anachronistic, aggressive imperial engagement and the naval arms race in particular. Von Holstein's analysis proved to be mistaken on every point, Wilhelm, however, failed too, as he did not adopt a nuanced political dialogue. Germany was left gradually isolated and dependent on the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary, and Italy. This agreement was hampered by differences between Austria and Italy and in 1915 Italy left the alliance. In 1897, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, state secretary of the German Imperial Naval Office devised his initially rather practical, yet nonetheless ambitious plan to build a sizeable naval force. Although basically posing only an indirect threat as a Fleet in being, Tirpitz theorized, that its mere existence would force Great Britain, dependent on unrestricted movement on the seas, to agree to diplomatic compromises. Tirpitz started the program of warship construction in 1898 and enjoyed the full support of Kaiser Wilhelm. Wilhelm entertained less rational ideas on the fleet, that circled around his romantic childhood dream to have a "fleet of [his] own some day" and his obsessive adherence to direct his policies along the line of Alfred Thayer Mahan's work The Influence of Sea Power upon History. In exchange for the eastern African island of Zanzibar, Germany had bargained the island of Heligoland in the German Bight with Britain in 1890, and converted the island into a naval base and installed immense coastal defense batteries. Britain considered the imperial German endeavours to be a dangerous infringement on the century-old delicate balance of global affairs and trade on the seas under British control. The British, however, resolved to keep up the naval arms race and introduced the highly advanced new *Dreadnought* battleship concept in 1907. Germany quickly adopted the concept and by 1910 the arms race again escalated. In the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905, Germany nearly clashed with Britain and France when the latter attempted to establish a protectorate over Morocco. Kaiser Wilhelm II was upset at having not been informed about French intentions, and declared their support for Moroccan independence. William II made a highly provocative speech regarding this. The following year, a conference was held in which all of the European powers except Austria-Hungary (by now little more than a German satellite) sided with France. A compromise was brokered by the United States where the French relinquished some, but not all, control over Morocco. The Second Moroccan Crisis of 1911 saw another dispute over Morocco erupt when France tried to suppress a revolt there. Germany, still smarting from the previous quarrel, agreed to a settlement whereby the French ceded some territory in central Africa in exchange for Germany's renouncing any right to intervene in Moroccan affairs. This confirmed French control over Morocco, which became a full protectorate of that country in 1912. #### Economy By 1890, the economy continued to industrialize and grow on an even higher rate than during the previous two decades and increased dramatically in the years leading up to World War I. Growth rates for the individual branches and sectors often varied considerably, and periodical figures provided by the *Kaiserliches Statistisches Amt* ("Imperial Statistical Bureau) are often disputed or just assessments. Classification and naming of internationally traded commodities and exported goods was still in progress and the structure of production and export had changed during four decades. Published documents provide numbers such as: The proportion of goods manufactured by the modern industry was approximately 25% in 1900, while the proportion of consumer related products in manufactured exports stood at 40%. Reasonably exact are the figures for the entire industrial production between 1870 and 1914, which increased about 500%. Historian J. A. Perkins argued that more important than Bismarck's new tariff on imported grain was the introduction of the sugar beet as a main crop. Farmers quickly abandoned traditional, inefficient practices in favor of modern methods, including the use of artificial fertilizers and mechanical tools. Intensive methodical farming of sugar and other root crops made Germany the most efficient agricultural producer in Europe by 1914. Even so, farms were usually small in size and women did much of the field work. An unintended consequence was the increased dependence on migratory, especially foreign, labor. The basics of the modern chemical research laboratory layout and the introduction of essential equipment and instruments such as Bunsen burners, the Petri dish, the Erlenmeyer flask, task-oriented working principles and team research originated in 19th-century Germany and France. The organisation of knowledge acquisition was further refined by laboratory integration in research institutes of the universities and the industries. Germany acquired the leading role in the world's Chemical industry by the late 19th century through strictly organized methodology. In 1913, the German Chemical industry produced almost 90 percent of the global supply of dyestuffs and sold about 80 percent of its production abroad. Germany became Europe's leading steel-producing nation in the 1890s, thanks in large part to the protection from American and British competition afforded by tariffs and cartels. The leading firm was "Friedrich Krupp AG Hoesch-Krupp", run by the Krupp family. The merger of several major firms into the *Vereinigte Stahlwerke* (United Steel Works) in 1926 was modeled on the U.S. Steel corporation in the United States. The new company emphasized rationalization of management structures and modernization of the technology; it employed a multi-divisional structure and used return on investment as its measure of success. By 1913, American and German exports dominated the world steel market, as Britain slipped to third place. In machinery, iron and steel, and other industries, German firms avoided cut-throat competition and instead relied on trade associations. Germany was a world leader because of its prevailing "corporatist mentality", its strong bureaucratic tradition, and the encouragement of the government. These associations regulate competition and allowed small firms to function in the shadow of much larger companies. #### Colonies By the 1890s, German colonial expansion in Asia and the Pacific (Kiauchau in China, the Marianas, the Caroline Islands, Samoa) led to frictions with Britain, Russia, Japan and the United States. The construction of the Baghdad Railway, financed by German banks, was designed to eventually connect Germany with the Turkish Empire and the Persian Gulf, but it also collided with British and Russian geopolitical interests. The largest colonial enterprises were in Africa. The harsh treatment of the Nama and Herero in what is now Namibia in Africa in 1906–1907 led to charges of genocide against the Germans. Historians are examining the links and precedents between the Herero and Namaqua Genocide and the Holocaust of the 1940s. Other claimed territories of the German Colonial Empire are: Bear Island (occupied in 1899), Togo-Hinterlands, German Somali Coast, Katanga Territories, Pondoland (failed attempt by Emil Nagel [de]), Nyassaland (Mozambique), Southwestern Madagascar, Santa Lucia Bay (South Africa) (failed attempt in 1884), and the Farasan Islands. ### World War I #### Causes Ethnic demands for nation states upset the balance between the empires that dominated Europe, leading to World War I, which started in August 1914. Germany stood behind its ally Austria in a confrontation with Serbia, but Serbia was under the protection of Russia, which was allied to France. Germany was the leader of the Central Powers, which included Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and later Bulgaria; arrayed against them were the Allies, consisting chiefly of Russia, France, Britain, and in 1915 Italy. In explaining why neutral Britain went to war with Germany, author Paul M. Kennedy recognized it was critical for war that Germany become economically more powerful than Britain, but he downplays the disputes over economic trade imperialism, the Baghdad Railway, confrontations in Central and Eastern Europe, high-charged political rhetoric and domestic pressure-groups. Germany's reliance time and again on sheer power, while Britain increasingly appealed to moral sensibilities, played a role, especially in seeing the invasion of Belgium as a necessary military tactic or a profound moral crime. The German invasion of Belgium was not important because the British decision had already been made and the British were more concerned with the fate of France. Kennedy argues that by far the main reason was London's fear that a repeat of 1870 – when Prussia and the German states smashed France – would mean that Germany, with a powerful army and navy, would control the English Channel and northwest France. British policy makers insisted that would be a catastrophe for British security. #### Western Front In the west, Germany sought a quick victory by encircling Paris using the Schlieffen Plan. But it failed due to Belgian resistance, Berlin's diversion of troops, and very stiff French resistance on the Marne, north of Paris. The Western Front became an extremely bloody battleground of trench warfare. The stalemate lasted from 1914 until early 1918, with ferocious battles that moved forces a few hundred yards at best along a line that stretched from the North Sea to the Swiss border. The British imposed a tight naval blockade in the North Sea which lasted until 1919, sharply reducing Germany's overseas access to raw materials and foodstuffs. Food scarcity became a serious problem by 1917. The United States joined with the Allies in April 1917. The entry of the United States into the war – following Germany's declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare – marked a decisive turning-point against Germany. Total casualties on the Western Front were 3,528,610 killed and 7,745,920 wounded. #### Eastern Front More wide open was the fighting on the Eastern Front. In the east, there were decisive victories against the Russian army, the trapping and defeat of large parts of the Russian contingent at the Battle of Tannenberg, followed by huge Austrian and German successes. The breakdown of Russian forces – exacerbated by internal turmoil caused by the 1917 Russian Revolution – led to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the Bolsheviks were forced to sign on 3 March 1918 as Russia withdrew from the war. It gave Germany control of Eastern Europe. Spencer Tucker says, "The German General Staff had formulated extraordinarily harsh terms that shocked even the German negotiator." When Germany later complained that the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 was too harsh on them, the Allies responded that it was more benign than Brest-Litovsk. #### 1918 By defeating Russia in 1917, Germany was able to bring hundreds of thousands of combat troops from the east to the Western Front, giving it a numerical advantage over the Allies. By retraining the soldiers in new storm-trooper tactics, the Germans expected to unfreeze the Battlefield and win a decisive victory before the American army arrived in strength. However, the spring offensives all failed, as the Allies fell back and regrouped, and the Germans lacked the reserves necessary to consolidate their gains. In the summer, with the Americans arriving at 10,000 a day, and the German reserves exhausted, it was only a matter of time before multiple Allied offenses destroyed the German army. #### Homefront Although war was not expected in 1914, Germany rapidly mobilized its civilian economy for the war effort, the economy was handicapped by the British blockade that cut off food supplies. Steadily conditions deteriorated rapidly on the home front, with severe food shortages reported in all urban areas. Causes involved the transfer of many farmers and food workers into the military, an overburdened railroad system, shortages of coal, and especially the British blockade that cut off imports from abroad. The winter of 1916–1917 was known as the "turnip winter", because that vegetable, usually fed to livestock, was used by people as a substitute for potatoes and meat, which were increasingly scarce. Thousands of soup kitchens were opened to feed the hungry people, who grumbled that the farmers were keeping the food for themselves. Even the army had to cut the rations for soldiers. Morale of both civilians and soldiers continued to sink. According to historian William H. MacNeil: By 1917, after three years of war, the various groups and bureaucratic hierarchies which had been operating more or less independently of one another in peacetime (and not infrequently had worked at cross purposes) were subordinated to one (and perhaps the most effective) of their number: the General Staff. Military officers controlled civilian government officials, the staffs of banks, cartels, firms, and factories, engineers and scientists, workingmen, farmers-indeed almost every element in German society; and all efforts were directed in theory and in large degree also in practice to forwarding the war effort. 1918 was the year of the deadly 1918 Spanish Flu pandemic which struck hard at a population weakened by years of malnutrition. ### Revolution 1918 The end of October 1918, in Wilhelmshaven, in northern Germany, saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918–1919. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost, initiating the uprising. On 3 November, the revolt spread to other cities and states of the country, in many of which workers' and soldiers' councils were established. Meanwhile, Hindenburg and the senior commanders had lost confidence in the Kaiser and his government. The Kaiser and all German ruling princes abdicated. On 9 November 1918, the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann proclaimed a Republic. On 11 November, the Compiègne armistice was signed, ending the war. The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919. Germany was to cede Alsace-Lorraine to France. Eupen-Malmédy would temporarily be ceded to Belgium, with a plebiscite to be held to allow the people the choice of the territory either remaining with Belgium or being returned to German control. Following a plebiscite, the territory was allotted to Belgium on 20 September 1920. The future of North Schleswig was to be decided by plebiscite. In the Schleswig Plebiscites, the Danish-speaking population in the north voted for Denmark and the southern, German speaking populace, part voted for Germany. Schleswig was thus partitioned. Holstein remained German without a referendum. Memel was ceded to the Allied and Associated powers, to decide the future of the area. On 9 January 1923, Lithuanian forces invaded the territory. Following negotiations, on 8 May 1924, the League of Nations ratified the annexation on the grounds that Lithuania accepted the Memel Statute, a power-sharing arrangement to protect non-Lithuanians in the territory and its autonomous status. Until 1929, German-Lithuanian co-operation increased and this power sharing arrangement worked. Poland was restored and most of the provinces of Posen and West Prussia, and some areas of Upper Silesia were reincorporated into the reformed country after plebiscites and independence uprisings. All German colonies were to be handed over to League of Nations, who then assigned them as Mandates to Australia, France, Japan, New Zealand, Portugal, and the United Kingdom. The new owners were required to act as a disinterested trustee over the region, promoting the welfare of its inhabitants in a variety of ways until they were able to govern themselves. The left and right banks of the Rhine were to be permanently demilitarised. The industrially important Saarland was to be governed by the League of Nations for 15 years and its coalfields administered by France. At the end of that time a plebiscite was to determine the Saar's future status. To ensure execution of the treaty's terms, Allied troops would occupy the left (German) bank of the Rhine for a period of 5–15 years. The German army was to be limited to 100,000 officers and men; the general staff was to be dissolved; vast quantities of war material were to be handed over and the manufacture of munitions rigidly curtailed. The navy was to be similarly reduced, and no military aircraft were allowed. Germany was also required to pay reparations for all civilian damage caused during the war. Weimar Republic, 1919–1933 -------------------------- ### Overview The humiliating peace terms in the Treaty of Versailles provoked bitter indignation throughout Germany, and seriously weakened the new democratic regime. In December 1918, the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) was founded, and in 1919 it tried and failed to overthrow the new republic. Adolf Hitler in 1919 took control of the new National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), which failed in a coup in Munich in 1923. Both parties, as well as parties supporting the republic, built militant auxiliaries that engaged in increasingly violent street battles. Electoral support for both parties increased after 1929 as the Great Depression hit the economy hard, producing many unemployed men who became available for the paramilitary units. The Nazis (NSDAP), with a mostly rural and lower middle class base, came to power by appearing to work within the Weimar constitution and ruled Germany from 1933 to 1945. ### The early years On 11 August 1919, the Weimar constitution came into effect, with Friedrich Ebert as first President. On 30 December 1918, the Communist Party of Germany was founded by the Spartacus League, who had split from the Social Democratic Party during the war. It was headed by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, and rejected the parliamentary system. In 1920, about 300,000 members from the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany joined the party, transforming it into a mass organization. The Communist Party had a following of about 10% of the electorate. In the first months of 1920, the Reichswehr was to be reduced to 100,000 men, in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles. This included the dissolution of many Freikorps – units made up of volunteers. In an attempt at a coup d'état in March 1920, the Kapp Putsch, extreme right-wing politician Wolfgang Kapp let Freikorps soldiers march on Berlin and proclaimed himself Chancellor of the Reich. After four days the coup d'état collapsed, due to popular opposition and lack of support by the civil servants and the officers. Other cities were shaken by strikes and rebellions, which were bloodily suppressed. Germany was the first state to establish diplomatic relations with the new Soviet Union. Under the Treaty of Rapallo, Germany accorded the Soviet Union *de jure* recognition, and the two signatories mutually cancelled all pre-war debts and renounced war claims. For the next twenty years Russia and Germany would work together helping to re-establish a military build up in Germany, and assist Russia in creating an industrial power under the weight of centralised planning of Lenin's communism. When Germany defaulted on its reparation payments, French and Belgian troops occupied the heavily industrialised Ruhr district (January 1923). The German government encouraged the population of the Ruhr to engage in passive resistance: shops would not sell goods to the foreign soldiers, coal-miners would not dig for the foreign troops, trams in which members of the occupation army had taken a seat would be left abandoned in the middle of the street. The passive resistance proved effective, insofar as the occupation became a loss-making deal for the French government. But the Ruhr fight also helped fuel hyperinflation, and many who lost all their fortune would become bitter enemies of the Weimar Republic and voters of the anti-democratic right. See 1920s German inflation. In September 1923, the deteriorating economic conditions led Chancellor Gustav Stresemann to call an end to the passive resistance in the Ruhr. In November, his government introduced a new currency, the Rentenmark (later: Reichsmark), together with other measures to stop the hyperinflation. In the following six years the economic situation improved. In 1928, Germany's industrial production even regained the pre-war levels of 1913. The national elections of 1924 led to a swing to the right. Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg was elected President in 1925. In October 1925, the Treaty of Locarno was signed by Germany, France, Belgium, Britain and Italy; it recognised Germany's borders with France and Belgium. Moreover, Britain, Italy and Belgium undertook to assist France in the case that German troops marched into the demilitarised Rheinland. Locarno paved the way for Germany's admission to the League of Nations in 1926. ### Reparations The actual amount of reparations that Germany was obliged to pay out was not the 132 billion marks decided in the London Schedule of 1921 but rather the 50 billion marks stipulated in the A and B Bonds. Historian Sally Marks says the "C bonds" were entirely chimerical—a device to fool the public into thinking Germany would pay much more. The actual total payout from 1920 to 1931 (when payments were suspended indefinitely) was 20 billion German gold marks, worth about US$5 billion or £1 billion stg. 12.5 billion was cash that came mostly from loans from New York bankers. The rest was goods like coal and chemicals, or from assets like railway equipment. The reparations bill was fixed in 1921 on the basis of a German capacity to pay, not on the basis of Allied claims. The highly publicized rhetoric of 1919 about paying for all the damages and all the veterans' benefits was irrelevant for the total, but it did determine how the recipients spent their share. Germany owed reparations chiefly to France, Britain, Italy and Belgium; the US received $100 million. ### Economic collapse and political problems, 1929–1933 The Wall Street Crash of 1929 marked the beginning of the worldwide Great Depression, which hit Germany as hard as any nation. In July 1931, the *Darmstätter und Nationalbank* – one of the biggest German banks – failed. In early 1932, the number of unemployed had soared to more than 6,000,000. On top of the collapsing economy came a political crisis: the proportional representation that the political system operated on meant that for every 60,000 votes a party received, it earned a seat in the *Reichstag*. This resulted in a disparate and myriad collection of minor parties that struggled to cooperate. The political parties represented in the *Reichstag* were unable to build a governing majority in the face of escalating extremism from both the far right (the Nazis, NSDAP) and the far left (Communist Party of Germany). In March 1930, President Hindenburg appointed Heinrich Brüning Chancellor, invoking article 48 of Weimar's constitution, which allowed him to override the Parliament. To push through his package of austerity measures against a majority of Social Democrats, Communists and the NSDAP (Nazis), Brüning made use of emergency decrees and dissolved Parliament. In March and April 1932, Hindenburg was re-elected in the German presidential election of 1932. The Nazi Party was the largest party in the national elections of 1932. On 31 July 1932 it received 37.3% of the votes, and in the election on 6 November 1932 it received less, but still the largest share, 33.1%, making it the biggest party in the *Reichstag*. The Communist KPD came third, with 15%. Together, the anti-democratic parties of the far right were now able to hold a considerable share of seats in Parliament, but they were at sword's point with the political left, fighting it out in the streets. The Nazis were particularly successful among Protestants, among unemployed young voters, among the lower middle class in the cities and among the rural population. It was weakest in Catholic areas and in large cities. On 30 January 1933, pressured by former Chancellor Franz von Papen and other conservatives, President Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor. ### Science and culture in 19th and 20th century The Weimar years saw a flowering of German science and high culture, before the Nazi regime resulted in a decline in the scientific and cultural life in Germany and forced many renowned scientists and writers to flee. German recipients dominated the Nobel prizes in science. Germany dominated the world of physics before 1933, led by Hermann von Helmholtz, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Albert Einstein, Otto Hahn, Max Planck and Werner Heisenberg. Chemistry likewise was dominated by German professors and researchers at the great chemical companies such as BASF and Bayer and persons like Justus von Liebig, Fritz Haber and Emil Fischer. Theoretical mathematicians Georg Cantor in the 19th century and David Hilbert in the 20th century. Karl Benz, the inventor of the automobile, and Rudolf Diesel were pivotal figures of engineering, and Wernher von Braun, rocket engineer. Ferdinand Cohn, Robert Koch and Rudolph Virchow were three key figures in microbiology. Among the most important German writers were Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse and Bertolt Brecht. The reactionary historian Oswald Spengler wrote *The Decline of the West* (1918–1923) on the inevitable decay of Western Civilization, and influenced intellectuals in Germany such as Martin Heidegger, Max Scheler, and the Frankfurt School, as well as intellectuals around the world. After 1933, Nazi proponents of "Aryan physics", led by the Nobel Prize-winners Johannes Stark and Philipp Lenard, attacked Einstein's theory of relativity as a degenerate example of Jewish materialism in the realm of science. Many scientists and humanists emigrated; Einstein moved permanently to the U.S. but some of the others returned after 1945. 19th and 20th century German authors, scientists and philosophers* Hermann von HelmholtzHermann von Helmholtz * Rudolf VirchowRudolf Virchow * Robert KochRobert Koch * Karl BenzKarl Benz * Georg CantorGeorg Cantor * Wilhelm Conrad RöntgenWilhelm Conrad Röntgen * Rudolf DieselRudolf Diesel * Max PlanckMax Planck * Fritz HaberFritz Haber * Thomas MannThomas Mann * Otto HahnOtto Hahn * Martin HeideggerMartin Heidegger * Bertolt BrechtBertolt Brecht * Werner HeisenbergWerner Heisenberg Nazi Germany, 1933–1945 ----------------------- The Nazi regime suppressing labor unions and strikes, leading to prosperity which gave the Nazi Party popularity, with only minor, isolated and subsequently unsuccessful cases of resistance among the German population over their rule. The Gestapo (secret police) destroyed the political opposition and persecuted the Jews, trying to force them into exile. The Party took control of the courts, local government, and all civic organizations except the Christian churches. All expressions of public opinion were controlled the propaganda ministry, which used film, mass rallies, and Hitler's hypnotic speaking. The Nazi state idolized Hitler as its Führer (leader), putting all powers in his hands. Nazi propaganda centered on Hitler and created the "Hitler Myth"—that Hitler was all-wise and that any mistakes or failures by others would be corrected when brought to his attention. In fact Hitler had a narrow range of interests and decision making was diffused among overlapping, feuding power centers; on some issues he was passive, simply assenting to pressures from whoever had his ear. All top officials reported to Hitler and followed his basic policies, but they had considerable autonomy on a daily basis. ### Establishment of the Nazi regime To secure a *Reichstag* majority for his party, Hitler called for new elections. After the 27 February 1933 Reichstag fire, Hitler swiftly blamed an alleged Communist uprising, and convinced President Hindenburg to approve the Reichstag Fire Decree, rescinding civil liberties. Four thousand communists were arrested and Communist agitation was banned. Communists and Socialists were brought into hastily prepared Nazi concentration camps, where they were at the mercy of the Gestapo, the newly established secret police force. Communist *Reichstag* deputies were taken into "protective custody". Despite the terror and unprecedented propaganda, the last free General Elections of 5 March 1933, while resulting in 43.9% failed to give the Nazis their desired majority. Together with the German National People's Party (DNVP), however, he was able to form a slim majority government. On 23 March 1933, the Enabling Act marked the beginning of Nazi Germany, allowing Hitler and his cabinet to enact laws on their own without the President or the Reichstag. The Enabling Act formed the basis for the dictatorship and the dissolution of the Länder. Trade unions and all political parties other than the Nazi Party were suppressed. A centralised totalitarian state was established, no longer based on the liberal Weimar constitution. Germany withdrew from the League of Nations shortly thereafter. The coalition parliament was rigged by defining the absence of arrested and murdered deputies as voluntary and therefore cause for their exclusion as wilful absentees. The Centre Party was voluntarily dissolved in a *quid pro quo* with the Pope under the *anti-communist* Pope Pius XI for the *Reichskonkordat*; and by these manoeuvres Hitler achieved movement of these Catholic voters into the Nazi Party, and a long-awaited international diplomatic acceptance of his regime. The Nazis gained a larger share of their vote in Protestant areas than in Catholic areas. The Communist Party was proscribed in April 1933. Hitler used the SS and Gestapo to purge the entire SA leadership—along with a number of Hitler's political adversaries in the Night of the Long Knives from 30 June to 2 July 1934. As a reward, the SS became an independent organisation under the command of the *Reichsführer-SS* Heinrich Himmler. Upon Hindenburg's death on 2 August 1934, Hitler's cabinet passed a law proclaiming the presidency to be vacant and transferred the role and powers of the head of state to Hitler. ### Antisemitism and the Holocaust The Nazi regime was particularly hostile towards Jews, who became the target of unending antisemitic propaganda attacks. The Nazis attempted to convince the German people to view and treat Jews as "subhumans" and immediately after the 1933 federal elections the Nazis imposed a nationwide boycott of Jewish businesses. In March 1933 the first Nazi concentration camp was established at Dachau and from 1933 to 1935 the Nazi regime consolidated their power. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service forced all Jewish civil servants to retire from the legal profession and the civil service. The Nuremberg Laws banned sexual relations between Jews and Germans and only those of German or related blood were eligible to be considered citizens; the remainder were classed as state subjects, without citizenship rights. This stripped Jews, Romani and others of their legal rights. Jews continued to suffer persecution under the Nazi regime, exemplified by the Kristallnacht pogrom of 1938, and about half of Germany's 500,000 Jews fled the country before 1939, after which escape became almost impossible. In 1941, the Nazi leadership decided to implement a plan that they called the "Final Solution" which came to be known as the Holocaust. Under the plan, Jews and other "lesser races" along with political opponents from Germany as well as occupied countries were systematically murdered at murder sites, and starting in 1942, at extermination camps. Between 1941 and 1945 Jews, Gypsies, Slavs, communists, homosexuals, the mentally and physically disabled and members of other groups were targeted and methodically murdered – the origin of the word "genocide". In total approximately 17 million people were killed during the Holocaust. ### Military In 1935, Hitler officially re-established the Luftwaffe (air force) and reintroduced universal military service, in breach of the Treaty of Versailles; Britain, France and Italy formally protested. Hitler had the officers swear their personal allegiance to him. In 1936, German troops marched into the demilitarised Rhineland. As the territory was part of Germany, the British and French governments did not feel that attempting to enforce the treaty was worth the risk of war. The move strengthened Hitler's standing in Germany. His reputation swelled further with the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, and proved another great propaganda success for the regime as orchestrated by master propagandist Joseph Goebbels. ### Foreign policy Hitler's diplomatic strategy in the 1930s was to make seemingly reasonable demands, threatening war if they were not met. When opponents tried to appease him, he accepted the gains that were offered, then went to the next target. That aggressive strategy worked as Germany pulled out of the League of Nations, rejected the Versailles Treaty and began to re-arm, won back the Saar, remilitarized the Rhineland, formed an alliance with Mussolini's Italy, sent massive military aid to Franco in the Spanish Civil War, annexed Austria, took over Czechoslovakia after the British and French *appeasement* of the Munich Agreement, formed a peace pact with Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union, and finally invaded Poland. Britain and France declared war on Germany and World War II in Europe began. Having established a "Rome-Berlin axis" with Benito Mussolini, and signing the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan – which was joined by Italy a year later in 1937 – Hitler felt able to take the offensive in foreign policy. On 12 March 1938, German troops marched into Austria, where an attempted Nazi coup had been unsuccessful in 1934. When Austrian-born Hitler entered Vienna, he was greeted by loud cheers and Austrians voted in favour of the annexation of their country. After Austria, Hitler turned to Czechoslovakia, where the Sudeten German minority was demanding equal rights and self-government. At the Munich Conference of September 1938, Hitler, Mussolini, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier agreed upon the cession of Sudeten territory to the German Reich by Czechoslovakia. Hitler thereupon declared that all of German Reich's territorial claims had been fulfilled. However, hardly six months after the Munich Agreement Hitler used the smoldering quarrel between Slovaks and Czechs as a pretext for taking over the rest of Czechoslovakia. He then secured the return of Memel from Lithuania to Germany. Chamberlain was forced to acknowledge that his policy of appeasement towards Hitler had failed. ### World War II At first Germany was successful in its military operations. In less than three months (April – June 1940), Germany conquered Denmark, Norway, the Low Countries, and France. The unexpectedly swift defeat of France resulted in an upswing in Hitler's popularity and an upsurge in war fever. Hitler made peace overtures to the new British leader Winston Churchill in July 1940, but Churchill remained dogged in his defiance with major help from U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Hitler's bombing campaign against Britain (September 1940 – May 1941) failed. Some 43,000 British civilians were killed and 139,000 wounded in the Blitz; much of London was destroyed. Germany's armed forces invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 swept forward until they reached the gates of Moscow. The Einsatzgruppen (Nazi mobile death squads) executed all Soviet Jews that it located, while the Germans went to Jewish households and forced the families into concentration camps for labor or to extermination camps for death. The tide began to turn in December 1941, when the invasion of the Soviet Union hit determined resistance in the Battle of Moscow and Hitler declared war on the United States in the wake of the Japanese Pearl Harbor attack. After surrender in North Africa and losing the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942–1943, the Germans were forced into the defensive. By late 1944, the United States, Canada, France, and Great Britain were closing in on Germany in the West, while the Soviets were victoriously advancing in the East. In 1944–1945, Soviet forces completely or partially liberated Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Denmark, and Norway. Nazi Germany collapsed as Berlin was taken by the Soviet Union's Red Army in a fight to the death on the city streets. 2,000,000 Soviet troops took part in the assault, and they faced 750,000 German troops. 78,000–305,000 Soviets were killed, while 325,000 German civilians and soldiers were killed. Hitler committed suicide on 30 April 1945. The final German Instrument of Surrender was signed on 8 May 1945, marking the end of Nazi Germany. By September 1945, Nazi Germany and its Axis partners (mainly Italy and Japan) had all been defeated, chiefly by the forces of the Soviet Union, the United States, and Great Britain. Much of Europe lay in ruins, over 60 million people worldwide had been killed (most of them civilians), including approximately 6 million Jews and 11 million non-Jews in what became known as the Holocaust. World War II destroyed Germany's political and economic infrastructure, caused its partition, considerable loss of territory (especially in the East), and historical legacy of guilt and shame. Germany during the Cold War, 1945–1990 -------------------------------------- As a consequence of the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945 and the onset of the Cold War in 1947, the country's territory was shrunk and split between the two global blocs in the East and West, a period known as the division of Germany. Millions of refugees from Central and Eastern Europe moved west, most of them to West Germany. Two countries emerged: West Germany was a parliamentary democracy, a NATO member, a founding member of what since became the European Union as one of the world's largest economies and under allied military control until 1955, while East Germany was a totalitarian Communist dictatorship controlled by the Soviet Union as a satellite of Moscow. With the collapse of Communism in Europe in 1989, reunion on West Germany's terms followed. No one doubted Germany's economic and engineering prowess; the question was how long bitter memories of the war would cause Europeans to distrust Germany, and whether Germany could demonstrate it had rejected totalitarianism and militarism and embraced democracy and human rights. ### Expulsion At the Potsdam Conference, Germany was divided into four military occupation zones by the Allies and did not regain independence until 1949. The provinces east of the Oder and Neisse rivers (the Oder-Neisse line) were transferred to Poland and Soviet Russia (Kaliningrad oblast) while Saarland separated from Germany to become a French protectorate on 17 December 1947 (joined West Germany on 1 January 1957), pending a final peace conference with Germany, which eventually never took place. Most of the remaining German population was expelled. Around 6.7 million Germans living in "west-shifted" Poland, mostly within previously German lands, and the 3 million in German-settled regions of Czechoslovakia were deported west. ### Post-war chaos The total of German war dead was 8% to 10% out of a prewar population of 69,000,000, or between 5.5 million and 7 million people. This included 4.5 million in the military, and between 1 and 2 million civilians. There was chaos as 11 million foreign workers and POWs left, while soldiers returned home and more than 14 million displaced German-speaking refugees from both the eastern provinces and East-Central and Eastern Europe were expelled from their native land and came to the western German lands, often foreign to them. During the Cold War, the West German government estimated a death toll of 2.2 million civilians due to the flight and expulsion of Germans and through forced labour in the Soviet Union. This figure remained unchallenged until the 1990s, when some historians put the death toll at 500,000–600,000 confirmed deaths. In 2006, the German government reaffirmed its position that 2.0–2.5 million deaths occurred. Denazification removed, imprisoned, or executed most top officials of the old regime, but most middle and lower ranks of civilian officialdom were not seriously affected. In accordance with the Allied agreement made at the Yalta Conference, millions of POWs were used as forced labor by the Soviet Union and other European countries. In the East, the Soviets crushed dissent and imposed another police state, often employing ex-Nazis in the dreaded Stasi. The Soviets extracted about 23% of the East German GNP for reparations, while in the West reparations were a minor factor. In 1945–1946 housing and food conditions were bad, as the disruption of transport, markets, and finances slowed a return to normal. In the West, bombing had destroyed the fourth of the housing stock, and over 10 million refugees from the east had crowded in, most living in camps. Food production in 1946–1948 was only two-thirds of the prewar level, while grain and meat shipments – which usually supplied 25% of the food – no longer arrived from the East. Furthermore, the end of the war brought the end of large shipments of food seized from occupied nations that had sustained Germany during the war. Coal production was down 60%, which had cascading negative effects on railroads, heavy industry, and heating. Industrial production fell more than half and reached prewar levels only at the end of 1949. Allied economic policy originally was one of industrial disarmament plus building the agricultural sector. In the western sectors, most of the industrial plants had minimal bomb damage and the Allies dismantled 5% of the industrial plants for reparations. However, deindustrialization became impractical and the U.S. instead called for a strong industrial base in Germany so it could stimulate European economic recovery. The U.S. shipped food in 1945–1947 and made a $600 million loan in 1947 to rebuild German industry. By May 1946 the removal of machinery had ended, thanks to lobbying by the U.S. Army. The Truman administration finally realised that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base on which it had previously been dependent. Washington decided that an "orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany". In 1945, the occupying powers took over all newspapers in Germany and purged them of Nazi influence. The American occupation headquarters, the Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS) began its own newspaper based in Munich, *Die Neue Zeitung.* It was edited by German and Jewish émigrés who fled to the United States before the war. Its mission was to encourage democracy by exposing Germans to how American culture operated. The paper was filled with details on American sports, politics, business, Hollywood, and fashions, as well as international affairs. ### East Germany On 7 October 1949, the Soviet zone became the "Deutsche Demokratische Republik" – "DDR" ("German Democratic Republic" – "GDR", simply often "East Germany"), under control of the Socialist Unity Party. Neither country had a significant army until the 1950s, but East Germany built the Stasi into a powerful secret police that infiltrated every aspect of its society. East Germany was an Eastern bloc state under political and military control of the Soviet Union through her occupation forces and the Warsaw Treaty. Political power was solely executed by leading members (*Politburo*) of the communist-controlled Socialist Unity Party (SED). A Soviet-style command economy was set up; later the GDR became the most advanced Comecon state. While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social programs and the alleged constant threat of a West German invasion, many of her citizens looked to the West for political freedoms and economic prosperity. Walter Ulbricht was the party boss from 1950 to 1971. In 1933, Ulbricht had fled to Moscow, where he served as a Comintern agent loyal to Stalin. As World War II was ending, Stalin assigned him the job of designing the postwar German system that would centralize all power in the Communist Party. Ulbricht became deputy prime minister in 1949 and secretary (chief executive) of the Socialist Unity (Communist) party in 1950. Some 2.6 million people had fled East Germany by 1961 when he built the Berlin Wall to stop them – shooting those who attempted it. What the GDR called the "Anti-Fascist Protective Wall" was a major embarrassment for the program during the Cold War, but it did stabilize East Germany and postpone its collapse. Ulbricht lost power in 1971, but was kept on as a nominal head of state. He was replaced because he failed to solve growing national crises, such as the worsening economy in 1969–1970, the fear of another popular uprising as had occurred in 1953, and the disgruntlement between Moscow and Berlin caused by Ulbricht's détente policies toward the West. The transition to Erich Honecker (General Secretary from 1971 to 1989) led to a change in the direction of national policy and efforts by the Politburo to pay closer attention to the grievances of the proletariat. Honecker's plans were not successful, however, with the dissent growing among East Germany's population. In 1989, the socialist regime collapsed after 40 years, despite its omnipresent secret police, the Stasi. The main reasons for its collapse included severe economic problems and growing emigration towards the West. East Germany's culture was shaped by Communism and particularly Stalinism. It was characterized by East German psychoanalyst Hans-Joachim Maaz in 1990 as having produced a "Congested Feeling" among Germans in the East as a result of Communist policies criminalizing personal expression that deviates from government approved ideals, and through the enforcement of Communist principals by physical force and intellectual repression by government agencies, particularly the Stasi. Critics of the East German state have claimed that the state's commitment to communism was a hollow and cynical tool of a ruling elite. This argument has been challenged by some scholars who claim that the Party was committed to the advance of scientific knowledge, economic development, and social progress. However, the vast majority regarded the state's Communist ideals to be nothing more than a deceptive method for government control. According to German historian Jürgen Kocka (2010): *Conceptualizing the GDR as a dictatorship has become widely accepted, while the meaning of the concept dictatorship varies. Massive evidence has been collected that proves the repressive, undemocratic, illiberal, nonpluralistic character of the GDR regime and its ruling party.* ### West Germany (Bonn Republic) On 23 May 1949, the three western occupation zones (American, British, and French) were combined into the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, West Germany). The government was formed under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and his conservative CDU/CSU coalition. The CDU/CSU was in power during most of the period since 1949. The capital was Bonn until it was moved to Berlin in 1990. In 1990, FRG absorbed East Germany and gained full sovereignty over Berlin. At all points West Germany was much larger and richer than East Germany, which became a dictatorship under the control of the Communist Party and was closely monitored by Moscow. Germany, especially Berlin, was a cockpit of the Cold War, with NATO and the Warsaw Pact assembling major military forces in west and east. However, there was never any combat. #### Economic miracle West Germany enjoyed prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s (*Wirtschaftswunder* or "Economic Miracle"). Industrial production doubled from 1950 to 1957, and gross national product grew at a rate of 9 or 10% per year, providing the engine for economic growth of all of Western Europe. Labor unions supported the new policies with postponed wage increases, minimized strikes, support for technological modernization, and a policy of co-determination (*Mitbestimmung*), which involved a satisfactory grievance resolution system as well as requiring representation of workers on the boards of large corporations. The recovery was accelerated by the currency reform of June 1948, U.S. gifts of $1.4 billion as part of the Marshall Plan, the breaking down of old trade barriers and traditional practices, and the opening of the global market. West Germany gained legitimacy and respect, as it shed the horrible reputation Germany had gained under the Nazis. West Germany played a central role in the creation of European cooperation; it joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1958. #### 1948 currency reform The most dramatic and successful policy event was the currency reform of 1948. Since the 1930s, prices and wages had been controlled, but money had been plentiful. That meant that people had accumulated large paper assets, and that official prices and wages did not reflect reality, as the black market dominated the economy and more than half of all transactions were taking place unofficially. On 21 June 1948, the Western Allies withdrew the old currency and replaced it with the new Deutsche Mark at the rate of 1 new per 10 old. This wiped out 90% of government and private debt, as well as private savings. Prices were decontrolled, and labor unions agreed to accept a 15% wage increase, despite the 25% rise in prices. The result was that prices of German export products held steady, while profits and earnings from exports soared and were poured back into the economy. The currency reforms were simultaneous with the $1.4 billion in Marshall Plan money coming in from the United States, which was used primarily for investment. In addition, the Marshall Plan forced German companies, as well as those in all of Western Europe, to modernize their business practices and take account of the international market. Marshall Plan funding helped overcome bottlenecks in the surging economy caused by remaining controls (which were removed in 1949), and Marshall Plan business reforms opened up a greatly expanded market for German exports. Overnight, consumer goods appeared in the stores, because they could be sold for realistic prices, emphasizing to Germans that their economy had turned a corner. The success of the currency reform angered the Soviets, who cut off all road, rail, and canal links between the western zones and West Berlin. This was the Berlin Blockade, which lasted from 24 June 1948 to 12 May 1949. In response, the U.S. and Britain launched an airlift of food and coal and distributed the new currency in West Berlin as well. The city thereby became economically integrated into West Germany. Until the mid-1960s, it served as "America's Berlin", symbolizing the United States' commitment to defending its freedom, which John F. Kennedy underscored during his visit in June 1963. #### Adenauer Konrad Adenauer was the dominant leader in West Germany. He was the first chancellor (top official) of the FRG and until his death was the founder and leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), a coalition of conservatives, ordoliberals, and adherents of Protestant and Catholic social teaching that dominated West Germany politics for most of its history. During his chancellorship, the West Germany economy grew quickly, and West Germany established friendly relations with France, participated in the emerging European Union, established the country's armed forces (the *Bundeswehr*), and became a pillar of NATO as well as firm ally of the United States. Adenauer's government also commenced the long process of reconciliation with the Jews and Israel after the Holocaust. #### Erhard Ludwig Erhard was in charge of economic policy as economics director for the British and American occupation zones and was Adenauer's long-time economics minister. Erhard's decision to lift many price controls in 1948 (despite opposition from both the social democratic opposition and Allied authorities), plus his advocacy of free markets, helped set the Federal Republic on its strong growth from wartime devastation. Norbert Walter, a former chief economist at Deutsche Bank, argues that "Germany owes its rapid economic advance after World War II to the system of the Social Market Economy, established by Ludwig Erhard." Erhard was politically less successful when he served as the CDU Chancellor from 1963 until 1966. Erhard followed the concept of a social market economy, and was in close touch with professional economists. Erhard viewed the market itself as social and supported only a minimum of welfare legislation. However, Erhard suffered a series of decisive defeats in his effort to create a free, competitive economy in 1957; he had to compromise on such key issues as the anti-cartel legislation. Thereafter, the West German economy evolved into a conventional west European welfare state. Meanwhile, in adopting the Godesberg Program in 1959, the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) largely abandoned Marxism ideas and embraced the concept of the market economy and the welfare state. Instead it now sought to move beyond its old working class base to appeal the full spectrum of potential voters, including the middle class and professionals. Labor unions cooperated increasingly with industry, achieving labor representation on corporate boards and increases in wages and benefits. #### Grand coalition In 1966, Erhard lost support and Kurt Kiesinger was elected as Chancellor by a new CDU/CSU-SPD alliance combining the two largest parties. Social democratic (SPD) leader Willy Brandt was Deputy Federal Chancellor and Foreign Minister. The 1966–1969 Grand Coalition reduced tensions with the Soviet bloc nations and establishing diplomatic relations with Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia. #### Guest workers With a booming economy short of unskilled workers, especially after the Berlin Wall cut off the steady flow of East Germans, the FRG negotiated migration agreements with Italy (1955), Spain (1960), Greece (1960), and Turkey (1961) that brought in hundreds of thousands of temporary guest workers, called *Gastarbeiter*. In 1968, the FRG signed a guest worker agreement with Yugoslavia that employed additional guest workers. *Gastarbeiter* were young men who were paid full-scale wages and benefits, but were expected to return home in a few years. The agreement with Turkey ended in 1973 but few workers returned because there were few good jobs in Turkey. By 2010 there were about 4 million people of Turkish descent in Germany. The generation born in Germany attended German schools, but had a poor command of either German or Turkish, and had either low-skilled jobs or were unemployed. #### Brandt and Ostpolitik Willy Brandt was the leader of the Social Democratic Party in 1964–1987 and West German Chancellor in 1969–1974. Under his leadership, the German government sought to reduce tensions with the Soviet Union and improve relations with the German Democratic Republic, a policy known as the *Ostpolitik*. Relations between the two German states had been icy at best, with propaganda barrages in each direction. The heavy outflow of talent from East Germany prompted the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961, which worsened Cold War tensions and prevented East Germans from travel. Although anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, Brandt's *Ostpolitik* was intent on holding to its concept of "two German states in one German nation". *Ostpolitik* was opposed by the conservative elements in Germany, but won Brandt an international reputation and the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971. In September 1973, both West and East Germany were admitted to the United Nations. The two countries exchanged permanent representatives in 1974, and, in 1987, East Germany's leader Erich Honecker paid an official state visit to West Germany. #### Economic crisis of 1970s After 1973, Germany was hard hit by a worldwide economic crisis, soaring oil prices, and stubbornly high unemployment, which jumped from 300,000 in 1973 to 1.1 million in 1975. The Ruhr region was hardest hit, as its easy-to-reach coal mines petered out, and expensive German coal was no longer competitive. Likewise the Ruhr steel industry went into sharp decline, as its prices were undercut by lower-cost suppliers such as Japan. The welfare system provided a safety net for the large number of unemployed workers, and many factories reduced their labor force and began to concentrate on high-profit specialty items. After 1990 the Ruhr moved into service industries and high technology. Cleaning up the heavy air and water pollution became a major industry in its own right. Meanwhile, formerly rural Bavaria became a high-tech center of industry. A spy scandal forced Brandt to step down as Chancellor while remaining as party leader. He was replaced by Helmut Schmidt (b. 1918), of the SPD, who served as Chancellor in 1974–1982. Schmidt continued the *Ostpolitik* with less enthusiasm. He had a PhD in economics and was more interested in domestic issues, such as reducing inflation. The debt grew rapidly as he borrowed to cover the cost of the ever more expensive welfare state. After 1979, foreign policy issues grew central as the Cold War turned hot again. The German peace movement mobilized hundreds of thousands of demonstrators to protest against American deployment in Europe of new medium-range ballistic missiles. Schmidt supported the deployment but was opposed by the left wing of the SPD and by Brandt. The pro-business Free Democratic Party (FDP) had been in coalition with the SPD, but now it changed direction. Led by Finance Minister Otto Graf Lambsdorff the FDP adopted the market-oriented "Kiel Theses" in 1977; it rejected the Keynesian emphasis on consumer demand, and proposed to reduce social welfare spending, and try to introduce policies to stimulate production and facilitate jobs. Lambsdorff argued that the result would be economic growth, which would itself solve both the social problems and the financial problems. As a consequence, the FDP switched allegiance to the CDU and Schmidt lost his parliamentary majority in 1982. For the only time in West Germany's history, the government fell on a vote of no confidence. #### Kohl Helmut Kohl brought the conservatives back to power with a CDU/CSU-FDP coalition in 1982, and served as Chancellor until 1998. He orchestrated reunification with the approval of all the Four Powers from World War II, who still had a voice in German affairs. He lost in the left's biggest landslide victory in 1998, and was succeeded by the SPD's Gerhard Schröder. ### Reunification During the summer of 1989, rapid changes known as *peaceful revolution* or *Die Wende* took place in East Germany, which quickly led to German reunification. Growing numbers of East Germans emigrated to West Germany, many via Hungary after Hungary's reformist government opened its borders. The opening of the Iron Curtain between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 then triggered a chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer a GDR and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. Otto von Habsburg's idea developed the greatest mass exodus since the construction of the Berlin Wall and it was shown that the USSR and the rulers of the Eastern European satellite states were not ready to keep the Iron Curtain effective. This made their loss of power visible and clear that the GDR no longer received effective support from the other communist Eastern Bloc countries. Thousands of East Germans then tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at West German diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals, most notably in Prague. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations in several cities continued to grow. Unable to stop the growing civil unrest, Erich Honecker was forced to resign in October, and on 9 November, East German authorities unexpectedly allowed East German citizens to enter West Berlin and West Germany. Hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity; new crossing points were opened in the Berlin Wall and along the border with West Germany. This led to the acceleration of the process of reforms in East Germany that ended with the dissolution of East Germany and the German reunification that came into force on 3 October 1990. Federal Republic of Germany, 1990–present ----------------------------------------- ### Schröder The SPD/Green coalition won the 1998 elections and SPD leader Gerhard Schröder positioned himself as a centrist "Third Way" candidate in the mold of U.K. Prime Minister Tony Blair and U.S. President Bill Clinton. Schröder proposed Agenda 2010, a significant downsizing of the welfare state with five goals: tax cuts; labor market deregulation, especially relaxing rules protecting workers from dismissal and setting up Hartz concept job training; modernizing the welfare state by reducing entitlements; decreasing bureaucratic obstacles for small businesses; and providing new low-interest loans to local governments. On 26 December 2004 during 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami many thousands of Germans died while vacationing. In 2005, after the SPD lost to the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) in North Rhine-Westphalia, Gerhard Schröder announced he would call federal elections "as soon as possible". A motion of confidence was subsequently defeated after Schröder urged members not to vote for his government to trigger new elections. In response, a grouping of left-wing SPD dissidents and the neo-communist Party of Democratic Socialism agreed to run on a joint ticket in the general election, with Schröder's rival Oskar Lafontaine leading the new group. ### Merkel In the 2005 elections, Angela Merkel became the first female chancellor. In 2009 the German government approved a €50 billion stimulus plan. Among the major German political projects of the early 21st century are the advancement of European integration, the energy transition (*Energiewende*) for a sustainable energy supply, the debt brake for balanced budgets, measures to increase the fertility rate (pronatalism), and high-tech strategies for the transition of the German economy, summarised as Industry 4.0. From 2005 to 2009 and 2013 to 2021, Germany was ruled by a grand coalition led by the CDU's Angela Merkel as chancellor. From 2009 to 2013, Merkel headed a centre-right government of the CDU/CSU and FDP. Together with France and other EU states, Germany has played the leading role in the European Union. Germany (especially under Chancellor Helmut Kohl) was one of the main supporters of admitting many East European countries to the EU. Germany is at the forefront of European states seeking to exploit the momentum of monetary union to advance the creation of a more unified and capable European political, defence and security apparatus. German Chancellor Schröder expressed an interest in a permanent seat for Germany in the UN Security Council, identifying France, Russia, and Japan as countries that explicitly backed Germany's bid. Germany formally adopted the Euro on 1 January 1999 after permanently fixing the Deutsche Mark rate on 31 December 1998. Since 1990, the German Bundeswehr has participated in a number of peacekeeping and disaster relief operations abroad. Since 2002, German troops formed part of the International Security Assistance Force in the war in Afghanistan, resulting in the first German casualties in combat missions since World War II. In light of the worldwide Great Recession that began in 2008, Germany did not experience as much economic hardship as other European nations. Germany later sponsored a massive financial rescue in the wake of the Eurozone crisis which affected the German economy. Following the 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan, which led to the Fukushima nuclear disaster, German public opinion turned sharply against nuclear power in Germany, which at the time produced a fourth of the electricity supply. In response Merkel announced plans to close down the nuclear power plants over the following decade, and a commitment to rely more heavily on wind and other alternative energy sources, in addition to coal and natural gas. Germany was affected by the European migrant crisis in 2015 as it became the final destination of choice for many asylum seekers from Africa and the Middle East entering the EU. The country took in over a million refugees and migrants and developed a quota system which redistributed migrants around its federal states based on their tax income and existing population density. The decision by Merkel to authorize unrestricted entry led to heavy criticism in Germany as well as within Europe. This was a major factor in the rise of the far-right party Alternative for Germany which entered the Bundestag in the 2017 federal election. The COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected German society with over 3 million confirmed cases and over 90,000 deaths. Following the first confirmed case in January 2020, the German government was commended for being an effective model for instituting methods of curbing infections and deaths, but lost this status by the end of the year due to a rising number of cases. Vaccines began to be administered in December 2020 and many restrictions were lifted by May 2021. ### Scholz In September 2021 Germany's centre-left Social Democrats (SPD) narrowly won the federal election, ending 16 years of conservative-led rule under Angela Merkel. On 8 December 2021, Social Democrat Olaf Scholz was sworn in as Germany's new chancellor. He formed a coalition government with the Green Party and the liberal Free Democrats. In February 2022, Frank-Walter Steinmeier was elected for a second five-year term as Germany's president. Although largely ceremonial post, he has been seen as a symbol of consensus and continuity. After Russia's Feb. 24 invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Germany's previous foreign policy towards Russia (traditional Ostpolitik) has been severely criticized for having been too credulous and soft. Following concerns from the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Germany announced a major shift in policy, pledging a €100 billion special fund for the Bundeswehr – to remedy years of underinvestment – along with raising the budget to above 2% GDP. 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ISBN 978-0-1995-9232-6. * Majer, Diemut (2003). *"Non-Germans" under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe, with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945*. Baltimore; London: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6493-3. * Müller, Jan-Dirk (2003). Gosman, Martin; Alasdair, A.; MacDonald, A.; Macdonald, Alasdair James; Vanderjagt, Arie Johan (eds.). *Princes and Princely Culture: 1450–1650*. BRILL. p. 298. ISBN 978-9-0041-3572-7. Archived from the original on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2021. * Noflatscher, Heinz (2011). *Maximilian I. (1459–1519): Wahrnehmung – Übersetzungen – Gender* (in German). StudienVerlag. p. 245. ISBN 978-3-7065-4951-6. Retrieved 7 November 2021. * Nipperdey, Thomas (1996). *Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck: 1800–1866*. Translated by Nolan, Daniel. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-6916-0755-9. OL 1273142M. * Ozment, Steven (2004). *A Mighty Fortress: A New History of the German People*. Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-0609-3483-5. * Ramirez-Faria, Carlos (2007). "Germany". *Concise Encyclopedia of World History*. Atlantic Publishers. ISBN 978-8-1269-0775-5. * Richie, Alexandra (1998). *Faust's Metropolis. A History of Berlin*. p. 207.; emphasis on 20th century * Rodes, John E. (1964). *Germany: A History*. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ASIN B0000CM7NW. * Rüger, C. (2004) [1996]. "Germany". In Bowman, Alan K.; Champlin, Edward; Lintott, Andrew (eds.). *The Cambridge Ancient History: X, The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C. – A.D. 69*. Vol. 10 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5212-6430-3. * Sagarra, Eda (1977). *A Social History of Germany 1648–1914* (2002 ed.). Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4128-3431-5. * Schulman, Jana K. (2002). *The Rise of the Medieval World, 500–1300: A Biographical Dictionary*. Greenwood Press. * Sheehan, James J. (1989). *German History 1770–1866*. Oxford History of Modern Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1982-0432-9. OL 7397485M. * Stollberg-Rilinger, Barbara (11 May 2021) [2018]. *The Holy Roman Empire: A Short History* [*Das Heilige Römische Reich Deutscher Nation: Vom Ende des Mittelalters bis 1806*] (in German) (first paperback ed.). Princeton University Press. pp. 46–53. ISBN 978-0-6912-1731-4. OL 34693404M. * Stolper, Gustav (14 June 2017). *German Economy, 1870-1940: Issues and Trends*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-84711-7. * Thompson, James Westfall (1931). *Economic and Social History of Europe in the Later Middle Ages (1300–1530)*. * Van Dam, Raymond (1995). "8: Merovingian Gaul and the Frankish conquests". In Fouracre, Paul (ed.). *The New Cambridge Medieval History*. Vol. 1, C.500–700. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5218-5360-6. Retrieved 23 November 2015. * Whaley, Joachim (24 November 2011). *Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume II: The Peace of Westphalia to the Dissolution of the Reich, 1648-1806*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-1916-2822-1. Retrieved 3 March 2022. * Wiesflecker, Hermann (1991). *Maximilian I.* (in German). Verlag für Geschichte und Politik. ISBN 978-3-7028-0308-7. Retrieved 21 November 2015. * Wilson, Peter H. (2016). *Heart of Europe: A History of the Holy Roman Empire*. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-6740-5809-5. Further reading --------------- ### Surveys * Bithell, Jethro, ed. (1955) *Germany: A Companion to German Studies* (5th ed.); essays on German literature, music, philosophy, art and, especially, history. * Bösch, Frank. (2015) *Mass Media and Historical Change: Germany in International Perspective, 1400 to the Present* (Berghahn). online review * Buse, Dieter K. ed. (1998) *Modern Germany: An Encyclopedia of History, People, and Culture 1871–1990* * Detwiler, Donald S. (1999) *Germany: A Short History* (3rd ed.) * Fulbrook, Mary (1990). *A Concise History of Germany*. Cambridge concise histories. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5213-6836-0. This text has updated editions. * Gall, Lothar. (2003) *Milestones - Setbacks - Sidetracks: The Path to Parliamentary Democracy in Germany, Historical Exhibition in the Deutscher Dom in Berlin*, exhibit catalog; heavily illustrated; political history since 1800 * Herbert, Ulrich. (2019) *A History of Twentieth-Century Germany* * Kitchen, Martin. (2006) *A history of modern Germany, 1800–2000* online * Maehl, William Harvey. (1979) *Germany in Western Civilization*; focus on politics and diplomacy * Orlow, Dietrich. (2002) *A history of modern Germany : 1871 to present* online * Raff, Diether. (1988) *History of Germany from the Medieval Empire to the Present* * Reinhardt, Kurt F. (1961) *Germany: 2000 Years* stress on cultural topics * Schulze, Hagen, and Deborah Lucas Schneider. (2001) *Germany: A New History* * Smith, Helmut Walser, ed. (2011) *The Oxford Handbook of Modern German History*, 862 pp; 35 essays by specialists; Germany since 1760 * Smith, Helmut Walser (2020). *Germany, a nation in its time : before, during, and after nationalism, 1500–2000* (First ed.). New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-8714-0466-4. * Snyder, Louis, ed. (1958) *Documents of German history* online. 167 primary sources in English translation * Taylor, A.J.P. (2001) [1945]. *The Course of German History: A Survey of the Development of German History since 1815*. Routledge. ISBN 0-4152-5558-9. OL 3949947M. * Watson, Peter. (2010) *The German Genius*. 992 pp covers many thinkers, writers, scientists etc. since 1750; ISBN 978-0-7432-8553-7 * Winkler, Heinrich August. (2006) *Germany: The Long Road West*, since 1789 * Zabecki, David T., ed. (2015) *Germany at War: 400 Years of Military History* ### Medieval * Arnold, Benjamin. (1998) *Medieval Germany, 500–1300: A Political Interpretation* * Arnold, Benjamin. (2004) *Power and Property in Medieval Germany: Economic and Social Change, c. 900–1300* (Oxford University Press) * Goffart, Walter A. (1988). *The Narrators of Barbarian History (A.D. 550–800): Jordanes, Gregory of Tours, Bede, and Paul the Deacon*. Princeton University Press. hdl:2027/heb.01027. ISBN 978-0-6910-5514-5. * Haverkamp, Alfred, Helga Braun, and Richard Mortimer. (1992) *Medieval Germany 1056–1273* * Innes; Matthew. (2000) *State and Society in the Early Middle Ages: The Middle Rhine Valley, 400–1000* (Cambridge University Press) * Jeep, John M. (2001) *Medieval Germany: An Encyclopedia*, 650 articles by 200 scholars cover AD 500 to 1500 * Nicholas, David. (2009) *The Northern Lands: Germanic Europe, c. 1270 – c. 1500* (Wiley-Blackwell). * Reuter, Timothy. (1991) *Germany in the Early Middle Ages, c. 800–1056* ### Reformation * Bainton, Roland H. (1978; reprinted 1995) *Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther* * Dickens, A. G. (1969) *Martin Luther and the Reformation*, basic introduction * Junghans, Helmar. (1998) *Martin Luther: Exploring His Life and Times, 1483–1546.* * MacCulloch, Diarmaid. (2005) *The Reformation*, influential recent survey * Ranke, Leopold von. (1905) *History of the Reformation in Germany* 792 pp; by Germany's foremost scholar complete text online free * Smith, Preserved. (1920) *The Age of the Reformation*; complete text online free ### Early Modern to 1815 * Asprey, Robert B. (2007) *Frederick the Great: The Magnificent Enigma* * Atkinson, C.T. (1908) *A history of Germany, 1715–1815* old; focus on political-military-diplomatic history of Germany and Austria online edition * Blanning, Tim. (2016) *Frederick the Great: King of Prussia*, major new scholarly biography * Bruford W.H. (1935, 1971) *Germany in the Eighteenth Century The Social Background of the Literary Revival*online free to borrow, covers social history * Gagliardo, John G. (1991) *Germany under the Old Regime 1600–1790* * Gaxotte, Pierre. (1942) *Frederick the Great*, Yale University Press; political biography by French historian * Heal, Bridget. (2007) *The Cult of the Virgin Mary in Early Modern Germany: Protestant and Catholic Piety, 1500–1648* * Hughes, Michael. (1992) *Early Modern Germany, 1477–1806* * Ogilvie, Sheilagh. (1996) *Germany: A New Social and Economic History, Vol. 1: 1450–1630* (1995); *Germany: A New Social and Economic History, Vol. 2: 1630–1800* * Ogilvie, Sheilagh. (2003) *A Bitter Living: Women, Markets, and Social Capital in Early Modern Germany* DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198205548.001.0001 online * Ozment, Steven. (2001) *Flesh and Spirit: Private Life in Early Modern Germany*. * Schulze, Hagen. (1991) *The Course of German Nationalism: From Frederick the Great to Bismarck 1763–1867* * Storring, Adam L. (2021) "'Our Age': Frederick the Great, Classical Warfare, and the Uses and Abuses of Military History." *International Journal of Military History and Historiography* 1.aop: 1–33.online ### 1815–1890 * Blackbourn, David (1998). *The Long Nineteenth Century: A History of Germany, 1780–1918*. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1950-7672-9. * Blackbourn, David; Eley, Geoff (1984). *The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany*. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1987-3057-6. * Brandenburg, Erich. (1933) *From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870–1914*; an old standard scholarly history * Brose, Eric Dorn. (1997) *German History, 1789–1871: From the Holy Roman Empire to the Bismarckian Reich.* * Craig, Gordon A. (1978) *Germany, 1866–1945* online * Hamerow, Theodore S. ed. (1974) *Age of Bismarck: Documents and Interpretations*; 133 excerpts from primary sources put in historical context by Professor Hamerow * Hamerow, Theodore S. ed. (1993) *Otto Von Bismarck and Imperial Germany: A Historical Assessment*, excerpts from historians and primary sources * Hoyer, Katja. (2021) *Blood and Iron: The Rise and Fall of the German Empire 1871–1918* * Ogilvie, Sheilagh, and Richard Overy. (2004) *Germany: A New Social and Economic History Volume 3: Since 1800* * Pflanze Otto, ed. (1979) *The Unification of Germany, 1848–1871*, essays by historians * Ramm, Agatha. (1967) *Germany, 1789–1919: a political history* online free to borrow * Sheehan, James J. (1993) *German History, 1770–1866*, the major survey in English online * Steinberg, Jonathan. (2011) *Bismarck: A Life*, a major scholarly biography * Stern, Fritz. (1979) *Gold and Iron: Bismark, Bleichroder, and the Building of the German Empire* Bismark worked closely with this leading banker and financier * Taylor, A.J.P. (1969) [1955]. *Bismarck: the Man and the Statesman*. New York: Alfred A Knopf. ISBN 978-0-3947-0387-9. OL 7461954M. * Wehler, Hans-Ulrich. (1984) *The German Empire 1871–1918* ### 1890–1933 * Balfour, Michael. (1972) *The Kaiser and his Times* online * Berghahn, Volker Rolf. (1987) *Modern Germany: society, economy, and politics in the twentieth century* ACLS E-book * Berghahn, Volker Rolf. (2005) *Imperial Germany, 1871–1914: Economy, Society, Culture, and Politics* (2nd ed.) * Brandenburg, Erich. (1927) *From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870–1914* online. * Cecil, Lamar. (1996) *Wilhelm II: Prince and Emperor, 1859–1900* * Cecil, Lamar. (1989) vol2: *Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile, 1900–1941* * Child, John. (2009) *Edexcel GCSE History A : the making of the modern world : Unit 2A, Germany 1918–39 : student book* online * Craig, Gordon A. (1978) *Germany, 1866–1945* online * Dugdale, E.T.S. ed. *German Diplomatic Documents 1871–1914* (1928–31), in English translation. online * Gordon, Peter E., and John P. McCormick, eds. (2013) *Weimar Thought: A Contested Legacy* (Princeton University Press); scholarly essays on law, culture, politics, philosophy, science, art and architecture * Herbert, Ulrich. (2019) *A History of Twentieth-Century Germany* * Herwig, Holger H. (1996) *The First World War: Germany and Austria–Hungary 1914–1918*, ISBN 0-3405-7348-1 * Kolb, Eberhard. (2005) *The Weimar Republic* * Mommsen, Wolfgang J. (1995) *Imperial Germany 1867–1918: Politics, Culture and Society in an Authoritarian State* * Morrow, Ian F. D. "The Foreign Policy of Prince Von Bulow, 1898–1909". *Cambridge Historical Journal* 4#1 (1932): 63–93. online * Peukert, Detlev. (1993) *The Weimar Republic* * Retallack, James. (2008) *Imperial Germany, 1871–1918* (Oxford University Press) * Scheck, Raffael. (2008) "Lecture Notes, Germany and Europe, 1871–1945" Pressrsonal/r/rmscheck/Contents.html full text online, a brief textbook * Stolper, Gustav. (2017) *German Economy, 1870–1940: Issues and Trends* (Routledge). * Watson, Alexander. (2014) *Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I* ### Nazi era * Bullock, Alan. (1962) *Hitler: A Study in Tyranny,* online * Burleigh, Michael. (2000) *The Third Reich: A New History.*. Stress on antisemitism; * Evans, Richard J. (2008) [2005]. *The Third Reich at War* [*Das Dritte Reich. Krieg*] (in German). New York: Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-5942-0206-3. OL 22665338M. * Friedlander, Saul. (2009) *Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1933–1945* abridged version of the standard history * Herbert, Ulrich. (2019) *A History of Twentieth-Century Germany* * Kershaw, Ian. (1999) *Hitler, 1889–1936: Hubris.* vol. 1. * Kershaw, Ian. (2000) *Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis.* vol 2. * Kirk, Tim. (2017) *The Longman Companion to Nazi Germany*. * Koonz, Claudia. (1986) *Mothers in the Fatherland: Women, Family Life, and Nazi Ideology, 1919–1945.* * Overy, Richard. (2004) *The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia*; comparative history * Spielvogel, Jackson J. and David Redles. (2009) *Hitler and Nazi Germany* (6th ed.) * Stackelberg, Roderick. (1999) *Hitler's Germany: Origins, Interpretations, Legacies* * Stackelberg, Roderick, ed. (2007) *The Routledge Companion to Nazi Germany* * Stibbe, Matthew. (2003) *Women in the Third Reich,*, 208 pp. * Tooze, Adam. (2007) *The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy* * Thomsett, Michael C. (2007) *The German Opposition to Hitler: The Resistance, the Underground, and Assassination Plots, 1938–1945* (2nd ed) * Zentner, Christian and Bedürftig, Friedemann, eds. (1991) *The Encyclopedia of the Third Reich*. ### Since 1945 * Bark, Dennis L.; Gress, David R. (1992). *A History of West Germany*. Vol. 1: From Shadow to Substance, 1945–1963. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-6311-6787-7. OL 2058977M. * —; — (1992). *A History of West Germany*. Vol. 2: Democracy and Its Discontents 1963–1991. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-5578-6322-5. OL 8602440M. * Berghahn, Volker Rolf. (1987) *Modern Germany: Society, Economy, and Politics in the Twentieth Century* ACLS E-book online * Daum, Andreas. (2008) *Kennedy in Berlin*. New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-5218-5824-3. * Gehler, Michael. (2013) *Three Germanies: West Germany, East Germany and the Berlin Republic* (Reaktion Books). * Hanrieder, Wolfram F. (1989) *Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy* ISBN 0-3000-4022-9 * Herbert, Ulrich. (2019) *A History of Twentieth-Century Germany* * Jähner, Harald. (2022) *Aftermath: Life in the Fallout of the Third Reich, 1945-1955* * Jarausch, Konrad H. (2008) *After Hitler: Recivilizing Germans, 1945–1995* * Junker, Detlef, ed. (2004) *The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War', 150 short essays by scholars covering 1945–1990* * Main, Steven J. (2014) "The Soviet Occupation of Germany. Hunger, Mass Violence and the Struggle for Peace, 1945–1947". *Europe-Asia Studies* 66#8 pp: 1380–1382. * Schwarz, Hans-Peter. (1995) *Konrad Adenauer: A German Politician and Statesman in a Period of War, Revolution and Reconstruction*excerpt and text search vol 2 * Smith, Gordon, ed, (1992) *Developments in German Politics* ISBN 0-8223-1266-2, broad survey of reunified nation * Von Oppen, Beate Ruhm, ed. (1955). *Documents on Germany under Occupation, 1945–1954*. Oxford University Press. OCLC 1980291. OL 7206115W. * Weber, Jurgen. (2004) *Germany, 1945–1990* (Central European University Press) ### GDR * Dennis, Mike, and Norman LaPorte. (2011) *State and Minorities in Communist East Germany* (Berghahn Books) scholarly analysis of treatment of Jehovah's Witnesses, Jews, guest workers from Vietnam and Mozambique, football fans and others. * Fulbrook, Mary. (1998) *Anatomy of a Dictatorship: Inside the GDR, 1949–1989* * Fulbrook, Mary. (2008) *The People's State: East German Society from Hitler to Honecker* * Harsch, Donna. (2008) *Revenge of the Domestic: Women, the Family, and Communism in the German Democratic Republic* * Jarausch, Konrad H.. and Eve Duffy. (1999) *Dictatorship As Experience: Towards a Socio-Cultural History of the GDR* * Jarausch, Konrad H., and Volker Gransow, eds. (1994) *Uniting Germany: Documents and Debates, 1944–1993*, primary sources on reunification * McAdams, A. James. (1992 and 1993) "Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification". Princeton University Press * Pence, Katherine, and Paul Betts, eds. (2008) *Socialist Modern: East German Everyday Culture and Politics* * Pritchard, Gareth. (2004) *The Making of the GDR, 1945–53* * Ross, Corey. (2002) *The East German Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives in the Interpretation of the GDR* * Saxonberg, Steven. (2013) *The fall: A comparative study of the end of Communism in Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary and Poland* (Routledge). * Steiner, André. (2010) *The Plans That Failed: An Economic History of East Germany, 1945–1989* ### Historiography * Berghahn, Volker R., and Simone Lassig, eds. (2008) *Biography between Structure and Agency: Central European Lives in International Historiography* * Chickering, Roger, ed. (1996) *Imperial Germany: A Historiographical Companion*; 18 essays by specialists; * Evans, Richard J. (1997) *Rereading German History: From Unification to Reunification, 1800–1996* * Hagemann, Karen, and Jean H. Quataert, eds. (2008) *Gendering Modern German History: Rewriting Historiography* * Hagemann, Karen (2007). "From the Margins to the Mainstream? Women's and Gender History in Germany". *Journal of Women's History*. **19** (1): 193–199. doi:10.1353/jowh.2007.0014. S2CID 143068850. * Hagen, William W. (2012) *German History in Modern Times: Four Lives of the Nation* * Jarausch, Konrad H., and Michael Geyer, eds. (2003) *Shattered Past: Reconstructing German Histories* * Klessmann, Christoph. (2001) *The Divided Past: Rewriting Post-War German History* * Lehmann, Hartmut, and James Van Horn Melton, eds. (2003) *Paths of Continuity: Central European Historiography from the 1930s to the 1950s* * Perkins, J. A. (April 1986) "Dualism in German Agrarian Historiography, *Comparative Studies in Society and History,* Vol. 28 Issue 2, pp 287–330, * Rüger, Jan, and Nikolaus Wachsmann, eds. (2015) *Rewriting German history: New Perspectives on Modern Germany* (Palgrave Macmillan). * Stuchtey, Benedikt, and Peter Wende, eds. (2000) *British and German Historiography, 1750–1950: Traditions, Perceptions, and Transfers*

History of Germany

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Germany

**Neuwied** (German: [nɔʏˈviːt] ()) is a town in the north of the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate, capital of the District of Neuwied. Neuwied lies on the east bank of the Rhine, 12 km northwest of Koblenz, on the railway from Frankfurt am Main to Cologne. The town has 13 suburban administrative districts: Heimbach-Weis, Gladbach, Engers, Oberbieber, Niederbieber, Torney, Segendorf, Altwied, Block, Irlich, Feldkirchen, Heddesdorf and Rodenbach. The largest is Heimbach-Weis, with approximately 8000 inhabitants. History ------- Near Neuwied, one of the largest Roman *castra* on the Rhine has been excavated by archeologists. Caesar's Rhine bridges are believed to have been built nearby. Neuwied was founded in 1653 by Count Frederick III. of Wied, initially as a fortress on the site of the village of Langendorf, which had been destroyed in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). It was to serve as the new residence of the lower county, secure its only access to the Rhine and enable the small state, impoverished in the war, to participate in Rhine trade. However, since the place hardly attracted any settlers due to its unfavourable location in a frequently flooded area, the counts of the House of Wied, especially Frederick III, Frederick William and John Frederick Alexander pursued a policy of self-administration and extensive religious tolerance in the town - unlike in the rest of their territory. These liberties led to the immigration of numerous religious refugees from other German territories, but also from France and Switzerland, and to a rapid increase in the population. From the middle of the 18th century, members of seven religious communities lived in Neuwied: Calvinists, to which the count's house also belonged, Lutherans, Catholics, Mennonites, Inspirationalists, Moravian Brethren and Jews. The refugees and their descendants contributed significantly to the economic upswing of the town in the 18th and 19th century. Handicraft products by the cabinetmakers Abraham and David Roentgen, who belonged to the Moravian Brethren, or the Mennonite clockmaker Peter Kinzing were found at almost all important courts of Europe between Versailles and St. Petersburg. Thanks to the foundation of the Rasselstein iron rolling mill by Count John Frederick Alexander, Neuwied was one of the first industrial locations in Germany. On 18 April 1797 the French army, led by General Louis Lazare Hoche, defeated the Austrians under General Franz von Werneck at the Battle of Neuwied. Neuwied is the native town of paternal ancestors of John D. Rockefeller, traced to the 16th century and possible French Huguenot refugees. His father's line emigrated to the North American colonies, arriving in New York in 1710, the year of a massive immigration of nearly 2800 Palatine German refugees, whose transportation costs from London were covered by Queen Anne's British government. Neuwied was also the birthplace of William of Wied, who briefly held the title of King of Albania in 1914. Geography --------- Parts of the 86.5 square kilometre area are divided into the suburban districts of: * Altwied * Block * Engers * Feldkirchen * Gladbach * Heimbach-Weis * Irlich * Niederbieber * Oberbieber * Rodenbach * Segendorf * Torney The core of Neuwied and the former village of Heddesdorf, which belonged to the municipality before these districts were added, are not listed as districts themselves. Since the inner city of Neuwied is situated on a former bed of the river Rhine, it is at great risk of flooding. It is one of very few towns in the region protected by flood-prevention levees, a source of friction with communities downstream. Neuwied is twinned with the London Borough of Bromley. Politics -------- The 2019 municipal council elections led to the following distribution of seats: CDU (15), SPD (12), Greens (7), AfD (5), FWG (3), FDP (2), The Left (2), Ich tu's (2). Population ---------- Originally there were only a few thousand people living in Neuwied with the number not growing significantly because of wars and famines. With the industrialization in the 19th century the number of inhabitants increased from 5,600 in 1831 to 18,000 in 1905. By 1970 the figure had grown to 31,400 and following a major realignment incorporating several communities within the town, it jumped to 63,000. As of 30 June 2005 there were officially 66,455 people living in Neuwied. Infrastructure -------------- Neuwied is connected to the German network of *Bundesstraßen* (national routes) (here: B9, B42 and B256). The *Autobahnen* (motorways) A3, A48 and A61 are quickly reachable from Neuwied. ### Public transport Within the bounds of Neuwied are two railway stations, Neuwied and Engers on the Right Rhine line, and a third station is under consideration by the state agency for northern commuter railway services (SPNV Nord), which is responsible for the service on the railway lines connecting to Koblenz Hauptbahnhof in the south and Köln Hauptbahnhof in the north. Via either of those stations, the German high-speed rail network and the InterCity network are accessible. Daytime service includes * a Deutsche Bahn hourly semi-fast train (Regional-Express), the Rhein-Erft-Express, running Koblenz-Engers-Neuwied-Cologne-Mönchengladbach and back, * and a Deutsche Bahn hourly all-stops service (Regionalbahn) Koblenz-Neuwied-Cologne-Stommeln(-Mönchengladbach) and back, which is also available in the evening hours. * A VIAS hourly semi-fast train (StadtExpress) Neuwied-Koblenz-Lahnstein-Wiesbaden(-Frankfurt) and back, running also in evening hours. It takes about 15 to 20 minutes to travel to Koblenz while Cologne is about 70 to 80 minutes away, Mainz 90 to 120 minutes, direct connection to Frankfurt is around 150 minutes, sometimes faster when changing to the IC/ICE network. Public transport within Neuwied relies on a bus network, offering (depending on line) 20, 30 or 60-minute schedules, the majority of lines are served by Transdev. All public transport (road and rail) is integrated into the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Mosel public transport association. Tickets are valid for all service, restricted by time and fare zones. For more information on timetables see . Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Neuwied is twinned with: * England Bromley, England, United Kingdom * Israel Drom HaSharon, Israel * Germany Güstrow, Germany * China Suqian, China Notable people -------------- * Hermann of Wied (1477–1552), archbishop-elector of Cologne, reformer * Gotthard Rockenfeller (1590–1695), ancestor of John D. Rockefeller * Louis-François Metra (1738–1804), French journalist * De Beaunoir (1746–1823), French playwright * David Roentgen (1743–1807), cabinetmaker * Peter Kinzing (1745–1816), watchmaker and mechanic * Johannes Baptista von Albertini (1769–1831), Bishop of Moravian Church * Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied (1782–1867), naturalist, botanist, ethnologist * Philipp Wilhelm Wirtgen (1806–1870), botanist * Hermann, Prince of Wied (1814–1864), nobleman * Elisabeth of Wied (1843–1916), Queen of Romania and poet * William, Prince of Wied (1845–1907), nobleman, officer and politician * Ferdinand Hueppe (1852–1938), Co-founder of the DFB and sports medicine * Paul Reichard (1854–1938), African researchers * Friedrich von Ingenohl (1857–1933), admiral, commander of the imperial High Seas Fleet in World War I * Ferdinand Siegert (1865–1946), pediatrician * Carl von Moers (1871–1957), horse rider * Wilhelm, Prince of Albania (1876–1945), sovereign prince of Albania * Carl Einstein (1885–1940), writer, art historian and critic * Friedrich Wolf (1888–1953), doctor and writer * Walter Kaiser (1907–1982), footballer * Horst Siebert (1938–2009), economist * Klaus Rudolf Werhand (1938–2009), metalsmith and coppersmith * Renate Freund (born 1939), writer * Monika Kropshofer (born 1952), painter and photographer * Jörg Bewersdorff (born 1958), mathematician * Thomas J. Kinne (born 1961), translator, author and quiz player * Helmut Dieser (born 1962), Roman Catholic bishop in Aachen * Ulf Mark Schneider (born 1965), manager and CEO of Nestlé * Martin Werhand (born 1968), publisher, editor and writer * Ferris MC (born 1973), musician, rapper and actor * Christian Ulmen (born 1975), entertainer and actor * Simon Kirch (born 1979), track and field athlete * Mike Rockenfeller (born 1983), race car driver * Tobias Nickenig (born 1984), footballer * Tobias Hegewald (born 1989), racing driver * Hasan Ali Kaldırım (born 1989), Turkish footballer * Anna-Lena Friedsam (born 1994), tennis player * Isaac Bonga (born 1999), basketball player See also -------- * Synagogue District, Neuwied

Neuwied

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuwied

In mathematics, a **transcendental number** is a real or complex number that is not algebraic – that is, not the root of a non-zero polynomial of finite degree with rational coefficients. The best known transcendental numbers are π and e. Though only a few classes of transcendental numbers are known – partly because it can be extremely difficult to show that a given number is transcendental, transcendental numbers are not rare: indeed, almost all real and complex numbers are transcendental, since the algebraic numbers form a countable set, while the set of real numbers and the set of complex numbers are both uncountable sets, and therefore larger than any countable set. All **transcendental real numbers** (also known as **real transcendental numbers** or **transcendental irrational numbers**) are irrational numbers, since all rational numbers are algebraic. The converse is not true: Not all irrational numbers are transcendental. Hence, the set of real numbers consists of non-overlapping rational, algebraic non-rational and transcendental real numbers. For example, the square root of 2 is an irrational number, but it is not a transcendental number as it is a root of the polynomial equation *x*2 − 2 = 0. The golden ratio (denoted φ {\displaystyle \varphi } \varphi or ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } \phi ) is another irrational number that is not transcendental, as it is a root of the polynomial equation *x*2 − *x* − 1 = 0. The quality of a number being transcendental is called **transcendence**. History ------- The name "transcendental" comes from the Latin *transcendĕre* 'to climb over or beyond, surmount', and was first used for the mathematical concept in Leibniz's 1682 paper in which he proved that sin *x* is not an algebraic function of x . Euler, in the 18th century, was probably the first person to define transcendental *numbers* in the modern sense. Johann Heinrich Lambert conjectured that e and π were both transcendental numbers in his 1768 paper proving the number π is irrational, and proposed a tentative sketch of a proof of π's transcendence. Joseph Liouville first proved the existence of transcendental numbers in 1844, and in 1851 gave the first decimal examples such as the Liouville constant L b = ∑ n = 1 ∞ 10 − n ! = 10 − 1 + 10 − 2 + 10 − 6 + 10 − 24 + 10 − 120 + 10 − 720 + 10 − 5040 + 10 − 40320 + … = 0. 1 1 000 1 00000000000000000 1 00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000   … {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}L\_{b}&=\sum \_{n=1}^{\infty }10^{-n!}\\&=10^{-1}+10^{-2}+10^{-6}+10^{-24}+10^{-120}+10^{-720}+10^{-5040}+10^{-40320}+\ldots \\&=0.{\textbf {1}}{\textbf {1}}000{\textbf {1}}00000000000000000{\textbf {1}}00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000\ \ldots \\\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}L_{b}&=\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }10^{-n!}\\&=10^{-1}+10^{-2}+10^{-6}+10^{-24}+10^{-120}+10^{-720}+10^{-5040}+10^{-40320}+\ldots \\&=0.{\textbf {1}}{\textbf {1}}000{\textbf {1}}00000000000000000{\textbf {1}}00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000\ \ldots \\\end{aligned}}} in which the nth digit after the decimal point is 1 if n is equal to *k*! (k factorial) for some k and 0 otherwise. In other words, the nth digit of this number is 1 only if n is one of the numbers 1! = 1, 2! = 2, 3! = 6, 4! = 24, etc. Liouville showed that this number belongs to a class of transcendental numbers that can be more closely approximated by rational numbers than can any irrational algebraic number, and this class of numbers are called Liouville numbers, named in his honour. Liouville showed that all Liouville numbers are transcendental. The first number to be proven transcendental without having been specifically constructed for the purpose of proving transcendental numbers' existence was e, by Charles Hermite in 1873. In 1874, Georg Cantor proved that the algebraic numbers are countable and the real numbers are uncountable. He also gave a new method for constructing transcendental numbers. Although this was already implied by his proof of the countability of the algebraic numbers, Cantor also published a construction that proves there are as many transcendental numbers as there are real numbers. Cantor's work established the ubiquity of transcendental numbers. In 1882, Ferdinand von Lindemann published the first complete proof of the transcendence of π. He first proved that *e**a* is transcendental if a is a non-zero algebraic number. Then, since *e**i π* = −1 is algebraic (see Euler's identity), *i π* must be transcendental. But since *i* is algebraic, π therefore must be transcendental. This approach was generalized by Karl Weierstrass to what is now known as the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem. The transcendence of π allowed the proof of the impossibility of several ancient geometric constructions involving compass and straightedge, including the most famous one, squaring the circle. In 1900, David Hilbert posed a question about transcendental numbers, Hilbert's seventh problem: If a is an algebraic number that is not zero or one, and b is an irrational algebraic number, is *a**b* necessarily transcendental? The affirmative answer was provided in 1934 by the Gelfond–Schneider theorem. This work was extended by Alan Baker in the 1960s in his work on lower bounds for linear forms in any number of logarithms (of algebraic numbers). Properties ---------- A transcendental number is a (possibly complex) number that is not the root of any integer polynomial. Every real transcendental number must also be irrational, since a rational number is the root of an integer polynomial of degree one. The set of transcendental numbers is uncountably infinite. Since the polynomials with rational coefficients are countable, and since each such polynomial has a finite number of zeroes, the algebraic numbers must also be countable. However, Cantor's diagonal argument proves that the real numbers (and therefore also the complex numbers) are uncountable. Since the real numbers are the union of algebraic and transcendental numbers, it is impossible for both subsets to be countable. This makes the transcendental numbers uncountable. No rational number is transcendental and all real transcendental numbers are irrational. The irrational numbers contain all the real transcendental numbers and a subset of the algebraic numbers, including the quadratic irrationals and other forms of algebraic irrationals. Applying any non-constant single-variable algebraic function to a transcendental argument yields a transcendental value. For example, from knowing that π is transcendental, it can be immediately deduced that numbers such as 5 *π*, *π* - 3/√2, (√*π*-√3)8 , and 4√*π*5+7 are transcendental as well. However, an algebraic function of several variables may yield an algebraic number when applied to transcendental numbers if these numbers are not algebraically independent. For example, π and (1 − *π*) are both transcendental, but *π* + (1 − *π*) = 1 is obviously not. It is unknown whether *e* + *π*, for example, is transcendental, though at least one of *e* + *π* and eπ must be transcendental. More generally, for any two transcendental numbers a and b, at least one of *a* + *b* and ab must be transcendental. To see this, consider the polynomial (*x* − *a*)(*x* − *b*) = *x*2 − (*a* + *b*) *x* + *a b* . If (*a* + *b*) and a b were both algebraic, then this would be a polynomial with algebraic coefficients. Because algebraic numbers form an algebraically closed field, this would imply that the roots of the polynomial, a and b, must be algebraic. But this is a contradiction, and thus it must be the case that at least one of the coefficients is transcendental. The non-computable numbers are a strict subset of the transcendental numbers. All Liouville numbers are transcendental, but not vice versa. Any Liouville number must have unbounded partial quotients in its continued fraction expansion. Using a counting argument one can show that there exist transcendental numbers which have bounded partial quotients and hence are not Liouville numbers. Using the explicit continued fraction expansion of e, one can show that e is not a Liouville number (although the partial quotients in its continued fraction expansion are unbounded). Kurt Mahler showed in 1953 that π is also not a Liouville number. It is conjectured that all infinite continued fractions with bounded terms, that have a "simple" structure, and that are not eventually periodic are transcendental (in other words, algebraic irrational roots of at least third degree polynomials do not have simple continued fraction expansions, since eventually periodic continued fractions correspond to quadratic irrationals). Numbers proven to be transcendental ----------------------------------- Numbers proven to be transcendental: * *ea* if a is algebraic and nonzero (by the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem). * π (by the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem). * *e**π*, Gelfond's constant, as well as *e*−*π*/2 = *ii* (by the Gelfond–Schneider theorem). * *ab* where a is algebraic but not 0 or 1, and b is irrational algebraic (by the Gelfond–Schneider theorem), in particular: 2√2, the Gelfond–Schneider constant (or Hilbert number) * sin *a*, cos *a*, tan *a*, csc *a*, sec *a*, and cot *a*, and their hyperbolic counterparts, for any nonzero algebraic number a, expressed in radians (by the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem). * The fixed point of the cosine function (also referred to as the Dottie number d) – the unique real solution to the equation cos *x* = *x*, where x is in radians (by the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem). * ln *a* if a is algebraic and not equal to 0 or 1, for any branch of the logarithm function (by the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem). * log*b* *a* if a and b are positive integers not both powers of the same integer, and a is not equal to 1 (by the Gelfond–Schneider theorem). * The Bessel function *J**ν*(*x*), its first derivative, and the quotient *J'**ν*(*x*)/*J**ν*(*x*) are transcendental when *ν* is rational and *x* is algebraic and nonzero, and all nonzero roots of *J**ν*(x) and *J*'*ν*(x) are transcendental when *ν* is rational. * *W*(*a*) if a is algebraic and nonzero, for any branch of the Lambert W Function (by the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem), in particular: Ω the omega constant * √*x**s*, the square super-root of any natural number is either an integer or transcendental (by the Gelfond–Schneider theorem) * Γ(1/3), Γ(1/4), and Γ(1/6). The numbers   Γ ⁡ ( 2 3 )   , {\displaystyle \ \operatorname {\Gamma } \left({\tfrac {2}{3}}\right)\ ,} {\displaystyle \ \operatorname {\Gamma } \left({\tfrac {2}{3}}\right)\ ,}   Γ ⁡ ( 3 4 )   , {\displaystyle \ \operatorname {\Gamma } \left({\tfrac {3}{4}}\right)\ ,} {\displaystyle \ \operatorname {\Gamma } \left({\tfrac {3}{4}}\right)\ ,} and   Γ ⁡ ( 5 6 )   {\displaystyle \ \operatorname {\Gamma } \left({\tfrac {5}{6}}\right)\ } {\displaystyle \ \operatorname {\Gamma } \left({\tfrac {5}{6}}\right)\ } are also known to be transcendental. The numbers   1 π Γ ⁡ ( 1 4 ) 4   {\displaystyle \ {\tfrac {1}{\pi }}\operatorname {\Gamma } \left({\tfrac {1}{4}}\right)^{4}\ } {\displaystyle \ {\tfrac {1}{\pi }}\operatorname {\Gamma } \left({\tfrac {1}{4}}\right)^{4}\ } and   1 π Γ ⁡ ( 1 3 ) 2   {\displaystyle \ {\tfrac {1}{\pi }}\operatorname {\Gamma } \left({\tfrac {1}{3}}\right)^{2}\ } {\displaystyle \ {\tfrac {1}{\pi }}\operatorname {\Gamma } \left({\tfrac {1}{3}}\right)^{2}\ } are also transcendental. * 0.64341054629 ... , Cahen's constant. * The Champernowne constants, the irrational numbers formed by concatenating representations of all positive integers. * Ω, Chaitin's constant (since it is a non-computable number). * The so-called *Fredholm constants,* such as ∑ n = 0 ∞ 10 − 2 n = 0. 1 1 0 1 000 1 0000000 1 … {\displaystyle \sum \_{n=0}^{\infty }10^{-2^{n}}=0.{\textbf {1}}{\textbf {1}}0{\textbf {1}}000{\textbf {1}}0000000{\textbf {1}}\ldots } {\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }10^{-2^{n}}=0.{\textbf {1}}{\textbf {1}}0{\textbf {1}}000{\textbf {1}}0000000{\textbf {1}}\ldots } which also holds by replacing 10 with any algebraic *b* > 1. * Gauss's constant and the lemniscate constant. * The aforementioned Liouville constant for any algebraic *b* ∈ (0, 1). * The Prouhet–Thue–Morse constant. * The Komornik–Loreti constant. * Any number for which the digits with respect to some fixed base form a Sturmian word. * For *β* > 1 ∑ k = 0 ∞ 10 − ⌊ β k ⌋ ; {\displaystyle \sum \_{k=0}^{\infty }10^{-\left\lfloor \beta ^{k}\right\rfloor };} \sum _{k=0}^{\infty }10^{-\left\lfloor \beta ^{k}\right\rfloor }; where β ↦ ⌊ β ⌋ {\displaystyle \beta \mapsto \lfloor \beta \rfloor } \beta \mapsto \lfloor \beta \rfloor is the floor function. * 3.300330000000000330033... and its reciprocal 0.30300000303..., two numbers with only two different decimal digits whose nonzero digit positions are given by the Moser–de Bruijn sequence and its double. * The number *π*/2*Y*0(2)/*J*0(2)-*γ*, where *Y**α*(*x*) and *J**α*(*x*) are Bessel functions and γ is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. * Nesterenko proved in 1996 that π , e π {\displaystyle \pi ,e^{\pi }} {\displaystyle \pi ,e^{\pi }} and Γ ( 1 / 4 ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (1/4)} {\displaystyle \Gamma (1/4)} are algebraically independent. Possible transcendental numbers ------------------------------- Numbers which have yet to be proven to be either transcendental or algebraic: * Most sums, products, powers, etc. of the number π and the number e, e.g. eπ, *e* + *π*, *π* − *e*, *π*/*e*, ππ, *e**e*, *π**e*, *π*√2, *e**π*2 are not known to be rational, algebraic, irrational or transcendental. A notable exception is *e**π*√*n* (for any positive integer n) which has been proven transcendental. * The Euler–Mascheroni constant γ*:* In 2010 M. Ram Murty and N. Saradha found an infinite list of numbers containing *γ*/4 such that all but at most one of them are transcendental. In 2012 it was shown that at least one of γ and the Euler–Gompertz constant δ is transcendental. * Apéry's constant *ζ*(3) (which Apéry proved is irrational). * Catalan's constant, not even proven to be irrational. * Khinchin's constant, also not proven to be irrational. * The Riemann zeta function at other odd integers, *ζ*(5), *ζ*(7), ... (not proven to be irrational). * The Feigenbaum constants δ and α, also not proven to be irrational. * Mills' constant, also not proven to be irrational. * The Copeland–Erdős constant, formed by concatenating the decimal representations of the prime numbers. * Γ ( 1 / 5 ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (1/5)} {\displaystyle \Gamma (1/5)} has not been proven to be irrational. Conjectures: * Schanuel's conjecture, * Four exponentials conjecture. Sketch of a proof that e is transcendental ------------------------------------------ The first proof that the base of the natural logarithms, e, is transcendental dates from 1873. We will now follow the strategy of David Hilbert (1862–1943) who gave a simplification of the original proof of Charles Hermite. The idea is the following: Assume, for purpose of finding a contradiction, that e is algebraic. Then there exists a finite set of integer coefficients *c*0, *c*1, ..., *cn* satisfying the equation: c 0 + c 1 e + c 2 e 2 + ⋯ + c n e n = 0 , c 0 , c n ≠ 0   . {\displaystyle c\_{0}+c\_{1}e+c\_{2}e^{2}+\cdots +c\_{n}e^{n}=0,\qquad c\_{0},c\_{n}\neq 0~.} {\displaystyle c_{0}+c_{1}e+c_{2}e^{2}+\cdots +c_{n}e^{n}=0,\qquad c_{0},c_{n}\neq 0~.} Now for a positive integer k, we define the following polynomial: f k ( x ) = x k [ ( x − 1 ) ⋯ ( x − n ) ] k + 1 , {\displaystyle f\_{k}(x)=x^{k}\left[(x-1)\cdots (x-n)\right]^{k+1},} f_{k}(x)=x^{k}\left[(x-1)\cdots (x-n)\right]^{k+1}, and multiply both sides of the above equation by ∫ 0 ∞ f k   e − x   d   x   , {\displaystyle \int \_{0}^{\infty }f\_{k}\ e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\ ,} {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{\infty }f_{k}\ e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\ ,} to arrive at the equation: c 0 ( ∫ 0 ∞ f k e − x   d   x ) + c 1 e ( ∫ 0 ∞ f k e − x   d   x ) + ⋯ + c n e n ( ∫ 0 ∞ f k e − x   d   x ) = 0   . {\displaystyle c\_{0}\left(\int \_{0}^{\infty }f\_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)+c\_{1}e\left(\int \_{0}^{\infty }f\_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)+\cdots +c\_{n}e^{n}\left(\int \_{0}^{\infty }f\_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)=0~.} {\displaystyle c_{0}\left(\int _{0}^{\infty }f_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)+c_{1}e\left(\int _{0}^{\infty }f_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)+\cdots +c_{n}e^{n}\left(\int _{0}^{\infty }f_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)=0~.} By splitting respective domains of integration, this equation can be written in the form P + Q = 0 {\displaystyle P+Q=0} {\displaystyle P+Q=0} where P = c 0 ( ∫ 0 ∞ f k e − x   d   x ) + c 1 e ( ∫ 1 ∞ f k e − x   d   x ) + c 2 e 2 ( ∫ 2 ∞ f k e − x   d   x ) + ⋯ + c n e n ( ∫ n ∞ f k e − x   d   x ) Q = c 1 e ( ∫ 0 1 f k e − x   d   x ) + c 2 e 2 ( ∫ 0 2 f k e − x   d   x ) + ⋯ + c n e n ( ∫ 0 n f k e − x   d   x ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}P&=c\_{0}\left(\int \_{0}^{\infty }f\_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)+c\_{1}e\left(\int \_{1}^{\infty }f\_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)+c\_{2}e^{2}\left(\int \_{2}^{\infty }f\_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)+\cdots +c\_{n}e^{n}\left(\int \_{n}^{\infty }f\_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)\\Q&=c\_{1}e\left(\int \_{0}^{1}f\_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)+c\_{2}e^{2}\left(\int \_{0}^{2}f\_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)+\cdots +c\_{n}e^{n}\left(\int \_{0}^{n}f\_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}P&=c_{0}\left(\int _{0}^{\infty }f_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)+c_{1}e\left(\int _{1}^{\infty }f_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)+c_{2}e^{2}\left(\int _{2}^{\infty }f_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)+\cdots +c_{n}e^{n}\left(\int _{n}^{\infty }f_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)\\Q&=c_{1}e\left(\int _{0}^{1}f_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)+c_{2}e^{2}\left(\int _{0}^{2}f_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)+\cdots +c_{n}e^{n}\left(\int _{0}^{n}f_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right)\end{aligned}}} **Lemma 1.** For an appropriate choice of k,   P k !   {\displaystyle \ {\tfrac {P}{k!}}\ } {\displaystyle \ {\tfrac {P}{k!}}\ } is a non-zero integer. > **Proof.** Each term in P is an integer times a sum of factorials, which results from the relation > > > > > > >   > > ∫ > > 0 > > > ∞ > > > > x > > j > > > > e > > − > x > > >   > > d > >   > x > = > j > ! >   > > > {\displaystyle \ \int \_{0}^{\infty }x^{j}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x=j!\ } > > {\displaystyle \ \int _{0}^{\infty }x^{j}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x=j!\ } > which is valid for any positive integer j (consider the Gamma function). > > > It is non-zero because for every a satisfying 0 < *a* ≤ *n* , the integrand in > > > > > > > > c > > a > > > > e > > a > > > > ∫ > > a > > > ∞ > > > > f > > k > > > > e > > − > x > > >   > > d > >   > x > > > {\displaystyle c\_{a}e^{a}\int \_{a}^{\infty }f\_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x} > > {\displaystyle c_{a}e^{a}\int _{a}^{\infty }f_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x} > is e−x times a sum of terms whose lowest power of x is *k* + 1 after substituting x for *x* + *a* in the integral. Then this becomes a sum of integrals of the form > > > > > > >   > > A > > j > − > k > > > > ∫ > > 0 > > > ∞ > > > > x > > j > > > > e > > − > x > > >   > > d > >   > x >   > > > {\displaystyle \ A\_{j-k}\int \_{0}^{\infty }x^{j}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\ } > > {\displaystyle \ A_{j-k}\int _{0}^{\infty }x^{j}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\ } Where Aj−k is integer. > with *k*+1 ≤ *j* , and it is therefore an integer divisible by (*k*+1)! . After dividing by *k!*, we get zero modulo *k* + 1 . However, we can write: > > > > > > >   > > ∫ > > 0 > > > ∞ > > > > f > > k > > > > e > > − > x > > >   > > d > >   > x > = > > ∫ > > 0 > > > ∞ > > > > ( > > > > [ > > m > ( > − > 1 > > ) > > n > > > ( > n > ! > ) > > ] > > > k > + > 1 > > > > e > > − > x > > > > x > > k > > > + > ⋯ > > ) > >   > > d > >   > x >   > > > {\displaystyle \ \int \_{0}^{\infty }f\_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x=\int \_{0}^{\infty }\left(\left[m(-1)^{n}(n!)\right]^{k+1}e^{-x}x^{k}+\cdots \right)\ \mathrm {d} \ x\ } > > {\displaystyle \ \int _{0}^{\infty }f_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x=\int _{0}^{\infty }\left(\left[m(-1)^{n}(n!)\right]^{k+1}e^{-x}x^{k}+\cdots \right)\ \mathrm {d} \ x\ } > and thus > > > > > > > > > 1 > > k > ! > > > > > c > > 0 > > > > ∫ > > 0 > > > ∞ > > > > f > > k > > > > e > > − > x > > >   > > d > >   > x > ≡ > > c > > 0 > > > > > [ > >   > ( > − > 1 > > ) > > n > > > ( > n > ! > ) >   > > ] > > > k > + > 1 > > >   > ≢ >   > 0 > > > ( > mod > > k > + > 1 > ) > >   > . > > > {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{k!}}c\_{0}\int \_{0}^{\infty }f\_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\equiv c\_{0}\left[\ (-1)^{n}(n!)\ \right]^{k+1}\ \not \equiv \ 0{\pmod {k+1}}~.} > > {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{k!}}c_{0}\int _{0}^{\infty }f_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\equiv c_{0}\left[\ (-1)^{n}(n!)\ \right]^{k+1}\ \not \equiv \ 0{\pmod {k+1}}~.} > > So when dividing each integral in P by *k!*, the initial one is not divisible by *k* + 1 , but all the others are, as long as *k* + 1 is prime and larger than n and |*c*0| . It follows that > > > >   > > > >   > P >   > > > k > ! > > > >   > > > {\displaystyle \ {\frac {\ P\ }{k!}}\ } > > {\displaystyle \ {\frac {\ P\ }{k!}}\ } itself is not divisible by the prime *k* + 1 and therefore cannot be zero. > > **Lemma 2.** | Q k ! | < 1 {\displaystyle \left|{\tfrac {Q}{k!}}\right|<1} {\displaystyle \left|{\tfrac {Q}{k!}}\right|<1} for sufficiently large k {\displaystyle k} k. > **Proof.** Note that > > > > > > > > > > > > f > > k > > > > e > > − > x > > > > > > = > > x > > k > > > > > [ > > ( > x > − > 1 > ) > ( > x > − > 2 > ) > ⋯ > ( > x > − > n > ) > > ] > > > k > + > 1 > > > > e > > − > x > > > > > > > > > = > > > ( > > x > ( > x > − > 1 > ) > ⋯ > ( > x > − > n > ) > > ) > > > k > > > ⋅ > > ( > > ( > x > − > 1 > ) > ⋯ > ( > x > − > n > ) > > e > > − > x > > > > ) > > > > > > > > = > u > ( > x > > ) > > k > > > ⋅ > v > ( > x > ) > > > > > > > {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}f\_{k}e^{-x}&=x^{k}\left[(x-1)(x-2)\cdots (x-n)\right]^{k+1}e^{-x}\\&=\left(x(x-1)\cdots (x-n)\right)^{k}\cdot \left((x-1)\cdots (x-n)e^{-x}\right)\\&=u(x)^{k}\cdot v(x)\end{aligned}}} > > {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}f_{k}e^{-x}&=x^{k}\left[(x-1)(x-2)\cdots (x-n)\right]^{k+1}e^{-x}\\&=\left(x(x-1)\cdots (x-n)\right)^{k}\cdot \left((x-1)\cdots (x-n)e^{-x}\right)\\&=u(x)^{k}\cdot v(x)\end{aligned}}} > where > > > >   > u > ( > x > ) >   > > > {\displaystyle \ u(x)\ } > > {\displaystyle \ u(x)\ } and > > > >   > v > ( > x > ) >   > > > {\displaystyle \ v(x)\ } > > {\displaystyle \ v(x)\ } are continuous functions of > > > >   > x >   > > > {\displaystyle \ x\ } > > {\displaystyle \ x\ } for all > > > >   > x >   > , > > > {\displaystyle \ x\ ,} > > {\displaystyle \ x\ ,} so are bounded on the interval > > > >   > [ > 0 > , > n > ] >   > . > > > {\displaystyle \ [0,n]~.} > > {\displaystyle \ [0,n]~.} That is, there are constants > > > >   > G > , > H > > > 0 >   > > > {\displaystyle \ G,H>0\ } > > {\displaystyle \ G,H>0\ } such that > > > > > > >   > > | > > > f > > k > > > > e > > − > x > > > > | > > ≤ > > | > > u > ( > x > ) > > > | > > > k > > > ⋅ > > | > > v > ( > x > ) > > | > > < > > G > > k > > > H > > >  for  > > 0 > ≤ > x > ≤ > n >   > . > > > {\displaystyle \ \left|f\_{k}e^{-x}\right|\leq |u(x)|^{k}\cdot |v(x)|<G^{k}H\quad {\text{ for }}0\leq x\leq n~.} > > {\displaystyle \ \left|f_{k}e^{-x}\right|\leq |u(x)|^{k}\cdot |v(x)|<G^{k}H\quad {\text{ for }}0\leq x\leq n~.} > So each of those integrals composing > > > >   > Q >   > > > {\displaystyle \ Q\ } > > {\displaystyle \ Q\ } is bounded, the worst case being > > > > > > >   > > | > > > ∫ > > 0 > > > n > > > > f > > k > > > > e > > − > x > > >   > > d > >   > x > > | > > ≤ > > ∫ > > 0 > > > n > > > > | > > > f > > k > > > > e > > − > x > > > > | > >   > > d > >   > x > ≤ > > ∫ > > 0 > > > n > > > > G > > k > > > H >   > > d > >   > x > = > n > > G > > k > > > H >   > . > > > {\displaystyle \ \left|\int \_{0}^{n}f\_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right|\leq \int \_{0}^{n}\left|f\_{k}e^{-x}\right|\ \mathrm {d} \ x\leq \int \_{0}^{n}G^{k}H\ \mathrm {d} \ x=nG^{k}H~.} > > {\displaystyle \ \left|\int _{0}^{n}f_{k}e^{-x}\ \mathrm {d} \ x\right|\leq \int _{0}^{n}\left|f_{k}e^{-x}\right|\ \mathrm {d} \ x\leq \int _{0}^{n}G^{k}H\ \mathrm {d} \ x=nG^{k}H~.} > It is now possible to bound the sum > > > > Q > > > {\displaystyle Q} > > Q as well: > > > > > > >   > > | > > Q > > | > > < > > G > > k > > > ⋅ > n > H > > ( > > > | > > > c > > 1 > > > > | > > e > + > > | > > > c > > 2 > > > > | > > > e > > 2 > > > + > ⋯ > + > > | > > > c > > n > > > > | > > > e > > n > > > > ) > > = > > G > > k > > > ⋅ > M >   > , > > > {\displaystyle \ |Q|<G^{k}\cdot nH\left(|c\_{1}|e+|c\_{2}|e^{2}+\cdots +|c\_{n}|e^{n}\right)=G^{k}\cdot M\ ,} > > {\displaystyle \ |Q|<G^{k}\cdot nH\left(|c_{1}|e+|c_{2}|e^{2}+\cdots +|c_{n}|e^{n}\right)=G^{k}\cdot M\ ,} > where > > > >   > M >   > > > {\displaystyle \ M\ } > > \ M\ is a constant not depending on > > > >   > k >   > . > > > {\displaystyle \ k~.} > > {\displaystyle \ k~.} It follows that > > > > > > >   > > | > > > Q > > k > ! > > > > | > > < > M > ⋅ > > > > G > > k > > > > k > ! > > > > → > 0 > > >  as  > > k > → > ∞ >   > , > > > {\displaystyle \ \left|{\frac {Q}{k!}}\right|<M\cdot {\frac {G^{k}}{k!}}\to 0\quad {\text{ as }}k\to \infty \ ,} > > {\displaystyle \ \left|{\frac {Q}{k!}}\right|<M\cdot {\frac {G^{k}}{k!}}\to 0\quad {\text{ as }}k\to \infty \ ,} > > finishing the proof of this lemma. > > Choosing a value of   k   {\displaystyle \ k\ } {\displaystyle \ k\ } satisfying both lemmas leads to a non-zero integer (   P k !   {\displaystyle \ {\frac {P}{k!}}\ } {\displaystyle \ {\frac {P}{k!}}\ }) added to a vanishingly small quantity (   P k !   {\displaystyle \ {\frac {P}{k!}}\ } {\displaystyle \ {\frac {P}{k!}}\ }) being equal to zero, is an impossibility. It follows that the original assumption, that e can satisfy a polynomial equation with integer coefficients, is also impossible; that is, e is transcendental. ### The transcendence of π A similar strategy, different from Lindemann's original approach, can be used to show that the number π is transcendental. Besides the gamma-function and some estimates as in the proof for e, facts about symmetric polynomials play a vital role in the proof. For detailed information concerning the proofs of the transcendence of π and e, see the references and external links. See also -------- * Transcendental number theory, the study of questions related to transcendental numbers * Gelfond–Schneider theorem * Diophantine approximation * Periods, a set of numbers (including both transcendental and algebraic numbers) which may be defined by integral equations. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Number systems| Complex : C {\displaystyle :\;\mathbb {C} } {\displaystyle :\;\mathbb {C} } | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Real : R {\displaystyle :\;\mathbb {R} } {\displaystyle :\;\mathbb {R} } | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Rational : Q {\displaystyle :\;\mathbb {Q} } {\displaystyle :\;\mathbb {Q} } | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Integer : Z {\displaystyle :\;\mathbb {Z} } {\displaystyle :\;\mathbb {Z} } | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Natural : N {\displaystyle :\;\mathbb {N} } {\displaystyle :\;\mathbb {N} } | | | | --- | | Zero: 0 | | One: 1 | | Prime numbers | | Composite numbers | | | | Negative integers | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Fraction | | | | --- | | Finite decimal | | Dyadic (finite binary) | | Repeating decimal | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Irrational | | | | --- | | Algebraic irrational | | Transcendental | | | | | | Imaginary | | | | Sources ------- * Adamczewski, Boris; Bugeaud, Yann (2005). "On the complexity of algebraic numbers, II. Continued fractions". *Acta Mathematica*. **195** (1): 1–20. arXiv:math/0511677. Bibcode:2005math.....11677A. doi:10.1007/BF02588048. S2CID 15521751. * Allouche, J.-P. [in French]; Shallit, J. (2003). *Automatic Sequences: Theory, applications, generalizations*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82332-6. Zbl 1086.11015. * Baker, A. (1990). *Transcendental Number Theory* (paperback ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20461-3. Zbl 0297.10013. * Blanchard, André; Mendès France, Michel (1982). "Symétrie et transcendance". *Bulletin des Sciences Mathématiques*. **106** (3): 325–335. MR 0680277. * Bourbaki, N. (1994). *Elements of the History of Mathematics*. Springer. ISBN 9783540647676 – via Internet Archive. * Bugeaud, Yann (2012). *Distribution modulo one and Diophantine approximation*. Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics. Vol. 193. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11169-0. Zbl 1260.11001. * Burger, Edward B.; Tubbs, Robert (2004). *Making transcendence transparent. An intuitive approach to classical transcendental number theory*. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-21444-3. Zbl 1092.11031. * Calude, Cristian S. (2002). *Information and Randomness: An algorithmic perspective*. Texts in Theoretical Computer Science (2nd rev. and ext. ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-43466-5. Zbl 1055.68058. * Cantor, G. (1874). "Über eine Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes aller reelen algebraischen Zahlen". *J. Reine Angew. Math.* **77**: 258–262. * Cantor, G. (1878). "Ein Beitrag zur Mannigfaltigkeitslehre". *J. Reine Angew. Math.* **84**: 242–258. * Chudnovsky, G.V. (1984). *Contributions to the Theory of Transcendental Numbers*. American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8218-1500-7. * Davison, J. Les; Shallit, J.O. (1991). "Continued fractions for some alternating series". *Monatshefte für Mathematik*. **111** (2): 119–126. doi:10.1007/BF01332350. S2CID 120003890. * Erdős, P.; Dudley, U. (1983). "Some Remarks and Problems in Number Theory Related to the Work of Euler" (PDF). *Mathematics Magazine*. **56** (5): 292–298. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.210.6272. doi:10.2307/2690369. JSTOR 2690369. * Gelfond, A. (1960) [1956]. *Transcendental and Algebraic Numbers* (reprint ed.). Dover. * Gray, Robert (1994). "Georg Cantor and transcendental numbers". *Amer. Math. Monthly*. **101** (9): 819–832. doi:10.2307/2975129. JSTOR 2975129. Zbl 0827.01004 – via maa.org. * Hardy, G.H. (1979). *An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers* (5th ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 159. ISBN 0-19-853171-0. * Higgins, Peter M. (2008). *Number Story*. Copernicus Books. ISBN 978-1-84800-001-8. * Hilbert, D. (1893). "Über die Transcendenz der Zahlen *e* und π {\displaystyle \pi } \pi ". *Mathematische Annalen*. **43** (2–3): 216–219. doi:10.1007/BF01443645. S2CID 179177945. * Kempner, Aubrey J. (1916). "On Transcendental Numbers". *Transactions of the American Mathematical Society*. **17** (4): 476–482. doi:10.2307/1988833. JSTOR 1988833. * Lambert, J.H. (1768). "Mémoire sur quelques propriétés remarquables des quantités transcendantes, circulaires et logarithmiques". *Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de Berlin*: 265–322. * Leibniz, G.W.; Gerhardt, Karl Immanuel; Pertz, Georg Heinrich (1858). *Leibnizens mathematische Schriften*. Vol. 5. A. Asher & Co. pp. 97–98 – via Internet Archive. * le Lionnais, F. (1979). *Les nombres remarquables*. Hermann. ISBN 2-7056-1407-9. * le Veque, W.J. (2002) [1956]. *Topics in Number Theory*. Vol. I and II. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-42539-9 – via Internet Archive. * Liouville, J. (1851). "Sur des classes très étendues de quantités dont la valeur n'est ni algébrique, ni même réductible à des irrationnelles algébriques" (PDF). *J. Math. Pures Appl*. **16**: 133–142. * Loxton, J.H. (1988). "13. Automata and transcendence". In Baker, A. (ed.). *New Advances in Transcendence Theory*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 215–228. ISBN 978-0-521-33545-4. Zbl 0656.10032. * Mahler, K. (1929). "Arithmetische Eigenschaften der Lösungen einer Klasse von Funktionalgleichungen". *Math. Annalen*. **101**: 342–366. doi:10.1007/bf01454845. JFM 55.0115.01. S2CID 120549929. * Mahler, K. (1937). "Arithmetische Eigenschaften einer Klasse von Dezimalbrüchen". *Proc. Konin. Neder. Akad. Wet. Ser. A* (40): 421–428. * Mahler, K. (1976). *Lectures on Transcendental Numbers*. Lecture Notes in Mathematics. Vol. 546. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-07986-6. Zbl 0332.10019. * Natarajan, Saradha [in French]; Thangadurai, Ravindranathan (2020). *Pillars of Transcendental Number Theory*. Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-981-15-4154-4. * Pytheas Fogg, N. (2002). Berthé, V.; Ferenczi, Sébastien; Mauduit, Christian; Siegel, A. (eds.). *Substitutions in dynamics, arithmetics and combinatorics*. Lecture Notes in Mathematics. Vol. 1794. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-44141-0. Zbl 1014.11015. * Shallit, J. (15–26 July 1996). "Number theory and formal languages". In Hejhal, D.A.; Friedman, Joel; Gutzwiller, M.C.; Odlyzko, A.M. (eds.). *Emerging Applications of Number Theory*. IMA Summer Program. The IMA Volumes in Mathematics and its Applications. Vol. 109. Minneapolis, MN: Springer (published 1999). pp. 547–570. ISBN 978-0-387-98824-5.`{{cite conference}}`: CS1 maint: date format (link)

Transcendental number

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_number

**Sopot** (Polish: [ˈsɔpɔt] (), Kashubian: *Sopòt*, *Sopòtë*; German *Zoppot*, [ˈtsɔpɔt] ()) is a seaside resort city in Pomerelia on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea in northern Poland, with a population of approximately 40,000. It is located in Pomeranian Voivodeship, and has the status of the county, being the smallest city in Poland to do so. It lies between the larger cities of Gdańsk to the southeast and Gdynia to the northwest. The three cities together form the metropolitan area of Tricity. Sopot is a major health-spa and tourist resort destination. It has the longest wooden pier in Europe, at 511.5 metres, stretching out into the Bay of Gdańsk. The city is also famous for its Sopot International Song Festival, the largest such event in Europe after the Eurovision Song Contest. Among its other attractions is a fountain of bromide spring water, known as the "inhalation mushroom". Etymology --------- The name is thought to derive from an Old Slavic word *sopot* meaning "stream" or "spring". The same root occurs in a number of other Old Slavic toponyms; it is probably onomatopeic, imitating the sound of running water — murmur (*Šepot*). The name is first recorded as *Sopoth* in 1283 and *Sopot* in 1291. The German *Zoppot* is directly derived from the original name. In the 19th century and in the interwar years the German name was re-Polonized as *Sopoty* (a plural form, closer to the German pronunciation). "Sopot" was made the official Polish name when the town came again under Polish rule in 1945. History ------- ### Early history The area of today's Sopot contains the site of a 7th-century Slavonic (Pomeranian) stronghold. Initially it was a commercial trade outpost for commerce extending both up the Vistula river and to cities north across the Baltic Sea. With time the significance of the stronghold diminished and by the 10th century it was reduced to a fishing village, eventually abandoned. However, a century later the area was settled again and two villages were founded within the borders of todays city: Stawowie and Gręzowo. They were first mentioned in 1186 as being granted to the Cistercian abbey in Oliwa. Another of the villages that constitute today's Sopot, Świemirowo, was first mentioned in 1212 in a document by Mestwin I, who granted it to the Premonstratensian (Norbertine) monastery in nearby Żukowo. The village of Sopot, which later became the namesake for the whole city, was first mentioned in 1283 when it was granted to the Cistercians. At that time it was part of Poland until the 14th-century Teutonic invasion. By 1316, the abbey had bought all villages in the area and became the owners of all the area of the city. After the Second Peace of Thorn (1466) the area was reincorporated into the Kingdom of Poland. ### Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth The spa for the citizens of Gdańsk has been active since the 16th century. Until the end of that century most noble and magnate families from Gdańsk built their manor houses in Sopot. During the negotiations of the Treaty of Oliva King John II Casimir of Poland and his wife Queen Marie Louise Gonzaga lived in one of them, while Swedish negotiator Magnus de la Gardie resided in another — it has been known as the *Swedish Manor* (*Dwór Szwedzki*) ever since. The Swedish Manor was later the place of stay of Polish Kings Augustus II the Strong (in 1710) and Stanisław Leszczyński (in 1733). During the 1733 War of the Polish Succession, Stanisław Leszczyński stayed in Sopot a few days before going to the nearby city of Gdańsk. Afterwards Imperial Russian troops besieged Gdańsk and a year later looted and burned the village of Sopot to the ground. Much of Sopot would remain abandoned during and in the following years after the conflict, as the patricians of Gdańsk, exhausted by the war, could not afford to rebuild the Sopot residences. In the 1750s, Polish nobility of Pomerania began to rebuild the village. In 1757 and 1758 most of the ruined manors were bought by the magnate family of Przebendowski. General Józef Przebendowski bought nine of these palaces and in 1786 his widow, Bernardyna Przebendowska (née von Kleist), bought the remaining two. Also the Sierakowski family acquired some properties, including the destroyed Swedish Manor. After the Partitions of Poland, in the 1790s, Count Kajetan Onufry Sierakowski [pl] built the Sierakowski Mansion at the site of the Swedish Manor, a typical Polish manor house, which remains one of the most distinctive buildings of pre-spa Sopot. ### Kingdom of Prussia Sopot was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1772 in the First Partition of Poland. Following the new laws imposed by King Frederick the Great, church property was confiscated by the state. The village was still being reconstructed and in 1806 the area was sold to the Danzig/Gdańsk merchant Carl Christoph Wegner. However, until 1819 it did not develop significantly, its population in 1819 was 350, compared to 301 in the year of Prussian annexation. In 1819, Wegner opened the first public bath in Zoppot and tried to promote the newly established spa among the inhabitants of Danzig (Gdańsk), but the undertaking was a financial failure. However, in 1823 Jean Georg Haffner, a former medic of the French army, financed a new bath complex that gained significant popularity. In the following years, Haffner erected more facilities. By 1824, a sanatorium was opened to the public, as well as a 63-metre pier, cloakrooms, and a park. Haffner died in 1830, but his enterprise was continued by his stepson, Ernst Adolf Böttcher. The latter continued to develop the area and in 1842 opened a new theatre and sanatorium. By then the number of tourists coming to Zoppot every year had risen to almost 1,200. In 1870 Zoppot saw the opening of its first rail line: the new Danzig-Kołobrzeg (then *Kolberg*) rail road that was later extended to Berlin. Good rail connections added to the popularity of the area and by 1900 the number of tourists had reached almost 12,500 a year. In 1873, the village of Zoppot became an administrative centre of the Gemeinde. Soon other villages were incorporated into it and in 1874 the number of inhabitants of the village rose to over 2,800. In 1877, the self-government of the Gemeinde bought the village from the descendants of Haffner and started its further development. A second sanatorium was constructed in 1881 and the pier was extended to 85 metres. In 1885, the gas works were built. Two years later, tennis courts were built and the following year a horse-racing track was opened to the public. There were also several facilities built for the permanent inhabitants of Zoppot, not only for the tourists. Among those were two new churches: Protestant (September 17, 1901) and Catholic (December 21, 1901). From the late 19th century, there was a significant influx of German settlers with the slow growth of the Polish population, resulting in a change in ethnic proportions in favor of the former. Since the late 19th century the city became a holiday resort for the inhabitants of nearby Danzig, as well as wealthy aristocrats from Berlin, Warsaw, and Königsberg. Poles visited the city in large numbers and the spa was very popular among the Polish intellectual elite, to the extent that the early 20th-century Polish writer Adolf Nowaczyński [pl] named it "the extension of Warsaw to the Baltic Sea". Germans and Russians also visited the city. At the beginning of the 20th century it was a favourite spa of Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany. On October 8, 1901, Wilhelm II granted Zoppot city rights, spurring further rapid growth. In 1904 a new balneological sanatorium was opened, followed in 1903 by a lighthouse. In 1907, new baths south of the old ones were built in Viking style. In 1909 a new theatre was opened in the nearby forest within the city limits, in the place where today the Sopot Festival is held every year. By 1912, a third complex of baths, sanatoria, hotels, and restaurants was opened, attracting even more tourists. Shortly before World War I the city had 17,400 permanent inhabitants and over 20,000 tourists every year. ### Free City of Danzig Following the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, Zoppot became a part of the Free City of Danzig in customs union with the re-established Polish Republic. Due to the proximity of the Polish and German borders, the economy of the town soon recovered. The new casino became one of the main sources of income of the free-city state. In 1927, the city authorities rebuilt the Kasino-Hotel, one of the most notable landmarks in Sopot today. After World War II, it was renamed as the Grand Hotel and continues to be one of the most luxurious hotels in Poland. A Richard Wagner festival was held in the nearby Forest Opera in 1922. The festival's success caused Zoppot to be sometimes referred to as the "Bayreuth of the North". As a result of the influx of Germans in the previous decades, who took over the most important functions in the city, some Poles became Germanized, however a significant indigenous Polish community was still present in the city, and there was also a Jewish community. In 1928, the pier was extended to its present length of 512 metres. Since then it has remained the longest wooden pier in Europe and one of the longest in the world. In 1928, the city was visited by 29,192 visitors, mostly Poles and in the early 1930s it reached the peak of its popularity among foreign tourists — more than 30,000 annually (this number does not include tourists from Danzig itself). However, by the 1930s, tensions on the nearby Polish-German border and the rising popularity of Nazism in Germany and also among local Germans saw a decline in foreign tourism. The Nazi Party, supported by many local Germans, took power in the city. Local Poles and Jews were discriminated against and in 1938 local German Nazis burned down Zoppot's synagogue. ### World War II (1939–1945) World War II broke out on September 1, 1939, after the German invasion of Poland. The following day the Free City of Danzig was annexed by Nazi Germany and most of the local Poles, Kashubians, and Jews were arrested and murdered during the *Intelligenzaktion*, imprisoned or expelled. Due to the war, the city's tourist industry collapsed. The last Wagner Festival was held in 1942. The city remained under German rule until early 1945. In March the Nazis began evacuating the German population along with forced laborers. On March 23, 1945, the Soviet Army took over the city after several days of fighting, in which Zoppot lost approximately 10% of its buildings. As per the Potsdam Conference, Zoppot was incorporated into the post-war Polish state and renamed Sopot. The authorities of Gdańsk Voivodeship were located in Sopot until the end of 1946. Most of the German inhabitants who had remained in the city, by 1 November 1945 6,000 Germans still lived in the town, after the evacuation before the advancing Red Army were soon to be expelled, to make room for Polish settlers from former eastern Polish territories annexed by the Soviet Union. ### Polish People's Republic (1945–1989) Sopot recovered rapidly after the war. A tramway line to Gdańsk was opened, as well as the School of Music, the School of Maritime Trade, a library, and an art gallery. During the city presidency of Jan Kapusta the town opened an annual Arts Festival in 1948. In 1952, the tramways were replaced by a heavy-rail commuter line connecting Gdańsk, Sopot, and Gdynia. Although in 1954 the School of Arts was moved to Gdańsk, Sopot remained an important centre of culture, and in 1956 the first Polish jazz festival was held there (until then jazz had been banned by the Communist authorities). This was the forerunner of the continuing annual Jazz Jamboree in Warsaw. In 1961, the Sopot International Song Festival was inaugurated, although it was held in Gdańsk for its first three years – it moved to its permanent venue at Sopot's Forest Opera in 1964. In 1963, the main street of Sopot (*Bohaterów Monte Cassino*, "the Heroes of Monte Cassino") was turned into a pedestrian-only promenade. New complexes of baths, sanatoria, and hotels were opened in 1972 and 1975. By 1977, Sopot had approximately 54,500 inhabitants, the highest ever in its history. In 1979, the historical town centre was declared a national heritage centre by the government of Poland. ### Third Polish Republic (1989 onwards) In 1995, the southern bath and sanatoria complex were extended significantly and the Saint Adalbert (in Polish *Św. Wojciech*) spring opened two years later, as a result in 1999 Sopot regained its official spa town status. In 1999, Pope John Paul II visited Sopot, about 800,000 pilgrims attended his mass. In 2001, Sopot celebrated the 100th anniversary of its city charter. Sopot is currently undergoing a period of intense development, including the building of a number of five star hotels and spa resorts on the waterfront. The main pedestrianized street, Monte Cassino, has also been extended by diverting traffic underneath it, meaning the whole street is now pedestrianized. Sopot, aside from Warsaw boasts the highest property prices in Poland. Population ---------- | Year | Population | | --- | --- | | 1772 | 301 | | 1819 | 350 | | 1874 | 2834 | | 1945 | 21154 | | 1995 | 43576 | | 2000 | 42348 | | 2005 | 40075 | | 2006 | 39624 | | 2007 | 39154 | | 2008 | 38821 | | 2009 | 38460 | | 2010 | 38858 | | 2011 | 38584 | | 2012 | 38217 | | 2013 | 37903 | | 2014 | 37654 | Main sights ----------- Among the historic sights are: * Bohaterów Monte Cassino Street (popular *Monciak*), main pedestrian zone of the city center, filled with restaurants, cafes, clubs and shops. * Sopot Pier, the longest wooden pier in Europe, 450 metres from the edge of the shore, 650 m total * Grand Hotel * Balneotherapy Centre * Sopot Lighthouse * Grodzisko, a reconstructed early medieval Slavic stronghold * Museum of Sopot [pl] * Church of the Saviour * Saint George Church and Saint Adalbert wayside shrine * Old manor houses and villas, including the 18th-century Sierakowski Mansion and Spanish Manor, and the early 20th-century *Sopot Belvedere* (*Sopocki Belwederek*), place of stay of various Presidents and Prime Ministers of Poland during their visits to Sopot * former Southern Baths (*Łazienki Południowe*) * Sopot Hippodrome in the Karlikowo district Other landmarks include: * the Sopot beach * *Krzywy Domek* ("Crooked House") at the *Monciak* * Forest Opera * *Dom Zdrojowy* ("Spa House") with the adjacent garden and the State Art Gallery (*Państwowa Galeria Sztuki*) * Ergo Arena, a multi-purpose indoor arena * *Park Północny* ("Northern Park") with the statue of Jean Georg Haffner * Home Army monument, statue of Wojtek the Bear and memorial stone dedicated to Danuta Siedzikówna * hotels, restaurants, etc. People ------ * Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski (1888–1974), statesman and economist * Karol Maria Splett (1898–1964), a German Roman Catholic priest and Bishop of Danzig * Anton Plenikowski (1899–1971), a German communist politician of the Free City of Danzig and East Germany * Fritz Houtermans (1903–1966), a Dutch-Austrian-German atomic and nuclear physicist * Klaus Kinski (1926–1991), a German actor * Janusz Christa (1934–2008 in Sopot), a Polish author of comic books * Winfried Glatzeder (born 1945), a German television actor and playwright * Lech Kaczyński (1949–2010), a Polish lawyer and politician, President of Poland from 2005 to 2010 * Jarosław Kaczyński (born 1949), a Polish politician and lawyer, former Prime Minister of Poland 2006-2007 * Janusz Lewandowski (born 1951), politician, economist, Commissioner for Budgetary Affairs of the European Commission * Jacek Tylicki (born 1951), a Polish artist who settled in New York City in 1982 * Jurek Jatowitt (born 1952), an Austrian judoka, competed in the 1976 Summer Olympics * Włodzimierz Julian Korab-Karpowicz (born 1953), a Polish philosopher and political theorist * Janusz Śniadek (born 1955), a Polish labour and political leader, Chairman of Solidarity 2002-2010 * Donald Tusk (born 1957), a Polish politician, Prime Minister of Poland 2007-2014 and President of the European Council since 2014 * Marek Biernacki (born 1959), a Polish lawyer and politician * Janusz Pawłowski (born 1959), a retired male judoka from Poland, bronze medallist at the 1980 Summer Olympics * Leszek Możdżer (born 1971), a Polish jazz pianist, music producer and film music composer * Joanna Zastróżna (born 1972), a Polish photographer and filmmaker * Wojciech Kasperski (born 1981), a Polish screenwriter, film director and producer * Jacek Szafranowicz (born 1983), a Polish writer Transport --------- The city is covered by both the Gdynia and Gdańsk municipal bus lines, the regional commuter rail line (with three stops in the city: Sopot Wyścigi, Sopot, and Sopot Kamienny Potok), and the Polish national railway, PKP. Sopot is one of four Polish towns to have trolleybuses. The others are Lublin, Tychy and Gdynia. Sports ------ There are many popular professional sports teams in Sopot and the tri-city area. The most popular in Sopot today is probably basketball thanks to the award-winning Prokom Trefl Sopot. Amateur sports are played by thousands of Sopot citizens, as well as in schools of all levels (elementary, secondary, and university). Sopot held the IAAF World Indoor Championships in 2014. * Prokom Trefl Sopot - men's basketball team, six times Polish Champion, who played in the Euroleague, before relocating to Gdynia, since 2009 replaced by Trefl Sopot, also playing in the Polish Basketball League. * Idea Prokom Open - ATP and WTA tennis tournament held in August. Rafael Nadal and Flavia Pennetta won in 2004. * Ogniwo Sopot is a rugby club, founded in 1965. Since the 80s, Ogniwo is one of the most successful Polish rugby teams. They were undefeated since 1989 to 1993, with Edward Hodura as a coach. * PDP Ogniwo Sopot - men's football club. * Sopot was the training base for the Republic of Ireland during the European Championships in 2012. Economy ------- Major corporations in the town include: * STU Ergo Hestia SA * BEST SA Higher education ---------------- * College of Finances and Administration * Sopot College * College of Physical Education and Tourism * Uniwersytet Gdanski * University of Social Sciences and Humanities International relations ----------------------- Sopot is twinned with: * Israel Ashkelon, Israel * Germany Frankenthal, Germany * Sweden Karlshamn, Sweden * United States Lake Worth, United States * Denmark Næstved, Denmark * Germany Ratzeburg, Germany * United Kingdom Southend-on-Sea, United Kingdom * Poland Zakopane, Poland Former twin towns: * Russia Peterhof, Russia On 10 March 2022, Sopot terminated its partnership with the Russian city of Peterhof as a response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. See also -------- * Bohaterów Monte Cassino Street * Grodzisko in Sopot * Sports in Tricity 54°27′N 18°34′E / 54.450°N 18.567°E / 54.450; 18.567

Sopot

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopot

In modern historiography, **ancient Rome** refers to Roman civilization from the founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC), Roman Republic (509–27 BC), and Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD) until the fall of the western empire. Ancient Rome began as an Italic settlement, traditionally dated to 753 BC, beside the River Tiber in the Italian Peninsula. The settlement grew into the city and polity of Rome, and came to control its neighbours through a combination of treaties and military strength. It eventually dominated the Italian Peninsula, assimilated the Greek culture of southern Italy (Magna Grecia) and the Etruscan culture and acquired an Empire that took in much of Europe and the lands and peoples surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. It was among the largest empires in the ancient world, with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants, roughly 20% of the world's population at the time. It covered around 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles) at its height in AD 117. The Roman state evolved from an elective monarchy to a democratic classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic semi-elective military dictatorship during the Empire. Through conquest, cultural, and linguistic assimilation, at its height it controlled the North African coast, Egypt, Southern Europe, and most of Western Europe, the Balkans, Crimea, and much of the Middle East, including Anatolia, Levant, and parts of Mesopotamia and Arabia. It is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture, and engineering. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called **res publica**, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the empire-wide construction of aqueducts and roads, as well as more grandiose monuments and facilities. The Punic Wars with Carthage gave Rome supremacy in the Mediterranean. The Roman Empire emerged with the principate of Augustus (from 27 BC); Rome's imperial domain now extended from the Atlantic to Arabia and from the mouth of the Rhine to North Africa. In 92 AD, Rome came up against the resurgent Parthian Empire and became involved in history's longest-running conflict, the Roman–Persian Wars, which would have lasting effects on both empires. Under Trajan, Rome's empire reached its territorial peak, encompassing the entire Mediterranean Basin, the southern margins of the North Sea, and the shores of the Red and Caspian Seas. Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a common prelude to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would temporarily divide the Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century before some stability was restored in the Tetrarchy phase of imperial rule. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the western part of the empire broke up into independent barbarian kingdoms in the 5th century. The eastern part of the empire remained a power through the Middle Ages until its fall in 1453 AD. Early Italy and the founding of Rome ------------------------------------ Agriculture appeared in Italy c. 4000 BC, with copper tools appearing c. 2000 BC followed by the Bronze Age through to end of the second millennium BC. Cities started developing in the 9th century BC with the Villanovan culture in Etruria. A culture specific to Latium—called the Latial culture—appears in the archaeological record c. 1000 BC, which was related to the larger Villanovans. From the middle of the 8th century to the 5th century BC, city-states became the dominant form of political organisation in Italy; they also started to build organised cityscapes and religious cult centres. By the 7th century BC, large organised city-states had emerged in Etruria; their influence over Italy was such that later Roman writers believed many of their core traditions were of Etruscan origin. Archaeological evidence of settlement around Rome starts to emerge c. 1000 BC. Large-scale organisation appears only c. 800 BC, with the first graves in the Esquiline Hill's necropolis, along with a clay and timber wall on the bottom of the Palatine Hill dating to the middle of the 8th century BC. Starting from c. 650 BC, the Romans started to drain the valley between the Capitoline and Palatine Hills, where today sits the Roman Forum. By the sixth century, the Romans were constructing the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline and expanding to the Forum Boarium located between the Capitoline and Aventine Hills. The Romans themselves had a founding myth. They attributed their city to a dispute in the ruling family of the mythical city of Alba Longa: when its king was deposed, one of its princesses was forced to become a virgin priestess of Vesta but was impregnated by Mars and bore twins named Romulus and Remus. The sons, sentenced to death, were rescued first by a she-wolf and thence by farmers, before returning to restore the deposed Alban king and founding a city where they had been rescued. After a dispute, Romulus killed Remus and became the city's sole founder. The story dates at least to the third century, and the later Roman antiquarian Marcus Terentius Varro placed the city's foundation to the well-known date 753 BC. Another legend, recorded by Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy, since the original was destroyed at the end of the Trojan War. After a long time in rough seas, they landed on the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, but the women who were travelling with them did not want to leave. One woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent their leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they soon realised that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships. The Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the *Aeneid*, where the Trojan prince Aeneas is destined by the gods to found a new Troy. In the epic, the women also refuse to go back to the sea, but they were not left on the Tiber. After reaching Italy, Aeneas, who wanted to marry Lavinia, was forced to wage war with her former suitor, Turnus. According to the poem, the Alban kings were descended from Aeneas, and thus Romulus, the founder of Rome, was his descendant. Kingdom ------- Literary and archaeological evidence is clear on there having been kings in Rome, attested in fragmentary 6th century BC texts. Long after the abolition of the Roman monarchy, a vestigial *rex sacrorum* was retained to exercise the monarch's former priestly functions. The Romans believed that their monarchy was elective, with seven legendary kings who were largely unrelated by blood. Evidence of Roman expansion is clear in the sixth century BC; by its end, Rome controlled a territory of some 300 square miles with a population perhaps as high as 35,000. A palace, the Regia, was constructed c. 625 BC; the Romans attributed the creation of their first popular organisations and the Senate to the regal period as well. Rome also started to extend its control over its Latin neighbours. While later Roman stories like the *Aeneid* asserted that all Latins descended from the titular character Aeneas, a common culture is attested to archaeologically. Attested to reciprocal rights of marriage and citizenship between Latin cities—the *Jus Latii*—along with shared religious festivals, further indicate a shared culture. By the end of the 6th century, most of this area had become dominated by the Romans. Republic -------- By the end of the sixth century, Rome and many of its Italian neighbours entered a period of turbulence. Archaeological evidence implies some degree of large-scale warfare; many neighbouring cities in Etruria also shifted to non-monarchical institutions. While Roman traditions believed that the overthrow of the Roman monarchy inaugurated a new and concrete republic, it is implausible the transition could have been so sharp. The Romans believed that from the birth of the republic, they established a two-man magistracy taking over the king's powers: the consulship. These magistrates had short one-year terms and held office with colleagues that could check each other's actions. The prevalence in both Rome and other cities at this time of replacing monarchs with elected officials suggests that Italian aristocratic families "never became fully reconciled to the rule of one man". Through the following centuries, the Romans experimented with different offices and constitutional regimes before settling on the two consuls in the fourth century BC. According to tradition and later writers such as Livy, the Roman Republic was established c. 509 BC, when the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed by Lucius Junius Brutus and a system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established. A constitution set a series of checks and balances, and a separation of powers. The most important magistrates were the two consuls, who together exercised executive authority such as *imperium*, or military command. The consuls had to work with the Senate, which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or patricians, but grew in size and power. Other magistrates of the Republic include tribunes, quaestors, aediles, praetors and censors. The magistracies were originally restricted to patricians, but were later opened to common people, or plebeians. Republican voting assemblies included the *comitia centuriata* (centuriate assembly), which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices, and the *comitia tributa* (tribal assembly), which elected less important offices. In the 4th century BC, Rome had come under attack by the Gauls, who now extended their power in the Italian peninsula beyond the Po Valley and through Etruria. On 16 July 390 BC, a Gallic army under the leadership of tribal chieftain Brennus, met the Romans on the banks of the Allia River ten miles north of Rome. Brennus defeated the Romans, and the Gauls marched to Rome. Most Romans had fled the city, but some barricaded themselves upon the Capitoline Hill for a last stand. The Gauls looted and burned the city, then laid siege to the Capitoline Hill. The siege lasted seven months. The Gauls then agreed to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1000 pounds of gold. According to later legend, the Roman supervising the weighing noticed that the Gauls were using false scales. The Romans then took up arms and defeated the Gauls. Their victorious general Camillus remarked "With iron, not with gold, Rome buys her freedom." The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans. The last threat to Roman hegemony in Italy came when Tarentum, a major Greek colony, enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus in 281 BC, but this effort failed as well. The Romans secured their conquests by founding Roman colonies in strategic areas, thereby establishing stable control over the region of Italy they had conquered. ### Punic Wars In the 3rd century BC Rome faced a new and formidable opponent: Carthage. Carthage was a rich, flourishing Phoenician city-state that intended to dominate the Mediterranean area. The two cities were allies in the times of Pyrrhus, who was a menace to both, but with Rome's hegemony in mainland Italy and the Carthaginian thalassocracy, these cities became the two major powers in the Western Mediterranean and their contention over the Mediterranean led to conflict. The First Punic War began in 264 BC, when the city of Messana asked for Carthage's help in their conflicts with Hiero II of Syracuse. After the Carthaginian intercession, Messana asked Rome to expel the Carthaginians. Rome entered this war because Syracuse and Messana were too close to the newly conquered Greek cities of Southern Italy and Carthage was now able to make an offensive through Roman territory; along with this, Rome could extend its domain over Sicily. Although the Romans had experience in land battles, defeating this new enemy required naval battles. Carthage was a maritime power, and the Roman lack of ships and naval experience made the path to the victory a long and difficult one for the Roman Republic. Despite this, after more than 20 years of war, Rome defeated Carthage and a peace treaty was signed. Among the reasons for the Second Punic War was the subsequent war reparations Carthage acquiesced to at the end of the First Punic War. Generals on both sides of the Second Punic War were brilliant planners: on the Punic side were Hannibal and Hasdrubal; on the Roman were Marcus Claudius Marcellus, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus and Publius Cornelius Scipio. Rome fought this war simultaneously with the First Macedonian War. The war began with the audacious invasion of Hispania by Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian general who had led operations on Sicily towards the end of the First Punic War. Hannibal rapidly marched through Hispania to the Italian Alps, causing panic among Rome's Italian allies. The best way found to defeat Hannibal's purpose of causing the Italians to abandon Rome was to delay the Carthaginians with a guerrilla war of attrition, a strategy propounded by Quintus Fabius Maximus, who would be nicknamed *Cunctator* ("delayer" in Latin), and whose strategy would be forever after known as Fabian. Due to this, Hannibal's goal was unachieved: he could not bring enough Italian cities to revolt against Rome and replenish his diminishing army, and he thus lacked the machines and manpower to besiege Rome. Still, Hannibal's invasion lasted over 16 years, ravaging Italy. Finally, when the Romans perceived the depletion of Hannibal's supplies, they sent Scipio, who had defeated Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal in modern-day Spain, to invade the unprotected Carthaginian hinterland and force Hannibal to return to defend Carthage itself. The result was the ending of the Second Punic War by the decisive Battle of Zama in October 202 BC, which gave to Scipio his agnomen *Africanus*. At great cost, Rome had made significant gains: the conquest of Hispania by Scipio, and of Syracuse, the last Greek realm in Sicily, by Marcellus. More than a half century after these events, Carthage was humiliated and Rome was no more concerned about the African menace. The Republic's focus now was only to the Hellenistic kingdoms of Greece and revolts in Hispania. However, Carthage, after having paid the war indemnity, felt that its commitments and submission to Rome had ceased, a vision not shared by the Roman Senate. When in 151 BC Numidia invaded Carthage, Carthage asked for Roman intercession. Ambassadors were sent to Carthage, among them was Marcus Porcius Cato, who after seeing that Carthage could make a comeback and regain its importance, ended all his speeches, no matter what the subject was, by saying: "*Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam*" ("Furthermore, I think that Carthage must be destroyed"). As Carthage fought with Numidia without Roman consent, the Third Punic War began when Rome declared war against Carthage in 149 BC. Carthage resisted well at the first strike, with the participation of all the inhabitants of the city. However, Carthage could not withstand the attack of Scipio Aemilianus, who entirely destroyed the city and its walls, enslaved and sold all the citizens and gained control of that region, which became the province of Africa. Thus ended the Punic War period. All these wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests (Sicily, Hispania and Africa) and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power. Late Republic ------------- After defeating the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires in the 2nd century BC, the Romans became the dominant people of the Mediterranean Sea. The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms brought the Roman and Greek cultures in closer contact and the Roman elite, once rural, became a luxurious and cosmopolitan one. At this time Rome was a consolidated empire—in the military view—and had no major enemies. Foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the provinces' expense; soldiers, who were mostly small-scale farmers, were away from home longer and could not maintain their land; and the increased reliance on foreign slaves and the growth of *latifundia* reduced the availability of paid work. Income from war booty, mercantilism in the new provinces, and tax farming created new economic opportunities for the wealthy, forming a new class of merchants, called the equestrians. The *lex Claudia* forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate, they were severely restricted in political power. The Senate squabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocked important land reforms and refused to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government. Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the electorate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the Gracchi brothers, a pair of tribunes who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Both brothers were killed and the Senate passed reforms reversing the Gracchi brother's actions. This led to the growing divide of the plebeian groups (populares) and equestrian classes (optimates). ### Marius and Sulla Gaius Marius, a *novus homo*, who started his political career with the help of the powerful Metelli family, soon become a leader of the Republic, holding the first of his seven consulships (an unprecedented number) in 107 BC by arguing that his former patron Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus was not able to defeat and capture the Numidian king Jugurtha. Marius then started his military reform: in his recruitment to fight Jugurtha, he levied the very poor (an innovation), and many landless men entered the army; this was the seed of securing loyalty of the army to the General in command. Lucius Cornelius Sulla was born into a poor family that used to be a patrician family. He had a good education but became poor when his father died and left none of his will. Sulla joined the theatre and found many friends there, prior to becoming a general in the Jugurthine war. At this time, Marius began his quarrel with Sulla: Marius, who wanted to capture Jugurtha, asked Bocchus, son-in-law of Jugurtha, to hand him over. As Marius failed, Sulla, a general of Marius at that time, in a dangerous enterprise, went himself to Bocchus and convinced Bocchus to hand Jugurtha over to him. This was very provocative to Marius, since many of his enemies were encouraging Sulla to oppose Marius. Despite this, Marius was elected for five consecutive consulships from 104 to 100 BC, as Rome needed a military leader to defeat the Cimbri and the Teutones, who were threatening Rome. After Marius's retirement, Rome had a brief peace, during which the Italian *socii* ("allies" in Latin) requested Roman citizenship and voting rights. The reformist Marcus Livius Drusus supported their legal process but was assassinated, and the *socii* revolted against the Romans in the Social War. At one point both consuls were killed; Marius was appointed to command the army together with Lucius Julius Caesar and Sulla. By the end of the Social War, Marius and Sulla were the premier military men in Rome and their partisans were in conflict, both sides jostling for power. In 88 BC, Sulla was elected for his first consulship and his first assignment was to defeat Mithridates VI of Pontus, whose intentions were to conquer the Eastern part of the Roman territories. However, Marius's partisans managed his installation to the military command, defying Sulla and the Senate, and this caused Sulla's wrath. To consolidate his own power, Sulla conducted a surprising and illegal action: he marched to Rome with his legions, killing all those who showed support to Marius's cause and impaling their heads in the Roman Forum. In the following year, 87 BC, Marius, who had fled at Sulla's march, returned to Rome while Sulla was campaigning in Greece. He seized power along with the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna and killed the other consul, Gnaeus Octavius, achieving his seventh consulship. In an attempt to raise Sulla's anger, Marius and Cinna revenged their partisans by conducting a massacre. Marius died in 86 BC, due to age and poor health, just a few months after seizing power. Cinna exercised absolute power until his death in 84 BC. After returning from his Eastern campaigns, Sulla had a free path to reestablish his own power. In 83 BC he made his second march in Rome and began a time of terror: thousands of nobles, knights and senators were executed. Sulla also held two dictatorships and one more consulship, which began the crisis and decline of Roman Republic. ### Caesar and the First Triumvirate In the mid-1st century BC, Roman politics were restless. Political divisions in Rome split into one of two groups, *populares* (who hoped for the support of the people) and *optimates* (the "best", who wanted to maintain exclusive aristocratic control). Sulla overthrew all populist leaders and his constitutional reforms removed powers (such as those of the tribune of the plebs) that had supported populist approaches. Meanwhile, social and economic stresses continued to build; Rome had become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy, debt-ridden aspirants, and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers. The latter groups supported the Catilinarian conspiracy—a resounding failure since the consul Marcus Tullius Cicero quickly arrested and executed the main leaders of the conspiracy. Onto this turbulent scene emerged Gaius Julius Caesar, from an aristocratic family of limited wealth. His aunt Julia was Marius' wife, and Caesar identified with the populares. To achieve power, Caesar reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome: Marcus Licinius Crassus, who had financed much of his earlier career, and Crassus' rival, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (anglicised as Pompey), to whom he married his daughter. He formed them into a new informal alliance including himself, the First Triumvirate ("three men"). This satisfied the interests of all three: Crassus, the richest man in Rome, became richer and ultimately achieved high military command; Pompey exerted more influence in the Senate; and Caesar obtained the consulship and military command in Gaul. So long as they could agree, the three were in effect the rulers of Rome. In 54 BC, Caesar's daughter, Pompey's wife, died in childbirth, unravelling one link in the alliance. In 53 BC, Crassus invaded Parthia and was killed in the Battle of Carrhae. The Triumvirate disintegrated at Crassus' death. Crassus had acted as a mediator between Caesar and Pompey, and without him, the two generals manoeuvred against each other for power. Caesar conquered Gaul, obtained immense wealth, respect in Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions. He also became a clear menace to Pompey and was loathed by many *optimates*. Confident that Caesar could be stopped by legal means, Pompey's party tried to strip Caesar of his legions, a prelude to Caesar's trial, impoverishment, and exile. To avoid this fate, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River and invaded Rome in 49 BC. Pompey and his party fled from Italy, pursued by Caesar. The Battle of Pharsalus was a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns, he destroyed all of the *optimates* leaders: Metellus Scipio, Cato the Younger, and Pompey's son, Gnaeus Pompeius. Pompey was murdered in Egypt in 48 BC. Caesar was now pre-eminent over Rome, attracting the bitter enmity of many aristocrats. He was granted many offices and honours. In just five years, he held four consulships, two ordinary dictatorships, and two special dictatorships: one for ten years and another for perpetuity. He was murdered in 44 BC, on the Ides of March by the *Liberatores*. ### Octavian and the Second Triumvirate Caesar's assassination caused political and social turmoil in Rome; without the dictator's leadership, the city was ruled by his friend and colleague, Marcus Antonius. Soon afterward, Octavius, whom Caesar adopted through his will, arrived in Rome. Octavian (historians regard Octavius as Octavian due to the Roman naming conventions) tried to align himself with the Caesarian faction. In 43 BC, along with Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Caesar's best friend, he legally established the Second Triumvirate. This alliance would last for five years. Upon its formation, 130–300 senators were executed, and their property was confiscated, due to their supposed support for the *Liberatores*. In 42 BC, the Senate deified Caesar as *Divus Iulius*; Octavian thus became *Divi filius*, the son of the deified. In the same year, Octavian and Antony defeated both Caesar's assassins and the leaders of the *Liberatores*, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, in the Battle of Philippi. The Second Triumvirate was marked by the proscriptions of many senators and *equites*: after a revolt led by Antony's brother Lucius Antonius, more than 300 senators and *equites* involved were executed on the anniversary of the Ides of March, although Lucius was spared. The Triumvirate proscribed several important men, including Cicero, whom Antony hated; Quintus Tullius Cicero, the younger brother of the orator; and Lucius Julius Caesar, cousin and friend of the acclaimed general, for his support of Cicero. However, Lucius was pardoned, perhaps because his sister Julia had intervened for him. The Triumvirate divided the Empire among the triumvirs: Lepidus was given charge of Africa, Antony, the eastern provinces, and Octavian remained in Italia and controlled Hispania and Gaul. The Second Triumvirate expired in 38 BC but was renewed for five more years. However, the relationship between Octavian and Antony had deteriorated, and Lepidus was forced to retire in 36 BC after betraying Octavian in Sicily. By the end of the Triumvirate, Antony was living in Ptolemaic Egypt, an independent and rich kingdom ruled by his lover, Cleopatra VII. Antony's affair with Cleopatra was seen as an act of treason, since she was queen of another country. Additionally, Antony adopted a lifestyle considered too extravagant and Hellenistic for a Roman statesman. Following Antony's Donations of Alexandria, which gave to Cleopatra the title of "Queen of Kings", and to Antony's and Cleopatra's children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories, war between Octavian and Antony broke out. Octavian annihilated Egyptian forces in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Now Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire, and for the Romans, a new era had begun. Empire – the Principate ----------------------- In 27 BC and at the age of 36, Octavian was the sole Roman leader. In that year, he took the name *Augustus*. That event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of Roman Empire—although Rome was an "imperial" state since 146 BC, when Carthage was razed by Scipio Aemilianus and Greece was conquered by Lucius Mummius. Officially, the government was republican, but Augustus assumed absolute powers. His reform of the government brought about a two-century period colloquially referred to by Romans as the Pax Romana. ### Julio-Claudian dynasty The Julio-Claudian dynasty was established by Augustus. The emperors of this dynasty were Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. The dynasty is so called due to the *gens Julia*, family of Augustus, and the *gens Claudia*, family of Tiberius. The Julio-Claudians started the destruction of republican values, but on the other hand, they boosted Rome's status as the central power in the Mediterranean region. While Caligula and Nero are usually remembered in popular culture as dysfunctional emperors, Augustus and Claudius are remembered as emperors who were successful in politics and the military. This dynasty instituted imperial tradition in Rome and frustrated any attempt to reestablish a Republic. #### Augustus Augustus (r. 27 BC – AD 14) gathered almost all the republican powers under his official title, *princeps*: he had the powers of consul, *princeps senatus*, aedile, censor and tribune—including tribunician sacrosanctity. This was the base of an emperor's power. Augustus also styled himself as *Imperator Gaius Julius Caesar divi filius*, "Commander Gaius Julius Caesar, son of the deified one". With this title he not only boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, but the use of *Imperator* signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory. He also diminished the political influence of the senatorial class by boosting the equestrian class. The senators lost their right to rule certain provinces, like Egypt, since the governor of that province was directly nominated by the emperor. The creation of the Praetorian Guard and his reforms in the military, creating a standing army with a fixed size of 28 legions, ensured his total control over the army. Compared with the Second Triumvirate's epoch, Augustus' reign as *princeps* was very peaceful. This peace and wealth (obtained from the agrarian province of Egypt) led the people and the nobles of Rome to support Augustus, increasing his strength in political affairs. Augustus was absent at battles. His generals were responsible for the field command; gaining such commanders as Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Nero Claudius Drusus and Germanicus much respect from the populace and the legions. Augustus intended to extend the Roman Empire to the whole known world, and in his reign, Rome conquered Cantabria, Aquitania, Raetia, Dalmatia, Illyricum and Pannonia. Under Augustus' reign, Roman literature grew steadily in what is known as the Golden Age of Latin Literature. Poets like Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Rufus developed a rich literature, and were close friends of Augustus. Along with Maecenas, he sponsored patriotic poems, as Virgil's epic *Aeneid* and also historiographical works, like those of Livy. The works of this literary age lasted through Roman times, and are classics. Augustus also continued the changes to the calendar promoted by Caesar, and the month of August is named after him. Augustus brought a peaceful and thriving era to Rome, known as *Pax Augusta* or *Pax Romana*. Augustus died in 14 AD, but the empire's glory continued after his era. #### From Tiberius to Nero The Julio-Claudians continued to rule Rome after Augustus' death and remained in power until the death of Nero in 68 AD. Augustus' favourites to succeed him were already dead in his senescence: his nephew Marcellus died in 23 BC, his friend and military commander Agrippa in 12 BC and his grandson Gaius Caesar in 4 AD. Influenced by his wife, Livia Drusilla, Augustus appointed her son from another marriage, Tiberius, as his heir. The Senate agreed with the succession, and granted to Tiberius the same titles and honours once granted to Augustus: the title of *princeps* and *Pater patriae*, and the Civic Crown. However, Tiberius was not an enthusiast for political affairs: after agreement with the Senate, he retired to Capri in 26 AD, and left control of the city of Rome in the hands of the praetorian prefect Sejanus (until 31 AD) and Macro (from 31 to 37 AD). Tiberius was regarded as an evil and melancholic man, who may have ordered the murder of his relatives, the popular general Germanicus in 19 AD, and his own son Drusus Julius Caesar in 23 AD. Tiberius died (or was killed) in 37 AD. The male line of the Julio-Claudians was limited to Tiberius' nephew Claudius, his grandson Tiberius Gemellus and his grand-nephew Caligula. As Gemellus was still a child, Caligula was chosen to rule the empire. He was a popular leader in the first half of his reign, but became a crude and insane tyrant in his years controlling government.[*clarification needed*] Suetonius states that he committed incest with his sisters, killed some men just for amusement and nominated a horse for a consulship. The Praetorian Guard murdered Caligula four years after the death of Tiberius, and, with belated support from the senators, proclaimed his uncle Claudius as the new emperor. Claudius was not as authoritarian as Tiberius and Caligula. Claudius conquered Lycia and Thrace; his most important deed was the beginning of the conquest of Britannia. Claudius was poisoned by his wife, Agrippina the Younger in 54 AD. His heir was Nero, son of Agrippina and her former husband, since Claudius' son Britannicus had not reached manhood upon his father's death. Nero sent his general, Suetonius Paulinus, to invade modern-day Wales, where he encountered stiff resistance. The Celts there were independent, tough and resistant to tax collectors and fought Paulinus, as he battled his way across from east to west. It took him a long time to reach the north west coast, and in 60 AD he finally crossed the Menai Strait to the sacred island of Mona (Anglesey), the last stronghold of the druids. His soldiers attacked the island and massacred the druids: men, women and children, destroyed the shrine and the sacred groves and threw many of the sacred standing stones into the sea. While Paulinus and his troops were massacring druids in Mona, the tribes of modern-day East Anglia staged a revolt led by queen Boadicea of the Iceni. The rebels sacked and burned Camulodunum, Londinium and Verulamium (modern-day Colchester, London and St Albans respectively) before they were crushed by Paulinus. Boadicea, like Cleopatra before her, committed suicide to avoid the disgrace of being paraded in triumph in Rome. The fault of Nero in this rebellion is debatable but there was certainly an impact (both positive and negative) upon the prestige of his regime. Nero is widely known as the first persecutor of Christians and for the Great Fire of Rome, rumoured to have been started by the emperor himself. In 59 AD he murdered his mother and in 62 AD, his wife Claudia Octavia. Never very stable, he allowed his advisers to run the government while he slid into debauchery, excess, and madness. He was married three times, and had numerous affairs with both men and women, and, according to some rumours, even his mother. A conspiracy against Nero in 65 AD under Calpurnius Piso failed, but in 68 AD the armies under Julius Vindex in Gaul and Servius Sulpicius Galba in modern-day Spain revolted. Deserted by the Praetorian Guards and condemned to death by the senate, Nero killed himself. ### Flavian dynasty The Flavians were the second dynasty to rule Rome. By 68 AD, the year of Nero's death, there was no chance of a return to the Roman Republic, and so a new emperor had to arise. After the turmoil in the Year of the Four Emperors, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (anglicised as Vespasian) took control of the empire and established a new dynasty. Under the Flavians, Rome continued its expansion, and the state remained secure. Under Trajan, the Roman Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion. Rome's dominion now spanned 5.0 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles). The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judea following the Jewish uprising of 66 AD. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus' soldiers proclaimed him *imperator* in honour of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of whom a majority were Jewish. 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon bar Giora and John of Giscala. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, as there was "no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God". #### Vespasian Vespasian had been a general under Claudius and Nero. He fought as a commander in the First Jewish-Roman War along with his son Titus. Following the turmoil of the Year of the Four Emperors, in 69 AD, four emperors were enthroned in turn: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and, lastly, Vespasian, who crushed Vitellius' forces and became emperor. He reconstructed many buildings which were uncompleted, like a statue of Apollo and the temple of *Divus Claudius* ("the deified Claudius"), both initiated by Nero. Buildings destroyed by the Great Fire of Rome were rebuilt, and he revitalised the Capitol. Vespasian also started the construction of the Flavian Amphitheater, more commonly known as the Colosseum. The historians Josephus and Pliny the Elder wrote their works during Vespasian's reign. Vespasian was Josephus' sponsor and Pliny dedicated his *Naturalis Historia* to Titus, son of Vespasian. Vespasian sent legions to defend the eastern frontier in Cappadocia, extended the occupation in Britannia (modern-day England, Wales and southern Scotland) and reformed the tax system. He died in 79 AD. #### Titus and Domitian Titus became emperor in 79. He finished the Flavian Amphitheater, using war spoils from the First Jewish-Roman War, and hosted victory games that lasted for a hundred days. These games included gladiatorial combats, horse races and a sensational mock naval battle on the flooded grounds of the Colosseum. Titus died of fever in 81 AD, and was succeeded by his brother Domitian. As emperor, Domitian showed the characteristics of a tyrant. He ruled for fifteen years, during which time he acquired a reputation for self-promotion as a living god. He constructed at least two temples in honour of Jupiter, the supreme deity in Roman religion. He was murdered following a plot within his own household. ### Nerva–Antonine dynasty Following Domitian's murder, the Senate rapidly appointed Nerva as Emperor. Nerva had noble ancestry, and he had served as an advisor to Nero and the Flavians. His rule restored many of the traditional liberties of Rome's upper classes, which Domitian had over-ridden. The Nerva–Antonine dynasty from 96 AD to 192 AD included the "five good emperors" Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius; and ended with Commodus. #### Trajan Nerva abdicated and died in 98 AD, and was succeeded by the general Trajan, from a non-patrician family from Hispania Baetica (modern-day Andalusia). Trajan is credited with the restoration of traditional privileges and rights of commoner and senatorial classes, which later Roman historians claim to have been eroded during Domitian's autocracy. Trajan fought three Dacian wars, winning territories roughly equivalent to modern-day Romania and Moldova. In the First Dacian War (101–102), defeated Dacia became a client kingdom; in the Second Dacian War (105–106), Trajan annexed Dacia, and his archtitect Apollodorus made a great bridge over the Danube. Southwards, the client state of Nabatea was annexed to form the province of Arabia Petraea, which included the lands of southern Syria and northwestern Arabia. Trajan undertook an ambitious public building program in Rome, including Trajan's Forum, Trajan's Market and Trajan's Column, with the architect Apollodorus of Damascus. He also remodelled the Pantheon and extended the Circus Maximus. When Parthia appointed a king for Armenia without consulting Rome, Trajan declared war on Parthia. In 113 he deposed the king of Armenia. In 115 he took the Northern Mesopotamian cities of Nisibis and Batnae, organised a province of Mesopotamia (116), and issued coins that claimed Armenia and Mesopotamia were under the authority of the Roman people. In that same year, he captured Seleucia and the Parthian capital Ctesiphon (near modern Baghdad). After defeating a Parthian revolt and a Jewish revolt, he withdrew due to health issues, and in 117, he died of edema. #### From Hadrian to Commodus Many Romans emigrated to Hispania (modern-day Spain and Portugal) and stayed for generations, in some cases intermarrying with Iberians; one of these families produced the emperor Hadrian. Hadrian withdrew all the troops stationed in Parthia, Armenia and Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), abandoning Trajan's conquests. Hadrian's army crushed a revolt in Mauretania and the Bar Kokhba revolt in Judea. This was the last large-scale Jewish revolt against the Romans, and was suppressed with massive repercussions in Judea. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed. Hadrian renamed the province of Judea "Provincia Syria Palaestina," after one of Judea's most hated enemies. He constructed fortifications and walls, like the celebrated Hadrian's Wall which separated Roman Britannia and the tribes of modern-day Scotland. Hadrian promoted culture, especially the Greek. He also forbade torture and humanised the laws. His many building projects included aqueducts, baths, libraries and theatres; additionally, he travelled nearly every province in the Empire to check the military and infrastructural conditions. Following Hadrian's death in 138 AD, his successor Antoninus Pius built temples, theatres, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of rhetoric and philosophy. On becoming emperor, Antoninus made few initial changes, leaving intact as far as possible the arrangements instituted by his predecessor. Antoninus expanded Roman Britannia by invading what is now southern Scotland and building the Antonine Wall. He also continued Hadrian's policy of humanising the laws. He died in 161 AD. Marcus Aurelius, known as the Philosopher, was the last of the Five Good Emperors. He was a stoic philosopher and wrote the *Meditations*. He defeated barbarian tribes in the Marcomannic Wars as well as the Parthian Empire. His co-emperor, Lucius Verus, died in 169 AD, probably from the Antonine Plague, a pandemic that killed nearly five million people through the Empire in 165–180 AD. From Nerva to Marcus Aurelius, the empire achieved an unprecedented status. The powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. All the citizens enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth. The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent reverence. The Roman senate appeared to possess the sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the executive powers of government.[*clarification needed*] Gibbon declared the rule of these "Five Good Emperors" the golden era of the Empire. During this time, Rome reached its greatest territorial extent. Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius, became emperor after his father's death. He is not counted as one of the Five Good Emperors. Firstly, this was due to his direct kinship with the latter emperor; in addition, he was militarily passive compared to his predecessors, who had frequently led their armies in person. Commodus usually participated in gladiatorial combats, which were frequently brutal and rough. He killed many citizens, and Cassius Dio identifies his reign as the beginning of Roman decadence: "(Rome has transformed) from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust." ### Severan dynasty Commodus was killed by a conspiracy involving Quintus Aemilius Laetus and his wife Marcia in late 192 AD. The following year is known as the Year of the Five Emperors, during which Helvius Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Pescennius Niger, Clodius Albinus and Septimius Severus held the imperial dignity. Pertinax, a member of the senate who had been one of Marcus Aurelius's right-hand men, was the choice of Laetus, and he ruled vigorously and judiciously. Laetus soon became jealous and instigated Pertinax's murder by the Praetorian Guard, who then auctioned the empire to the highest bidder, Didius Julianus, for 25,000 sesterces per man. The people of Rome were appalled and appealed to the frontier legions to save them. The legions of three frontier provinces—Britannia, Pannonia Superior, and Syria—resented being excluded from the "donative" and replied by declaring their individual generals to be emperor. Lucius Septimius Severus Geta, the Pannonian commander, bribed the opposing forces, pardoned the Praetorian Guards and installed himself as emperor. He and his successors governed with the legions' support. The changes on coinage and military expenditures were the root of the financial crisis that marked the Crisis of the Third Century. #### Septimius Severus Severus was enthroned after invading Rome and having Didius Julianus killed. His two other rivals, Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, were both hailed by other factions as *Imperator*. Severus quickly subdued Niger in Byzantium and promised to Albinus the title of Caesar (which meant he would be a co-emperor). However, Severus betrayed Albinus by blaming him for a plot against his life. Severus marched to Gaul and defeated Albinus. For these acts, Machiavelli said that Severus was "a ferocious lion and a clever fox". Severus attempted to revive totalitarianism and, addressing the Roman people and Senate, praised the severity and cruelty of Marius and Sulla, which worried the senators. When Parthia invaded Roman territory, Severus waged war against that country and seized the cities of Nisibis, Babylon and Seleucia. Reaching Ctesiphon, the Parthian capital, he ordered plundering and his army slew and captured many people. Notwithstanding this military success, Severus failed in invading Hatra, a rich Arabian city. Severus killed his legate, who was gaining respect from the legions; and his soldiers fell victim to famine. After this disastrous campaign, he withdrew. Severus also intended to vanquish the whole of Britannia. To achieve this, he waged war against the Caledonians. After many casualties in the army due to the terrain and the barbarians' ambushes, Severus himself went to the field. However, he became ill and died in 211 AD, at the age of 65. #### From Caracalla to Alexander Severus Upon the death of Severus, his sons Caracalla and Geta were made emperors. During their youth, their squabbles had divided Rome. In that same year Caracalla had his brother, a youth, assassinated in his mother's arms, and may have murdered 20,000 of Geta's followers. Like his father, Caracalla was warlike. He continued Severus' policy and gained respect from the legions. A cruel man, Caracalla was pursued by the guilt of his brother's murder. He ordered the death of people of his own circle, like his tutor, Cilo, and a friend of his father, Papinian. Knowing that the citizens of Alexandria disliked him and were denigrating his character, Caracalla served a banquet for its notable citizens, after which his soldiers killed all the guests. From the security of the temple of Sarapis, he then directed an indiscriminate slaughter of Alexandria's people. In 212, he issued the Edict of Caracalla, giving full Roman citizenship to all free men living in the Empire, with the exception of the *dediticii*, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves. and at the same time raised the inheritance tax, levied only on Roman citizens, to ten per cent. A report that a soothsayer had predicted that the Praetorian prefect Macrinus and his son were to rule over the empire was dutifully sent to Caracalla. But the report fell into the hands of Macrinus, who felt he must act or die. Macrinus conspired to have Caracalla assassinated by one of his soldiers during a pilgrimage to the Temple of the Moon in Carrhae, in 217 AD. The incompetent Macrinus assumed power, but soon removed himself from Rome to the east and Antioch. His brief reign ended in 218, when the youngster Bassianus, high priest of the temple of the Sun at Emesa, and supposedly illegitimate son of Caracalla, was declared Emperor by the disaffected soldiers of Macrinus. Bribes gained Bassianus support from the legionaries and they fought against Macrinus and his Praetorian guards. He adopted the name of Antoninus but history has named him after his Sun god Elagabalus, represented on Earth in the form of a large black stone. An incompetent and lascivious ruler, Elagabalus offended all but his favourites. Cassius Dio, Herodian and the *Historia Augusta* give many accounts of his notorious extravagance. Elagabalus adopted his cousin Severus Alexander, as Caesar, but subsequently grew jealous and attempted to assassinate him. However, the Praetorian guard preferred Alexander, murdered Elagabalus, dragged his mutilated corpse through the streets of Rome, and threw it into the Tiber. Severus Alexander then succeeded him. Alexander waged war against many foes, including the revitalised Persia and also the Germanic peoples, who invaded Gaul. His losses generated dissatisfaction among his soldiers, and some of them murdered him during his Germanic campaign in 235 AD. ### Crisis of the Third Century A disastrous scenario emerged after the death of Alexander Severus: the Roman state was plagued by civil wars, external invasions, political chaos, pandemics and economic depression. The old Roman values had fallen, and Mithraism and Christianity had begun to spread through the populace. Emperors were no longer men linked with nobility; they usually were born in lower-classes of distant parts of the Empire. These men rose to prominence through military ranks, and became emperors through civil wars. There were 26 emperors in a 49-year period, a signal of political instability. Maximinus Thrax was the first ruler of that time, governing for just three years. Others ruled just for a few months, like Gordian I, Gordian II, Balbinus and Hostilian. The population and the frontiers were abandoned, since the emperors were mostly concerned with defeating rivals and establishing their power. The economy also suffered during that epoch. The massive military expenditures from the Severi caused a devaluation of Roman coins. Hyperinflation came at this time as well. The Plague of Cyprian broke out in 250 and killed a huge portion of the population. In 260 AD, the provinces of Syria Palaestina, Asia Minor and Egypt separated from the rest of the Roman state to form the Palmyrene Empire, ruled by Queen Zenobia and centered on Palmyra. In that same year the Gallic Empire was created by Postumus, retaining Britannia and Gaul. These countries separated from Rome after the capture of emperor Valerian by the Sassanids of Persia, the first Roman ruler to be captured by his enemies; it was a humiliating fact for the Romans. The crisis began to recede during the reigns of Claudius Gothicus (268–270), who defeated the Gothic invaders, and Aurelian (271–275), who reconquered both the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires. The crisis was overcome during the reign of Diocletian. Empire – The Tetrarchy ---------------------- ### Diocletian In 284 AD, Diocletian was hailed as Imperator by the eastern army. Diocletian healed the empire from the crisis, by political and economic shifts. A new form of government was established: the Tetrarchy. The Empire was divided among four emperors, two in the West and two in the East. The first tetrarchs were Diocletian (in the East), Maximian (in the West), and two junior emperors, Galerius (in the East) and Flavius Constantius (in the West). To adjust the economy, Diocletian made several tax reforms. Diocletian expelled the Persians who plundered Syria and conquered some barbarian tribes with Maximian. He adopted many behaviours of Eastern monarchs, like wearing pearls and golden sandals and robes. Anyone in the presence of the emperor had now to prostrate himself—a common act in the East, but never practised in Rome before. Diocletian did not use a disguised form of Republic, as the other emperors since Augustus had done. Between 290 and 330, half a dozen new capitals had been established by the members of the Tetrarchy, officially or not: Antioch, Nicomedia, Thessalonike, Sirmium, Milan, and Trier. Diocletian was also responsible for a significant Christian persecution. In 303 he and Galerius started the persecution and ordered the destruction of all the Christian churches and scripts and forbade Christian worship. Diocletian abdicated in 305 AD together with Maximian, thus, he was the first Roman emperor to resign. His reign ended the traditional form of imperial rule, the Principate (from princeps) and started the Tetrarchy. ### Constantine and Christianity Constantine assumed the empire as a tetrarch in 306. He conducted many wars against the other tetrarchs. Firstly he defeated Maxentius in 312. In 313, he issued the Edict of Milan, which granted liberty for Christians to profess their religion. Constantine was converted to Christianity, enforcing the Christian faith. He began the Christianization of the Empire and of Europe—a process concluded by the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. He was defeated by the Franks and the Alamanni during 306–308. In 324 he defeated another tetrarch, Licinius, and controlled all the empire, as it was before Diocletian. To celebrate his victories and Christianity's relevance, he rebuilt Byzantium and renamed it Nova Roma ("New Rome"); but the city soon gained the informal name of Constantinople ("City of Constantine"). The reign of Julian, who under the influence of his adviser Mardonius attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Constantinople served as a new capital for the Empire. In fact, Rome had lost its central importance since the Crisis of the Third Century—Mediolanum was the western capital from 286 to 330, until the reign of Honorius, when Ravenna was made capital, in the 5th century. Constantine's administrative and monetary reforms, that reunited the Empire under one emperor, and rebuilt the city of Byzantium changed the high period of the ancient world. Fall of the Western Roman Empire -------------------------------- In the late 4th and 5th centuries the Western Empire entered a critical stage which terminated with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Under the last emperors of the Constantinian dynasty and the Valentinianic dynasty, Rome lost decisive battles against the Sasanian Empire and Germanic barbarians: in 363, emperor Julian the Apostate was killed in the Battle of Samarra, against the Persians and the Battle of Adrianople cost the life of emperor Valens (364–378); the victorious Goths were never expelled from the Empire nor assimilated. The next emperor, Theodosius I (379–395), gave even more force to the Christian faith, and after his death, the Empire was divided into the Eastern Roman Empire, ruled by Arcadius and the Western Roman Empire, commanded by Honorius, both of which were Theodosius' sons. Ending invasions on Roman Empire between AD 100–500. Visigoths entering Athens. *The Sack of Rome by the Barbarians in 410* by Joseph-Noël Sylvestre. The situation became more critical in 408, after the death of Stilicho, a general who tried to reunite the Empire and repel barbarian invasion in the early years of the 5th century. The professional field army collapsed. In 410, the Theodosian dynasty saw the Visigoths sack Rome. During the 5th century, the Western Empire experienced a significant reduction of its territory. The Vandals conquered North Africa, the Visigoths claimed the southern part of Gaul, Gallaecia was taken by the Suebi, Britannia was abandoned by the central government, and the Empire suffered further from the invasions of Attila, chief of the Huns. General Orestes refused to meet the demands of the barbarian "allies" who now formed the army, and tried to expel them from Italy. Unhappy with this, their chieftain Odoacer defeated and killed Orestes, invaded Ravenna and dethroned Romulus Augustus, son of Orestes. This event of 476, usually marks the end of Classical antiquity and beginning of the Middle Ages. The Roman noble and former emperor Julius Nepos continued to rule as emperor from Dalmatia even after the deposition of Romulus Augustus until his death in 480. Some historians consider him to be the last emperor of the Western Empire instead of Romulus Augustus. After some 1200 years of independence and nearly 700 years as a great power, the rule of Rome in the West ended. Various reasons for Rome's fall have been proposed ever since, including loss of Republicanism, moral decay, military tyranny, class war, slavery, economic stagnation, environmental change, disease, the decline of the Roman race, as well as the inevitable ebb and flow that all civilisations experience. At the time many pagans argued that Christianity and the decline of traditional Roman religion were responsible; some rationalist thinkers of the modern era attribute the fall to a change from a martial to a more pacifist religion that lessened the number of available soldiers; while Christians such as Augustine of Hippo argued that the sinful nature of Roman society itself was to blame. The Eastern Empire had a different fate. It survived for almost 1000 years after the fall of its Western counterpart and became the most stable Christian realm during the Middle Ages. During the 6th century, Justinian reconquered the Italian peninsula from the Ostrogoths, North Africa from the Vandals, and southern Hispania from the Visigoths. But within a few years of Justinian's death, Byzantine possessions in Italy were greatly reduced by the Lombards who settled in the peninsula. In the east, partially due to the weakening effect of the Plague of Justinian, the Byzantines were threatened by the rise of Islam. Its followers rapidly brought about the conquest of the Levant, the conquest of Armenia and the conquest of Egypt during the Arab–Byzantine wars, and soon presented a direct threat to Constantinople. In the following century, the Arabs also captured southern Italy and Sicily. On the west, Slavic populations were also able to penetrate deep into the Balkans. The Byzantines, however, managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and, beginning in the 9th century, reclaimed parts of the conquered lands. In 1000 AD, the Eastern Empire was at its height: Basil II reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia, and culture and trade flourished. However, soon after, this expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 with the Byzantine defeat in the Battle of Manzikert. The aftermath of this battle sent the empire into a protracted period of decline. Two decades of internal strife and Turkic invasions ultimately led Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to send a call for help to the Western European kingdoms in 1095. The West responded with the Crusades, eventually resulting in the Sack of Constantinople by participants of the Fourth Crusade. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 fragmented what remained of the Empire into successor states; the ultimate victor was the Empire of Nicaea. After the recapture of Constantinople by Imperial forces, the Empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the Aegean coast. The Byzantine Empire collapsed when Mehmed the Conqueror conquered Constantinople on 29 May 1453. Society ------- The imperial city of Rome was the largest urban center in the empire, with a population variously estimated from 450,000 to close to one million. The public spaces in Rome resounded with such a din of hooves and clatter of iron chariot wheels that Julius Caesar had once proposed a ban on chariot traffic during the day. Historical estimates show that around 20 per cent of the population under jurisdiction of ancient Rome (25–40%, depending on the standards used, in Roman Italy) lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of 10,000 and more and several military settlements, a very high rate of urbanisation by pre-industrial standards. Most of those centers had a forum, temples, and other buildings similar to Rome's. Average life expectancy was about 28.[*timeframe?*] ### Law The roots of the legal principles and practices of the ancient Romans may be traced to the Law of the Twelve Tables promulgated in 449 BC and to the codification of law issued by order of Emperor Justinian I around 530 AD (see Corpus Juris Civilis). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the Byzantine Empire, and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century. The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome, as contained within the Justinian and Theodosian law codes, consisted of *Jus civile*, *Jus gentium*, and *Jus naturale*. The *Jus civile* ("Citizen Law") was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens. The *praetores urbani* (*sg. Praetor Urbanus*) were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The *Jus gentium* ("Law of nations") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens. The *praetores peregrini* (*sg. Praetor Peregrinus*) were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. *Jus naturale* encompassed natural law, the body of laws that were considered common to all beings. ### Class structure Roman society is largely viewed as hierarchical, with slaves (*servi*) at the bottom, freedmen (*liberti*) above them, and free-born citizens (*cives*) at the top. Free citizens were also divided by class. The broadest, and earliest, division was between the patricians, who could trace their ancestry to one of the 100 patriarchs at the founding of the city, and the plebeians, who could not. This became less important in the later Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered politics, and some patrician families fell economically. Anyone, patrician or plebeian, who could count a consul as his ancestor was a noble (*nobilis*); a man who was the first of his family to hold the consulship, such as Marius or Cicero, was known as a *novus homo* ("new man") and ennobled his descendants. Patrician ancestry, however, still conferred considerable prestige, and many religious offices remained restricted to patricians. A class division originally based on military service became more important. Membership of these classes was determined periodically by the censors, according to property. The wealthiest were the Senatorial class, who dominated politics and command of the army. Next came the equestrians (*equites*, sometimes translated "knights"), originally those who could afford a warhorse, and who formed a powerful mercantile class. Several further classes, originally based on the military equipment their members could afford, followed, with the *proletarii*, citizens who had no property other than their children, at the bottom. Before the reforms of Marius they were ineligible for military service and are often described as being just above freed slaves in wealth and prestige. Voting power in the Republic depended on class. Citizens were enrolled in voting "tribes", but the tribes of the richer classes had fewer members than the poorer ones, all the *proletarii* being enrolled in a single tribe. Voting was done in class order, from top down, and stopped as soon as most of the tribes had been reached, so the poorer classes were often unable to cast their votes. Women in ancient Rome shared some basic rights with their male counterparts, but were not fully regarded as citizens and were thus not allowed to vote or take part in politics. At the same time the limited rights of women were gradually expanded (due to emancipation) and women reached freedom from *pater familias*, gained property rights and even had more juridical rights than their husbands, but still no voting rights, and were absent from politics. Allied foreign cities were often given the Latin Rights, an intermediary level between full citizens and foreigners (*peregrini*), which gave their citizens rights under Roman law and allowed their leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. While there were varying degrees of Latin rights, the main division was between those *cum suffragio* ("with vote"; enrolled in a Roman tribe and able to take part in the *comitia tributa*) and *sine suffragio* ("without vote"; could not take part in Roman politics). Most of Rome's Italian allies were given full citizenship after the Social War of 91–88 BC, and full Roman citizenship was extended to all free-born men in the Empire by Caracalla in 212, with the exception of the *dediticii*, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves. ### Education In the early Republic, there were no public schools, so boys were taught to read and write by their parents, or by educated slaves, called *paedagogi*, usually of Greek origin. The primary aim of education during this period was to train young men in agriculture, warfare, Roman traditions, and public affairs. Young boys learned much about civic life by accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions, including the Senate for the sons of nobles. The sons of nobles were apprenticed to a prominent political figure at the age of 16, and campaigned with the army from the age of 17 (this system was still in use among some noble families into the imperial era). Educational practices were modified after the conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the 3rd century BC and the resulting Greek influence, although Roman educational practices were still much different from Greek ones. If their parents could afford it, boys and some girls at the age of 7 were sent to a private school outside the home called a *ludus*, where a teacher (called a *litterator* or a *magister ludi*, and often of Greek origin) taught them basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and sometimes Greek, until the age of 11. Beginning at age 12, students went to secondary schools, where the teacher (now called a *grammaticus*) taught them about Greek and Roman literature. At the age of 16, some students went on to rhetoric school (where the teacher, usually Greek, was called a *rhetor*). Education at this level prepared students for legal careers, and required that the students memorise the laws of Rome. Pupils went to school every day, except religious festivals and market days. There were also summer holidays. ### Government Initially, Rome was ruled by kings, who were elected from each of Rome's major tribes in turn. The exact nature of the king's power is uncertain. He may have held near-absolute power, or may also have merely been the chief executive of the Senate and the people. At least in military matters, the king's authority (*Imperium*) was likely absolute. He was also the head of the state religion. In addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative assemblies: the Senate, which acted as an advisory body for the King; the Comitia Curiata, which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King; and the Comitia Calata, which was an assembly of the priestly college that could assemble the people to bear witness to certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the feast and holiday schedule for the next month. The class struggles of the Roman Republic resulted in an unusual mixture of democracy and oligarchy. The word republic comes from the Latin *res publica*, which literally translates to "public business". Roman laws traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly (Comitia Tributa). Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people. However, the Roman Senate represented an oligarchic institution, which acted as an advisory body. In the Republic, the Senate held actual authority (*auctoritas*), but no real legislative power; it was technically only an advisory council. However, as the Senators were individually very influential, it was difficult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New senators were chosen from among the most accomplished patricians by censors (*Censura*), who could also remove a senator from his office if he was found "morally corrupt"; a charge that could include bribery or, as under Cato the Elder, embracing one's wife in public. Later, under the reforms of the dictator Sulla, quaestors were made automatic members of the Senate, though most of his reforms did not survive. The Republic had no fixed bureaucracy, and collected taxes through the practice of tax farming. Government positions such as quaestor, aedile, or praefect were funded by the office-holder. To prevent any citizen from gaining too much power, new magistrates were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague. For example, under normal conditions, the highest authority was held by two consuls. In an emergency, a temporary dictator could be appointed. Throughout the Republic, the administrative system was revised several times to comply with new demands. In the end, it proved inefficient for controlling the ever-expanding dominion of Rome, contributing to the establishment of the Roman Empire. In the early Empire, the pretense of a republican form of government was maintained. The Roman Emperor was portrayed as only a *princeps*, or "first citizen", and the Senate gained legislative power and all legal authority previously held by the popular assemblies. However, the rule of the Emperors became increasingly autocratic, and the Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the Emperor. The Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic, since the Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the Senate. The Emperor appointed assistants and advisers, but the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally planned budget. Some historians have cited this as a significant reason for the decline of the Roman Empire. ### Military The early Roman army (c. 500 BC) was, like those of other contemporary city-states influenced by Greek civilisation, a citizen *militia* that practised hoplite tactics. It was small (the population of free men of military age was then about 9,000) and organised in five classes (in parallel to the *comitia centuriata*, the body of citizens organised politically), with three providing hoplites and two providing light infantry. The early Roman army was tactically limited and its stance during this period was essentially defensive. By the 3rd century BC, the Romans abandoned the hoplite formation in favour of a more flexible system in which smaller groups of 120 (or sometimes 60) men called *maniples* could manoeuvre more independently on the battlefield. Thirty maniples arranged in three lines with supporting troops constituted a legion, totalling between 4,000 and 5,000 men. The early Republican legion consisted of five sections, each of which was equipped differently and had different places in formation: the three lines of manipular heavy infantry (*hastati*, *principes* and *triarii)*, a force of light infantry (*velites*), and the cavalry (*equites*). With the new organisation came a new orientation toward the offensive and a much more aggressive posture toward adjoining city-states. At nominal full strength, an early Republican legion included 3,600 to 4,800 heavy infantry, several hundred light infantry, and several hundred cavalrymen. Legions were often significantly understrength from recruitment failures or following periods of active service due to accidents, battle casualties, disease and desertion. During the Civil War, Pompey's legions in the east were at full strength because they were recently recruited, while Caesar's legions were often well below nominal strength after long active service in Gaul. This pattern also held true for auxiliary forces. Until the late Republican period, the typical legionary was a property-owning citizen farmer from a rural area (an *adsiduus*) who served for particular (often annual) campaigns, and who supplied his own equipment and, in the case of *equites*, his own mount. Harris suggests that down to 200 BC, the average rural farmer might participate in six or seven campaigns. Freedmen, slaves, and urban citizens served only in rare emergencies. After 200 BC, economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpower needs increased, so that the property qualifications for compulsory service were gradually reduced. Beginning with Gaius Marius in 107 BC, citizens without property and some urban-dwelling citizens (*proletarii*) were enlisted and provided with equipment, although most legionaries continued to come from rural areas. Terms of service became continuous and long—up to twenty years if emergencies required although six- or seven-year terms were more typical. Beginning in the 3rd century BC, legionaries were paid a stipend (*stipendium*). The amounts are disputed; Caesar doubled his troop payments to 225 *denarii* a year. Troops could anticipate booty and donatives from their commanders to reward successful campaigns and, beginning at the time of Marius, could be granted allotments of land on retirement. The cavalry and light infantry attached to a legion (the *auxilia*) were often recruited from the areas where the legion served. Caesar formed a legion, the Fifth Alaudae, from non-citizens in Transalpine Gaul to serve in his campaigns in Gaul. By the time of Augustus, the ideal of the citizen-soldier had been abandoned and the legions had become fully professional. Ordinary legionaries received 900 *sesterces* a year and could expect 12,000 *sesterces* on retirement. At the end of the Civil War, Augustus reorganised Roman military forces, discharging soldiers and disbanding legions. He retained 28 legions, distributed through the provinces of the Empire. During the Principate, the tactical organisation of the Army continued to evolve. The *auxilia* remained independent cohorts, and legionary troops often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions. A new and versatile type of unit, the *cohortes equitatae*, combined cavalry and legionaries in a single formation. They could be stationed at garrisons or outposts and could fight on their own as balanced small forces or combine with similar units as a larger, legion-sized force. This increase in organizational flexibility helped ensure the long-term success of Roman military forces. The Emperor Gallienus (253–268 AD) began a reorganisation that created the last military structure of the late Empire. Withdrawing some legionaries from the fixed bases on the border, Gallienus created mobile forces (the *comitatenses* or field armies) and stationed them behind and at some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve. The border troops (*limitanei*) stationed at fixed bases continued to be the first line of defence. The basic units of the field army were regimental; *legiones* or *auxilia* for infantry and *vexillationes* for cavalry. Nominal strengths may have been 1,200 men for infantry regiments and 600 for cavalry, but actual troop levels could have been much lower—800 infantry and 400 cavalry. Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a *comes*. Field armies included regiments recruited from allied tribes and known as *foederati*. By 400 AD, *foederati* regiments had become permanently established units of the Roman army, paid and equipped by the Empire, led by a Roman tribune and used just as Roman units were used. The Empire also used groups of barbarians to fight along with the legions as allies without integration into the field armies, under overall command of a Roman general, but led by their own officers. Military leadership evolved over the course of the history of Rome. Under the monarchy, the hoplite armies were led by the kings. During the early and middle Roman Republic, military forces were under the command of one of the two elected consuls for the year. During the later Republic, members of the Roman Senatorial elite, as part of the normal sequence of elected public offices known as the *cursus honorum*, would have served first as *quaestor* (often posted as deputies to field commanders), then as *praetor*. Julius Caesar's most talented, effective and reliable subordinate in Gaul, Titus Labienus, was recommended to him by Pompey. Following the end of a term as praetor or consul, a Senator might be appointed by the Senate as a *propraetor* or *proconsul* (depending on the highest office held before) to govern a foreign province. More junior officers (down to but not including the level of centurion) were selected by their commanders from their own *clientelae* or those recommended by political allies among the Senatorial elite. Under Augustus, whose most important political priority was to place the military under a permanent and unitary command, the Emperor was the legal commander of each legion but exercised that command through a *legatus* (legate) he appointed from the Senatorial elite. In a province with a single legion, the legate commanded the legion (*legatus legionis*) and also served as provincial governor, while in a province with more than one legion, each legion was commanded by a legate and the legates were commanded by the provincial governor (also a legate but of higher rank). During the later stages of the Imperial period (beginning perhaps with Diocletian), the Augustan model was abandoned. Provincial governors were stripped of military authority, and command of the armies in a group of provinces was given to generals (*duces*) appointed by the Emperor. These were no longer members of the Roman elite but men who came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering. With increasing frequency, these men attempted (sometimes successfully) to usurp the positions of the Emperors who had appointed them. Decreased resources, increasing political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attack and takeover by neighbouring barbarian peoples. #### Roman navy Less is known about the Roman navy than the Roman army. Prior to the middle of the 3rd century BC, officials known as *duumviri navales* commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to control piracy. This fleet was given up in 278 AD and replaced by allied forces. The First Punic War required that Rome build large fleets, and it did so largely with the assistance of and financing from allies. This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Republic. The quinquereme was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more manoeuvrable vessels. As compared with a trireme, the quinquereme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen (an advantage for a primarily land-based power), and its lesser manoeuvrability permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect boarding tactics using a troop of about 40 marines in lieu of the ram. Ships were commanded by a *navarch*, a rank equal to a centurion, who was usually not a citizen. Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated by non-Romans, the navy was considered non-Roman and allowed to atrophy in times of peace. Information suggests that by the time of the late Empire (350 AD), the Roman navy comprised several fleets including warships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply. Warships were oared sailing galleys with three to five banks of oarsmen. Fleet bases included such ports as Ravenna, Arles, Aquilea, Misenum and the mouth of the Somme River in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East. Flotillas of small river craft (*classes*) were part of the *limitanei* (border troops) during this period, based at fortified river harbours along the Rhine and the Danube. That prominent generals commanded both armies and fleets suggests that naval forces were treated as auxiliaries to the army and not as an independent service. The details of command structure and fleet strengths during this period are not well known, although fleets were commanded by prefects. ### Economy Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human resources. As such, Rome's economy remained focused on farming and trade. Agricultural free trade changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast grape and olive estates had supplanted the yeoman farmers, who were unable to match the imported grain price. The annexation of Egypt, Sicily and Tunisia in North Africa provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, olive oil and wine were Italy's main exports. Two-tier crop rotation was practised, but farm productivity was low, around 1 ton per hectare. Industrial and manufacturing activities were small. The largest such activities were the mining and quarrying of stones, which provided basic construction materials for the buildings of that period. In manufacturing, production was on a relatively small scale, and generally consisted of workshops and small factories that employed at most dozens of workers. However, some brick factories employed hundreds of workers. The economy of the early Republic was largely based on smallholding and paid labour. However, foreign wars and conquests made slaves increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on slave labour for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman Empire's population at this time and 40% in the city of Rome. Only in the Roman Empire, when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, did hired labour become more economical than slave ownership. Although barter was used in ancient Rome, and often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed coinage system, with brass, bronze, and precious metal coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond—some have even been discovered in India. Before the 3rd century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, across central Italy. The original copper coins (*as*) had a face value of one Roman pound of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its intrinsic value as metal. After Nero began debasing the silver denarius, its legal value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic value. Horses were expensive and other pack animals were slower. Mass trade on the Roman roads connected military posts, where Roman markets were centered. These roads were designed for wheels. As a result, there was transport of commodities between Roman regions, but increased with the rise of Roman maritime trade in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from Gades to Alexandria via Ostia, spanning the entire length of the Mediterranean. Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips was much larger. Some economists consider the Roman Empire a market economy, similar in its degree of capitalistic practices to 17th century Netherlands and 18th century England. ### Family The basic units of Roman society were households and families. Groups of households connected through the male line formed a family (*gens*), based on blood ties, a common ancestry or adoption. During the Roman Republic, some powerful families, or *Gentes Maiores*, came to dominate political life. Families were headed by their oldest male citizen, the *pater familias* (father of the family), who held lawful authority (*patria potestas*, "father's power") over wives, sons, daughters, and slaves of the household, and the family's wealth. The extreme expressions of this power—the selling or killing of family members for moral or civil offences, including simple disobedience—were very rarely exercised, and were forbidden in the Imperial era. A *pater familias* had moral and legal duties towards all family members. Even the most despotic *pater familias* was expected to consult senior members of his household and *gens* over matters that affected the family's well-being and reputation. Traditionally, such matters were regarded as outside the purview of the state and its magistrates; under the emperors, they were increasingly subject to state interference and legislation. Once accepted into their birth family by their fathers, children were potential heirs. They could not be lawfully given away, or sold into slavery. If parents were unable to care for their child, or if its paternity was in doubt, they could resort to infant exposure (Boswell translates this as being "offered" up to care by the gods or strangers). If a deformed or sickly newborn was patently "unfit to live", killing it was a duty of the *pater familias*. A citizen father who exposed a healthy freeborn child was not punished, but automatically lost his *potestas* over that child. Abandoned children were sometimes adopted; some would have been sold into slavery. Slavery was near-ubiquitous and almost universally accepted. In the early Republic, citizens in debt were allowed to sell their labour, and perhaps their sons, to their debtor in a limited form of slavery called *nexum*, but this violated the fundamental conditions of citizenship and was abolished in the middle Republic. Freedom was considered a natural and proper state for citizens; slaves could be lawfully freed, with consent and support of their owners, and still serve their owners' family and financial interests, as freedmen or freed women. This was the basis of the client-patron relationship, one of the most important features of Rome's economy and society. In law, a *pater familias* held *potestas* over his adult sons with their own households. This could give rise to legal anomalies, such as adult sons also having the status of minors. No man could be considered a *pater familias*, nor could he truly hold property under law, while his own father lived. During Rome's early history, married daughters came under the control (*manus*) of their husbands' *pater familias*. By the late Republic, most married women retained lawful connection to their birth family, though any children from the marriage belonged to her husband's family. The mother or an elderly relative often raised both boys and girls. Roman moralists held that marriage and child-raising fulfilled a basic duty to family, *gens*, and the state. Marriage could help conserve or extend a family's wealth, bloodline and political connections. Multiple remarriages were not uncommon. Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their daughters when these reached an age between twelve and fourteen, but most commoner-class women stayed single until their twenties, and in general seem to have been far more independent than wives of the elite. Divorce required the consent of one party, along with the return of any dowry. Both parents had power over their children during their minority and adulthood, but husbands had much less control over their wives. Roman citizen women held a restricted form of citizenship; they could not vote but were protected by law. They ran families, could own and run businesses, own and cultivate land, write their own wills, and plead in court on their own behalf, or on behalf of others, all under dispensation of the courts and the nominal supervision of a senior male relative. Throughout the late Republican and Imperial eras, a declining birthrate among the elite, and a corresponding increase among commoners was cause of concern for many *gentes*; Augustus tried to address this through state intervention, offering financial and other rewards to any woman who gave birth to three or more children, and penalising the childless. The latter was much resented, and the former had seemingly negligible results. Aristocratic women seem to have been increasingly disinclined to childbearing; it carried a high risk of mortality to mothers, and a deal of inconvenience thereafter for those who preferred an independent lifestyle. ### Time and dates Roman hours were counted ordinally from dawn to dawn. Thus, if sunrise was at 6 am, then 6 to 7 am was called the "first hour", 12 noon to 1 pm the "sixth hour" and so on. Midday was called *meridies* and it is from this word that the terms *am* (*ante meridiem*) and *pm* (*post meridiem*) stem. The English word "noon" comes from *nona* ("ninth (hour)"), which referred to 3 pm in Ancient Rome. The Romans had clocks (*horologia*), which included giant public sundials (*solaria*) and water clocks (*clepsydrae*). The ancient Roman week originally had eight days, which were identified by letters A to H, with the eighth day being the nundinum or market day, a kind of weekend when farmers sold their produce on the streets. The seven-day week, first introduced from the East during the early Empire, was officially adopted during the reign of Constantine. Romans named week days after celestial bodies from at least the 1st century AD, a custom that was inherited by other peoples and is still found in many modern languages, including English. Roman months had three important days: the calends (first day of each month, always in plural), the ides (13th or 15th of the month), and the nones (ninth day before the ides, inclusive, i.e. 5th or 7th of the month). Other days were counted backwards from the next one of these days. For example, what we call 6 February, the Romans called *ante diem VIII idus Februarias* (inclusively the eighth day before the ides of February, which was 13 February). The Roman year originally had ten months from Martius (March) to December, with the winter period not included in the calendar. The first four months were named after gods (Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius) and the others were numbered (Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, and December). Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome (716–673 BC), is said to have introduced the months of January and February, both also named after gods, beginning the 12-month calendar still in use today. In 44 BC, the month Quintilis was renamed to Julius (July) after Julius Caesar and in 8 BC, Sextilis was renamed to Augustus (August) after Augustus Caesar. The Romans had several ways of tracking years. One widespread way was the consular dating, which identified years by the two consuls who ruled each year (their term was limited to one year); it was introduced in the Republic and continued to be used in the Empire, even though the consular post was reduced to a ceremonial one during that latter period. Another way, introduced in the late 3rd century AD, was counting years from the *indictio*, a 15-year period based on the announcement of the delivery of food and other goods to the government. Another way, less popular but more similar to the way we currently count years, was *ab urbe condita*, which counted years from the mythical foundation of Rome in 753 BC. Thus, the year 653 BC would be 100 AUC, 1000 AD would be 1752 AUC (as there was no year 0 AD or BC) and so on. Culture ------- Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on seven hills. The city had a vast number of monumental structures like the Colosseum, the Trajan's Forum and the Pantheon. It had theatres, gymnasiums, marketplaces, functional sewers, bath complexes complete with libraries and shops, and fountains with fresh drinking water supplied by hundreds of miles of aqueducts. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from modest houses to country villas. In the capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word *palace* derives. The low plebeian and middle equestrian classes lived in the city center, packed into apartments, or insulae, which were almost like modern ghettos. These areas, often built by upper class property owners to rent, were often centred upon collegia or taberna. These people, provided with a free supply of grain, and entertained by gladiatorial games, were enrolled as clients of patrons among the upper class patricians, whose assistance they sought and whose interests they upheld. ### Language The native language of the Romans was Latin, an Italic language the grammar of which relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to word stems. Its alphabet was based on the Etruscan alphabet, which was in turn based on the Greek alphabet. Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an artificial and highly stylised and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the spoken language of the Roman Empire was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar and vocabulary, and eventually in pronunciation. Speakers of Latin could understand both until the 7th century when spoken Latin began to diverge so much that 'Classical' or 'Good Latin' had to be learned as a second language. While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, Greek came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which later became the Eastern Roman Empire, Latin was never able to replace Greek, and after the death of Justinian, Greek became the official language of the Eastern government. The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and Vulgar Latin evolved into dialects in different locations, gradually shifting into many distinct Romance languages. ### Religion Archaic Roman religion, at least concerning the gods, was made up not of written narratives, but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans. Unlike in Greek mythology, the gods were not personified, but were vaguely defined sacred spirits called *numina*. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its own *genius*, or divine soul. During the Roman Republic, Roman religion was organised under a strict system of priestly offices, which were held by men of senatorial rank. The College of Pontifices was uppermost body in this hierarchy, and its chief priest, the *Pontifex Maximus*, was the head of the state religion. Flamens took care of the cults of various gods, while augurs were trusted with taking the auspices. The sacred king took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings. In the Roman Empire, deceased emperors who had ruled well were deified by their successors and the Senate. and the formalised imperial cult became increasingly prominent. As contact with the Greeks increased, the old Roman gods became increasingly associated with Greek gods. Thus, Jupiter was perceived to be the same deity as Zeus, Mars became associated with Ares, and Neptune with Poseidon. The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and mythologies of these Greek gods. Under the Empire, the Romans absorbed the mythologies of their conquered subjects, often leading to situations in which the temples and priests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those of foreign gods. Beginning with Emperor Nero in the 1st century AD, Roman official policy towards Christianity was negative, and at some point, being a Christian could be punishable by death. Under Emperor Diocletian, the persecution of Christians reached its peak. However, it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under Diocletian's successor, Constantine I, with the signing of the Edict of Milan in 313, and quickly became dominant. All religions except Christianity were prohibited in 391 AD by an edict of Emperor Theodosius I. ### Ethics and morality Like many ancient cultures, concepts of ethics and morality, while sharing some commonalities with modern society, differed greatly in several important ways. Because ancient civilisations like Rome were under constant threat of attack from marauding tribes, their culture was necessarily militaristic with martial skills being a prized attribute. Whereas modern societies consider compassion a virtue, Roman society considered compassion a vice, a moral defect. Indeed, one of the primary purposes of the gladiatorial games was to inoculate Roman citizens from this weakness. Romans instead prized virtues such as courage and conviction (*virtus*), a sense of duty to one's people, moderation and avoiding excess (*moderatio*), forgiveness and understanding (*clementia*), fairness (*severitas*), and loyalty (*pietas*). Contrary to popular descriptions, Roman society had well-established and restrictive norms related to sexuality, though as with many societies, the lion's share of the responsibilities fell on women. Women were generally expected to be monogamous having only a single husband during their life (*univira*), though this was much less regarded by the elite, especially under the empire. Women were expected to be modest in public avoiding any provocative appearance and to demonstrate absolute fidelity to their husbands (*pudicitia*). Indeed, wearing a veil was a common expectation to preserve modesty. Sex outside of marriage was generally frowned upon for men and women and indeed was made illegal during the imperial period. Nevertheless, prostitution was seen entirely differently and indeed was an accepted and regulated practice. Public demonstrations of death, violence, and brutality were used as a source of entertainment in Roman communities; however it was also a way to maintain social order, demonstrate power, and signify communal unity. Spectators ranging from senators to women and slaves, would fill into the tiered levels in the Colosseum and this was often seen as a metaphor for Rome's hierarchically ordered society. In Rome violence was omnipresent which is why Roman society thrived and has always rigorously appreciated it whether it was in an arena or in an amphitheater. Rome was in origin a warrior society and it remained their primary characteristic throughout history. ### Art, music and literature Roman painting styles show Greek influences, and surviving examples are primarily frescoes used to adorn the walls and ceilings of country villas, though Roman literature includes mentions of paintings on wood, ivory, and other materials. Several examples of Roman painting have been found at Pompeii, and from these art historians divide the history of Roman painting into four periods. The first style of Roman painting was practised from the early 2nd century BC to the early- or mid-1st century BC. It was mainly composed of imitations of marble and masonry, though sometimes including depictions of mythological characters. The second style began during the early 1st century BC and attempted to depict realistically three-dimensional architectural features and landscapes. The third style occurred during the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), and rejected the realism of the second style in favour of simple ornamentation. A small architectural scene, landscape, or abstract design was placed in the center with a monochrome background. The fourth style, which began in the 1st century AD, depicted scenes from mythology, while retaining architectural details and abstract patterns. Portrait sculpture during the period[*which?*] utilised youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. During the Antonine and Severan periods, ornate hair and bearding, with deep cutting and drilling, became popular. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victories. Latin literature was, from its start, influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. Roman music was largely based on Greek music, and played an important part in many aspects of Roman life. In the Roman military, musical instruments such as the *tuba* (a long trumpet) or the *cornu* were used to give various commands, while the *buccina* (possibly a trumpet or horn) and the *lituus* (probably an elongated J-shaped instrument), were used in ceremonial capacities. Music was used in the Roman amphitheatres between fights and in the *odea*, and in these settings is known to have featured the *cornu* and the *hydraulis* (a type of water organ). Most religious rituals featured musical performances, with *tibiae* (double pipes) at sacrifices, cymbals and tambourines at orgiastic cults, and rattles and hymns across the spectrum. Some music historians believe that music was used at almost all public ceremonies. Music historians are not certain if Roman musicians made a significant contribution to the theory or practice of music. The graffiti, brothels, paintings, and sculptures found in Pompeii and Herculaneum suggest that the Romans had a sex-saturated culture. ### Cuisine Ancient Roman cuisine changed over the long duration of this ancient civilisation. Dietary habits were affected by the influence of Greek culture, the political changes from Kingdom to Republic to Empire, and the Empire's enormous expansion, which exposed Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques. In the beginning the differences between social classes were relatively small, but disparities evolved with the Empire's growth. Men and women drank wine with their meals, a tradition that has been carried through to the present day. #### Ingredients The ancient Roman diet included many items that are staples of modern Italian cooking. Pliny the Elder discussed more than 30 varieties of olive, 40 kinds of pear, figs (native and imported from Africa and the eastern provinces), and a wide variety of vegetables, including carrots (of different colours, but not orange) as well as celery, garlic, some flower bulbs, cabbage and other brassicas (such as kale and broccoli), lettuce, endive, onion, leek, asparagus, radishes, turnips, parsnips, beets, green peas, chard, cardoons, olives, and cucumber. However, some foods now considered characteristic of modern Italian cuisine were not used. In particular, spinach and eggplant (aubergine) were introduced later from the Arab world, and tomatoes, potatoes, capsicum peppers, and maize (the modern source of polenta) only appeared in Europe following the discovery of the New World and the Columbian Exchange. The Romans knew of rice, but it was very rarely available to them. There were also few citrus fruits. Lemons were known in Italy from the second century AD but were not widely cultivated. Butcher's meat such as beef was an uncommon luxury. The most popular meat was pork, especially sausages. Fish was more common than meat, with a sophisticated aquaculture and large-scale industries devoted to oyster farming. The Romans also engaged in snail farming and oak grub farming. Some fish were greatly esteemed and fetched high prices, such as mullet raised in the fishery at Cosa, and "elaborate means were invented to assure its freshness". #### Meals Traditionally, a breakfast called *ientaculum* was served at dawn. At mid-day to early afternoon, Romans ate *cena*, the main meal of the day, and at nightfall a light supper called *vesperna*. With the increased importation of foreign foods, the *cena* grew larger in size and included a wider range of foods. Thus, it gradually shifted to the evening, while the *vesperna* was abandoned completely over the course of the years. The mid-day meal *prandium* became a light meal to hold one over until *cena*. Among the lower classes of the Roman society, these changes were less pronounced as the traditional routines corresponded closely to the daily rhythms of manual labour. ### Fashion The toga, a common garment during the era of Julius Caesar, was gradually abandoned by all social classes of the Empire. At the early 4th century, the toga had become just a garment worn by senators in Senate and ceremonial events (in some ways from an everyday garment the toga has become the Roman equivalent of the modern suit). At the 4th century, the toga was replaced by the *paenula* (a garment similar to a poncho) as the everyday garment of the Romans, from the lower classes to the upper classes. Another garment that was popular among the Romans in the later years of the Western Roman Empire was the *pallium*, which was mostly worn by philosophers and scholars in general. Due to external influences, mainly from the Germanic peoples, the Romans adopted tunics very similar to those used by the Germanic peoples with whom they interacted in the final years of the Western Empire, also adopted trousers and hats like the *pileus pannonicus*. At the Late Empire the *paludamentum* (a type of military clothing) was used only by the Emperor of Rome (since the reign of Augustus, the first emperor) and the upper-class women over time began to use dalmatic (also used by Christian clergy) ### Games and recreation The youth of Rome had several forms of athletic play and exercise. Play for boys was supposed to prepare them for active military service, such as jumping, wrestling, boxing, and racing. In the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting. The Romans also had several forms of ball playing, including one resembling handball. Dice games, board games, and gamble games were popular pastimes. For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings. The majority, less well-off, sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, but for most Romans, recreational dining usually meant patronising taverns.Children entertained themselves with toys and such games as leapfrog. Public games and spectacles were sponsored by leading Romans who wished to advertise their generosity and court popular approval; in Rome or its provinces, this usually meant the emperor or his governors. Venues in Rome and the provinces were developed specifically for public games. Rome's Colisseum was built in 70 AD under the Roman emperor Vespasian and opened in 80 AD to host other events and gladiatorial combats. These combats had begun as funeral games in 264 BC, when the first gladiator contest was at the funeral for a Roman aristocrat D. Junius Brutus Pera. It became popular spectator events in the late Republic and Empire. These events would be held at the Colosseum and for centuries an abundant amount of killing occurred within the walls of the Colosseum. It is estimated that 400,000 people died in the Colosseum. Gladiators had an exotic and inventive variety of arms and armour. They sometimes fought to the death, but more often to an adjudicated victory, dependent on a referee's decision. The outcome was usually in keeping with the mood of the watching crowd. Shows of exotic animals were popular in their own right; but sometimes animals were pitted against human beings, either armed professionals or unarmed criminals who had been condemned to a spectacular and theatrical public death in the arena. Some of these encounters were based on episodes from Roman or Greek mythology. Chariot racing was extremely popular among all classes. In Rome, these races were usually held at the Circus Maximus, which had been purpose-built for chariot and horse-racing and, as Rome's largest public place, was also used for festivals and animal shows. It could seat around 150,000 people; The charioteers raced in teams, identified by their colours. The track was divided lengthwise by a barrier that contained obelisks, temples, statues and lap-counters. The best seats were at the track-side, close to the action; they were reserved for Senators. Behind them sat the equites (knights), and behind the knights were the plebs (commoners) and non-citizens. The donor of the games sat on a high platform in the stands alongside images of the gods, visible to all. Large sums were bet on the outcomes of races. Some Romans offered prayers and sacrifices on behalf of their favourites, or illegally laid curses on the opposing teams, and some aficionados were members of extremely, even violently partisan circus factions. Technology ---------- Ancient Rome boasted impressive technological feats, using many advancements that were lost in the Middle Ages and not rivalled again until the 19th and 20th centuries. An example of this is insulated glazing, which was not invented again until the 1930s. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek designs. Advancements were often divided and based on craft. Artisans guarded technologies as trade secrets. Roman civil engineering and military engineering constituted a large part of Rome's technological superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds of roads, bridges, aqueducts, public baths, theatres and arenas. Many monuments, such as the Colosseum, Pont du Gard, and Pantheon, remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture. The Romans were renowned for their architecture, which is grouped with Greek traditions into "Classical architecture". Although there were many differences from Greek architecture, Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new orders of columns, composite and Tuscan, and from the dome, which was derived from the Etruscan arch, Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic. In the 1st century BC, Romans started to use Roman concrete widely. Concrete was invented in the late 3rd century BC. It was a powerful cement derived from pozzolana, and soon supplanted marble as the chief Roman building material and allowed many daring architectural forms. Also in the 1st century BC, Vitruvius wrote *De architectura*, possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history. In the late 1st century BC, Rome also began to use glassblowing soon after its invention in Syria about 50 BC. Mosaics took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved during Lucius Cornelius Sulla's campaigns in Greece. The Romans also largely built using timber, causing a rapid decline of the woodlands surrounding Rome and in much of the Apennine Mountains due to the demand for wood for construction, shipbuilding and fire. The first evidence of long-distance wood trading come from the discovery of wood planks, felled between AD 40 and 60, coming from the Jura mountains in northeastern France and ending up more than 1,055 miles (1,700 km) away, in the foundations of a lavish portico that was part of a vast wealthy patrician villa, in Central Rome. It is suggested that timber, around 4 metres (13 ft) long, came up to Rome via the Tiber River on ships travelling across the Mediterranean Sea from the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers in what is now the city of Lyon in present-day France. With solid foundations and good drainage, Roman roads were known for their durability and many segments of the Roman road system were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Empire dramatically increased Rome's power and influence. They allowed Roman legions to be deployed rapidly, with predictable marching times between key points of the empire, no matter the season. These highways also had enormous economic significance, solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads—the origin of the saying "all roads lead to Rome". The Roman government maintained a system of way stations, known as the *cursus publicus*, that provided refreshments to couriers at regular intervals along the roads and established a system of horse relays allowing a dispatch to travel up to 80 km (50 mi) a day. The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to aid in their agriculture. By the third century, the city of Rome was supplied by 11 aqueducts with a combined length of 450 km (280 mi). Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface, with only small portions above ground supported by arches. Sometimes, where valleys deeper than 500 m (1,640 ft) had to be crossed, inverted siphons were used to convey water across a valley. The Romans also made major advancements in sanitation. Romans were particularly famous for their public baths, called *thermae*, which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses came to have flush toilets and indoor plumbing, and a complex sewer system, the *Cloaca Maxima*, was used to drain the local marshes and carry waste into the Tiber river. Some historians have speculated that lead pipes in the sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread lead poisoning, which contributed to the decline in birth rate and general decay of Roman society leading up to the fall of Rome. However, lead content would have been minimised because the flow of water from aqueducts could not be shut off; it ran continuously through public and private outlets into the drains, and only a few taps were in use. Other authors have raised similar objections to this theory, also pointing out that Roman water pipes were thickly coated with deposits that would have prevented lead from leaching into the water. Legacy ------ Ancient Rome is the progenitor of Western civilisation. The customs, religion, law, technology, architecture, political system, military, literature, languages, alphabet, government and many factors and aspects of western civilisation are all inherited from Roman advancements. The rediscovery of Roman culture revitalised Western civilisation, playing a role in the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. Genetics -------- A genetic study published in *Science* in November 2019 examined the genetic history of Rome from the Mesolithic up to modern times. The Mesolithic inhabitants of Rome were determined to be Western Hunter Gatherers (WHGs), who were almost entirely replaced by Early European Farmers (EEFs) around 6,000 BC coming from Anatolia and the Fertile Crescent. However, the authors observe that the EEFs studied carry a small amount of another component that is found at high levels in Neolithic Iranian farmers and Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG), suggesting different or additional population contributions from Near Eastern farmers during the Neolithic transition, according to the authors. Between 2,900 BC and 900 BC, the EEF/WHG descended population of Rome was overwhelmed by peoples with steppe ancestry largely tracing their origin to the Pontic–Caspian steppe. The Iron Age Latin founding population of Rome which subsequently emerged carried the paternal haplogroup R-M269 at a minor but significant rate, and were of about 15–20% steppe ancestry. However, two out of six individuals from Latin burials from Latium vetus were found to be a mixture of local Iron Age ancestry and an ancient Near Eastern population (best approximated by Bronze Age Armenian or Iron Age Anatolian population). In addition, one out of four individuals from Etruscan burials from Veio and Civitavecchia, a female, was found to be a mixture of local Iron Age ancestry and a North African population (best approximated by Late Neolithic Moroccan). Overall, the genetic differentiation between the Latins, Etruscans and the preceding proto-Villanovan population of Italy was found to be insignificant. Examined individuals from Rome during the time of the Roman Empire (27 BC – 300 AD) bore almost no genetic resemblance to Rome's founding populations, and were instead shifted towards the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East, largely overlapping with modern such as Greeks, Maltese, Cypriot, and Syrian. The Imperial population of Rome was found to have been extremely diverse, with barely any of the examined individuals being of primarily western European ancestry. It was suggested that the large population size and the presence of megacities in the east, such as Athens, Antioch, and Alexandria, may have driven a net flow of people from east to west during antiquity; in addition, eastern ancestry could have reached Rome also through Greek, Phoenician, and Punic diasporas that were established through colonies across the Mediterranean prior to Roman Imperial expansion. During late antiquity, Rome's population was drastically reduced as a result of political instability, epidemics and economic changes. Repeated invasions of barbarians brought European ancestry back into Rome, resulting in the loss of genetic link to the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. By the Middle Ages, the people of Rome again genetically resembled other European populations. ### Physical appearance As regards to the data on the pigmentation of eyes, hair, and skin, the following results were obtained from the study on ancient DNA of 11 individuals of the Iron Age/Republican period, coming from Latium and Abruzzo, and 27 individuals of Medieval/Early Modern period, coming from Latium. In the Iron Age/Republic period, the eye colour is blue in 27% of those examined and dark in the remaining 73%. Hair color is 9% blond, or dark blond, and 91% dark brown or black. The skin colour is intermediate for 82%, intermediate or dark for 9%, and dark or very dark for the remaining 9%. By contrast, the following results were obtained for the Medieval/Early Modern period: the eye color is blue in 26% of those examined and dark in the remaining 74%. Hair color is 22% blond or dark blond, 11% red, and 67% dark brown or black. The skin color is pale for 15%, intermediate for 68%, intermediate or dark for 10%, and dark or very dark for the remaining 7%. Misconceptions -------------- There are a number of individual misconceptions about the Roman period. * Greek and Roman sculptures were originally painted with bright colours; they only appear white or grey today because the original pigments have deteriorated. Some well-preserved statues still bear traces of their original coloration. * There is no evidence that the Roman salute, in which the arm is fully extended forwards or diagonally with fingers touching, was actually used in ancient Rome for greeting or any other purpose. The idea that the salute was popular in ancient times originated in the 1784 painting *Oath of the Horatii* by the French artist Jacques-Louis David, which inspired later salutes, most notably the Nazi salute. * Vomiting was not a regular part of Roman dining customs. In ancient Rome, the architectural feature called a *vomitorium* was the entranceway through which crowds entered and exited a stadium, not a special room used for purging food during meals. * Scipio Aemilianus did not plow over the city of Carthage and sow it with salt after defeating it in the Third Punic War. * Julius Caesar was not born via caesarean section. Such a procedure would have been fatal to the mother at the time, and historical evidence indicates Caesar's mother being alive during his own lifetime. Although the names are similar, the caesarean section was not named after Caesar, as is commonly believed; it is more likely related to "cease" and derived from the Latin verb *caedere*, meaning "to cut." * The death of the Greek philosopher Hypatia of Alexandria at the hands of a mob of Christian monks in 415 was mainly a result of her involvement in a bitter political feud between her close friend and student Orestes, the Roman prefect of Alexandria, and the bishop Cyril, not her religious views. Her death also had nothing to do with the destruction of the Library of Alexandria, which had likely already ceased to exist centuries before Hypatia was born. Historiography -------------- Although there has been a diversity of works on ancient Roman history, many of them are lost. As a result of this loss, there are gaps in Roman history, which are filled by unreliable works, such as the *Historia Augusta* and other books from obscure authors. However, there remains a number of reliable accounts of Roman history. ### In Roman times The first historians used their works for the lauding of Roman culture and customs. By the end of Republic, some historians distorted their histories to flatter their patrons—especially at the time of Marius's and Sulla's clash. Caesar wrote his own histories to make a complete account of his military campaigns in Gaul and during the Civil War. In the Empire, the biographies of famous men and early emperors flourished, examples being *The Twelve Caesars* of Suetonius, and Plutarch's *Parallel Lives*. Other major works of Imperial times were that of Livy and Tacitus. * Polybius – *The Histories* * Sallust – *Bellum Catilinae* and *Bellum Jugurthinum* * Julius Caesar – *De Bello Gallico* and *De Bello Civili* * Livy – *Ab urbe condita* * Dionysius of Halicarnassus – *Roman Antiquities* * Pliny the Elder – *Naturalis Historia* * Josephus – *The Jewish War* * Suetonius – *The Twelve Caesars* (*De Vita Caesarum*) * Tacitus – *Annales* and *Histories* * Plutarch – *Parallel Lives* (a series of biographies of famous Roman and Greek men) * Cassius Dio – *Historia Romana* * Herodian – *History of the Roman Empire since Marcus Aurelius* * Ammianus Marcellinus – *Res Gestae* ### In modern times Interest in studying, and even idealising, ancient Rome became prevalent during the Italian Renaissance, and continues until the present day. Charles Montesquieu wrote a work *Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans*. The first major work was *The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire* by Edward Gibbon, which encompassed the Roman civilisation from the end of the 2nd century to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Like Montesquieu, Gibbon paid tribute to the virtue of Roman citizens. Barthold Georg Niebuhr was a founder of the examination of ancient Roman history and wrote *The Roman History*, tracing the period until the First Punic war. Niebuhr tried to determine the way the Roman tradition evolved. According to him, Romans, like other people, had an historical ethos preserved mainly in the noble families. During the Napoleonic period a work titled *The History of Romans* by Victor Duruy appeared. It highlighted the Caesarean period popular at the time. *History of Rome*, *Roman constitutional law* and *Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum*, all by Theodor Mommsen, became very important milestones. Later the work *Greatness and Decline of Rome* by Guglielmo Ferrero was published. The Russian work *Очерки по истории римского землевладения, преимущественно в эпоху Империи* (*The Outlines on Roman Landownership History, Mainly During the Empire*) by Ivan Grevs contained information on the economy of Pomponius Atticus, one of the largest landowners at the end of the Republic. * Edward Gibbon – *The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire* * John Bagnall Bury – *History of the Later Roman Empire* * Michael Grant – *The Roman World* * Barbara Levick – *Claudius* * Barthold Georg Niebuhr * Michael Rostovtzeff * Howard Hayes Scullard – *The History of the Roman World* * Ronald Syme – *The Roman Revolution* * Adrian Goldsworthy – *Caesar: The Life of a Colossus* and *How Rome fell* See also -------- * Outline of classical studies + Outline of ancient Rome + Timeline of Roman history * Regions in Greco-Roman antiquity * List of ancient Romans * List of Roman Emperors * List of Roman civil wars and revolts **Footnotes** **Citations** 1. ↑ "ancient Rome | Facts, Maps, & History". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Retrieved 5 September 2017. 2. 1 2 Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". *Social Science History*. **3** (3/4): 125. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959. Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". *Journal of World-Systems Research*. **12** (2): 222. doi:10.5195/JWSR.2006.369. ISSN 1076-156X. 3. ↑ Furet, François; Ozouf, Mona, eds. (1989). *A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution*. Harvard University Press. p. 793. ISBN 978-0674177284.; Luckham, Robin; White, Gordon (1996). *Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave*. Manchester University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0719049422.; Sellers, Mortimer N. (1994). *American Republicanism: Roman Ideology in the United States Constitution*. NYU Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0814780053. 4. ↑ Ferrero, Guglielmo (1909). *The Greatness and Decline of Rome, Volume 2*. Translated by Zimmern, Sir Alfred Eckhard; Chaytor, Henry John. G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 215.; Hadfield, Andrew Hadfield (2005). *Shakespeare and Republicanism*. Cambridge University Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0521816076.; Gray, Christopher B (1999). *The Philosophy of Law: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1*. Taylor & Francis. p. 741. ISBN 978-0815313441. 5. ↑ Cartwright, Mark (19 September 2018). "Byzantine Empire". *World History Encyclopedia*. 6. ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 6. 7. ↑ Boatwright 2012, pp. 7–8. 8. ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 9. 9. ↑ Boatwright 2012, pp. 14 et seq. 10. ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 27. 11. ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 519. 12. ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 29. 13. ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 31. 14. ↑ Boatwright 2012, pp. 31–32. 15. ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 32. 16. ↑ Mellor, Ronald and McGee Marni, *The Ancient Roman World* p. 15 (Cited 15 March 2009). 17. ↑ Boatwright 2012, p. 35. 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Morton, *Lemon in Fruits of Warm Climates*, 1987 pp. 160–168|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/lemon.html#Description%7Cpublisher=Purdue University 229. ↑ Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, *A History of Food*, John Wiley & Sons (2009), p. 93. 230. ↑ John E. Stambaugh, *The Ancient Roman City*, JHU Press (1988), p. 148. 231. 1 2 3 Artman, John:"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit", page 26, Good Apple, 1991. 232. 1 2 Artman, John::"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit", p. 26, Good Apple,1991. 233. 1 2 3 Casson 1998, pp. 98–108. 234. 1 2 "Daily Life: Entertainment". *SPQR Online*. 1998. Archived from the original on 30 April 2007. 235. ↑ Circus Maximus. Encyclopedia Romana. University of Chicago. Retrieved 19 April 2007. 236. ↑ John Humphrey, *Roman circuses: arenas for chariot racing*, University of California Press, 1986, p. 216. 237. ↑ Ancient Roman laws protected against a person corrupting slaves to obtain secrets about the master's arts. Zeidman, Bob (2011). *The Software IP Detective's Handbook: : Measurement, Comparison, and Infringement Detection*. Prentice Hall. p. 103. ISBN 978-0137035335. 238. ↑ Winter, Thomas Nelson (1979). "Roman Concrete: The Ascent, Summit, and Decline of an Art". *Transactions of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences*. **7**: 137–143. 239. ↑ Choi, Charles Q. (4 December 2019). "Muddy Find Shows How Foreign Timber Helped Build Ancient Rome." *InsideScience.org*. Retrieved 22 May 2020. 240. ↑ "Roman road system". *Britannica.com*. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 19 August 2017. 241. ↑ Keegan 1993, p. 303. 242. ↑ Peck, Harry Thurston, ed. (1963). "Aquae Ductus". *Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities*. Cooper Square Publishers. pp. 104–106. 243. ↑ Murray, Alexander Stuart; Mitchell, John Malcolm (1911). "Aqueduct". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 240–244. 244. ↑ "Water and Wastewater Systems in Imperial Rome". *WaterHistory.org*. International Water History Association. 22 November 2005. 245. ↑ *Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply* by A.T. Hodge (1992) 246. ↑ Grout, James. "Lead Poisoning and Rome". University of Chicago. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011. 247. ↑ "Ancient Rome". Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Retrieved 16 April 2013. 248. ↑ Jacob Dorsey Forrest (1906). *The development of western civilization: a study in ethical, economic and political evolution*. The University of Chicago Press.; William Cunningham (1900). *An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects: Mediaeval and modern times*. University Press. Retrieved 31 May 2012.; Andrew Fleming West, *Value of the classics*. 1917. p. 185 249. ↑ Kuno Fischer (1887). *History of modern philosophy*. C. Scribner's Sons. p. 85.; Michael Burger (2008). *The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity To the Enlightenment*. University of Toronto Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-1551114323. 250. ↑ Antonio et al. 2019, p. 1. 251. 1 2 Antonio et al. 2019, pp. 1–2. 252. 1 2 Antonio, Margaret L.; Gao, Ziyue; Moots, Hannah M.; Lucci, Michaela; Candilio, Francesca; et al. (2019). "Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean". *Science*. **366** (6466): 708–714. Bibcode:2019Sci...366..708A. doi:10.1126/science.aay6826. PMC 7093155. PMID 31699931. 253. ↑ Antonio et al. 2019, Table S2 Sample Information. 254. ↑ Antonio et al. 2019, pp. 1–2 Fig. 2. 255. ↑ Antonio et al. 2019, p. 4. "[C]ompared to Iron Age individuals, the Imperial population shares more alleles with early Bronze Age Jordanians... Notably, only 2 out of 48 Imperial-era individuals fall in the European cluster (C7) to which 8 out of 11 Iron Age individuals belong... [F]ew Imperial individuals (n = 2) have strong genetic affinities to western Mediterranean populations." 256. 1 2 3 Wade 2019, p. 673. "People from the city's earliest eras and from after the Western empire's decline in the fourth century C.E. genetically resembled other Western Europeans. But during the imperial period most sampled residents had Eastern Mediterranean or Middle Eastern ancestry... The study suggests the vast majority of immigrants to Rome came from the East. Of 48 individuals sampled from this period, only two showed strong genetic ties to Europe... Invading barbarians brought in more European ancestry. Rome gradually lost its strong genetic link to the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. By medieval times, city residents again genetically resembled European populations." 257. ↑ Antonio et al. 2019, pp. 3–6. 258. 1 2 Saupe, Tina; Montinaro, Francesco; Scaggion, Cinzia; Carrara, Nicola; Kivisild, Toomas; D'Atanasio, Eugenia; Hui, Ruoyun; Solnik, Anu; Lebrasseur, Ophélie; Larson, Greger; Alessandri, Luca (21 June 2021). "Ancient genomes reveal structural shifts after the arrival of Steppe-related ancestry in the Italian Peninsula, Supplemental information Data S6A–S6D". *Current Biology*. **31** (12): 2576–2591.e12. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.04.022. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 33974848. S2CID 234471370. 259. ↑ Brinkmann, Vinzenz; Jan Stubbe Ostergaard (2008). *The Color of Life: Polychromy in Sculpture from Antiquity to the Present*. J. Paul Getty Museum, Marco Collareta, Alex Potts.; Talbot, Margaret. "The Myth of Whiteness in Classical Sculpture". *The New Yorker*. Retrieved 12 May 2020. 260. ↑ Winkler, Martin M. (2009). *The Roman Salute: Cinema, History, Ideology*. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 978-0814208649. 261. ↑ Fass, Patrick (1994). *Around the Roman Table*. University of Chicago Press. pp. 66–67. ISBN 978-0226233475. 262. ↑ McKeown, J.C. (2010). *A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World's Greatest Empire*. Oxford University Press. pp. 153–154. ISBN 978-0195393750. 263. ↑ a. Ridley, R.T. (1986). "To Be Taken with a Pinch of Salt: The Destruction of Carthage". *Classical Philology*. **81** (2): 140–146. doi:10.1086/366973. JSTOR 269786. S2CID 161696751.: "a tradition in Roman history well known to most students"; Stevens, Susan T. (1988). "A Legend of the Destruction of Carthage". *Classical Philology*. **83** (1): 39–41. doi:10.1086/367078. JSTOR 269635. S2CID 161764925.; Visona, Paolo (1988). "Passing the Salt: On the Destruction of Carthage Again". *Classical Philology*. **83** (1): 41–42. doi:10.1086/367079. JSTOR 269636. S2CID 162289604.: "this story... had already gained widespread currency"; Warmington, B.H. (1988). "The Destruction of Carthage: A Retractatio". *Classical Philology*. **83** (4): 308–310. doi:10.1086/367123. JSTOR 269510. S2CID 162850949.: "the frequently repeated story" 264. ↑ "Bad Medicine: Misconceptions and Misuses Revealed," by Christopher Wanjek, p. 5 (John Wiley & Sons, 2003) 265. ↑ "...could not survive the trauma of a Caesarean" *Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd Edition*, "Childbirth" 266. ↑ a. Wessel, Susan (2004). *Cyril of Alexandria and the Nestorian Controversy: The Making of a Saint and of a Heretic*. Oxford University Press. pp. 36–38. ISBN 978-0199268467. b. Watts, Edward J. (2008). *City and School in Late Antique Athens and Alexandria*. University of California Press. pp. 195–200. ISBN 978-0520258167. 267. 1 2 Theodore, Jonathan (2016). *The Modern Cultural Myth of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire*. Palgrave, Macmillan. ISBN 978-1137569974. 268. ↑ Plutarch, *Parallel Lives*, *Life of Marius*, XI, 5–7. 269. ↑ *The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 12 vols*. 270. ↑ Liukkonen, Petri. "Theodor Mommsen". *Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi)*. Kuusankoski Public Library. Archived from the original on 24 August 2014. 271. ↑ see excerpt and text search 272. ↑ Levick, Barbara (1993). *Claudius*. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300058314. 273. ↑ see online edition 274. ↑ Syme, Ronald (2002). *The Roman Revolution*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192803207. ### Sources * Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (1998). *Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195123326. * Antonio, Margaret L.; et al. (8 November 2019). "Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean". *Science*. American Association for the Advancement of Science. **366** (6466): 708–714. Bibcode:2019Sci...366..708A. doi:10.1126/science.aay6826. PMC 7093155. 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American Association for the Advancement of Science. **366** (6466): 673. Bibcode:2019Sci...366..673W. doi:10.1126/science.366.6466.673. PMID 31699914. * Ward-Perkins, John Bryan (1994). *Roman Imperial Architecture*. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300052923. * Werner, Paul (1978). *Life in Rome in Ancient Times*. translated by David Macrae. Editions Minerva S.A. * Willis, Roy (2000). *World Mythology: The Illustrated Guide*. Ken Fin Books. ISBN 978-1864580891. Further reading --------------- * Coarelli, Filippo (2007). *Rome and environs: An archaeological guide*. University of California Press. * Coulston, J. C.; Dodge, Hazel, eds. (2000). *Ancient Rome: The archaeology of the eternal city*. Oxford University School of Archaeology. * Forsythe, Gary (2005). *A critical history of early Rome*. University of California Press. * Fox, Matthew (1996). *Roman historical myths: The regal period in Augustan literature*. Oxford University Press. * Gabba, Emilio (1991). *Dionysius and the history of Archaic Rome*. University of California Press. * Holloway, R. Ross (1994). *The archaeology of early Rome and Latium*. Routledge. * Keaveney, Arthur (2005). *Rome and the unification of Italy* (2nd ed.). Bristol Phoenix. * Kraus, Christina Shuttleworth; Woodman, A.J. (1997). *Latin historians*. Oxford University Press. * Mitchell, Richard E. (1990). *Patricians and plebeians: The origin of the Roman state*. Cornell University Press. * Potter, T.W. (1987). *Roman Italy*. University of California Press. * Raaflaub, Kurt A., ed. (2004). *Social struggles in Archaic Rome: New perspectives on the conflict of the orders* (2nd ed.). Blackwell. * Rosenstein, Nathan S.; Morstein-Marx, Robert, eds. (2006). *A companion to the Roman Republic*. Blackwell. * Scheidel, Walter; Saller, Richard P.; Morris, Ian (2007). *The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World*. Cambridge University Press. * Smith, Christopher J. (1996). *Early Rome and Latium: Economy and society c. 1000–500 BC*. Oxford University Press. * Stewart, Roberta (1998). *Public office in early Rome: Ritual procedure and political practice*. University of Michigan Press. * Woolf, Greg (2012). *Rome: An Empire's Story*. Oxford University Press. * Wyke, Maria (1997). *Projecting the Past: Ancient Rome, Cinema, and History*. Routledge.

Ancient Rome

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome

The **goalkeeper** (sometimes written as **goal-keeper**, abbreviated as **GK**, **keeper**, **keeps**, or **goalie**) is a position in association football. It is the most specialised position in the sport. The goalkeeper's main role is to stop the opposing team from scoring (putting the ball over the goal-line of the goal). This is accomplished by having the goalkeeper move into the trajectory of the ball to either catch it or direct it further from the vicinity of the goal line. Within the penalty area goalkeepers are allowed to use their hands, giving them (outside throw-ins) the sole rights on the field to handle the ball. The goalkeeper is indicated by wearing a different coloured kit from their teammates and opposition. The back-pass rule is a rule that disallows handling passes back to keepers from teammates in most cases. Goalkeepers usually perform goal kicks, and also give commands to their defence during corner kicks, direct and indirect free kicks, and marking. Goalkeepers play an important role in directing on field strategy as they have an unrestricted view of the entire pitch, giving them a unique perspective on play development. The goalkeeper is the only mandatory position of a team. If they are injured or sent off, another player must take their place. In order to replace a goalkeeper who is sent off, a team usually brings on a substitute keeper in place of an outfield player and play the rest of the match with nine outfield players. If a team does not have a substitute goalkeeper, or they have already used all of their permitted substitutions for the match, an outfield player has to take the dismissed goalkeeper's place and wear the goalkeeper shirt. Because the position requires different skills from the outfielders, goalkeepers train separately from their teammates and often work with a goalkeeping coach to develop their play. While outfielders typically must be in good cardiovascular shape to play up to 90 minutes in a match, a goalkeeper must be able to move quick and have fast feet for little bursts. During a match, goalkeepers may get a lot of action, usually in brief intervals, until their teammates can clear the ball out of the zone. During practice, goalkeepers focus heavily on footwork and being able to get up quickly after a save is made. It is important that a goalkeeper is able to get set, meaning feet shoulder width apart and on their toes, before the next shot comes their way, so they are able to react and make the save. As with all players, goalkeepers may wear any squad number, but the number 1 is almost always reserved for a team's first-choice goalkeeper. History ------- Association football, like many sports, has experienced many changes in tactics resulting in the generation and elimination of different positions. Goalkeeper is the only position that is certain to have existed since the codification of the sport. Even in the early days of organised football, when systems were limited or non-existent and the main idea was for all players to attack and defend, teams had a designated member to play as the goalkeeper. The earliest account of football teams with player positions comes from Richard Mulcaster in 1581 and does not specify goalkeepers. The earliest specific reference to keeping goal comes from Cornish Hurling in 1602. According to Carew: "they pitch two bushes in the ground, some eight or ten foot asunder; and directly against them, ten or twelve score off, other twayne in like distance, which they term their Goals. One of these is appointed by lots, to the one side, and the other to his adverse party. There is assigned for their guard, a couple of their best stopping Hurlers". Other references to scoring goals begin in English literature in the early 17th century; for example, in John Day's play *The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green* (performed circa 1600; published 1659): "I'll play a gole at camp-ball" (an extremely violent variety of football, popular in East Anglia). Similarly, in a 1613 poem, Michael Drayton refers to "when the Ball to throw, And drive it to the Gole, in squadrons forth they goe". It seems inevitable that wherever a game has evolved goals, some form of goalkeeping must also be developed. David Wedderburn refers to what has been translated from Latin as to "keep goal" in 1633, though this does not necessarily imply a fixed goalkeeper position. The word "goal-keeper" is used in the novel *Tom Brown's School Days* (published in 1857, but set in the 1830s). The author is here referring to an early form of rugby football: > You will see in the first place, that the sixth-form boy, who has the charge of goal, has spread his force (the goal-keepers) so as to occupy the whole space behind the goal-posts, at distances of about five yards apart; a safe and well-kept goal is the foundation of all good play. > > The word "goal-keeper" appeared in the Sheffield Rules of 1867, but the term did not refer to a designated player, but rather to "that player on the defending side who for the time being is nearest to his own goal". The goal-keeper, thus defined, did not enjoy any special handling privileges. The FA's first Laws of the Game of 1863 did not make any special provision for a goalkeeper, with any player being allowed to catch or knock-on the ball. Handling the ball was completely forbidden (for all players) in 1870. The next year, 1871, the laws were amended to introduce the goalkeeper and specify that the keeper was allowed to handle the ball "for the protection of his goal". The restrictions on the ability of the goalkeeper to handle the ball were changed several times in subsequent revisions of the laws: * 1871: the keeper may handle the ball only "for the protection of his goal". * 1873: the keeper may not "carry" the ball. * 1883: the keeper may not carry the ball for more than two steps. * 1887: the keeper may not handle the ball in the opposition's half. * 1901: the keeper may handle the ball for any purpose (not only in defence of the goal). * 1912: the keeper may handle the ball only in the penalty area. * 1931: the keeper may take up to four steps (rather than two) while carrying the ball. * 1992: the keeper may not handle the ball after it has been deliberately kicked to him/her by a team-mate. * 1997: the keeper may not handle the ball for more than six seconds. Initially, goalkeepers typically played between the goalposts and had limited mobility, except when trying to save opposition shots. Throughout the years, the role of the goalkeeper has evolved, due to the changes in systems of play, to become more active. The goalkeeper is the only player in association football allowed to use their hands to control the ball (other than when restarting play with a throw-in). During the 1935–36 English football season, young Sunderland AFC goalkeeper of the team, Jimmy Thorpe, died as a result of a kick in the head and chest after he had picked up the ball following a backpass in a game against Chelsea at Roker Park. He continued to take part until the match finished, but collapsed at home afterwards and died in hospital four days later from diabetes mellitus and heart failure "accelerated by the rough usage of the opposing team". The tragic end to Thorpe's career led to a change in the rules, where players were no longer allowed to raise their foot to a goalkeeper when he had control of the ball in his arms. Due to several time-wasting techniques which were used by goalkeepers, such as bouncing the ball on the ground or throwing it in the air and then catching it again, in the 1960s, the Laws of the game were revised further, and the goalkeeper was given a maximum of four steps to travel while holding, bouncing or throwing the ball in the air and catching it again, without having to release it into play. The FIFA Board later also devised an anti-parrying rule, saying that such deliberate parrying for the purpose of evading the Law was to be regarded also as holding the ball. In 1992, the International Football Association Board made changes in the laws of the game that affected goalkeepers – notably the back-pass rule, which prohibits goalkeepers from handling the ball when receiving a deliberate pass from a teammate that is made with their feet. This rule change was made to discourage time-wasting and overly defensive play after the 1990 FIFA World Cup which was described as exceedingly dull, rife with back-passing and goalkeepers holding the ball. Also, goalkeepers would frequently drop the ball and dribble it around, only to pick it up again once opponents came closer to put them under pressure, a typical time-wasting technique. Therefore, another rule was introduced at the same time as the back-pass rule. This rule prohibits goalkeepers from handling the ball again once the ball released for play; an offence results in an indirect free kick to the opposition. Furthermore, any player negating the spirit of the new rule would be likely to be cautioned for unsporting behaviour and punished by an indirect free-kick. On 1 July 1997, FIFA decided to extend the back-pass rule by applying it also to throw-ins from defenders to their own goalkeeper; in order to prevent further time-wasting, FIFA also established that if a goalkeeper holds the ball for more than five or six seconds the referee must adjudge this as time-wasting and award an indirect free-kick to the opposing team, although in practice the "six second rule" is rarely enforced on a literal 6 second count from the moment they control the ball as written in the laws, and instead when enforced it is often after a longer timeframe involving the goal keeper faking throws, kicks or running around the penalty area. An example of this rule in a high profile match was at the London 2012 Summer Olympics Women's Football semi-final game between the United States and Canada. With Canada in front 3–2 late in the game, their goalkeeper Erin McLeod grabbed the ball from a corner kick then held onto it for 10 seconds despite being warned by the referee not to waste time. The indirect free kick resulted in a penalty being called for a handball offence, which was scored to make it 3–3 and take the game to extra time, where the United States won the game 4–3. Laws of the Game and general play --------------------------------- The position of goalkeeper is the only position in the game which is technically distinct from the others in the course of normal play. The Laws of the Game distinguish the goalkeeper from the other players in several ways, most significantly exempting them from the prohibition on handling the ball, though only within their own penalty area. Once a goalkeeper has control of the ball in their hands, opponents are not permitted to challenge them. Goalkeepers have a specialized role as the sole defender against a penalty kick. Goalkeepers are required to wear distinct colors from other players, and are permitted to wear caps and tracksuit bottoms. The Laws mandate that one player on the team must be designated as the goalkeeper at all times, meaning that if a goalkeeper is sent off or injured and unable to continue, another player must assume the goalkeeper position. The Laws allow for teams to change the player designated as goalkeeper at stoppages in play, but in practice this is rarely exercised. The Laws place no restrictions on a goalkeeper leaving their penalty area and acting as an ordinary player, though generally goalkeepers stay close to their goals throughout matches. Goalkeepers routinely perform extension dives. To execute this, they push off the ground with the foot nearest to the ball, launching themselves into a horizontal position. At this point, the ball may be caught or parried away from the goal. In the latter case, a good goalkeeper will attempt to ensure that the rebound cannot be taken by a player of the opposing team, although this is not always possible. Because goalkeepers can spend the majority of a match without much action they need very good concentration in the event of the opposition going on the attack at any one time. Goalkeepers also need good 'anticipation' meaning they can 'read' where the ball is going to go and react by moving before the ball is kicked or headed and quickly decide whenever to catch, punch or palm the ball. Responsibilities ---------------- The tactical responsibilities of goalkeepers include: * To **keep goal** by physically blocking attempted shots with any part of their body. The keeper is permitted to *play* the ball anywhere on the field, but may not *handle* the ball using hands or outstretched arms outside of their penalty area. * To **organise the team's defenders during defensive set pieces** such as free kicks and corners. In the case of free kicks, this includes picking the numbers and the organisation of a defensive player "wall". The wall serves to provide a physical barrier to the incoming ball, but some goalkeepers position their walls in certain positions to tempt kick-takers to certain types of shots. Occasionally, goalkeepers may opt to dispense with the wall. Some goalkeepers are also entrusted with the responsibility of picking markers while defending at set pieces. * To **pick out crosses and attempted long passes** either by collecting them in flight or punching them clear if heavily challenged by opposing strikers. Although goalkeepers have special privileges, including the ability to handle the ball in the penalty area, they are otherwise subject to the same rules as any other player. ### Playmaking and attack Goalkeepers are not required to stay in the penalty area; they may get involved in play anywhere on the pitch, and it is common for them to act as an additional defender (or 'sweeper') during certain passages of the game. Goalkeepers with a long throwing range or accurate long-distance kicks may be able to quickly create attacking positions for a team and generate goal-scoring chances from defensive situations, a tactic known as the long ball. #### Sweeper-keeper Gyula Grosics from the Hungary "Golden Team" of the 1950s was thought to be the first goalkeeper to play as the 'sweeper-keeper'. Tommy Lawrence has also been credited with revolutionising the role of the goalkeeper by effectively acting as an 11th outfield player. The rushing playing style used by Liverpool legend Bruce Grobbelaar seen during the 1980s–90s makes him one of the original sweeper-keepers of the modern era. René Higuita was another who became known for his unorthodox, skillful but sometimes reckless techniques. Manuel Neuer has been described as a sweeper-keeper due to his speed and unique style of play which occasionally includes him acting as a sweeper for his team by rushing off his line to anticipate opposing forwards who have beaten the offside trap. With his excellent ball control and distribution, which enables him to start plays from the back, he has said he could play in the German third division as a centre-back if he wanted to. Hugo Lloris of Tottenham Hotspur and France and former goalkeepers Fabien Barthez and Edwin van der Sar, have also been described as sweeper-keepers, while Claudio Bravo and Ederson Moraes have even been described as *playmakers* in the media. Other players who have been labelled "sweeper-keepers" in the media include Marc-Andre Ter Stegen of FC Barcelona and Germany, Spanish former goalkeeper Víctor Valdés, and former Soviet keeper Lev Yashin, the latter of whom is often cited by pundits as one of the goalkeepers who pioneered the role of the sweeper-keeper. Sweeper-keepers have been popularised by managers who usually employ tactics inspired by total football, such as Johan Cruyff and Pep Guardiola, for example, and are chosen not only for their shot-stopping and goalkeeping abilities, but also due to their skill with the ball at their feet, their ability to pick out passes and contribute to the build-up play of their team, and their speed when rushing out of the penalty area to anticipate opponents, which enables their team to maintain a high defensive line. It is not without risk, as a goalkeeper being so far from the penalty area can lead to spectacular long range lob goals if they or their team lose possession, as well as risking being red carded if they run out to challenge an opponent but foul them or handball a shot by mistake. #### Goalscorers Some goalkeepers have scored goals. Other than by accident when a long kicked clearance reaches the other end of the field and evades the opposing goalkeeper with the aid of strong winds and/or unexpected bounces, this most commonly occurs where a goalkeeper has rushed up to the opposite end of the pitch to give his team a numerical advantage in attack, leaving his own goal undefended. As such, it is normally only done late in a game at set-pieces where the consequences of scoring far outweigh those of conceding a further goal, such as for a team trailing in a knock-out tournament. Some goalkeepers, such as Higuita, Rogério Ceni, Hans-Jörg Butt and José Luis Chilavert, are also expert set-piece takers. These players may take their team's attacking free kicks or penalties. Rogério Ceni, São Paulo's goalkeeper from 1992 to 2015, has scored 132 goals in his career, more than many outfield players. Equipment and attire -------------------- Goalkeepers must wear kit that distinguishes them clearly from other players and match officials, as this is all that the FIFA Laws of the Game require. Some goalkeepers have received recognition for their match attire, like Lev Yashin of the Soviet Union, who was nicknamed the "Black Spider" for his distinctive all-black outfit; Klaus Lindenberger of Austria, who designed his own variation of a clown's costume; Jorge Campos of Mexico, who was popular for his colourful attire; Raul Plassmann of Cruzeiro Esporte Clube and his all-yellow outfit; and Gábor Király for wearing a pair of grey tracksuit bottoms instead of shorts. Although it was initially more common for goalkeepers to wear long-sleeved jerseys, recently several goalkeepers, such as Gianluigi Buffon, have also been known to wear short sleeves. Most goalkeepers also wear gloves to improve their grip on the ball, and to protect themselves from injury. Some gloves now include rigid plastic spines down each finger to help prevent injuries such as jammed, fractured, and sprained fingers. Though gloves are not mandatory attire, it is uncommon for goalkeepers to opt against them due to the advantages they offer. At UEFA Euro 2004, Portuguese goalkeeper Ricardo famously took off his gloves during the quarter-final penalty shoot-out against England, knowing he was the next taker for his side. He then went on to save Darius Vassell's penalty using his bare hands before scoring his own kick to win it for Portugal.[*failed verification*] Though rare, goalkeepers are permitted to wear visored headgear (such as a baseball cap) to minimize glare from bright sunlight, or a knit cap to insulate from cold weather, at any time if they elect to do so. After recovering from a near-fatal skull fracture that he had sustained in 2006, Petr Čech wore a rugby-style scrum cap during his matches for the rest of his playing career. Careers and injuries -------------------- Goalkeepers have a very physically demanding job. They are the only players allowed to use their hands, except for throw-ins. Because of this, goalkeepers are often injured during breakaways, corner kicks, and free kicks since they put their bodies on the line. Several famous goalkeepers have been injured in ways their counterparts could not possibly sustain. For example, Petr Čech received a head injury after colliding with another player during a 2006 game. A couple of months later he debuted wearing a rugby-style headpiece. However, some goalkeepers manage to avoid injury and continue to play, many not retiring until their late 30s or early 40s. Notably, Peter Shilton played for 31 years between 1966 and 1997 before retiring at the age of 47. In general, goalkeepers can sustain any injury to which their outfield counterparts are vulnerable. Common lower and upper extremity injuries include cartilage tears, anterior cruciate ligament tears, and knee sprains. On the other hand, goalkeepers rarely fall victim to fatigue-related injuries, such as leg cramps, pulled hamstrings, and dehydration. Shoulder injuries can be caused by heavy contact with the ground and can cause significant long term injuries as loss of the range of motion can cause a complete inability to do their job. Vedran Janjetovic suffered such a contact injury playing in an A-League match on 25 January 2019 after diving to make a save. After playing nine games on painkilling injections he underwent experimental surgery that required a two and a half year recovery and caused him to miss two entire seasons. Records ------- Goalkeepers are crucial in penalty shoot-outs. The record for most penalties saved in a shoot-out is held solely by Ugandan, Denis Onyango. He saved five penalty shootout kicks to help his club, Mamelodi Sundowns edge Cape Town City 3–2 on penalties at the MTN 8 tournament in South Africa in October 2021. Second spot is shared by Helmuth Duckadam of Steaua București in the 1986 European Cup Final against Barcelona, and Ciarán Kelly for Sligo Rovers against Shamrock Rovers in the 2010 FAI Cup Final, both of whom who saved all four penalties faced. Ray Clemence holds the record for the most clean sheets in the history of football, with 460 in more than 1000 official matches Stefano Tacconi is the only goalkeeper to have won all official club competitions for which he was eligible. Goalkeeper Ned Doig, who spent most of his career with Sunderland, set a 19th-century world record by not conceding any goals in 87 of his 290 top division appearances (30%). Rogério Ceni has scored the most goals for a goalkeeper, having recorded 131 goals through free kicks and penalties across his 23-year career. Tony Read and José Luis Chilavert are the only goalkeepers to score a hat-trick (three goals in a game), with all three goals coming from penalty kicks. Gianluigi Buffon is the only goalkeeper to have won the UEFA Club Footballer of the Year Award. Oliver Kahn holds the record for most UEFA Best Club Goalkeeper and Best European Goalkeeper Awards, with four. Iker Casillas holds the record for most appearances by a goalkeeper in the FIFPro World11 and in the UEFA Team of the Year, as well as most IFFHS World's Best Goalkeeper Awards, alongside Buffon and Manuel Neuer, winning the award for five consecutive years between 2008 and 2012. Casillas holds the record for the most clean sheets in UEFA Champions League history. At the international level, Dino Zoff has remained unbeaten for the longest period of time, whilst Walter Zenga holds the record for longest unbeaten run in a FIFA World Cup tournament at 517 minutes. Gianluigi Buffon, Fabien Barthez and Iker Casillas hold the record for fewest goals conceded by a winning goalkeeper in a World Cup tournament at two each. Buffon is the only World Cup–winning goalkeeper not to have conceded a goal in open play throughout the entire tournament, one goal having resulted from an own goal after a free kick, the other from a penalty. Fabien Barthez and Peter Shilton hold the record for most clean sheets in World Cup matches, with ten each. Mohamed Al-Deayea holds the record for most international caps by a male goalkeeper, with one 178 official appearances for Saudi Arabia. Hope Solo of the United States holds the record for most international caps by a female goalkeeper, with 202 appearances. Pascal Zuberbühler holds the record for fewest goals conceded by a goalkeeper in a World Cup tournament, and also went a record five successive matches at an international tournament without conceding a goal. He did not concede a goal in 463 minutes of World Cup play against France, Korea, and Togo—making Switzerland the only team in the history of the tournament not to concede a goal in normal time. Tim Howard holds the record for most saves made in a FIFA World Cup match, with sixteen against Belgium in the round of 16 of the 2014 tournament. Oliver Kahn is the only goalkeeper to have won the Adidas Golden Ball for the best player of the tournament in a World Cup doing so in 2002. Lev Yashin is the only goalkeeper to have won the Ballon d'Or, given to the best player of the year. In 2021, Gianluigi Donnarumma became the first goalkeeper to win the player of the tournament award at UEFA Euro 2020. Gianluca Pagliuca of Italy became the first goalkeeper to be sent off in a World Cup finals match, dismissed for handling outside his area against Norway in 1994. His team went on to win 1–0 and reached the final before losing to Brazil in a penalty shoot-out, in which Pagliuca became the first goalkeeper ever to stop a penalty in a World Cup Final shoot-out. Iker Casillas holds both the record for fewest goals conceded in a UEFA European Championship (only one in 2012), and the record for longest unbeaten run at a European Championship, beating the previous record held by Dino Zoff. He also holds the records for most international clean sheets (102) by a male goalkeeper, beating the previous record held by Edwin van der Sar (72), and became the first goalkeeper in history, male or female, to keep 100 clean sheets at international level in 2015; he also shares with Hope Solo the overall men's and women's record for most international clean sheets. Buffon holds the record for most minutes without conceding a goal in European Championship qualifying matches at 644. On 26 February 1983, Pat Jennings became the first player to make 1,000 senior appearances in English football. In the 1986 World Cup, held in Mexico, he was turning 41, making him the World Cup's oldest-ever participant at the time. In 1976, PFA awarded him the Players' Player of the Year award making him the first goalkeeper to ever receive this accolade. ### Highest transfer fees Prior to the 21st century, goalkeepers generally commanded far lower transfer fees than outfield players; as of 1992 the highest transfer fee paid by a British club for an outfield player was £2.9 million but the record for a goalkeeper was less than half that figure at £1.3 million. As of August 2018[update], the most expensive goalkeeper of all time is Kepa Arrizabalaga, following his 2018 €80 million (£71 million) transfer to Chelsea from Athletic Bilbao. | Player | From | To | Fee (£) | Fee (€) | Year | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Spain Kepa Arrizabalaga | Spain Athletic Bilbao | England Chelsea | £71m | €80m | 2018 | | Brazil Alisson Becker | Italy Roma | England Liverpool | £66.8m | €75m | 2018 | | Italy Gianluigi Buffon | Italy Parma | Italy Juventus | £33m | €51.646m | 2001 | | Brazil Ederson | Portugal Benfica | England Manchester City | £35m | €40m | 2017 | | England Jordan Pickford | England Sunderland | England Everton | £25m | | 2017 | | Italy Francesco Toldo | Italy Fiorentina | Italy Internazionale | | €28.405m | 2001 | | England Aaron Ramsdale | England Sheffield United | England Arsenal | £24m | €28m | 2021 | | Senegal Édouard Mendy | France Rennes | England Chelsea | £22m | | 2020 | | Germany Manuel Neuer | Germany Schalke 04 | Germany Bayern Munich | £19m | €24m | 2011 | | Germany Bernd Leno | Germany Bayer Leverkusen | England Arsenal | £19.2m | €22m | 2018 | | Spain David de Gea | Spain Atlético Madrid | England Manchester United | £18m | €22m | 2011 | | Italy Angelo Peruzzi | Italy Internazionale | Italy Lazio | | €20.658m | 2000 | | France Sébastien Frey | Italy Internazionale | Italy Parma | | €20.658m | 2001 | | Slovenia Samir Handanović | Italy Udinese | Italy Internazionale | | €19m | 2012 | | Chile Claudio Bravo | Spain Barcelona | England Manchester City | | €18m | 2016 | | Argentina Emiliano Martinez | England Arsenal | England Aston Villa | £20m | €23.3m | 2020 | See also -------- *Awards* * Best European Goalkeeper * FIFA World Cup All-Star Teams * Golden Glove awards * IFFHS World's Best Goalkeeper * The Best FIFA Goalkeeper * UEFA Best Club Goalkeeper Award *Other* * Association football positions * List of goalscoring goalkeepers * List of most expensive association football transfers * List of outfield association footballers who played in goal

Goalkeeper (association football)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goalkeeper_(association_football)

**Greater Khorāsān**, or **Khorāsān** (Middle Persian: Xwarāsān; Persian: خراسان [xoɾɒːˈsɒːn] ()), is a historical eastern region in the Iranian Plateau between Western and Central Asia. The name *Khorāsān* is Persian (from Bactrian *Miirosan*) meaning "where the sun arrives from" or "the Eastern Province". The name was first given to the eastern province of Persia (Ancient Iran) during the Sasanian Empire and was used from the late Middle Ages in distinction to neighbouring Transoxiana. *Greater Khorasan* is today sometimes used to distinguish the larger historical region from the former Khorasan Province of Iran (1906–2004), which roughly encompassed the western portion of the historical Greater Khorasan. Khorasan comprised the present territories of northeastern Iran, parts of Afghanistan and southern parts of Central Asia. The province was often subdivided into four quarters, such that Nishapur (present-day Iran), Marv (present-day Turkmenistan), Herat and Balkh (present-day Afghanistan) were the centers, respectively, of the westernmost, northernmost, central, and easternmost quarters. In a strict sense of the term, Khorasan stretched as far as the Amu Darya (Oxus) river. However, the name has often been used in a loose sense to include a wider region that included most of Transoxiana (encompassing Bukhara and Samarqand in present-day Uzbekistan), extended westward to the Caspian coast and to the Dasht-e Kavir southward to Sistan, and eastward to the Pamir Mountains. Khorasan was first established as an administrative division in the 6th century (approximately after 520) by the Sasanians, during the reign of Kavad I (r. 488–496, 498/9–531) or Khosrow I (r. 531–579), which comprised the eastern and northeastern part of the empire. The use of Bactrian *Miirosan* 'the east' as an administrative designation under Alkhan rulers in the same region is possibly the forerunner of the Sasanian administrative division of Khurasan, occurring after their takeover of Hephthalite territories south of the Oxus. The transformation of the term and its identification with a larger region is thus a development of the late Sasanian and early Islamic periods. Early Islamic usage often regarded everywhere east of Jibal or what was subsequently termed Iraq Ajami (Persian Iraq), as being included in a vast and loosely-defined region of Khorasan, which might even extend to the Indus Valley and the Pamir Mountains. The boundary between these two was the region surrounding the cities of Gurgan and Qumis. In particular, the Ghaznavids, Seljuqs and Timurids divided their empires into Iraqi and Khorasani regions. Khorasan is believed to have been bounded in the southwest by desert and the town of Tabas, known as "the Gate of Khorasan", from which it extended eastward to the mountains of central Afghanistan. Sources from the 10th century onwards refer to areas in the south of the Hindu Kush as the Khorasan Marches, forming a frontier region between Khorasan and Hindustan. Geography --------- First established in the 6th century as one of four administrative (military) divisions by the Sasanian Empire, the scope of the region has varied considerably during its nearly 1,500-year history. Initially, the Khorasan division of the Sasanian Empire covered the northeastern military gains of the empire, at its height including cities such as Nishapur, Herat, Merv, Faryab, Taloqan, Balkh, Bukhara, Badghis, Abiward, Gharjistan, Tus and Sarakhs. With the rise of the Umayyad Caliphate, the designation was inherited and likewise stretched as far as their military gains in the east, starting off with the military installations at Nishapur and Merv, slowly expanding eastwards into Tokharistan and Sogdia. Under the Caliphs, Khorasan was the name of one of the three political zones under their dominion (the other two being *Eraq-e Arab* "Arabic Iraq" and *Eraq-e Ajam* "Non-Arabic Iraq or Persian Iraq"). Under the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, Khorasan was divided into four major sections or quarters (*rub′*), each section based on a single major city: Nishapur, Merv, Herat and Balkh. By the 10th century, Ibn Khordadbeh and the Hudud al-'Alam mentions what roughly encompasses the previous regions of Abarshahr, Tokharistan and Sogdia as *Khwarasan* proper. They further report the southern part of the Hindu Kush, i.e. the regions of Sistan, Rukhkhudh, Zabulistan and Kabul etc. to make up the *Khorasan* *marches*, a frontier region between Khorasan and Hindustan. By the late Middle Ages, the term lost its administrative significance, in the west only being loosely applied among the Turko-Persian dynasties of modern Iran to all its territories that lay east and north-east of the Dasht-e Kavir desert. It was therefore subjected to constant change, as the size of their empires changed. In the east, *Khwarasan* likewise became a term associated with the great urban centers of Central Asia. It is mentioned in the Memoirs of Babur that: > The people of Hindustān call every country beyond their own Khorasān, in the same manner as the Arabs term all except Arabia, Ajem. On the road between Hindustān and Khorasān, there are two great marts: the one Kābul, the other Kandahār. Caravans, from Ferghāna, Tūrkestān, Samarkand, Balkh, Bokhāra, Hissār, and Badakhshān, all resort to Kābul; while those from Khorasān repair to Kandahār. This country lies between Hindustān and Khorasān. > > In modern times, the term has been source of great nostalgia and nationalism, especially amongst the Tajiks of Central Asia. Many Tajiks regard Khorasan as an integral part of their national identity, which has preserved an interest in the term, including its meaning and cultural significance, both in common discussion and academia, despite its falling out of political use in the region. According to Ghulam Mohammad Ghobar, Afghanistan's current Persian-speaking territories formed the major portion of Khorasān, as two of the four main capitals of Khorasān (Herat and Balkh) are now located in Afghanistan. Ghobar uses the terms *"Proper Khorasan"* and "*Improper Khorasan"* in his book to distinguish between the usage of Khorasān in its strict sense and its usage in a loose sense. According to him, Proper Khorasan contained regions lying between Balkh in the east, Merv in the north, Sistan in the south, Nishapur in the west and Herat, known as the *Pearl of Khorasan*, in the center. Improper Khorasan's boundaries extended to as far as Hazarajat and Kabul in the east, Baluchistan in the south, Transoxiana and Khwarezm in the north, and Damghan and Gorgan in the west. History ------- ### Ancient era Before the region fell to Alexander the Great in 330 BC, it was part of the Persian Achaemenid Empire and prior to that it was occupied by the Medes. The land that became known as Khorasan in geography of Eratosthenes was recognized as Ariana by Greeks at that time, which made up Greater Iran or the land where Zoroastrianism was the dominant religion. The southeastern region of Khorasan fell to the Kushan Empire in the 1st century AD. The Kushan rulers built a capital in modern-day Afghanistan at Bagram and are believed to have built the famous Buddhas of Bamiyan. Numerous Buddhist temples and buried cities have been found in Afghanistan. However, the region of Khorasan remained predominantly Zoroastrian but there were also Manichaeists, sun worshippers, Christians, Pagans, Shamanists, Buddhists, Jews, Hindus and others. One of the three great fire-temples of the Sassanids "Azar-burzin Mehr" is situated near Sabzevar in Iran. The boundary of the region began changing until the Kushans and Sassanids merged to form the Kushano-Sassanian civilization. During the Sasanian era, likely in the reign of Khusrow I, Persia was divided into four regions (known as *kust* Middle Persian), Khwārvarān in the west, apāxtar in the north, nīmrūz in the south and Khorasan in the east. Since the Sasanian territories were more or less remained stable up to Islamic conquests, it can be concluded that Sasanian Khorasan was bordered to the south by Sistan and Kerman, to the west by the central deserts of modern Iran, and to the east by China and India. In the Sasanian era, Khorasan was further divided into four smaller regions, and each region was ruled by a marzban. These four regions were Nishapur, Marv, Herat and Balkh. Khorasan in the east saw some conflict with the Hephthalites who became the new rulers in the area but the borders remained stable. Being the eastern parts of the Sassanids and further away from Arabia, Khorasan region was conquered after the remaining Persia. The last Sassanid king of Persia, Yazdgerd III, moved the throne to Khorasan following the Arab invasion in the western parts of the empire. After the assassination of the king, Khorasan was conquered by Arab Muslims in 647 AD. Like other provinces of Persia it became a province of the Umayyad Caliphate. ### Medieval era The first movement against the Arab conquest was led by Abu Muslim Khorasani between 747 and 750. Originally from Isfahan, scholars believe Abu Muslim was probably Persian. It's possible he may have been born a slave. According to the Ancient Persian historian Al-Shahrastani, he was a Kaysanite. This revolutionary Shi'a movement rejected the three Caliphs that had preceded Ali. Abu Muslim helped the Abbasids come to power but was later killed by Al-Mansur, an Abbasid Caliph. The first kingdom independent from Arab rule was established in Khorasan by Tahir Phoshanji in 821, but it seems that it was more a matter of political and territorial gain. Tahir had helped the Caliph subdue other nationalistic movements in other parts of Persia such as Maziar's movement in Tabaristan. Other major independent dynasties who ruled over Khorasan were the Saffarids from Zaranj (861–1003), Samanids from Bukhara (875–999), Ghaznavids from Ghazni (963–1167), Seljuqs (1037–1194), Khwarezmids (1077–1231), Ghurids (1149–1212), and Timurids (1370–1506). In 1221, Genghis Khan's son Tolui oversaw the Mongol subjugation of Khorasan, carrying out the task "with a thoroughness from which that region has never recovered." Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth century, the majority of Islamic archaeological efforts were focused on the medieval era, predominantly in areas near what is today Central Asia. #### Rashidun era (651–661) Under Caliph Umar (r. 634–644), the Rashidun Caliphate seized nearly the entire Persia from the Sasanian Empire. However, the areas of Khorasan weren't conquered until c. 651 during the caliphate of Uthman (r. 644–656). The Rashidun commanders Ahnaf ibn Qays and Abd Allah ibn Amir were assigned to lead the invasion of Khorasan. In late 651, the Rashidun army defeated the combined forces of the Sasanian and the First Turkic Khaganate in the Battle of the Oxus River. The next year, Ibn Amir concluded a peace treaty with Kanadbak, an Iranian nobleman and the *kanarang* of Tus. The Sasanian rebel Burzin Shah, of the Karen family, revolted against Ibn Amir, though the latter crushed the rebels in the Battle of Nishapur. The Rashidun troops marched towards Herat and seized the city, concluding another treaty with its governor. #### Umayyad era (661–750) After the invasion of Persia under Rashidun was completed in five years and almost all of the Persian territories came under Arab control, it also inevitable created new problems for the caliphate. Pockets of tribal resistance continued for centuries in the Afghan territories. During the 7th century, Arab armies made their way into the region of Afghanistan from Khorasan. A second problem was as a corollary to the Muslim conquest of Persia, the Muslims became neighbors of the city states of Transoxiana. Although Transoxiana was included in the loosely defined "Turkestan" region, only the ruling elite of Transoxiana was partially of Turkic origins whereas the local population was mostly a diverse mix of local Iranian populations. As the Arabs reached Transoxiana following the conquest of the Sassanid Persian Empire, local Iranian-Turkic and Arab armies clashed over the control of Transoxiana's Silk Road cities. In particular, the Turgesh under the leadership of Suluk, and Khazars under Barjik clashed with their Arab neighbours in order to control this economically important region. Two notable Umayyad generals, Qutayba ibn Muslim and Nasr ibn Sayyar, were instrumental in the eventual conquest. In July 738, at the age of 74, Nasr was appointed as governor of Khorasan. Despite his age, he was widely respected both for his military record, his knowledge of the affairs of Khorasan and his abilities as a statesman. Julius Wellhausen wrote of him that "His age did not affect the freshness of his mind, as is testified not only by his deeds, but also by the verses in which he gave expression to his feelings till the very end of his life". However, in the climate of the times, his nomination owed more to his appropriate tribal affiliation than his personal qualities. The problems of Transoxiana could be resolved, although the Umayyad was on decline and being replaced by the Abbasid. In 724, immediately after the rise of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 724–743) to the throne, Asad's brother Khalid al-Qasri was appointed to the important post of governor of Iraq, with responsibility over the entire Islamic East, which he held until 738. Khalid in turn named Asad as governor of Khorasan. The two brothers thus became, according to Patricia Crone, "among the most prominent men of the Marwanid period". Asad's arrival in Khorasan found the province in peril: his predecessor, Muslim ibn Sa'id al-Kilabi, had just attempted a campaign against Ferghana and suffered a major defeat, the so-called "Day of Thirst", at the hands of the Turgesh Turks and the Soghdian principalities of Transoxiana that had risen up against Muslim rule. From the early days of the Muslim conquests, Arab armies were divided into regiments drawn from individual tribes or tribal confederations (*butun* or *‘asha‘ir*). Despite the fact that many of these groupings were recent creations, created for reasons of military efficiency rather than any common ancestry, they soon developed a strong and distinct identity. by the beginning of the Umayyad period, this system progressed to the formation of ever-larger super-groupings, culminating in the two super-groups: the northern Arab Mudaris or Qaysis, and the south Arabs or "Yemenis" (*Yaman*), dominated by the Azd and Rabi'ah tribes. By the 8th century, this division had become firmly established across the Caliphate and was a source of constant internal instability, as the two groups formed in essence two rival political parties, jockeying for power and separated by a fierce hatred for each other. During Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik's reign, the Umayyad government appointed Mudaris as governors in Khorasan, except for Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri's tenure in 735–738. Nasr's appointment came four months after Asad's death. In the interim, the sources report variously that the province was run either by the Syrian general Ja'far ibn Hanzala al-Bahrani or by Asad's lieutenant Juday' al-Kirmani. At any rate, the sources agree that al-Kirmani stood at the time as the most prominent man in Khorasan and should have been the clear choice for governor. His Yemeni roots (he was the leader of the Azd in Khorasan), however, made him unpalatable to the Caliph. #### Abbasid era (750–861) Khorasan became the headquarters of the Abbasid Revolution against the Umayyads. It was led by Abu Muslim, who himself belonged to Khorasan. This province was part of the Iranian world that had been heavily colonised by Arab tribes following the Muslim conquest with the intent of replacing Umayyad dynasty which is proved to be successful under the sign of the Black Standard. ### Modern era Between the early 16th and early 18th centuries, parts of Khorasan were contested between the Safavids and the Uzbeks. A part of the Khorasan region was conquered in 1722 by the Ghilji Pashtuns from Kandahar and became part of the Hotaki dynasty from 1722 to 1729. Nader Shah recaptured Khorasan in 1729 and chose Mashhad as the capital of Persia. Following his assassination in 1747, the eastern parts of Khorasan, including Herat was annexed with the Durrani Empire. Mashhad area was under control of Nader Shah's grandson Shahrukh Afshar until it was captured by the Qajar dynasty in 1796. In 1856, the Iranians, under the Qajar dynasty, briefly recaptured Herat; by the Treaty of Paris of 1857, signed between Iran and the British Empire to end the Anglo-Persian War, the Iranian troops withdrew from Herat. Later, in 1881, Iran relinquished its claims to a part of the northern areas of Khorasan to the Russian Empire, principally comprising Merv, by the Treaty of Akhal (also known as the *Treaty of Akhal-Khorasan*). Cultural importance ------------------- Khorasan has had a great cultural importance among other regions in Greater Iran. The literary New Persian language developed in Khorasan and Transoxiana and gradually supplanted the Parthian language. The New Persian literature arose and flourished in Khorasan and Transoxiana where the early Iranian dynasties such as Tahirids, Samanids, Saffirids and Ghaznavids (a Turco-Persian dynasty) were based. The early Persian poets such as Rudaki, Shahid Balkhi, Abu'l-Abbas Marwazi, Abu Hafs Sughdi, and others were from Khorasan. Moreover, Ferdowsi and Rumi were also from Khorasan. Until the devastating Mongol invasion of the 13th century, Khorasan remained the cultural capital of Persia. It has produced scientists such as Avicenna, Al-Farabi, Al-Biruni, Omar Khayyam, Al-Khwarizmi, Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi (known as Albumasar or Albuxar in the west), Alfraganus, Abu Wafa, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī, and many others who are widely well known for their significant contributions in various domains such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, physics, geography, and geology. Khorasan artisans contributed to the spread of technology and goods along the ancient trade routes have been traced to this ancient culture, including art objects, textiles and zoomorphic metalworks. Decorative antecedents of the famous "singing bowls" of Asia may have been invented in ancient Khorasan. In Islamic theology, jurisprudence and philosophy, and in Hadith collection, many of the greatest Islamic scholars came from Khorasan, namely Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim, Abu Dawood, Al-Tirmidhi, Al-Nasa'i, Al-Ghazali, Al-Juwayni, Abu Mansur Maturidi, Fakhruddin al-Razi, and others. Shaykh Tusi, a Shi'a scholar, the grandfather of Imam Abu Hanifa was from Khorasan and Al-Zamakhshari, the famous Mutazilite scholar, also lived in Khorasan. There have been many archaeological sites throughout Khorasan, however many of these expeditions were illegal or committed in the sole pursuit of profit, leaving many sites without documentation or record. See also -------- * Ariana * Bactria * Dahistan * Khwarazm * Khurasan Road * Margiana * Parthia * Sogdia * Tokharistan * Transoxiana * Turkestan Further reading --------------- 36°N 62°E / 36°N 62°E / 36; 62

Greater Khorasan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Khorasan

**Warwickshire** (/ˈwɒrɪkʃər, -ʃɪər/ (); abbreviated **Warks**) is a ceremonial county in the West Midlands of England. It borders Staffordshire and Leicestershire to the north, Northamptonshire to the east, Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire to the south, and Worcestershire and the West Midlands county to the west. The largest settlement is Nuneaton. The county is largely rural, and has an area of 1,975 km2 (763 sq mi) and population of 571,010. After Nuneaton (94,364) the largest settlements are Rugby (78,125), Royal Leamington Spa (57,512) and Warwick (37,267). For administrative purposes Warwickshire is a non-metropolitan county governed by Warwickshire County Council and five district councils. The historic county included the city of Coventry and the area to its east, including Sutton Coldfield, Solihull, and much of Birmingham. Warwickshire is a flat, lowland county; however, its far south contains part of the Cotswolds AONB. The River Avon, a major tributary of the Severn, flows through the south of the county. The region was part of Roman Britain, and later the Roman road called Watling Street became the boundary between the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia and the Danelaw. The county was relatively settled during the rest of the Middle Ages and Early Modern period, and Coventry developed as a major centre of the textiles trade. The playwright William Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564, living much of his life there, and the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was planned near Snitterfield. During the Industrial Revolution the Warwickshire coalfield was exploited, and Coventry and the west of the county became manufacturing centres. Leamington Spa developed as a tourist resort at the same time. Geography --------- Warwickshire is bordered by Leicestershire to the northeast, Staffordshire to the northwest, Worcestershire and the West Midlands to the west, Northamptonshire to the east and southeast, Gloucestershire to the southwest and Oxfordshire to the south. The northern tip of the county is only 3 miles (5 km) from the Derbyshire border. An average-sized English county covering an area of 1,975 km2 (760 sq mi), it runs some 52 miles (84 km) north to south. The majority of Warwickshire's population live in the north and centre of the county. The market towns of northern and eastern Warwickshire were industrialised in the 19th century, and include Atherstone, Bedworth, Coleshill, Nuneaton, and Rugby. Major industries included coal mining, textiles, engineering and cement production, but heavy industry is in decline, being replaced by distribution centres, light to medium industry and services. Of the northern and eastern towns, Nuneaton and Rugby (as the birthplace of rugby football) are best known outside of Warwickshire. The prosperous towns of central and western Warwickshire, including Royal Leamington Spa, Warwick, Stratford-upon-Avon, Kenilworth, Alcester, Southam and Wellesbourne, harbour tourism, gaming and services as major employment sectors. The north of the county, bordering Staffordshire and Leicestershire, is mildly undulating countryside (rising to 178m / 581 ft near Hartshill) and the northernmost village, No Man's Heath, is only 34 miles (55 km) south of the Peak District National Park's southernmost point. The south of the county is largely rural and sparsely populated, and includes a very small area of the Cotswolds, at the border with northeast Gloucestershire. The plain between the outlying Cotswolds and the Edgehill escarpment is known as the Vale of Red Horse. The only town in the south of Warwickshire is Shipston-on-Stour. The highest point in the county, at 261 m (856 ft), is Ebrington Hill, again on the border with Gloucestershire, grid reference SP187426 at the county's southwest extremity. There are no cities in Warwickshire since both Coventry and Birmingham were incorporated into the West Midlands county in 1974 and are now metropolitan authorities in themselves. According to the 2011 United Kingdom census, the largest towns (+20,000 pop.) in Warwickshire were: Nuneaton (pop. 81,900), Rugby (70,600), Leamington Spa (49,500), Bedworth (32,500), Warwick (30,100), Stratford (25,500) and Kenilworth (22,400) ### Arden and Felden Much of western Warwickshire, including the area now forming part of Coventry, Solihull and Birmingham, was covered by the ancient Forest of Arden (most of which was cut down to provide fuel for industrialisation). Thus the names of a number of places in the central-western part of Warwickshire end with the phrase "-in-Arden", such as Henley-in-Arden, Hampton-in-Arden and Tanworth-in-Arden. The remaining area, not part of the forest, was called the Felden – from *fielden -* and is now an undulating and agricultural landscape, through which the rivers Avon and Leam flow. ### Historic county boundaries Areas historically part of Warwickshire include Coventry, Solihull, Sutton Coldfield, and some of Birmingham including the city centre, Erdington, Aston and Edgbaston. These areas also became part of the metropolitan county of West Midlands (and Sutton Coldfield became part of Birmingham) following local government re-organisation in 1974. In 1986 the West Midlands County Council was abolished and Birmingham, Coventry, and Solihull became effective unitary authorities. However, the West Midlands county name has not been altogether abolished, and still exists for ceremonial purposes. Since 2016, it has been used as part of the West Midlands Combined Authority, with powers over transport, economic development and regeneration. Some organisations, such as Warwickshire County Cricket Club, which is based in Edgbaston, in Birmingham, observe the historic county boundaries. The flag of the historic county was registered in October 2016. It is a design of a bear and ragged staff on a red field, which is long associated with the county. Coventry is effectively in the centre of the Warwickshire area, and still has strong ties with the county. Coventry and Warwickshire are sometimes treated as a single area and share a single Chamber of Commerce, Local Enterprise Partnership and BBC Local Radio Station (BBC Coventry & Warwickshire). Coventry was administered separately from the rest of Warwickshire between 1451 and 1842. It formed the County of the City of Coventry, a county corporate from 1451. In 1842 the county corporate of Coventry was abolished and remerged with the rest of Warwickshire. The town of Tamworth was historically divided between Warwickshire and Staffordshire, but since 1888 has been fully in Staffordshire. ### Green belt Warwickshire contains a large expanse of green belt area, surrounding the West Midlands and Coventry conurbations, and was first drawn up from the 1950s. All the county's districts contain some portion of the belt. Places of interest ------------------ * Anne Hathaway's Cottage * Arbury Hall * Battle of Edgehill * The Belfry * Brinklow Castle * British Motor Museum * Burton Dassett Hills * Caldecotte Park * Charlecote Park * Charlecote Water Mill * Chesterton Windmill * Compton Verney House * Compton Wynyates * Coombe Abbey * Coombe Country Park * Coughton Court * Coventry Canal * Draycote Water * Grand Union Canal * Guy Fawkes House * Hartshill Hayes County Park * Hatton Country World * Jephson Gardens * Kenilworth Castle * King Edward VI School * Kingsbury Water Park * Ladywalk Reserve * Lunt Roman Fort * Lord Leycester Hospital * Lowsonford * Mary Arden's House * Midland Air Museum * Newbold Quarry Park * Nuneaton Museum & Art Gallery * Oxford Canal * Ragley Hall * River Avon * Rollright Stones * Royal Pump Rooms * Royal Shakespeare Theatre * Rugby Art Gallery and Museum * Rugby School * Ryton Pools Country Park * Shakespeare's Birthplace * Shakespeare's New Place * St Nicholas Park * The Forest Hermitage * University of Warwick * Warwick Castle * Warwick School * Webb Ellis Rugby Football Museum * Wellesbourne Wartime Museum Economy ------- Warwickshire has a strong and growing economy with the automotive industry being a major contributor. In the north, BMW's Hams Hall plant employs over 1,000 people, while Jaguar Land Rover and Aston Martin Lagonda have headquarters, including a giant advanced production creation centre, at Gaydon in the south. Warwickshire is also establishing a growing reputation as a global hub of the video game industry. One of Britain's oldest still-running game studios, Codemasters, has operated out of Southam for decades; the greater "Silicon Spa" area, including Southam, Royal Leamington Spa and Warwick, is now home to dozens of game studios which employ a combined total of over 2,000 highly skilled people, equating to more than 10% of the UK's games development workforce. Increasingly the region is establishing itself as one of the leading areas in battery technology with major developments announced in 2021 that include a £130 million UK Battery Industrialisation Centre (UKBIC) based in Coventry. Tourism is also a key area of employment with country parks, rural areas and historic towns across the county. It generates a total business turnover of over £1 billion to the local economy and supports almost 20,000 jobs. Settlements ----------- Warwickshire is located in WarwickshireRugbyRugbyRoyal Leamington SpaRoyal Leamington SpaKenilworthKenilworthWarwick**Warwick**Stratford-upon-AvonStratford-upon-AvonNuneatonNuneatonPolesworthPolesworthBedworthBedworthAtherstoneAtherstoneWhitnashWhitnashKingsburyKingsburyAlcesterAlcesterSouthamSouthamColeshillColeshillStudleyStudleyBulkingtonBulkingtonWellesbourneWellesbourneBidfordBidfordShipston-on-StourShipston-on-StourHenley-in-ArdenHenley-in-ArdenBHX**BHX**class=notpageimage| The 20 largest settlements of Warwickshire. District centres in yellow. Main Warwickshire settlements: * Bedworth * Kenilworth * Nuneaton * Leamington Spa * Rugby * Stratford-upon-Avon * Warwick Smaller settlements include: * Alcester * Arley * Atherstone * Baddesley Ensor * Bidford-on-Avon * Bulkington * Coleshill * Henley-in-Arden * Kingsbury * Long Lawford * Polesworth * Shipston-on-Stour * Southam * Studley * Water Orton * Wellesbourne * Whitnash History ------- Warwickshire came into being as a division of the kingdom of Mercia in the early 11th century. The first reference to Warwickshire was in 1001, as *Wæringscīr,* named after Warwick. The prefix *wara-* is the genitive plural of the Old English noun *waru*, which means "those that care for, watch, guard, protect, or defend". It was used as an endonym by both Goths and Jutes. The suffix *-wick* is an Old English cognate (*-wic*) for the Latin word for village, *vicus*. Near Warwick are the villages of Long Itchington and Bishop's Itchington along the River Itchen. During the Middle Ages Warwickshire was dominated by Coventry, at the time one of the most important cities in England because of its prominance in the textiles trade. Warwickshire played a key part in the English Civil War, with the Battle of Edgehill and other skirmishes taking place in the county. During the Industrial Revolution Warwickshire became one of Britain's foremost industrial counties, with the large industrial cities of Birmingham and Coventry within its boundaries. ### Boundary changes * 1844: The Counties (Detached Parts) Act transferred a township to, and two parishes from, the county. * 1888: Those parts of the town of Tamworth lying in Warwickshire were ceded to Staffordshire. * 1891: Harborne became part of the County Borough of Birmingham and thus was transferred from Staffordshire to Warwickshire by the Local Govt. Bd.'s Prov. Orders Conf. (No. 13) Act, 54 & 55 Vic. c. 161 (local act). * 1891: The district of Balsall Heath, which had originally constituted the most northerly part of the Parish of King's Norton in Worcestershire, was added to the County Borough of Birmingham, and therefore Warwickshire, on 1 October 1891. * 1909: Quinton was formally removed from Worcestershire and incorporated into the County Borough of Birmingham, then in Warwickshire, on 9 November 1909. * 1911: The Urban District of Handsworth, in Staffordshire, and the Rural District of Yardley along with the greater part of the Urban District of King's Norton and Northfield, both in Worcestershire, were absorbed into Birmingham, and thus Warwickshire, as part of the *Greater Birmingham Scheme* on 9 November 1911. * 1928: Perry Barr Urban District was ceded to Birmingham from Staffordshire. * 1931: The boundaries between Gloucestershire, Warwickshire, and Worcestershire were adjusted by the Provisional Order Confirmation (Gloucestershire, Warwickshire and Worcestershire) Act which transferred 26 parishes between the three counties, largely to eliminate exclaves. The town of Shipston-on-Stour was gained from Worcestershire and several villages, including Long Marston and Welford-on-Avon, from Gloucestershire. * 1974: Under The Local Government Act 1972, Birmingham, Coventry, Solihull and Sutton Coldfield were ceded to the new West Midlands county, with Sutton Coldfield becoming part of Birmingham. Local government ---------------- Like most English shire counties, Warwickshire has a two-tier structure of local government. with a county council, and five districts each with their own district or borough councils. These districts are: North Warwickshire, Nuneaton and Bedworth, Rugby, Stratford, and Warwick (see map). The county and district councils are responsible for providing different services. Atherstone is the headquarters of the North Warwickshire district, Nuneaton is headquarters of the Nuneaton and Bedworth District and Leamington Spa is the headquarters of the Warwick district. Warwickshire County Council, based in Warwick is elected every four years. The last election was the held on 6 May 2021 and resulted in a Conservative majority. The county council operates a cabinet-style council. The county council is made of 57 councillors, who decide upon the budget and appoints the council leader. The council leader selects 8 councillors and together they form the cabinet. The Leader assigns portfolios on which cabinet members make decisions. Key decisions are made by the whole cabinet while others are made only by the portfolio holders for relevant areas. In addition many small towns and villages have their own town council or parish council as the most local tier of local government. Warwickshire is policed by the Warwickshire Police. The force is governed by the elected Warwickshire Police and Crime Commissioner. ### Proposed local government reorganisation In August 2020 Warwickshire County Council put forward proposals for the five district and borough councils in the county to be abolished and replaced with a single county-wide unitary authority. This prompted a backlash from the district and borough councils who commissioned their own report, which argued in favour of Warwickshire being split into two unitary authorities, one for the north of the county, covering the current districts of North Warwickshire, Nuneaton and Bedworth and Rugby, and one for the south of the county, covering Warwick and Stratford districts. In September 2020, it was agreed that both proposals would be sent for consideration to the Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government. Education --------- In the state sector, children start school in the school year in which they turn five. They stay at primary school for seven years (although this varies even within the county, as some people have previously gone for four years and then spent another four years at a 'middle school') until they are eleven. Warwickshire is one of 36 local authorities in England to still maintain the grammar school system in two districts: Stratford-on-Avon and Rugby. In the final year of primary school, children are given the opportunity of sitting the 11-plus exam to compete for a place at one of the 5 grammar schools: Stratford-upon-Avon Grammar School for Girls; King Edward VI School, a boys' school from year 7–11 with a mixed Sixth-Form; Lawrence Sheriff Grammar School for Boys; Rugby High School for Girls and Alcester Grammar School (mixed). The Warwickshire 11+ selection test consists of two papers, each containing a mixture of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning and non-verbal reasoning multiple-choice questions. Warwickshire contains four colleges of further education: North Warwickshire & Hinckley College, King Edward VI Sixth Form College (K.E.G.S) in Nuneaton, Stratford-upon-Avon College and the Warwickshire College Group an institution made up of six main separate colleges that have merged (Leamington Centre, Rugby Centre, Moreton Morrell Centre, Pershore College, Henley-in-Arden Centre and the Trident Centre in Warwick). There are also six independent senior schools within the county, namely: Rugby School, Warwick School, Princethorpe College, Kingsley School, Arnold Lodge School (both in Leamington Spa), and the King's High School For Girls (in Warwick). A number of the Warwickshire grammar and independent schools have historical significance. King Edward VI School, Stratford-upon-Avon still uses 13th century school buildings and is the likely school of William Shakespeare, Rugby School was founded in 1567 and Warwick School was founded c. 914 AD, which makes it the oldest surviving boys' school in the country. Rugby School is one of nine schools that were defined as the "great" English public schools by the Public Schools Act 1868, and is a member of the Rugby Group. Rugby School, Princethorpe College and Warwick School are HMC schools, with the Headmaster from each school attending the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference. There are no universities per se in Warwickshire, though the University of Warwick forms part of the border with Warwickshire on the southern edge of the city of Coventry. Some areas of the University of Warwick are within the boundaries of Warwickshire including Lakeside Village and Warwick Business School The university has a small campus near Wellesbourne which houses the Warwick Horticultural Research Centre and an Innovation Centre. Transport --------- ### Roads Several major motorways run through Warwickshire. These include: * The M40 motorway, which connects London to Birmingham, runs through the centre of the county, and serves Leamington Spa, Warwick and Stratford. * The M6 motorway, which connects northwestern England and the West Midlands to the M1 motorway (and then on to London), runs through the north of Warwickshire, and serves Rugby, Nuneaton and Bedworth on its way to Birmingham. * The M69 Coventry to Leicester motorway, which serves Nuneaton. * Other motorways pass briefly through Warwickshire including the M45 (a short spur south of Rugby connecting to the M1), the southern end of the M6 Toll, and the M42, which passes through the county at several points. Other major trunk routes in Warwickshire include the A45 (Rugby-Coventry-Birmingham and east into Northamptonshire route). The A46 (connects the M40 to the M6 via Warwick, Kenilworth and Coventry), the A452 (Leamington to Birmingham route) and the A5 runs through Warwickshire passing Nuneaton between Tamworth and Hinckley. Also the A444 goes through Nuneaton and Bedworth. ### Rail Two major railway lines pass through Warwickshire. * The Chiltern Main Line, the former Great Western Railway route from London Paddington to Birmingham passes through the centre of Warwickshire on a route similar to the M40 motorway, and has stations at Leamington Spa, Warwick, (and Warwick Parkway), Hatton and Lapworth. Rail services are provided by Chiltern Railways and West Midlands Trains (Birmingham to Leamington only). There are also two branches off the Chiltern line, one from Leamington to Coventry, and another from Hatton near Warwick to Stratford. * The West Coast Main Line (WCML) runs through Warwickshire. At Rugby the WCML splits into two parts, one runs west through to Coventry and Birmingham, and the other the Trent Valley Line runs north-west towards Stafford and the north-west of England. This section has stations at Nuneaton, Atherstone, and Polesworth (north bound services only). There is one branch off the WCML from Nuneaton to Coventry, and there are stations at Bermuda Park, Bedworth and Coventry Arena on this branch. Other railway lines in Warwickshire include the Birmingham-Nuneaton section of the Birmingham to Peterborough Line, which continues east of Nuneaton towards Leicester and Peterborough. Nuneaton has direct services to Birmingham and Leicester on this line, and there are two intermediate stations at Water Orton and Coleshill in the extreme north-west of the county. There is also a branch line from Birmingham to Stratford-upon-Avon. This line used to continue southwards to Cheltenham but is now a dead-end branch. There is an intermediate station on this line at Henley-in-Arden and at several small villages. Stratford also has direct rail services to London via the branch line to Warwick (mentioned earlier). Until 2018 the only major town in Warwickshire without a station was Kenilworth. The Leamington to Coventry line passes through the town, but the station was closed in the 1960s as part of the Beeching cuts. A replacement station opened in April 2018, with an hourly service to Coventry and to Leamington provided by West Midlands Trains. The new High Speed 2 (HS2) line is being constructed through Warwickshire although, as it is a long-distance trunk route, there will be no stations in the county. It will pass south of Southam, then between Kenilworth and Coventry, before running into the West Midlands towards Birmingham. ### Air Coventry Airport is located in the Warwickshire village of Baginton. ### Canals and waterways Canals and navigable waterways in Warwickshire include: * The Coventry Canal which runs through the north of the county from Coventry through Bedworth, Nuneaton, Atherstone, and Polesworth, and then onwards to Tamworth. * The Ashby-de-la-Zouch Canal passes briefly through Warwickshire from a junction with the Coventry Canal at Bedworth. * The Oxford Canal, which runs from near Coventry and then eastwards around Rugby, and then through the rural south of the county towards Oxford. * The Grand Union Canal, which runs through Leamington and Warwick and onwards to Birmingham. + The restored Saltisford Canal Arm is close to the centre of Warwick, and is now a short branch of the Grand Union Canal. The arm is the remains of the original terminus of the Warwick and Birmingham Canal and dates back to 1799. * The Stratford-upon-Avon Canal which runs from the Grand Union west of Warwick to Stratford, where it joins the Avon. * The River Avon runs through Warwickshire on a south-west to north-east axis, running through Stratford, Warwick and Rugby. It is navigable for 47 miles (76 km) from the River Severn at Tewkesbury to Alveston weir just east of Stratford-upon-Avon, making it the only navigable river in Warwickshire. There have been proposals to extend the Avon navigation 13 miles (21 km) to Warwick. However, as of 2019, these plans look unlikely to proceed. Sports ------ ### Cycling Warwickshire's rural roads, canal towpaths and historic towns are increasingly popular with cycling enthusiasts. Its reputation as a major cycling destination has been bolstered in recent years having hosted a stage of the Women's Tour since 2016 and the Men's Tour of Britain in 2018 and 2019. In 2022, St Nicholas Park in Warwick will host the Elite Men's and Women's Road Race as part of the Commonwealth Games taking place in Birmingham. ### Association football Warwickshire has no Football League clubs. As of the 2022–23 season the highest-placed team is Leamington, who play in the National League North, the sixth tier of English football. A level below in the Southern Football League Premier Division Central are Nuneaton Borough and Stratford Town. Other clubs include Rugby Town, Bedworth United, Southam United, Racing Club Warwick, Coleshill Town, Atherstone Town and Nuneaton Griff. All of these are affiliated to the Birmingham FA. Aston Villa, Birmingham City and Coventry City are Football League clubs located within the historic boundaries of Warwickshire, along with National League club Solihull Moors and Southern League Division One Central club Sutton Coldfield Town. ### Parkrun There are six Saturday morning 5km parkruns in Warwickshire for all ages and abilities: Leamington, Stratford upon Avon, Rugby, Bedworth, Southam and Kingsbury. There are also three Sunday 2km junior events at Stratford upon Avon, Rugby and Warwick. ### Cricket Warwickshire County Cricket Club play at Edgbaston Cricket Ground, Birmingham (historically part of Warwickshire). Notable English players for the side have been Eric Hollies, M.J.K. Smith, Bob Willis, Dennis Amiss, Jonathan Trott, Ian Bell, Moeen Ali and Chris Woakes. Overseas players have included Alvin Kallicharran, Rohan Kanhai, Brian Lara, Allan Donald and Shaun Pollock. In 2014 the club partly severed its links to the county by renaming its Twenty20 side the Birmingham Bears, much to the chagrin of many supporters. Other grounds in modern-day Warwickshire which have hosted first-class cricket matches are: * Griff and Coton Ground, Nuneaton – 26 matches (most recently 1980) * Arlington Avenue, Leamington Spa – 4 matches (most recently 1910) * Swan's Nest Lane, Stratford-upon-Avon – 3 matches (most recently 2005) * Weddington Road, Nuneaton – 3 matches (most recently 1914) ### Gaelic sports The Warwickshire County Board of the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) (or Warwickshire GAA) is one of the county boards outside Ireland and is responsible for Gaelic games in Warwickshire. The county board is also responsible for the Warwickshire inter-county teams. They play their home games at Páirc na hÉireann. ### Polo The Dallas Burston Polo Club is a six-pitch polo club located near Southam. ### Water polo Warwick Water Polo club play in the Midland League, and train in Warwick, Banbury and Coventry. Freedom of the county --------------------- In March 2014 the freedom of the county was bestowed on the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers. The honour was officially bestowed following a parade through Warwick on 6 June 2014. People ------ Warwickshire is perhaps best known for being the birthplace of William Shakespeare from Stratford-upon-Avon. Even today, road signs at the county boundary describe Warwickshire as "Shakespeare's County". The county has also produced other famous figures such as Aleister Crowley (from Royal Leamington Spa), George Eliot and Ken Loach (from Nuneaton), Rupert Brooke (from Rugby), and Michael Drayton (from Hartshill). The poet Philip Larkin lived in Warwick (born in nearby Coventry). Folk musician Nick Drake, who recorded for Island records in the late 1960s and early 1970s, lived and died in Tanworth-in-Arden. Frank Whittle the inventor of the jet engine was born in Coventry and was closely associated with Warwickshire, growing up in Leamington Spa, and carrying out much of his work at Rugby. See also -------- * List of Lord Lieutenants of Warwickshire * List of High Sheriffs for Warwickshire * Custos Rotulorum of Warwickshire – List of Keepers of the Rolls * Warwickshire (UK Parliament constituency) – List of MPs for Warwickshire constituency * 2007 Atherstone fire * Warwickshire College * W. W. Quatremain **KML file** (edit • help) Template:Attached KML/WarwickshireKML is from Wikidata

Warwickshire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warwickshire

The **Georgians**, or **Kartvelians** (/kɑːrtˈvɛliənz/; Georgian: ქართველები, romanized: kartvelebi, pronounced [kʰɑɾtʰvɛlɛbi]), are a nation and indigenous Caucasian ethnic group native to Georgia and the South Caucasus. Georgian diaspora communities are also present throughout Russia, Turkey, Greece, Iran, Ukraine, United States, and European Union. Georgians arose from Colchian and Iberian civilizations of classical antiquity; Colchis was interconnected with the Hellenic world, whereas Iberia was influenced by the Achaemenid Empire until Alexander the Great conquered it. In the 4th century, the Georgians became one of the first to embrace Christianity and now the majority of Georgians are Orthodox Christians, with most following their national autocephalous Georgian Orthodox Church, although there are small Georgian Catholic and Muslim communities as well as a significant number of irreligious Georgians. Located in the Caucasus, on the continental crossroads of Europe and Asia, the High Middle Ages saw Georgian people form a unified Kingdom of Georgia in 1008 AD, the pan-Caucasian empire, later inaugurating the Georgian Golden Age, a height of political and cultural power of the nation. This lasted until the kingdom was weakened and later disintegrated as the result of the 13th–15th-century invasions of the Mongols and Timur, the Black Death, the Fall of Constantinople, as well as internal divisions following the death of George V the Brilliant in 1346, the last of the great kings of Georgia. Thereafter and throughout the early modern period, Georgians became politically fractured and were dominated by the Ottoman Empire and successive dynasties of Iran. Georgians started looking for allies and found the Russians on the political horizon as a possible replacement for the lost Byzantine Empire, "for the sake of the Christian faith". The Georgian kings and Russian tsars exchanged no less than 17 embassies, which culminated in 1783, when Heraclius II of the eastern Georgian kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti forged an alliance with the Russian Empire. The Russo-Georgian alliance, however, backfired as Russia was unwilling to fulfill the terms of the treaty, proceeding to annex the troubled kingdom in 1801 as well as the western Georgian kingdom of Imereti in 1810. There were several uprisings and movements to restore the statehood, the most notable being the 1832 plot, which collapsed in failure. Eventually, Russian rule over Georgia was acknowledged in various peace treaties with Iran and the Ottomans, and the remaining Georgian territories were absorbed by the Russian Empire in a piecemeal fashion through the course of the 19th century. Georgians briefly reasserted their independence from Russia under the First Georgian Republic from 1918 to 1921 and finally in 1991 from the Soviet Union. The Georgian nation was formed out of a diverse set of geographic subgroups, each with its characteristic traditions, manners, dialects and, in the case of Svans and Mingrelians, own regional languages. The Georgian language, with its own unique writing system and extensive written tradition, which goes back to the 5th century, is the official language of Georgia as well as the language of education of all Georgians living in the country. According to the State Ministry on Diaspora Issues of Georgia, unofficial statistics say that there are more than 5 million Georgians in the world. Etymology --------- The term "Georgian" resulted from the merger of Persian designation "***gurg***" (wolf), with the cult of Saint George popular among the Georgians, whether pagan or Christian. Even though the nation's designation does not derive from the Christian martyr, the saint's name (*George*) played a definite role in the transformation of the oriental ethnonym "*gurg/gorg*" into "*Georgia/Georgian*". Georgians call themselves *Kartvelebi* (ქართველები), their land *Sakartvelo* (საქართველო), and their language *Kartuli* (ქართული). According to *The Georgian Chronicles*, the ancestor of the Kartvelian people was Kartlos, the great-grandson of the Biblical Japheth. However, scholars agree that the word is derived from the *Karts*, the latter being one of the proto-Georgian tribes that emerged as a dominant group in ancient times. *Kart* probably is cognate with Indo-European *gard* and denotes people who live in a "fortified citadel". Ancient Greeks (Homer, Herodotus, Strabo, Plutarch etc.) and Romans (Titus Livius, Cornelius Tacitus, etc.) referred to western Georgians as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians. The term "Georgians" is derived from the country of Georgia. In the past, lore-based theories were given by the medieval French traveller Jacques de Vitry, who explained the name's origin by the popularity of St. George amongst Georgians, while traveller Jean Chardin thought that "Georgia" came from Greek γεωργός ("tiller of the land"), as when the Greeks came into the region (in Colchis) they encountered a developed agricultural society. However, as Prof. Alexander Mikaberidze adds, these explanations for the word *Georgians/Georgia* are rejected by the scholarly community, who point to the Persian word *gurğ/gurğān* ("wolf") as the root of the word. Starting with the Persian word *gurğ/gurğān*, the word was later adopted in numerous other languages, including Slavic and West European languages. This term itself might have been established through the ancient Iranian appellation of the near-Caspian region, which was referred to as *Gorgan* ("land of the wolves"). Anthropology ------------ The 18th-century German professor of medicine and member of the British Royal Society Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, widely regarded as one of the founders of the discipline of anthropology and the obsolete and disproven theory of biological race, regarded Georgians as the most beautiful race of people. > Caucasian variety – I have taken the name of this variety from Mount Caucasus, both because its neighborhood, and especially its southern slope, produces the most beautiful race of men, I mean the Georgian; and because all physiological reasons converge to this, that in that region, if anywhere, it seems we ought with the greatest probability to place the autochthones (original members) of mankind. > > History ------- Most historians and scholars of Georgia as well as anthropologists, archaeologists, and linguists tend to agree that the ancestors of modern Georgians inhabited the southern Caucasus and northern Anatolia since the Neolithic period. Scholars usually refer to them as Proto-Kartvelian (Proto-Georgians such as Colchians and Iberians) tribes. The Georgian people in antiquity have been known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as *Colchians* and *Iberians*. East Georgian tribes of Tibarenians-Iberians formed their kingdom in 7th century BCE. However, western Georgian tribes (Colchian tribes) established the first Georgian state of Colchis (circa 1350 BCE) before the foundation of the Kingdom of Iberia in the east. According to the numerous scholars of Georgia, the formations of these two early Georgian kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia, resulted in the consolidation and uniformity of the Georgian nation. According to the renowned scholar of the Caucasian studies Cyril Toumanoff, the Moschians also were one of the early proto-Georgian tribes which were integrated into the first early Georgian state of Iberia. The ancient Jewish chronicle by Josephus mentions Georgians as Iberes who were also called Thobel (Tubal). David Marshall Lang argued that the root *Tibar* gave rise to the form *Iber* that made the Greeks pick up the name *Iberian* in the end for the designation of the eastern Georgians. Diauehi in Assyrian sources and Taochi in Greek lived in the northeastern part of Anatolia. This ancient tribe is considered by many scholars as ancestors of the Georgians. Modern Georgians still refer to this region, which now belongs to present-day Turkey, as Tao-Klarjeti, an ancient Georgian kingdom. Some people there still speak the Georgian language. Colchians in the ancient western Georgian polity of Colchis were another proto-Georgian tribe. They are first mentioned in the Assyrian annals of Tiglath-Pileser I and in the annals of Urartian king Sarduri II, and also included western Georgian tribe of the Meskhetians. Iberians, also known as Tiberians or Tiberanians, lived in the eastern Georgian kingdom of Iberia. Both Colchians and Iberians played an important role in the ethnic and cultural formation of the modern Georgian nation. According to the scholar of the Caucasian studies Cyril Toumanoff: > Colchis appears as the first Caucasian State to have achieved the coalescence of the newcomer, Colchis can be justly regarded as not a proto-Georgian, but a Georgian (West Georgian) kingdom ... It would seem natural to seek the beginnings of Georgian social history in Colchis, the earliest Georgian formation. > > Genetics -------- An FTDNA collection of Georgian Y-DNA suggests that Georgians have the highest percentage of Haplogroup G (39.9%) among the general population recorded in any country. Georgians' Y-DNA also belongs to Haplogroup J (32.5%), R1b (8.6%), L (5.4%), R1a (4.2%), I2 (3.8%) and other more minor haplogroups such as E, T and Q. Culture ------- ### Language and linguistic subdivisions Georgian is the primary language for Georgians of all provenance, including those who speak other Kartvelian languages: Svans, Mingrelians and the Laz. The language known today as Georgian is a traditional language of the eastern part of the country which has spread to most of the present-day Georgia after the post-Christianization centralization in the first millennium CE. Today, Georgians regardless of their ancestral region use Georgian as their official language. The regional languages Svan and Mingrelian are languages of the west that were traditionally spoken in the pre-Christian Kingdom of Colchis, but later lost importance as the unified Kingdom of Georgia emerged. Their decline is largely due to the capital of the unified kingdom, Tbilisi, being in the eastern part of the country known as Kingdom of Iberia effectively making the language of the east an official language of the Georgian monarch. All of these languages comprise the Kartvelian language family along with the related language of the Laz people, which has speakers in both Turkey and Georgia. Georgian dialects include Imeretian, Racha-Lechkhumian, Gurian, Adjarian, Imerkhevian (in Turkey), Kartlian, Kakhetian, Ingilo (in Azerbaijan), Tush, Khevsur, Mokhevian, Pshavian, Fereydan dialect in Iran in Fereydunshahr and Fereydan, Mtiuletian, Meskhetian and Javakhetian dialect. ### Religion According to Orthodox tradition, Christianity was first preached in Georgia by the Apostles Simon and Andrew in the 1st century. It became the state religion of Kartli (Iberia) in 337. At the same time, in the first centuries A.D., the cult of Mithras, pagan beliefs, and Zoroastrianism were commonly practiced in Georgia. The conversion of Kartli to Christianity is credited to St. Nino of Cappadocia. Christianity gradually replaced all the former religions except Zoroastrianism, which become a second established religion in Iberia after the Peace of Acilisene in 378. The conversion to Christianity eventually placed the Georgians permanently on the front line of conflict between the Islamic and Christian world. Georgians remained mostly Christian despite repeated invasions by Muslim powers, and long episodes of foreign domination. As was true elsewhere, the Christian church in Georgia was crucial to the development of a written language, and most of the earliest written works were religious texts. Medieval Georgian culture was greatly influenced by Eastern Orthodoxy and the Georgian Orthodox Church, which promoted and often sponsored the creation of many works of religious devotion. These included churches and monasteries, works of art such as icons, and hagiographies of Georgian saints. Today, 83.9% of the Georgian population, most of whom are ethnic Georgian, follow Eastern Orthodox Christianity. A sizable Georgian Muslim population exists in Adjara. This autonomous Republic borders Turkey, and was part of the Ottoman Empire for a longer amount of time than other parts of the country. Those Georgian Muslims practice the Sunni Hanafi form of Islam. Islam has however declined in Adjara during the 20th century, due to Soviet anti-religious policies, cultural integration with the national Orthodox majority, and strong missionary efforts by the Georgian Orthodox Church. Islam remains a dominant identity only in the eastern, rural parts of the Republic. In the early modern period, converted Georgian recruits were often used by the Persian and Ottoman Empires for elite military units such as the Mameluks, Qizilbash, and ghulams. The Georgians in Iran are all reportedly Shia Muslims today, while the Georgian minority in Turkey are mostly Sunni Muslim. There is also a small number of Georgian Jews, tracing their ancestors to the Babylonian captivity. In addition to traditional religious confessions, Georgia retains irreligious segments of society, as well as a significant portion of nominally religious individuals who do not actively practice their faith. ### Cuisine The Georgian cuisine is specific to the country, but also contains some influences from other European culinary traditions, as well as those from the surrounding Western Asia. Each historical province of Georgia has its own distinct culinary tradition, such as Megrelian, Kakhetian, and Imeretian cuisines. In addition to various meat dishes, Georgian cuisine also offers a variety of vegetarian meals. The importance of both food and drink to Georgian culture is best observed during a Caucasian feast, or *supra*, when a huge assortment of dishes is prepared, always accompanied by large amounts of wine, and dinner can last for hours. In a Georgian feast, the role of the *tamada* (toastmaster) is an important and honoured position. In countries of the former Soviet Union, Georgian food is popular due to the immigration of Georgians to other Soviet republics, in particular Russia. In Russia all major cities have many Georgian restaurants and Russian restaurants often feature Georgian food items on their menu. Geographic subdivisions and subethnic groups -------------------------------------------- ### Geographical subdivisions The Georgians have historically been classified into various subgroups based on the geographic region which their ancestors traditionally inhabited. Even if a member of any of these subgroups moves to a different region, they will still be known by the name of their ancestral region. For example, if a Gurian moves to Tbilisi (part of the Kartli region) he will not automatically identify himself as Kartlian despite actually living in Kartli. This may, however, change if substantial amount of time passes. For example, there are some Mingrelians who have lived in the Imereti region for centuries and are now identified as Imeretian or Imeretian-Mingrelians. Last names from mountainous eastern Georgian provinces (such as Kakheti, etc.) can be distinguished by the suffix –*uri* (ური), or –*uli* (ული). Most Svan last names typically end in –*ani* (ანი), Mingrelian in –*ia* (ია), -*ua* (უა), or -*ava* (ავა), and Laz in –*shi* (ში). | Name | Name in Georgian | Geographical region | Dialect or Language | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Adjarians | აჭარელი *achareli* | Adjara | Adjarian dialect | | Gurians | გურული *guruli* | Guria | Gurian dialect | | Imeretians | იმერელი *imereli* | Imereti | Imeretian dialect | | Javakhians | ჯავახი *javakhi* | Javakheti | Javakhian dialect | | Kakhetians | კახელი *kakheli* | Kakheti | Kakhetian dialect | | Kartlians | ქართლელი *kartleli* | Kartli | Kartlian dialect | | Khevsurians | ხევსური *khevsuri* | Khevsureti | Khevsurian dialect | | Lechkhumians | ლეჩხუმელი *lechkhumeli* | Lechkhumi | Lechkhumian dialect | | Mingrelians | მეგრელი *megreli* | Samegrelo | Mingrelian language | | Meskhetians | მესხი *meskhi* | Meskheti (Samtskhe) | Meskhian dialect | | Mokhevians | მოხევე *mokheve* | Khevi | Mokhevian dialect | | Pshavians | ფშაველი *pshaveli* | Pshavi | Pshavian dialect | | Rachians | რაჭველი *rachveli* | Racha | Rachian dialect | | Svans | სვანი *svani* | Svaneti | Svan language | | Tushs | თუში *tushi* | Tusheti | Tushetian dialect | The 1897 Russian census (which accounted people by language), had Imeretian, Svan and Mingrelian languages separate from Georgian. During the 1926 Soviet census, Svans and Mingrelians were accounted separately from Georgian. Svan and Mingrelian languages are both Kartvelian languages and are closely related to the national Georgian language. #### Outside modern Georgia Laz people also may be considered Georgian based on their geographic location and religion. According to the London School of Economics' anthropologist Mathijs Pelkmans, Lazs residing in Georgia frequently identify themselves as "first-class Georgians" to show pride, while considering their Muslim counterparts in Turkey as "Turkified Lazs". | Subethnic groups | Georgian name | Settlement area | Language (dialect) | Number | Difference(s) from mainstream Georgians(other than location) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Laz people | ლაზი *lazi* | Chaneti (Turkey) | Laz language | 1 million | Religion: Muslim majority, Orthodox Minority | | Fereydani | ფერეიდნელი *pereidneli* | Fereydan (Iran) | Pereidnuli dialect | 100,000 + | *Religion*: Muslim | | Chveneburi | ჩვენებური *chveneburi* | Black Sea Region (Turkey) | Georgian language | 91,000–1,000,000 | *Religion*: Muslim | | Ingiloy people | ინგილო *ingilo* | Saingilo Hereti Zaqatala District (Azerbaijan) | Ingiloan dialect | 12,000 | *Religion*: Muslim majority,Orthodox minority | | Imerkhevians (Shavshians) | შავში *shavshi* | Shavsheti (Turkey) | Imerkhevian dialect | | Religion: Muslim majority. | | Klarjians | კლარჯი *klarji* | Klarjeti (Turkey) | Imerkhevian dialect | | | | #### Extinct Georgian subdivisions Throughout history Georgia also has extinct Georgian subdivisions | Name | Name in Georgian | Geographical location | Dialect or language | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Dvals | დვალი *dvali* | Georgia (Racha and Khevi regions) and Russia (North Ossetia) | Dval dialect | | See also -------- * List of Georgians * Demographics of Georgia (country) * Georgian American * Peoples of the Caucasus 1. ↑ Rapp (2016), location: 8958 2. ↑ Eastmond, pp. 26-61-62 3. ↑ Eastmond, pp. 60-28 4. ↑ Census data of National Statistics Office of Georgia 5. ↑ "საქართველოს მოსახლეობის საყოველთაო აღწერის საბოლოო შედეგები" (PDF). National Statistics Office of Georgia. 28 April 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 29 April 2016. 6. 1 2 3 Rezvani, Babak (Winter 2009). "The Fereydani Georgian Representation". *Anthropology of the Middle East*. **4** (2): 52–74. doi:10.3167/ame.2009.040205. 7. ↑ Rayfield, pp. 18—19 8. ↑ Suny, p. 21 9. ↑ Rayfield, p. 39 10. ↑ Suny, p. 32 11. ↑ Rayfield, p. 71 12. ↑ Eastmond, p. 39 13. ↑ Rapp (2016), location: 453 14. ↑ W.E.D. Allen, location: 1157 15. ↑ W.E.D. Allen, location: 337 16. ↑ W.E.D. Allen, location: 1612 17. ↑ W.E.D. Allen, location: 344 18. ↑ Suny, pp. 63-65-88 19. ↑ Rayfield, p. 259 20. ↑ Suny, p. 59 21. ↑ Suny, pp. 64-66 22. ↑ Suny, pp. 71-72 23. ↑ Statistics Archived 13 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine 22.04.2015 24. ↑ Rayfield, p. 12 25. ↑ Khintibidze, Elguja (1998), The Designations of the Georgians and Their Etymology, pp. 77-78, Tbilisi State University Press, ISBN 5-511-00775-7 26. ↑ Suny, p. 3 27. ↑ Rapp (2016), location: 656 28. 1 2 3 4 5 Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). *Historical Dictionary of Georgia* (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 3. ISBN 978-1442241466. 29. ↑ Rayfield, p. 13 30. ↑ Braund, David. Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC-AD 562, pp. 17–18 31. ↑ Peradze, Gregory. "The Pilgrims' derivation of the name Georgia". *Georgica*, Autumn, 1937, nos. 4 & 5, 208–209 32. ↑ Hock, Hans Henrich; Zgusta, Ladislav (1997). *Historical, Indo-European, and Lexicographical Studies*. Walter de Gruyter. p. 211. ISBN 978-3110128840. 33. ↑ Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). *Historical Dictionary of Georgia* (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 3. ISBN 978-1442241466. However, such explanations are rejected by the scholarly community, who point to the Persian gurğ/gurğān as the root of the word (...) 34. ↑ Boeder; et al. (2002). *Philology, typology and language structure*. Peter Lang. p. 65. ISBN 978-0820459912. The Russian designation of Georgia (Gruziya) also derives from the Persian gurg. 35. ↑ Rapp (2016), location: 1086 36. ↑ Wagner, Jennifer K.; Yu, Joon-Ho; Ifekwunigwe, Jayne O.; Harrell, Tanya M.; Bamshad, Michael J.; Royal, Charmaine D. (February 2017). "Anthropologists' views on race, ancestry, and genetics: WAGNER et al". *American Journal of Physical Anthropology*. **162** (2): 318–327. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23120. PMC 5299519. PMID 27874171. 37. ↑ Blumenbach, *De generis humani varietate nativa* (3rd ed. 1795), trans. Thomas Bendyshe (1865). Quoted e.g. in Arthur Keith, '"Blumenbach's Centenary", *Man* (journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland), v. 40, pp. 82–85 (1940). 38. ↑ Lang, p. 19 39. ↑ Lang, p. 66 40. ↑ *Georgia A Sovereign Country of the Caucasus*, Roger Rosen, p 18 41. ↑ Suny, p. 4 42. ↑ Rayfield, pp. 13-14 43. 1 2 3 4 Toumanoff, p. 80 44. ↑ Toumanoff, p. 58 45. ↑ *The Complete Works*, Jewish Antiquities, Josephus, Book 1, p 57 46. ↑ Suny, p. 11 47. ↑ Suny, p. 6 48. ↑ Lang, p. 58 49. ↑ Lang, p. 59 50. ↑ Charles Burney and David Marshal Lang, *The Peoples of the Hills: Ancient Ararat and Caucasus*, p. 38 51. ↑ Toumanoff, p. 57 52. ↑ Toumanoff, pp. 69—84 53. ↑ "FamilyTreeDNA - Georgian DNA Project". *www.familytreedna.com*. Retrieved 19 December 2022. 54. ↑ Toumanoff, Cyril, "Iberia between Chosroid and Bagratid Rule", in *Studies in Christian Caucasian History*, Georgetown, 1963, pp. 374–377. Accessible online at "Iberia between Chosroid and Bagratid Rule by Cyril Toumanoff. Eastern Asia Minor, Georgia, Georgian History, Armenia, Armenian History". Archived from the original on 8 February 2012. Retrieved 4 June 2012. 55. ↑ Rapp, Stephen H., Jr (2007). "7 – Georgian Christianity". *The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity*. John Wiley & Sons. p. 138. ISBN 978-1-4443-3361-9. Retrieved 11 May 2012. 56. ↑ "GEORGIA iii. Iranian elements in Georgian art and archeology". Retrieved 1 January 2015. 57. ↑ Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994). *The Making of the Georgian Nation*. ISBN 0253209153. Retrieved 2 January 2015. 58. ↑ "2002 census results – p. 132" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 October 2015. Retrieved 4 June 2012. 59. ↑ Thomas Liles, "Islam and religious transformation in Adjara", ECMI Working Paper, February 2012, Archived 5 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 4 June 2012 60. ↑ Caucasus Analytical Digest No.20, Heinrich Böll Stiftung, 11 October 2010 61. ↑ Mack, Glenn R.; Surina, Asele (2005). *Food Culture in Russia And Central Asia*. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-32773-4. 62. ↑ (in Russian) Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г. 63. ↑ (in Russian) ССР ГРУЗИЯ (1926 г.) 64. ↑ "Dr Mathijs Pelkmans". Retrieved 21 August 2015. 65. ↑ Pelkmans, Mathijs. *Defending the border: identity, religion, and modernity in the Republic of Georgia*. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2006, pg. 80 66. 1 2 Extra, Guus; Gorter, Durk (2001). *The Other Languages of Europe*. *Guus Extra & Durk Gorter*. ISBN 9781853595097. Retrieved 26 May 2014. About 91,000 Muslim Georgians living in Turkey. 67. ↑ "Türkiye'deki Yaşayan Etnik Gruplar Araştırıldı". *Milliyet* (in Turkish). 6 June 2008. Retrieved 7 June 2008. 68. ↑ Ramet, Sabrina P. (1989). *Religion and Nationalism in Soviet and East European Politics*. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 187. ISBN 9780822308911. 69. ↑ Friedrich, Paul (1994). *Encyclopedia of World Cultures: Russia and Eurasia, China* (1. publ. ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: G.K. Hall. p. 150. ISBN 9780816118106. A part of the Ingilo population still retains the (Orthodox) Christian faith, but another, larger segment adheres to the Sunni sect of Islam.

Georgians

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgians

**Sustainable development** is an organizing principle that aims to meet human development goals while also enabling natural systems to provide necessary natural resources and ecosystem services to humans. The desired result is a society where living conditions and resources meet human needs without undermining the planetary integrity and stability of the natural system. Sustainable development tries to find a balance between economic development, environmental protection, and social well-being. The Brundtland Report in 1987 defined sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". The concept of sustainable development nowadays has a focus on economic development, social development and environmental protection for future generations. Sustainable development was first institutionalized with the Rio Process initiated at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. In 2015 the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (2015 to 2030) and explained how the goals are integrated and indivisible to achieve sustainable development at the global level. The UNGA's 17 goals address the global challenges, including poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice. Sustainable development is interlinked with the normative concept of sustainability. UNESCO formulated a distinction between the two concepts as follows: "*Sustainability* is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while *sustainable development* refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it." The concept of sustainable development has been criticized in various ways. While some see it as paradoxical (or as an oxymoron) and regard development as inherently unsustainable, others are disappointed in the lack of progress that has been achieved so far. Part of the problem is that "development" itself is not consistently defined. Definition ---------- In 1987, the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development released the report *Our Common Future*, commonly called the Brundtland Report. The report included a definition of "sustainable development" which is now widely used: > Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains two key concepts within it: > > > * The concept of 'needs', in particular, the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and > * The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs.— World Commission on Environment and Development, *Our Common Future* (1987) > Sustainable development thus tries to find a balance between economic development, environmental protection, and social well-being. ### Related concepts #### Sustainability Sustainability is a social goal about the ability of people to co-exist on Earth over a long time. Specific definitions of this term are difficult to agree on. They have varied with literature, context, and time. Experts often describe sustainability as having three dimensions (or pillars). These are environmental, economic, and social. Many publications state that the environmental dimension is the most important. So in everyday use, *sustainability* often focuses on countering major environmental problems. These include climate change and loss of biodiversity. They also include loss of ecosystem services, land degradation, and air and water pollution. The idea of sustainability can guide decisions at the global, national, and individual levels (e.g. sustainable living). A related concept is sustainable development, and the terms are often used to mean the same thing. UNESCO distinguishes the two like this: "*Sustainability* is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while *sustainable development* refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it." Development of the concept -------------------------- Sustainable development has its roots in ideas regarding sustainable forest management, which were developed in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. In response to a growing awareness of the depletion of timber resources in England, John Evelyn argued, in his 1662 essay *Sylva*, that "sowing and planting of trees had to be regarded as a national duty of every landowner, in order to stop the destructive over-exploitation of natural resources." In 1713, Hans Carl von Carlowitz, a senior mining administrator in the service of Elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony published *Sylvicultura economics*, a 400-page work on forestry. Building upon the ideas of Evelyn and French minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert, von Carlowitz developed the concept of managing forests for sustained yield. His work influenced others, including Alexander von Humboldt and Georg Ludwig Hartig, eventually leading to the development of the science of forestry. This, in turn, influenced people like Gifford Pinchot, the first head of the US Forest Service, whose approach to forest management was driven by the idea of wise use of resources, and Aldo Leopold whose land ethic was influential in the development of the environmental movement in the 1960s. Following the publication of Rachel Carson's *Silent Spring* in 1962, the developing environmental movement drew attention to the relationship between economic growth and environmental degradation. Kenneth E. Boulding, in his influential 1966 essay *The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth*, identified the need for the economic system to fit itself to the ecological system with its limited pools of resources. Another milestone was the 1968 article by Garrett Hardin that popularized the term "tragedy of the commons". The direct linking of sustainability and development in a contemporary sense can be traced to the early 1970s. "Strategy of Progress", a 1972 book (in German) by Ernst Basler, explained how the long-acknowledged sustainability concept of preserving forests for future wood production can be directly transferred to the broader importance of preserving environmental resources to sustain the world for future generations. That same year, the interrelationship of environment and development was formally demonstrated in a systems dynamic simulation model reported in the classic report on *Limits to Growth*. It was commissioned by the Club of Rome and written by a group of scientists led by Dennis and Donella Meadows of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Describing the desirable "state of global equilibrium", the authors wrote: "We are searching for a model output that represents a world system that is sustainable without sudden and uncontrolled collapse and capable of satisfying the basic material requirements of all of its people." Also in 1972 was publication of the influential book, *A Blueprint for Survival*. In 1975, an MIT research group prepared ten days of hearings on "Growth and Its Implication for the Future" for the US Congress, the first hearings ever held on sustainable development. In 1980, the International Union for Conservation of Nature published a world conservation strategy that included one of the first references to sustainable development as a global priority and introduced the term "sustainable development". Two years later, the United Nations World Charter for Nature raised five principles of conservation by which human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged. Since the Brundtland Report, the concept of sustainable development has developed beyond the initial intergenerational framework to focus more on the goal of "socially inclusive and environmentally sustainable economic growth". In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and Development published the Earth Charter, which outlines the building of a just, sustainable, and peaceful global society in the 21st century. The action plan Agenda 21 for sustainable development identified information, integration, and participation as key building blocks to help countries achieve development that recognizes these interdependent pillars. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphasizes that broad public participation in decision-making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development. The Rio Protocol was a huge leap forward: for the first time, the world agreed on a sustainability agenda. In fact, a global consensus was facilitated by neglecting concrete goals and operational details. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) now have concrete targets (unlike the results from the Rio Process) but no methods for sanctions. Dimensions ---------- Sustainable development, like sustainability, is regarded to have three *dimensions*: the environment, economy and society. The idea is that a good balance between the three dimensions should be achieved. Instead of calling them *dimensions*, other terms commonly used are *pillars*, *domains*, *aspects*, *spheres*. Scholars usually distinguish three different areas of sustainability. These are the environmental, the social, and the economic. Several terms are in use for this concept. Authors may speak of three pillars, dimensions, components, aspects, perspectives, factors, or goals. All mean the same thing in this context. The three dimensions paradigm has few theoretical foundations. It emerged without a single point of origin. Scholars rarely question the distinction itself. The idea of sustainability with three dimensions is a dominant interpretation in the literature. > Countries could develop systems for monitoring and evaluation of progress towards achieving sustainable development by adopting indicators that measure changes across economic, social and environmental dimensions. > > — United Nations Conference on Environment & Development – Earth Summit (1992), Critique -------- The concept of sustainable development has been and still is, subject to criticism, including the question of what is to be sustained in sustainable development. It has been argued that there is no such thing as sustainable use of a non-renewable resource, since any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to the exhaustion of earth's finite stock; this perspective renders the Industrial Revolution as a whole unsustainable. The sustainable development debate is based on the assumption that societies need to manage three types of capital (economic, social, and natural), which may be non-substitutable and whose consumption might be irreversible. Natural capital can not necessarily be substituted by economic capital. While it is possible that we can find ways to replace some natural resources, it is much less likely that they will ever be able to replace ecosystem services, such as the protection provided by the ozone layer, or the climate stabilizing function of the Amazonian forest. The concept of sustainable development has been criticized from different angles. While some see it as paradoxical (or an oxymoron) and regard development as inherently unsustainable, others are disappointed in the lack of progress that has been achieved so far. Part of the problem is that "development" itself is not consistently defined. Such a viewpoint contradicts the mainstream academic community, which frequently concedes that the processes of capitalism are incompatible with the long-term sustainability of human life. The vagueness of the Brundtland definition of sustainable development has been criticized as follows: The definition has "opened up the possibility of downplaying sustainability. Hence, governments spread the message that we can have it all at the same time, i.e. economic growth, prospering societies and a healthy environment. No new ethic is required. This so-called weak version of sustainability is popular among governments, and businesses, but profoundly wrong and not even weak, as there is no alternative to preserving the earth's ecological integrity." Pathways -------- ### Requirements Six interdependent capacities are deemed to be necessary for the successful pursuit of sustainable development. These are the capacities to measure progress towards sustainable development; promote equity within and between generations; adapt to shocks and surprises; transform the system onto more sustainable development pathways; link knowledge with action for sustainability; and to devise governance arrangements that allow people to work together. ### Environmental characteristics of sustainable cities A sustainable city is an urban center that improves its environmental impact through urban planning and management. For the definition of an eco-city, imagine a city with parks and green spaces, solar-powered buildings, rooftop gardens, and more pedestrians and bicycles than cars. This is not a futuristic dream. Smart cities are actively moving towards greener urban ecosystems and better environmental management. Environmental sustainability concerns the natural environment and how it endures and remains diverse and productive. Since natural resources are derived from the environment, the state of air, water, and climate is of particular concern. Environmental sustainability requires society to design activities to meet human needs while preserving the life support systems of the planet. This, for example, entails using water sustainably, using renewable energy and sustainable material supplies (e.g. harvesting wood from forests at a rate that maintains the biomass and biodiversity). An unsustainable situation occurs when natural capital (the total of nature's resources) is used up faster than it can be replenished. Sustainability requires that human activity only uses nature's resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. The concept of sustainable development is intertwined with the concept of carrying capacity. Theoretically, the long-term result of environmental degradation is the inability to sustain human life. Important operational principles of sustainable development were published by Herman Daly in 1990: renewable resources should provide a sustainable yield (the rate of harvest should not exceed the rate of regeneration); for non-renewable resources there should be equivalent development of renewable substitutes; waste generation should not exceed the assimilative capacity of the environment. Summary of different levels of consumption of natural resources.| Consumption of natural resources | State of the environment | State of sustainability | | --- | --- | --- | | More than nature's ability to replenish | Environmental degradation | Not sustainable | | Equal to nature's ability to replenish | Environmental equilibrium | Steady state economy | | Less than nature's ability to replenish | Environmental renewal | Environmentally sustainable | #### Land use changes, agriculture and food Environmental problems associated with industrial agriculture and agribusiness are now being addressed through approaches such as sustainable agriculture, organic farming and more sustainable business practices. The most cost-effective climate change mitigation options include afforestation, sustainable forest management, and reducing deforestation. At the local level there are various movements working towards sustainable food systems which may include less meat consumption, local food production, slow food, sustainable gardening, and organic gardening. The environmental effects of different dietary patterns depend on many factors, including the proportion of animal and plant foods consumed and the method of food production. #### Materials and waste As global population and affluence have increased, so has the use of various materials increased in volume, diversity, and distance transported. Included here are raw materials, minerals, synthetic chemicals (including hazardous substances), manufactured products, food, living organisms, and waste. By 2050, humanity could consume an estimated 140 billion tons of minerals, ores, fossil fuels and biomass per year (three times its current amount) unless the economic growth rate is decoupled from the rate of natural resource consumption. Developed countries' citizens consume an average of 16 tons of those four key resources per capita per year, ranging up to 40 or more tons per person in some developed countries with resource consumption levels far beyond what is likely sustainable. By comparison, the average person in India today consumes four tons per year. Sustainable use of materials has targeted the idea of dematerialization, converting the linear path of materials (extraction, use, disposal in landfill) to a circular material flow that reuses materials as much as possible, much like the cycling and reuse of waste in nature. Dematerialization is being encouraged through the ideas of industrial ecology, eco design and ecolabelling. This way of thinking is expressed in the concept of circular economy, which employs reuse, sharing, repair, refurbishment, remanufacturing and recycling to create a closed-loop system, minimizing the use of resource inputs and the creation of waste, pollution and carbon emissions. Building electric vehicles has been one of the most popular ways in the field of sustainable development, the potential of using reusable energy and reducing waste offered a perspective in sustainable development. The European Commission has adopted an ambitious Circular Economy Action Plan in 2020, which aims at making sustainable products the norm in the EU. #### Biodiversity and ecosystem services There is a connection between ecosystems and biodiversity. Ecosystems are made up of various living things interacting with one another and their surroundings. Along with this, biodiversity lays the groundwork for ecosystems to function well by defining the kinds of species that can coexist in an environment, as well as their functions and interactions with other species. In 2019, a summary for policymakers of the largest, most comprehensive study to date of biodiversity and ecosystem services was published by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. It recommended that human civilization will need a transformative change, including sustainable agriculture, reductions in consumption and waste, fishing quotas and collaborative water management. Biodiversity is not only crucial for the well-being of animals and wildlife but also plays a positive role in the lives of human beings in the way in which it aids development of human life. The 2022 IPCC report emphasizes how there have been many studies done on the loss of biodiversity, and provides additional strategies to decrease the rate of our declining biodiversity. The report suggests how preserving natural ecosystems, fire and soil management, and reducing the competition for land can create positive impacts on our environment, and contribute to sustainable development. #### Management of human consumption and impacts The environmental impact of a community or humankind as a whole depends both on population and impact per person, which in turn depends in complex ways on what resources are being used, whether or not those resources are renewable, and the scale of the human activity relative to the carrying capacity of the ecosystems involved. Careful resource management can be applied at many scales, from economic sectors like agriculture, manufacturing and industry, to work organizations, the consumption patterns of households and individuals, and the resource demands of individual goods and services. The underlying driver of direct human impacts on the environment is human consumption. This impact is reduced by not only consuming less but also making the full cycle of production, use, and disposal more sustainable. Consumption of goods and services can be analyzed and managed at all scales through the chain of consumption, starting with the effects of individual lifestyle choices and spending patterns, through to the resource demands of specific goods and services, the impacts of economic sectors, through national economies to the global economy. Key resource categories relating to human needs are food, energy, raw materials and water. ### Improving on economic and social aspects It has been suggested that because of rural poverty and overexploitation, environmental resources should be treated as important economic assets, called natural capital. Economic development has traditionally required a growth in the gross domestic product. This model of unlimited personal and GDP growth may be over. Sustainable development may involve improvements in the quality of life for many but may necessitate a decrease in resource consumption. "Growth" generally ignores the direct effect that the environment may have on social welfare, whereas "development" takes it into account. As early as the 1970s, the concept of sustainability was used to describe an economy "in equilibrium with basic ecological support systems". Scientists in many fields have highlighted *The Limits to Growth*, and economists have presented alternatives, for example a 'steady-state economy', to address concerns over the impacts of expanding human development on the planet. In 1987, the economist Edward Barbier published the study *The Concept of Sustainable Economic Development*, where he recognized that goals of environmental conservation and economic development are not conflicting and can be reinforcing each other. A World Bank study from 1999 concluded that based on the theory of genuine savings (defined as "traditional net savings less the value of resource depletion and environmental degradation plus the value of investment in human capital"), policymakers have many possible interventions to increase sustainability, in macroeconomics or purely environmental. Several studies have noted that efficient policies for renewable energy and pollution are compatible with increasing human welfare, eventually reaching a golden-rule[*clarification needed*] steady state. A meta review in 2002 looked at environmental and economic valuations and found a "lack of concrete understanding of what "sustainability policies" might entail in practice". A study concluded in 2007 that knowledge, manufactured and human capital (health and education) has not compensated for the degradation of natural capital in many parts of the world. It has been suggested that intergenerational equity can be incorporated into a sustainable development and decision making, as has become common in economic valuations of climate economics. The 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report discussed how ambitious climate change mitigation policies have created negative social and economical impacts when they are not aligned with sustainable development goals. As a result, the transition towards sustainable development mitigation policies has slowed down which is why the inclusivity and considerations of justice of these policies may weaken or support improvements on certain regions as there are other limiting factors such as poverty, food insecurity, and water scarcity that may impede the governments application of policies that aim to build a low carbon future. The World Business Council for Sustainable Development published a Vision 2050 document in 2021 to show "How business can lead the transformations the world needs". The vision states that "we envision a world in which 9+billion people can live well, within planetary boundaries, by 2050." This report was highlighted by *The Guardian* as "the largest concerted corporate sustainability action plan to date – include reversing the damage done to ecosystems, addressing rising greenhouse gas emissions and ensuring societies move to sustainable agriculture." #### Gender and leadership in sustainable development Gender and sustainable development have been examined, focusing on women's leadership potential and barriers to it. While leadership roles in sustainable development have become more androgynous over time, patriarchal structures and perceptions continue to constrain women from becoming leaders. Some hidden issues are women's lack of self-confidence, impeding access to leadership roles, but men can potentially play a role as allies for women's leadership. ### Barriers There are barriers that small and medium enterprises face when implementing sustainable development such as lack of expertise, lack of resources, and high initial capital cost of implementing sustainability measures. Globally, the lack of political will is a barrier to achieving sustainable development. To overcome this impediment, governments must jointly form an agreement of social and political strength. Efforts to enact reforms or design and implement programs to decrease the harmful effects of human behaviors allow for progress toward present and future environmental sustainability goals. The Paris Agreement exemplifies efforts of political will on a global level, a multinational agreement between 193 parties intended to strengthen the global response to climate change by reducing emissions and working together to adjust to the consequent effects of climate change. Experts continue to firmly suggest that governments should do more outside of The Paris Agreement, there persist a greater need for political will. Another barrier towards sustainable development would be negative externalities that may potentially arise from implementing sustainable development technology. One example would be the development of lithium-ion batteries, a key element towards environmental sustainability and the reduction in reliance towards fossil fuels. However, currently with the technology and methodology available, Lithium production poses a negative environmental impact during its extraction from the earth as it uses a method very similar to fracking as well as during its processing to be used as a battery which is a chemically intensive process. One suggested solution would be to weigh the possibility of recycling as this will cut down on the waste of old lithium as well as reducing the need for extracting new lithium from the ground, however, this sustainable development solution is barred from implementation by a high initial cost as studies have shown that recycling old technology for the purpose of extracting metals such as lithium and cobalt is typically more expensive than extracting them from the ground and processing them. Taking into account the pandemic is also something that needs to be considered in the SDG process. Especially for developing countries exposed to social problems affected by COVID-19, the connection between post-epidemic recovery and SDG needs to be discussed and studied. The COVID-19 pandemic has provided substantial roadblocks towards achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). While the long-term effects of COVID-19 on SDGs is limited, research has shown that SDG 1, SDG 4, and SDG 8 are the most likely to be adversely affected by the pandemic. One of the strategies proposed towards SDG in the light of the COVID-19 pandemic is green management, or the government strategy of utilizing resources such as water and energy with the intention to change resource consumption behavior. Other strategies include erecting sustainable food systems, labor market energization, inclusive education, and supporting research in the energy sector. Sustainable development goals ----------------------------- The Sustainable Development Goals or Global Goals are a collection of seventeen interlinked objectives designed to serve as a "shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future". The SDGs are: no poverty; zero hunger; good health and well-being; quality education; gender equality; clean water and sanitation; affordable and clean energy; decent work and economic growth; industry, innovation and infrastructure; reduced inequalities; sustainable cities and communities; responsible consumption and production; climate action; life below water; life on land; peace, justice, and strong institutions; and partnerships for the goals. The SDGs emphasize the interconnected environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainable development by putting sustainability at their center. The SDGs were formulated in 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) as part of the Post-2015 Development Agenda, which sought to create a future global development framework to succeed the Millennium Development Goals, which ended that year. They were formally articulated and adopted in a UNGA resolution called the 2030 Agenda, known colloquially as Agenda 2030. On 6 July 2017, the SDGs were made more actionable by a UNGA resolution that identifies specific targets for each goal and provides indicators to measure progress. Most targets are to be achieved by 2030, although some have no end date. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has also taken the initiative to achieve the SDGs by offering their support to developing countries. For example, the IMF works to reduce poverty in low-income developing countries by offering financial support during the COVID-19 pandemic. There are cross-cutting issues and synergies between the different goals; for example, for SDG 13 on climate action, the IPCC sees robust synergies with SDGs 3 (health), 7 (clean energy), 11 (cities and communities), 12 (responsible consumption and production) and 14 (oceans). Conversely, critics and observers have also identified trade-offs between the goals,such as between ending hunger and promoting environmental sustainability. Other concerns include there being too many goals (resulting in compounding trade-offs), a weak emphasis on environmental sustainability, and difficulties tracking qualitative indicators. Education for sustainable development ------------------------------------- Education for sustainable development (ESD) is a term officially used by the United Nations and is defined as education practices that encourage changes in knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to enable a more sustainable and just society for humanity. ESD aims to empower and equip current and future generations to meet their needs using a balanced and integrated approach to the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development. Agenda 21 was the first international document that identified education as an essential tool for achieving sustainable development and highlighted areas of action for education. ESD is a component of measurement in an indicator for Sustainable Development Goal 12 (SDG) for "responsible consumption and production". SDG 12 has 11 targets and target 12.8 is "By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature." 20 years after the Agenda 21 document was declared, the 'Future we want' document was declared in the Rio+20 UN Conference on Sustainable Development, stating that "We resolve to promote education for sustainable development and to integrate sustainable development more actively into education beyond the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development." One version of education for Sustainable Development recognizes modern-day environmental challenges and seeks to define new ways to adjust to a changing biosphere, as well as engage individuals to address societal issues that come with them In the International Encyclopedia of Education, this approach to education is seen as an attempt to "shift consciousness toward an ethics of life-giving relationships that respects the interconnectedness of man to his natural world" in order to equip future members of society with environmental awareness and a sense of responsibility to sustainability. For UNESCO, education for sustainable development involves: > integrating key sustainable development issues into teaching and learning. This may include, for example, instruction about climate change, disaster risk reduction, biodiversity, and poverty reduction and sustainable consumption. It also requires participatory teaching and learning methods that motivate and empower learners to change their behaviours and take action for sustainable development. ESD consequently promotes competencies like critical thinking, imagining future scenarios and making decisions in a collaborative way. > > The Thessaloniki Declaration, presented at the "International Conference on Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability" by UNESCO and the Government of Greece (December 1997), highlights the importance of sustainability not only with regards to the natural environment, but also with "poverty, health, food security, democracy, human rights, and peace". See also -------- * Climate change education (CCE) * Environmental education * Global citizenship education * Human population planning * List of sustainability topics * Outline of sustainability * United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development * Informal waste collection

Sustainable development

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development

The **Iranian plateau** or **Persian plateau** is a geological feature in Western Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia. It makes up part of the Eurasian Plate and is wedged between the Arabian Plate and the Indian Plate, situated between the Zagros Mountains to the west, the Caspian Sea and the Köpet Dag to the north, the Armenian Highlands and the Caucasus Mountains to the northwest, the Strait of Hormuz and the Persian Gulf to the south, and the Indian subcontinent to the east. As a historical region, it includes Parthia, Media, Persis, and some of the previous territories of Greater Iran. The Zagros form the plateau's western boundary, and its eastern slopes may also be included in the term. The *Encyclopædia Britannica* excludes "lowland Khuzestan" explicitly and characterizes Elam as spanning "the region from the Mesopotamian plain to the Iranian plateau". From the Caspian in the northwest to Balochistan in the southeast, the Iranian plateau extends for close to 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi). It encompasses a large part of Iran, all of Afghanistan, and the parts of Pakistan that are situated west of the Indus River, covering an area of some 3,700,000 square kilometres (1,400,000 sq mi). In spite of being called a plateau, it is far from flat, and contains several mountain ranges; its highest point is Noshaq in the Hindu Kush at 7,492 metres (24,580 ft), and its lowest point is the Lut Desert to the east of Kerman, Iran, at below 300 metres (980 ft). Geology ------- In geology, the plateau region of Iran primarily formed from the accretionary Gondwanan terranes between the Turan platform to the north and the Main Zagros Thrust; the suture zone between the northward moving Arabian plate and the Eurasian continent is the Iranian plateau. It is a geologically well-studied area because of general interest in continental collision zones, and because of Iran's long history of research in geology, particularly in economic geology (although Iran's major oil reserves are not in the plateau). Geography --------- | | | --- | | *CaspianSea* *PersianGulf* Mesopotamia *Indus* Hindu Kush Sabalan Urmia Alborz Kopet Dag N Zagros S Zagros Oshtoran-Kūh Zard-Kūh Shir-Kūh Barez Hazaran Dasht-e Kavir Dasht-e Lut Hamun Balochistan | The Iranian plateau in geology refers to a geographical area north of the great folded mountain belts resulting from the collision of the Arabian Plate with the Eurasian Plate. In this definition, the Iranian plateau does not cover southwestern Iran. The plateau extends from East Azerbaijan Province in northwest of Iran (Persia) all the way to Afghanistan and Pakistan west of the Indus River. It also includes smaller parts of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Iraqi Kurdistan, and Turkmenistan. Its mountain ranges can be divided into five major subregions (see below). The Northwestern Iranian plateau, where the Pontic and Taurus Mountains converge, is rugged country with higher elevations, a more severe climate, and greater precipitation than are found on the Anatolian Plateau. The region is known as the Anti-Taurus, and the average elevation of its peaks exceeds 3,000 m (9,800 ft). Mount Ararat, at 5,137 meters (16,854 ft) the highest point in Turkey, is located in the Anti-Taurus. Lake Van is situated in the mountains at an elevation of 1,546 meters (5,072 ft). The headwaters of major rivers arise in the Anti-Taurus: the east-flowing Aras River flows into the Caspian Sea, and the south-flowing Euphrates and Tigris join in Iraq before flowing into the Persian Gulf. Several small streams that flow into the Black Sea or landlocked Lake Van also originate in these mountains. The Indus River begins in the highlands of Tibet and flows the length of Pakistan almost tracing the eastern edge of the Iranian plateau. Southeast Anatolia lies south of the Anti-Taurus Mountains. It is a region of rolling hills and a broad plateau surface that extends into Syria. Elevations decrease gradually, from about 800 meters (2,600 ft) in the north to about 500 meters (1,600 ft) in the south. Traditionally, wheat and barley are the main crops of the region. ### Mountain ranges #### Northwest Iranian ranges * Alborz + Damavand 5,610 m (18,410 ft) #### southwest Iranian ranges * Zagros + Dena 4,409 m (14,465 ft) #### Central Iranian plateau * + Kūh-e Hazār 4,500 m (14,800 ft) + Kuh-e Jebal Barez #### Eastern Iranian ranges * + Kopet Dag - Kuh-e Siah Khvani 3,314 m (10,873 ft) 36°17′N 59°3′E / 36.283°N 59.050°E / 36.283; 59.050 + Eshdeger Range - 2,920 m (9,580 ft) 33°32′N 57°14′E / 33.533°N 57.233°E / 33.533; 57.233 * Balochistan + Sikaram 4,755 m (15,600 ft) 34°2′N 69°54′E / 34.033°N 69.900°E / 34.033; 69.900 + Kuh-e Taftan 3,941 m (12,930 ft) 28°36′N 61°8′E / 28.600°N 61.133°E / 28.600; 61.133 + Zargun 3,578 m (11,739 ft) 30°16′N 67°18′E / 30.267°N 67.300°E / 30.267; 67.300 ### Rivers and plains * Kavir Desert * Lut Desert * Hamun-e Jaz Murian + Halil River * Gavkhouni + Zayandeh River * Sistan Basin + Helmand River + Farah River History ------- In the Bronze Age, Elam stretched across the Zagros mountains, connecting Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau. The kingdoms of Aratta, known from cuneiform sources, may have been located in the Central Iranian plateau. In classical antiquity the region was known as Persia, due to the Persian Achaemenid dynasty originating in Fars. The Middle Persian *Erān* (whence Modern Persian *Irān*) began to be used in reference to the state (rather than as an ethnic designator) from the Sassanid period (see Etymology of Iran). Archaeology ----------- Archaeological sites and cultures of the Iranian plateau include: * Mehrgarh, predecessor of Indus Valley civilization * Central Iranian plateau ("Jiroft culture") + Shahr-i Sokhta + Konar Sandal + Tepe Yahya * Zayandeh River Civilization * Tappeh Sialk * Paleolithic sites + Niasar + Sefid-Ab + Kaftar Khoun + Qaleh Bozi Caves + Mirak + Delazian + Tabas + Masileh Flora ----- The plateau has historical oak and poplar forests. Oak forests are found around Shiraz. Aspen, elm, ash, willow, walnut, pine, and cypress are also found, though the latter two are rare. As of 1920, poplar was harvested for making doors. Elm was used for ploughs. Other trees like acacia, cypress, and Turkestan elm were used for decorative purposes. Flower wise, the plateau can grow lilac, jasmine, and roses. Hawthorn and Cercis siliquastrum are common, which are both used for basket weaving. Fauna ----- The plateau is abundant with wildlife including leopards, bears, hyenas, wild boars, ibex, gazelles, and mouflons. These animals are mostly found in the wooded mountains of the plateau. The shores of the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf house aquatic birds such as seagulls, ducks, and geese. Deer, hedgehogs, foxes, and 22 species of rodents are found in semidesert, and palm squirrels and Asiatic black bears live in Baluchistan. Wide variety of amphibians and reptiles such as toads, frogs, tortoises, lizards, salamanders, racers, rat snakes (*Ptyas*), cat snakes (*Tarbophis fallax*), and vipers live the Baluchistan region and along the slopes of the Elburz and Zagros mountains. 200 varieties of fish live in the Persian Gulf. Thirty species of the most important commercial fish Sturgeon is found in the Caspian Sea. Economy ------- The Iranian plateau harvests trees for making doors, ploughs, and baskets. Fruit is grown also. Pears, apples, apricots, quince, plums, nectarines, cherries, mulberries, and peaches were commonly seen in the 20th century. Almonds and pistachios are common in warmer areas. Dates, oranges, grapes, melon, and limes are also grown. Other edibles include potatoes and cauliflower, which were hard to grow until European settlement brought irrigation improvements. Other vegetables include cabbage, tomatoes, artichokes, cucumbers, spinach, radishes, lettuce, and eggplants. The plateau also produces wheat, barley, millet, beans, opium, cotton, lucerne, and tobacco. The barley is fed mainly to horses. Sesame is grown and made into sesame oil. Mushrooms and manna were also seen in the plateau area as of 1920. Caraway is grown in the Kerman Province. See also -------- * Biosphere reserves of Iran * Geography of Iran * List of Iranian four-thousanders * Y. Majidzadeh, *Sialk III and the Pottery Sequence at Tepe Ghabristan. The Coherence of the Cultures of the Central Iranian Plateau,* Iran 19, 1981, 141–46.

Iranian plateau

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_plateau

**This article contains Coptic text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Coptic letters. The **Egyptian language** or **Ancient Egyptian** (*r n km.t*) is an extinct Afro-Asiatic language that was spoken in ancient Egypt. It is known today from a large corpus of surviving texts which were made accessible to the modern world following the decipherment of the ancient Egyptian scripts in the early 19th century. Egyptian is one of the earliest written languages, first being recorded in the hieroglyphic script in the late 4th millennium BC. It is also the longest-attested human language, with a written record spanning over 4,000 years. Its classical form is known as Middle Egyptian, the vernacular of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt which remained the literary language of Egypt until the Roman period. By the time of classical antiquity the spoken language had evolved into Demotic, and by the Roman era it had diversified into the Coptic dialects. These were eventually supplanted by Arabic after the Muslim conquest of Egypt, although Bohairic Coptic remains in use as the liturgical language of the Coptic Church. Classification -------------- The Egyptian language belongs to the Afroasiatic language family. Among the typological features of Egyptian that are typically Afroasiatic are its fusional morphology, nonconcatenative morphology, a series of emphatic consonants, a three-vowel system /a i u/, nominal feminine suffix \**-at*, nominal *m-*, adjectival \**-ī* and characteristic personal verbal affixes. Of the other Afroasiatic branches, linguists have variously suggested that the Egyptian language shares its greatest affinities with Berber and Semitic languages, particularly Hebrew. However, other scholars have argued that the Ancient Egyptian language shared closer linguistic ties with north-eastern African regions. There are two theories that seek to establish the cognate sets between Egyptian and Afroasiatic, the traditional theory and the *neuere Komparativistik*, founded by Semiticist Otto Rössler. According to the *neuere Komparativistik*, in Egyptian, the Proto-Afroasiatic voiced consonants \*/d z ð/ developed into pharyngeal ⟨ꜥ⟩ /ʕ/: Egyptian *ꜥr.t* 'portal', Semitic *dalt* 'door'. The traditional theory instead disputes the values given to those consonants by the *neuere Komparativistik*, instead connecting ⟨ꜥ⟩ with Semitic /ʕ/ and /ɣ/. Both schools agree that Afroasiatic \*/l/ merged with Egyptian ⟨n⟩, ⟨r⟩, ⟨ꜣ⟩, and ⟨j⟩ in the dialect on which the written language was based, but it was preserved in other Egyptian varieties. They also agree that original \*/k g ḳ/ palatalise to ⟨ṯ j ḏ⟩ in some environments and are preserved as ⟨k g q⟩ in others. The Egyptian language has many biradical and perhaps monoradical roots, in contrast to the Semitic preference for triradical roots. Egyptian is probably more conservative, and Semitic likely underwent later regularizations converting roots into the triradical pattern. Although Egyptian is the oldest Afroasiatic language documented in written form, its morphological repertoire is very different from that of the rest of the Afroasiatic languages in general, and Semitic languages in particular. There are multiple possibilities: Egyptian had already undergone radical changes from Proto-Afroasiatic before it was recorded; the Afroasiatic family has so far been studied with an excessively Semito-centric approach; or, as G. W. Tsereteli suggests, Afroasiatic is an allogenetic rather than a genetic group of languages. History ------- The Egyptian language can be grouped thus: * Earlier Egyptian, Older Egyptian, or Classical Egyptian + Old Egyptian - Early Egyptian, Early Old Egyptian, Archaic Old Egyptian, Pre-Old Egyptian, or archaic Egyptian - standard Old Egyptian + Middle Egyptian * Later Egyptian + Late Egyptian + Demotic Egyptian + Coptic The Egyptian language is conventionally grouped into six major chronological divisions: * Archaic Egyptian (before 2600 BC), the reconstructed language of the Early Dynastic Period, * Old Egyptian (c. 2600 – 2000 BC), the language of the Old Kingdom, * Middle Egyptian (c. 2000 – 1350 BC), the language of the Middle Kingdom to early New Kingdom and continuing on as a literary language into the 4th century, * Late Egyptian (c. 1350 – 700 BC), Amarna period to Third Intermediate Period, * Demotic Egyptian (c. 700 BC – 400 AD), the vernacular of the Late Period, Ptolemaic and early Roman Egypt, * Coptic (after c. 200 AD), the vernacular at the time of Christianisation, and the liturgical language of Egyptian Christianity. Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian were all written using both the hieroglyphic and hieratic scripts. Demotic is the name of the script derived from the hieratic beginning in the 7th century BC. The Coptic alphabet was derived from the Greek alphabet, with adaptations for Egyptian phonology. It was first developed in the Ptolemaic period, and gradually replaced the Demotic script in about the 4th to 5th centuries of the Christian era. ### Old Egyptian The term "Archaic Egyptian" is sometimes reserved for the earliest use of hieroglyphs, from the late fourth through the early third millennia BC. At the earliest stage, around 3300 BC, hieroglyphs were not a fully developed writing system, being at a transitional stage of proto-writing; over the time leading up to the 27th century BC, grammatical features such as nisba formation can be seen to occur. Old Egyptian is dated from the oldest known complete sentence, including a finite verb, which has been found. Discovered in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen (dated c. 2690 BC), the seal impression reads: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | dD | nf | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | N19n | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | G38f | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | M23 L2t t | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | O1F34 | sn | | | | *d(m)ḏ.n**.f* | *tꜣ-wj* *n* | *zꜣ**.f* | *nsw.t-bj.t(j)* | *pr*-*jb**.sn(j)* | | unite.PRF.he | land.two for | son.his | sedge-bee | house-heart.their | | "He has united the Two Lands for his son, Dual King Peribsen." | Extensive texts appear from about 2600 BC. The Pyramid Texts are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language. One of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of ideograms, phonograms, and determinatives to indicate the plural. Overall, it does not differ significantly from Middle Egyptian, the classical stage of the language, though it is based on a different dialect. In the period of the 3rd dynasty (c. 2650 – c. 2575 BC), many of the principles of hieroglyphic writing were regularized. From that time on, until the script was supplanted by an early version of Coptic (about the third and fourth centuries), the system remained virtually unchanged. Even the number of signs used remained constant at about 700 for more than 2,000 years. ### Middle Egyptian Middle Egyptian was spoken for about 700 years, beginning around 2000 BC, during the Middle Kingdom and the subsequent Second Intermediate Period. As the classical variant of Egyptian, Middle Egyptian is the best-documented variety of the language, and has attracted the most attention by far from Egyptology. Whilst most Middle Egyptian is seen written on monuments by hieroglyphs, it was also written using a cursive variant, and the related hieratic. Middle Egyptian first became available to modern scholarship with the decipherment of hieroglyphs in the early 19th century. The first grammar of Middle Egyptian was published by Adolf Erman in 1894, surpassed in 1927 by Alan Gardiner's work. Middle Egyptian has been well-understood since then, although certain points of the verbal inflection remained open to revision until the mid-20th century, notably due to the contributions of Hans Jakob Polotsky. The Middle Egyptian stage is taken to have ended around the 14th century BC, giving rise to Late Egyptian. This transition was taking place in the later period of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt (known as the Amarna Period). Middle Egyptian was retained as a literary standard language, and it experienced a renaissance after the Third Intermediate Period (1070–664 BCE), when it was often used in hieroglyphic and hieratic texts in preference to Late Egyptian. Middle Egyptian as a literary language survived until the Christianisation of Roman Egypt in the 4th century. ### Late Egyptian Late Egyptian was spoken for about 650 years, beginning around 1350 BC, during the New Kingdom of Egypt. Late Egyptian succeeded but did not fully supplant Middle Egyptian as a literary language, and was also the language of the New Kingdom administration. Texts written wholly in Late Egyptian date to the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt and later. Late Egyptian is represented by a large body of religious and secular literature, comprising such examples as the *Story of Wenamun*, the love poems of the Chester–Beatty I papyrus, and the *Instruction of Any*. Instructions became a popular literary genre of the New Kingdom, which took the form of advice on proper behavior. Late Egyptian was also the language of New Kingdom administration. Late Egyptian is not completely distinct from Middle Egyptian, as many "classicisms" appear in historical and literary documents of this phase. However, the difference between Middle and Late Egyptian is greater than the difference between Middle and Old Egyptian. Originally a synthetic language, Egyptian by the Late Egyptian phase had become an analytic language. The relationship between Middle Egyptian and Late Egyptian has been described as being similar to that between Latin and Italian. * Written Late Egyptian was seemingly a better representative than Middle Egyptian of the spoken language in the New Kingdom and beyond: weak consonants *ꜣ, w, j*, as well as the feminine ending *.t* were increasingly dropped, apparently because they stopped being pronounced. * The demonstrative pronouns *pꜣ* (masc.), *tꜣ* (fem.), and *nꜣ* (pl.) were used as definite articles. * The old form *sḏm.n.f* (he heard) of the verb was replaced by *sḏm-f* which had both prospective (he shall hear) and perfective (he heard) aspects. The past tense was also formed using the auxiliary verb *jr* (make), as in *jr.f saḥa.f* (he has accused him). * Adjectives as attributes of nouns are often replaced by nouns. The Late Egyptian stage is taken to have ended around the 8th century BC, giving rise to Demotic. ### Demotic Demotic is a later development of the Egyptian language written in the Demotic script, following Late Egyptian and preceding Coptic, the latter of which it shares much with. In the earlier stages of Demotic, such as those texts written in the early Demotic script, it probably represented the spoken idiom of the time. But, as it was increasingly used for only literary and religious purposes, the written language diverged more and more from the spoken form, leading to significant diglossia between the late Demotic texts and the spoken language of the time, similar to the use of classical Middle Egyptian during the Ptolemaic Period. ### Coptic Coptic is the name given to the late Egyptian vernacular when it was written in a Greek-based alphabet, the Coptic alphabet; it flourished from the time of Early Christianity (c. 31/33–324), but Egyptian phrases written in the Greek alphabet first appeared during the Hellenistic period c. 3rd century BC, with the first known Coptic text, still pagan (Old Coptic), from the 1st century AD. Coptic survived into the medieval period, but by the 16th century was dwindling rapidly due to the persecution of Coptic Christians under the Mamluks. It probably survived in the Egyptian countryside as a spoken language for several centuries after that. Coptic survives as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Coptic Catholic Church. Dialects -------- Most hieroglyphic Egyptian texts are written in a literary prestige register rather than the vernacular speech variety of their author. As a result, dialectical differences are not apparent in written Egyptian until the adoption of the Coptic alphabet. Nevertheless, it is clear that these differences existed before the Coptic period. In one Late Egyptian letter (dated c. 1200 BC), a scribe jokes that his colleague's writing is incoherent like "the speech of a Delta man with a man of Elephantine." Recently, some evidence of internal dialects has been found in pairs of similar words in Egyptian that, based on similarities with later dialects of Coptic, may be derived from northern and southern dialects of Egyptian. Written Coptic has five major dialects, which differ mainly in graphic conventions, most notably the southern Saidic dialect, the main classical dialect, and the northern Bohairic dialect, currently used in Coptic Church services. Writing systems --------------- Most surviving texts in the Egyptian language are written on stone in hieroglyphs. The native name for Egyptian hieroglyphic writing is **zẖꜣ n mdw-nṯr** ("writing of the gods' words"). In antiquity, most texts were written on perishable papyrus in hieratic and (later) demotic. There was also a form of cursive hieroglyphs, used for religious documents on papyrus, such as the *Book of the Dead* of the Twentieth Dynasty; it was simpler to write than the hieroglyphs in stone inscriptions, but it was not as cursive as hieratic and lacked the wide use of ligatures. Additionally, there was a variety of stone-cut hieratic, known as "lapidary hieratic". In the language's final stage of development, the Coptic alphabet replaced the older writing system. Hieroglyphs are employed in two ways in Egyptian texts: as ideograms to represent the idea depicted by the pictures and, more commonly, as phonograms to represent their phonetic value. As the phonetic realisation of Egyptian cannot be known with certainty, Egyptologists use a system of transliteration to denote each sound that could be represented by a uniliteral hieroglyph. Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar argued that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols derived from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and in "regards to writing, we have seen that a purely Nilotic, hence African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality" although he acknowledged the geographical location of Egypt made it a receptacle for many influences. Phonology --------- While the consonantal phonology of the Egyptian language may be reconstructed, the exact phonetics is unknown, and there are varying opinions on how to classify the individual phonemes. In addition, because Egyptian is recorded over a full 2,000 years, the Archaic and Late stages being separated by the amount of time that separates Old Latin from Modern Italian, significant phonetic changes must have occurred during that lengthy time frame. Phonologically, Egyptian contrasted labial, alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal consonants. Egyptian also contrasted voiceless and emphatic consonants, as with other Afroasiatic languages, but exactly how the emphatic consonants were realised is unknown. Early research had assumed that the opposition in stops was one of voicing, but it is now thought to be either one of tenuis and emphatic consonants, as in many Semitic languages, or one of aspirated and ejective consonants, as in many Cushitic languages. Since vowels were not written until Coptic, reconstructions of the Egyptian vowel system are much more uncertain and rely mainly on evidence from Coptic and records of Egyptian words, especially proper nouns, in other languages/writing systems. The actual pronunciations reconstructed by such means are used only by a few specialists in the language. For all other purposes, the Egyptological pronunciation is used, but it often bears little resemblance to what is known of how Egyptian was pronounced. ### Old Egyptian #### Consonants The following consonants are reconstructed for Archaic (before 2600 BC) and Old Egyptian (2686–2181 BC), with IPA equivalents in square brackets if they differ from the usual transcription scheme: **Early Egyptian consonants**| | Labial | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Pharyngeal | Glottal | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Nasal | m | n | | | | | | | | Stop | voiceless | p | t | | ṯ [c] | k | q\* | | ʔ | | voiced | b | d\* | | ḏ\* [ɟ] | ɡ\* | | | | | Fricative | voiceless | f | s | š [ʃ] | ẖ [ç] | | ḫ [χ] | ḥ [ħ] | h | | voiced | | z\* | | | | | ꜥ (ʿ) [ʕ] | | | Approximant | w | l | | j | | | | | | Trill | | r | | | | ꜣ (ȝ) [ʀ] | | | \*Possibly unvoiced ejectives. /l/ has no independent representation in the hieroglyphic orthography, and it is frequently written as if it were /n/ or /r/. That is probably because the standard for written Egyptian is based on a dialect in which /l/ had merged with other sonorants. Also, the rare cases of /ʔ/ occurring are not represented. The phoneme /j/ is written as ⟨j⟩ in the initial position (⟨jt⟩ = \*/ˈjaːtVj/ 'father') and immediately after a stressed vowel (⟨bjn⟩ = \*/ˈbaːjin/ 'bad') and as ⟨jj⟩ word-medially immediately before a stressed vowel (⟨ḫꜥjjk⟩ = \*/χaʕˈjak/ 'you will appear') and are unmarked word-finally (⟨jt⟩ = /ˈjaːtVj/ 'father'). ### Middle Egyptian In Middle Egyptian (2055–1650 BC), a number of consonantal shifts take place. By the beginning of the Middle Kingdom period, /z/ and /s/ had merged, and the graphemes ⟨s⟩ and ⟨z⟩ are used interchangeably. In addition, /j/ had become /ʔ/ word-initially in an unstressed syllable (⟨jwn⟩ /jaˈwin/ > \*/ʔaˈwin/ "colour") and after a stressed vowel (⟨ḥjpw⟩ \*/ˈħujpVw/ > /ˈħeʔp(Vw)/ '[the god] Apis'). ### Late Egyptian In Late Egyptian (1069–700 BC), the phonemes *d ḏ g* gradually merge with their counterparts *t ṯ k* (⟨dbn⟩ \*/ˈdiːban/ > Akkadian transcription *ti-ba-an* 'dbn-weight'). Also, *ṯ ḏ* often become /t d/, but they are retained in many lexemes; *ꜣ* becomes /ʔ/; and /t r j w/ become /ʔ/ at the end of a stressed syllable and eventually null word-finally: ⟨pḏ.t⟩ \*/ˈpiːɟat/ > Akkadian transcription -*pi-ta* 'bow'. ### Demotic #### Phonology The most important source of information about Demotic phonology is Coptic. The consonant inventory of Demotic can be reconstructed on the basis of evidence from the Coptic dialects. Demotic orthography is relatively opaque. The Demotic "alphabetical" signs are mostly inherited from the hieroglyphic script, and due to historical sound changes they do not always map neatly onto Demotic phonemes. However, the Demotic script does feature certain orthographic innovations, such as the use of the sign *h̭* for /ç/, which allow it to represent sounds that were not present in earlier forms of Egyptian. The Demotic consonants can be divided into two primary classes: obstruents (stops, affricates and fricatives) and sonorants (approximants, nasals, and semivowels). Voice is not a contrastive feature; all obstruents are voiceless and all sonorants are voiced. Stops may be either aspirated or tenuis (unaspirated), although there is evidence that aspirates merged with their tenuis counterparts in certain environments. The following table presents the consonants of Demotic Egyptian. The reconstructed value of a phoneme is given in IPA transcription, followed by a transliteration of the corresponding Demotic "alphabetical" sign(s) in angle brackets `⟨ ⟩`. Demotic Egyptian consonants| | Labial | Alveolar | Postalv. | Palatal | Velar | Pharyng. | Glottal | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Nasal | /m/ | /n/ | | | | | | Obstruent | aspirate | /pʰ/ ⟨*p*⟩ | /tʰ/ ⟨*t ṯ*⟩ | /t͡ʃʰ/ ⟨*ṯ*⟩ | /cʰ/ ⟨*k*⟩ | /kʰ/ ⟨*k*⟩ | | | | tenuis | | /t/ ⟨*d ḏ t ṯ ṱ*⟩ | /t͡ʃ/ ⟨*ḏ ṯ*⟩ | /c/ ⟨*g k q*⟩ | /k/ ⟨*q k g*⟩ | | | | fricative | /f/ ⟨*f*⟩ | /s/ ⟨*s*⟩ | /ʃ/ ⟨*š*⟩ | /ç/ ⟨*h̭ ḫ*⟩ | /x/ ⟨*ẖ ḫ*⟩ | /ħ/ ⟨*ḥ*⟩ | /h/ ⟨*h*⟩ | | Approximant | /β/ ⟨*b*⟩ | /r/ ⟨*r*⟩ | /l/ ⟨*l r*⟩ | | /j/ ⟨*y ı͗*⟩ | /w/ ⟨*w*⟩ | /ʕ/ ⟨*ꜥ*⟩ | | 1. ↑ /ʕ/ was lost near the end of the Ptolemaic period. Demotic–Coptic sound correspondences| Demotic spelling | Demotic phoneme | Coptic reflexes | | --- | --- | --- | | B | FMSL | A | P | | *m* | \*/m/ | ⲙ /m/ | | *n* | \*/n/ | ⲛ /n/ | | *p* | \*/pʰ/ | ⲫ /pʰ/ | ⲡ /p/ | | *t*, *ṯ* | \*/tʰ/ | ⲑ /tʰ/ | ⲧ /t/ | | *ṯ* | \*/t͡ʃʰ/ | ϭ /t͡ʃʰ/ | ϫ /t͡ʃ/ | | *k* | \*/cʰ/ | ϭ /t͡ʃʰ/ | ϭ /c/ | | *k* | \*/kʰ/ | ⲭ /kʰ/ | ⲕ /k/ | | *p* | \*[p] | ⲡ /p/ | | *d*, *ḏ*, *t*, *ṯ*, *ṱ* | \*/t/ | ⲧ /t/ | | *ḏ* | \*/t͡ʃ/ | ϫ /t͡ʃ/ | | *g*, *k*, *q* | \*/c/ | ϫ /t͡ʃ/ | ϭ /c/ | ⲕ /c/ | | *q*, *k*, *g* | \*/k/ | ⲕ /k/ | ⲹ /k/ | | *f* | \*/f/ | ϥ /f/ | | *s* | \*/s/ | ⲥ /s/ | | *š* | \*/ʃ/ | ϣ /ʃ/ | | *h̭*, *ḫ* | \*/ç/ | ϣ /ʃ/ | ⳉ /x/ | ⳋ /ç/ | | *ẖ*, *ḫ* | \*/x/ | ϧ /x/ | ϩ /h/ | ⳉ /x/ | ϧ /x/ | | *ḥ* | \*/ħ/ | ϩ /h/ | | *h* | \*/h/ | ϩ /h/ | | *b* | \*/β/ | ⲃ /β/ | | *r* | \*/r/ | ⲣ /l/ | | *l, r* | \*/l/ | ⲗ /l/ | | *y, ı͗* | \*/j/ | ⲉⲓ /j/ | | *w* | \*/w/ | ⲟⲩ /w/ | | *ꜥ* | \*/ʕ/ | ∅ | 1. ↑ [p] is an allophone of /pʰ/ in Demotic. 2. ↑ ⲗ~ⲣ in Fayyumic ### Coptic More changes occur in the 1st millennium BC and the first centuries AD, leading to Coptic (1st or 3rd – c. 19th centuries AD). In Sahidic *ẖ ḫ ḥ* had merged into ϣ *š* (most often from *ḫ*) and ϩ /h/ (most often *ẖ ḥ*). Bohairic and Akhmimic are more conservative and have a velar fricative /x/ (ϧ in Bohairic, ⳉ in Akhmimic). Pharyngeal *\*ꜥ* had merged into glottal /ʔ/ after it had affected the quality of the surrounding vowels. /ʔ/ is not indicated orthographically unless it follows a stressed vowel; then, it is marked by doubling the vowel letter (except in Bohairic): Akhmimic ⳉⲟⲟⲡ /xoʔp/, Sahidic and Lycopolitan ϣⲟⲟⲡ *šoʔp*, Bohairic ϣⲟⲡ *šoʔp* 'to be' < *ḫpr.w* \*/ˈχapraw/ 'has become'. The phoneme ⲃ /b/ was probably pronounced as a fricative [β], becoming ⲡ /p/ after a stressed vowel in syllables that had been closed in earlier Egyptian (compare ⲛⲟⲩⲃ < \*/ˈnaːbaw/ 'gold' and ⲧⲁⲡ < \*/dib/ 'horn'). The phonemes /d g z/ occur only in Greek loanwords, with rare exceptions triggered by a nearby /n/: ⲁⲛⲍⲏⲃⲉ/ⲁⲛⲥⲏⲃⲉ < *ꜥ.t n.t sbꜣ.w* 'school'. **This article contains Coptic text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Coptic letters. Earlier *\*d ḏ g q* are preserved as ejective *t' c' k' k'* before vowels in Coptic. Although the same graphemes are used for the pulmonic stops (⟨ⲧ ϫ ⲕ⟩), the existence of the former may be inferred because the stops ⟨ⲡ ⲧ ϫ ⲕ⟩ /p t c k/ are allophonically aspirated [pʰ tʰ cʰ kʰ] before stressed vowels and sonorant consonants. In Bohairic, the allophones are written with the special graphemes ⟨ⲫ ⲑ ϭ ⲭ⟩, but other dialects did not mark aspiration: Sahidic ⲡⲣⲏ, Bohairic ⲫⲣⲏ 'the sun'. Thus, Bohairic does not mark aspiration for reflexes of older *\*d ḏ g q*: Sahidic and Bohairic ⲧⲁⲡ \*/dib/ 'horn'. Also, the definite article ⲡ is unaspirated when the next word begins with a glottal stop: Bohairic ⲡ + ⲱⲡ > ⲡⲱⲡ 'the account'. The consonant system of Coptic is as follows: **Coptic consonants**| | Labial | Dental | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Nasal | ⲙm | ⲛn | | | | | Stop | voiceless | ⲡ (ⲫ)p (pʰ) | ⲧ (ⲑ)t (tʰ) | ϫ (ϭ)c (cʰ) | ⲕ (ⲭ)k (kʰ) | \*ʔ | | ejective | | ⲧtʼ | ϫcʼ | ⲕkʼ | | | voiced | | ⲇd | | ⲅɡ | | | Fricative | voiceless | ϥf | ⲥs | ϣʃ | (ϧ, ⳉ)(x) | ϩh | | voiced | ⲃβ | ⲍz | | | | | Approximant | (ⲟ)ⲩw | ⲗl | (ⲉ)ⲓj | | | | Trill | | ⲣr | | | | \*Various orthographic representations; see above. ### Vowels Here is the vowel system reconstructed for earlier Egyptian: Earlier Egyptian vowel system| | Front | Back | | --- | --- | --- | | Close | i iː | u uː | | Open | a aː | Vowels are always short in unstressed syllables (⟨tpj⟩ = \*/taˈpij/ 'first') and long in open stressed syllables (⟨rmṯ⟩ = \*/ˈraːmac/ 'man'), but they can be either short or long in closed stressed syllables (⟨jnn⟩ = \*/jaˈnan/ 'we', ⟨mn⟩ = \*/maːn/ 'to stay'). In the Late New Kingdom, after Ramses II, around 1200 BC, \*/ˈaː/ changes to \*/ˈoː/ (like the Canaanite shift), ⟨ḥrw⟩ '(the god) Horus' \*/ħaːra/ > \*/ħoːrə/ (Akkadian transcription: -ḫuru). \*/uː/, therefore, changes to \*/eː/: ⟨šnj⟩ 'tree' \*/ʃuːn(?)j/ > \*/ʃeːnə/ (Akkadian transcription: -sini). In the Early New Kingdom, short stressed \*/ˈi/ changes to \*/ˈe/: ⟨mnj⟩ "Menes" \*/maˈnij/ > \*/maˈneʔ/ (Akkadian transcription: ma-né-e). Later, probably 1000–800 BC, a short stressed \*/ˈu/ changes to \*/ˈe/: ⟨ḏꜥn.t⟩ "Tanis" \*/ˈɟuʕnat/ was borrowed into Hebrew as \*ṣuʕn but would become transcribed as ⟨ṣe-e'-nu/ṣa-a'-nu⟩ during the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Unstressed vowels, especially after a stress, become \*/ə/: ⟨nfr⟩ 'good' \*/ˈnaːfir/ > \*/ˈnaːfə/ (Akkadian transcription -na-a-pa). \*/iː/ changes to \*/eː/ next to /ʕ/ and /j/: ⟨wꜥw⟩ 'soldier' \*/wiːʕiw/ > \*/weːʕə/ (earlier Akkadian transcription: ú-i-ú, later: ú-e-eḫ). Egyptian vowel system c. 1000 BC| | Front | Central | Back | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Close | iː | | | | Mid | e eː | ə | oː | | Open | a | In Sahidic and Bohairic Coptic, Late Egyptian stressed \*/ˈa/ becomes \*/ˈo/ and \*/ˈe/ becomes /ˈa/, but are unchanged in the other dialects: ⟨sn⟩ \*/san/ 'brother' > Sahaidic and Bohairic ⟨son⟩, Akhminic, Lycopolitan and Fayyumic ⟨san⟩; ⟨rn⟩ 'name' \*/rin/ > \*/ren/ > Sahaidic and Bohairic ⟨ran⟩, Akhminic, Lycopolitan and Fayyumic ⟨ren⟩. However, Sahaidic and Bohairic preserve \*/ˈa/, and Fayyumic renders it as ⟨e⟩ in the presence of guttural fricatives: ⟨ḏbꜥ⟩ 'ten thousand' \*/ˈbaʕ/ > Sahaidic, Akhmimic and Lycopolitan ⟨tba⟩, Bohairic ⟨tʰba⟩, Fayyumic ⟨tbe⟩. In Akhmimic and Lycopolitan, \*/ˈa/ becomes /ˈo/ before etymological /ʕ, ʔ/: ⟨jtrw⟩ 'river' \*/ˈjatraw/ > \*/jaʔr(ə)/ > Sahaidic ⟨eioor(e)⟩, Bohairic ⟨ior⟩, Akhminic ⟨ioore, iôôre⟩, Fayyumic ⟨iaal, iaar⟩. Similarly, the diphthongs \*/ˈaj/, \*/ˈaw/, which normally have reflexes /ˈoj/, /ˈow/ in Sahidic and are preserved in other dialects, are in Bohairic ⟨ôi⟩ (in non-final position) and ⟨ôou⟩ respectively: "to me, to them" Sahidic ⟨eroi, eroou⟩, Akhminic and Lycopolitan ⟨arai, arau⟩, Fayyumic ⟨elai, elau⟩, Bohairic ⟨eroi, erôou⟩. Sahidic and Bohairic preserve \*/ˈe/ before /ʔ/ (etymological or from lenited /t r j/ or tonic-syllable coda /w/),: Sahidic and Bohairic ⟨ne⟩ /neʔ/ 'to you (fem.)' < \*/ˈnet/ < \*/ˈnic/. \*/e/ may also have different reflexes before sonorants, near sibilants and in diphthongs. Old \*/aː/ surfaces as /uː/ after nasals and occasionally other consonants: ⟨nṯr⟩ 'god' \*/ˈnaːcar/ > /ˈnuːte/ ⟨noute⟩ /uː/ has acquired phonemic status, as is evidenced by minimal pairs like 'to approach' ⟨hôn⟩ /hoːn/ < \*/ˈçaːnan/ ẖnn vs. 'inside' ⟨houn⟩ /huːn/ < \*/ˈçaːnaw/ ẖnw. An etymological \*/uː/ > \*/eː/ often surfaces as /iː/ next to /r/ and after etymological pharyngeals: ⟨hir⟩ < \*/χuːr/ 'street' (Semitic loan). Most Coptic dialects have two phonemic vowels in unstressed position. Unstressed vowels generally became /ə/, written as ⟨e⟩ or null (⟨i⟩ in Bohairic and Fayyumic word-finally), but pretonic unstressed /a/ occurs as a reflex of earlier unstressed \*/e/ near an etymological pharyngeal, velar or sonorant ('to become many' ⟨ašai⟩ < ꜥšꜣ \*/ʕiˈʃiʀ/) or an unstressed \*/a/. Pretonic [i] is underlyingly /əj/: Sahidic 'ibis' ⟨hibôi⟩ < h(j)bj.w \*/hijˈbaːj?w/. Thus, the following is the Sahidic vowel system c. AD 400: Sahidic vowel system circa 400 AD| | Stressed | Unstressed | | --- | --- | --- | | | Front | Back | Central | | Close | iː | uː | | | Mid | e eː | o oː | ə | | Open | a | ### Phonotactics Earlier Egyptian has the syllable structure CV(ː)(C) in which V is long in open stressed syllables and short elsewhere. In addition, CVːC or CVCC can occur in word-final, stressed position. However, CVːC occurs only in the infinitive of biconsonantal verbal roots, CVCC only in some plurals. In later Egyptian, stressed CVːC, CVCC, and CV become much more common because of the loss of final dentals and glides. ### Stress Earlier Egyptian stresses one of the last two syllables. According to some scholars, that is a development from a stage in Proto-Egyptian in which the third-last syllable could be stressed, which was lost as open posttonic syllables lost their vowels: \*/ˈχupiraw/ > \*/ˈχupraw/ 'transformation'. ### Egyptological pronunciation As a convention, Egyptologists make use of an "Egyptological pronunciation" in English: the consonants are given fixed values, and vowels are inserted according to essentially arbitrary rules. Two of these consonants known as alef and ayin are generally pronounced as the vowel /ɑː/. Yodh is pronounced /iː/, *w* /uː/. Between other consonants, /ɛ/ is then inserted. Thus, for example, the Egyptian name Ramesses is most accurately transliterated as *rꜥ-ms-sw* ("Ra is the one who bore him") and pronounced as /rɑmɛssu/. In transcription, ⟨a⟩, ⟨i⟩, and ⟨u⟩ all represent consonants. For example, the name Tutankhamun (1341–1323 BC) was written in Egyptian as *twt-ꜥnḫ-jmn* ("living image of Amun"). Experts have assigned generic sounds to these values as a matter of convenience, which is an artificial pronunciation and should not be mistaken for how Egyptian was ever pronounced at any time. So although *twt-ꜥnḫ-ı͗mn* is pronounced /tuːtənˈkɑːmən/ in modern Egyptological pronunciation, in his lifetime, it was likely to be pronounced something like \*[təˈwaːtəʔ ˈʕaːnəχ ʔaˈmaːnəʔ], transliterable as *təwā́təʾ-ʿā́nəkh-ʾamā́nəʾ*. Morphology ---------- Egyptian is fairly typical for an Afroasiatic language in that at the heart of its vocabulary is most commonly a root of three consonants, but there are sometimes only two consonants in the root: *rꜥ(w)* ([riːʕa], "sun"--the [ʕ] is thought to have been something like a voiced pharyngeal fricative). Larger roots are also common and can have up to five consonants: *sḫdḫd* ("be upside-down"). Vowels and other consonants are added to the root to derive different meanings, as Arabic, Hebrew, and other Afroasiatic languages still do. However, because vowels and sometimes glides are not written in any Egyptian script except Coptic, it can be difficult to reconstruct the actual forms of words. Thus, orthographic *stp* ("to choose"), for example, can represent the stative (whose endings can be left unexpressed), the imperfective forms or even a verbal noun ("a choosing"). ### Nouns Egyptian nouns can be masculine or feminine (the latter is indicated, as with other Afroasiatic languages, by adding a *-t*) and singular or plural (*-w* / *-wt*), or dual (*-wj* / *-tj*). Articles, both definite and indefinite, do not occur until Late Egyptian but are used widely thereafter. ### Pronouns Egyptian has three different types of personal pronouns: suffix, enclitic (called "dependent" by Egyptologists) and independent pronouns. There are also a number of verbal endings added to the infinitive to form the stative and are regarded by some linguists as a "fourth" set of personal pronouns. They bear close resemblance to their Semitic counterparts. The three main sets of personal pronouns are as follows: | | Suffix | Dependent | Independent | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1st sg. | *.j* or *.ı͗* | *wj* or *wı͗* | *jnk* or *ı͗nk* | | 2nd sg. m. | *.k* | *ṯw* | *ntk* | | 2nd sg. f. | *.ṯ* | *ṯn* | *ntṯ* | | 3rd sg. m. | *.f* | *sw* | *ntf* | | 3rd sg. f. | *.s* | *zy* | *nts* | | 1st pl. | *.n* | *n* | *jnn* or *ı͗nn* | | 2nd pl. | *.ṯn* | *ṯn* | *ntṯn* | | 3rd pl. | *.sn* | *sn* | *ntsn* | Demonstrative pronouns have separate masculine and feminine singular forms and common plural forms for both genders: | Mas. | Fem. | Plu. | Meaning | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | *pn* | *tn* | *nn* | this, that, these, those | | *pf* | *tf* | *nf* | that, those | | *pw* | *tw* | *nw* | this, that, these, those (archaic) | | *pꜣ* | *tꜣ* | *nꜣ* | this, that, these, those (colloquial [earlier] & Late Egyptian) | Finally, are interrogative pronouns. They bear a close resemblance to their Semitic and Berber counterparts: | Pronoun | Meaning | Dependency | | --- | --- | --- | | *mj* or *mı͗* | who / what | Dependent | | *ptr* | who / what | Independent | | *jḫ* | what | Dependent | | *jšst* or *ı͗šst* | what | Independent | | *zy* | which | Independent & Dependent | ### Verbs Egyptian verbs have finite and non-finite forms. Finite verbs convey person, tense/aspect, mood and voice. Each is indicated by a set of affixal morphemes attached to the verb: For example, the basic conjugation is *sḏm* ("to hear") is *sḏm.f* ("he hears"). Non-finite verbs occur without a subject and are the infinitive, the participles and the negative infinitive, which *Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs* calls "negatival complement". There are two main tenses/aspects in Egyptian: past and temporally-unmarked imperfective and aorist forms. The latter are determined from their syntactic context. ### Adjectives Adjectives agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify: *z* *nfr* ("[the] good man") and **zt* *nfrt** ("[the] good woman"). Attributive adjectives in phrases are after the nouns they modify: *nṯr* *ꜥꜣ* ("[the] great god"). However, when they are used independently as a predicate in an adjectival phrase, as *ꜥꜣ* *nṯr* ("[the] god [is] great", lit. "great [is the] god"), adjectives precede the nouns they modify. ### Prepositions Egyptian makes use of prepositions. | | | | --- | --- | | *m* | "in, as, with, from" | | *n* | "to, for" | | *r* | "to, at" | | *jn* or *ı͗n* | "by" | | *ḥnꜥ* | "with" | | *mj* or *mı͗* | "like" | | *ḥr* | "on, upon" | | *ḥꜣ* | "behind, around" | | *ẖr* | "under" | | *tp* | "atop" | | *ḏr* | "since" | ### Adverbs Adverbs, in Egyptian, are at the end of a sentence: For example, in *zı͗.n* *nṯr* *ı͗m* ("[the] god went there", lit. "went [the] god there"), *ı͗m* ("there") is the adverb. Here are some common Egyptian adverbs: | | | | --- | --- | | *jm* or *ı͗m* | "there" | | *ꜥꜣ* | "here" | | *ṯnj* or *ṯnı͗* | "where" | | *zy-nw* | "when" (lit. "which moment") | | *mj-jḫ* or *mı͗-ı͗ḫ* | "how" (lit. "like-what") | | *r-mj* or *r-mı͗* | "why" (lit. "for what") | | *ḫnt* | "before" | Syntax ------ Old Egyptian, Classical Egyptian, and Middle Egyptian have verb-subject-object as the basic word order. For example, the equivalent of "he opens the door" would be *wn* *s* *ꜥꜣ* ("opens he [the] door"). The so-called construct state combines two or more nouns to express the genitive, as in Semitic and Berber languages. However, that changed in the later stages of the language, including Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic. The early stages of Egyptian have no articles, but the later forms use *pꜣ*, *tꜣ* and *nꜣ*. As with other Afroasiatic languages, Egyptian uses two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. It also uses three grammatical numbers: singular, dual and plural. However, later Egyptian has a tendency to lose the dual as a productive form. Legacy ------ The Egyptian language survived through the Middle Ages and into the early modern period in the form of the Coptic language. Coptic survived past the 16th century only as an isolated vernacular and as a liturgical language for the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic Churches. Coptic also had an enduring effect on Egyptian Arabic, which replaced Coptic as the main daily language in Egypt; the Coptic substratum in Egyptian Arabic appears in certain aspects of syntax and to a lesser degree in vocabulary and phonology. In antiquity, Egyptian exerted some influence on Classical Greek, so that a number of Egyptian loanwords into Greek survive into modern usage. Examples include: * *ebony* (Egyptian *hbnj*, via Greek and then Latin) * *ivory* (Egyptian *ꜣbw*, via Latin) * *natron* (Egyptian *nṯrj*, via Greek) * *lily* (Egyptian *ḥrrt*, Coptic *hlēri*, via Greek) * *ibis* (Egyptian *hbj*, via Greek) * *oasis* (Egyptian *wḥꜣt*, via Greek) * *barge* (Egyptian *bꜣjr*, via Greek)) * possibly *cat* * *pharaoh* (Egyptian *pr ꜥꜣ*, lit. "great house", via Hebrew and Greek) The Hebrew Bible also contains some words, terms, and names that are thought by scholars to be Egyptian in origin. An example of this is Zaphnath-Paaneah, the Egyptian name given to Joseph. The etymological root of "Egypt" is the same as *Copts*, ultimately from the Late Egyptian name of Memphis, *Hikuptah*, a continuation of Middle Egyptian *ḥwt-kꜣ-ptḥ* (lit. "temple of the ka (soul) of Ptah"). See also -------- * *Altägyptisches Wörterbuch* * Ancient Egyptian literature * Coptic language * Egyptian Arabic * Egyptian hieroglyphs * Egyptian numerals * Hieratic * Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian Literature ---------- ### Overviews * Allen, James P., *The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study*, Cambridge University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-1-107-03246-0 (hardback), ISBN 978-1-107-66467-8 (paperback). * Loprieno, Antonio, *Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction*, Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-44384-9 (hardback), ISBN 0-521-44849-2 (paperback). * Peust, Carsten, *Egyptian phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language*, Peust & Gutschmidt, 1999. ISBN 3-933043-02-6 (PDF online). * Vergote, Jozef, "Problèmes de la «Nominalbildung» en égyptien", *Chronique d'Égypte* 51 (1976), pp. 261–285. * Vycichl, Werner, *La Vocalisation de la Langue Égyptienne*, IFAO, Cairo, 1990. ISBN 9782-7247-0096-1. ### Grammars * Allen, James P., *Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs*, first edition, Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-521-65312-6 (hardback) ISBN 0-521-77483-7 (paperback). * Borghouts, Joris F., *Egyptian: An Introduction to the Writing and Language of the Middle Kingdom*, two vols., Peeters, 2010. ISBN 978-9-042-92294-5 (paperback). * J. Cerny, S. Israelit-Groll, C. Eyre, *A Late Egyptian Grammar*, 4th, updated edition – Biblical Institute; Rome, 1984 * Collier, Mark, and Manley, Bill, *How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Step-by-Step Guide to Teach Yourself*, British Museum Press (ISBN 0-7141-1910-5) and University of California Press (ISBN 0-520-21597-4), both 1998. * Gardiner, Sir Alan H., *Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs*, Griffith Institute, Oxford, 3rd ed. 1957. ISBN 0-900416-35-1. * Hoch, James E., *Middle Egyptian Grammar*, Benben Publications, Mississauga, 1997. ISBN 0-920168-12-4. * Selden, Daniel L., *Hieroglyphic Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Literature of the Middle Kingdom*, University of California Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-520-27546-1 (hardback). ### Dictionaries * Erman, Adolf and Grapow, Hermann, *Das Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache*, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 1992. ISBN 978-3-05-002264-2 (paperback), ISBN 978-3-05-002266-6 (reference vols. 1–5). * Faulkner, Raymond O., *A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian*, Griffith Institute, Oxford, 1962. ISBN 0-900416-32-7 (hardback). * Lesko, Leonard H., *A Dictionary of Late Egyptian*, 2nd ed., 2 vols., B. C. Scribe Publications, Providence, 2002 et 2004. ISBN 0-930548-14-0 (vol.1), ISBN 0-930548-15-9 (vol. 2). * Shennum, David, *English-Egyptian Index of Faulkner's Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian*, Undena Publications, 1977. ISBN 0-89003-054-5. * Bonnamy, Yvonne and Sadek, Ashraf-Alexandre, *Dictionnaire des hiéroglyphes: Hiéroglyphes-Français*, Actes Sud, Arles, 2010. ISBN 978-2-7427-8922-1. * Vycichl, Werner, *Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Copte*, Peeters, Leuven, 1984. ISBN 2-8017-0197-1. * de Vartavan, Christian[fr], *Vocalised Dictionary of Ancient Egyptian (Open Access)*, Projectis Publishing, London, 2022. ISBN 978-1-913984-16-8. [Free PDF download: https://www.academia.edu/101048552/Vocalised\_Dictionary\_of\_Ancient\_Egyptian\_Open\_Access\_] ### Online dictionaries * *The Beinlich Wordlist*, an online searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words (translations are in German). * *Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae*, an online service available from October 2004 which is associated with various German Egyptological projects, including the monumental Altägyptisches Wörterbuch Archived 14 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine of the Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Berlin, Germany). * Mark Vygus Dictionary 2018, a searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words, arranged by glyph. **Important Note:** The old grammars and dictionaries of E. A. Wallis Budge have long been considered obsolete by Egyptologists, even though these books are still available for purchase. More book information is available at Glyphs and Grammars.

Egyptian language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_language

Japan is divided into 47 prefectures (都道府県, *todōfuken*, [todoːɸɯ̥ꜜkeɴ]), which rank immediately below the national government and form the country's first level of jurisdiction and administrative division. They include 43 prefectures proper (県, *ken*), two urban prefectures (府, *fu*: Osaka and Kyoto), one "circuit" or "territory" (道, *dō*: Hokkai-dō) and one metropolis (都, *to*: Tokyo). In 1868, the Meiji *Fuhanken sanchisei* administration created the first prefectures (urban *fu* and rural *ken*) to replace the urban and rural administrators (*bugyō*, *daikan*, etc.) in the parts of the country previously controlled directly by the shogunate and a few territories of rebels/shogunate loyalists who had not submitted to the new government such as Aizu/Wakamatsu. In 1871, all remaining feudal domains *(han)* were also transformed into prefectures, so that prefectures subdivided the whole country. In several waves of territorial consolidation, today's 47 prefectures were formed by the turn of the century. In many instances, these are contiguous with the ancient ritsuryō provinces of Japan. Each prefecture's chief executive is a directly elected governor (知事, *chiji*). Ordinances and budgets are enacted by a unicameral assembly (議会, *gikai*) whose members are elected for four-year terms. Under a set of 1888–1890 laws on local government until the 1920s, each prefecture (then only 3 *-fu* and 42 *-ken*; *Hokkai-dō* and *Okinawa-ken* were subject to different laws until the 20th century) was subdivided into cities (市, *shi*) and districts (郡, *gun*) and each district into towns (町, *chō/machi*) and villages (村, *son/mura*). Hokkaidō has 14 subprefectures that act as General Subprefectural Bureaus (総合振興局, *sōgō-shinkō-kyoku, "Comprehensive Promotion Bureau"*) and Subprefectural Bureaus (振興局, *shinkō-kyoku, "Promotion Bureau"*) of the prefecture. Some other prefectures also have branch offices that carry out prefectural administrative functions outside the capital. Tokyo, the capital of Japan, is a merged city-prefecture; a metropolis, it has features of both cities and prefectures. Background ---------- The West's use of "prefecture" to label these Japanese regions stems from 16th-century Portuguese explorers and traders use of "prefeitura" to describe the fiefdoms they encountered there. Its original sense in Portuguese, however, was closer to "municipality" than "province". Today, in turn, Japan uses its word *ken* (県), meaning "prefecture", to identify Portuguese districts while in Brazil the word "Prefeitura" is used to refer to a city hall. Those fiefs were headed by a local warlord or family. Though the fiefs have long since been dismantled, merged, and reorganized multiple times, and been granted legislative governance and oversight, the rough translation stuck. The Meiji government established the current system in July 1871 with the abolition of the han system and establishment of the prefecture system (廃藩置県, *haihan-chiken*). Although there were initially over 300 prefectures, many of them being former han territories, this number was reduced to 72 in the latter part of 1871, and 47 in 1888. The Local Autonomy Law of 1947 gave more political power to prefectures, and installed prefectural governors and parliaments. In 2003, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi proposed that the government consolidate the current prefectures into about 10 regional states (so-called *dōshūsei*). The plan called for each region to have greater autonomy than existing prefectures. This process would reduce the number of subprefecture administrative regions and cut administrative costs. The Japanese government also considered a plan to merge several groups of prefectures, creating a subnational administrative division system consisting of between nine and 13 states, and giving these states more local autonomy than the prefectures currently enjoy. As of August 2012, this plan was abandoned. Powers ------ Japan is a unitary state. The central government delegates many functions (such as education and the police force) to the prefectures and municipalities, but retains the overall right to control them. Although local government expenditure accounts for 70 percent of overall government expenditure, the central government controls local budgets, tax rates, and borrowing. Prefectural government functions include the organization of the prefectural police force, the supervision of schools and the maintenance of prefectural schools (mainly high schools), prefectural hospitals, prefectural roads, the supervision of prefectural waterways and regional urban planning. Their responsibilities include tasks delegated to them by the national government such as maintaining most ordinary national roads (except in designated major cities), and prefectures coordinate and support their municipalities in their functions. De facto, prefectures as well as municipalities have often been less autonomous than the formal extent of the local autonomy law suggests, because of * most of them depend heavily on central government funding – a dependency recently further exacerbated in many regions by the demographic transition which hits rural areas harder/earlier as cities can offset it partly through migration from the countryside, and * in many policy areas, the basic framework is set tightly by national laws, and prefectures and municipalities are only autonomous within that framework. Types of prefecture ------------------- Historically, during the Edo period, the Tokugawa shogunate established *bugyō*-ruled zones (奉行支配地) around the nine largest cities in Japan, and 302 township-ruled zones (郡代支配地) elsewhere. When the Meiji government began to create the prefectural system in 1868, the nine bugyō-ruled zones became *fu* (府), while the township-ruled zones and the rest of the bugyo-ruled zones became *ken* (県). Later, in 1871, the government designated Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto as *fu*, and relegated the other *fu* to the status of *ken.* During World War II, in 1943, Tokyo became a *to,* a new type of pseudo-prefecture. Despite the differences in terminology, there is little functional difference between the four types of local governments. The subnational governments are sometimes collectively referred to as *todōfuken* (都道府県, [todoːɸɯ̥ꜜkeɴ]) in Japanese, which is a combination of the four terms. ### *To* Tokyo, capital city of Japan is referred to as *to* (都, [toꜜ]), which is often translated as "metropolis". The Japanese government translates *Tōkyō-to* (東京都, [toːkʲoꜜːto]) as "Tokyo Metropolis" in almost all cases, and the government is officially called the "Tokyo Metropolitan Government". Following the capitulation of shogunate Edo in 1868, *Tōkyō-fu* (an urban prefecture like Kyoto and Osaka) was set up and encompassed the former city area of Edo under the Fuhanken sanchisei. After the abolition of the han system in the first wave of prefectural mergers in 1871/72, several surrounding areas (parts of Urawa, Kosuge, Shinagawa and Hikone prefectures) were merged into Tokyo, and under the system of (numbered) "large districts and small districts" *(daiku-shōku)*, it was subdivided into eleven large districts further subdivided into 103 small districts, six of the large districts (97 small districts) covered the former city area of Edo. When the ancient ritsuryō districts were reactivated as administrative units in 1878, Tokyo was subdivided into 15 [urban] districts *(-ku)* and initially six [rural] districts (*-gun*; nine after the Tama transfer from Kanagawa in 1893, eight after the merger of East Tama and South Toshima into Toyotama in 1896). Both urban and rural districts, like everywhere in the country, were further subdivided into urban units/towns/neighbourhoods *(-chō/-machi)* and rural units/villages *(-mura/-son)*. The yet unincorporated communities on the Izu (previously part of Shizuoka) and Ogasawara (previously directly Home Ministry-administrated) island groups became also part of Tokyo in the 19th century. When the modern municipalities – [district-independent] cities and [rural] districts containing towns and villages – were introduced under the Yamagata-Mosse laws on local government and the simultaneous Great Meiji merger was performed in 1889, the 15 *-ku* became wards of Tokyo City, initially Tokyo's only independent city *(-shi)*, the six rural districts of Tokyo were consolidated in 85 towns and villages. In 1893, the three Tama districts and their 91 towns and villages became part of Tokyo. As Tokyo city's suburbs grew rapidly in the early 20th century, many towns and villages in Tokyo were merged or promoted over the years. In 1932, five complete districts with their 82 towns and villages were merged into Tokyo City and organised in 20 new wards. Also, by 1940, there were two more cities in Tokyo: Hachiōji City and Tachikawa City. In 1943, Tokyo City was abolished, *Tōkyō-fu* became *Tōkyō-to*, and Tokyo-shi's 35 wards remained Tokyo-to's 35 wards, but submunicipal authorities of Tokyo-shi's wards which previously fell directly under the municipality, with the municipality now abolished, fell directly under prefectural or now "Metropolitan" authority. All other cities, towns and villages in Tokyo-fu stayed cities, towns and villages in Tokyo-to. The reorganisation's aim was to consolidate the administration of the area around the capital by eliminating the extra level of authority in Tokyo. Also, the governor was no longer called *chiji*, but *chōkan* (~"head/chief [usually: of a central government agency]") as in Hokkaidō). The central government wanted to have greater control over all local governments due to Japan's deteriorating position in World War II – for example, all mayors in the country became appointive as in the Meiji era – and over Tokyo in particular, due to the possibility of emergency in the metropolis. After the war, Japan was forced to decentralise Tokyo again, following the general terms of democratisation outlined in the Potsdam Declaration. Many of Tokyo's special governmental characteristics disappeared during this time, and the wards took on an increasingly municipal status in the decades following the surrender. Administratively, today's special wards are almost indistinguishable from other municipalities. The postwar reforms also changed the map of Tokyo significantly: In 1947, the 35 wards were reorganised into the 23 special wards, because many of its citizens had either died during the war, left the city, or been drafted and did not return. In the occupation reforms, special wards, each with their own elected assemblies (*kugikai*) and mayors (*kuchō*), were intended to be equal to other municipalities even if some restrictions still applied. (For example, there was during the occupation a dedicated municipal police agency for the 23 special wards/former Tokyo City, yet the special wards public safety commission was not named by the special ward governments, but by the government of the whole "Metropolis". In 1954, independent municipal police forces were abolished generally in the whole country, and the prefectural/"Metropolitan" police of Tokyo is again responsible for the whole prefecture/"Metropolis" and like all prefectural police forces controlled by the prefectural/"Metropolitan" public safety commission whose members are appointed by the prefectural/"Metropolitan" governor and assembly.) But, as part of the "reverse course" of the 1950s some of these new rights were removed, the most obvious measure being the denial of directly elected mayors. Some of these restrictions were removed again over the decades. But it was not until the year 2000 that the special wards were fully recognised as municipal-level entities. Independently from these steps, as Tokyo's urban growth again took up pace during the postwar economic miracle and most of the main island part of Tokyo "Metropolis" became increasingly core part of the Tokyo metropolitan area, many of the other municipalities in Tokyo have transferred some of their authority to the Metropolitan government. For example, the Tokyo Fire Department which was only responsible for the 23 special wards until 1960 has until today taken over the municipal fire departments in almost all of Tokyo. A joint governmental structure for the whole Tokyo metropolitan area (and not only the western suburbs of the special wards which are part of the Tokyo prefecture/Metropolis") as advocated by some politicians such as former Kanagawa governor Shigefumi Matsuzawa has not been established (see also Dōshūsei). Existing cross-prefectural fora of cooperation between local governments in the Tokyo metropolitan area are the Kantō regional governors' association *(Kantō chihō chijikai)* and the "Shutoken summit" (formally "conference of chief executives of nine prefectures and cities", *9 to-ken-shi shunō kaigi*). But, these are not themselves local public entities under the local autonomy law and national or local government functions cannot be directly transferred to them, unlike the "Union of Kansai governments" *(Kansai kōiki-rengō)* which has been established by several prefectural governments in the Kansai region. There are some differences in terminology between Tokyo and other prefectures: police and fire departments are called *chō* (庁) instead of *honbu* (本部), for instance. But the only functional difference between Tōkyō-to and other prefectures is that Tokyo administers wards as well as cities. Today, since the special wards have almost the same degree of independence as Japanese cities, the difference in administration between Tokyo and other prefectures is fairly minor. In Osaka, several prominent politicians led by Tōru Hashimoto, then mayor of Osaka City and former governor of Osaka Prefecture, proposed an Osaka Metropolis plan, under which Osaka City, and possibly other neighboring cities, would be replaced by special wards similar to Tokyo's. The plan was narrowly defeated in a 2015 referendum, and again in 2020. ### *Dō* Hokkaidō is referred to as a *dō* (道, [doꜜː]) or circuit. This term was originally used to refer to Japanese regions consisting of several provinces (e.g. the Tōkaidō east-coast region, and Saikaido west-coast region). This was also a historical usage of the character in China. (In Korea, this historical usage is still used today and was kept during the period of Japanese rule.) *Hokkai-dō* (北海道, [hokkaꜜidoː]), the only remaining *dō* today, was not one of the original seven *dō* (it was known as Ezo in the pre-modern era). Its current name is believed to originate from Matsuura Takeshiro, an early Japanese explorer of the island. Since Hokkaidō did not fit into the existing *dō* classifications, a new *dō* was created to cover it. The Meiji government originally classified Hokkaidō as a "Settlement Envoyship" (開拓使, *kaitakushi*), and later divided the island into three prefectures (Sapporo, Hakodate, and Nemuro). These were consolidated into a single Hokkaido Department (北海道庁, *Hokkaido-chō*) in 1886, at prefectural level but organized more along the lines of a territory. In 1947, the department was dissolved, and Hokkaidō became a full-fledged prefecture. The *-ken* suffix was never added to its name, so the *-dō* suffix came to be understood to mean "prefecture". When Hokkaidō was incorporated, transportation on the island was still underdeveloped, so the prefecture was split into several "subprefectures" (支庁, *shichō*) that could fulfill administrative duties of the prefectural government and keep tight control over the developing island. These subprefectures still exist today, although they have much less power than they possessed before and during World War II. They now exist primarily to handle paperwork and other bureaucratic functions. "Hokkaidō Prefecture" is, technically speaking, a redundant term because *dō* itself indicates a prefecture, although it is occasionally used to differentiate the government from the island itself. The prefecture's government calls itself the "Hokkaidō Government" rather than the "Hokkaidō Prefectural Government". ### *Fu* Osaka and Kyoto Prefectures are referred to as *fu* (府, pronounced [ɸɯꜜ] when a separate word but [ꜜɸɯ] when part of the full name of a prefecture, e.g. [kʲoꜜːto] and [ɸɯꜜ] become [kʲoːtoꜜɸɯ]). The Classical Chinese character from which this is derived implies a core urban zone of national importance. Before World War II, different laws applied to *fu* and *ken,* but this distinction was abolished after the war, and the two types of prefecture are now functionally the same. ### *Ken* 43 of the 47 prefectures are referred to as *ken* (県, pronounced [keꜜɴ] when a separate word but [ꜜkeɴ] when part of the full name of a prefecture, e.g. [aꜜitɕi] and [keꜜɴ] become [aitɕi̥ꜜkeɴ]). The Classical Chinese character from which this is derived carries a rural or provincial connotation, and an analogous character is used to refer to the counties of China, counties of Taiwan and districts of Vietnam. Lists of prefectures -------------------- The different systems of parsing frame the ways in which Japanese prefectures are perceived: ### By Japanese ISO The prefectures are also often grouped into eight regions (*Chihō*). Those regions are not formally specified, they do not have elected officials, nor are they corporate bodies. But the practice of ordering prefectures based on their geographic region is traditional. This ordering is mirrored in Japan's International Organization for Standardization (ISO) coding. From north to south (numbering in ISO 3166-2:JP order), the prefectures of Japan and their commonly associated regions are: * Hokkaidō 1. Hokkaidō * Tōhoku 2. Aomori 3. Iwate 4. Miyagi 5. Akita 6. Yamagata 7. Fukushima * Kantō 8. Ibaraki 9. Tochigi 10. Gunma 11. Saitama 12. Chiba 13. Tōkyō 14. Kanagawa * Chūbu 15. Niigata 16. Toyama 17. Ishikawa 18. Fukui 19. Yamanashi 20. Nagano 21. Gifu 22. Shizuoka 23. Aichi * Kansai 24. Mie 25. Shiga 26. Kyōto 27. Ōsaka 28. Hyōgo 29. Nara 30. Wakayama * Chūgoku 31. Tottori 32. Shimane 33. Okayama 34. Hiroshima 35. Yamaguchi * Shikoku 36. Tokushima 37. Kagawa 38. Ehime 39. Kōchi * Kyūshū 40. Fukuoka 41. Saga 42. Nagasaki 43. Kumamoto 44. Ōita 45. Miyazaki 46. Kagoshima 47. Okinawa ### By English name *The default alphabetic order in this sortable table can be altered to mirror the traditional Japanese regions and ISO parsing.* | Prefecture | Capital | Region | Major Island | Population(April 1, 2023) | Area(km2) | Density(per km2) | Distr. | Municipalities | ISO | Areacode | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Aichi | 愛知県 | Nagoya | 名古屋市 | Chūbu | Honshū | 7,475,630 | 5,173.07 | 1,458 | 7 | 54 | JP-23 | 052 | |  Akita | 秋田県 | Akita | 秋田市 | Tōhoku | Honshū | 918,811 | 11,637.52 | 82.4 | 6 | 25 | JP-05 | 018 | |  Aomori | 青森県 | Aomori | 青森市 | Tōhoku | Honshū | 1,190,685 | 9,645.64 | 128.3 | 8 | 40 | JP-02 | 017 | |  Chiba | 千葉県 | Chiba | 千葉市 | Kantō | Honshū | 6,269,572 | 5,157.57 | 1,218.50 | 6 | 54 | JP-12 | 043 | |  Ehime | 愛媛県 | Matsuyama | 松山市 | Shikoku | Shikoku | 1,296,061 | 5,676.19 | 235.2 | 7 | 20 | JP-38 | 089 | |  Fukui | 福井県 | Fukui | 福井市 | Chūbu | Honshū | 746,733 | 4,190.52 | 183 | 7 | 17 | JP-18 | 077 | |  Fukuoka | 福岡県 | Fukuoka | 福岡市 | Kyūshū | Kyūshū | 5,101,340 | 4,986.51 | 1,029.80 | 12 | 60 | JP-40 | 092 | |  Fukushima | 福島県 | Fukushima | 福島市 | Tōhoku | Honshū | 1,773,723 | 13,784.14 | 133 | 13 | 59 | JP-07 | 024 | |  Gifu | 岐阜県 | Gifu | 岐阜市 | Chūbu | Honshū | 1,933,019 | 10,621.29 | 186.3 | 9 | 42 | JP-21 | 058 | |  Gunma | 群馬県 | Maebashi | 前橋市 | Kantō | Honshū | 1,902,834 | 6,362.28 | 304.8 | 7 | 35 | JP-10 | 027 | |  Hiroshima | 広島県 | Hiroshima | 広島市 | Chūgoku | Honshū | 2,745,295 | 8,479.65 | 330.2 | 5 | 23 | JP-34 | 082 | |  Hokkaido | 北海道 | Sapporo | 札幌市 | Hokkaidō | Hokkaidō | 5,114,809 | 83,424.44 | 66.6 | 66 | 180 | JP-01 | 011–016 | |  Hyōgo | 兵庫県 | Kōbe | 神戸市 | Kansai | Honshū | 5,378,405 | 8,401.02 | 650.5 | 8 | 41 | JP-28 | 073 | |  Ibaraki | 茨城県 | Mito | 水戸市 | Kantō | Honshū | 2,828,848 | 6,097.39 | 470.2 | 7 | 44 | JP-08 | 029 | |  Ishikawa | 石川県 | Kanazawa | 金沢市 | Chūbu | Honshū | 1,111,483 | 4,186.21 | 270.5 | 5 | 19 | JP-17 | 076 | |  Iwate | 岩手県 | Morioka | 盛岡市 | Tōhoku | Honshū | 1,168,771 | 15,275.01 | 79.2 | 10 | 33 | JP-03 | 019 | |  Kagawa | 香川県 | Takamatsu | 高松市 | Shikoku | Shikoku | 926,866 | 1,876.78 | 506.3 | 5 | 17 | JP-37 | 087 | |  Kagoshima | 鹿児島県 | Kagoshima | 鹿児島市 | Kyūshū | Kyūshū | 1,553,060 | 9,187.06 | 172.9 | 8 | 43 | JP-46 | 099 | |  Kanagawa | 神奈川県 | Yokohama | 横浜市 | Kantō | Honshū | 9,222,108 | 2,416.11 | 3,823.20 | 6 | 33 | JP-14 | 045 | |  Kōchi | 高知県 | Kōchi | 高知市 | Shikoku | Shikoku | 669,516 | 7,103.63 | 97.3 | 6 | 34 | JP-39 | 088 | |  Kumamoto | 熊本県 | Kumamoto | 熊本市 | Kyūshū | Kyūshū | 1,708,761 | 7,409.46 | 234.6 | 9 | 45 | JP-43 | 096 | |  Kyōto | 京都府 | Kyōto | 京都市 | Kansai | Honshū | 2,537,860 | 4,612.20 | 559 | 6 | 26 | JP-26 | 075 | |  Mie | 三重県 | Tsu | 津市 | Kansai | Honshū | 1,731,863 | 5,774.49 | 306.6 | 7 | 29 | JP-24 | 059 | |  Miyagi | 宮城県 | Sendai | 仙台市 | Tōhoku | Honshū | 2,264,921 | 7,282.29 | 316.1 | 10 | 35 | JP-04 | 022 | |  Miyazaki | 宮崎県 | Miyazaki | 宮崎市 | Kyūshū | Kyūshū | 1,043,524 | 7,735.22 | 138.3 | 6 | 26 | JP-45 | 098 | |  Nagano | 長野県 | Nagano | 長野市 | Chūbu | Honshū | 2,007,647 | 13,561.56 | 151 | 14 | 77 | JP-20 | 026 | |  Nagasaki | 長崎県 | Nagasaki | 長崎市 | Kyūshū | Kyūshū | 1,270,358 | 4,130.98 | 317.7 | 4 | 21 | JP-42 | 095 | |  Nara | 奈良県 | Nara | 奈良市 | Kansai | Honshū | 1,298,946 | 3,690.94 | 358.8 | 7 | 39 | JP-29 | 074 | |  Niigata | 新潟県 | Niigata | 新潟市 | Chūbu | Honshū | 2,135,036 | 12,583.96 | 174.9 | 9 | 30 | JP-15 | 025 | |  Ōita | 大分県 | Ōita | 大分市 | Kyūshū | Kyūshū | 1,098,383 | 6,340.76 | 177.2 | 3 | 18 | JP-44 | 097 | |  Okayama | 岡山県 | Okayama | 岡山市 | Chūgoku | Honshū | 1,850,210 | 7,114.33 | 265.4 | 10 | 27 | JP-33 | 086 | |  Okinawa | 沖縄県 | Naha | 那覇市 | Kyūshū | Ryūkyū Islands | 1,462,871 | 2,282.59 | 642.9 | 5 | 41 | JP-47 | 098 | |  Ōsaka | 大阪府 | Ōsaka | 大阪市 | Kansai | Honshū | 8,770,650 | 1,905.32 | 4,638.40 | 5 | 43 | JP-27 | 06x | |  Saga | 佐賀県 | Saga | 佐賀市 | Kyūshū | Kyūshū | 795,157 | 2,440.69 | 332.5 | 6 | 20 | JP-41 | 095 | |  Saitama | 埼玉県 | Saitama | さいたま市 | Kantō | Honshū | 7,328,073 | 3,797.75 | 1,934 | 8 | 63 | JP-11 | 048 | |  Shiga | 滋賀県 | Ōtsu | 大津市 | Kansai | Honshū | 1,405,299 | 4,017.38 | 351.9 | 3 | 19 | JP-25 | 077 | |  Shimane | 島根県 | Matsue | 松江市 | Chūgoku | Honshū | 650,900 | 6,707.89 | 100.1 | 5 | 19 | JP-32 | 085 | |  Shizuoka | 静岡県 | Shizuoka | 静岡市 | Chūbu | Honshū | 3,561,252 | 7,777.35 | 467.2 | 5 | 35 | JP-22 | 054 | |  Tochigi | 栃木県 | Utsunomiya | 宇都宮市 | Kantō | Honshū | 1,898,513 | 6,408.09 | 301.7 | 5 | 26 | JP-09 | 028 | |  Tokushima | 徳島県 | Tokushima | 徳島市 | Shikoku | Shikoku | 697,733 | 4,146.75 | 173.5 | 8 | 24 | JP-36 | 088 | |  Tōkyō | 東京都 | Tōkyō | 東京都 | Kantō | Honshū | 14,063,564 | 2,194.03 | 6,402.60 | 1 | 39 | JP-13 | 03x/042 | |  Tottori | 鳥取県 | Tottori | 鳥取市 | Chūgoku | Honshū | 539,190 | 3,507.14 | 157.8 | 5 | 19 | JP-31 | 085 | |  Toyama | 富山県 | Toyama | 富山市 | Chūbu | Honshū | 1,009,050 | 4,247.58 | 243.6 | 2 | 15 | JP-16 | 076 | |  Wakayama | 和歌山県 | Wakayama | 和歌山市 | Kansai | Honshū | 895,931 | 4,724.65 | 195.3 | 6 | 30 | JP-30 | 075 | |  Yamagata | 山形県 | Yamagata | 山形市 | Tōhoku | Honshū | 1,031,642 | 9,323.15 | 114.6 | 8 | 35 | JP-06 | 023 | |  Yamaguchi | 山口県 | Yamaguchi | 山口市 | Chūgoku | Honshū | 1,301,480 | 6,112.54 | 219.6 | 4 | 19 | JP-35 | 083 | |  Yamanashi | 山梨県 | Kōfu | 甲府市 | Chūbu | Honshū | 796,231 | 4,465.27 | 181.4 | 5 | 27 | JP-19 | 055 | Former prefectures ------------------ ### 1870s ### 1880s | Prefecture | Japanese | Year ofAbolition | Fate | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Kanazawa | 金沢県 | 1869 | Renamed as Ishikawa | | Sendai | 仙台県 | 1871 | Renamed as Miyagi | | Morioka | 盛岡県 | 1872 | Renamed as Iwate | | Nagoya | 名古屋県 | 1872 | Renamed as Aichi | | Nukata | 額田県 | 1872 | Merged into Aichi | | Nanao | 七尾県 | 1872 | Merged into Ishikawa and Shinkawa | | Iruma | 入間県 | 1873 | Merged into Kumagaya and Kanagawa | | Inba | 印旛県 | 1873 | Merged into Chiba | | Kisarazu | 木更津県 | 1873 | Merged into Chiba | | Utsunomiya | 宇都宮県 | 1873 | Merged into Tochigi | | Asuwa | 足羽県 | 1873 | Merged into Tsuruga | | Kashiwazaki | 柏崎県 | 1873 | Merged into Niigata | | Ichinoseki→Mizusawa→Iwai | 一関県→水沢県→磐井県 | 1875 | Merged into Iwate and Miyagi | | Okitama | 置賜県 | 1875 | Merged into Yamagata | | Niihari | 新治県 | 1875 | Merged into Ibaraki and Chiba | | Sakata→Tsuruoka | 酒田県→鶴岡県 | 1876 | Merged into Yamagata | | Taira→Iwasaki | 平県→磐前県 | 1876 | Merged into Fukushima and Miyagi | | Wakamatsu | 若松県 | 1876 | Merged into Fukushima | | Chikuma | 筑摩県 | 1876 | Merged into Nagano and Gifu | | Tsuruga | 敦賀県 | 1876 | Merged into Ishikawa and Shiga | | Niikawa | 新川県 | 1876 | Merged into Ishikawa | | Sakai | 堺県 | 1881 | Merged into Osaka | | Ashigara | 足柄県 | 1876 | Merged into Kanagawa and Shizuoka | | Kumagaya | 熊谷県 | 1876 | Merged into Gunma and Saitama | | Aikawa | 相川県 | 1876 | Merged into Niigata | | Hamamatsu | 浜松県 | 1876 | Merged into Shizuoka | | Hakodate | 函館県 | 1886 | Merged into Hokkaidō | | Sapporo | 札幌県 | 1886 | Merged into Hokkaidō | | Nemuro | 根室県 | 1886 | Merged into Hokkaidō | | Tokyo | 東京府 | 1943 | Reorganized as Tokyo Metropolis (東京都) | ### Lost after World War II Here are some territories that were lost after World War II. This does not include all the territories of the Empire of Japan such as Manchukuo. | Territory | Prefecture | Allied occupation | Current status | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Name | Japanese | Capital | Country | Name | Capital | | Mainland | Okinawa | 沖縄県 | Naha |  United States |  Japan |  Okinawa | Naha | | Karafuto | 樺太庁 | Toyohara |  Soviet Union |  Russia | part of  Sakhalin | Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk | | Korea | Heian-hoku | 平安北道 | Shingishū |  North Korea | North Pyongan | Sinuiju | | Heian-nan | 平安南道 | Heijō | South Pyongan | Pyongyang | | Kankyō-hoku | 咸鏡北道 | Seishin | North Hamgyong | Chongjin | | Kankyō-nan | 咸鏡南道 | Kankō | South Hamgyong | Hamhung | | Kōkai | 黃海道 | Kaishū | Hwanghae | Haeju | | Kōgen | 江原道 | Shunsen | Kangwon | Chuncheon | |  United States |  South Korea | Gangwon | | Chūsei-hoku | 忠清北道 | Seishū | North Chungcheong | Cheongju | | Chūsei-nan | 忠清南道 | Taiden | South Chungcheong | Daejeon | | Keiki | 京畿道 | Keijō | Gyeonggi | Seoul | | Keishō-hoku | 慶尚北道 | Taikyū | North Gyeongsang | Daegu | | Keishō-nan | 慶尚南道 | Fuzan | South Gyeongsang | Busan | | Zenra-hoku | 全羅北道 | Zenshū | North Jeolla | Jeonju | | Zenra-nan | 全羅南道 | Kōshū | South Jeolla | Gwangju | | Taiwan | Hōko | 澎湖庁 | Makō |  China |  Republic of China (Taiwan) | Penghu | Magong | | Karenkō | 花蓮港庁 | Karenkō | Hualien | Hualien | | Shinchiku | 新竹州 | Shinchiku | Hsinchu | Hsinchu | | Taichū | 台中州 | Taichū | Taichung | Taichung | | Taihoku | 台北州 | Taihoku | Greater Taipei | Taipei | | Tainan | 台南州 | Tainan | Tainan | Tainan | | Taitō | 台東庁 | Taitō | Taitung | Taitung | | Takao | 高雄州 | Takao | Kaohsiung | Kaohsiung | | Kantō | 関東州 | Dairen |  Soviet Union |  People's Republic of China | part of Dalian, Liaoning | | Nan'yō | 南洋庁 | Korōru |  United States |  Palau | Ngerulmud | |  Marshall Islands | Majuro | |  Federated States of Micronesia | Palikir | |  United States |  Northern Mariana Islands | Saipan | See also -------- * List of Japanese prefectural name etymologies * List of Japanese prefectures by area * List of Japanese prefectures by population * List of Japanese prefectures by GDP * List of Japanese prefectures by GDP per capita * List of Japanese prefectures by Human Development Index * List of Japanese prefectures by life expectancy * List of Japanese prefectures by highest mountain * List of prefectural capitals in Japan * List of Prefecture songs of Japan * ISO 3166-2 codes for Japan * List of prefectural governors in Japan * Flags of Japanese prefectures * Provinces of Japan ### General * List of regions of Japan * Government of Japan

Prefectures of Japan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefectures_of_Japan

**JavaScript** (/ˈdʒɑːvəskrɪpt/), often abbreviated as **JS**, is a programming language that is one of the core technologies of the World Wide Web, alongside HTML and CSS. As of 2022, 98% of websites use JavaScript on the client side for webpage behavior, often incorporating third-party libraries. All major web browsers have a dedicated JavaScript engine to execute the code on users' devices. JavaScript is a high-level, often just-in-time compiled language that conforms to the ECMAScript standard. It has dynamic typing, prototype-based object-orientation, and first-class functions. It is multi-paradigm, supporting event-driven, functional, and imperative programming styles. It has application programming interfaces (APIs) for working with text, dates, regular expressions, standard data structures, and the Document Object Model (DOM). The ECMAScript standard does not include any input/output (I/O), such as networking, storage, or graphics facilities. In practice, the web browser or other runtime system provides JavaScript APIs for I/O. JavaScript engines were originally used only in web browsers, but are now core components of some servers and a variety of applications. The most popular runtime system for this usage is Node.js. Although Java and JavaScript are similar in name, syntax, and respective standard libraries, the two languages are distinct and differ greatly in design. History ------- ### Creation at Netscape The first popular web browser with a graphical user interface, Mosaic, was released in 1993. Accessible to non-technical people, it played a prominent role in the rapid growth of the nascent World Wide Web. The lead developers of Mosaic then founded the Netscape corporation, which released a more polished browser, Netscape Navigator, in 1994. This quickly became the most-used. During these formative years of the Web, web pages could only be static, lacking the capability for dynamic behavior after the page was loaded in the browser. There was a desire in the flourishing web development scene to remove this limitation, so in 1995, Netscape decided to add a scripting language to Navigator. They pursued two routes to achieve this: collaborating with Sun Microsystems to embed the Java programming language, while also hiring Brendan Eich to embed the Scheme language. Netscape management soon decided that the best option was for Eich to devise a new language, with syntax similar to Java and less like Scheme or other extant scripting languages. Although the new language and its interpreter implementation were called LiveScript when first shipped as part of a Navigator beta in September 1995, the name was changed to JavaScript for the official release in December. The choice of the JavaScript name has caused confusion, implying that it is directly related to Java. At the time, the dot-com boom had begun and Java was the hot new language, so Eich considered the JavaScript name a marketing ploy by Netscape. ### Adoption by Microsoft Microsoft debuted Internet Explorer in 1995, leading to a browser war with Netscape. On the JavaScript front, Microsoft reverse-engineered the Navigator interpreter to create its own, called JScript. JScript was first released in 1996, alongside initial support for CSS and extensions to HTML. Each of these implementations was noticeably different from their counterparts in Navigator. These differences made it difficult for developers to make their websites work well in both browsers, leading to widespread use of "best viewed in Netscape" and "best viewed in Internet Explorer" logos for several years. ### The rise of JScript In November 1996, Netscape submitted JavaScript to Ecma International, as the starting point for a standard specification that all browser vendors could conform to. This led to the official release of the first ECMAScript language specification in June 1997. The standards process continued for a few years, with the release of ECMAScript 2 in June 1998 and ECMAScript 3 in December 1999. Work on ECMAScript 4 began in 2000. Meanwhile, Microsoft gained an increasingly dominant position in the browser market. By the early 2000s, Internet Explorer's market share reached 95%. This meant that JScript became the de facto standard for client-side scripting on the Web. Microsoft initially participated in the standards process and implemented some proposals in its JScript language, but eventually it stopped collaborating on Ecma work. Thus ECMAScript 4 was mothballed. ### Growth and standardization During the period of Internet Explorer dominance in the early 2000s, client-side scripting was stagnant. This started to change in 2004, when the successor of Netscape, Mozilla, released the Firefox browser. Firefox was well received by many, taking significant market share from Internet Explorer. In 2005, Mozilla joined ECMA International, and work started on the ECMAScript for XML (E4X) standard. This led to Mozilla working jointly with Macromedia (later acquired by Adobe Systems), who were implementing E4X in their ActionScript 3 language, which was based on an ECMAScript 4 draft. The goal became standardizing ActionScript 3 as the new ECMAScript 4. To this end, Adobe Systems released the Tamarin implementation as an open source project. However, Tamarin and ActionScript 3 were too different from established client-side scripting, and without cooperation from Microsoft, ECMAScript 4 never reached fruition. Meanwhile, very important developments were occurring in open-source communities not affiliated with ECMA work. In 2005, Jesse James Garrett released a white paper in which he coined the term Ajax and described a set of technologies, of which JavaScript was the backbone, to create web applications where data can be loaded in the background, avoiding the need for full page reloads. This sparked a renaissance period of JavaScript, spearheaded by open-source libraries and the communities that formed around them. Many new libraries were created, including jQuery, Prototype, Dojo Toolkit, and MooTools. Google debuted its Chrome browser in 2008, with the V8 JavaScript engine that was faster than its competition. The key innovation was just-in-time compilation (JIT), so other browser vendors needed to overhaul their engines for JIT. In July 2008, these disparate parties came together for a conference in Oslo. This led to the eventual agreement in early 2009 to combine all relevant work and drive the language forward. The result was the ECMAScript 5 standard, released in December 2009. ### Reaching maturity Ambitious work on the language continued for several years, culminating in an extensive collection of additions and refinements being formalized with the publication of ECMAScript 6 in 2015. The creation of Node.js in 2009 by Ryan Dahl sparked a significant increase in the usage of JavaScript outside of web browsers. Node combines the V8 engine, an event loop, and I/O APIs, thereby providing a stand-alone JavaScript runtime system. As of 2018, Node had been used by millions of developers, and npm had the most modules of any package manager in the world. The ECMAScript draft specification is currently maintained openly on GitHub, and editions are produced via regular annual snapshots. Potential revisions to the language are vetted through a comprehensive proposal process. Now, instead of edition numbers, developers check the status of upcoming features individually. The current JavaScript ecosystem has many libraries and frameworks, established programming practices, and substantial usage of JavaScript outside of web browsers. Plus, with the rise of single-page applications and other JavaScript-heavy websites, several transpilers have been created to aid the development process. Trademark --------- "JavaScript" is a trademark of Oracle Corporation in the United States. The trademark was originally issued to Sun Microsystems on 6 May 1997, and was transferred to Oracle when they acquired Sun in 2009. Website client-side usage ------------------------- JavaScript is the dominant client-side scripting language of the Web, with 98% of all websites (mid–2022) using it for this purpose. Scripts are embedded in or included from HTML documents and interact with the DOM. All major web browsers have a built-in JavaScript engine that executes the code on the user's device. ### Examples of scripted behavior * Loading new web page content without reloading the page, via Ajax or a WebSocket. For example, users of social media can send and receive messages without leaving the current page. * Web page animations, such as fading objects in and out, resizing, and moving them. * Playing browser games. * Controlling the playback of streaming media. * Generating pop-up ads or alert boxes. * Validating input values of a web form before the data is sent to a web server. * Logging data about the user's behavior then sending it to a server. The website owner can use this data for analytics, ad tracking, and personalization. * Redirecting a user to another page. * Storing and retrieving data on the user's device, via the storage or IndexedDB standards. ### Web libraries and frameworks Over 80% of websites use a third-party JavaScript library or web framework for their client-side scripting. jQuery is by far the most popular client-side library, used by over 75% of websites. Facebook created the React library for its website and later released it as open source; other sites, including Twitter, now use it. Likewise, the Angular framework created by Google for its websites, including YouTube and Gmail, is now an open source project used by others. In contrast, the term "Vanilla JS" has been coined for websites not using any libraries or frameworks, instead relying entirely on standard JavaScript functionality. Other usage ----------- The use of JavaScript has expanded beyond its web browser roots. JavaScript engines are now embedded in a variety of other software systems, both for server-side website deployments and non-browser applications. Initial attempts at promoting server-side JavaScript usage were Netscape Enterprise Server and Microsoft's Internet Information Services, but they were small niches. Server-side usage eventually started to grow in the late 2000s, with the creation of Node.js and other approaches. Electron, Cordova, React Native, and other application frameworks have been used to create many applications with behavior implemented in JavaScript. Other non-browser applications include Adobe Acrobat support for scripting PDF documents and GNOME Shell extensions written in JavaScript. JavaScript has recently begun to appear in some embedded systems, usually by leveraging Node.js. Features -------- The following features are common to all conforming ECMAScript implementations unless explicitly specified otherwise. ### Imperative and structured JavaScript supports much of the structured programming syntax from C (e.g., `if` statements, `while` loops, `switch` statements, `do while` loops, etc.). One partial exception is scoping: originally JavaScript only had function scoping with `var`; block scoping was added in ECMAScript 2015 with the keywords `let` and `const`. Like C, JavaScript makes a distinction between expressions and statements. One syntactic difference from C is automatic semicolon insertion, which allow semicolons (which terminate statements) to be omitted. ### Weakly typed JavaScript is weakly typed, which means certain types are implicitly cast depending on the operation used. * The binary `+` operator casts both operands to a string unless both operands are numbers. This is because the addition operator doubles as a concatenation operator * The binary `-` operator always casts both operands to a number * Both unary operators (`+`, `-`) always cast the operand to a number Values are cast to strings like the following: * Strings are left as-is * Numbers are converted to their string representation * Arrays have their elements cast to strings after which they are joined by commas (`,`) * Other objects are converted to the string `[object Object]` where `Object` is the name of the constructor of the object Values are cast to numbers by casting to strings and then casting the strings to numbers. These processes can be modified by defining `toString` and `valueOf` functions on the prototype for string and number casting respectively. JavaScript has received criticism for the way it implements these conversions as the complexity of the rules can be mistaken for inconsistency. For example, when adding a number to a string, the number will be cast to a string before performing concatenation, but when subtracting a number from a string, the string is cast to a number before performing subtraction. JavaScript type conversions| left operand | operator | right operand | result | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | `[]` (empty array) | `+` | `[]` (empty array) | `""` (empty string) | | `[]` (empty array) | `+` | `{}` (empty object) | `"[object Object]"` (string) | | `false` (boolean) | `+` | `[]` (empty array) | `"false"` (string) | | `"123"`(string) | `+` | `1` (number) | `"1231"` (string) | | `"123"` (string) | `-` | `1` (number) | `122` (number) | | `"123"` (string) | `-` | `"abc"` (string) | `NaN` (number) | Often also mentioned is `{} + []` resulting in `0` (number). This is misleading: the `{}` is interpreted as an empty code block instead of an empty object, and the empty array is cast to a number by the remaining unary `+` operator. If you wrap the expression in parentheses `({} + [])` the curly brackets are interpreted as an empty object and the result of the expression is `"[object Object]"` as expected. ### Dynamic TypingJavaScript is dynamically typed like most other scripting languages. A type is associated with a value rather than an expression. For example, a variable initially bound to a number may be reassigned to a string. JavaScript supports various ways to test the type of objects, including duck typing. Run-time evaluationJavaScript includes an `eval` function that can execute statements provided as strings at run-time. ### Object-orientation (prototype-based) Prototypal inheritance in JavaScript is described by Douglas Crockford as: > You make prototype objects, and then ... make new instances. Objects are mutable in JavaScript, so we can augment the new instances, giving them new fields and methods. These can then act as prototypes for even newer objects. We don't need classes to make lots of similar objects... Objects inherit from objects. What could be more object oriented than that? > > > In JavaScript, an object is an associative array, augmented with a prototype (see below); each key provides the name for an object property, and there are two syntactical ways to specify such a name: dot notation (`obj.x = 10`) and bracket notation (`obj['x'] = 10`). A property may be added, rebound, or deleted at run-time. Most properties of an object (and any property that belongs to an object's prototype inheritance chain) can be enumerated using a `for...in` loop. PrototypesJavaScript uses prototypes where many other object-oriented languages use classes for inheritance. It is possible to simulate many class-based features with prototypes in JavaScript. Functions as object constructorsFunctions double as object constructors, along with their typical role. Prefixing a function call with *new* will create an instance of a prototype, inheriting properties and methods from the constructor (including properties from the `Object` prototype). ECMAScript 5 offers the `Object.create` method, allowing explicit creation of an instance without automatically inheriting from the `Object` prototype (older environments can assign the prototype to `null`). The constructor's `prototype` property determines the object used for the new object's internal prototype. New methods can be added by modifying the prototype of the function used as a constructor. JavaScript's built-in constructors, such as `Array` or `Object`, also have prototypes that can be modified. While it is possible to modify the `Object` prototype, it is generally considered bad practice because most objects in JavaScript will inherit methods and properties from the `Object` prototype, and they may not expect the prototype to be modified. Functions as methodsUnlike many object-oriented languages, there is no distinction between a function definition and a method definition. Rather, the distinction occurs during function calling: when a function is called as a method of an object, the function's local *this* keyword is bound to that object for that invocation. ### Functional JavaScript functions are first-class; a function is considered to be an object. As such, a function may have properties and methods, such as `.call()` and `.bind()`. A *nested* function is a function defined within another function. It is created each time the outer function is invoked. In addition, each nested function forms a lexical closure: the lexical scope of the outer function (including any constant, local variable, or argument value) becomes part of the internal state of each inner function object, even after execution of the outer function concludes. JavaScript also supports anonymous functions. ### Delegative JavaScript supports implicit and explicit delegation. Functions as roles (Traits and Mixins)JavaScript natively supports various function-based implementations of Role patterns like Traits and Mixins. Such a function defines additional behavior by at least one method bound to the `this` keyword within its `function` body. A Role then has to be delegated explicitly via `call` or `apply` to objects that need to feature additional behavior that is not shared via the prototype chain. Object composition and inheritanceWhereas explicit function-based delegation does cover composition in JavaScript, implicit delegation already happens every time the prototype chain is walked in order to, e.g., find a method that might be related to but is not directly owned by an object. Once the method is found it gets called within this object's context. Thus inheritance in JavaScript is covered by a delegation automatism that is bound to the prototype property of constructor functions. ### Miscellaneous JavaScript is a zero-index language. Run-time environmentJavaScript typically relies on a run-time environment (e.g., a web browser) to provide objects and methods by which scripts can interact with the environment (e.g., a web page DOM). These environments are single-threaded. JavaScript also relies on the run-time environment to provide the ability to include/import scripts (e.g., HTML `<script>` elements). This is not a language feature per se, but it is common in most JavaScript implementations. JavaScript processes messages from a queue one at a time. JavaScript calls a function associated with each new message, creating a call stack frame with the function's arguments and local variables. The call stack shrinks and grows based on the function's needs. When the call stack is empty upon function completion, JavaScript proceeds to the next message in the queue. This is called the event loop, described as "run to completion" because each message is fully processed before the next message is considered. However, the language's concurrency model describes the event loop as non-blocking: program input/output is performed using events and callback functions. This means, for instance, that JavaScript can process a mouse click while waiting for a database query to return information. Variadic functionsAn indefinite number of parameters can be passed to a function. The function can access them through formal parameters and also through the local `arguments` object. Variadic functions can also be created by using the `bind` method. Array and object literalsLike many scripting languages, arrays and objects (associative arrays in other languages) can each be created with a succinct shortcut syntax. In fact, these literals form the basis of the JSON data format. Regular expressionsJavaScript also supports regular expressions in a manner similar to Perl, which provide a concise and powerful syntax for text manipulation that is more sophisticated than the built-in string functions. Promises and Async/awaitJavaScript supports promises and Async/await for handling asynchronous operations. A built-in Promise object provides functionality for handling promises and associating handlers with an asynchronous action's eventual result. Recently, combinator methods were introduced in the JavaScript specification, which allows developers to combine multiple JavaScript promises and do operations based on different scenarios. The methods introduced are: Promise.race, Promise.all, Promise.allSettled and Promise.any. Async/await allows an asynchronous, non-blocking function to be structured in a way similar to an ordinary synchronous function. Asynchronous, non-blocking code can be written, with minimal overhead, structured similar to traditional synchronous, blocking code. ### Vendor-specific extensions Historically, some JavaScript engines supported these non-standard features: * conditional `catch` clauses (like Java) * array comprehensions and generator expressions (like Python) * concise function expressions (`function(args) expr`; this experimental syntax predated arrow functions) * ECMAScript for XML (E4X), an extension that adds native XML support to ECMAScript (unsupported in Firefox since version 21) Syntax ------ ### Simple examples Variables in JavaScript can be defined using either the `var`, `let` or `const` keywords. Variables defined without keywords will be defined at the global scope. ``` // Declares a function-scoped variable named `x`, and implicitly assigns the // special value `undefined` to it. Variables without value are automatically // set to undefined. // var is generally considered bad practice and let and const are usually preferred. var x; // Variables can be manually set to `undefined` like so let x2 = undefined; // Declares a block-scoped variable named `y`, and implicitly sets it to // `undefined`. The `let` keyword was introduced in ECMAScript 2015. let y; // Declares a block-scoped, un-reassignable variable named `z`, and sets it to // a string literal. The `const` keyword was also introduced in ECMAScript 2015, // and must be explicitly assigned to. // The keyword `const` means constant, hence the variable cannot be reassigned // as the value is `constant`. const z = "this value cannot be reassigned!"; // Declares a global-scoped variable and assigns 3. This is generally considered // bad practice, and will not work if strict mode is on. t = 3; // Declares a variable named `myNumber`, and assigns a number literal (the value // `2`) to it. let myNumber = 2; // Reassigns `myNumber`, setting it to a string literal (the value `"foo"`). // JavaScript is a dynamically-typed language, so this is legal. myNumber = "foo"; ``` Note the comments in the example above, all of which were preceded with two forward slashes. There is no built-in Input/output functionality in JavaScript, instead it is provided by the run-time environment. The ECMAScript specification in edition 5.1 mentions that "there are no provisions in this specification for input of external data or output of computed results". However, most runtime environments have a `console` object that can be used to print output. Here is a minimalist Hello World program in JavaScript in a runtime environment with a console object: ``` console.log("Hello, World!"); ``` In HTML documents, a program like this is required for an output: ``` // Text nodes can be made using the "write" method. // This is frowned upon, as it can overwrite the document if the document is fully loaded. document.write('foo'); // Elements can be made too. First, they have to be created in the DOM. const myElem = document.createElement('span'); // Attributes like classes and the id can be set as well myElem.classList.add('foo'); myElem.id = 'bar'; // After setting this, the tag will look like this: `<span class="foo" id="bar" data-attr="baz"></span>` myElem.setAttribute('data-attr', 'baz'); // Which could also be written as `myElem.dataset.attr = 'baz'` // Finally append it as a child element to the <body> in the HTML document.body.appendChild(myElem); // Elements can be imperatively grabbed with querySelector for one element, or querySelectorAll for multiple elements that can be looped with forEach document.querySelector('.class'); // Selects the first element with the "class" class document.querySelector('#id'); // Selects the first element with an `id` of "id" document.querySelector('[data-other]'); // Selects the first element with the "data-other" attribute document.querySelectorAll('.multiple'); // Returns an Array of all elements with the "multiple" class ``` A simple recursive function to calculate the factorial of a natural number: ``` function factorial(n) { // Checking the argument for legitimacy. Factorial is defined for positive integers. if (isNaN(n)) { console.error("Non-numerical argument not allowed."); return NaN; // The special value: Not a Number } if (n === 0) return 1; // 0! = 1 if (n < 0) return undefined; // Factorial of negative numbers is not defined. if (n % 1) { console.warn(`${n} will be rounded to the closest integer. For non-integers consider using gamma function instead.`); n = Math.round(n); } // The above checks need not be repeated in the recursion, hence defining the actual recursive part separately below. // The following line is a function expression to recursively compute the factorial. It uses the arrow syntax introduced in ES6. const recursivelyCompute = a => a > 1 ? a \* recursivelyCompute(a - 1) : 1; // Note the use of the ternary operator `?`. return recursivelyCompute(n); } factorial(3); // Returns 6 ``` An anonymous function (or lambda): ``` const counter = function() { let count = 0; return function() { return ++count; } }; const x = counter(); x(); // Returns 1 x(); // Returns 2 x(); // Returns 3 ``` This example shows that, in JavaScript, function closures capture their non-local variables by reference. Arrow functions were first introduced in 6th Edition - ECMAScript 2015. They shorten the syntax for writing functions in JavaScript. Arrow functions are anonymous, so a variable is needed to refer to them in order to invoke them after their creation, unless surrounded by parenthesis and executed immediately. Example of arrow function: ``` // Arrow functions let us omit the `function` keyword. // Here `long\_example` points to an anonymous function value. const long\_example = (input1, input2) => { console.log("Hello, World!"); const output = input1 + input2; return output; }; // If there are no braces, the arrow function simply returns the expression // So here it's (input1 + input2) const short\_example = (input1, input2) => input1 + input2; long\_example(2, 3); // Prints "Hello, World!" and returns 5 short\_example(2, 5); // Returns 7 // If an arrow function has only one parameter, the parentheses can be removed. const no\_parentheses = input => input + 2; no\_parentheses(3); // Returns 5 // An arrow function, like other function definitions, can be executed in the same statement as they are created. // This is useful when writing libraries to avoid filling the global scope, and for closures. let three = ((a, b) => a + b) (1, 2); const generate\_multiplier\_function = a => (b => isNaN(b) || !b ? a : a\*=b); const five\_multiples = generate\_multiplier\_function(5); // The supplied argument "seeds" the expression and is retained by a. five\_multiples(1); // Returns 5 five\_multiples(3); // Returns 15 five\_multiples(4); // Returns 60 ``` In JavaScript, objects can be created as instances of a class. Object class example: ``` class Ball { constructor(radius) { this.radius = radius; this.area = Math.PI \* ( radius \*\* 2 ); } // Classes (and thus objects) can contain functions known as methods show() { console.log(this.radius); } }; const myBall = new Ball(5); // Creates a new instance of the ball object with radius 5 myBall.radius++; // Object properties can usually be modified from the outside myBall.show(); // Using the inherited "show" function logs "6" ``` In JavaScript, objects can be instantiated directly from a function. Object functional example: ``` function Ball(radius) { const area = Math.PI \* ( radius \*\* 2 ); const obj = { radius, area }; // Objects are mutable, and functions can be added as properties. obj.show = () => console.log(obj.radius); return obj; }; const myBall = Ball(5); // Creates a new ball object with radius 5. No "new" keyword needed. myBall.radius++; // The instance property can be modified. myBall.show(); // Using the "show" function logs "6" - the new instance value. ``` Variadic function demonstration (`arguments` is a special variable): ``` function sum() { let x = 0; for (let i = 0; i < arguments.length; ++i) x += arguments[i]; return x; } sum(1, 2); // Returns 3 sum(1, 2, 3); // Returns 6 // As of ES6, using the rest operator. function sum(...args) { return args.reduce((a, b) => a + b); } sum(1, 2); // Returns 3 sum(1, 2, 3); // Returns 6 ``` Immediately-invoked function expressions are often used to create closures. Closures allow gathering properties and methods in a namespace and making some of them private: ``` let counter = (function() { let i = 0; // Private property return { // Public methods get: function() { alert(i); }, set: function(value) { i = value; }, increment: function() { alert(++i); } }; })(); // Module counter.get(); // Returns 0 counter.set(6); counter.increment(); // Returns 7 counter.increment(); // Returns 8 ``` Generator objects (in the form of generator functions) provide a function which can be called, exited, and re-entered while maintaining internal context (statefulness). ``` function\* rawCounter() { yield 1; yield 2; } function\* dynamicCounter() { let count = 0; while (true) { // It is not recommended to utilize while true loops in most cases. yield ++count; } } // Instances const counter1 = rawCounter(); const counter2 = dynamicCounter(); // Implementation counter1.next(); // {value: 1, done: false} counter1.next(); // {value: 2, done: false} counter1.next(); // {value: undefined, done: true} counter2.next(); // {value: 1, done: false} counter2.next(); // {value: 2, done: false} counter2.next(); // {value: 3, done: false} // ...infinitely ``` JavaScript can export and import from modules: Export example: ``` /\* mymodule.js \*/ // This function remains private, as it is not exported let sum = (a, b) => { return a + b; } // Export variables export let name = 'Alice'; export let age = 23; // Export named functions export function add(num1, num2) { return num1 + num2; } // Export class export class Multiplication { constructor(num1, num2) { this.num1 = num1; this.num2 = num2; } add() { return sum(this.num1, this.num2); } } ``` Import example: ``` // Import one property import { add } from './mymodule.js'; console.log(add(1, 2)); //> 3 // Import multiple properties import { name, age } from './mymodule.js'; console.log(name, age); //> "Alice", 23 // Import all properties from a module import \* from './module.js' console.log(name, age); //> "Alice", 23 console.log(add(1,2)); //> 3 ``` ### More advanced example This sample code displays various JavaScript features. ``` /\* Finds the lowest common multiple (LCM) of two numbers \*/ function LCMCalculator(x, y) { // constructor function if (isNaN(x\*y)) throw new TypeError("Non-numeric arguments not allowed."); const checkInt = function(x) { // inner function if (x % 1 !== 0) throw new TypeError(x + "is not an integer"); return x; }; this.a = checkInt(x) // semicolons ^^^^ are optional, a newline is enough this.b = checkInt(y); } // The prototype of object instances created by a constructor is // that constructor's "prototype" property. LCMCalculator.prototype = { // object literal constructor: LCMCalculator, // when reassigning a prototype, set the constructor property appropriately gcd: function() { // method that calculates the greatest common divisor // Euclidean algorithm: let a = Math.abs(this.a), b = Math.abs(this.b), t; if (a < b) { // swap variables // t = b; b = a; a = t; [a, b] = [b, a]; // swap using destructuring assignment (ES6) } while (b !== 0) { t = b; b = a % b; a = t; } // Only need to calculate GCD once, so "redefine" this method. // (Actually not redefinition—it's defined on the instance itself, // so that this.gcd refers to this "redefinition" instead of LCMCalculator.prototype.gcd. // Note that this leads to a wrong result if the LCMCalculator object members "a" and/or "b" are altered afterwards.) // Also, 'gcd' === "gcd", this['gcd'] === this.gcd this['gcd'] = function() { return a; }; return a; }, // Object property names can be specified by strings delimited by double (") or single (') quotes. "lcm": function() { // Variable names do not collide with object properties, e.g., |lcm| is not |this.lcm|. // not using |this.a\*this.b| to avoid FP precision issues let lcm = this.a / this.gcd() \* this.b; // Only need to calculate lcm once, so "redefine" this method. this.lcm = function() { return lcm; }; return lcm; }, // Methods can also be declared using ES6 syntax toString() { // Using both ES6 template literals and the (+) operator to concatenate values return `LCMCalculator: a = ${this.a}, b = ` + this.b; } }; // Define generic output function; this implementation only works for Web browsers function output(x) { document.body.appendChild(document.createTextNode(x)); document.body.appendChild(document.createElement('br')); } // Note: Array's map() and forEach() are defined in JavaScript 1.6. // They are used here to demonstrate JavaScript's inherent functional nature. [ [25, 55], [21, 56], [22, 58], [28, 56] ].map(function(pair) { // array literal + mapping function return new LCMCalculator(pair[0], pair[1]); }).sort((a, b) => a.lcm() - b.lcm()) // sort with this comparative function; => is a shorthand form of a function, called "arrow function" .forEach(printResult); function printResult(obj) { output(obj + ", gcd = " + obj.gcd() + ", lcm = " + obj.lcm()); } ``` The following output should be displayed in the browser window. ``` LCMCalculator: a = 28, b = 56, gcd = 28, lcm = 56 LCMCalculator: a = 21, b = 56, gcd = 7, lcm = 168 LCMCalculator: a = 25, b = 55, gcd = 5, lcm = 275 LCMCalculator: a = 22, b = 58, gcd = 2, lcm = 638 ``` Security -------- JavaScript and the DOM provide the potential for malicious authors to deliver scripts to run on a client computer via the Web. Browser authors minimize this risk using two restrictions. First, scripts run in a sandbox in which they can only perform Web-related actions, not general-purpose programming tasks like creating files. Second, scripts are constrained by the same-origin policy: scripts from one Website do not have access to information such as usernames, passwords, or cookies sent to another site. Most JavaScript-related security bugs are breaches of either the same origin policy or the sandbox. There are subsets of general JavaScript—ADsafe, Secure ECMAScript (SES)—that provide greater levels of security, especially on code created by third parties (such as advertisements). Closure Toolkit is another project for safe embedding and isolation of third-party JavaScript and HTML. Content Security Policy is the main intended method of ensuring that only trusted code is executed on a Web page. ### Cross-site vulnerabilities A common JavaScript-related security problem is cross-site scripting (XSS), a violation of the same-origin policy. XSS vulnerabilities occur when an attacker can cause a target Website, such as an online banking website, to include a malicious script in the webpage presented to a victim. The script in this example can then access the banking application with the privileges of the victim, potentially disclosing secret information or transferring money without the victim's authorization. A solution to XSS vulnerabilities is to use *HTML escaping* whenever displaying untrusted data. Some browsers include partial protection against *reflected* XSS attacks, in which the attacker provides a URL including malicious script. However, even users of those browsers are vulnerable to other XSS attacks, such as those where the malicious code is stored in a database. Only correct design of Web applications on the server-side can fully prevent XSS. XSS vulnerabilities can also occur because of implementation mistakes by browser authors. Another cross-site vulnerability is cross-site request forgery (CSRF). In CSRF, code on an attacker's site tricks the victim's browser into taking actions the user did not intend at a target site (like transferring money at a bank). When target sites rely solely on cookies for request authentication, requests originating from code on the attacker's site can carry the same valid login credentials of the initiating user. In general, the solution to CSRF is to require an authentication value in a hidden form field, and not only in the cookies, to authenticate any request that might have lasting effects. Checking the HTTP Referrer header can also help. "JavaScript hijacking" is a type of CSRF attack in which a `<script>` tag on an attacker's site exploits a page on the victim's site that returns private information such as JSON or JavaScript. Possible solutions include: * requiring an authentication token in the POST and GET parameters for any response that returns private information. ### Misplaced trust in the client Developers of client-server applications must recognize that untrusted clients may be under the control of attackers. The application author cannot assume that their JavaScript code will run as intended (or at all) because any secret embedded in the code could be extracted by a determined adversary. Some implications are: * Website authors cannot perfectly conceal how their JavaScript operates because the raw source code must be sent to the client. The code can be obfuscated, but obfuscation can be reverse-engineered. * JavaScript form validation only provides convenience for users, not security. If a site verifies that the user agreed to its terms of service, or filters invalid characters out of fields that should only contain numbers, it must do so on the server, not only the client. * Scripts can be selectively disabled, so JavaScript cannot be relied on to prevent operations such as right-clicking on an image to save it. * It is considered very bad practice to embed sensitive information such as passwords in JavaScript because it can be extracted by an attacker. ### Misplaced trust in developers Package management systems such as npm and Bower are popular with JavaScript developers. Such systems allow a developer to easily manage their program's dependencies upon other developers' program libraries. Developers trust that the maintainers of the libraries will keep them secure and up to date, but that is not always the case. A vulnerability has emerged because of this blind trust. Relied-upon libraries can have new releases that cause bugs or vulnerabilities to appear in all programs that rely upon the libraries. Inversely, a library can go unpatched with known vulnerabilities out in the wild. In a study done looking over a sample of 133,000 websites, researchers found 37% of the websites included a library with at least one known vulnerability. "The median lag between the oldest library version used on each website and the newest available version of that library is 1,177 days in ALEXA, and development of some libraries still in active use ceased years ago." Another possibility is that the maintainer of a library may remove the library entirely. This occurred in March 2016 when Azer Koçulu removed his repository from npm. This caused tens of thousands of programs and websites depending upon his libraries to break. ### Browser and plugin coding errors JavaScript provides an interface to a wide range of browser capabilities, some of which may have flaws such as buffer overflows. These flaws can allow attackers to write scripts that would run any code they wish on the user's system. This code is not by any means limited to another JavaScript application. For example, a buffer overrun exploit can allow an attacker to gain access to the operating system's API with superuser privileges. These flaws have affected major browsers including Firefox, Internet Explorer, and Safari. Plugins, such as video players, Adobe Flash, and the wide range of ActiveX controls enabled by default in Microsoft Internet Explorer, may also have flaws exploitable via JavaScript (such flaws have been exploited in the past). In Windows Vista, Microsoft has attempted to contain the risks of bugs such as buffer overflows by running the Internet Explorer process with limited privileges. Google Chrome similarly confines its page renderers to their own "sandbox". ### Sandbox implementation errors Web browsers are capable of running JavaScript outside the sandbox, with the privileges necessary to, for example, create or delete files. Such privileges are not intended to be granted to code from the Web. Incorrectly granting privileges to JavaScript from the Web has played a role in vulnerabilities in both Internet Explorer and Firefox. In Windows XP Service Pack 2, Microsoft demoted JScript's privileges in Internet Explorer. Microsoft Windows allows JavaScript source files on a computer's hard drive to be launched as general-purpose, non-sandboxed programs (see: Windows Script Host). This makes JavaScript (like VBScript) a theoretically viable vector for a Trojan horse, although JavaScript Trojan horses are uncommon in practice.[*failed verification*] ### Hardware vulnerabilities In 2015, a JavaScript-based proof-of-concept implementation of a rowhammer attack was described in a paper by security researchers. In 2017, a JavaScript-based attack via browser was demonstrated that could bypass ASLR. It is called "ASLR⊕Cache" or AnC. In 2018, the paper that announced the Spectre attacks against Speculative Execution in Intel and other processors included a JavaScript implementation. Development tools ----------------- Important tools have evolved with the language. * Every major web browser has built-in web development tools, including a JavaScript debugger. * Static program analysis tools, such as ESLint and JSLint, scan JavaScript code for conformance to a set of standards and guidelines. * Some browsers have built-in profilers. Stand-alone profiling libraries have also been created, such as benchmark.js and jsbench. * Many text editors have syntax highlighting support for JavaScript code. Related technologies -------------------- ### Java A common misconception is that JavaScript is the same as Java. Both indeed have a C-like syntax (the C language being their most immediate common ancestor language). They are also typically sandboxed (when used inside a browser), and JavaScript was designed with Java's syntax and standard library in mind. In particular, all Java keywords were reserved in original JavaScript, JavaScript's standard library follows Java's naming conventions, and JavaScript's `Math` and `Date` objects are based on classes from Java 1.0. Java and JavaScript both first appeared in 1995, but Java was developed by James Gosling of Sun Microsystems and JavaScript by Brendan Eich of Netscape Communications. The differences between the two languages are more prominent than their similarities. Java has static typing, while JavaScript's typing is dynamic. Java is loaded from compiled bytecode, while JavaScript is loaded as human-readable source code. Java's objects are class-based, while JavaScript's are prototype-based. Finally, Java did not support functional programming until Java 8, while JavaScript has done so from the beginning, being influenced by Scheme. ### JSON JSON, or JavaScript Object Notation, is a general-purpose data interchange format that is defined as a subset of JavaScript's object literal syntax. ### TypeScript TypeScript (TS) is a strictly-typed variant of JavaScript. TS differs by introducing type annotations to variables and functions, and introducing a type language to describe the types within JS. Otherwise TS shares much the same featureset as JS, to allow it to be easily transpiled to JS for running client-side, and to interoperate with other JS code. ### WebAssembly Since 2017, web browsers have supported WebAssembly, a binary format that enables a JavaScript engine to execute performance-critical portions of web page scripts close to native speed. WebAssembly code runs in the same sandbox as regular JavaScript code. asm.js is a subset of JavaScript that served as the forerunner of WebAssembly. ### Transpilers JavaScript is the dominant client-side language of the Web, and many websites are script-heavy. Thus transpilers have been created to convert code written in other languages, which can aid the development process. Further reading --------------- * Flanagan, David. *JavaScript: The Definitive Guide*. 7th edition. Sebastopol, California: O'Reilly, 2020. * Haverbeke, Marijn. *Eloquent JavaScript*. 3rd edition. No Starch Press, 2018. 472 pages. ISBN 978-1593279509.*(download)* * Zakas, Nicholas. *Principles of Object-Oriented JavaScript*, 1st edition. No Starch Press, 2014. 120 pages. ISBN 978-1593275402. Listen to this article (48 minutes) Spoken Wikipedia iconThis audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 20 August 2013 (2013-08-20), and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles)

JavaScript

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript

**Adıyaman Province** (Turkish: *Adıyaman ili*, Kurdish: Parêzgeha Semsûr) is a province in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. The capital is Adıyaman. The province is considered part of Turkish Kurdistan and has a Kurdish majority. Adıyaman Province was part of the province of Malatya until 1954, when it was made into a province as a reward for voting for the winning Democratic Party in the 1954 general election. History ------- ### Early Armenian rule Armenian existence in Adıyaman dates back to the 4th century, where they were known as 'fire worshippers'. Armenians lived in the area when Muslim Arabs captured the area in 639. The Arabs considered the city as part of Armenia and experienced immigration from Byzantine Armenia due to Byzantine oppression in 713. The city came under Seljuk rule after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 and the local Armenians established principalities in the area. One of these principalities was founded by Philaretos Brachamios who tried to protect the land between the Seljuk and the Byzantine. The Armenians had good relations with the European Crusader states, but the Crusader County of Edessa would advance against the Armenians in Adıyaman. Political leaders in Adıyaman were also victims of assassinations by Edessa. Wife of Kogh Vasil founded an army to protect the area from Edessa as well, but Edessa ultimately captured the area. Close relations between the Armenians and the Crusader states, however, continued until Nur ad-Din captured the area in 1150. The area came under the rule of Timurtash of the Artuqids for his support for Nur ad-Din and later the Seljuks from the beginning of the 13th century. The locals failed at removing the rulership of Kilij Arslan II during the late 12th century. In the subsequent period, the area was fought over between the Mamluk Sultanate and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, changing hands between the two until it finally came under permanent Mamluk control. ### Ottoman rule Ottoman Sultan Selim I captured the area during the Ottoman–Mamluk War in 1516-1517. In the first defter of the area in 1519, it was mentioned that the Kurdish Reşwan tribe populated the area. Documents from 1524 and 1536 also contain records of the Reşwan tribe living in the area. The tribe was engaged in agriculture after having had a nomadic lifestyle. Evliya Çelebi visited the city in the 17th century and described the agricultural life. At the beginning of the 19th century, most Armenians lived near the castle of Adıyaman city and mostly made their living through shop keeping and trading. In the villages, they were involved in agriculture and animal husbandry. The local Armenians welcomed American missionaries approaching them during the 19th century at first, but prevented them from converted them later on. Some of the Gregorian Armenians did however convert to Protestantism and the missionaries ultimately divided the local Armenian community. Ainsworth visited the town of Adıyaman in the 1842 and mentioned that the town contained 800 Muslim households and 300 Armenian households and that it had several mosques but no churches. After his visit to the town, he visited the Kurdish village of Kerkunah in the outskirts and afterwards Kâhta, where he mentioned that a Kurdish rebellion was taking place. Most of the rural areas spoke Kurdish in 1882, while Turkish was prevalent in Adıyaman town. Armenian nationalism increased among the Armenians by the end of the century and most of the Armenian population fell victim to the Armenian genocide in 1915. There are, however, still some Armenians around Kâhta. The area was part of Mamuret-ul-Aziz Vilayet as Behisni, Hasanmansur and Kahta districts. These three districts had a total population of 99,439 in 1914 of which 93.4% was Muslim and 6.6% Christian. ### Republican era The names of 224 villages in Adiyaman Province was Turkified as part of the campaign to remove any mention of Kurdishness in the country. In 1932, the whole region was chiefly populated by Kurds. The province had a population of 208,755 in 1955 of which 99.8% adhered to Islam and 0.2% to Christianity. In 1960, the province had a population of 233,717 of which 99.7% was Muslim and 0.3% Christian. In 1965, the population increased to 267,277 of which 99.8% was Muslim and 0.2% Christian. The Turkish authorities put the province under State of emergency (OHAL) in the early 1990s as part of the Kurdish–Turkish conflict. In 2023, a 7.8 magnitude earthquake hit Adıyaman. Geography --------- The province consists of the districts Adıyaman (center district), Besni, Çelikhan, Gerger, Gölbaşı, Kâhta, Samsat, Sincik and Tut. Demographics ------------ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Population| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1914 | 99,439 | —     | | 1923 | 77,819 | −2.69% | | 1935 | 126,460 | +4.13% | | 1950 | 181,670 | +2.44% | | 1960 | 233,717 | +2.55% | | 1970 | 303,511 | +2.65% | | 1980 | 367,595 | +1.93% | | 1990 | 513,131 | +3.39% | | 2000 | 623,881 | +1.97% | | 2010 | 590,935 | −0.54% | | 2020 | 632,459 | +0.68% | | Out of the 339 villages in the province, 296 are populated by Kurds while the remaining 43 are populated by Turks. In terms of religious affiliation, 293 of the villages have an Hanafi population, 80 villages with an Alevi population and two villages are reported to having a Shafi'i population. The majority of the population is Hanafi Kurdish, with a significant Kurdish Alevi population. One estimate from 2014 places the Alevi population at 11%. The province is generally more pious than other Kurdish areas in Turkey and has been a hotspot for radicalization and Islamism in recent years (see Dokumacılar). Historian Şahidin Şimşek argued that Hanafi adherents in the province had been manipulated by the state to believe that Kurdish nationalism equated to Alevism. Another theory points at the poverty in the province. The Kurdish tribes in the province include the Alikan, Atman, Balyan, Belikan tribe, Bêzikan, Birîmşa, Bîstikan, Canbegan, Celikan, Dêrsimî, Dirêjan, Gewozî, Hevêdan, Heyderan, Hûriyan, Izol, Kawan, Kerdizan, Kîkan, Kirvar, Mirdesan, Molikan, Mukriyan, Pîrvan, Reşwan, Şavak, Sinemilli, Sînanka, Şêxbizin and the Teşikan tribe. The Alevis of the western districts of Besni, Gölbaşı and Tut are Turkmen and Kurdish. Further reading --------------- * Akdağ, Zekî (2016), *Çîrokên gelêrî yên Kurdan : (Herêma Semsûr û Rihayê)* (in Kurdish), Istanbul: Weşanên Enstîtuya Kurdî ya Stenbolê, ISBN 9789756282694 * Çiftçi, Tekin (2019). "Kürt Halk Hekimliği, Tedavi Yöntemleri ve Ocaklık Kültürü: Adıyaman Örneği". *Bingöl Üniversitesi Yaşayan Diller Enstitüsü Dergisi* (in Turkish). **5** (10). * Çiftçi, Tekin (2020). "An Analysis of Adiyaman's Compilation of Kurdish Orally Transmitted Folktales Utilizing the Methodology of Russian Formalist Literary Criticism: The Folktale Gurrî û Hûtê Kor". *International Journal of Kurdish Studies* (in Turkish). **6** (1): 187–201. doi:10.21600/ijoks.749827. * Güzel, Şerif; Alti, Zafer (2018). "Fonetîka devoka Semûrê". *Humanities Journal of University of Zakho* (in Kurdish). **6** (10.26436/2018.6.1.559). doi:10.21600/ijoks.749827. * Turkish state (2014). *Aşiretler Raporu* (in Turkish) (3 ed.). Kaynak Yayınları. pp. 13–35. ISBN 978-975-343-220-7. 37°48′02″N 38°18′19″E / 37.80056°N 38.30528°E / 37.80056; 38.30528

Adıyaman Province

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad%C4%B1yaman_Province

The **European hare** (***Lepus europaeus***), also known as the **brown hare**, is a species of hare native to Europe and parts of Asia. It is among the largest hare species and is adapted to temperate, open country. Hares are herbivorous and feed mainly on grasses and herbs, supplementing these with twigs, buds, bark and field crops, particularly in winter. Their natural predators include large birds of prey, canids and felids. They rely on high-speed endurance running to escape predation, having long, powerful limbs and large nostrils. Generally nocturnal and shy in nature, hares change their behaviour in the spring, when they can be seen in broad daylight chasing one another around in fields. During this spring frenzy, they sometimes strike one another with their paws ("boxing"). This is usually not competition between males, but a female hitting a male, either to show she is not yet ready to mate or to test his determination. The female nests in a depression on the surface of the ground rather than in a burrow and the young are active as soon as they are born. Litters may consist of three or four young and a female can bear three litters a year, with hares living for up to twelve years. The breeding season lasts from January to August. The European hare is listed as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature because it has a wide range and is moderately abundant. However, populations have been declining in mainland Europe since the 1960s, at least partly due to changes in farming practices. The hare has been hunted across Europe for centuries, with more than five million being shot each year; in Britain, it has traditionally been hunted by beagling and hare coursing, but these field sports are now illegal. The hare has been a traditional symbol of fertility and reproduction in some cultures and its courtship behaviour in the spring inspired the English idiom *mad as a March hare*. Taxonomy and genetics --------------------- The European hare was first described in 1778 by German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas. It shares the genus *Lepus* (Latin for "hare") with 32 other hare and jackrabbit species, jackrabbits being the name given to some species of hare native to North America. They are distinguished from other leporids (hares and rabbits) by their longer legs and wider nostrils. The Corsican hare, broom hare and Granada hare were at one time considered to be subspecies of the European hare, but DNA sequencing and morphological analysis support their status as separate species. There is some debate as to whether the European hare and the Cape hare are the same species. A 2005 nuclear gene pool study suggested that they are, but a 2006 study of the mitochondrial DNA of these same animals concluded that they had diverged sufficiently widely to be considered separate species. A 2008 study claims that in the case of *Lepus* species, with their rapid evolution, species designation cannot be based solely on mtDNA but should also include an examination of the nuclear gene pool. It is possible that the genetic differences between the European and Cape hare are due to geographic separation rather than actual divergence. It has been speculated that in the Near East, hare populations are intergrading and experiencing gene flow. Another 2008 study suggests that more research is needed before a conclusion is reached as to whether a species complex exists; the European hare remains classified as a single species until further data contradicts this assumption. Cladogenetic analysis suggests that European hares survived the last glacial period during the Pleistocene via refugia in southern Europe (Italian peninsula and Balkans) and Asia Minor. Subsequent colonisations of Central Europe appear to have been initiated by human-caused environmental changes. Genetic diversity in current populations is high with no signs of inbreeding. Gene flow appears to be biased towards males, but overall populations are matrilineally structured. There appears to be a particularly large degree of genetic diversity in hares in the North Rhine-Westphalia region of Germany. It is however possible that restricted gene flow could reduce genetic diversity within populations that become isolated. Historically, up to 30 subspecies of European hare have been described, although their status has been disputed. These subspecies have been distinguished by differences in pelage colouration, body size, external body measurements, skull morphology and tooth shape. Sixteen subspecies are listed in the IUCN red book, following Hoffmann and Smith (2005): * *Lepus europaeus caspicus* * *L. e. connori* * *L. e. creticus* * *L. e. cyprius* * *L. e. cyrensis* * *L. e. europaeus* * *L. e. hybridus* * *L. e. judeae* * *L. e. karpathorum* * *L. e. medius* * *L. e. occidentalis* * *L. e. parnassius* * *L. e. ponticus* * *L. e. rhodius* * *L. e. syriacus* * *L. e. transsylvanicus* Twenty-nine subspecies of "very variable status" are listed by Chapman and Flux in their book on lagomorphs, including the subspecies above (with the exceptions of *L. e. connori*, *L. e. creticus*, *L. e. cyprius*, *L. e. judeae*, *L. e. rhodius*, and *L. e. syriacus*) and additionally: * *L. e. alba* * *L. e. argenteogrisea* * *L. e. biarmicus* * *L. e. borealis* * *L. e. caspicus* * *L. e. caucasicus* * *L. e. flavus* * *L. e. gallaecius* * *L. e. hispanicus* * *L. e. hyemalis* * *L. e. granatensis* * *L. e. iturissius* * *L. e. kalmykorum* * *L. e. meridiei* * *L. e. meridionalis* * *L. e. niethammeri* * *L. e. niger* * *L. e. tesquorum* * *L. e. tumak* Description ----------- The European hare, like other members of the family Leporidae, is a fast-running terrestrial mammal; it has eyes set high on the sides of its head, long ears and a flexible neck. Its teeth grow continuously, the first incisors being modified for gnawing while the second incisors are peg-like and non-functional. There is a gap (diastema) between the incisors and the cheek teeth, the latter being adapted for grinding coarse plant material. The dental formula is 2/1, 0/0, 3/2, 3/3. The dark limb musculature of hares is adapted for high-speed endurance running in open country. By contrast, cottontail rabbits are built for short bursts of speed in more vegetated habitats. Other adaptions for high speed running in hares include wider nostrils and larger hearts. In comparison to the European rabbit, the hare has a proportionally smaller stomach and caecum. This hare is one of the largest of the lagomorphs. Its head and body length can range from 60 to 75 cm (24 to 30 in) with a tail length of 7.2 to 11 cm (2.8 to 4.3 in). The body mass is typically between 4 and 7 kg (8.8 and 15.4 lb). The hare's elongated ears range from 9.4 to 11.0 cm (3.7 to 4.3 in) from the notch to tip. It also has long hind feet that have a length of between 14 and 16 cm (5.5 and 6.3 in). The skull has nasal bones that are short, but broad and heavy. The supraorbital ridge has well-developed anterior and posterior lobes and the lacrimal bone projects prominently from the anterior wall of the orbit. The fur colour is grizzled yellow-brown on the back; rufous on the shoulders, legs, neck and throat; white on the underside and black on the tail and ear tips. The fur on the back is typically longer and more curled than on the rest of the body. The European hare's fur does not turn completely white in the winter as is the case with some other members of the genus, although the sides of the head and base of the ears do develop white areas and the hip and rump region may gain some grey. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ The European hare is native to much of continental Europe and part of Asia. Its range extends from northern Spain to southern Scandinavia, eastern Europe, and northern parts of Western and Central Asia. It has been extending its range into Siberia. It may have been introduced to Great Britain by the Romans about 2000 years ago, based on a lack of archaeological evidence before that. It is not present in Ireland, where the mountain hare is the only native hare species. Undocumented introductions probably occurred in some Mediterranean Islands. It has also been introduced, mostly as game animal, to North America in Ontario and New York State, and unsuccessfully in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, the Southern Cone in Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile, Peru and the Falkland Islands, Australia, both islands of New Zealand and the south Pacific coast of Russia. The European hare primarily lives in open fields with scattered brush for shelter. It is very adaptable and thrives in mixed farmland. According to a study in the Czech Republic, the mean hare densities were highest at elevations below 200 m (660 ft), 40 to 60 days of annual snow cover, 450 to 700 mm (18 to 28 in) of annual precipitation, and a mean annual air temperature of around 10 °C (50 °F). With regards to climate, the European hare density was highest in "warm and dry districts with mild winters". In Poland, the European hare is most abundant in areas with few forest edges, perhaps because foxes can use these for cover. It requires cover, such as hedges, ditches and permanent cover areas, because these habitats supply the varied diet it requires, and are found at lower densities in large open fields. Intensive cultivation of the land results in greater mortality of young hares. In Great Britain, the European hare is seen most frequently on arable farms, especially those with crop rotation and fallow land, wheat and sugar beet crops. In mainly grass farms, its numbers increased with are improved pastures, some arable crops and patches of woodland. It is seen less frequently where foxes are abundant or where there are many common buzzards. It also seems to be fewer in number in areas with high European rabbit populations, although there appears to be little interaction between the two species and no aggression. Although European hares are shot as game when plentiful, this is a self-limiting activity and is less likely to occur in localities where the species is scarce. Behaviour and life history -------------------------- The European hare is primarily nocturnal and spends a third of its time foraging. During daytime, it hides in a depression in the ground called a "form" where it is partially hidden. It can run at 70 km/h (43 mph), and when confronted by predators it relies on outrunning them in the open. It is generally thought of as asocial but can be seen in both large and small groups. It does not appear to be territorial, living in shared home ranges of around 300 ha (740 acres). It communicates with each other by a variety of visual signals. To show interest it raises its ears, while lowering the ears warns others to keep away. When challenging a conspecific, a hare thumps its front feet; the hind feet are used to warn others of a predator. It squeals when hurt or scared, and a female makes "guttural" calls to attract her young. It can live for as long as twelve years. ### Food and foraging The European hare is primarily herbivorous and forages for wild grasses and weeds. With the intensification of agriculture, it has taken to feeding on crops when preferred foods are not available. During the spring and summer, it feeds on soy, clover and corn poppy as well as grasses and herbs. During autumn and winter, it primarily chooses winter wheat, and is also attracted to piles of sugar beet and carrots provided by hunters. It also eats twigs, buds and the bark of shrubs and young fruit trees during winter. It avoids cereal crops when other more attractive foods are available, and appears to prefer high energy foodstuffs over crude dietary fiber. When eating twigs, it strips off the bark to access the vascular tissues which store soluble carbohydrates. Compared to the European rabbit, food passes through the gut more rapidly in the European hare, although digestion rates are similar. It is sometimes coprophagial eating its own green, faecal pellets to recover undigested proteins and vitamins. Two to three adult hares can eat more food than a single sheep. European hares forage in groups. Group feeding is beneficial as individuals can spend more time feeding knowing that other hares are being vigilant. Nevertheless, the distribution of food affects these benefits. When food is well-spaced, all hares are able to access it. When food is clumped together, only dominant hares can access it. In small gatherings, dominants are more successful in defending food, but as more individuals join in, they must spend more time driving off others. The larger the group, the less time dominant individuals have in which to eat. Meanwhile, the subordinates can access the food while the dominants are distracted. As such, when in groups, all individuals fare worse when food is clumped as opposed to when it is widely spaced. ### Mating and reproduction Fighting, and running during "March madness" European hares have a prolonged breeding season which lasts from January to August. Females, or does, can be found pregnant in all breeding months and males, or bucks, are fertile all year round except during October and November. After this hiatus, the size and activity of the males' testes increase, signalling the start of a new reproductive cycle. This continues through December, January and February when the reproductive tract gains back its functionality. Matings start before ovulation occurs and the first pregnancies of the year often result in a single foetus, with pregnancy failures being common. Peak reproductive activity occurs in March and April, when all females may be pregnant, the majority with three or more foetuses. The mating system of the hare has been described as both polygynous (single males mating with multiple females) and promiscuous. Females have six-weekly reproductive cycles and are receptive for only a few hours at a time, making competition among local bucks intense. At the height of the breeding season, this phenomenon is known as "March madness", when the normally nocturnal bucks are forced to be active in the daytime. In addition to dominant animals subduing subordinates, the female fights off her numerous suitors if she is not ready to mate. Fights can be vicious and can leave numerous scars on the ears. In these encounters, hares stand upright and attack each other with their paws, a practice known as "boxing", and this activity is usually between a female and a male and not between competing males as was previously believed. When a doe is ready to mate, she runs across the countryside, starting a chase that tests the stamina of the following males. When only the fittest male remains, the female stops and allows him to copulate. Female fertility continues through May, June and July, but testosterone production decreases in males and sexual behaviour becomes less overt. Litter sizes decrease as the breeding season draws to a close with no pregnancies occurring after August. The testes of males begin to regress and sperm production ends in September. Does give birth in hollow depressions in the ground. An individual female may have three litters in a year with a 41- to 42-day gestation period. The young have an average weight of around 130 grams (4.6 oz) at birth. The leverets are fully furred and are precocial, being ready to leave the nest soon after they are born, an adaptation to the lack of physical protection relative to that afforded by a burrow. Leverets disperse during the day and come together in the evening close to where they were born. Their mother visits them for nursing soon after sunset; the young suckle for around five minutes, urinating while they do so, with the doe licking up the fluid. She then leaps away so as not to leave an olfactory trail, and the leverets disperse once more. Young can eat solid food after two weeks and are weaned when they are four weeks old. While young of either sex commonly explore their surroundings, natal dispersal tends to be greater in males. Sexual maturity occurs at seven or eight months for females and six months for males. ### Health and mortality European hares are large leporids and adults can only be tackled by large predators such as canids, felids and the largest birds of prey. In Poland it was found that the consumption of hares by foxes was at its highest during spring, when the availability of small animal prey was low; at this time of year, hares may constitute up to 50% of the biomass eaten by foxes, with 50% of the mortality of adult hares being caused by their predation. In Scandinavia, a natural epizootic of sarcoptic mange which reduced the population of red foxes dramatically, resulted in an increase in the number of European hares, which returned to previous levels when the numbers of foxes subsequently increased. The golden eagle preys on the European hare in the Alps, the Carpathians, the Apennines and northern Spain. In North America, foxes and coyotes are probably the most common predators, with bobcats and lynx also preying on them in more remote locations. European hares have both external and internal parasites. One study found that 54% of animals in Slovakia were parasitised by nematodes and over 90% by coccidia. In Australia, European hares were reported as being infected by four species of nematode, six of coccidian, several liver flukes and two canine tapeworms. They were also found to host rabbit fleas (*Spilopsyllus cuniculi*), stickfast fleas (*Echidnophaga myrmecobii*), lice (*Haemodipsus setoni* and *H. lyriocephalus*), and mites (*Leporacarus gibbus*). European brown hare syndrome (EBHS) is a disease caused by a calicivirus similar to that causing rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) and can similarly be fatal, but cross infection between the two mammal species does not occur. Other threats to the hare are pasteurellosis, yersiniosis (pseudo-tuberculosis), coccidiosis and tularaemia, which are the principal sources of mortality. In October 2018, it was reported that a mutated form of the rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV2) may have jumped to hares in the UK. Normally rare in hares, a significant die-off from the virus has also occurred in Spain. Relationship with humans ------------------------ ### In folklore, literature, and art In Europe, the hare has been a symbol of sex and fertility since at least Ancient Greece. The Greeks associated it with the gods Dionysus, Aphrodite and Artemis as well as with satyrs and cupids. The Christian Church connected the hare with lustfulness and homosexuality, but also associated it with the persecution of the church because of the way it was commonly hunted. In Northern Europe, Easter imagery often involves hares or rabbits. Citing folk Easter customs in Leicestershire, England, where "the profits of the land called Harecrop Leys were applied to providing a meal which was thrown on the ground at the 'Hare-pie Bank'", the 19th-century scholar Charles Isaac Elton proposed a possible connection between these customs and the worship of Ēostre. In his 19th-century study of the hare in folk custom and mythology, Charles J. Billson cites folk customs involving the hare around Easter in Northern Europe, and argues that the hare was probably a sacred animal in prehistoric Britain's festival of springtime. Observation of the hare's springtime mating behaviour led to the popular English idiom "mad as a March hare", with similar phrases from the sixteenth century writings of John Skelton and Sir Thomas More onwards. The mad hare reappears in *Alice's Adventures in Wonderland* by Lewis Carroll, in which Alice participates in a crazy tea-party with the March Hare and the Hatter. Any connection of the hare to Ēostre is doubtful. John Andrew Boyle cites an etymology dictionary by A. Ernout and A. Meillet, who wrote that the lights of Ēostre were carried by hares, that Ēostre represented spring fecundity, love and sexual pleasure. Boyle responds that almost nothing is known about Ēostre, and that the authors had seemingly accepted the identification of Ēostre with the Norse goddess Freyja, but that the hare is not associated with Freyja either. Boyle adds that "when the authors speak of the hare as the 'companion of Aphrodite and of satyrs and cupids' and 'in the Middle Ages [the hare] appears beside the figure of [mythological] Luxuria', they are on much surer ground." The hare is a character in some fables, such as *The Tortoise and the Hare* of Aesop. The story was annexed to a philosophical problem by Zeno of Elea, who created a set of paradoxes to support Parmenides' attack on the idea of continuous motion, as each time the hare (or the hero Achilles) moves to where the tortoise was, the tortoise moves just a little further away. The German Renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer realistically depicted a hare in his 1502 watercolour painting *Young Hare*. ### Food and hunting Across Europe, over five million European hares are shot each year, making it probably the most important game mammal on the continent. This popularity has threatened regional varieties such as those of France and Denmark, through large-scale importing of hares from Eastern European countries such as Hungary. Hares have traditionally been hunted in Britain by beagling and hare coursing. In beagling, the hare is hunted with a pack of small hunting dogs, beagles, followed by the human hunters on foot. In Britain, the 2004 Hunting Act banned hunting of hares with dogs, so the 60 beagle packs now use artificial "trails", or may legally continue to hunt rabbits. Hare coursing with greyhounds was once an aristocratic pursuit, forbidden to lower social classes. More recently, informal hare coursing became a lower class activity and was conducted without the landowner's permission; it is also now illegal. In Scotland concerns have been raised over the increasing numbers of hares shot under license. Hare is traditionally cooked by jugging: a whole hare is cut into pieces, marinated and cooked slowly with red wine and juniper berries in a tall jug that stands in a pan of water. It is traditionally served with (or briefly cooked with) the hare's blood and port wine. Hare can also be cooked in a casserole. The meat is darker and more strongly flavoured than that of rabbits. Young hares can be roasted; the meat of older hares becomes too tough for roasting, and may be slow-cooked. Status ------ The European hare has a wide range across Europe and western Asia and has been introduced to a number of other countries around the globe, often as a game species. In general it is considered moderately abundant in its native range, but declines in populations have been noted in many areas since the 1960s. These have been associated with the intensification of agricultural practices. The hare is an adaptable species and can move into new habitats, but it thrives best when there is an availability of a wide variety of weeds and other herbs to supplement its main diet of grasses. The hare is considered a pest in some areas; it is more likely to damage crops and young trees in winter when there are not enough alternative foodstuffs available. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has evaluated the European hare's conservation status as being of least concern. However, at low population densities, hares are vulnerable to local extinctions as the available gene pool declines, making inbreeding more likely. This is the case in northern Spain and in Greece, where the restocking by hares brought from outside the region has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools. To counteract this, a captive breeding program has been implemented in Spain, and the relocation of some individuals from one location to another has increased genetic variety. The Bern Convention lists the hare under Appendix III as a protected species. Several countries, including Norway, Germany, Austria and Switzerland, have placed the species on their Red Lists as "near threatened" or "threatened".

European hare

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_hare

**Maluku** is a province of Indonesia. It comprises the central and southern regions of the Maluku Islands. The main city and capital of Maluku province is Ambon on the small Ambon Island. The land area is 46,150.92 km2, and the total population of this province at the 2010 census was 1,533,506 people, rising to 1,848,923 at the 2020 census. The official estimate as at mid 2022 was 1,881,727. Maluku is located in Eastern Indonesia. It is directly adjacent to North Maluku, Southwest Papua, and West Papua in the north, Central Sulawesi, and Southeast Sulawesi in the west, Banda Sea, East Timor and East Nusa Tenggara in the south and Arafura Sea, Central Papua and South Papua in the east. Maluku has two main religions, namely Islam which at the 2020 census was adhered to by 52.85% of the population of the province and Christianity which is embraced by 46.3% (39.4% Protestantism and 7.0% Catholicism). All the Maluku Islands were part of a single province from 1950 until 1999. In 1999, the northern part of Maluku (then comprising the Maluku Utara Regency, the Halmahera Tengah Regency and the City of Ternate) were split off to form a separate province of North Maluku (*Maluku Utara*). Etymology --------- Historically, the term Maluku referred to the four royal centers in North Maluku, namely Ternate, Tidore, Bacan and Jailolo. A type of confederation consisting of the four kingdoms, which most likely emerged in the 14th century, was called Moloku Kie Raha or "The Four Mountains of Maluku". Although the four kingdoms subsequently expanded and covered the entire North Maluku region (as now defined) and parts of Sulawesi and New Guinea, the area of expansion was originally not included in the term Maluku. This only referred to the four main clove-producing islands to the west of Halmahera: Ternate, Tidore. Moti and Makian. Bacan further to the south, and Jailolo on Halmahera, were also commonly included in Maluku Proper, the four kingdoms forming a ritual quadripartition with connotations to local cosmology. The etymology of the word *Maluku* is not very clear, and it has been a matter of debate for many experts. The first recorded word that can be identified with *Maluku* comes from Nagarakretagama, an Old Javanese eulogy of 1365. Canto 14 stanza 5 mentioned *Maloko*, which Pigeaud identified with Ternate or Moluccas. A theory holds that the name Maluku comes from the concept of "Maluku Kie Raha". "Raha" means four, while "kie" here means mountain, referring to 4 mountains of Ternate, Tidore, Bacan, and Jailolo (Halmahera), which have their own kolano (title for local kings). Therefore, the Maluku can come from: "Moloku" here meaning to grasp or hold. In this context, the meaning of "Moloku Kie Raha" is "the confederation of four mountains". However, the root word "loku" comes from local Malay creole word for a unit, therefore not from an indigenous language. The other possibility is that the word "Maloko" is a combination of "Ma", meaning "support" and "Loko" referring to the area. The phrase "Maloko Kie Raha" means "the place/world which has four mountains". History ------- ### Pre-colonial era The region was first settled by Melanesians at least 40,000 years ago, collectively now known as the Alifuru tribes.These people are the indigenous inhabitants of Maluku, along with the later Austronesian migration. At the beginning of the 14th century the Majapahit Kingdom ruled maritime Southeast Asia. At that time, traders from Java monopolized the spice trade in Maluku. During the Ming dynasty, spices from Maluku were introduced in various works of art and history. In a painting by W.P. Groeneveldt, titled Gunung Dupa, Maluku, is described as a green mountainous region filled with cloves – an oasis in the middle of the southeastern sea. Marco Polo also described the clove trade in Maluku during his visit to Sumatra. ### Colonial era The first Europeans to arrive in Maluku were the Portuguese, in 1512. At that time two Portuguese fleets, under the leadership of António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão, landed in the Banda Islands and the Penyu Islands. After they established relations with local residents and kings, such as the Sultanate of Ternate on the island of Ternate, the Portuguese were given permission to build fortifications in Pikaoli, as well as the old Hitu State, and Mamala on Ambon Island. The Portuguese gained a monopoly while at the same time carrying out the spread of Catholicism. One of the famous missionaries was Francis Xavier. Arriving in Ambon on February 14, 1546, then traveling to Ternate, arriving in 1547, visiting islands in the Maluku Islands to spread Catholicism. The relationship between the Portuguese and Ternatean broke down in 1570, resulting in a war with Sultan Babullah that lasted for 5 years (1570–1575), causing the Portuguese to be expelled from Ternate and were driven to Tidore and Ambon. The resistance of the Moluccas to the Portuguese was used by the Dutch to gain a foothold in Maluku. In 1605, the Dutch managed to force the Portuguese to surrender their defenses in Ambon to Steven van der Hagen and at Tidore to the Sebastiansz Cornelisz. Similarly, the British fortress in Kambelo, Seram Island, was destroyed by the Dutch. Giving the Dutch control of most of the Maluku region. The Dutch position in Maluku grew stronger with the establishment of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1602, and since then the Netherlands has become the sole ruler in Maluku. Under the leadership of Jan Pieterszoon Coen, Chief of Operations of the VOC, the clove trade in Maluku was under VOC control for almost 350 years. For this purpose, the VOC did not hesitate to expel the Portuguese, Spanish and the British. Tens of thousands of Moluccans were victims of VOC brutality. During the Napoleonic Wars, British forces captured Maluku as the Netherlands were under French occupation. After the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, the British returned Maluku to the Dutch. The Dutch returned in 1817. The return of the Dutch in 1817 evoked strong resistance from the Moluccans. This was due to political, economic and social relations conditions that had been bad for two centuries. Moluccan people of the Ambon Islands rose up and took up arms under the leadership of Thomas Matulessy who was given the title Kapitan Pattimura, a former major sergeant of the British army. On May 15, 1817, an attack was launched against Fort Duurstede on Saparua island, resulting in the death of Resident Johannes Rudolph van den Berg and his family. Pattimura was assisted by Philip Latumahina, Anthony Ribok, and Said Orders. The news of this Pattimura's victory aroused the spirit of popular resistance throughout Maluku. Paulus Tiahahu and his daughter Martha Christina Tiahahu fought the Dutch on Nusa Laut, and Kapitan Ulupaha in Ambon. But this resistance was crushed by the Dutch, being heavily outnumbered. On December 16, 1817, Pattimura and his colleagues were sentenced to death on the gallows, at Fort Niew Victoria, Ambon, while Martha Christina Tiahahu died on the boat during her voyage to Java and her body was released into the Banda Sea. ### Modern era During the outbreak of the Pacific War on December 7, 1941, as part of World War II the region was occupied by the Japanese. Governor General A.W.L. Tjarda van Starkenborgh via radio stated that the Dutch East Indies government was in a state of war with the Empire of Japan. The Imperial Japanese Army did not encounter much resistance in Maluku. Japanese forces entered from the north through the island of Morotai and from the east through the island of Misool. In a short time the entire Maluku Islands was occupied by Japan. In World War II, Australian forces had fought against the Japanese in Tawiri. And, to commemorate it, an Australian monument was built in Tawiri (not far from Pattimura Airport). Allied forces surrendered to the Japanese in Ambon after the bloody Battle of Ambon, The battle was followed by the summary execution of more than 300 Allied PoWs in the Laha massacre. On August 15, 1945, Japan capitulated to the Allied forces. Two days later, the Proclamation of Independence of Indonesia was declared. Maluku was declared as one of the provinces of the Republic of Indonesia. However, the formation and position of Maluku was forced to take place in Jakarta, as after the Japanese surrender, the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration (NICA) immediately re-entered Maluku to assume control. The Dutch controlled Maluku until 1949, when in accordance to the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference, the Dutch recognize sovereignty of Indonesia. The Dutch soon left Maluku. Due to a deep distrust of the Indonesian leadership, which was predominantly Javanese Muslim, in 1951 an independent Republic of the South Moluccas (Indonesian: RMS, Republik Maluku Selatan) was proclaimed at Ambon. The RMS had strong support among the former Moluccans colonial soldiers. Indonesian forces invaded Maluku to crush the separatists. The main stronghold of the RMS on Ambon was defeated by Indonesian forces in November 1950, while a smaller scale guerilla struggle continued on Seram Island until 1962. The defeat on Ambon however resulted in the flight of the self-declared RMS government from the islands, and the formation of a government in exile in the Netherlands. The following year some 12,000 Moluccan soldiers accompanied by their families went to the Netherlands. In April and May 1958 during the Permesta rebellion in North Sulawesi, the USA supported and supplied the rebels. Pilots from a Taiwan-based CIA front organisation, Civil Air Transport, flying CIA B-26 Invader aircraft, repeatedly raided targets on Ambon. From April 27 until 18 May there were CIA air raids on Ambon city. On May 8, 1958, CIA pilot Allen Pope raided the Indonesian Air Force base at Liang in the northeast of the island, damaging the runway and destroying a Consolidated PBY Catalina. The Indonesian Air Force had only one serviceable fighter aircraft on Ambon Island, a North American P-51 Mustang at Liang. Pope's last air raid was on 18 May, when an Indonesian pilot at Liang, Captain Ignatius Dewanto, was scrambled to the P-51. Pope had attacked Ambon city before Dewanto could catch him, but Dewanto intercepted him just as Pope was attacking a pair of troop ships in an Indonesian fleet west of Ambon Island. The B-26 was brought down by fire from both Dewanto and anti-aircraft gunners on board the ship. Pope and his Indonesian radio operator bailed and were captured, which immediately exposed the level of CIA support for the Permesta rebellion. Embarrassed, the Eisenhower administration quickly ended CIA support for Permesta and withdrew its agents and remaining aircraft from the conflict. The Maluku sectarian conflict broke out across Maluku in January 1999. The subsequent 18 months were characterized by fighting between largely local groups of Muslims and Christians, the destruction of thousands of houses, the displacement of approximately 500,000 people, the loss of thousands of lives, and the segregation of Muslims and Christians. Inter-communal fighting broke out between Christian and Muslim communities in January 1999, cascading into what could be described as all out warfare and atrocities against the civilian population committed by both sides. The main belligerents were therefore religious militia from both faiths, including the well organised Islamist Laskar Jihad, and Indonesian government military forces. The conflict had a significant effect upon the 2.1 million people of greater Maluku. Leading up to the Malino agreement, the International Crisis Group estimated that 700,000 people had been displaced by the four years of fighting in the Moluccas which is thought to have claimed a minimum of 5,000 lives. This constituted the largest movement of refugees since the federation of the Indonesian state and the majority of the 1.4 million Internal refugees reported in February 2002 by the World Food Programme. The duration of the conflict is generally dated from the start of the Reformasi era in early 1999 to the signing of the Malino II Accord on February 13, 2002. Geography --------- Maluku is bordered by North Maluku in the north, West Papua in the East, Southeast Sulawesi and Central Sulawesi in the West, and the nation of Timor-Leste and Australia in the south. While the total area consists of 527,191 km2 of sea area, and 54,185 km2 of land area, or in other words around 90% of Maluku is sea area. As an archipelago province, Maluku has 559 islands, which include some relatively large islands: Seram (18,625 km2), Buru (9,000 km2) Yamdena (5,085 km2) and Wetar (3,624 km2). With the dominant condition of regional waters, Maluku is very open to interacting with other provinces and surrounding countries. Maluku islands have a tropical monsoon climate, this climate is greatly influenced by the presence of vast marine waters and takes place in tune with the climatic season there. The average temperature based on Meteorological stations in Ambon, Tual and Saumlaki are C 26.80, 27.70 C and 27.40 C. Minimum temperatures are 24.00, 24.70 C and 23.80 C, respectively, while the temperature Tual, the average humidity reaches 85.4% when recording Saumlaki Meteorological Station shows the average humidity is 80.2%. The topography of the average condition of the Ambon region is rather flat, starting from the coast to residential areas. The mainland morphology of Ambon also varies from flat, bumpy, bumpy, hilly and mountainous with soft steep slopes to slightly dominant. The flat area has a slope of 0–3%, corrugated slope 3–8%, corrugated area 8–15%, hilly area 15–30% slope elevation and mountainous area greater than 30%. As for the Central Maluku Regency, West Seram and East Seram, the topography is generally hilly. 0–2%, tilt / wavy 3–15% rather steep 15–40% and very steep 40%. Topography in the Southeast Maluku Regency is divided into plains, hills and mountains with flat slopes (0–3%), flat / bumpy (0–3%), bumpy (8–15%), rather steep (15–30%) and very steep (> 50%). The height of the sea surface area is divided into three classes, namely in the low altitude area (000–100 m elevation), middle (100–500 m), and high altitude (> 500 m). The topography of Buru Regency is mostly hilly and mountainous with a slope of 15–40% and 40%, the remaining height is from ordinary varieties. The highest mountain peak is located in the Kapalamada region north west of Buru with an altitude of 2736 meters above sea level (ASL), after Lake Rana with a height of more than 1000 meters above sea level, Lake Rana is estimated at around 700–750 meters above sea level. Using a landscape approach, Buru district is classified above, the coastal hills of the plains and mountains include varieties of highlands and slopes. ### List of major islands in Maluku * Ambon Island * Aru Islands (Kepulauan Aru) * Banda Islands (Kepulauan Banda) * Buru * Kai Islands (Kepulauan Kai) * Gorong archipelago (Pulau-pulau Gorong) * Lease Islands (*Kepulauan Lease*) includes Saparua, Nusa Laut and Haruku Islands * Seram * Southwestern Islands (Barat Daya Islands) includes Wetar Island, Kisar Island, Romang Island, Damer Island, Leti Islands, Sermata Islands and Babar Islands * Tanimbar Islands (Kepulauan Tanimbar) * Watubela archipelago (Kepulauan Watubela) Administrative divisions ------------------------ Following the splitting off of the northern parts of the regency in 1999 to form the new North Maluku Province (*Maluku Utara*), the residual province of Maluku was composed of two regencies (**Central Maluku** and **Southeast Maluku**) and the **City of Ambon**, but on 4 October 1999 two new regencies were created with the separation of **Buru Regency** from Central Maluku, and of **Southeast Maluku West Regency** from Southeast Maluku. Three additional regencies were created on 18 December 2003 (under Law 40/2003) - **East Seram Regency** and **West Seram Regency**, both from parts of Central Maluku, and **Aru Islands Regency** from part of Southeast Maluku (which was thus left to comprise just the Kai Islands. On 17 July 2007 the **City of Tual** was separated from Southeast Maluku, and on 24 June 2008 two further regencies were created - **South Buru Regency** from part of Buru, and **Southwest Maluku Regency** from part of Southeast Maluku West. The residual part of Southeast Maluku West Regency was subsequently renamed the **Tanimbar Islands Regency** on 23 January 2019. Thus the province of Maluku is currently divided into nine regencies (*kabupaten*) and the two cities (*kota*) of Ambon and Tual, which form the tenth and eleventh regency-level administrative divisions. The regencies and cities, with their administrative capitals, are listed below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 census and at the 2020 census, together with the official estimates for mid 2022. The toble also includes the numbers of districts (*kecamata*) and villages (urban *kelurahan* and rural *desa*) in each city or regency. | City or Regency | Capital | Area (km2) | Pop'n 2010 census | Pop'n 2020 census | Pop'n mid-2022 estimate | Numberof districts | Numberof villages | HDI2014 estimates | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Ambon City (Kota Ambon) | 236.66 | 331,254 | 347,288 | 348,225 | 5 | 50 | 0.790 (High) | | Tual City (Kota Tual)(in the Kei Islands) | 235.38 | 58,082 | 88,280 | 93,145 | 5 | 30 | 0.649 (Medium) | | Aru Islands (Kepulauan Aru) | Dobo | 8,097.01 | 84,138 | 102,237 | 103,860 | 10 | 119 | 0.599 (Low) | | Buru Regency | Namlea | 4,915.57 | 108,445 | 135,238 | 137,990 | 10 | 82 | 0.651 (Medium) | | Central Maluku Regency (Maluku Tengah) | Masohi | 8,253.92 | 361,698 | 423,094 | 427,050 | 18 | 192 | 0.686 (Medium) | | East Seram Regency (Seram Bagian Timur) | Bula or Dataran Hunimoa | 5,725.45 | 99,065 | 137,972 | 143,438 | 15 | 198 | 0.595 (Low) | | South Buru Regency (Buru Selatan) | Namrole | 3,678.70 | 53,671 | 75,410 | 78,515 | 6 | 79 | 0.607 (Medium) | | Southeast Maluku Regency (Maluku Tenggara) | Langgur, in the Kei Islands | 1,016.64 | 96,442 | 121,511 | 124,199 | 11 | 191 | 0.627 (Medium) | | Southwest Maluku Regency (Maluku Barat Daya) | Tiakur, in the Leti Islands | 4,551.68 | 70,714 | 81,928 | 82,560 | 17 | 118 | 0.580 (Low) | | Tanimbar Islands Regency (Kepulauan Tanimbar) | Saumlaki, in the Tanimbar Islands | 4,430.25 | 105,341 | 123,572 | 124,787 | 10 | 82 | 0.598 (Low) | | West Seram Regency (Seram Bagian Barat) | Piru or Dataran Hunipopu | 5,009.66 | 164,656 | 212,393 | 217,958 | 11 | 92 | 0.623 (Medium) | Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1971 | 1,089,565 | —     | | 1980 | 1,411,006 | +29.5% | | 1990 | 1,857,790 | +31.7% | | 1995 | 2,086,516 | +12.3% | | 2000 | 1,205,539 | −42.2% | | 2010 | 1,533,506 | +27.2% | | 2015 | 1,683,856 | +9.8% | | 2020 | 1,848,923 | +9.8% | | 2021 | 1,862,626 | +0.7% | | 2022 | 1,881,727 | +1.0% | | Source: Badan Pusat Statistik 2023. The sharp drop between 1995 and 2000 is due to the separation out in 1999 of the new province of North Maluku. | ### Ethnicity They generally have dark skin, curly hair, large and strong bones, and a more athletic body profile compared to other groups in Indonesia, because they are a group of islanders where sea activities such as sailing and swimming are the main activities for men. Since ancient times, many of them already had mixed blood with other ethnic groups, namely with Europeans (generally the Netherlands, Portugal) and Spain, then the Arabs were very common considering this area had been controlled by foreign nations for 2,300 years and gave birth to new descendants, which is no longer a pure Melanesian race but still inherits and lives with the Melanesian-Alifuru style. Because of this mixture of culture and race with Europeans and Arabs, Maluku is the only Indonesian territory that is classified as an area that has the largest multiracial population other than East Nusa Tenggara. Many Moluccans still retained foreign surnames from foreign countries such as the Netherlands (Van Afflen, Van Room, De Wanna, De Kock, Kniesmeijer, Gaspersz, Ramschie, Payer, Ziljstra, Van der Weden, etc.), Portugal (Da Costa, De Fretes, Que, Carliano, De Souza, De Carvalho, Pareira, Courbois, Frandescolli, etc.), Spain (Oliviera, Diaz, De Jesus, Silvera, Rodriguez, Montefalcon, Mendoza, De Lopez, etc.) and Arabic directly from Hadramaut (Al-Kaff, Al Chatib, Bachmid, Bakhwereez, Bahasoan, Al-Qadri, Alaydrus, Assegaff, etc.) Today, the people of Maluku are not only found in Indonesia but are spread in various countries in the world. Most of those who migrate abroad are due to various reasons, of which the most classic was the large-scale movement of the Moluccans to Europe in the 1950s and settled there until now. Another reason is to get a better, more knowledgeable life, marrying and marrying other nations, who later settle down and have generations of new Moluccas in the other hemisphere. These Maluku expatriates can be found in quite large communities and are concentrated in several countries such as the Netherlands (which is considered the second homeland by the Moluccas other than the land of Maluku itself), Suriname, and Australia. The Maluku community in other regions of Indonesia can be found in Medan, Palembang, Bandung, Greater Jakarta, Central Java, Yogyakarta, East Java, Makassar, Kupang, Manado, East Kalimantan, Sorong, and Jayapura. ### Language The languages used in Maluku, especially in Ambon, has been influenced by foreign languages, often by explorers who have visited and even occupied and colonized Maluku in the past. The nations were the Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic and Dutch. The Ambonese language, as the lingua franca in Maluku, has been understood by almost all residents of Maluku Province and generally, little by little, is understood by other East Indonesian people such as those in Ternate, Manado, Kupang, etc. because Ambonese is related to other languages in the provinces of North Sulawesi, North Maluku, Papua, West Papua, and East Nusa Tenggara. Indonesian, as the official language and language of unity in the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia (NKRI), is used in official and formal public activities such as in government offices and in schools and in places such as museums, airports and ports. Maluku is the largest archipelago in all of Indonesia, although this area is 90% water and only 10% land. Maluku Province and North Maluku Province together compose the Maluku Islands. The large number of islands that are separated by long distances from each other also results in the increasingly diverse languages used in this province. Some of the most common languages spoken in Maluku - apart from Ambonese and Indonesian - are: * Wemale language, used by residents of Piru, Seruawan, Kamarian, and Rumberu in the West Seram Regency. * Alune language is used in three water streams, namely Tala, Mala and Malewa in the West Seram Regency area. * Nuaulu language, spoken by the Nuaulu tribe in the south of Seram Island, is between Elpaputi Bay and Teluk Teluti. * Atiahu language, used by three ethnic groups, which also included the Nuaulu family, namely Atiahu, Werinama, and Batuasa in the East Seram Regency. * Seti language is spoken by the Seti people, in North Seram and East Teluti, and also as a trade language in Eastern Seram. * Tarangan language, spoken in the Aru Island region. ### Religion Religion in Maluku (2021)   Islam (52.85%)  Protestantism (39.39%)  Roman Catholic (6.87%)  Hinduism (0.32%)  Buddhism (0.01%)  Folk religion (0.55%) Most of the people of Maluku adheres to either Islam, (52.85% of the population) or Christianity (46.3% of the population); the latter are divided between followers of (Protestantism (39.39%) and Catholicism (6.87%). There are also adherents of folk religion, Hinduism and Buddhism. The spread of Islam was carried out by the Sultanates of Iha, Saulau, Hitu, and Hatuhaha and Arab traders who visited Maluku. While the spread of Christianity was carried out by missionaries from Portugal, Spain and the Netherlands. Places of worship in Maluku Province in 2013 were recorded as follows: * 2,345 churches * 2,000 mosques * 10 temples * 5 Vihara The Protestant Church of Maluku (Gereja Protestan Maluku or simply GPM) is the largest synod organization and church organization in Maluku, which has church congregations in almost the entire Sarane country throughout Maluku. Economy ------- Macroeconomically, Maluku's economic conditions tend to improve every year. One indicator is, among others, an increase in the value of GDP. In 2003 Maluku's GRDP reached 3.7 trillion rupiah and then increased to 4.05 trillion in 2004. Economic growth in 2004 reached 4.05 percent and increased to 5.06 percent in 2005. The geographical condition of Maluku Province when viewed from the strategic side of business investment opportunities can be predicted that natural resources in the fisheries and marine sector can be used as prima donna businesses in Maluku, in addition to other sectors such as livestock and plantation subsector, trade sector and tourism sector as well as the service sector entirely has a high selling value and business potential. Currently the economy of Maluku is dominated by agriculture, forestry and fisheries that contribute to about 25.00 percent of the total. Government service sector, defence and compulsory Social Security contribute to roughly 21 percent. The business field and retail trade; cars and motorcycles repair & services at 12.59 percent; construction sector contributes 7.41 percent. Maluku's economy in 2014 has shown positive improvement as compared to 2013. The GDP growth rate in 2014 reached 6.70 percent, while in 2013 amounted to 5.26 percent. The highest economic growth is in the field of electricity and gas supply business which grew by 31.11 percent. The business service is another sector that experienced positive growth in 2014. Other economic activities also recorded positive growth, including mining and quarrying (21.47 percent); education services business field (9.52 percent); transportation and warehousing business sector (8.77 percent); processing industry (8.42 percent); information and communication (7.62 per cent); financial services business (7.61 percent); construction (7.31 percent); real estate (7.10 percent). In 2017, a Japanese oil company, Inpex Corporation acquired Abadi Field, a crude oil and natural gas field located in the Arafura Sea, near Tanimbar Islands. In 2017 the company to start the Pre FEED phase and hold a joint workshop with SKK Migas to prepare an offshore development plan for project of Block Masela. Culture ------- ### Music The famous musical instruments are Tifa (a type of drum) and Totobuang, played together in an ensemble called a Tifa totobuang. Each musical instrument from Tifa to Totobuang has different functions and supports each other to give birth to a very distinctive color of music. But this music is dominated by Tifa musical instruments. It consists of Tifa, Tifa Jekir, Tifa Dasar, Tifa Potong, Tifa Jekir Potong and Tifa Bas, plus a large Gong and Toto Buang which is a series of small gongs placed on a table with several holes as a buffer. There is also a wind instrument namely Bia Skin (Shellfish). In the culture of Maluku, there are also stringed instruments namely Ukulele and that can also be found in the Hawaiian culture in the United States. This can be seen when Maluku music from the past until now still has a characteristic in which there is the use of Hawaiian musical instruments both in pop songs and in accompanying traditional dances such as Katreji. Other musical instruments is the Sawat. Sawat is a blend of Maluku culture and Middle Eastern culture. In a few centuries ago, the Arabs came to spread Islam in Maluku, then there was a mixture of cultures including music. It is evident in several Sawat musical instruments, such as Tambourines and Flutes that characterize Arabian music instruments. Outside of the variety of musical instruments, Moluccan people are famous for being good at singing. Since long ago they have often sung in accompanying traditional dances. There are many famous Moluccan singers in both Indonesia and the Netherlands, such as Broery Pesulima, Daniel Sahuleka, Ruth Sahanaya, Eric Papilaya, Glen Fredly, etc. ### Dance The famous dance from the Moluccas is the Cakalele which describes the might of the Moluccas. This dance is usually performed by adult men while holding Parang and Salawaku (Shield). There are also other dances like Saureka-Reka that use the sago palm fronds. The dances performed by six women really need accuracy and speed while accompanied by a very interesting musical rhythm. The dance which is a depiction of youth association is Katreji. Katreji dance is played in pairs between women and men with varied energetic and interesting movements. This dance is almost the same as European dances in general because Katreji is also an acculturation of European (Portuguese and Dutch) culture with Maluku culture. This is more evident in every signal in changing floor patterns and movements which still use Portuguese and Dutch as a process of bilingualism. This dance is accompanied by a violin instrument, bamboo flute, ukulele, karakas, guitar, tifa, and bass guitar with a more prominent western (European) musical pattern. This dance is still performed by the people of Maluku until now. In addition to Katreji, the famous European influence is Polonaise, which is usually carried out by Moluccans at the time of marriage by each party member in pairs, forming a circle formation and carrying out light movements that can be followed by everyone, both young and old. In addition, there is also a Crazy Bamboo Dance. Crazy bamboo dance is a special dance that is magical, originating from Suli Village. The uniqueness of this dance is that the dancers are burdened by bamboo which can move uncontrollably and this dance can be followed by anyone. Tourism ------- Some of the famous tourist attractions in Maluku include: * Manusela National Park * Pasir Panjang Beach * Natsepa Beach, Ambon * City Gate, Ambon See also -------- * Districts of Maluku * List of islands of Indonesia * List of Maluku governors * List of rivers of Maluku (province) * Baileo

Maluku (province)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maluku_(province)

**Kırklareli** (Turkish pronunciation: [kɯɾkˈɫaɾeli]; Greek: Σαράντα Εκκλησιές) is a city in the European part of Turkey. It is the seat of Kırklareli Province and Kırklareli District. Its population is 85,493 (2022). Name ---- It is not clearly known when the city was founded, nor under what name. The Byzantine Greeks called it **Sarànta Ekklisiès** (*Σαράντα Εκκλησιές*, meaning *forty churches*). In modern Greek it is known with the same name, too. In the 14th century this was translated to Turkish and called **Kırk Kilise** (40 churches). Following the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923, sanjaks became cities and on December 20, 1924, Kırk Kilise's name was changed to *Kırklareli*, meaning *The Place of the Forties*. The denomination *Kırklareli* was already used years before 1924, for example in the contemporary literature concerning the Balkan Wars of 1912–13. The Bulgarian name of the town is **Lòzengrad** (Лозенград) which means *Vineyard Town*. (see also its other names) History ------- Ongoing archeological excavations in the city support the claim that the area was the location of one of the first organized settlements on the European continent, with artifacts from the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. The settlement and its surrounding areas were conquered by the Persians in 513–512 BC, during the reign of King Darius I. In 914 during the Bulgarian invasion in Adrianople led by Simeon I, the settlement was captured by the Bulgarians and was under Bulgarian rule until 1003 when it was lost to the Byzantines. The Ottoman Turks took the city and its region from the Byzantines in 1363, during the reign of Sultan Murad I. The city was damaged during the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829). According to the 1878 record *"Ethnography of the Wilayahs Adrianopol, Monastir and Thessaloniki"* Kırk Kilise was inhabited by 6,700 Bulgarians, 2,850 Greeks, and 2,700 belonging to other ethnic groups. In 1906, the Diocese of Saranda Ekklisies was detached from the Metropolis of Adrianople and was elevated to the status of Metropolis. According to the official Ottoman census of 1906–1907 (published in "The Ottoman Population 1830–1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics" by Kemal H. Karpat), the ethnic-religious breakdown in the Sanjak of Kırk Kilise was: 22,022 Muslims; 14,154 Greek Orthodox; 1,599 Bulgarian Orthodox; and 789 Jews. During the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) Kırk Kilise was occupied by Bulgaria, and then by Greece in the aftermath of World War I (1914–1918) resulting in mass immigration of its Bulgarian population (there were a large number of journalists who reported on the actions at Kırk Kilise). Following the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) the city was retaken by the Turks on November 10, 1922. According to the 1923 population exchange agreement between Greece and Turkey, the Greeks of the city were exchanged for the Muslims (Turks, Pomaks, Karadjaovalides and Albanians) living in Greece. Most of the inhabitants of the city are Turks who formerly lived in Thessaloniki until the First Balkan War of 1912. The Treaty of Lausanne (1923) which defines Turkey's western border in Thrace also resulted in a Kırklareli Province within Turkey. ### The Megleno-Romanians of Kırklareli In 1923 most of the 3700 inhabitants of Notia, the only Muslim village of the Megleno-Romanians in northern Greece, settled in the Edirne area (mainly in Kırklareli) and became known as *Karadjovalides* after the Turkish name of Moglena. The number of these Megleno-Romanian families settled in Kırklareli were more than 110, while those settled in small villages were around 400: in total, nearly 2000 Megleno-Romanians. Currently, their number only 500, concentrated in Kırklareli and culturally assimilated into the Turks. Most of them speak the Turkish language, but are still bilingual at home. Cultural assets --------------- * Hızır Bey Külliye: This külliye (religious complex) consists of the Hızır Bey Mosque, Hızır Bey Bath and Arasta (Bazaar.) + Hızır Bey Mosque: Located at the center of the city, it was built on a square plan by Köse Mihalzade Hızır Bey in 1383. Built of cut stone and having one minaret, it was restored by Yusuf Pasha of Aydost in 1824. Still used today, the final praying place and garden walls of the mosque were built afterwards. + Hızır Bey Bath: Also located at the center of the city and built adjacent to Bath and Arasta by Köse Mihalzade Hızır Bey in 1383. There are two entrances, one each for women and men, which are also called the "Paired Baths". According to an inscription in the women's bath, Hacı Hüseyin Ağa restored it between 1683 and 1704. Still used today, the outer walls are regular and built from coarse sandstone. It's a Turkish Bath in the traditional Ottoman architecture style. + Arasta (Bedesten): Built adjacent to the Hızır Bey Bath in a "T" form, it has arch-type walls. The upper cover is a vault 15 m long. There were 12 shops inside formed by three beams. It was restored in 1704. * Kırklareli Jewish Quarter: A historic neighborhood. * Kırklareli Museum: A natural history, ethnography and archaeology museum. * Dupnisa Cave: Kırklareli Province is also host to the only cave that is open to tourists in Thrace, the Dupnisa Cave near the village of Sarpdere, which is believed to have formed circa 4 million years ago. The Dupnisa Cave was used for Dionysian Rituals (Sparagmos) in ancient times. Even the name of Dionysus is associated with Mount Nisa right above the cave of Dupnisa; as, according to ancient Greek mythology, Dionysus "discovered wine while playing at Mount Nisa." The Bulgarian name of Kırklareli, *Lozengrad* (Лозенград) which means *Vineyard Town* may also have its origins in this ancient Greek myth. * Demirköy Foundry: Archaeological site of a historic iron foundry, where cannonballs fired during the Conquest of Constantinople in 1453 were manufactured. Climate ------- Kırklareli has a borderline Mediterranean and humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: *Csa/Cfa*, Trewartha climate classification: *Do*). Summers are hot and humid whilst winters are cool, cloudy and damp. Rainfall is somewhat common throughout the year, but is lower in amount and intensity than in coastal cities, largely due to the rain shadow caused by the Istranca massif to the immediate northeast. Snowfall is somewhat common between the months of December and March, snowing for a week or two. | Climate data for Kırklareli (1991–2020, extremes 1959–2020) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 18.6(65.5) | 23.1(73.6) | 25.7(78.3) | 31.5(88.7) | 36.0(96.8) | 40.4(104.7) | 42.5(108.5) | 40.4(104.7) | 38.8(101.8) | 37.4(99.3) | 28.9(84.0) | 21.6(70.9) | 42.5(108.5) | | Average high °C (°F) | 7.2(45.0) | 9.2(48.6) | 12.8(55.0) | 18.4(65.1) | 24.0(75.2) | 28.7(83.7) | 31.3(88.3) | 31.5(88.7) | 26.6(79.9) | 20.1(68.2) | 14.0(57.2) | 8.7(47.7) | 19.4(66.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 3.3(37.9) | 4.5(40.1) | 7.5(45.5) | 12.4(54.3) | 17.6(63.7) | 22.1(71.8) | 24.6(76.3) | 24.6(76.3) | 19.9(67.8) | 14.6(58.3) | 9.5(49.1) | 5.0(41.0) | 13.8(56.8) | | Average low °C (°F) | 0.3(32.5) | 1.0(33.8) | 3.4(38.1) | 7.3(45.1) | 12.0(53.6) | 16.1(61.0) | 18.4(65.1) | 18.6(65.5) | 14.5(58.1) | 10.3(50.5) | 6.0(42.8) | 2.1(35.8) | 9.2(48.6) | | Record low °C (°F) | −15.8(3.6) | −15.0(5.0) | −11.8(10.8) | −3.0(26.6) | 1.4(34.5) | 5.8(42.4) | 8.8(47.8) | 8.7(47.7) | 3.0(37.4) | −3.4(25.9) | −7.2(19.0) | −11.1(12.0) | −15.8(3.6) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 61.9(2.44) | 48.3(1.90) | 48.8(1.92) | 39.1(1.54) | 53.6(2.11) | 56.2(2.21) | 34.2(1.35) | 19.1(0.75) | 39.9(1.57) | 60.6(2.39) | 62.4(2.46) | 61.7(2.43) | 585.8(23.06) | | Average precipitation days | 9.93 | 8.73 | 10.20 | 10.50 | 10.43 | 9.07 | 5.67 | 3.67 | 5.70 | 8.67 | 9.07 | 11.13 | 102.8 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 71.3 | 81.9 | 130.2 | 165.0 | 226.3 | 234.0 | 266.6 | 266.6 | 189.0 | 136.4 | 90.0 | 65.1 | 1,922.4 | | Mean daily sunshine hours | 2.3 | 2.9 | 4.2 | 5.5 | 7.3 | 7.8 | 8.6 | 8.6 | 6.3 | 4.4 | 3.0 | 2.1 | 5.3 | | Source: Turkish State Meteorological Service | Sister cities ------------- Kırklareli is twinned with: * Turkey Manisa, Turkey Notable natives --------------- * Anthim I (1816-1888), first head of the Bulgarian Exarchate * Nikola Aslanov (1875-1905), Bulgarian revolutionary * Candan Erçetin, (born 1961), female singer, songwriter and Vice-President of Galatasaray SK * Şaban Erden (born 1949), Deputy Secretary General of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality * Barış Hersek (born 1988), professional basketball player * Seda Kaçan (born 1994), racing driver * Nikolaos Mavridis (1869-1927), wine merchant * Ayşenur Taşbakan (born 1982), European champion female taekwondo practitioner * Burak Akkul (born 1972) humorist * Serap Belet (born 1978) anchorwomen * Burhan Öçal (born 1959) percussion artist See also -------- * Battle of Kirk Kilisse

Kırklareli

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%B1rklareli

**Antarctica** (/ænˈtɑːrktɪkə/ ()) is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean), it contains the geographic South Pole. Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, being about 40% larger than Europe, and has an area of 14,200,000 km2 (5,500,000 sq mi). Most of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, with an average thickness of 1.9 km (1.2 mi). Antarctica is, on average, the coldest, driest, and windiest of the continents, and it has the highest average elevation. It is mainly a polar desert, with annual precipitation of over 200 mm (8 in) along the coast and far less inland. About 70% of the world's freshwater reserves are frozen in Antarctica, which, if melted, would raise global sea levels by almost 60 metres (200 ft). Antarctica holds the record for the lowest measured temperature on Earth, −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F). The coastal regions can reach temperatures over 10 °C (50 °F) in summer. Native species of animals include mites, nematodes, penguins, seals and tardigrades. Where vegetation occurs, it is mostly in the form of lichen or moss. The ice shelves of Antarctica were probably first seen in 1820, during a Russian expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. The decades that followed saw further exploration in French, American, and British expeditions. The first confirmed landing was by a Norwegian team in 1895. In the early 20th century, there were a few expeditions into the interior of the continent. British explorers were the first to reach the magnetic South Pole in 1909, and the geographic South Pole was first reached in 1911 by Norwegian explorers. Antarctica is governed by about 30 countries, all of which are parties of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty System. According to the terms of the treaty, military activity, mining, nuclear explosions, and nuclear waste disposal are all prohibited in Antarctica. Tourism, fishing and research are the main human activities in and around Antarctica. During the summer months, about 5,000 people reside at research stations, a figure that drops to around 1,000 in the winter. Despite its remoteness, human activity has a significant impact on the continent via pollution, ozone depletion, and climate change. Etymology --------- The name given to the continent originates from the word *antarctic*, which comes from Middle French **antartique** or **antarctique** ('opposite to the Arctic') and, in turn, the Latin **antarcticus** ('opposite to the north'). **Antarcticus** is derived from the Greek ἀντι- ('anti-') and ἀρκτικός ('of the Bear', 'northern'). The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote in *Meteorology* about an "Antarctic region" in c. 350 BCE. The Greek geographer Marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his world map from the second century CE, now lost. The Roman authors Gaius Julius Hyginus and Apuleius used for the South Pole the romanised Greek name *polus antarcticus*, from which derived the Old French *pole antartike* (modern *pôle antarctique*) attested in 1270, and from there the Middle English *pol antartik*, found first in a treatise written by the English author Geoffrey Chaucer. Belief by Europeans in the existence of a **Terra Australis**—a vast continent in the far south of the globe to balance the northern lands of Europe, Asia, and North Africa—had existed as an intellectual concept since classical antiquity. The belief in such a land lasted until the European discovery of Australia. During the early 19th century, explorer Matthew Flinders doubted the existence of a detached continent south of Australia (then called New Holland) and thus advocated for the "Terra Australis" name to be used for Australia instead. In 1824, the colonial authorities in Sydney officially renamed the continent of New Holland to Australia, leaving the term "Terra Australis" unavailable as a reference to Antarctica. Over the following decades, geographers used phrases such as "the Antarctic Continent". They searched for a more poetic replacement, suggesting names such as *Ultima* and *Antipodea*. *Antarctica* was adopted in the 1890s, with the first use of the name being attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew. Geography --------- Positioned asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle (one of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the world), Antarctica is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. Rivers exist in Antarctica, the longest is the Onyx. Antarctica covers more than 14.2 million km2 (5,500,000 sq mi), making it the fifth-largest continent, slightly less than 1.5 times the area of the United States. Its coastline is almost 18,000 km (11,200 mi) long: as of 1983[update], of the four coastal types, 44% of the coast is floating ice in the form of an ice shelf, 38% consists of ice walls that rest on rock, 13% is ice streams or the edge of glaciers, and the remaining 5% is exposed rock. The lakes that lie at the base of the continental ice sheet occur mainly in the McMurdo Dry Valleys or various oases. Lake Vostok, discovered beneath Russia's Vostok Station, is the largest subglacial lake globally and one of the largest lakes in the world. It was once believed that the lake had been sealed off for millions of years, but scientists now estimate its water is replaced by the slow melting and freezing of ice caps every 13,000 years. During the summer, the ice at the edges of the lakes can melt, and liquid moats temporarily form. Antarctica has both saline and freshwater lakes. Antarctica is divided into West Antarctica and East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains, which stretch from Victoria Land to the Ross Sea. The vast majority of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, which averages 1.9 km (1.2 mi) in thickness. The ice sheet extends to all but a few oases, which, with the exception of the McMurdo Dry Valleys, are located in coastal areas. Several Antarctic ice streams flow to one of the many Antarctic ice shelves, a process described by ice-sheet dynamics. East Antarctica comprises Coats Land, Queen Maud Land, Enderby Land, Mac. Robertson Land, Wilkes Land, and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of the region lies within the Eastern Hemisphere. East Antarctica is largely covered by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. There are numerous islands surrounding Antarctica, most of which are volcanic and very young by geological standards. The most prominent exceptions to this are the islands of the Kerguelen Plateau, the earliest of which formed around 40 Ma. Vinson Massif, in the Ellsworth Mountains, is the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 m (16,050 ft). Mount Erebus on Ross Island is the world's southernmost active volcano and erupts around 10 times each day. Ash from eruptions has been found 300 kilometres (190 mi) from the volcanic crater. There is evidence of a large number of volcanoes under the ice, which could pose a risk to the ice sheet if activity levels were to rise. The ice dome known as Dome Argus in East Antarctica is the highest Antarctic ice feature, at 4,091 metres (13,422 ft). It is one of the world's coldest and driest places—temperatures there may reach as low as −90 °C (−130 °F), and the annual precipitation is 1–3 cm (0.39–1.18 in). Geologic history ---------------- From the end of the Neoproterozoic era to the Cretaceous, Antarctica was part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Modern Antarctica was formed as Gondwana gradually broke apart beginning around 183 Ma. For a large proportion of the Phanerozoic, Antarctica had a tropical or temperate climate, and it was covered in forests. ### Palaeozoic era (540–250 Ma) During the Cambrian period, Gondwana had a mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the Northern Hemisphere, and during the time, large amounts of sandstones, limestones, and shales were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where seafloor invertebrates and trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Ma), Gondwana was in more southern latitudes, and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from then. Sand and silts were laid down in what is now the Ellsworth, Horlick and Pensacola Mountains. Antarctica became glaciated during the Late Paleozoic icehouse beginning at the end of the Devonian period (360 Ma), though glaciation would substantially increase during the late Carboniferous. It drifted closer to the South Pole, and the climate cooled, though flora remained. After deglaciation during the latter half of the Early Permian, the land became dominated by glossopterids (an extinct group of seed plants with no close living relatives), most prominently *Glossopteris*, a tree interpreted as growing in waterlogged soils, which formed extensive coal deposits. Other plants found in Antarctica during the Permian include Cordaitales, sphenopsids, ferns, and lycophytes. At the end of the Permian, the climate became drier and hotter over much of Gondwana, and the glossopterid forest ecosystems collapsed, as part of the End-Permian mass extinction. There is no evidence of any tetrapods having lived in Antarctica during the Paleozoic. ### Mesozoic era (250–66 Ma) The continued warming dried out much of Gondwana. During the Triassic, Antarctica was dominated by seed ferns (pteridosperms) belonging to the genus *Dicroidium*, which grew as trees. Other associated Triassic flora included ginkgophytes, cycadophytes, conifers, and sphenopsids. Tetrapods first appeared in Antarctica during the early Triassic, with the earliest known fossils found in the Fremouw Formation of the Transantarctic Mountains. Synapsids (also known as "mammal-like reptiles") included species such as *Lystrosaurus*, and were common during the Early Triassic. The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during the Jurassic period (206–146 Ma). *Ginkgo* trees, conifers, Bennettitales, horsetails, ferns and cycads were plentiful during the time. In West Antarctica, coniferous forests dominated throughout the Cretaceous period (146–66 Ma), though southern beech trees (*Nothofagus*) became prominent towards the end of the Cretaceous. Ammonites were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only a few Antarctic dinosaur genera (*Cryolophosaurus* and *Glacialisaurus*, from the Early Jurassic Hanson Formation of the Transantarctic Mountains, and *Antarctopelta*, *Trinisaura*, *Morrosaurus* and *Imperobator* from Late Cretaceous of the Antarctic Peninsula) have been described. ### Gondwana breakup (160–15 Ma) Breakup of Gondwana at c. 150  Ma (*left*), c. 126 Ma (*centre*) and at c. 83 Ma (*right*) Africa separated from Antarctica in the Jurassic around 160 Ma, followed by the Indian subcontinent in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Ma). During the early Paleogene, Antarctica remained connected to South America as well as to southeastern Australia. Fauna from the La Meseta Formation in the Antarctic Peninsula, dating to the Eocene, is very similar to equivalent South American faunas; with marsupials, xenarthrans, litoptern, and astrapotherian ungulates, as well as gondwanatheres and possibly meridiolestidans. Marsupials are thought to have dispersed into Australia via Antarctica by the early Eocene. Around 53 Ma, Australia-New Guinea separated from Antarctica, opening the Tasmanian Passage. The Drake Passage opened between Antarctica and South America around 30 Ma, resulting in the creation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that completely isolated the continent. Models of Antarctic geography suggest that this current, as well as a feedback loop caused by lowering CO2 levels, caused the creation of small yet permanent polar ice caps. As CO2 levels declined further the ice began to spread rapidly, replacing the forests that until then had covered Antarctica. Tundra ecosystems continued to exist on Antarctica until around 14-10 million years ago, when further cooling lead to their extermination. ### Present day The geology of Antarctica, largely obscured by the continental ice sheet, is being revealed by techniques such as remote sensing, ground-penetrating radar, and satellite imagery. Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the South American Andes. The Antarctic Peninsula was formed by geologic uplift and the transformation of sea bed sediments into metamorphic rocks. West Antarctica was formed by the merging of several continental plates, which created a number of mountain ranges in the region, the most prominent being the Ellsworth Mountains. The presence of the West Antarctic Rift System has resulted in volcanism along the border between West and East Antarctica, as well as the creation of the Transantarctic Mountains. East Antarctica is geologically varied. Its formation began during the Archean Eon (4,000 Ma–2,500 Ma), and stopped during the Cambrian Period. It is built on a craton of rock, which is the basis of the Precambrian Shield. On top of the base are coal and sandstones, limestones, and shales that were laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the Transantarctic Mountains. In coastal areas such as the Shackleton Range and Victoria Land, some faulting has occurred. Coal was first recorded in Antarctica near the Beardmore Glacier by Frank Wild on the *Nimrod* Expedition in 1907, and low-grade coal is known to exist across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains. The Prince Charles Mountains contain deposits of iron ore. There are oil and natural gas fields in the Ross Sea. Climate ------- photograph of blue iceBlue ice covering Lake Fryxell, in the Transantarctic MountainsTwo men looking at a penguin on a sunny dayTemperate conditions near the coast in December Antarctica is the coldest, windiest, and driest of Earth's continents. The lowest natural air temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983. A lower air temperature of −94.7 °C (−138.5 °F) was recorded in 2010 by satellite—however, it may have been influenced by ground temperatures and was not recorded at a height of 2 m (7 ft) above the surface as required for official air temperature records. Average temperatures can reach a minimum of between −80 °C (−112 °F) in the interior of the continent during winter and a maximum of over 10 °C (50 °F) near the coast in summer. Antarctica is a polar desert with little precipitation; the continent receives an average equivalent to about 150 mm (6 in) of water per year, mostly in the form of snow. The interior is dryer and receives less than 50 mm (2 in) per year, whereas the coastal regions typically receive more than 200 mm (8 in). In a few blue-ice areas, the wind and sublimation remove more snow than is accumulated by precipitation. In the dry valleys, the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a barren and desiccated landscape. Antarctica is colder than the Arctic region, as much of Antarctica is over 3,000 m (9,800 ft) above sea level, where air temperatures are colder. The relative warmth of the Arctic Ocean is transferred through the Arctic sea ice and moderates temperatures in the Arctic region. ### Regional differences East Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the centre cold and dry, with moderate wind speeds. Heavy snowfalls are common on the coastal portion of Antarctica, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 m (48 in) in 48 hours have been recorded. At the continent's edge, strong katabatic winds off of the polar plateau often blow at storm force. During the summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than at the equator because of the 24 hours of sunlight received there each day. ### Climate change Warming in West Antarctica was up to 0.25 degrees Celsius, whereas East Antarctica saw a more minor temperature riseThe warming trend for Antarctica from 1957 to 2006, based on the analysis of weather station and satellite data; dark tints over West Antarctica indicate that the region warmed most per decade.Legend Over the second half of the 20th century, the Antarctic Peninsula was the fastest-warming place on Earth, closely followed by West Antarctica, but temperatures rose less rapidly during the early 21st century. Conversely, the South Pole, located in East Antarctica, barely warmed during much of the 20th century, but temperatures rose three times the global average between 1990 and 2020. In February 2020, the continent recorded its highest temperature of 18.3 °C (64.9 °F), which was 0.8 °C (1.4 °F) higher than the previous record attained in March 2015. There is some evidence that surface warming in Antarctica is due to human greenhouse gas emissions, but it is difficult to determine due to internal variability. A main component of climate variability in Antarctica is the Southern Annular Mode (a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the Southern Hemisphere), which showed strengthened winds around Antarctica in the summer of the later decades of the 20th century, associated with cooler temperatures over the continent. The trend was at a scale unprecedented over the last 600 years; the most dominant driver of the mode of variability is likely the depletion of ozone above the continent. Glaciers and floating ice ------------------------- Precipitation in Antarctica occurs in the form of snow, which accumulates and forms the giant ice sheet that covers the continent. Under the force of gravity, the ice flows towards the coast. The ice then moves into the ocean, often forming vast floating ice shelves. These shelves can melt or form icebergs that eventually disintegrate when they reach warmer ocean waters. ### Sea ice and ice shelves Sea ice extent expands annually during the Antarctic winter, but most of it melts in the summer. The ice is formed from the ocean, and does not contribute to changes in sea level. The average extent of sea ice around Antarctica has changed little since satellites began to observe the Earth's surface in 1978; which is in contrast with the Arctic, where there has been rapid sea ice loss. A possible explanation is that thermohaline circulation transports warmed water to deeper layers in the Southern Ocean so that the surface remains relatively cool. The melting of the ice shelves does not contribute much to sea level rise, as the floating ice displaces its own mass of water, but the ice shelves act to stabilize the land ice. They are vulnerable to warming water, which has caused large ice shelves to collapse into the ocean. The loss of ice shelf "buttressing" has been identified as the major cause of ice loss on the West Antarctic ice sheet, but has also been observed around the East Antarctic ice sheet. In 2002 the Antarctic Peninsula's Larsen-B ice shelf collapsed. In early 2008, about 570 km2 (220 sq mi) of ice from the Wilkins Ice Shelf on the southwest part of the peninsula collapsed, putting the remaining 15,000 km2 (5,800 sq mi) of the ice shelf at risk. The ice was being held back by a "thread" of ice about 6 km (4 mi) wide, prior to its collapse in 2009. As of 2022[update], the two most rapidly thinning ice shelves are those in front of the Pine Island and Thwaites glaciers. Both ice shelves act to stabilise the glaciers that feed into them. ### Ice sheet loss and sea level rise Antarctica contains about 90% of the world's ice. If all of this ice were melted, global sea levels would rise about 58 m (190 ft). In addition, Antarctica stores around 70% of global freshwater as ice. The continent is losing mass due to the increased flow of its glaciers toward the ocean. The loss of mass from Antarctica's ice sheets is partially offset by additional snow falling back onto it. A 2018 systematic review study estimated that ice loss across the entire continent was 43 gigatonnes (Gt) per year on average during the period from 1992 to 2002, but accelerated to an average of 220 Gt per year during the five years from 2012 to 2017. Antarctica's total contribution to sea level rise has been estimated to be 8 to 14 mm (0.31 to 0.55 in). Most of the ice loss has taken place on the Antarctic Peninsula and West Antarctica. Estimates of the mass balance of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet as a whole range from slightly positive to slightly negative. Increased ice outflow has been observed in some regions of East Antarctica, particularly at Wilkes Land. Future projections of ice loss depend on the speed of climate change mitigation and are uncertain. Tipping points have been identified in some regions; when a certain threshold warming is reached, these regions may start melting at a significantly faster rate. If average temperatures were to begin to fall, the ice would not immediately be restored. A tipping point for the West Antarctic ice sheet is estimated to be between 1.5 and 2.0 °C (2.7 and 3.6 °F) of global warming. A full collapse would likely not take place unless warming reaches between 2 and 3 °C (3.6 and 5.4 °F), and may occur within centuries under pessimistic assumptions. This full collapse would lead to 2 to 5 meters (6.6 to 16.4 feet) of sea level rise. At 3 °C, parts of the East Antarctic ice sheet are also projected to be fully lost, and total ice loss would lead to around 6 to 12 meters (20 to 39 feet) or more of sea level rise. Ozone depletion --------------- Scientists have studied the ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica since the 1970s. In 1985, British scientists, working on data they had gathered at Halley Research Station on the Brunt Ice Shelf, discovered a large area of low ozone concentration over Antarctica. The 'ozone hole' covers almost the whole continent and was at its largest in September 2006; the longest-lasting event occurred in 2020. The depletion is caused by the emission of chlorofluorocarbons and halons into the atmosphere, which causes ozone to break down into other gases. The extreme cold conditions of Antarctica allow polar stratospheric clouds to form. The clouds act as catalysts for chemical reactions, which eventually lead to the destruction of ozone. The 1987 Montreal Protocol has restricted the emissions of ozone-depleting substances. The ozone hole above Antarctica is predicted to slowly disappear; by the 2060s, levels of ozone are expected to have returned to values last recorded in the 1980s. The ozone depletion can cause a cooling of around 6 °C (11 °F) in the stratosphere. The cooling strengthens the polar vortex and so prevents the outflow of the cold air near the South Pole, which in turn cools the continental mass of the East Antarctic ice sheet. The peripheral areas of Antarctica, especially the Antarctic Peninsula, are then subjected to higher temperatures, which accelerate the melting of the ice. Models suggest that ozone depletion and the enhanced polar vortex effect may also account for the period of increasing sea ice extent, lasting from when observation started in the late 1970s until 2014. Since then, the coverage of Antarctic sea ice has decreased rapidly. Biodiversity ------------ Most species in Antarctica seem to be the descendants of species that lived there millions of years ago. As such, they must have survived multiple glacial cycles. The species survived the periods of extremely cold climate in isolated warmer areas, such as those with geothermal heat or areas that remained ice-free throughout the colder climate. ### Animals Invertebrate life of Antarctica includes species of microscopic mites such as *Alaskozetes antarcticus*, lice, nematodes, tardigrades, rotifers, krill and springtails. The few terrestrial vertebrates are limited to the sub-Antarctic islands. The flightless midge *Belgica antarctica*, the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica, reaches 6 mm (1⁄4 in) in size. Antarctic krill, which congregates in large schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean, being an important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals, fur seals, squid, icefish, and many bird species, such as penguins and albatrosses. Some species of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, blue whales, orcas, colossal squids and fur seals. The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by seal hunters from the United States and the United Kingdom. Leopard seals are apex predators in the Antarctic ecosystem and migrate across the Southern Ocean in search of food. There are approximately 40 bird species that breed on or close to Antarctica, including species of petrels, penguins, cormorants, and gulls. Various other bird species visit the ocean around Antarctica, including some that normally reside in the Arctic. The emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica; it and the Adélie penguin breed farther south than any other penguin. A Census of Marine Life by some 500 researchers during the International Polar Year was released in 2010. The research found that more than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, having bridged the gap of 12,000 km (7,456 mi). Large animals such as some cetaceans and birds make the round trip annually. Smaller forms of life, such as sea cucumbers and free-swimming snails also found in both polar oceans. Factors that may aid in their distribution include temperature differences between the deep ocean at the poles and the equator of no more than 5 °C (9 °F) and the major current systems or marine conveyor belts which are able to transport eggs and larva. ### Fungi About 1,150 species of fungi have been recorded in the Antarctic region, of which about 750 are non-lichen-forming. Some of the species, having evolved under extreme conditions, have colonized structural cavities within porous rocks and have contributed to shaping the rock formations of the McMurdo Dry Valleys and surrounding mountain ridges. The simplified morphology of such fungi, along with their similar biological structures, metabolism systems capable of remaining active at very low temperatures, and reduced life cycles, make them well suited to such environments. Their thick-walled and strongly melanised cells make them resistant to UV radiation. The same features can be observed in algae and cyanobacteria, suggesting that they are adaptations to the conditions prevailing in Antarctica. This has led to speculation that life on Mars might have been similar to Antarctic fungi, such as *Cryomyces antarcticus* and *Cryomyces minteri*. Some of the species of fungi, which are apparently endemic to Antarctica, live in bird dung, and have evolved so they can grow inside extremely cold dung, but can also pass through the intestines of warm-blooded animals. ### Plants Throughout its history, Antarctica has seen a wide variety of plant life. In the Cretaceous, it was dominated by a fern-conifer ecosystem, which changed into a temperate rainforest by the end of that period. During the colder Neogene (17–2.5 Ma), a tundra ecosystem replaced the rainforests. The climate of present-day Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation to form. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor soil quality, and a lack of moisture and sunlight inhibit plant growth, causing low species diversity and limited distribution. The flora largely consists of bryophytes (25 species of liverworts and 100 species of mosses). There are three species of flowering plants, all of which are found in the Antarctic Peninsula: *Deschampsia antarctica* (Antarctic hair grass), *Colobanthus quitensis* (Antarctic pearlwort) and the non-native *Poa annua* (annual bluegrass). ### Other organisms Of the 700 species of algae in Antarctica, around half are marine phytoplankton. Multicoloured snow algae are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. Bacteria have been found as deep as 800 m (0.50 mi) under the ice. It is thought to be likely that there exists a native bacterial community within the subterranean water body of Lake Vostok. The existence of life there is thought to strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on Jupiter's moon Europa, which may have water beneath its water-ice crust. There exists a community of extremophile bacteria in the highly alkaline waters of Lake Untersee. The prevalence of highly resilient creatures in such inhospitable areas could further bolster the argument for extraterrestrial life in cold, methane-rich environments. ### Conservation and environmental protection The first international agreement to protect Antarctica's biodiversity was adopted in 1964. The overfishing of krill (an animal that plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem) led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, an international treaty that came into force in 1980, regulates fisheries, aiming to preserve ecological relationships. Despite these regulations, illegal fishing—particularly of the highly prized Patagonian toothfish which is marketed as Chilean sea bass in the U.S.—remains a problem. In analogy to the 1980 treaty on sustainable fishing, countries led by New Zealand and the United States negotiated a treaty on mining. This Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities was adopted in 1988. After a strong campaign from environmental organisations, first Australia and then France decided not to ratify the treaty. Instead, countries adopted the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the Madrid Protocol), which entered into force in 1998. The Madrid Protocol bans all mining, designating the continent as a "natural reserve devoted to peace and science". The pressure group Greenpeace established a base on Ross Island from 1987 to 1992 as part of its attempt to establish the continent as a World Park. The Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary was established in 1994 by the International Whaling Commission. It covers 50 million km2 (19 million sq mi) and completely surrounds the Antarctic continent. All commercial whaling is banned in the zone, though Japan has continued to hunt whales in the area, ostensibly for research purposes. Despite these protections, the biodiversity in Antarctica is still at risk from human activities. Specially protected areas cover less than 2% of the area and provide better protection for animals with popular appeal than for less visible animals. There are more terrestrial protected areas than marine protected areas. Ecosystems are impacted by local and global threats, notably pollution, the invasion of non-native species, and the various effects of climate change. History of exploration ---------------------- Captain James Cook's ships, HMS *Resolution* and *Adventure*, crossed the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773, in December 1773, and again in January 1774. Cook came within about 120 km (75 mi) of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of field ice in January 1773. In 1775, he called the existence of a polar continent "probable," and in another copy of his journal he wrote: "[I] firmly believe it and it's more than probable that we have seen a part of it". ### 19th century Sealers were among the earliest to go closer to the Antarctic landmass, perhaps in the earlier part of the 19th century. The oldest known human remains in the Antarctic region was a skull, dated from 1819 to 1825, that belonged to a young woman on Yamana Beach at the South Shetland Islands. The woman, who was likely to have been part of a sealing expedition, was found in 1985. The first person to see Antarctica or its ice shelf was long thought to have been the British sailor Edward Bransfield, a captain in the Royal Navy, who discovered the tip of the Antarctic peninsula on 30 January 1820. However, a captain in the Imperial Russian Navy, Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, recorded seeing an ice shelf on 27 January. The American sealer Nathaniel Palmer, whose sealing ship was in the region at this time, may also have been the first to sight the Antarctic Peninsula. The First Russian Antarctic Expedition, led by Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on the 985-ton sloop-of-war *Vostok* and the 530-ton support vessel *Mirny*, reached a point within 32 km (20 mi) of Queen Maud Land and recorded sighting an ice shelf at 69°21′28″S 2°14′50″W / 69.35778°S 2.24722°W / -69.35778; -2.24722, on 27 January 1820. The sighting happened three days before Bransfield sighted the land of the Trinity Peninsula of Antarctica, as opposed to the ice of an ice shelf, and 10 months before Palmer did so in November 1820. The first documented landing on Antarctica was by the American sealer John Davis, apparently at Hughes Bay on 7 February 1821, although some historians dispute this claim, as there is no evidence Davis landed on the Antarctic continent rather than an offshore island. On 22 January 1840, two days after the discovery of the coast west of the Balleny Islands, some members of the crew of the 1837–1840 expedition of the French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville disembarked on the Dumoulin Islands, off the coast of Adélie Land, where they took some mineral, algae, and animal samples erected the French flag and claimed French sovereignty over the territory. The American captain Charles Wilkes led an expedition in 1838–1839 and was the first to claim he had discovered the continent. The British naval officer James Clark Ross failed to realise that what he referred to as "the various patches of land recently discovered by the American, French and English navigators on the verge of the Antarctic Circle" were connected to form a single continent. The American explorer Mercator Cooper landed on East Antarctica on 26 January 1853. The first confirmed landing on the continental mass of Antarctica occurred in 1895 when the Norwegian-Swedish whaling ship *Antarctic* reached Cape Adare. ### 20th century During the *Nimrod* Expedition led by the British explorer Ernest Shackleton in 1907, parties led by Edgeworth David became the first to climb Mount Erebus and to reach the south magnetic pole. Douglas Mawson, who assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party on their perilous return, retired in 1931. Between December 1908 and February 1909: Shackleton and three members of his expedition became the first humans to traverse the Ross Ice Shelf, the first to cross the Transantarctic Mountains (via the Beardmore Glacier), and the first to set foot on the south Polar Plateau. On 14 December 1911, an expedition led by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen from the ship *Fram* became the first to reach the geographic South Pole, using a route from the Bay of Whales and up the Axel Heiberg Glacier. One month later, the doomed *Terra Nova* Expedition reached the pole. The American explorer Richard E. Byrd led four expeditions to Antarctica during the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, using the first mechanised tractors. His expeditions conducted extensive geographical and scientific research, and he is credited with surveying a larger region of the continent than any other explorer. In 1937, Ingrid Christensen became the first woman to step onto the Antarctic mainland. Caroline Mikkelsen had landed on an island of Antarctica, earlier in 1935. The South Pole was next reached on 31 October 1956, when a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral George J. Dufek successfully landed an aircraft there. Six women were flown to the South Pole as a publicity stunt in 1969. In the summer of 1996–1997, Norwegian explorer Børge Ousland became the first person to cross Antarctica alone from coast to coast, helped by a kite on parts of the journey. Ousland holds the record for the fastest unsupported journey to the South Pole, taking 34 days. Population ---------- The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the Antarctic Convergence) were British and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on South Georgia, from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasted until 1966, the population of the island varied from over 1,000 in the summer (over 2,000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion from Britain. The continent of Antarctica has never had a permanent resident population, although staffed research stations are continuously maintained. The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 1,000 in winter to about 5,000 in the summer. Some of the research stations are staffed year-round, the winter-over personnel typically arriving from their home countries for a one-year assignment. The Russian Orthodox Holy Trinity Church at the Bellingshausen Station on King George Island opened in 2004; it is manned year-round by one or two priests, who are similarly rotated every year. The first child born in the southern polar region was a Norwegian girl, Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen, born in Grytviken on 8 October 1913. Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born south of the 60th parallel south and the first to be born on the Antarctic mainland at the Esperanza Base of the Argentine Army. The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity in Antarctica, including the establishment of military bases and fortifications, military manoeuvres, and weapons testing. Military personnel or equipment are permitted only for scientific research or other peaceful purposes. Operation 90 by the Argentine military in 1965 was conducted to strengthen Argentina's claim in Antarctica. Politics -------- Antarctica's status is regulated by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty and other related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System. Antarctica is defined as all land and ice shelves south of 60° S for the purposes of the Treaty System. The treaty was signed by twelve countries, including the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, Argentina, Chile, Australia, and the United States. Since 1959, a further 42 countries have acceded to the treaty. Countries can participate in decision-making if they can demonstrate that they do significant research on Antarctica; as of 2022[update], 29 countries have this 'consultative status'. Decisions are based on consensus, instead of a vote. The treaty set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve and established freedom of scientific investigation and environmental protection. ### Territorial claims In 1539, the King of Spain, Charles V, created the Governorate of Terra Australis, which encompassed lands south of the Strait of Magellan and thus theoretically Antarctica, granting this Governorate to Pedro Sancho de la Hoz, who in 1540 transferred the title to the conquistador Pedro de Valdivia. Spain claimed all the territories to the south of the Strait of Magellan until the South Pole, with eastern and western borders to these claims specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas and Zaragoza respectively. In 1555 the claim was incorporated to Chile. In the present, sovereignty over regions of Antarctica is claimed by seven countries. While a few of these countries have mutually recognised each other's claims, the validity of the claims is not recognised universally. New claims on Antarctica have been suspended since 1959, although in 2015, Norway formally defined Queen Maud Land as including the unclaimed area between it and the South Pole. The Argentine, British, and Chilean claims overlap and have caused friction. In 2012, after the British Foreign & Commonwealth Office designated a previously unnamed area Queen Elizabeth Land in tribute to Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee, the Argentine government protested against the claim. The UK passed some of the areas it claimed to Australia and New Zealand after they achieved independence. The claims by Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, and Norway do not overlap and are recognised by each other. Other member nations of the Antarctic Treaty do not recognize any claim, yet have shown some form of territorial interest in the past. * Brazil has a designated 'zone of interest' that is not an actual claim. * Peru formally reserved its right to make a claim. * Russia inherited the Soviet Union's right to claim territory under the original Antarctic Treaty. * South Africa formally reserved its right to make a claim. * The United States reserved its right to make a claim in the original Antarctic Treaty. | Date | Claimant | Territory | Claim limits | Map | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1840 |  France |  Adélie Land | 142°02′E to 136°11′E | | | 1908 | United Kingdom United Kingdom |  British Antarctic Territory | 080°00′W to 020°00′W * 80°00′W to 74°00′W claimed by Chile (1940) * 74°00′W to 53°00′W claimed by Chile (1940) and Argentina (1943) * 53°00′W to 25°00′W claimed by Argentina (1943) | | | 1923 | New Zealand New Zealand | Ross Dependency | 160°00′E to 150°00′W | | | 1931 |  Norway |  Peter I Island | 68°50′S 90°35′W / 68.833°S 90.583°W / -68.833; -90.583 (Peter I Island) | | | 1933 |  Australia |  Australian Antarctic Territory | 044°38′E to 136°11′E, and 142°02′E to 160°00′E | | | 1939 |  Norway |  Queen Maud Land | 020°00′W to 044°38′E | | | 1940 |  Chile |  Chilean Antarctic Territory | 090°00′W to 053°00′W * 80°00′W to 74°00′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908) * 74°00′W to 53°00′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908) and Argentina (1943) | | | 1943 |  Argentina |  Argentine Antarctica | 074°00′W to 025°00′W * 74°00′W to 53°00′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908) and Chile (1940) * 53°00′W to 25°00′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908) | | | – | *(Unclaimed territory)* | Marie Byrd Land | 150°00′W to 090°00′W (except Peter I Island) | | Human activity -------------- ### Economic activity and tourism Deposits of coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold, and other minerals have been found in Antarctica, but not in large enough quantities to extract. The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, which came into effect in 1998 and is due to be reviewed in 2048, restricts the exploitation of Antarctic resources, including minerals. Tourists have been visiting Antarctica since 1957. Tourism is subject to the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocol; the self-regulatory body for the industry is the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators. Tourists arrive by small or medium ship at specific scenic locations with accessible concentrations of iconic wildlife. Over 74,000 tourists visited the region during the 2019/2020 season, of which 18,500 travelled on cruise ships but did not leave them to explore on land. The numbers of tourists fell rapidly after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. Some nature conservation groups have expressed concern over the potential adverse effects caused by the influx of visitors and have called for limits on the size of visiting cruise ships and a tourism quota. The primary response by Antarctic Treaty parties has been to develop guidelines that set landing limits and closed or restricted zones on the more frequently visited sites. Overland sightseeing flights operated out of Australia and New Zealand until the Mount Erebus disaster in 1979, when an Air New Zealand plane crashed into Mount Erebus, killing all of the 257 people on board. Qantas resumed commercial overflights to Antarctica from Australia in the mid-1990s. ### Research In 2017, there were more than 4,400 scientists undertaking research in Antarctica, a number that fell to just over 1,100 in the winter. There are over 70 permanent and seasonal research stations on the continent; the largest, United States McMurdo Station, is capable of housing more than 1,000 people. The British Antarctic Survey has five major research stations on Antarctica, one of which is completely portable. The Belgian Princess Elisabeth station is one of the most modern stations and the first to be carbon-neutral. Argentina, Australia, Chile, and Russia also have a large scientific presence on Antarctica. Geologists primarily study plate tectonics, meteorites, and the breakup of Gondwana. Glaciologists study the history and dynamics of floating ice, seasonal snow, glaciers, and ice sheets. Biologists, in addition to researching wildlife, are interested in how low temperatures and the presence of humans affect adaptation and survival strategies in organisms. Biomedical scientists have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures. The high elevation of the interior, the low temperatures, and the length of polar nights during the winter months all allow for better astronomical observations at Antarctica than anywhere else on Earth. The view of space from Earth is improved by a thinner atmosphere at higher elevations and a lack of water vapour in the atmosphere caused by freezing temperatures. Astrophysicists at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station study cosmic microwave background radiation and neutrinos from space. The largest neutrino detector in the world, the IceCube Neutrino Observatory, is at the Amundsen-Scott Station. It consists of around 5,500 digital optical modules, some of which reach a depth of 2,450 m (8,040 ft), that are held in 1 km3 (0.24 cu mi) of ice. Antarctica provides a unique environment for the study of meteorites: the dry polar desert preserves them well, and meteorites older than a million years have been found. They are relatively easy to find, as the dark stone meteorites stand out in a landscape of ice and snow, and the flow of ice accumulates them in certain areas. The Adelie Land meteorite, discovered in 1912, was the first to be found. Meteorites contain clues about the composition of the Solar System and its early development. Most meteorites come from asteroids, but a few meteorites found in Antarctica came from the Moon and Mars. Further reading --------------- * Kleinschmidt, Georg (2021). *The geology of the Antarctic continent*. Stuttgart: Bornträger Science Publisher. ISBN 978-3-443-11034-5. * Lucas, Mike (1996). *Antarctica*. New Holland Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85368-743-3. * Mardon, Austin Albert; Mardon, Catherine (2009). *The use of geographic remote sensing, mapping and aerial photography to aid in the recovery of blue ice surficial meteorites in Antarctica*. Edmonton: Golden Meteorite Press. ISBN 978-18974-7-235-4 – via Internet Archive. * Stewart, John (2011). *Antarctica: An Encyclopedia*. Jefferson, N.C. and London: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-3590-6. * Ivanov, Lyubomir; Ivanova, Nusha (2022). *The World of Antarctica*. Generis Publishing. 241 pp. ISBN 979-8-88676-403-1 90°S 0°E / 90°S 0°E / -90; 0

Antarctica

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica

28°37′3″N 77°12′30″E / 28.61750°N 77.20833°E / 28.61750; 77.20833 The **Lok Sabha**, constitutionally the **House of the People**, is the lower house of India's bicameral Parliament, with the upper house being the Rajya Sabha. Members of the Lok Sabha are elected by an adult universal suffrage and a first-past-the-post system to represent their respective constituencies, and they hold their seats for five years or until the body is dissolved by the President on the advice of the council of ministers. The house meets in the Lok Sabha Chambers of the Parliament House, New Delhi. The maximum membership of the House allotted by the Constitution of India is 552 (Initially, in 1950, it was 500). Currently, the house has 543 seats which are made up by the election of up to 543 elected members and at a maximum. Between 1952 and 2020, 2 additional members of the Anglo-Indian community were also nominated by the President of India on the advice of Government of India, which was abolished in January 2020 by the 104th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2019. The new parliament has a seating capacity of 888 for Lok Sabha. A total of 131 seats (24.03%) are reserved for representatives of Scheduled Castes (84) and Scheduled Tribes (47). The quorum for the House is 10% of the total membership. The Lok Sabha, unless sooner dissolved, continues to operate for five years for time being from the date appointed for its first meeting. However, while a proclamation of emergency is in operation, this period may be extended by Parliament by law or decree. An exercise to redraw Lok Sabha constituencies' boundaries is carried out by the Boundary Delimitation Commission of India every decade based on the Indian census, last of which was conducted in 2011. This exercise earlier also included redistribution of seats among states based on demographic changes but that provision of the mandate of the commission was suspended in 1976 following a constitutional amendment to incentivize the family planning program which was being implemented. The 17th Lok Sabha was elected in May 2019 and is the latest to date. The Lok Sabha proceedings are televised live on channel Sansad TV, headquartered within the premises of Parliament. History ------- A major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1858 to 1947. During this period, the office of the Secretary of State for India (along with the Council of India) was the authority through whom British Parliament exercised its rule in the Indian sub-continent, and the office of Viceroy of India was created, along with an Executive Council in India, consisting of high officials of the British government. The Indian Councils Act 1861 provided for a Legislative Council consisting of the members of the Executive Council and non-official members. The Indian Councils Act 1892 established legislatures in each of the provinces of British India and increased the powers of the Legislative Council. Although these Acts increased the representation of Indians in the government, their power remained limited, and the electorate very small. The Indian Councils Act 1909 admitted some Indians to the various councils. The Government of India Act 1919 further expanded the participation of Indians in the administration, creating the Central Legislative Assembly, for which Parliament House, New Delhi, was built and opened in 1927. The Government of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy and proposed a federal structure in India. The Indian Independence Act 1947, passed by the British parliament on 18 July 1947, divided British India (which did not include the Princely States) into two newly independent countries, India and Pakistan, which were to be dominions under the Crown until they had each enacted a new constitution. The Constituent Assembly was divided into two for the separate nations, with each new Assembly having sovereign powers transferred to it for the respective dominion. The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950, proclaiming India to be a sovereign, democratic republic. This contained the founding principles of the law of the land which would govern India in its new form, which now included all the princely states which had not acceded to Pakistan. According to *Article 79 (Part V-The Union.)* of the Constitution of India, the Parliament of India consists of the President of India and the two Houses of Parliament known as the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha). The Lok Sabha (Lower house of the People) was duly constituted for the first time on 17 April 1952 after the first General Elections held from 25 October 1951 to 21 February 1952. Formation of Lok Sabha over time| Lok Sabha | Commenced Date | Prime Minister | | --- | --- | --- | | First | 13 May 1952 | Jawaharlal Nehru | | Second | April 1957 | | Third | April 1962 | Jawaharlal Nehru, Lal Bahadur Shastri and Indira Gandhi | | Fourth | March 1967 | Indira Gandhi | | Fifth | March 1971 | | Sixth | March 1977 | Morarji Desai and Charan Singh | | Seventh | January 1980 | Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi | | Eighth | December 1984 | Rajiv Gandhi | | Ninth | December 1989 | V. P. Singh and Chandra Shekhar | | Tenth | June 1991 | P. V. Narasimha Rao | | Eleventh | May 1996 | Atal Bihari Vajpayee, H. D. Deve Gowda and I. K. Gujral | | Twelfth | March 1998 | Atal Bihari Vajpayee | | Thirteenth | October 1999 | | Fourteenth | May 2004 | Manmohan Singh | | Fifteenth | May 2009 | | Sixteenth | May 2014 | Narendra Modi | | Seventeenth | May 2019 | Qualifications -------------- *Article 84* (under Part V. – The Union) of Indian Constitution sets qualifications for being a member of Lok Sabha, which are as follows: 1. They should be a citizen of India, and must subscribe before the Election Commission of India, an oath or affirmation according to the form set out for the purpose in the Third Schedule of the Indian Constitution. 2. They should not be less than 25 years of age. 3. They possess other such qualifications as may be prescribed in that behalf by or under any law made by the Parliament. 4. They should not be proclaimed criminal i.e. they should not be a convict, a confirmed debtor or otherwise disqualified by law; and 5. They should have their name in the electoral rolls in any part of the country. However, a member can be disqualified from being a member of Parliament: 1. If they hold the office of profit; 2. If they are of unsound mind and stand so declared by a competent court 3. If they are an undischarged insolvent; 4. If they are not a citizen of India, or have voluntarily acquired the citizenship of a foreign State, or are under any acknowledgement of allegiance or adherence to a foreign State; 5. If they are violating party discipline (as per the Tenth Schedule of the constitution); disqualified under Representation of People Act. A seat in the Lok Sabha will become vacant in the following circumstances (during the normal functioning of the House): 1. When the holder of the seat, by writing to the speaker, resigns. 2. When the holder of the seat is absent from 60 consecutive days of proceedings of the House, without prior permission of the Speaker. 3. When the holder of the seat is subject to any disqualifications mentioned in the Constitution or any law enacted by Parliament. 4. A seat may also be vacated when the holder stands disqualified under the 'Anti-Defection Law'. Furthermore, as per *article 101* (Part V.—The Union) of the Indian Constitution, a person cannot be: 1. A member of both Houses of Parliament and provision shall be made by Parliament by law for the vacation by a person who is chosen a member of both Houses of his seat in one House or the other. 2. A member both of Parliament and of a House of the Legislature of a State. ### System of elections in Lok Sabha Members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected by the people of India, based on universal suffrage. Elections are by the people directly to the Lok Sabha and each state is divided into territorial constituencies under two provisions of the Constitution: 1. Each state is allotted several seats in the Lok Sabha in such a manner that the ratio between that number and its population was as close to uniform as possible. This provision does not apply to states having a population of less than 6 million (60 lakh). The number of seats per state has been frozen under the constitutional amendment of 1976. 2. Each state is divided into territorial constituencies in such a manner that the ratio between the population of each constituency and the number of seats allotted to it (in each case, one) remain the same throughout the state. This principle is upheld by the boundary reviews mentioned above. Notes: 1. The expression "population" while distributing seats among states refers to the population ascertained at the census of 1971, per the Constitutional Amendment of 1976. 2. The expression "population" while distributing constituencies within a state refers to the population ascertained at the census of 2011. Powers ------ The Lok Sabha has certain powers that make it more powerful than the Rajya Sabha. * Motions of no confidence against the government can be introduced and passed in the Lok Sabha. If passed by a majority vote, the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers resign collectively. The Rajya Sabha has no power over such a motion and hence has no real power over the executive. This is because the Constitution of India has only made the Union Council of ministers responsible to the Lok Sabha, not to the Rajya Sabha. * Money bills can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha, and upon being passed, are sent to the Rajya Sabha, where it can be deliberated on for up to 14 days. If not rejected by the Rajya Sabha, or 14 days lapse from the introduction of the bill in the Rajya Sabha without any action by the House, or recommendations made by the Rajya Sabha are not accepted by the Lok Sabha, the bill is considered passed. The budget is presented in the Lok Sabha by the Finance Minister in the name of the President of India. * In matters about non-financial (ordinary) bills, after the bill has been passed by the House where it was originally tabled (Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha), it is sent to the other house, where it may be kept for a maximum period of 6 months. If the other House rejects the bill or a period of 6 months elapses without any action by that House, or the House that originally tabled the bill does not accept the recommendations made by the members of the other house, it results in a deadlock. This is resolved by a joint session of both Houses, presided over by the speaker of the Lok Sabha and decided by a simple majority. Though the Constitution has placed both houses on the same footing in this regard, in reality, it is the Lok Sabha's opinions that mostly prevail—due to its bigger numerical strength. * Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in initiating and passing any Bill for Constitutional Amendment (by a majority of the total membership of the House and at least two-thirds majority of the members present and voting). * Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in initiating and passing a motion for the impeachment of the President (by two-thirds of the membership of the House). * Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in the impeachment process (initiating and passing a motion for the removal) of the judges of the Supreme Court and the state High Courts (by a majority of the membership of the House and at least two-thirds majority of the members present and voting), who then can be removed by the President of India. * Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in initiating and passing a resolution declaring war or national emergency (by two-thirds majority) or constitutional emergency (by simple majority) in a state. * If the Lok Sabha is dissolved before or after the declaration of a National Emergency, the Rajya Sabha becomes the sole Parliament. It cannot be dissolved. This is a limitation on the Lok Sabha. But there is a possibility that the president can exceed the term to not more than 1 year under the proclamation of emergency and the same would be lowered down to six-month if the said proclamation ceases to operate. In conclusion, the Lok Sabha is more powerful than the Rajya Sabha in almost all matters. Even in those matters in which the Constitution has placed both Houses on an equal footing, the Lok Sabha has more influence due to its greater numerical strength. This is typical of parliamentary democracies, many of which have a lower house that is more powerful than the upper. Procedure --------- ### Procedure in the House The Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha and Directions issued by the Speaker from time to time there under regulate the procedure in Lok Sabha. The items of business, a notice of which is received from the Ministers/ Private Members and admitted by the Speaker, are included in the daily List of Business which is printed and circulated to members in advance. ### Sessions The period during which the House meets to conduct its business is called a session. The Constitution empowers the President to summon each House at such intervals that there should not be more than a six-month gap between the two sessions. Hence the Parliament must meet at least twice a year. But, three sessions of Lok Sabha are held in a year: * Budget session: February to May. * Monsoon session: July to September. * Winter session: November to mid-December. When in session, Lok Sabha holds its sittings usually from 11 a.m. to 1 p.m. and from 2 p.m. to 6 p.m. On some days the sittings are continuously held without observing lunch break and are also extended beyond 6 p.m. depending upon the business before the House. Lok Sabha does not ordinarily sit on Saturdays and Sundays and other closed holidays. ### Question Hour The first hour of every sitting is called Question Hour. Asking questions in Parliament is the free and unfettered right of members, and during Question Hour they may ask questions of ministers on different aspects of administration and government policy in the national and international spheres. Every minister whose turn it is to answer questions has to stand up and answer for his department's acts of omission or commission. Questions are of three types—Starred, Unstarred, and Short Notice. A Starred Question is one to which a member desires an oral answer in the House and which is distinguished by an asterisk mark. An unstarred question is not called for oral answer in the house and on which no supplementary questions can consequently be asked. An answer to such a question is given in writing. A minimum period of notice for starred/unstarred questions is 10 clear days. If the questions given notice are admitted by the Speaker, they are listed and printed for an answer on the dates allotted to the Ministries to which the subject matter of the question pertains. The normal period of notice does not apply to short-notice questions that relate to matters of urgent public importance. However, a short-notice question may be answered only on short notice if so permitted by the Speaker and the Minister concerned is prepared to answer it at shorter notice. A short-notice question is taken up for answer immediately after the Question Hour, popularly known as Zero Hour. ### Zero Hour The time immediately following the Question Hour has come to be known as "Zero Hour". It starts at around noon (hence the name) and members can, with prior notice to the Speaker, raise issues of importance during this time. Typically, discussions on important Bills, the Budget, and other issues of national importance take place from 2 p.m. onwards. ### Business after Question Hour After the Question Hour, the House takes up miscellaneous items of work before proceeding to the main business of the day. These may consist of one or more of the following: Adjournment Motions, Questions involving breaches of Privileges, Papers to be laid on the Table, Communication of any messages from Rajya Sabha, Intimations regarding President's assent to Bills, Calling Attention Notices, Matters under Rule 377, Presentation of Reports of Parliamentary Committee, Presentation of Petitions, miscellaneous statements by Ministers, Motions regarding elections to Committees, Bills to be withdrawn or introduced. ### Main business The main business of the day may be consideration of a bill or financial business or consideration of a resolution or a motion. #### Legislative business Legislative proposals in the form of a bill can be brought forward either by a minister or by an individual member. In the former case, it is known as a government bill and in the latter case, it is known as a private members' bill. Every bill passes through three stages—each called readings—before it is passed. To become law it must be passed by both the houses of Parliament, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha, and then assented to by the president. #### Financial business The presentation, discussion of, and voting on the annual general and railways budgets—followed by the passing of the appropriations Bill and the finance bill—is a long, drawn-out process that takes up a major part of the time of the House during its budget session every year. #### Motions and resolutions Among other kinds of business that come up before the House are resolutions and motions. Resolutions and motions may be brought forward by the government or by individual members. The government may move a resolution or a motion for obtaining the sanction to a scheme or opinion of the house on an important matter of policy or a grave situation. Similarly, an individual member may move a resolution or motion to draw the attention of the house and the government to a particular problem. The last two and half hours of sitting every Friday are generally allotted for the transaction of individual members' business. While private members' bills are taken up on one Friday, private members' resolutions are taken up on the succeeding Friday, and so on. ### Parliamentary committees Most of the business of drafting a bill or amendments is initially discussed and debated in the parliamentary committees. Since the time for legislation is limited, the work of all departments of the government and any special focus tasks are delegated to the committees, wherein the committees shall prepare the initial draft of the bill/amendment for consideration by both the houses. They consist of members of both houses. There are primarily two kinds of parliamentary committees based on their nature:- * Parliament Standing Committees (PSC) – Permanent in nature, reconstituted from time to time with every new election. + Department based + Others * Ad hoc committees – Created for a specific purpose and ceases to exist when that purpose is achieved. ### Half-an-Hour discussion A half-an-hour discussion can be raised on a matter of sufficient public importance which has been the subject of a recent question in Lok Sabha irrespective of the fact whether the question was answered orally or the answer was laid on the Table of the House and the answer which needs elucidation on a matter of fact. Normally not more than half an hour is allowed for such a discussion. Usually, the half-an-hour discussion is listed on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays only. In one session, a member is allowed to raise not more than two half-hour discussions. During the discussion, the member, who has given notice, makes a short statement, and not more than four members, who have intimated earlier and have secured one of the four places on the ballot, are permitted to ask a question each for further elucidating any matter of fact. Thereafter, the minister makes replies. There is no formal motion before the house nor voting. ### Discussion on matters of urgent public importance Members may raise discussions on matters of urgent public importance with the permission of the Speaker. Such discussions may take place two days a week. No formal motion is moved in the House nor is there any voting on such a discussion. ### Debate in the House After the member who initiates discussion on an item of business has spoken, other members can speak on that item of business in such order as the Speaker may call upon them. Only one member can speak at a time and all speeches are directed to the chair. A matter requiring the decision of the House is decided to employ a question put by the Speaker on a motion made by a member. #### Division A division is one of the forms in which the decision of the House is ascertained. Normally, when a motion is put to the House members for and against it indicate their opinion by saying "Aye" or "No" from their seats. The chair goes by the voices and declares that the motion is either accepted or rejected by the House. If a member challenges the decision, the chair orders that the lobbies be cleared. Then the division bell is rung and an entire network of bells installed in the various parts and rooms in Parliament House and Parliament House Annexe rings continuously for three and a half minutes. Members and Ministers rush to the Chamber from all sides. After the bell stops, all the doors to the Chamber are closed and nobody can enter or leave the Chamber till the division is over. Then the chair puts the question for a second time and declares whether in its opinion the "Ayes" or the "Noes", have it. If the opinion so declared is again challenged, the chair asks the votes to be recorded by operating the Automatic Vote Recording Equipment. ### Automatic vote recording system With the announcement of the Speaker for recording the votes, the Secretary-General of the Lok Sabha presses the button of a keyboard. Then a gong sounds, serving as a signal to members for casting their votes. To vote, each member present in the chamber has to flip a switch and then operate one of the three pushbuttons fixed in their seat. The push switch must be kept pressed simultaneously until the gong sounds for the second time after 10 seconds. There are two indicator boards installed in the wall on either side of the Speaker's chair in the chamber. Each vote cast by a member is flashed here. Immediately after the votes are cast, they are totalled mechanically and the details of the results are flashed on the result indicator boards installed in the railings of the Speakers and diplomatic galleries. Divisions are normally held with the aid of automatic vote recording equipment. Where so directed by the Speaker in terms of the relevant provision in the Rules of Procedure etc. In the Lok Sabha, divisions may be held either by the distribution of 'Aye'/'No' and 'Abstention' slips to members in the House or by the members recording their votes by going into the lobbies. There is an indicator board in the machine room showing the name of each member. The result of the division and vote cast by each member with the aid of automatic vote recording equipment also appear on this board and immediately a photograph of the indicator board is taken. Later the photograph is enlarged and the names of members who voted 'Ayes' and for 'Noes' are determined with the help of the photograph and incorporated in Lok Sabha debates. ### Publication of debates Three versions of Lok Sabha debates are prepared: the Hindi version, the English version, and the original version. Only the Hindi and English versions are printed. The original version, in cyclostyled form, is kept in the Parliament Library for record and reference. The Hindi version contains proceedings (all questions asked and answers are given thereto and speeches made) in Hindi and verbatim Hindi translation of proceedings in English or regional languages. The English version contains proceedings in English and the English translation of the proceedings take place in Hindi or any regional language. The original version, however, contains proceedings in Hindi or English as they actually took place in the House and also the English/Hindi translation of speeches made in regional languages. If conflicting legislation is enacted by the two Houses, a joint sitting is held to resolve the differences. In such a session, the members of the Lok Sabha would generally prevail, since the Lok Sabha includes more than twice as many members as the Rajya Sabha. Officers of Lok Sabha --------------------- Speaker and Deputy Speaker As per *Article 93* of the Indian Constitution, the Lok Sabha has a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker. In the Lok Sabha, both presiding officers—the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker- are elected from among its members by a simple majority of members present and voting in the House. No specific qualifications are prescribed for being elected Speaker; the Constitution only requires that Speaker should be a member of the House. But an understanding of the Constitution and the laws of the country and the rules of procedure and conventions of Parliament is considered a major asset for the holder of the office of the Speaker. Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker are mentioned under Article 94 of the Constitution of India. As per *Article 94* of the Indian Constitution, a Speaker or a Deputy Speaker should vacate their office, a) if they cease to be a member of the House of the People, b) they resign, or c) is removed from office by a resolution of the House passed by a majority. The Speaker of Lok Sabha is both a member of the House and its Presiding Officer. The Speaker conducts the business in the House. They decide whether a bill is a money bill or not. They maintain discipline and decorum in the house and can punish a member for their unruly behaviour by suspending them. They permit the moving of various kinds of motions and resolutions like the motion of no confidence, motion of adjournment, motion of censure and calling attention notice as per the rules. The Speaker decides on the agenda to be taken up for discussion during the meeting. It is the Speaker of the Lok Sabha who presides over joint sittings called in the event of disagreement between the two Houses on a legislative measure. Following the 52nd Constitution amendment, the Speaker is vested with the power relating to the disqualification of a member of the Lok Sabha on grounds of defection. The Speaker makes obituary references in the House, formal references to important national and international events, and the valedictory address after every Session of the Lok Sabha and also when the term of the House expires. Though a member of the House, the Speaker does not vote in the House except on those rare occasions when there is a tie at the end of a decision. To date, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha has not been called upon to exercise this unique casting vote. While the office of Speaker is vacant due to absence/resignation/removal, the duties of the office are performed by the Deputy Speaker or, if the office of Deputy Speaker is also vacant, by such member of the House of the People as the President may appoint for the purpose. The Lok Sabha has also a separate non-elected Secretariat staff. Shri G. V. Mavalankar was the first Speaker of Lok Sabha (15 May 1952 – 27 February 1956) and Shri M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar was the first Deputy Speaker (30 May 1952 – 7 March 1956). In the 17th Lok Sabha, Om Birla is the current Speaker. Secretariat The Secretariat of Lok Sabha was set up according to the provisions contained in Article 98 of the Constitution. The said Article, which provides for a separate secretarial staff for each House of Parliament, reads as follows:- 98. Secretariat of Parliament – Each House of Parliament shall have a separate secretarial staff: Provided that nothing in this clause shall be construed as preventing the creation of posts common to both Houses of Parliament. (2) Parliament may by law regulate the recruitment and the conditions of service of persons appointed to the secretarial staff of either House of Parliament. The Lok Sabha Secretariat functions under the overall guidance and control of the Speaker. The main activities of the Secretariat *inter alia* include the following : (i) providing secretarial assistance and support to the effective functioning of the House of the People (Lok Sabha) possible to Members of Lok Sabha; (ii) providing amenities as admissible to Members of Lok Sabha; (iii) servicing the various Parliamentary Committees; (iv) preparing research and reference material and bringing out various publications; (v) recruitment of manpower in the Lok Sabha Secretariat and attending to personnel matters; & (vi) preparing and publishing a record of the day-to-day proceedings of the Lok Sabha and bringing out such other publications, as may be required concerning the functioning of the Lok Sabha and its Committees, among other things. In the discharge of his constitutional and statutory responsibilities, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha is assisted by the Secretary-General, who holds the rank equivalent to the Cabinet Secretary to the Government of India. The Secretary-General, in turn, is assisted by senior functionaries at the level of Secretary, Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary and other officers and staff of the Secretariat. Since November 2020, the Secretary-General of Lok Sabha is Utpal Kumar Singh, IAS. Lok Sabha general elections --------------------------- Each Lok Sabha is constituted after a general election: | Lok Sabha | General Election | | --- | --- | | 1st Lok Sabha | 1951–52 Indian general election | | 2nd Lok Sabha | 1957 Indian general election | | 3rd Lok Sabha | 1962 Indian general election | | 4th Lok Sabha | 1967 Indian general election | | 5th Lok Sabha | 1971 Indian general election | | 6th Lok Sabha | 1977 Indian general election | | 7th Lok Sabha | 1980 Indian general election | | 8th Lok Sabha | 1984 Indian general election | | 9th Lok Sabha | 1989 Indian general election | | 10th Lok Sabha | 1991 Indian general election | | 11th Lok Sabha | 1996 Indian general election | | 12th Lok Sabha | 1998 Indian general election | | 13th Lok Sabha | 1999 Indian general election | | 14th Lok Sabha | 2004 Indian general election | | 15th Lok Sabha | 2009 Indian general election | | 16th Lok Sabha | 2014 Indian general election | | 17th Lok Sabha | 2019 Indian general election | | 18th Lok Sabha | 2024 Indian general election | Statewise representation ------------------------ As of 26 January 2020, the Lok Sabha is composed of 543 members while maximum seats will fill up to 550 (after article 331- 2 seats reserved for Anglo Indian but by 126th Constitution Amendment article 331 is null by Parliament, before this amendment maximum seat will 552). The maximum size of the Lok Sabha as outlined in the Constitution of India is 552 members, made up of up to 524 members representing the people of 28 states and 19 members representing people of 8 Union territories based on their population. See the table below for details: | State/ UT\* | Seats | | --- | --- | | Andaman and Nicobar Islands\* | 1 | | Andhra Pradesh | 25 | | Arunachal Pradesh | 2 | | Assam | 14 | | Bihar | 40 | | Chandigarh\* | 1 | | Chhattisgarh | 11 | | DNH & DD\* | 2 | | Delhi (NCT)\* | 7 | | Goa | 2 | | Gujarat | 26 | | Haryana | 10 | | Himachal Pradesh | 4 | | Jammu and Kashmir\* | 5 | | Jharkhand | 14 | | Karnataka | 28 | | Kerala | 20 | | Ladakh\* | 1 | | Lakshadweep\* | 1 | | Madhya Pradesh | 29 | | Maharashtra | 48 | | Manipur | 2 | | Meghalaya | 2 | | Mizoram | 1 | | Nagaland | 1 | | Odisha | 21 | | Puducherry\* | 1 | | Punjab | 13 | | Rajasthan | 25 | | Sikkim | 1 | | Tamil Nadu | 39 | | Telangana | 17 | | Tripura | 2 | | Uttarakhand | 5 | | Uttar Pradesh | 80 | | West Bengal | 42 | | **Total** | **543** | Membership by party ------------------- No. of Lok Sabha MP's party-wise: *As of 30 May 2023* | Alliance | Party | No. of MPs | Leader of the Party | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | **Government****National Democratic Alliance**Seats: **328** | | BJP | 300 | Narendra Modi | | | SHS | 13 | Rahul Shewale | | | RLJP | 5 | Pashupati Kumar Paras | | | AD(S) | 2 | Anupriya Patel | | | NDPP | 1 | T.Yepthomi | | | AJSU | 1 | CP Choudhary | | | NPF | 1 | Kuzholuzo Nienu | | | NPP | 1 | Agatha Sangma | | | MNF | 1 | C. Lalrosanga | | | SKM | 1 | I.H Subba | | | Independent | 2 | * P. Ravindhranath * Sumalatha | | | **Opposition**Seats: **210** | | INC | 49 | Adhir Ranjan Chowdhury | | | DMK | 24 | T. R. Baalu | | | TMC | 23 | Sudip Bandyopadhyay | | | YSRCP | 22 | Midhun Reddy | | | JD(U) | 16 | Rajiv Ranjan | | | BJD | 12 | Pinaki Misra | | | BSP | 9 | Girish Chandra | | | BRS | 9 | Nageswara Rao | | | SS(UBT) | 6 | Vinayak Raut | | | NCP | 5 | Supriya Sule | | | IUML | 3 | E. T. Mohammed Basheer | | | CPI(M) | 3 | P R Natarajan | | | JKNC | 3 | Farooq Abdullah | | | TDP | 3 | K Ram Mohan Naidu | | | SP | 3 | S. T. Hasan | | | CPI | 2 | K. Subbarayan | | | SAD | 2 | Harsimrat Kaur Badal | | | AIMIM | 2 | A. Owaisi | | | AAP | 1 | Sushil Kumar Rinku | | | JMM | 1 | Vijay Hansdak | | | RSP | 1 | Premchandran | | | AIUDF | 1 | Badruddin Ajmal | | | | SAD(A) | 1 | Simranjit Singh Mann | | | LJP(RV) | 1 | Chirag Paswan | | | KC(M) | 1 | T. Chazhikadan | | | JD(S) | 1 | Prajwal Revanna | | | RLP | 1 | H. Beniwal | | | VCK | 1 | T.Thirumavalan | | | | | Independent | 4 | * Preneet Kaur * Naba Kumar Saraniya * Navneet Kaur Rana * Arjun Singh | | | **Vacant**Seats: **5** | | Vacant | 5 | * Ghazipur * Pune * Wayanad * Ambala * Chandrapur | | Total | 543 | | See also -------- * List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha * Parliament of India * Rajya Sabha Further reading --------------- * Sen, Ronojoy (2022). *House of the People: Parliament and the Making of Indian Democracy*. Cambridge University Press.

Lok Sabha

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lok_Sabha

**Osteoarthritis** (**OA**) is a type of degenerative joint disease that results from breakdown of joint cartilage and underlying bone which affects 1 in 7 adults in the United States. It is believed to be the fourth leading cause of disability in the world. The most common symptoms are joint pain and stiffness. Usually the symptoms progress slowly over years. Other symptoms may include joint swelling, decreased range of motion, and, when the back is affected, weakness or numbness of the arms and legs. The most commonly involved joints are the two near the ends of the fingers and the joint at the base of the thumbs, the knee and hip joints, and the joints of the neck and lower back. The symptoms can interfere with work and normal daily activities. Unlike some other types of arthritis, only the joints, not internal organs, are affected. Causes include previous joint injury, abnormal joint or limb development, and inherited factors. Risk is greater in those who are overweight, have legs of different lengths, or have jobs that result in high levels of joint stress. Osteoarthritis is believed to be caused by mechanical stress on the joint and low grade inflammatory processes. It develops as cartilage is lost and the underlying bone becomes affected. As pain may make it difficult to exercise, muscle loss may occur. Diagnosis is typically based on signs and symptoms, with medical imaging and other tests used to support or rule out other problems. In contrast to rheumatoid arthritis, in osteoarthritis the joints do not become hot or red. Treatment includes exercise, decreasing joint stress such as by rest or use of a cane, support groups, and pain medications. Weight loss may help in those who are overweight. Pain medications may include paracetamol (acetaminophen) as well as NSAIDs such as naproxen or ibuprofen. Long-term opioid use is not recommended due to lack of information on benefits as well as risks of addiction and other side effects. Joint replacement surgery may be an option if there is ongoing disability despite other treatments. An artificial joint typically lasts 10 to 15 years. Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis, affecting about 237 million people or 3.3% of the world's population, as of 2015. It becomes more common as people age. Among those over 60 years old, about 10% of males and 18% of females are affected. Osteoarthritis is the cause of about 2% of years lived with disability. Signs and symptoms ------------------ The main symptom is pain, causing loss of ability and often stiffness. The pain is typically made worse by prolonged activity and relieved by rest. Stiffness is most common in the morning, and typically lasts less than thirty minutes after beginning daily activities, but may return after periods of inactivity. Osteoarthritis can cause a crackling noise (called "crepitus") when the affected joint is moved, especially shoulder and knee joint. A person may also complain of joint locking and joint instability. These symptoms would affect their daily activities due to pain and stiffness. Some people report increased pain associated with cold temperature, high humidity, or a drop in barometric pressure, but studies have had mixed results. Osteoarthritis commonly affects the hands, feet, spine, and the large weight-bearing joints, such as the hips and knees, although in theory, any joint in the body can be affected. As osteoarthritis progresses, movement patterns (such as gait), are typically affected. Osteoarthritis is the most common cause of a joint effusion of the knee. In smaller joints, such as at the fingers, hard bony enlargements, called Heberden's nodes (on the distal interphalangeal joints) or Bouchard's nodes (on the proximal interphalangeal joints), may form, and though they are not necessarily painful, they do limit the movement of the fingers significantly. Osteoarthritis of the toes may be a factor causing formation of bunions, rendering them red or swollen. Causes ------ Damage from mechanical stress with insufficient self repair by joints is believed to be the primary cause of osteoarthritis. Sources of this stress may include misalignments of bones caused by congenital or pathogenic causes; mechanical injury; excess body weight; loss of strength in the muscles supporting a joint; and impairment of peripheral nerves, leading to sudden or uncoordinated movements. However exercise, including running in the absence of injury, has not been found to increase the risk of knee osteoarthritis. Nor has cracking one's knuckles been found to play a role. The risk of osteoarthritis increases with ageing. ### Primary The development of osteoarthritis is correlated with a history of previous joint injury and with obesity, especially with respect to knees. Changes in sex hormone levels may play a role in the development of osteoarthritis, as it is more prevalent among post-menopausal women than among men of the same age. Conflicting evidence exists for the differences in hip and knee osteoarthritis in African Americans and Caucasians. #### Occupational Increased risk of developing knee and hip osteoarthritis was found among those who work with manual handling (e.g. lifting), have physically demanding work, walk at work, and have climbing tasks at work (e.g. climb stairs or ladders). With hip osteoarthritis, in particular, increased risk of development over time was found among those who work in bent or twisted positions. For knee osteoarthritis, in particular, increased risk was found among those who work in a kneeling or squatting position, experience heavy lifting in combination with a kneeling or squatting posture, and work standing up. Women and men have similar occupational risks for the development of osteoarthritis. ### Secondary Lateral X-ray scan of ankle with secondary osteoarthritisLateralFrontal X-ray scan of ankle with secondary osteoarthritisFrontalSecondary osteoarthritis of the ankle (due to an old bone fracture) in an 82-year-old woman This type of osteoarthritis is caused by other factors but the resulting pathology is the same as for primary osteoarthritis: * Alkaptonuria * Congenital disorders of joints * Diabetes doubles the risk of having a joint replacement due to osteoarthritis and people with diabetes have joint replacements at a younger age than those without diabetes. * Ehlers-Danlos syndrome * Hemochromatosis and Wilson's disease * Inflammatory diseases (such as Perthes' disease), (Lyme disease), and all chronic forms of arthritis (e.g., costochondritis, gout, and rheumatoid arthritis). In gout, uric acid crystals cause the cartilage to degenerate at a faster pace. * Injury to joints or ligaments (such as the ACL) as a result of an accident or orthopedic operations. * Ligamentous deterioration or instability may be a factor. * Marfan syndrome * Obesity * Joint infection Pathophysiology --------------- Annotated illustration of healthy hip jointHealthy hip jointAnnotated illustration of hip joint with osteoarthritisHip joint with osteoarthritis While osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease that may cause gross cartilage loss and morphological damage to other joint tissues, more subtle biochemical changes occur in the earliest stages of osteoarthritis progression. The water content of healthy cartilage is finely balanced by compressive force driving water out and hydrostatic and osmotic pressure drawing water in. Collagen fibres exert the compressive force, whereas the Gibbs–Donnan effect and cartilage proteoglycans create osmotic pressure which tends to draw water in. However, during onset of osteoarthritis, the collagen matrix becomes more disorganized and there is a decrease in proteoglycan content within cartilage. The breakdown of collagen fibers results in a net increase in water content. This increase occurs because whilst there is an overall loss of proteoglycans (and thus a decreased osmotic pull), it is outweighed by a loss of collagen. Other structures within the joint can also be affected. The ligaments within the joint become thickened and fibrotic, and the menisci can become damaged and wear away. Menisci can be completely absent by the time a person undergoes a joint replacement. New bone outgrowths, called "spurs" or osteophytes, can form on the margins of the joints, possibly in an attempt to improve the congruence of the articular cartilage surfaces in the absence of the menisci. The subchondral bone volume increases and becomes less mineralized (hypomineralization). All these changes can cause problems functioning. The pain in an osteoarthritic joint has been related to thickened synovium and to subchondral bone lesions. Diagnosis --------- Synovial fluid examination| Type | WBC (per mm3) |  % neutrophils | Viscosity | Appearance | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Normal | <200 | 0 | High | Transparent | | Osteoarthritis | <5000 | <25 | High | Clear yellow | | Trauma | <10,000 | <50 | Variable | Bloody | | Inflammatory | 2,000–50,000 | 50–80 | Low | Cloudy yellow | | Septic arthritis | >50,000 | >75 | Low | Cloudy yellow | | Gonorrhea | ~10,000 | 60 | Low | Cloudy yellow | | Tuberculosis | ~20,000 | 70 | Low | Cloudy yellow | | Inflammatory: gout, rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatic fever | Diagnosis is made with reasonable certainty based on history and clinical examination. X-rays may confirm the diagnosis. The typical changes seen on X-ray include: joint space narrowing, subchondral sclerosis (increased bone formation around the joint), subchondral cyst formation, and osteophytes. Plain films may not correlate with the findings on physical examination or with the degree of pain. In 1990, the American College of Rheumatology, using data from a multi-center study, developed a set of criteria for the diagnosis of hand osteoarthritis based on hard tissue enlargement and swelling of certain joints. These criteria were found to be 92% sensitive and 98% specific for hand osteoarthritis versus other entities such as rheumatoid arthritis and spondyloarthropathies. * Severe osteoarthritis and osteopenia of the carpal joint and 1st carpometacarpal jointSevere osteoarthritis and osteopenia of the carpal joint and 1st carpometacarpal joint * MRI of osteoarthritis in the knee, with characteristic narrowing of the joint spaceMRI of osteoarthritis in the knee, with characteristic narrowing of the joint space * Primary osteoarthritis of the left knee. Note the osteophytes, narrowing of the joint space (arrow), and increased subchondral bone density (arrow).Primary osteoarthritis of the left knee. Note the osteophytes, narrowing of the joint space (arrow), and increased subchondral bone density (arrow). * Damaged cartilage from sows. (a) cartilage erosion (b)cartilage ulceration (c)cartilage repair (d)osteophyte (bone spur) formation.Damaged cartilage from sows. (a) cartilage erosion (b)cartilage ulceration (c)cartilage repair (d)osteophyte (bone spur) formation. * Histopathology of osteoarthrosis of a knee joint in an elderly femaleHistopathology of osteoarthrosis of a knee joint in an elderly female * Histopathology of osteoarthrosis of a knee joint in an elderly femaleHistopathology of osteoarthrosis of a knee joint in an elderly female * In a healthy joint, the ends of bones are encased in smooth cartilage. Together, they are protected by a joint capsule lined with a synovial membrane that produces synovial fluid. The capsule and fluid protect the cartilage, muscles, and connective tissues.In a healthy joint, the ends of bones are encased in smooth cartilage. Together, they are protected by a joint capsule lined with a synovial membrane that produces synovial fluid. The capsule and fluid protect the cartilage, muscles, and connective tissues. * With osteoarthritis, the cartilage becomes worn away. Spurs grow out from the edge of the bone, and synovial fluid increases. Altogether, the joint feels stiff and sore.With osteoarthritis, the cartilage becomes worn away. Spurs grow out from the edge of the bone, and synovial fluid increases. Altogether, the joint feels stiff and sore. * OsteoarthritisOsteoarthritis * Bone (left) and clinical (right) changes of the hand in osteoarthritisBone (left) and clinical (right) changes of the hand in osteoarthritis ### Classification A number of classification systems are used for gradation of osteoarthritis: * WOMAC scale, taking into account pain, stiffness and functional limitation. * Kellgren-Lawrence grading scale for osteoarthritis of the knee. It uses only projectional radiography features. * Tönnis classification for osteoarthritis of the hip joint, also using only projectional radiography features. Both primary generalized nodal osteoarthritis and erosive osteoarthritis (EOA, also called inflammatory osteoarthritis) are sub-sets of primary osteoarthritis. EOA is a much less common, and more aggressive inflammatory form of osteoarthritis which often affects the distal interphalangeal joints of the hand and has characteristic articular erosive changes on X-ray. Management ---------- Lifestyle modification (such as weight loss and exercise) and pain medications are the mainstays of treatment. Acetaminophen (also known as paracetamol) is recommended first line, with NSAIDs being used as add-on therapy only if pain relief is not sufficient. Medications that alter the course of the disease have not been found as at 2018. Recommendations include modification of risk factors through targeted interventions including 1) obesity and overweight, 2) physical activity, 3) dietary exposures, 4) comorbidity, 5) biomechanical factors, 6) occupational factors. Successful management of the condition is often made more difficult by differing priorities and poor communication between clinicians and people with osteoarthritis. Realistic treatment goals can be achieved by developing a shared understanding of the condition, actively listening to patient concerns, avoiding medical jargon and tailoring treatment plans to the patient's needs. ### Lifestyle changes For overweight people, weight loss may be an important factor. Weight loss and exercise provides long-term treatment and advocated in patients with OA. As an adjunct to these lifestyle changes, use of analgesia, intra-articular cortisone injection and consideration of hyaluronic acids and platelet-rich plasma are recommended for pain relief in patients with knee osteoarthritis. Patient education has been shown to be helpful in the self-management of arthritis. It decreases pain, improves function, reduces stiffness and fatigue, and reduces medical usage. Patient education can provide on average 20% more pain relief when compared to NSAIDs alone. ### Physical measures Moderate exercise may be beneficial with respect to pain and function in those with osteoarthritis of the knee and hip. These exercises should occur at least three times per week. While some evidence supports certain physical therapies, evidence for a combined program is limited. Providing clear advice, making exercises enjoyable, and reassuring people about the importance of doing exercises may lead to greater benefit and more participation. Limited evidence suggests that supervised exercise therapy may improve exercise adherence. There is not enough evidence to determine the effectiveness of massage therapy. The evidence for manual therapy is inconclusive. A 2015 review indicated that aquatic therapy is safe, effective, and can be an adjunct therapy for knee osteoarthritis. Functional, gait, and balance training have been recommended to address impairments of position sense, balance, and strength in individuals with lower extremity arthritis, as these can contribute to a higher rate of falls in older individuals. For people with hand osteoarthritis, exercises may provide small benefits for improving hand function, reducing pain, and relieving finger joint stiffness. Lateral wedge insoles and neutral insoles do not appear to be useful in osteoarthritis of the knee. Knee braces may help but their usefulness has also been disputed. For pain management heat can be used to relieve stiffness, and cold can relieve muscle spasms and pain. Among people with hip and knee osteoarthritis, exercise in water may reduce pain and disability, and increase quality of life in the short term. Also therapeutic exercise programs such as aerobics and walking reduce pain and improve physical functioning for up to 6 months after the end of the program for people with knee osteoarthritis. Hydrotherapy might also be an advantage on the management of pain, disability and quality of life reported by people with osteoarthritis. ### Medication | Treatment recommendations by risk factors | | --- | | GI risk | CVD risk | Option | | Low | Low | NSAID, or paracetamol | | Moderate | Low | Paracetamol, or low dose NSAID with antacid | | Low | Moderate | Paracetamol, or low dose aspirin with an antacid | | Moderate | Moderate | Low dose paracetamol, aspirin, and antacid. Monitoring for abdominal pain or black stool. | #### By mouth The pain medication paracetamol (acetaminophen) is the first line treatment for osteoarthritis. Pain relief does not differ according to dosage. However, a 2015 review found acetaminophen to have only a small short-term benefit with some laboratory concerns of liver inflammation. For mild to moderate symptoms effectiveness of acetaminophen is similar to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as naproxen, though for more severe symptoms NSAIDs may be more effective. NSAIDs are associated with greater side effects such as gastrointestinal bleeding. Another class of NSAIDs, COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as celecoxib) are equally effective when compared to nonselective NSAIDs, and have lower rates of adverse gastrointestinal effects, but higher rates of cardiovascular disease such as myocardial infarction. They are also more expensive than non-specific NSAIDs. Benefits and risks vary in individuals and need consideration when making treatment decisions, and further unbiased research comparing NSAIDS and COX-2 selective inhibitors is needed. NSAIDS applied topically are effective for a small number of people. The COX-2 selective inhibitor rofecoxib was removed from the market in 2004, as cardiovascular events were associated with long term use. Failure to achieve desired pain relief in osteoarthritis after two weeks should trigger reassessment of dosage and pain medication. Opioids by mouth, including both weak opioids such as tramadol and stronger opioids, are also often prescribed. Their appropriateness is uncertain, and opioids are often recommended only when first line therapies have failed or are contraindicated. This is due to their small benefit and relatively large risk of side effects. The use of tramadol likely does not improve pain or physical function and likely increases the incidence of adverse side effects. Oral steroids are not recommended in the treatment of osteoarthritis. Use of the antibiotic doxycycline orally for treating osteoarthritis is not associated with clinical improvements in function or joint pain. Any small benefit related to the potential for doxycycline therapy to address the narrowing of the joint space is not clear, and any benefit is outweighed by the potential harm from side effects. A 2018 meta-analysis found that oral collagen supplementation for the treatment of osteoarthritis reduces stiffness but does not improve pain and functional limitation. #### Topical There are several NSAIDs available for topical use, including diclofenac. A Cochrane review from 2016 concluded that reasonably reliable evidence is available only for use of topical diclofenac and ketoprofen in people aged over 40 years with painful knee arthritis. Transdermal opioid pain medications are not typically recommended in the treatment of osteoarthritis. The use of topical capsaicin to treat osteoarthritis is controversial, as some reviews found benefit while others did not. #### Joint injections Local drug delivery by intra-articular injection may be more effective and safer in terms of increased bioavailability, less systemic exposure and reduced adverse events. Several intra-articular medications for symptomatic treatment are available on the market as follows. ##### Steroids Joint injection of glucocorticoids (such as hydrocortisone) leads to short-term pain relief that may last between a few weeks and a few months. A 2015 Cochrane review found that intra-articular corticosteroid injections of the knee did not benefit quality of life and had no effect on knee joint space; clinical effects one to six weeks after injection could not be determined clearly due to poor study quality. Another 2015 study reported negative effects of intra-articular corticosteroid injections at higher doses, and a 2017 trial showed reduction in cartilage thickness with intra-articular triamcinolone every 12 weeks for 2 years compared to placebo. A 2018 study found that intra-articular triamcinolone is associated with an increase in intraocular pressure. ##### Hyaluronic acid Injections of hyaluronic acid have not produced improvement compared to placebo for knee arthritis, but did increase risk of further pain. In ankle osteoarthritis, evidence is unclear. #### Radiosynoviorthesis Injection of beta particle-emitting radioisotopes (called *radiosynoviorthesis*) is used for the local treatment of inflammatory joint conditions. This procedure is also performed in veterinary medicine using the isotope tin-117m to treat canine elbow synovitis. ##### Platelet-rich plasma The effectiveness of injections of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is unclear; there are suggestions that such injections improve function but not pain, and are associated with increased risk.[*vague*] A 2014 Cochrane review of studies involving PRP found the evidence to be insufficient. ### Surgery #### Bone fusion Arthrodesis (fusion) of the bones may be an option in some types of osteoarthritis. An example is ankle osteoarthritis, in which ankle fusion is considered to be the gold standard treatment in end-stage cases. #### Joint replacement If the impact of symptoms of osteoarthritis on quality of life is significant and more conservative management is ineffective, joint replacement surgery or resurfacing may be recommended. Evidence supports joint replacement for both knees and hips as it is both clinically effective and cost-effective. People who underwent total knee replacement had improved SF-12 quality of life scores, were feeling better compared to those who did not have surgery, and may have short- and long-term benefits for quality of life in terms of pain and function. The beneficial effects of these surgeries may be time-limited due to various environmental factors, comorbidities, and pain in other regions of the body. For people who have shoulder osteoarthritis and do not respond to medications, surgical options include a shoulder hemiarthroplasty (replacing a part of the joint), and total shoulder arthroplasty (replacing the joint). Biological joint replacement involves replacing the diseased tissues with new ones. This can either be from the person (autograft) or from a donor (allograft). People undergoing a joint transplant (osteochondral allograft) do not need to take immunosuppressants as bone and cartilage tissues have limited immune responses. Autologous articular cartilage transfer from a non-weight-bearing area to the damaged area, called osteochondral autograft transfer system, is one possible procedure that is being studied. When the missing cartilage is a focal defect, autologous chondrocyte implantation is also an option. #### Shoulder replacement For those with osteoarthritis in the shoulder, a complete shoulder replacement is sometimes suggested to improve pain and function. Demand for this treatment is expected to increase by 750% by the year 2030. There are different options for shoulder replacement surgeries, however, there is a lack of evidence in the form of high-quality randomized controlled trials, to determine which type of shoulder replacement surgery is most effective in different situations, what are the risks involved with different approaches, or how the procedure compares to other treatment options. There is some low-quality evidence that indicates that when comparing total shoulder arthroplasty over hemiarthroplasty, no large clinical benefit was detected in the short term. It is not clear if the risk of harm differs between total shoulder arthroplasty or a hemiarthroplasty approach. #### Other surgical options Osteotomy may be useful in people with knee osteoarthritis, but has not been well studied and it is unclear whether it is more effective than non-surgical treatments or other types of surgery. Arthroscopic surgery is largely not recommended, as it does not improve outcomes in knee osteoarthritis, and may result in harm. It is unclear whether surgery is beneficial in people with mild to moderate knee osteoarthritis. ### Alternative medicine #### Glucosamine and chondroitin The effectiveness of glucosamine is controversial. Reviews have found it to be equal to or slightly better than placebo. A difference may exist between glucosamine sulfate and glucosamine hydrochloride, with glucosamine sulfate showing a benefit and glucosamine hydrochloride not. The evidence for glucosamine sulfate having an effect on osteoarthritis progression is somewhat unclear and if present likely modest. The Osteoarthritis Research Society International recommends that glucosamine be discontinued if no effect is observed after six months and the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence no longer recommends its use. Despite the difficulty in determining the efficacy of glucosamine, it remains a treatment option. The European Society for Clinical and Economic Aspects of Osteoporosis and Osteoarthritis (ESCEO) recommends glucosamine sulfate and chondroitin sulfate for knee osteoarthritis. Its use as a therapy for osteoarthritis is usually safe. A 2015 Cochrane review of clinical trials of chondroitin found that most were of low quality, but that there was some evidence of short-term improvement in pain and few side effects; it does not appear to improve or maintain the health of affected joints. #### Other remedies Avocado–soybean unsaponifiables (ASU) is an extract made from avocado oil and soybean oil sold under many brand names worldwide as a dietary supplement and as a prescription drug in France. A 2014 Cochrane review found that while ASU might help relieve pain in the short term for some people with osteoarthritis, it does not appear to improve or maintain the health of affected joints. The review noted a high-quality, two-year clinical trial comparing ASU to chondroitin – which has uncertain efficacy in osteoarthritis – with no difference between the two agents. The review also found there is insufficient evidence of ASU safety. A few high-quality studies of *Boswellia serrata* show consistent, but small, improvements in pain and function. Curcumin, phytodolor, and s-adenosyl methionine (SAMe) may be effective in improving pain. A 2009 Cochrane review recommended against the routine use of SAMe, as there has not been sufficient high-quality clinical research to prove its effect. A 2021 review found that hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) had no benefit in reducing pain and improving physical function in hand or knee osteoarthritis, and the off-label use of HCQ for people with osteoarthritis should be discouraged. There is no evidence for the use of colchicine for treating the pain of hand or knee arthritis. There is limited evidence to support the use of hyaluronan, methylsulfonylmethane, rose hip, capsaicin, or vitamin D. #### Acupuncture and other interventions While acupuncture leads to improvements in pain relief, this improvement is small and may be of questionable importance. Waiting list–controlled trials for peripheral joint osteoarthritis do show clinically relevant benefits, but these may be due to placebo effects. Acupuncture does not seem to produce long-term benefits. Electrostimulation techniques such as TENS have been used for twenty years to treat osteoarthritis in the knee. However, there is no conclusive evidence to show that it reduces pain or disability. A Cochrane review of low-level laser therapy found unclear evidence of benefit, whereas another review found short-term pain relief for osteoarthritic knees. Further research is needed to determine if balnotherapy for osteoarthritis (mineral baths or spa treatments) improves a person's quality of life or ability to function. The use of ice or cold packs may be beneficial; however, further research is needed. There is no evidence of benefit from placing hot packs on joints. There is low quality evidence that therapeutic ultrasound may be beneficial for people with osteoarthritis of the knee; however, further research is needed to confirm and determine the degree and significance of this potential benefit. Therapeutic ultrasound may relieve pain compared to conventional non-drug ultrasound however phonopheresis does not produce additional benefits to functional improvement. It is safe treatment to relieve pain and improve physical function in patients with knee osteoarthritis. Continuous and pulsed ultrasound modes (especially 1 MHz, 2.5 W/cm2, 15min/ session, 3 session/ week, during 8 weeks protocol) can be effective in improving patients physical function and pain. There is weak evidence suggesting that electromagnetic field treatment may result in moderate pain relief; however, further research is necessary and it is not known if electromagnetic field treatment can improve quality of life or function. Viscosupplementation for osteoarthritis of the knee may have positive effects on pain and function at 5 to 13 weeks post-injection. Epidemiology ------------ Globally, as of 2010[update], approximately 250 million people had osteoarthritis of the knee (3.6% of the population). Hip osteoarthritis affects about 0.85% of the population. As of 2004[update], osteoarthritis globally causes moderate to severe disability in 43.4 million people. Together, knee and hip osteoarthritis had a ranking for disability globally of 11th among 291 disease conditions assessed. ### Middle East and North Africa (MENA) In the Middle East and North Africa from 1990 to 2019, the prevalence of people with hip osteoarthritis increased three–fold over the three decades, a total of 1.28 million cases. It increased 2.88-fold, from 6.16 million cases to 17.75 million, between 1990 and 2019 for knee osteoarthritis. Hand osteoarthritis in MENA also increased 2.7-fold, from 1.6 million cases to 4.3 million from 1990 to 2019. ### USA As of 2012[update], osteoarthritis affected 52.5 million people in the United States, approximately 50% of whom were 65 years or older. It is estimated that 80% of the population have radiographic evidence of osteoarthritis by age 65, although only 60% of those will have symptoms. The rate of osteoarthritis in the United States is forecast to be 78 million (26%) adults by 2040. In the United States, there were approximately 964,000 hospitalizations for osteoarthritis in 2011, a rate of 31 stays per 10,000 population. With an aggregate cost of $14.8 billion ($15,400 per stay), it was the second-most expensive condition seen in U.S. hospital stays in 2011. By payer, it was the second-most costly condition billed to Medicare and private insurance. ### Europe ### India In India, the number of individuals affected by osteoarthritis has increased from 23.46 million in 1990 to 62.35 million in 2019. Knee osteoarthritis was the most prevalent type of osteoarthritis, followed by hand osteoarthritis. In 2019, osteoarthritis was the 20th most common cause of years lived with disability (YLDs) in India, accounting for 1.48% of all YLDs, which increased from 1.25% and 23rd most common cause in 1990. History ------- ### Etymology Osteoarthritis is derived from the prefix *osteo-* (from Ancient Greek: ὀστέον, romanized: *ostéon*, lit. 'bone') combined with *arthritis* (from ἀρθρῖτῐς, *arthrîtis*, lit. ''of or in the joint''), which is itself derived from *arthr-* (from ἄρθρον, *árthron*, lit. ''joint, limb'') and *-itis* (from -ῖτις, *-îtis*, lit. ''pertaining to''), the latter suffix having come to be associated with inflammation. The *-itis* of osteoarthritis could be considered misleading as inflammation is not a conspicuous feature. Some clinicians refer to this condition as *osteoarthrosis* to signify the lack of inflammatory response, the suffix *-osis* (from -ωσις, *-ōsis*, lit. ''(abnormal) state, condition, or action'') simply referring to the pathosis itself. Other animals ------------- Osteoarthritis has been reported in several species of animals all over the world, including marine animals and even some fossils; including but not limited to: cats, many rodents, cattle, deer, rabbits, sheep, camels, elephants, buffalo, hyena, lions, mules, pigs, tigers, kangaroos, dolphins, dugong, and horses. Osteoarthritis has been reported in fossils of the large carnivorous dinosaur *Allosaurus fragilis*. Research -------- ### Therapies Pharmaceutical agents that will alter the natural history of disease progression by arresting joint structural change and ameliorating symptoms are termed as disease modifying therapy (DMOAD). Therapies under investigation include the following: * Strontium ranelate – may decrease degeneration in osteoarthritis and improve outcomes * Gene therapy – Gene transfer strategies aim to target the disease process rather than the symptoms. Cell-mediated gene therapy is also being studied. One version was approved in South Korea for the treatment of moderate knee osteoarthritis, but later revoked for the mislabeling and the false reporting of an ingredient used. The drug was administered intra-articularly. ### Cause As well as attempting to find disease-modifying agents for osteoarthritis, there is emerging evidence that a system-based approach is necessary to find the causes of osteoarthritis. ### Diagnostic biomarkers Guidelines outlining requirements for inclusion of soluble biomarkers in osteoarthritis clinical trials were published in 2015, but there are no validated biomarkers used clinically to detect osteoarthritis, as of 2021. A 2015 systematic review of biomarkers for osteoarthritis looking for molecules that could be used for risk assessments found 37 different biochemical markers of bone and cartilage turnover in 25 publications. The strongest evidence was for urinary C-terminal telopeptide of type II collagen (uCTX-II) as a prognostic marker for knee osteoarthritis progression, and serum cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) levels as a prognostic marker for incidence of both knee and hip osteoarthritis. A review of biomarkers in hip osteoarthritis also found associations with uCTX-II. Procollagen type II C-terminal propeptide (PIICP) levels reflect type II collagen synthesis in body and within joint fluid PIICP levels can be used as a prognostic marker for early osteoarthritis.

Osteoarthritis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteoarthritis

**Trieste** (/triˈɛst/ *tree-EST*, Italian: [triˈɛste] (); Slovene: *Trst* [tə̀ɾst, tə́ɾst]; Austrian German: *Triest* [tʁiˈɛst] (); Friulian: *Triest*) is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous region of Friuli Venezia Giulia, one of two autonomous regions which are not subdivided into provinces. Trieste is located at the head of the Gulf of Trieste, on a narrow strip of Italian territory lying between the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia; Slovenia lies approximately 8 km (5 mi) east and 10–15 km (6–9 mi) southeast of the city, while Croatia is about 30 km (19 mi) to the south of the city. The city has a long coastline and is surrounded by grassland, forest, and karstic areas. The city has a subtropical climate, unusual in relation to its relatively high latitude, due to marine breezes. In 2022, it had a population of about 204,302. Trieste is the capital of the autonomous region of Friuli Venezia Giulia and was previously capital of the Province of Trieste, until its abolition on 1 October 2017. Trieste belonged to the Habsburg monarchy from 1382 until 1918. In the 19th century the monarchy was one of the Great Powers of Europe and Trieste was its most important seaport. As a prosperous trading hub in the Mediterranean region, Trieste became the fourth largest city of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (after Vienna, Budapest, and Prague). In the *fin de siècle* period it emerged as an important hub for literature and music. Trieste underwent an economic revival during the 1930s, and the Free Territory of Trieste became a major site of the struggle between the Eastern and Western blocs after the Second World War. Trieste, a deep-water port, is a maritime gateway for northern Italy, Germany, Austria and Central Europe. It is considered the end point of the maritime Silk Road, with its connections to the Suez Canal and Turkey. Since the 1960s, Trieste has emerged as a prominent research location in Europe because of its many international organisations and institutions. The city lies at the intersection of Latin, Slavic and Germanic cultures where Central Europe meets the Mediterranean Sea, and is home to diverse ethnic groups and religious communities. Trieste has the highest percentage of researchers in Europe in relation to population. "Città della Barcolana", "Città della bora", "Città del vento", "Vienna by the sea" and "City of coffee" are also idioms used to describe Trieste. Names and etymology ------------------- The most likely origin is a Celtic word, *Tergeste* – with the *-est-* suffix typical of Venetic – and derived from the hypothetical Illyrian word *\*terg-* "market" (etymologically cognate to the Albanian term *treg* 'market, marketplace' and reconstructed Proto-Slavic "\*tъrgъ") Roman authors also transliterated the name as *Tergestum* (according to Strabo, the name of the *oppidum* Tergestum originated from the three battles the Roman Army had to engage in with local tribes, "TER GESTUM [BELLUM]"). Modern names of the city include: Italian: *Trieste*, Slovene: *Trst*, German: *Triest*, Hungarian: *Trieszt*, Serbo-Croatian: *Trst* / Трст, Polish: *Triest*, Greek: Τεργέστη *Tergésti* and Czech: *Terst*. Geography --------- Trieste lies in the northernmost part of the high Adriatic in northeastern Italy, near the border with Slovenia. The city lies on the Gulf of Trieste. Built mostly on a hillside that becomes a mountain, Trieste's urban territory lies at the foot of an imposing escarpment that comes down abruptly from the Karst Plateau towards the sea. The karst hills delimiting the city reach an elevation of 458 metres (1,503 feet) above sea level. It lies at the junction point of the Italian geographical region, the Balkan Peninsula, and Mitteleuropan Area. ### Climate The territory of Trieste is composed of several different climate zones depending on the distance from the sea and elevation. The average temperatures (1971–2000) are 5.7 °C (42 °F) in January and 24.1 °C (75 °F) in July. It has a humid subtropical climate (according to the Köppen climate classification). On average, humidity levels are low (~65%), while only two months (January and February) receive slightly less than 60 mm (2 in) of precipitation. Trieste, like the Istrian Peninsula, has evenly distributed rainfall above 1,000 mm (39 in) in total; it is noteworthy that no true summer drought occurs. Snow occurs on average 0–2 days per year. Temperatures are very mild; lows below 0° are somewhat rare and highs above 30 °C (86 °F) are not common. Maximum Winter highs are lower than the average temperatures in the Mediterranean zone (~ 5–11 °C) but with quite high minimums (~2–8 °C). Two basic weather patterns alternate — sunny, windy and often very cold days frequently caused a northeastern wind called *Bora*, as well as rainy days with temperatures of about 6 to 11 °C (43 to 52 °F). Summer is very warm with highs of about 28 °C (82 °F) and lows above 20 °C (68 °F), with hot nights being influenced by the warm sea water. The highest temperature of the last 30 years is 40.1 °C (104 °F) in 2020, whereas the absolute minimum was −7.9 °C (18 °F) in 1996. The Trieste area is divided into 8a–10a zones according to USDA hardiness zoning; Villa Opicina (320 to 420 MSL) with *8a* in upper suburban area down to *10a* in especially shielded and windproof valleys close to the Adriatic sea. The climate can be severely affected by the *Bora*, a very dry and usually cool north-to-northeast katabatic wind that can last for some days and reach speeds of up to 140 km/h (87 mph) on the piers of the port, thus sometimes bringing subzero temperatures to the entire city. | Climate data for Trieste Barcola | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 18.2(64.8) | 21.2(70.2) | 23.9(75.0) | 29.8(85.6) | 32.2(90.0) | 36.2(97.2) | 40.1(104.2) | 38.0(100.4) | 34.4(93.9) | 30.8(87.4) | 24.4(75.9) | 18.4(65.1) | 40.1(104.2) | | Average high °C (°F) | 7.6(45.7) | 9.0(48.2) | 12.2(54.0) | 16.5(61.7) | 21.6(70.9) | 25.0(77.0) | 27.9(82.2) | 27.7(81.9) | 23.3(73.9) | 17.8(64.0) | 12.3(54.1) | 8.8(47.8) | 17.5(63.5) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.7(42.3) | 6.6(43.9) | 9.4(48.9) | 13.2(55.8) | 18.1(64.6) | 21.4(70.5) | 24.1(75.4) | 24.1(75.4) | 20.1(68.2) | 15.2(59.4) | 10.2(50.4) | 6.9(44.4) | 14.6(58.3) | | Average low °C (°F) | 3.8(38.8) | 4.3(39.7) | 6.6(43.9) | 10.0(50.0) | 14.5(58.1) | 17.8(64.0) | 20.3(68.5) | 20.4(68.7) | 16.8(62.2) | 12.7(54.9) | 8.1(46.6) | 5.0(41.0) | 11.7(53.0) | | Record low °C (°F) | −7.5(18.5) | −7.1(19.2) | −6.3(20.7) | 3.2(37.8) | 6.0(42.8) | 10.1(50.2) | 12.3(54.1) | 11.0(51.8) | 7.0(44.6) | 3.7(38.7) | −1.5(29.3) | −7.9(17.8) | −7.9(17.8) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 58.0(2.28) | 56.9(2.24) | 63.4(2.50) | 82.8(3.26) | 84.2(3.31) | 100.4(3.95) | 62.1(2.44) | 84.5(3.33) | 103.4(4.07) | 111.4(4.39) | 107.4(4.23) | 88.5(3.48) | 1,003(39.48) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 7.8 | 6.2 | 7.8 | 8.5 | 8.7 | 9.3 | 6.5 | 7.3 | 7.1 | 7.9 | 9.1 | 8.4 | 94.6 | | Average snowy days | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 2.0 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 67 | 64 | 62 | 64 | 64 | 65 | 62 | 62 | 66 | 68 | 67 | 68 | 65 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 96.1 | 118.7 | 142.6 | 177 | 226.3 | 243 | 288.3 | 260.4 | 210 | 167.4 | 99 | 83.7 | 2,112.5 | | Source 1: [Atlante Climatico d'Italia del Servizio Meteorologico dell'Aeronautica Militare, data 1971–2011] | | Source 2: Rivista Ligure "La neve sulle coste del Maditerraneo"  | City districts -------------- Trieste is administratively divided in seven districts, which in turn are further subdivided into parishes (*frazioni*): 1. *Altipiano Ovest*: Borgo San Nazario · Contovello (*Kontovel*) · Prosecco (*Prosek*) · Santa Croce (*Križ*) 2. *Altipiano Est*: Banne (*Bani*) · Basovizza (*Bazovica*) · Gropada (*Gropada*) · Opicina (*Opčine*) · Padriciano (*Padriče*) · Trebiciano (*Trebče*) 3. Barcola (Slovene: *Barkovlje*) · Cologna (Slovene: *Kolonja*) · Conconello (*Ferlugi*) · Gretta (Slovene: *Greta*) · Grignano (*Grljan*) · Guardiella (Slovene: *Verdelj*) · Miramare · Roiano (Slovene: *Rojan*) · Scorcola (*Škorklja*) 4. Barriera Nuova · Borgo Giuseppino · Borgo Teresiano · Città Nuova · Città Vecchia · San Vito · San Giusto · Campi Elisi · Sant'Andrea · Cavana 5. Barriera Vecchia (*Stara Mitnica*) · San Giacomo (*Sveti Jakob*) · Santa Maria Maddalena Superiore (*Sveta Marija Magdalena Zgornja*) 6. Cattinara (*Katinara*) · Chiadino (Slovene: *Kadinj*) · San Luigi · Guardiella (*Verdelj*) · Longera (Slovene: *Lonjer*) · San Giovanni (*Sveti Ivan*)· Rozzol (Slovene: *Rocol*) · Melara 7. Chiarbola (Slovene: *Čarbola*) · Coloncovez (*Kolonkovec*) · Santa Maria Maddalena Inferiore (Slovene: *Spodnja Sveta Marija Magdalena*) · Raute · Santa Maria Maddalena Superiore (Slovene: *Zgornja Sveta Marija Magdalena*) · Servola (*Škedenj*) · Poggi Paese · Poggi Sant'Anna (*Sveta Ana*)· Valmaura · Altura · Borgo San Sergio The iconic city centre is Piazza Unità d'Italia, which is located in between the large 19th-century avenues of Borgo Teresiano and the old medieval city, characterised by many narrow streets. History ------- Timeline of Trieste Historical affiliations > >  Roman Empire, pre 395 > >  Western Roman Empire, 395–476 > >  Byzantine Empire, 476–567 > >  Lombards, 567-788 > >  Francia, 788-843 > >  Middle Francia, 843-855 > >  Patriarchate of Aquileia, 855–952 > >  March of Verona, 952–1081 > > Patria del Friuli, 1081–1368 > > Republic of Venice, 1368–1369 > >  Patriarchate of Aquileia, 1378–1382 > > Holy Roman Empire, 1382-1809 > > Austrian Empire, 1804–1809 > > First French Empire, 1809–1814 > > Austrian Empire, 1814–1867 > > Austria-Hungary, 1867–1922 > > Kingdom of Italy, 1922–1943 > > OZAK, 1943–1945 > > Allied Military Government, 1945–1947 > > Free Territory of Trieste, 1947–1954 > >  Italy, 1954–present > > > ### Ancient history Since the second millennium BC, the location was an inhabited site. Originally an Illyrian settlement, the Veneti entered the region in the 10th–9th c. BC and seem to have given the town its name, *Tergeste*, since *terg\** is a Venetic word meaning market (q.v. Oderzo whose ancient name was *Opitergium*). Later, the town was captured by the Carni, a tribe of the Eastern Alps, before becoming part of the Roman republic in 177 BC during the Second Istrian War. After being attacked by barbarians from the interior in 52 BC, until 46 BC it was granted the status of Roman colony under Julius Caesar, who recorded its name as *Tergeste* in *Commentarii de Bello Gallico* (51 BC), in which he recounts events of the Gallic Wars. In imperial times the border of Roman Italy moved from the Timavo River to Formione (today Risano). Roman Tergeste flourished due to its position on the road from Aquileia, the main Roman city in the area, to Istria, and as a port, some ruins of which are still visible. Emperor Augustus built a line of walls around the city in 33–32 BC, while Trajan built a theatre in the 2nd century. At the same time, the citizens of the town were enrolled in the tribe Pupinia. In 27 BC, Trieste was incorporated in *Regio X* of Augustan *Italia*. In the early Christian era Trieste continued to flourish. Between 138 and 161 AD, its territory was enlarged and nearby Carni and Catali were granted Roman citizenship by the Roman Senate and Emperor Antoninus Pius at the pleading of a leading Tergestine citizen, the *quaestor urbanus*, Fabius Severus. Already at the time of the Roman Empire there was a fishing village called Vallicula ("small valley") in the Barcola area. Remains of richly decorated Roman villas, including wellness facilities, piers and extensive gardens suggest that Barcola was already a place for relaxation among the Romans because of its favourable microclimate, as it was located directly on the sea and protected from the Bora. At that time, Pliny the Elder mentioned the vines of the wine Pulcino ("Vinum Pucinum" - probably today's "Prosecco"), which were grown on the slopes. ### Late Antiquity The city was witness to the Battle of the Frigidus in the Vipava Valley in AD 394, in which Theodosius I defeated Eugenius. Despite the deposition of Romulus Augustulus at Ravenna in 476 and the ascension to power of Odoacer in Italy, Trieste was retained by the Roman Emperor seated at Constantinople, and thus became a Byzantine military outpost. In 539, the Byzantines annexed it to the Exarchate of Ravenna, despite Trieste's being briefly taken by the Lombards in 567, during their invasion of northern Italy, it was held until the time of the coming of the Franks. ### Middle Ages In 788, Trieste submitted to Charlemagne, who placed it under the authority of their count-bishop who in turn was under the Duke of Friùli. From 1081, the city came loosely under the Patriarchate of Aquileia, developing into a free commune by the end of the 12th century. During the 13th and 14th centuries, Trieste became a maritime trade rival to the Republic of Venice which briefly occupied it in 1283–87, before coming under the patronage of the Patriarchate of Aquileia. After it committed a perceived offence against Venice, the Venetian State declared war against Trieste in July 1368 and by November had occupied the city. Venice intended to keep the city and began rebuilding its defences, but was forced to leave in 1372. By the Peace of Turin in 1381, Venice renounced its claim to Trieste and the leading citizens of Trieste petitioned Leopold III of Habsburg, Duke of Austria, to make Trieste part of his domains. The agreement of voluntary submission (*dedizione*) was signed at the castle of Graz on 30 September 1382. The city maintained a high degree of autonomy under the Habsburgs, but was increasingly losing ground as a trade hub, both to Venice and to Ragusa. In 1463, a number of Istrian communities petitioned Venice to attack Trieste. Trieste was saved from utter ruin by the intervention of Pope Pius II who had previously been bishop of Trieste. However, Venice limited Trieste's territory to three miles (4.8 kilometres) outside the city. Trieste would be assaulted again in 1468–1469 by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III. His sack of the city is remembered as the "Destruction of Trieste." He then restored the city walls for the fourth time. Trieste was fortunate to be spared another sack in 1470 by the Ottomans who burned the village of Prosecco, only about 5.3 miles (8.5 kilometres) from Trieste, while on their way to attack Friuli. ### Early modern period Following an unsuccessful Habsburg invasion of Venice in the prelude to the 1508–16 War of the League of Cambrai, the Venetians occupied Trieste again in 1508, and were allowed to keep the city under the terms of the peace treaty. However, the Habsburg Empire recovered Trieste a little over one year later, when the conflict resumed. By the 18th century Trieste became an important port and commercial hub for the Austrians. In 1719, it was granted status as a free port within the Habsburg Empire by Emperor Charles VI, and remained a free port until 1 July 1791. The reign of his successor, Maria Theresa of Austria, marked the beginning of a very prosperous era for the city. Serbs settled Trieste largely in the 18th and 19th centuries, and they soon formed an influential and rich community within the city, as a number of Serb traders owned important business and had built palaces across Trieste. ### 19th century In the following decades, Trieste was briefly occupied by troops of the French Empire during the Napoleonic Wars on several occasions, in 1797, 1805 and 1809. From 1809 to 1813, Trieste was annexed into Illyrian Provinces, interrupting its status of free port and losing its autonomy. The municipal autonomy was not restored after the return of the city to the Austrian Empire in 1813. Following the Napoleonic Wars, Trieste continued to prosper as the Free Imperial City of Trieste (German: *Reichsunmittelbare Stadt Triest*), a status that granted economic freedom, but limited its political self-government. The city's role as Austria's main trading port and shipbuilding centre was later emphasised with the foundation of the merchant shipping line Austrian Lloyd in 1836, whose headquarters stood at the corner of the Piazza Grande and Sanità (today's Piazza Unità d'Italia). By 1913 Austrian Lloyd had a fleet of 62 ships comprising a total of 236,000 tonnes. With the introduction of the constitutionalism in the Austrian Empire in 1860, the municipal autonomy of the city was restored, with Trieste becoming capital of the Austrian Littoral crown land (German: *Österreichisches Küstenland*). With anti-clericalism on the rise in the rest of the Italian peninsula due to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardina's bellicose policies towards the church and its estates, Pope Leo XIII at times considered moving his residence to Trieste or Salzburg. However, Emperor Franz Joseph rejected the idea. Trieste, along with Fiume, served as an important base for the Imperial-Royal Navy, which in the first decade of the XX century embarked on a major modernisation programme. With the construction of the Austrian Southern Railway, the first major railway in the Empire, in 1857, Trieste acquired a signifiant role in the trade of coal. Trieste had long been home to Italian irredentist sentiment, as seen in the activity at Caffè Tommaseo. In 1882 this fervour culminated in an attempted assassination of Emperor Franz Joseph at the hands of Wilhem Oberdank (Guglielmo Oberdan), while His Majesty was on visit in the city. The perpetrator was arrested, tried, found guilty and ultimately sentenced to death. His legacy has been regarded as worthy of martyrdom by fellow irredentists, while monarchical elements regard his actions as ignominious. The Emperor, who went on to reign for thirty-four more years, did not visit Trieste. ### 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century, Trieste was a bustling cosmopolitan city frequented by artists and philosophers such as James Joyce, Italo Svevo, Sigmund Freud, Zofka Kveder, Dragotin Kette, Ivan Cankar, Scipio Slataper, and Umberto Saba. The city was the major port on the "Austrian Riviera". ### World War I, annexation to Italy and the Fascist era Italy, in return for entering World War I on the side of the Allied Powers, had been promised substantial territorial gains, which included the former Austrian Littoral and western Inner Carniola. Italy therefore annexed the city of Trieste at the end of the war, in accordance with the provisions of the 1915 Treaty of London and the Italian-Yugoslav 1920 Treaty of Rapallo. Trieste had a large Italian majority. In the late 1920s, the Slovene militant anti-fascist organisation TIGR carried out several bomb attacks in the city centre. In 1930 and 1941, two trials of Slovene activists were held in Trieste by the fascist *Special Tribunal for the Security of the State*. During the 1920s and 1930s, several monumental buildings were built in the Fascist architectural style, including the impressive University of Trieste and the almost 70 m (229.66 ft) tall Victory Lighthouse (*Faro della Vittoria*), which became a city landmark. The economy improved in the late 1930s, and several large infrastructure projects were carried out. Many people of Jewish origin in the city were killed as Italy was co-operating with Nazi Germany, and after the Germans seized northern Italy it was used as a hub to deport Jewish citizens ### World War II and aftermath Following the trisection of Slovenia, starting from the winter of 1941, the first Slovene Partisans appeared in Trieste province, although the resistance movement did not become active in the city itself until late 1943. After the Italian armistice in September 1943, the city was occupied by Wehrmacht troops. Trieste became nominally part of the newly constituted Italian Social Republic, but it was de facto ruled by Germany, who created the Operation Zone of the Adriatic Littoral out of former Italian north-eastern regions, with Trieste as the administrative centre. The new administrative entity was headed by Friedrich Rainer. Under German occupation, the only concentration camp with a crematorium on Italian soil was built in a suburb of Trieste, at the Risiera di San Sabba on 4 April 1944. From 20 October 1943, to the spring of 1944, around 25,000 Jews and partisans were interrogated and tortured in the Risiera. Three to four thousand of them were murdered here by shooting, beating or in gas vans. Most were imprisoned before being transferred to other concentration camps. The city saw intense Italian and Yugoslav partisan activity and suffered from Allied bombings, over 20 air raids in 1944–1945, targeting the oil refineries, port and marshalling yard but also causing considerable collateral damage to the city and 651 deaths among the population. The worst raid took place on 10 June 1944, when a hundred tons of bombs dropped by 40 USAAF bombers, targeting the oil refineries, resulted in the destruction of 250 buildings, damage to another 700 and 463 victims. #### Occupation by Yugoslav partisans On 30 April 1945, the Slovenian and Italian anti-Fascist *Osvobodilna fronta* (OF) and National Liberation Committee (*Comitato di Liberazione Nazionale*, or CLN) of Edoardo Marzari and Antonio Fonda Savio, made up of approximately 3,500 volunteers, incited a riot against the Nazi occupiers. On 1 May Allied members of the Yugoslav Partisans' 8th Dalmatian Corps took over most of the city, except for the courts and the castle of San Giusto, where the German garrisons refused to surrender to anyone other than New Zealanders. (The Yugoslavs had a reputation for shooting German and Italian prisoners.). The 2nd New Zealand Division under General Freyberg continued to advance towards Trieste along Route 14 around the northern coast of the Adriatic sea and arrived in the city the following day (see official histories *The Italian Campaign* and *Through the Venetian Line*). The German forces surrendered on the evening of 2 May, but were then turned over to the Yugoslav forces. The Yugoslavs held full control of the city until 12 June, a period known in Italian historiography as the "forty days of Trieste". During this period, hundreds of local Italians and anti-Communist Slovenes were arrested by the Yugoslav authorities, and many of them were never seen again. Some were interned in Yugoslav internment camps (in particular at Borovnica, Slovenia), while others were murdered on the Karst Plateau. British Field Marshal Harold Alexander condemned the Yugoslav military occupation, stating that "Marshal Tito's apparent intention to establish his claims by force of arms . . . [is] all too reminiscent of Hitler, Mussolini and Japan. It is to prevent such actions that we have been fighting this war." After an agreement between the Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito and Field Marshal Alexander, the Yugoslav forces withdrew from Trieste, which came under a joint British-U.S. military administration. The Julian March was divided by the Morgan Line between Anglo-American and Yugoslav military administration until September 1947 when the Paris Peace Treaty established the Free Territory of Trieste. ### Zone A of the Free Territory of Trieste (1947–54) In 1947, Trieste was declared an independent city state under the protection of the United Nations as the Free Territory of Trieste. The territory was divided into two zones, A and B, along the Morgan Line established in 1945. From 1947 to 1954, Zone A was occupied and governed by the Allied Military Government, composed of the American "Trieste United States Troops" (TRUST), commanded by Major General Bryant E. Moore, the commanding general of the American 88th Infantry Division, and the "British Element Trieste Forces" (BETFOR), commanded by Sir Terence Airey, who were the joint forces commander and also the military governors. Zone A covered almost the same area of the current Italian Province of Trieste, except for four small villages south of Muggia (see below), which were given to Yugoslavia after the dissolution (see London Memorandum of 1954) of the Free Territory in 1954. Occupied Zone B, which was under the administration of Miloš Stamatović, then a colonel in the Yugoslav People's Army, was composed of the north-westernmost portion of the Istrian peninsula, between the Mirna River and the cape Debeli Rtič. In 1954, in accordance with the Memorandum of London, the vast majority of Zone A—including the city of Trieste—joined Italy, whereas Zone B and four villages from Zone A (Plavje, Spodnje Škofije, Hrvatini, and Elerji) became part of Yugoslavia, divided between Slovenia and Croatia. The final border line with Yugoslavia and the status of the ethnic minorities in the areas was settled bilaterally in 1975 with the Treaty of Osimo. This line now constitutes the border between Italy and Slovenia. Government ---------- Mayors of Trieste since 1949: | Mayor | Term start | Term end |   | Party | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Gianni Bartoli | 1949 | 1957 | | DC | | Mario Franzil | 1957 | 1967 | | DC | | Marcello Spaccini | 1967 | 1978 | | DC | | Manlio Cecovini | 1978 | 1983 | | LpT | | Arduino Agnelli | 1983 | 1985 | | PSI | | Franco Richetti | 1985 | 1986 | | DC | | Giulio Staffieri | 1986 | 1988 | | LpT | | Franco Richetti | 1988 | 1992 | | DC | | Giulio Staffieri | 1992 | 1993 | | LpT | | | | | | | | Riccardo Illy | 5 December 1993 | 24 June 2001 | | Ind | | Roberto Dipiazza | 24 June 2001 | 30 May 2011 | | FI | | Roberto Cosolini | 30 May 2011 | 20 June 2016 | | PD | | Roberto Dipiazza | 20 June 2016 | *incumbent* | | FI | Economy ------- During the Austro-Hungarian era, Trieste became a leading European city in economy, trade and commerce, and was the fourth-largest and most important centre in the empire, after Vienna, Budapest and Prague. The economy of Trieste, however, fell into decline after the city's annexation to Italy in 1922. The Fascist government promoted several development schemes in the 1930s, with new manufacturing activities dedicated to shipbuilding and defence production (such as the "Cantieri Aeronautici Navali Triestini (CANT)"). Allied bombings during World War II destroyed the industrial section of the city (mainly the shipyards). However, starting from the 1970s, Trieste has experienced steady economic growth. Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, the accession of Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the EU and the increasing importance of the maritime Silk Road to Asia and Africa across the Suez Canal, trade has seen an increase in Trieste. The Port of Trieste is a major trade hub in the northern Mediterranean, with significant commercial shipping activity and busy container and oil terminals. The port has been included in the Silk Road scheme because of its ability to dock container ships with very large drafts. Because of this natural advantage, the Port of Hamburg (HHLA) and the State of Hungary have holdings in the port area of Trieste and the associated facilities have been expanded by the Italian state in 2021 with an investment of €400 million. The oil terminal is a key infrastructure in the Transalpine Pipeline, which covers 40% of Germany's energy requirements (100% of the states of Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg), 90% of Austria and 50% of the Czech Republic's. The sea highway connecting the ports of Trieste and Istanbul is one of the busiest RO/RO [roll on roll-off] routes in the Mediterranean. The port is also Italy's and the Mediterranean's greatest coffee ports, supplying more than 40% of Italy's coffee. The city is part of the *Corridor 5* project to establish closer transport connections between Western and Eastern Europe, through countries such as Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary, Ukraine and Bosnia. The thriving coffee industry in Trieste began under Austria-Hungary, with the Austro-Hungarian government even awarding tax-free status to the city in order to encourage more commerce. Some evidence of Austria-Hungary's coffee-driven economic growth stimulus remain, such as the Hausbrandt Trieste coffee company. As a result, present-day Trieste is characterised by its many cafes, and is still known to this day as "the coffee capital of Italy". Companies active in the coffee sector have given birth to the Trieste Coffee Cluster as their main umbrella organisation, but also as an economic actor in its own right. A large part of Italian coffee imports (approx. 2–2.5 million sacks) are handled and processed in the city. Two Fortune Global 500 companies have their global or national headquarters in the city, respectively: Assicurazioni Generali and Allianz. Other corporations based in Trieste are Fincantieri, one of the world's leading shipbuilding companies, and the Italian operations of Wärtsilä. Prominent companies from Trieste include: AcegasApsAmga (Hera Group), Adriatic Assicurazioni SpA Autamarocchi SpA, Banca Generali SpA (BIT: BGN), Genertel, Genertellife, HERA Trading, Illy, Italia Marittima, Modiano, Nuovo Arsenale Cartubi Srl, Jindal Steel and Power Italia SpA; Pacorini SpA, Siderurgica Triestina (Arvedi Group), TBS Groug, U-blox, Telit, and polling and marketing company SWG. The real estate market in Trieste has been growing in recent years. The relevant land register law comes from old Austrian legislation and was adopted by the Italian legal system after 1918 in Trieste, as well as in the provinces of Trento, Bolzano and Gorizia as well as in some municipalities of the provinces of Udine, Brescia, Belluno and Vicenza. ### Commercial fishing Fishing boats anchor at Molo Veneziano near Piazza Venezia. In summer *lampare* (large lamps) are used for fishing and in autumn and winter *redi di posta* (smaller fishing nets) are used. In the Gulf of Trieste, because of the crystal-clear, nutrient-poor water with little plankton, fishing in itself is challenging. The fishing season lasts from May to July. In terms of fish reproduction, fishing is prohibited in August and restricted in winter. As of 2009, there are fewer than 200 professional fishermen in the city. There is also a small fishing port in the suburb Barcola. Some of the fish is sold directly from the boats or delivered to the town's shops and restaurants. The rare alici (anchovies - in the local dialect: *Sardoni barcolani*) from the Gulf of Trieste near Barcola, which are only caught at Sirocco, are particularly sought after because of their white meat and special taste and fetch high prices for fishermen. Education and Research ---------------------- The University of Trieste, founded in 1924, is a medium-size state-supported institution with 12 faculties, and boasts a wide and almost complete range of courses. It currently has about 23,000 students enrolled and 1,000 professors. Trieste also hosts the Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), a leading graduate and postgraduate teaching and research institution in the study of mathematics, theoretical physics, and neuroscience, and the MIB School of Management Trieste, one of Italy's top-five business schools. There are three international schools offering primary and secondary education programmes in English in the greater metropolitan area: the International School of Trieste, the European School of Trieste, and the United World College of the Adriatic located in the nearby village of Duino. Liceo scientifico statale "France Prešeren", and Liceo Anton Martin Slomšek offer public secondary education in Slovene. The city also hosts numerous national and international scientific research organizations: * AREA Science Park, * ELETTRA, a synchrotron particle accelerator with free-electron laser capabilities for research and industrial applications, * International Centre for Theoretical Physics, which operates under a tripartite agreement among the Italian Government, UNESCO, and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), * Trieste Astronomical Observatory, * Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e Geofisica Sperimentale (OGS), which carries out research on oceans and geophysics; * International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, a United Nations centre of excellence for research and training in genetic engineering and biotechnology for the benefit of developing countries, * ICS-UNIDO, a UNIDO research centre in the areas of renewable energies, biofuels, medicinal plants, food safety and sustainable development, * Carso Center for Advanced Research in Space Optics, * The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS), * InterAcademy Panel: The Global Network of Science Academies (IAP), * International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) * Laszlo Institute of New Paradigm Research (LINPR) * Istituto nazionale di oceanografia e di geofisica sperimental, a national public scientific research organisation carrying out multidisciplinary studies in the field of earth sciences, * Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (Italian National Institute for Nuclear Physics), * Laboratorio di Biologia Marina, * Laboratory TASC Technology and Nano Science, * Orto Botanico dell'Università di Trieste, Civico Orto Botanico di Trieste. Trieste is also a hub for corporate training and skills development, hosting, among others, Generali's Generali Academy and Illy's Università del Caffé. This competence centre was created in 1999 to spread the culture of quality coffee through training all over the world and to carry out research and innovation. As a result of the combination of research, business and funding, there are a growing number of spin-off companies in Trieste (partnerships in the production world exist with companies such as Cimolai, Danieli, Eni, Fincantieri, Generali, Illy, Mitsubishi, Vodafone) and proportionally the highest number of start-ups in Italy, the city also being referred to as Italy's Silicon Valley. Neurala, a company specialising in artificial intelligence, has chosen Trieste as its European research centre. Trieste has the highest proportion of researchers in Europe in relation to the population. They also appreciate the high quality of life and leisure time, so, as is often said, you can ski and swim by the sea in one day from Trieste. Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1921 | 239,558 | —     | | 1931 | 250,170 | +4.4% | | 1936 | 248,307 | −0.7% | | 1951 | 272,522 | +9.8% | | 1961 | 272,723 | +0.1% | | 1971 | 271,879 | −0.3% | | 1981 | 252,369 | −7.2% | | 1991 | 231,100 | −8.4% | | 2001 | 211,184 | −8.6% | | 2009 Est. | 205,507 | −2.7% | | 2013 | 204,849 | −0.3% | | 2020 | 200,609 | −2.1% | | Source: ISTAT | | | | --- | | ISTAT 2020 | | | Trieste, FVG | Italy | | Median age | 49 years | 45.7 years | | Under 18 years old | 13.25% | 16.6% | | Over 65 years old | 28.3% | 23.5% | | Foreign Population | 11.38% | 8.78% | | Births/1,000 people | 6.0 b | 6.8 b | As of 2020[update], there were 200,609 people residing in Trieste, located in the province of Trieste, Friuli Venezia Giulia, of whom 48.1% were male and 51.9% were female. Trieste has lost roughly ⅓ of its population since the 1970s, due to economic decline in the historical industrial sectors of steel and shipbuilding, a dramatic drop in fertility rates and fast population ageing. Minors (children aged 18 and younger) totalled 13.25% of the population compared to pensioners, who make up 27.9% of the total. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06% (minors) and 19.94% (pensioners). The average age of Trieste residents is 46, compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Trieste declined by 3.5%, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.85%. However, in recent times, the city has shown signs of stabilising thanks to growing immigration. Since the annexation to Italy after World War I, there has been a steady decline in Trieste's demographic weight compared to other cities. In 1911, Trieste was the 4th largest city in the Austro-Hungarian Empire (3rd largest in the Austrian part of the Monarchy). In 1921, Trieste was the 8th largest city in the country, in 1961 the 12th largest, in 1981 the 14th largest, while in 2011 it dropped to the 15th place. At the end of 2020, ISTAT estimated that there were 22,839 foreign-born residents in Trieste, representing 11.38% of the total city population. The largest autochthonous minorities are Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, but there is also a large immigrant group from Balkan nations (particularly Serbia, Romania and Croatia): 4.95%, Asia: 0.52%, and sub-saharan Africa: 0.2%. The Serbian community consists of both autochthonous and immigrant groups. Trieste is predominantly Roman Catholic. Language -------- The particular dialect of Trieste, called *tergestino*, spoken until the beginning of the 19th century, was gradually surpassed in relevance by the Triestine dialect of Venetian (a language deriving directly from Vulgar Latin) and other languages, including standard Italian, Slovene, and German. While Triestine and Italian were spoken by the largest part of the population, German was the language of the Austrian bureaucracy and Slovene was predominantly spoken in the surrounding villages. From the last decades of the 19th century, the number of speakers of Slovene grew steadily, reaching 25% of the overall population of Trieste in 1911. According to the 1911 census, the proportion of Slovene speakers grew to 12.6% in the city centre (15.9% counting only Austrian citizens), 47.6% in the suburbs (53% counting only Austrian citizens), and 90.5% in the surroundings. They were the largest ethnic group in nine of the nineteen urban neighbourhoods of Trieste, and represented a majority in seven of them. The Italian speakers, on the other hand, made up 60.1% of the population in the city centre, 38.1% in the suburbs, and 6.0% in the surroundings. They were the largest linguistic group in ten of the nineteen urban neighbourhoods, and represented the majority in seven of them (including all six in the city centre). German speakers amounted to 5% of the city's population, with the highest proportions in the city centre. The city also had several other smaller ethnic communities, including Croats, Czechs, Istro-Romanians, Serbs and Greeks, who mostly assimilated either into the Italian or the Slovene-speaking communities. Altogether, in 1911, 51.83% of the population of the municipality of Trieste spoke Italian, 24.79% spoke Slovene, 5.2% spoke German, 1% spoke Croatian, 0.3% spoke "other languages", and 16.8% were foreigners, including a further 12.9% Italians (immigrants from the Kingdom of Italy and thus considered separately from Triestine Italians) and 1.6% Hungarians. By 1971, following the emigration of Slovenes to neighbouring Slovenia and the immigration of Italians from other regions (and from Yugoslav-annexed Istria) to Trieste, the percentage of Italian speakers had risen to 91.8%, and that of Slovenian speakers had dwindled to 5.7%. Today, the dominant local dialect of Trieste is "Triestine" (*triestin*, pronounced [tɾi.esˈtiŋ]), a form of Venetian. This dialect and official Italian are spoken in the city, while Slovene is spoken in some of the immediate suburbs. There are also small numbers of Serbian, Croatian, German, Greek, and Hungarian speakers. Main sights and vistas ---------------------- In 2012, Lonely Planet listed the city of Trieste as the world's most underrated travel destination. ### Castles #### *Castello Miramare* (Miramare Castle) The *Castello Miramare*, or Miramare Castle, on the waterfront 8 kilometres (5 miles) from Trieste, was built between 1856 and 1860 in a project by Carl Junker, commissioned by Archduke Maximilian. The castle gardens comprise a variety of trees, chosen by and planted on the orders of Maximilian. Features of the gardens include two ponds, one noted for its swans and the other for lotus flowers, the castle dependance ("Castelletto"), a bronze statue of Maximilian, and a small chapel where a cross made from the remains of the "Novara" is kept, the flagship on which Maximilian, brother of Emperor Franz Josef, set sail to become Emperor of Mexico. During the 1930s, the castle was also the home of Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, the last commander of Italian forces in East Africa during the Second World War. During the period of the application of the Instrument for the Provisional Regime of the Free Territory of Trieste, as established in the Treaty of Peace with Italy (Paris 10/02/1947), the castle served as headquarters for the United States Army's TRUST force. #### *Castel San Giusto* The *Castel San Giusto*, or Castle of San Giusto, was built upon the remains of previous castles on the site and took almost two centuries to build. The stages of the development of the castle's defensive structures are marked by the following periods: the central part built, under Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor (1470–1), the round Venetian bastion (1508–9), the Hoyos-Lalio bastion and the Pomis, or "Bastione fiorito" dated 1630. ### Places of worship * The St Justus Cathedral (1320). Named after the city's Patron, Justus of Trieste, the church's interiors are decorated with Byzantine mosaics. It became a symbol of Italian Trieste during the Risorgimento. * The Serbian Orthodox Church of St. Spyridon (1869). The building adopts the Greek-cross plan with five cupolas in the Byzantine tradition. The parish forms part of the Serbian Orthodox Eparchy of Austria and Switzerland. * The Anglican Chiesa di Cristo (Christ Church) (1829) * Sant'Antonio Taumaturgo (1842) * The Mekhitarist Armenian Catholic Church (1859) * The Waldensian and Helvetian Evangelical Basilica of St. Silvester (11th century) * The Church of Santa Maria Maggiore (1682) * The Augustan Evangelical-Lutheran Church (1874) * The Greek Orthodox Church of San Nicolò dei Greci (1787). This church by the architect Matteo Pertsch (1818), with bell towers on both sides of the façade, follows the Austrian late baroque style. The interiors are decorated by golden ornaments. * The Synagogue of Trieste (1912) * The Temple of Monte Grisa (1960), a Roman Catholic church north of the city ### Archaeological remains * The *Arco di Riccardo* (33 BC) is a gate built in the Roman walls in 33 BC. It stands in Piazzetta Barbacan, in the narrow streets of the old town. Its current name is believed to be a corruption of *Arco del Cardo*, referring to the *cardo*, the main north-to-south Roman street; folk etymology credits it to Richard the Lionheart (Italian: *Riccardo Cuor di Leone*), a Crusader king of England. * *Basilica Forense* (2nd century) * *Palaeochristian basilica* * *Roman Age Temples*: one dedicated to Athena, one to Zeus, both on the San Giusto hill. The ruins of the temple dedicated to Zeus are next to the Forum, those of Athena's temple are under the basilica, visitors can see its basement. #### Roman theatre The Roman theatre lies at the foot of the San Giusto hill, facing the sea. The construction partially exploits the gentle slope of the hill, and much of the theatre is made of stone. The topmost portion of the steps and the stage were supposedly made of wood. The statues which adorned the theatre, brought to light in the 1930s, are now preserved in the town museum. Three inscriptions from the Trajanic period mention a certain Q. Petronius Modestus, someone closely connected to the development of the theatre, which was erected during the second half of the 1st century. ### Caves In the entire Province of Trieste, there are 10 speleological groups out of 24 in the whole Friuli Venezia Giulia region. The Trieste plateau (Altopiano Triestino), called Kras or the *Carso* and covering an area of about 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi) within Italy has approximately 1,500 caves of various sizes (like that of Basovizza, now a monument to the Foibe massacres). Among the most famous are the Grotta Gigante, the largest tourist cave in the world, with a single cavity large enough to contain St Peter's in Rome, and the *Cave of Trebiciano*, 350 metres (1,150 ft) deep, at the bottom of which flows the *Timavo River*. This river dives underground at the Škocjan Caves in Slovenia (on the UNESCO list and only a few kilometres from Trieste) and flows about 30 kilometres (19 mi) before emerging about 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) from the sea in a series of springs near Duino, reputed by the Romans to be an entrance to Hades ("the world of the dead"). ### Places of Interest * The Austrian Quarter: Half of the city was built during the Austro-Hungarian period, giving the city some aspects of Vienna's architectural characteristics. The majority of buildings were built in Neoclassical, Art Nouveau, Eclectic and Liberty styles. * *Città Vecchia* (Old City): Trieste has an extensive old city: there are many narrow and crooked streets with typical medieval houses. Almost all of the area is closed to traffic. * *Piazza Unità d'Italia*, Trieste's central majestic square surrounded by 19th century architecture, and the largest seafront square in Europe. * *Piazza Venezia*, with a view over the Adriatic. Since 2009, the monument to Archduke Maximilian has been located in Piazza Venezia again, looking over the Gulf of Trieste to the Miramare Castle, the subject wearing a Vice Admiral's uniform. The more than 8 metre high bronze monument, with the allegories of the four continents, is intended to honour Maximilian's philanthropy and his interest in science and art. It was sculpted by sculptor Johannes Schilling at the request of and under the direction of Baron Pasquale Revoltella. It was inaugurated in 1875 in the presence of Emperor Franz Joseph, later removed after 1918 and relocated to the Miramare Castle Park in 1961. Museo Revoltella is located in Piazza Venezia in the style of the Italian Renaissance with its six allegorical statues of the Venetian Francesco Bosa on the roof balustrade. * The Stazione Rogers (gas station "Aquila" designed by Ernesto Nathan Rogers) is considered an important building of Italian rationalism and post-war modernism and is now a multi-purpose centre for culture and architecture. * Molo Sartorio, where still today the sea level for the Republic of Austria, a landlocked nation, is measured as "metres above the Adriatic". The historic "Antico Magazzino Vini" next to the Piazza Venezia was built in 1902 to store wine from Dalmatia and Istria. It has now been revitalised and now houses an Eataly. The former fish market, now renovated, is now a place for exhibitions and art, and is also located directly by the sea. * *Canal Grande*, Trieste's grand canal, in the very centre of the city. * Caffè San Marco, a historical coffee house in the centre of the city. Cafès play an important role in the Triestine economy, as Trieste developed a thriving coffee industry under Austria-Hungary, and is still known to this day as "the coffee capital of Italy". * Barcola, a suburb of Trieste with a special microclimate and a high quality of life since ancient times. On its kilometre-long sea promenade towards Miramare Castle there are cafes and restaurants. Many locals spend their free time on this urban beach area, sunbathing, swimming and playing sports.The northernmost lighthouse in the Mediterranean, the Vittoria Light, located above Barcola, dominates the skyline above. * *Val Rosandra*, a national park on the border between the Province of Trieste and Slovenia. ### Beaches Much of Trieste lies directly on the sea. Some bathing establishments are located in the very centre, like the "El Pedocin - Bagno marino La Lanterna" and the "Ausonia". The "Bagno Marino Ferroviario" has been located in Viale Miramare 30 since 1925. Many locals and students use their lunch break or free time to go to Barcola, which is an urban beach, to meet friends on the famous mile-long embankment. In the evening, many locals walk there between the bars with a view of the sea, the Alpine arc, Istria and the city. Well-known are the 10 popular semi-circular units on the bank consisting of a viewing platform, sanitary facilities and changing rooms, which are popularly referred to as "Topolini". In the area of the Excelsior bathing establishment, which is located on a historic sand bank, there were very elegant Roman villas and their sports and bathing facilities in antiquity. Already in the 19th century there were numerous restaurants and cafes with shady vine arbors. The sea around Miramare Castle is today a nature reserve. The pine forest of Barcola is located directly on the sea and is a meeting place for the inhabitants in every season. One of the best running routes in Trieste leads from Barcola to Miramare Castle and back. The small bathing complex Bagno da Sticco is right next to Miramare Castle. Further towards Grignano and Duino there are numerous bays and natural beaches. Due to the currents in the Adriatic, the water in the area of Trieste is very pure and not polluted by suspended matter from rivers. The current is counterclockwise. Culture ------- The literary-intellectual centre of Trieste is mostly located in the very centre: the still-existing "Libreria Antiquaria Umberto Saba" located at the ground floor of Via San Nicolò No. 30, where James Joyce lived (where his son Giorgio was born and where Joyce wrote some of the short stories from Dubliners and Stephen Hero); the house in Via San Nicolò No. 31, where Umberto Saba spent his breaks at the cafe-milk shop "Walter" and the house in Via San Nicolò No. 32, in which the Berlitz School was located and where James Joyce taught and came into contact with Italo Svevo, are all of literary relevance. Around this area, at the end of Via San Nicolò, a life-size statue of Umberto Saba has been placed by the city government. Despite Via San Nicolò having become Trieste's high street, numerous cafes and restaurants used to be located there, especially the Berger beer hall at No. 17, which later became the Berger Grand Restaurant. Via San Nicolò No. 30 is also the symbolic centre of the homonymous novel by Roberto Curci. One of the most important Art Nouveau buildings in Trieste, the "Casa Smolars", completed in 1905, stands in Via San Nicolò No. 36. Eppinger Caffè has been located nearby since around 1946. The former "Palazzo della RAS", located in Piazza della Repubblica, has been completely renovated and has been functioning as a hotel since 2019. The Greek Orthodox Church of San Nicolò dei Greci, which is dedicated to Saint Nicholas, the patron saint of seafarers and whose interior inspired James Joyce, is located by the sea in Piazza Tommaseo, next to the historic Caffè Tommaseo. This coffee house, also located at the beginning of Via San Nicolò, was opened in 1830. It is the oldest coffee house still in operation in Trieste and is still a meeting place for artists, intellectuals and merchants today. Caffe Stella Polare is located in Piazza Ponterosso. This cosmopolitan coffee house was also frequented by Saba, Joyce, Guido Voghera, Virgilio Giotti and in particular by the former German-speaking minority from Trieste. With the end of World War II and the arrival of the Anglo-Americans in the city, this café became a hangout place of many soldiers and a famous ballroom to meet local young women. Trieste has a lively cultural scene with various theatres. Among these figure Teatro Lirico Giuseppe Verdi, Politeama Rossetti, the Teatro La Contrada, the Slovene theatre in Trieste (*Slovensko stalno gledališče*, since 1902), Teatro Miela, and several smaller ones. There are also a number of museums. Among these are: * Diego de Henriquez war museum * Museo Sartorio * Revoltella Museum modern art gallery * Civico Museo di Storia Naturale di Trieste (natural history museum) containing fossils of Hominids. * Civico Orto Botanico di Trieste, the municipal botanical garden * Orto Botanico dell'Università di Trieste, the University of Trieste's botanical garden Two important national monuments: * The *Risiera di San Sabba (Risiera di San Sabba Museum)*, a National monument commemorating the holocaust genocide. It was the only Nazi concentration camp with a crematorium in Italy. * The *Foiba di Basovizza*, a National monument. It is a reminder of the killings of Italians by Yugoslav partisans after World War II. The *Slovenska gospodarsko-kulturna zveza*—*Unione Economica-Culturale Slovena* is the umbrella organisation bringing together cultural and economic associations belonging to the Slovene minority. Trieste hosts the annual ITS (International Talent Support Awards) young fashion designer competition. The power metal band Rhapsody was founded in Trieste by the city's natives Luca Turilli and Alex Staropoli. ### Media Newspapers * *Il Piccolo* * *Primorski dnevnik* * *La Gazzetta Giuliana* Broadcasting Television * *RAI* Friuli Venezia-Giulia * *Tele Quattro* Radio * Radioattività Trieste * Radio Fragola * Radio Punto Zero Publishing * *Asterios Editore* * *Lint Editoriale* ### Sports The local football club, Triestina, is one of the oldest clubs in Italy. Notably, it was runner-up in the 1947–1948 season of the Italian first division (Serie A), losing the championship to Torino. Trieste is notable for having had two football clubs participating in the championships of two different nations at the same time during the period of the Free Territory of Trieste, due to the schism within the city and region created by the post-war demarcation. Triestina played in the Italian first division (Serie A). Although it faced relegation after the first season after the Second World War, the FIGC modified the rules, as it was deemed important to keep the club in the league. The following year the club played its best season with a 3rd-place finish. Meanwhile, Yugoslavia bought A.S.D. Ponziana, a small team in Trieste, which under a new name, *Amatori Ponziana Trst*, played in the Yugoslavian league for three years. Triestina went bankrupt in the 1990s, but after being re-founded, it regained a position in the Italian second division (Serie B) in 2002. Ponziana was renamed "Circolo Sportivo Ponziana 1912" and currently plays in Friuli Venezia Giulia Group of Promozione, which is the 7th level of the Italian league. Trieste also has a well-known basketball team, Pallacanestro Trieste, which reached its zenith in the 1990s under coach Bogdan Tanjević when, with large financial backing from sponsors Stefanel, it was able to sign players such as Dejan Bodiroga, Fernando Gentile and Gregor Fučka, stars of European basketball. At the end of the 2017–18 season, the team, now trained by coach Eugenio Dalmasson and sponsored by Alma, won promotion to the Lega Basket Serie A, Italy's highest basketball league, 14 years after its last tenure. Many sailing clubs have roots in the city which contribute to Trieste's strong tradition in that sport.The Barcolana regatta, first held in 1969, is the world's largest sailing race by number of participants. Local sporting facilities include the Stadio Nereo Rocco, a UEFA-certified stadium with seating capacity of 32,500; the Palatrieste, an indoor sporting arena sitting 7,000 people, and Piscina Bruno Bianchi, a large Olympic size swimming pool. On 26 August 1985 American basketball player Michael Jordan dunked so hard that the backboard shattered during a Nike exhibition game played in Trieste. The signed jersey and shoes (including one of the tiny shards of glass in the sole of the left shoe) that the player wore during the famous shattered backboard game were later auctioned. The moment the glass broke was filmed and is often cited as a particularly important milestone in Jordan's rise. ### Film Trieste has been portrayed on screen a number of times, with films often shot on location. In 1942 the early neorealist *Alfa Tau!* was filmed partly in the city. Cinematic interest in Trieste peaked during the height of the "Free Territory" era between 1947 and 1954, with international films such as *Sleeping Car to Trieste* and *Diplomatic Courier* portraying it as a hotbed of espionage. These films, along with *The Yellow Rolls-Royce* (1964), conveyed an image of the city as a cosmopolitan place of conflict between Great Powers, a portrayal which resembles *Casablanca* (1943). Italian filmmakers, by contrast, portrayed Trieste as unquestionably Italian in a series of patriotic films including *Trieste mia!* and *Ombre su Trieste*. In 1963 the city hosted the first International Festival of Science Fiction Film (Festival internazionale del film di fantascienza), which ran until 1982. Under the name Science Plus Fiction (now Trieste Science+Fiction Festival), the festival was revived in 2000. A new interest in the city has been sparked by movies such as *The Invisible Boy* (2014), its sequel The Invisible Boy—Second Generation and La Porta Rossa, a TV series. Triestine cuisine ----------------- There are three types of eateries: the conventional restaurant; the buffet, where ham, meat loaf, goulash, roast meat, Kaiserfleisch, tongue and belly meat are served; and the *osmiza*, a characteristic eatery in the Karst, where locally farmed products are enjoyed paired with wine. Local cuisine has been influenced by the various ethnic groups which have populated the city, mainly Central Europeans. Traditional main courses include *Jota*, *Minestra de Bisi Spacai* (Pea stew), *Rotolo di Spinaci in Straza* (spinach rolls), *Sardoni Impanai* (breaded anchovies, a sought-after delicacy), *Capuzi Garbi* (krauts), *Capuzi Garbi in Tecia* (sautéed krauts), Vienna sausages, goulash, ćevapi and *frito misto* (fried fish). Popular desserts are: *Presnitz**,** Fave Triestine*, *Titola*, *Crostoli*, *Struccolo de Pomi*, *Kugelhupf*, *Rigo Jancsi* and the *Triester Torte*. "Capo Triestino" (also "Capo in B" or "Capo in bicchiere") is considered a local coffee speciality. This miniature cappuccino in a glass cup is usually consumed at the bar. Transport --------- ### Maritime transport Trieste's maritime location and its former long-term status as part of the Austrian Empire—later the Austro-Hungarian Empire—made the Port of Trieste the major commercial port for much of the landlocked areas of central Europe. In the 19th century, a new port district known as the *Porto Nuovo* was built northeast of the city centre. Significant volumes of goods pass through the container, steel works and oil terminals, all located to the south of the city centre. After many years of stagnation, a change in the leadership placed the port on a steady growth path, recording a 40% increase in shipping traffic as of 2007[update]. Today the port of Trieste is one of the largest Italian ports and next to Gioia Tauro the only deep water port in the central Mediterranean for seventh generation container ships. ### Rail transport Railways came early to Trieste, due to the importance of its port and the need to transport people and goods inland. The first railroad line to reach Trieste was the *Südbahn*, built by the Austrian government in 1857. This railway stretches for 1,400 km (870 mi) to Lviv, Ukraine, via Ljubljana, Slovenia; Sopron, Hungary; Vienna, Austria; and Kraków, Poland, crossing the backbone of the Alps mountains through the Semmering Pass near Graz. It approaches Trieste through the village of Villa Opicina, a few kilometres from the centre but over 300 metres (984 feet) higher in elevation. Due to this, the line takes a 32 kilometres (20 miles) detour to the north, gradually descending before terminating at the Trieste Centrale railway station. In 1887, the Imperial Royal Austrian State Railways (German: *kaiserlich-königliche österreichische Staatsbahnen*) opened a new railway line, the Trieste–Hrpelje railway (German: *Hrpelje-Bahn*), from the new port of Trieste to Hrpelje-Kozina, on the Istrian railway. The intended function of the new line was to reduce the Austrian Empire's dependence on the *Südbahn* network. Its opening gave Trieste a second station south of the original one, which was named *Trieste Sant'Andrea* (German: *Triest Sankt Andrea*). The two stations were connected by a railway line that in the initial plans was meant to be an interim solution: the Rive railway (German: *Rive-Bahn*), which survived until 1981, when it was replaced by the *Galleria di Circonvallazione*, a 5.7-kilometre (3.5 mi) railway tunnel route to the east of the city. With the opening of the Transalpina Railway from Vienna, Austria via Jesenice and Nova Gorica in 1906, the St. Andrea station was replaced by a new, more capacious, facility, named *Trieste stazione dello Stato* (German: *Triest Staatsbahnhof*), later Trieste Campo Marzio, now a railway museum, and the original station came to be identified as *Trieste stazione della Meridionale* or *Trieste Meridionale* (German: *Triest Südbahnhof*). This railway also approached Trieste via Villa Opicina, but it took a rather shorter loop southwards towards the sea front. Freight lines from the dock area include container services to northern Italy and to Budapest, Hungary, together with rolling highway services to Salzburg, Austria and Frankfurt, Germany. There are direct intercity and high-speed trains between Trieste and Venice, Verona, Turin, Milan, Rome, Florence, Naples and Bologna. Passenger trains also run between Villa Opicina and Ljubljana. On special occasion, the historic ETR 252 "Arlecchino" runs the Venezia Santa Lucia-Trieste Centrale route, operated by Fondazionefs. This is one of four examples ever built. ### Air transport Trieste is served by the Trieste – Friuli Venezia Giulia Airport (IATA: TRS). The airport serves domestic and international destinations and is fully connected to the national railway and highway networks. The Trieste Airport railway station links the passenger terminal directly to the Venice–Trieste railway thanks to a 425-metre long skybridge. A 16 platform bus terminal, a multi-storey car park with 500 lots and a car park with 1,000 lots give public and private motor vehicles rapid access to the A4 Trieste-Turin highway. At the interchange near Palmanova, the A4 branches off to Autostrada A23 linking to Austria's Süd Autobahn (A2) via Udine and Tarvisio. In the southern direction, this highway also offers seamless interconnection to Slovenia's A1 Motorway, and through that to highway networks in Croatia, Hungary, and the Balkans. ### Local transport Local public transport is operated by Trieste Trasporti, a part of TPL FVG, which operates a network of around 60 bus routes and two ferry lines. They also operate the Opicina Tramway, a hybrid between a tramway and funicular railway, providing a more direct link between the city centre and Opicina. Notable people -------------- International relations ----------------------- Trieste hosts the Secretariat of the Central European Initiative, an inter-governmental organisation among Central and South-Eastern European states. In recent years, Trieste has been chosen as host to a number of high level bilateral and multilateral meetings such as: the Western Balkans Summit in 2017; the Italo-Russian Bilateral Summit in 2013 (Letta-Putin) and the Italo-German Bilateral Summit in 2008 (Berlusconi-Merkel); the G8 meetings of Foreign Affairs and Environment Ministers, respectively in 2009 and 2001. In December 2020, Trieste hosted three-party talks between the foreign ministers of Italy, Croatia, and Slovenia on the delimitation of their respective exclusive economic zone. In 2020, Trieste was also nominated the European Science Capital by Euroscience. In August 2021 it hosted the G20 Meeting of Ministers of Innovation and Research. * TriesteTrieste * Remains of a Roman arch in the old town of Trieste.Remains of a Roman arch in the old town of Trieste. * University of TriesteUniversity of Trieste * Trieste AirportTrieste Airport ### Sister cities and twin towns Trieste is twinned with: * Lebanon Beirut, Lebanon (since 1956) * Cameroon Douala, Cameroon (since 1971) * Austria Graz, Austria (since 1973) * Brazil Santos, Brazil (since 1977) * United Kingdom Southampton, England, United Kingdom (since 2002) * France Le Havre, France See also -------- * Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) * Bathyscaphe Trieste, Swiss-designed, Italian-built deep sea exploration vehicle * History of the Jews in Trieste * INFN (National Institute of Nuclear Physics) * International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA) * Teatro Comunale Giuseppe Verdi * Treaty of peace with Italy (1947)

Trieste

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trieste

**Bangor** (English: /ˈbæŋɡər/; Welsh: [ˈbaŋɡɔr] ()) is a cathedral city and community in Gwynedd, North Wales. It is the oldest city in Wales. Historically part of Caernarfonshire, it had a population of 18,322 in 2019. Landmarks include Bangor Cathedral, Bangor University and Garth Pier. The Britannia and Menai Suspension bridges connect the city to the Isle of Anglesey. History ------- The origins of the city date back to the founding of a monastic establishment on the site of Bangor Cathedral by the Celtic saint Deiniol in the early 6th century AD. *'Bangor'* itself is an old Welsh word for a wattled enclosure, such as the one that originally surrounded the cathedral site. The present cathedral is a somewhat more recent building and has been extensively modified throughout the centuries. While the building itself is not the oldest, and certainly not the biggest, the bishopric of Bangor is one of the oldest in the UK. In 973, Iago, ruler of the Kingdom of Gwynedd, was usurped by Hywel, and requested help from Edgar, King of England, to restore his position. Edgar, with an army went to Bangor, and encouraged both Iago and Hywel to share the leadership of the realm. Asserting overall control however, Edgar confirmed liberties and endowments of the Bishop of Bangor, granting land and gifts. From 1284 until the 15th century, Bangor bishops were granted several charters permitting them to hold fairs and govern the settlement, later ones also confirming them as Lord of the Manor. Bangor remained a small settlement until the start of the 18th century, when a political desire to enhance communications between England and Ireland via the London-Holyhead-Dublin corridor saw it designated as a post town in 1718. Growth was spurred by slate mining at nearby Bethesda, beginning in the 1770s by Richard Pennant, becoming one of the largest slate quarries in the world. The route between London and Holyhead was much improved by Thomas Telford building the A5 road, which runs through the centre of the city and over the Menai Suspension Bridge which was also completed by him in 1826. Bangor railway station opened in 1848. A parliamentary borough was created in 1832 for Bangor, becoming a contributing Caernarfon out borough as its status grew due to further industry such as shipbuilding as well as travel, not just from Telford's road, but through tourism mainly from Liverpool via steamboat. It was also an ancient borough from earlier privileges granted to Bangor in medieval times, but an 1835 government report investigating municipal corporations concluded that this status was defunct and in name only. The borough was reformed in 1883 into a municipal borough. Friars School was founded as a free grammar school in 1557, and the University College of North Wales (now Bangor University) was founded in 1884. In 1877, the former HMS *Clio* became a school ship, moored on the Menai Strait at Bangor, and had 260 pupils. Closed after the end of hostilities of World War I, she was sold for scrap and broken up in 1919. In World War II, parts of the BBC evacuated to Bangor during the worst of the Blitz. The BBC continue to maintain facilities in the city (see Media). City status ----------- Bangor has been unique outside of England in using the title of 'city' by ancient prescriptive right, due to its long-standing cathedral and past privileges having been granted making it a borough. Although by the early 1800s the city had a vestry overseeing the few remaining local duties, later government surveys of boroughs had established Bangor's city corporation had become extinct. A board of health was set up in the late 1840s which over time gained more powers for managing local affairs. By the 1870s these too were seen to be ineffective and enough local interest stimulated a desire to obtain a charter of incorporation, which was duly granted in 1883, re-establishing a municipal body. This helped to preserve its ancient status; in 1927 a government list was drawn up detailing which settlements were cities, with Bangor being included as the only medieval Welsh city with extant rights. In 1974 the borough was abolished. However, city status was reaffirmed by the Queen to the newly created community council area with new letters patent after local government reorganisation. By means of various measures, it is also one of the smallest cities in the UK. Using 2011 statistics, comparing Bangor to: * Population of city council areas in Wales, is third (18,322 residents) with St Davids (1,841) and St Asaph (3,355) * City council area size within Wales, is the second smallest city (2.79 square miles (7.2 km2)) behind St Asaph (2.49 square miles (6.4 km2)) * Urban areas within Wales, is third placed (1.65 square miles (4.3 km2)) behind St Davids (0.23 square miles (0.60 km2)) and St Asaph (0.50 square miles (1.3 km2)) * City council area size within the UK, is fourth after the City of London (1.12 square miles (2.9 km2)), Wells and St Asaph * Urban areas within the UK, is fifth placed * Population of city council areas within the UK, is sixth. Geography --------- Bangor lies on the coast of North Wales near the Menai Strait, which separates the island of Anglesey from Gwynedd, the town of Menai Bridge lying just over the strait. The combined population of the two amounted to 22,184 at the 2011 census. Bangor Mountain at 117 metres (384 ft) lies to the east of the main part of the city, but the large housing estate of Maesgeirchen, originally built as council housing, is to the east of the mountain near Port Penrhyn. Another ridge rises to the north of the High Street, dividing the city centre from the south shore of the Menai Strait; this area is known as Upper Bangor (*Bangor Uchaf*). The Bangor community area includes the suburbs of Garth and Hirael both immediately north of the city centre; Upper Bangor north west of the centre; West End, Glan-adda, Bryn Llwyd and Coed Mawr to the south west; Y Maes to the south; Glantraeth, Tan-y-bryn and Maesgeirchen are to the east. The suburbs of Penhros-garnedd, Treborth and Minffordd are within the community of Pentir adjoining the city to the south and south west. Port Penrhyn and the tiny estate of Plas-y-coed, adjoin the city within the Llandygai community. Bangor has two rivers within its boundaries. The River Adda is a largely culverted watercourse which only appears above ground at its western extremities near the Faenol estate, whilst the River Cegin enters Port Penrhyn at the eastern edge of the city. Port Penrhyn was an important port in the 19th century, exporting the slates produced at the Penrhyn Quarry. Governance ---------- Bangor lies within the Arfon constituency for elections to the UK parliament. Arfon is also the constituency for elections to the Senedd. The City of Bangor Council serves the people of the city, created in 1974 following Bangor assuming city status. Twenty councillors are elected from the eight electoral wards in the city, namely: Deiniol (2), Dewi (3), Garth (2), Glyder (3), Hendre (2), Hirael (2), Marchog (3) and Menai (3). In 2017 half of the seats were won by Plaid Cymru. The city also elects eight county councillors to Gwynedd Council. In 2021, Owen Hurcum was unanimously elected as mayor, making history as the youngest-ever mayor in Wales at 22, as well as the first ever non-binary mayor of any UK city. In 2012, Bangor was the first city in the UK to impose, throughout its city centre, a night-time curfew on under-16s. The six-month trial was brought in by Gwynedd Council and North Wales police, but opposed by civil rights groups. Demography ---------- Bangor is ethnically diverse, with 85% of the population identifying as White British, followed by 9% Asian, 2% Arab, 2% Mixed Race, 1% Black and 1% Other ethnic. This makes Bangor 85% White and 15% Non-White which means the city has one of the highest ethnicity populations in Wales for its population of over 18,000. In religion, Christianity was followed by 8,816 residents, Islam followed by 892 residents, and 6,526 residents not identifying with any religion or identifying with other religions. Christianity is the most prominent religion but the second largest group followed no religion. In 2021 Muslims in Bangor complained that restrictions imposed in the city had left women unable to worship at the mosque during Ramadan, while in other parts of Wales arrangements such as outdoor prayers had been made. Transport --------- * Bangor railway station is on the North Wales Coast Line from Crewe and Chester to Holyhead. * The A5 runs through the centre of Bangor, providing a route to Holyhead, as well as Snowdonia, Shrewsbury and London. * The A55 runs immediately to the south of Bangor, providing a route to Holyhead and Chester. * The nearest airport with international flights is Liverpool John Lennon Airport, 83 miles (134 km) by road. * Bangor lies at the western end of the North Wales Path, a 60-mile (97 km) long-distance coastal walking route to Prestatyn. * Bangor is on routes NCR 5, NCR 8 and NCR 85 of the National Cycle Network. Culture ------- ### Heritage and nature conservation The head office of Gwynedd Archaeological Trust is located on Garth Road. The Trust was established in 1974, and carries out surveys, outreach and education, and excavations across Gwynedd and Anglesey. The North Wales Wildlife Trust is also based on Garth Road, and manages the nature reserves at **Eithinog** and **Nantporth**. ### Music and arts Classical music is performed regularly in Bangor, with concerts given in the Powis and Prichard-Jones Halls as part of the university's Music at Bangor concert series. The city is also home to Storiel (the new name for the Gwynedd Museum and Art Gallery). A new arts centre complex, **Pontio**, the replacement for Theatr Gwynedd, was scheduled for completion in the summer of 2014, but the opening was delayed until November 2015. Bangor hosted the National Eisteddfod in 1890, 1902, 1915, 1931, 1940 (through the medium of radio), 1943, 1971 and 2005, as well as an unofficial National Eisteddfod event in 1874. ### Garth Pier Garth Pier is the second longest pier in Wales, and the ninth longest in the British Isles, at 1,500 feet (460 m) in length. It was opened in 1893 and was a promenade pier, for the amusement of holiday-makers who could stroll among the pinnacle-roofed kiosks. In 1914, the pier was struck by a vessel that had broken free of its moorings. The damaged section was repaired temporarily by the Royal Engineers, but when in 1922, a permanent repair was contemplated, it was found that the damage was more severe than had been thought. The repairs were made at considerable cost and the pier remained open until 1974 when it was nearly condemned as being in poor condition. It was sold for a nominal price to Arfon Borough Council who proposed to demolish it, but the County Council, encouraged by local support, ensured that it survived by obtaining Grade II Listed building status for it. When it was listed that year, the British Listed Buildings inspector considered it to be "the best in Britain of the older type of pier without a large pavilion at the landward end". Restoration work took place between 1982 and 1988, and the pier was re-opened to the public on 7 May 1988. In November 2011, essential repair work was reported to be required, the cost being estimated at £2 million. A grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund was sought but the application was rejected. ### Cathedral The Cathedral Church of St Deiniol is a Grade I Listed building and is set in a sloping oval churchyard. The site has been used for Christian worship since the sixth century but the present building dates from the twelfth century. It has a two-bay chancel, transepts, a crossing tower, a seven-bay nave and a tower at the west end. ### Theatre The 344-seat Theatr Gwynedd was opened on Deiniol Road in 1975 by the university, and closed in 2008. The building was demolished in 2010. Prior to Theatr Gwynedd, Bangor was home to the County Theatre, a converted chapel on Dean Street. The building was altered in 1912 for theatrical productions, and converted to use as a night club in 1986, currently named as "Cube Nightclub". The Pontio Arts and Innovation Centre by Bangor University on Deiniol Road, opened in 2015, has a theatre and a cinema. The Archdeacon's House in Bangor was the setting for act 3, scene I of William Shakespeare's *Henry IV, Part 1*. ### Cinemas Bangor once housed two cinemas. The Electric Pavilion – later Arcadia Cinema – stood on the High Street close to the station from about 1910 to 1930. This site was redeveloped for The Plaza Cinema, which operated from 1934 to 2006. A new building was built on the site and is now occupied by Ty Willis student accommodation and Domino's Pizza. The City Cinema opened in 1919, at 130–132, High Street. Building work started in 1914, but was likely delayed because of the war. The cinema closed in 1983, although the building is still there and is now occupied by a dance academy and a snooker club. A one-screen cinema opened as part of the Pontio building in 2015. ### Recreation Bangor has two King George V fields; these are located on Beach Road and Heol Dewi. Retail trade ------------ A claim to fame is that Bangor has the longest High Street in Wales at 1.265 km (0.79 mi). Bangor has a central shopping area around the High Street, and retail outlets on Caernarfon Road, on the outskirts of the city. One of these is St. David's Retail Park, built on the site of the demolished St David's maternity hospital. In 1865, Morris Wartski, a refugee from the Tsarist pogroms, first established a jewellery business on Bangor's High Street, and then a drapery store. His son, Isidore, went on to develop the drapery business and to create a large, fashionable, store. He also redeveloped the Castle Inn on High Street in Bangor, which then became the high-class Castle Hotel. Wartski was a very popular mayor of the city and a great patron of local sports and charities. Wartski Fields were bequeathed to the city and people of Bangor by his widow, Winifred Marie, in memory of Isidore Wartski. Welsh language -------------- Gwynedd is the most Welsh-speaking county in Wales, with 65.4% of people saying they could speak it at the 2011 Census, although Bangor has been significantly more Anglicised than its hinterland and the rest of Gwynedd, mostly because of the large student population. While nearby towns in Gwynedd, such as Bethesda and Caernarfon were still 75–80% Welsh speaking in 2011, Bangor was already only 53.4% Welsh speaking as early as 1971. In 2011, only 36% of the population of Bangor said they could speak Welsh; a significant decrease from the 46% recorded at the 2001 Census. In 2015, of primary school pupils 5 years and over, the following percentages spoke Welsh fluently at home: * Ysgol Ein Harglwyddes – < 3% * Ysgol Cae Top – < 3% * Ysgol Hirael – 10% * Ysgol Glancegin – 14% * Ysgol Llandygai – 17% * Ysgol Y Faenol – 23% * Ysgol Y Garnedd – 61% The city has long been the most cosmopolitan settlement in Gwynedd, attracting incomers from both England and further afield, with Bangor University being a key institution. At the 2011 Census, 49.3% of Bangor's population was born outside Wales. Nevertheless, Welsh was the majority vernacular of the city in the 1920s and 1930s; at the 1921 Census, 75.8% of Bangor's inhabitants could speak Welsh with 68.4% of those aged 3–4 being able to, indicating that Welsh was being transmitted to the youngest generation in most homes. The 1931 Census showed little change, with 76.1% of the overall population being able to speak Welsh. Education --------- Bangor University and Coleg Menai are located in the city. There are a few Secondary schools, these include Ysgol Friars, Ysgol Tryfan and St. Gerard's School. There are also a number of primary and infant schools. Ysgol Y Faenol, Ysgol Y Garnedd and Ysgol Cae Top are all primary schools. Hospital -------- Ysbyty Gwynedd is located in Bangor in the suburb of Penrhosgarnedd. It has 403 beds, making it smaller than the other district general hospitals in Betsi Cadwaladr University Health Board (after Wrexham Maelor Hospital with 568 beds and Glan Clwyd Hospital near Rhyl with 424 beds. The former Caernarfon and Anglesey General Hospital operated from 1809 to 1984 in Upper Bangor, on the site now occupied by Morrisons supermarket. Sport ----- Bangor has a long-established football team, Bangor City F.C. which currently competes in the Cymru North, the second tier of Welsh football. Bangor City won the Welsh Premier League on three occasions (1994, 1995, 2011) and were continuous members of the league from its inception until 2018. Bangor City have also won the Welsh Cup eight times, most recently in the 2010 competition. Before 1992, they were members of the English football pyramid, peaking with the Northern Premier League title in 1982 and being FA Trophy runners-up in 1984. They have also competed in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup three times (including its final season, 1998–99, before being merged into the UEFA Cup), UEFA Champions League twice, and UEFA Cup five times, though they have not progressed far in any of the European competitions. Fans wanting to protect football in the city, formed a breakaway club called Bangor 1876 F.C. in the summer of 2019 and on 19 June 2019, the FAW announced the new club had been accepted into the Gwynedd League for the 2019–20 season. Bangor is also home to rugby union team Bangor RFC who play in the WRU Division Two North league. As well as the city's team, the university boasts a very competitive rugby union team, which won the title in its BUCS league in the 2015-16 season and also undefeated in 2022 and 2023. The university's rugby team shares a performance and development programme with Rygbi Gogledd Cymru (RGC), who are the regional representative club for the North Wales Rugby Development Region. Media ----- The Bangor Aye is an independent online news and information service for the city and surrounding area. Bangor is home to a small BBC broadcasting centre, producing a large amount of output for BBC Radio Cymru. The studios are also the main North-West Wales newsroom for television, radio and on-line. The BBC's Light Entertainment Department moved to Bangor during World War II and many classic programmes (like *It's That Man Again*) came from Bangor. Bangor was also previously home to two commercial radio stations, Heart Cymru (serving Anglesey and Gwynedd) and the now-defunct Heart North Wales Coast (serving the North Wales Coast), which shared studio facilities on the Parc Menai office complex – the studios were closed in August 2010 after the stations were moved to Wrexham. Bangor University also has its own student radio station called Storm FM, which broadcasts to the Ffriddoedd Site and from their website. In 1967, The Beatles came to Bangor, staying in Dyfrdwy, one of the halls comprising Adeilad Hugh Owen (Hugh Owen Building), now part of the Management Centre, for their first encounter with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, during which visit they learned of the death of their manager Brian Epstein. On 24 February 2010 BBC Radio 1's *The Chris Moyles Show* announced Bangor as the location for Radio 1's Big Weekend concert festival. The morning show was broadcast on location from Bangor, with the announcement as well as a portion of the lineup being revealed. Big international acts such as Rihanna, MGMT, Kesha and Alicia Keys played as well as homegrown British acts like Biffy Clyro, Pixie Lott, Cheryl Cole, Pendulum and Dizzee Rascal. The town is mentioned in the Fiddler's Dram 1979 hit single "Day Trip to Bangor". The release was shrouded in controversy after reports that the song was actually inspired by a trip to nearby Rhyl, and there were rumours of an outcry among local councillors and businesses in Rhyl about the missed opportunity for tourism which would have been generated. Songwriter Debbie Cook stated that the song was specifically written about Bangor. Bangor, Pennsylvania -------------------- The United States town of Bangor, Pennsylvania in the Lehigh Valley region of eastern Pennsylvania draws its name from Bangor, Gwynedd. Bangor, Pennsylvania was settled around 1760 by Robert M. Jones, an emigrant from Bangor, Gwynedd who went on to be influential in the development of the town's slate industry. Slate quarries still exist in the small Pennsylvania town, but only a few are still functioning. A life-sized statue of Jones, dedicated on 24 September 1914, remains in the town centre. The influence of Bangor, Gwynedd is visible in the stone walls, square gardens, flowers, and greenery that mirror those of its Welsh namesake. Also like Bangor, Wales, Bangor, Pennsylvania has piles of slate residue and shale reminiscent of the area. Notable people -------------- *See Category:People from Bangor, Gwynedd* * William Ambrose (1813–1873), bardic name *Emrys*, poet and preacher. * Brenda Chamberlain (1912–1971), a Welsh artist, poet and writer. * John Edward Daniel (1902–1962), theologian, college lecturer and war-time chairman of Plaid Cymru. * Richard Deacon (born 1949), abstract sculptor, winner of the Turner Prize. * Matthew Dent (born 1981), graphic artist and designer of the redesigned 2008 British coinage. * Duffy (born 1984), singer-songwriter. First Welsh woman to achieve No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart since 1983. * Endaf Emlyn (born 1944), musician, film and TV director. * Ren Gill (born 1990), musician. * Mary Dilys Glynne (1895–1991), plant pathologist and mountaineer. * George Guest (1924–2002), an organist and choral conductor. * Owen Hurcum (born 1997), politician, former Mayor of the city of Bangor; openly non-binary. * Dylan Jones-Evans (born 1966), professor and newspaper columnist * Sian Lloyd (born 1968), Welsh TV news presenter, works for BBC News * Angus McDermid (1920–1988), BBC News foreign correspondent. * Owain Owain (1929–1993), nuclear scientist, novelist, short-story writer and poet. * Harry Parry (1912–1956), jazz clarinetist and bandleader. * Ben Roberts (1950–2021), actor, played C.I. Derek Conway in the ITV series, *The Bill*. * Sasha (born 1969), DJ and record producer. * Gwilym Simcock (born 1981), pianist and composer, often blurring jazz and classical music * Charles Warren (1840–1927), Royal Engineer, archaeologist and Police Chief * John Francon Williams (1854–1911), editor, journalist, geographer, historian, cartographer and inventor; born in Llanllechid and lived in Bangor as a child. ### Sport * Errie Ball (1910–2014), golfer, played in first Masters Tournament in 1934. * Nicola Davies (born 1985), former football goalkeeper with 64 caps with Wales women * Wayne Hennessey (born 1987), football goalkeeper with over 280 club caps and 108 for Wales. * Owain Tudur Jones (born 1984), footballer with 258 club caps and 7 for Wales. * Robin McBryde (born 1970), rugby union hooker with 37 caps for Wales * Sheila Morrow (born 1947), President of Great Britain Hockey since 2017. * Eddie Niedzwiecki (born 1959), football goalkeeper with 247 club caps. * Pat Pocock (born 1946), former cricketer, played in 25 Test matches * Rachel Taylor (born 1983), rugby union player with 43 caps for and captain of Wales women * Alex Thomson (born 1974), record-breaking solo around-the-world sailor. * Marc Lloyd Williams (born 1973), footballer, Welsh Premier League's top scorer, with 319 goals. Twin towns ---------- * Germany Soest, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany

Bangor, Gwynedd

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangor,_Gwynedd

**Ranchi** (/ˈrɑːntʃi/ (), Hindi: [ˈrãːtʃiː]) is the capital of the Indian state of Jharkhand. Ranchi was the centre of the Jharkhand movement, which called for a separate state for the tribal regions of South Bihar, northern Odisha, western West Bengal and the eastern area of what is present-day Chhattisgarh. The Jharkhand state was formed on 15 November 2000 by carving out the Bihar divisions of Chota Nagpur and Santhal Parganas. Ranchi has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under PM Narendra Modi's flagship Smart Cities Mission. Ranchi is also one of the oldest cities in Jharkhand. Jagannath Temple and Ratu Palace are some sights which witnessed the history of Ranchi. Ranchi is rapidly growing its economy, and certain parks, special economic zones and industrial areas are being developed. Of late, new sectors and modern areas have been built for the city's development. Ranchi is also nicknamed the 'City of Waterfalls'. Etymology --------- According to one popular tale, Captain choose "Archi" a Oraon tribal village as headquarters. *Archi* means Bamboo forest in local Nagpuri dialect. The British inadvertently named "Archi" as "Ranchi". Captain Thomas Wilkinson renamed Kishunpur village as Rachi. Up to 1927, the place was known as Rachi. In his book *The Mundas and Their Country*, anthropologist Sarat Chandra Roy writes that the name of the city is derived from the Mundari word *aranchi* or "short stick" used in driving cattle. According to another local story, the name of Ranchi comes from a local bird named "Rici" which was mostly found in the Pahari Mandir premise. *Rici* is name for Black Kite *(Milvus migrans*) in Mundari language, the modern-day landmark of Ranchi city, the Pahari Mandir, is also known as *Rici Buru* (रिचि बुरु) - the hill of the kites, and the city originated on the foothills of Rici Buru with the construction of *Bada Talab* by Commissioner Thomas Wilkinson at the same site. History ------- The early evidence of use of several iron slag, pot sheds, iron tools found in Chota Nagpur region around 1400 BCE. Magadha Empire exercised indirect control over the territory, which lasted until the reign of the Ashoka. Armies of Samudra Gupta passed through the region on their expedition to the Deccan. In 4th century CE, Nagvanshi king Raja Pratap Rai chose Chutia as his capital which is now a place in Ranchi. Few ruins of Chutia trace back to 2nd Century CE. With the expansion of the Mughal Empire, the sovereign status of the Nagvanshi dynasty was technically affected, but they continued to rule and administer independently. Thakur Ani Nath Shahdeo made Satranji as capital of Barkagarh estate near Subarnarekha river. He built Jagannath Temple in 1691. After Battle of Buxar, Nagvanshi became vassal of East India Company. British reduced Nagvanshi rulers to Jamindar in 1817 due to rebellion of Jagirdars under Nagvanshi against tax imposition by East India Company and directly ruled Chotanagpur. In 1833, Captain Wilkinson established headquarter of the South-West Frontier agency in the village of Kishunpur, which he renamed into Ranchi after the hamlet located at the foot of the Hill. In 1855, Thakur Vishwanath Shahdeo declared independene from British rule. British attacked Satranji but he defeated British forces. He ruled independently for two years. In Indian Rebellion of 1857, Thakur Vishwanath Shahdeo led soldiers of Ramgarh Battalion with Madhav Singh who was Jamadar of Ramgarh Battalion. Pandey Ganpat Rai, Tikait Umrao Singh and Sheikh Bhikhari also joined rebellion. They attacked British in Ranchi and compelled to flee them. But later they were defeated by East India company forces in Chatra and in Pithuriya with the help of king of Pithuriya, Jagatpal Singh and hanged. British made Ranchi as municipality in 1869 and Ranchi was first termed as a town in the census of 1872. Nagvanshi shifted their capital to Ratu from Palkot in 1870. Udai Pratap Nath Shah Deo built Ratu Palace in Ratu in 1900. He donated large tracts of land to built the infrastructure of city. Freedom fighter Birsa Munda died in the Ranchi jail on 9 June 1900. In 1912, Jyotirindranath Tagore, the eldest brother of Rabindranath Tagore, settled in Ranchi. Tagore Hill, where his house was located, has been named after him in remembrance. The last ruler of the Nagvanshi dynasty was Lal Chintamani Sharan Nath Shahdeo (1931–2014). After Independence, Ranchi saw significant increase in its population. Its population rate of growth was 3.5% in 1901 to 1941, which increased to 14% in 1951–1971. This was because of increased industrial and educational institutions being set up, as well as the arrival of post-Partition refugees. Ranchi became an 'administrative-cum-industrial' town in 1958 when Heavy Engineering Corporation was set up. The succeeding years saw Ranchi becoming the headquarter for the following: Steel Authority of India Ltd and Central Coalfields Ltd. The city remained the summer capital of Bihar till the creation of Jharkhand in 2000, when Ranchi became the capital of the new state. Geography --------- Ranchi lies at 23°22′N 85°20′E / 23.36°N 85.33°E / 23.36; 85.33 near to the Tropic of Cancer. The city covers an area of 175 km2 (68 sq mi) and its average elevation is 651 m above sea level. Ranchi is located in the southern part of the Chota Nagpur plateau, which is the eastern section of the Deccan plateau. Ranchi has a hilly topography and its dense tropical forests a combination that produces a relatively moderate climate compared to the rest of the state. However, due to the uncontrolled deforestation and development of the city, the average temperature has increased. ### Climate Although Ranchi has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Climate Classification: *Cwa*), its location and the forests surrounding it combine to produce the unusually pleasant climate for which it is known. Summer temperatures range from 20 to 42 °C, winter temperatures from 0 to 25 °C. December and January are the coolest months, with temperatures dipping to the freezing point in some areas (Kanke). The annual rainfall is about 1430 mm (56.34 inches). From June to September the rainfall is about 1,100 mm. | Climate data for Ranchi (1981–2010, extremes 1951–2009) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 31.6(88.9) | 35.0(95.0) | 39.0(102.2) | 43.4(110.1) | 43.1(109.6) | 43.3(109.9) | 38.0(100.4) | 34.6(94.3) | 34.5(94.1) | 33.2(91.8) | 32.0(89.6) | 29.8(85.6) | 43.4(110.1) | | Average high °C (°F) | 23.6(74.5) | 26.3(79.3) | 31.5(88.7) | 35.6(96.1) | 36.8(98.2) | 33.4(92.1) | 29.8(85.6) | 29.2(84.6) | 29.4(84.9) | 28.9(84.0) | 26.5(79.7) | 24.0(75.2) | 29.6(85.3) | | Average low °C (°F) | 9.8(49.6) | 12.6(54.7) | 16.8(62.2) | 21.2(70.2) | 23.3(73.9) | 23.5(74.3) | 22.7(72.9) | 22.4(72.3) | 21.8(71.2) | 18.6(65.5) | 13.6(56.5) | 9.9(49.8) | 18.0(64.4) | | Record low °C (°F) | 3.2(37.8) | 3.5(38.3) | 8.6(47.5) | 9.7(49.5) | 16.1(61.0) | 18.5(65.3) | 19.2(66.6) | 19.0(66.2) | 17.2(63.0) | 12.0(53.6) | 7.0(44.6) | 4.3(39.7) | 3.2(37.8) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 16.7(0.66) | 21.2(0.83) | 25.0(0.98) | 21.8(0.86) | 61.7(2.43) | 249.4(9.82) | 336.6(13.25) | 319.1(12.56) | 247.3(9.74) | 76.6(3.02) | 10.8(0.43) | 11.6(0.46) | 1,397.7(55.03) | | Average rainy days | 1.7 | 2.1 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 4.6 | 10.9 | 16.3 | 16.9 | 12.4 | 4.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 75.2 | | Average relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST) | 47 | 40 | 31 | 29 | 39 | 64 | 82 | 83 | 78 | 65 | 54 | 50 | 55 | | Source: India Meteorological Department | Demographics ------------ ### Population Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1951 | 106,849 | —     | | 1961 | 140,253 | +31.3% | | 1971 | 255,551 | +82.2% | | 1981 | 489,626 | +91.6% | | 1991 | 599,306 | +22.4% | | 2001 | 847,093 | +41.3% | | 2011 | 1,073,427 | +26.7% | | Source: Census of India | As of 2011[update] India census, Ranchi Municipal Corporation has a population of 1,073,427, The urban agglomeration had a population of 14,56,528 making it the 32nd most populous urban agglomeration in India. Males constitute 52.1% of the population and females 47.9%. Ranchi has an average literacy rate of 87.68%. The city witnessed a sudden surge in population after the declaration of the new state of Jharkhand in 2000. Owing to the rising employment opportunities and opening of numerous regional and state level offices, banks and FMCG companies, the city witnessed a rapid influx of employment seeking migrants. As per a study done by ASSOCHAM in late 2010, Ranchi was one of the highest employment generating Tier-III cities in India with a share of 16.8%, followed by Mangalore and Mysore. ### Language Languages spoken in Ranchi city (2011)   Hindi (56.29%)  Urdu (12.15%)  Nagpuri (10.23%)  Bhojpuri (4.41%)  Bengali (3.49%)  Kurukh (3.00%)  Mundari (2.32%)  Magahi (2.17%)  Maithili (1.56%)  Others (4.38%) Hindi is the lingua franca in Ranchi. Nagpuri is regional language of the region. Hindi is spoken by 7,99,133, Urdu by 1,30,457, Bengali by 37,450, Kurukh by 24,762 people, Mundari by 24,858 and 16,746 people speaks Maithili. ### Religion | Religion in Ranchi City (2011) | | --- | | Religion | | Percent | | Hinduism |   | 64.31% | | Islam |   | 16.42% | | Sarnaism |   | 9.72% | | Christianity |   | 8.52% | | Other or not stated |   | 1.03% | Hinduism is the prominent religion of Ranchi followed by 64.31% of the population. Islam is the second most followed religion in the city by 16.42% of the people. Minorities are Christians 8.52%, Sikhism 0.39%, Jains 0.22%, Buddhists 0.06%, those that did not state a religion are 0.35%, and others are 9.72%. Governance and politics ----------------------- ### Civic administration The municipal corporation covers an area of 175 km2 (68 sq mi) and is divided into 55 administrative wards, each represented by an elected corporator. At the time of the creation of the state of Jharkhand in 2000, the Bihar Municipal Act, 1922 was adapted as the Jharkhand Municipal Act, 2000 to govern all ULBs in the new state. Ranchi Municipal Corporation was governed by its own municipal act, the Ranchi Municipal Corporation Act, 2001. With the enactment of the Jharkhand Municipal Act 2011, these two ceased to be in effect and the 2011 became the only governing legislature for all city governments in Jharkhand. Under section 26 of the Jharkhand Municipal Act, 2011, the positions of mayor and deputy mayor are elected directly i.e. the position holders are voted in by the people themselves. The last municipal election was in 2018 with a voter turnout of 49.3%, up from 38% in the last election in 2013. Asha Lakra and Sanjiv Vijayawargia – both from the Bharatiya Janta Party – won the mayoral and deputy mayoral seats. The 2018 municipal election was the first time the mayoral and deputy mayoral candidates in Jharkhand could use political party symbols, while the candidates for councilor seats continued to use symbols allotted to them by the Jharkhand State Election Commission. The next municipal election will take place in 2023. The Jharkhand Municipal Act, 2011 mandates the establishment of ward committees for each ward in the municipality. Though ward committees have been formed in Ranchi, they are not active. ### Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha Constituencies Ranchi city is part of the Ranchi Lok Sabha Constituency. Sanjay Seth won the seat in the 2019 General Election and represents this constituency at the Lok Sabha as a Member of Parliament. Ranchi is part of the Ranchi Vidhan Sabha Constituency and the representative Member of Legislative Assembly at the Jharkhand Vidhan Sabha is Chandreshwar Prasad Singh. Singh has held the post since 2000, with the last Jharkhand Vidhan Sabha election being in 2019. Both politicians belong to the Bharatiya Janata Party. Public utilities ---------------- The various infrastructure and civic services demands of the city are met by different entities, including Ranchi Municipal Corporation, state government departments, and parastatal organisations. The Ranchi Master Plan 2037 was created by a private consultant firm under the clientship of the Ranchi Municipal Corporation, Urban Development and Housing Department, and Ranchi Regional Development Authority. Roads in Ranchi are developed and maintained by the municipal corporation, Jharkhand Government, Ranchi Regional Development Authority, and National Highways Authority of India. The Water Supply Section of the municipal corporation is responsible for issuing water connections, maintaining hand pumps in wards, collecting water usage charges and fines, whereas the state government Drinking Water Supply and Sewerage Department supplies the water. The Health Department of the corporation is responsible for the Solid Waste Management of the city. RMC operates buses in the city and has outsourced this to a private agency. Economy ------- Ranchi is one of the major industrial cities of Eastern India and located in the region called 'Ruhr of India' (Chota Nagpur) making it an ideal place for mineral based industries. Ranchi has presence of many well-known government and private organisations in the vicinity of city. SAIL-R&D, MECON.Ltd, Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (Marine Diesel Engine Project), Central Coalfields, CMPDI.Ltd, Subarnarekha Hydel Project (JSEB), Usha Martin Limited (Wire Rope Division), DVC, STPI-Ranchi, Heavy Engineering Corp., Palriwal Industries, Pensol India, Waxpol Industries, Jharkhand Mega Food Park etc. are the prominent industries here. The Federation of Jharkhand Chamber of Commerce & Industries (FJCCI), ASSOCHAM, MSME-DI and JIADA are major apex industrial bodies present here. JIADA consists many industrial areas in Ranchi, e.g. – Kokar, Tatisilwai, Namkum etc. are among them. As per a study done by ASSOCHAM in late 2010, Ranchi was the highest employment generating Tier-III cities in India followed by Mangalore and Mysore. MECON Ltd Company has its headquarters in Ranchi at Ashok Nagar. Jharkhand Industrial Area Development Association has its office in Namkum. Central Coalfields also has its headquarters in Ranchi. Ranchi houses a number of companies. Along with Jamshedpur, Dhanbad, Bokaro and Giridih it is one of the industrial hubs of the city. Here are the following companies which are based in Ranchi and also headquartered in Ranchi itself:Mecon limited, Central Coalfields, Heavy Engineering Corporation, Central Mine Planning and Design Institute, Jharkhand Rajya Gramin Bank and Dzinex Technology The main and major businesses here are located in Lalpur, Hindpiri, Lower Bazaar, Upper Bazaar and Doranda STPI Ranchi has set up its branch at Namkum, Ranchi. It is usually an IT Park, which houses many IT companies. It is being planned to build more parks like this. OFFCO Park is another park which is built here. It is also a large and famous business park. Lalpur, Doranda and Hindpiri are the business districts and financial districts in the city and the state. This place houses several shopping malls. Whole of Ranchi has several shopping malls which include: Nucleus Mall, Mall E Decor, JD Hi-Street Mall, Ranchi Central Mall, Laxmi Tower, Mall of Ranchi, City Center (Centre) Mall, Big Mall, Spring City Mall, Arakshan Shopping Mall, Shelter Mall, Ranchi Green City, Artic Mall, City Center or City Centre, City Mall and Galaxia Mall. There are many other upcoming shopping malls and commercial projects * Lalpur - Central business districtLalpur - Central business district * Central of Ranchi is the commercial, historical, cultural, financial and economic district hub of the city RanchiCentral of Ranchi is the commercial, historical, cultural, financial and economic district hub of the city Ranchi * Arjan Place at Hindpiri, Ranchi houses several companies including the Stock Holding Corporation of India Limited and RicohArjan Place at Hindpiri, Ranchi houses several companies including the Stock Holding Corporation of India Limited and Ricoh Education --------- ### Universities and Institutes * Amity University, Jharkhand * Central Institute of Psychiatry Ranchi * Indian Institute of Information Technology, Ranchi * Indian Institute of Management Ranchi * National Institute of Advanced Manufacturing Technology * Rajendra Institute of Medical Sciences * Ranchi University * Sarala Birla University ### Organizations * Association for Parivartan of Nation * Anjuman Islamia Ranchi Health ------ * Sadar Medical College and Hospital * Rajendra Institute of Medical Sciences * Central Institute of Psychiatry, Kanke * Ranchi Institute of Neuropsychiatry and Allied Sciences Sports ------ Ranchi is a center for numerous sports activities, including cricket, hockey, football, and many others. The 34th National Games were successfully held in Ranchi in February 2011. An International Cricket stadium with an indoor stadium and a practice ground has been constructed. So far, this stadium has hosted three One day International matches and one T20 International match. Apart from that, this stadium has hosted two IPL 6 matches for Kolkata Knight Riders, three champions league 2013 matches and Celebrity Cricket League matches for Bhojpuri Dabanggs. A tennis academy, which was inaugurated by Sania Mirza and Shoaib Malik, also runs beside the cricket stadium. Former Indian Cricket Team Captain M.S. Dhoni lives in Ranchi. The Ranchi franchise for Hockey India League was bought by Patel-Uniexcel Group and the team named the Ranchi Rhinos. ### Sports teams * Ranchi Rays (earlier Ranchi Rhinos) ### Stadiums in Ranchi * Jaipal Singh Stadium * JSCA International Cricket Stadium * Birsa Munda Hockey Stadium * Birsa Munda Athletics Stadium * Birsa Munda Football Stadium Points of Interest ------------------ MapShow zoomed outMapShow zoomed midMapShow zoomed inRanchi * Bhagwan Birsa Biological Park * Dassam Falls * Getalsud Dam(also known as Rukka Dam; built in 1971) * Gossner Evangelical Lutheran Church, the oldest church in eastern and northern India * Hundru Falls * Jagannath Temple, built by Thakur Ani Nath Shahdeo, Raja of Barkagarh Jagannathpur in 1691. * Jonha Falls, also known as Gautamdhara (the place dedicated to Gautam Buddha) * Kanke Dam, also known as Gonda Dam built in 1955 * Rock Garden, built along Kanke Dam * Nakshatra Van * Pahari Mandir, temple dedicated to Lord Shiva * Patratu Valley * Ranchi Science Centre * Ratu Palace, capital of Nagvanshis of Chotanagpur. * Sita Falls * Ranchi State Museum, State Art museum * St.Mary's Cathedral, one of oldest church of Ranchi built in 1847 * Tagore Hill (related to Jyotindranath Tagore, brother of Rabindranath Tagore) Notable people -------------- * Rajesh Chauhan, former Indian cricketer, born in Ranchi * Deeba, Pakistani actress * MS Dhoni, former captain of Indian Cricket Team * Carl Haeberlin, German physician, born in Ranchi * Madhu Mansuri Hasmukh, folk singer * Rajesh Jais, actor * Komal Jha, actress * Anjana Om Kashyap, Indian journalist and news presenter * Neelu Kohli, actress * Deepika Kumari, Indian professional archer * Supriya Kumari, actress * Peter Mansfield, British journalist and historian, was born in Ranchi * Pat Reid MBE MC, escapee from Colditz Castle, born in Ranchi * Anushka Sen, actress * Gopal Sharan Nath Shahdeo, Nagvanshi prince and MLA * Lal Chintamani Sharan Nath Shahdeo, last Nagvanshi king * Vishwanath Shahdeo, freedom fighter, born in Barkagarh, Ranchi * Alisha Singh, dancer and choreographer * C.P. Singh (Indian politician) See also -------- * Ranchi Metropolitan Region * List of cities in Jharkhand * 1967 Ranchi-Hatia riots

Ranchi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranchi

**Justinian I** (/dʒʌˈstɪniən/; Latin: *Justinianus*, Classical Latin: [i̯uːstiːniˈaːnʊs]; Greek: Ἰουστινιανός *Ioustinianos*; 482 – 14 November 565), also known as **Justinian the Great**, was the Eastern Roman emperor from 527 to 565. His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized *renovatio imperii*, or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct Western Roman Empire. His general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. Subsequently, Belisarius, Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the empire after more than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths. The praetorian prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of the Iberian peninsula, establishing the province of Spania. These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empire's annual revenue by over a million *solidi*. During his reign, Justinian also subdued the *Tzani*, a people on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before. He engaged the Sasanian Empire in the east during Kavad I's reign, and later again during Khosrow I's reign; this second conflict was partially initiated due to his ambitions in the west. A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the *Corpus Juris Civilis*, which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states. His reign also marked a blossoming of Eastern Roman (Byzantine) culture, and his building program yielded works such as the Hagia Sophia. Life ---- The ancient town of Tauresium, the birthplace of Justinian I, located in today's North Macedonia. Parts of the town had been destroyed during Justinian's life.Mosaic of Theodora, Justinian's wife Justinian was born in Tauresium, Dardania, probably in 482. A native speaker of Latin (possibly the last Roman emperor to be one), he came from a peasant family believed to have been of Illyro-Roman or Thraco-Roman origin. The name *Iustinianus*, which he took later, is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin. During his reign, he founded Justiniana Prima not far from his birthplace. His mother was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin. Justin, who was commander of one of the imperial guard units (the Excubitors) before he became emperor, adopted Justinian, brought him to Constantinople, and ensured the boy's education. As a result, Justinian was well educated in jurisprudence, theology, and Roman history. Justinian served as a *candidatus*, one of 40 men selected from the *scholae palatinae* to serve as the emperor's personal bodyguard. The chronicler John Malalas, who lived during the reign of Justinian, describes his appearance as short, fair-skinned, curly-haired, round-faced, and handsome. Another contemporary historian, Procopius, compares Justinian's appearance to that of tyrannical Emperor Domitian, although this is probably slander. The *Carmagnola*, an imperial porphyry head in Venice thought to represent JustinianA 6th-century head of an emperor at the Getty Villa, possibly Justinian When Emperor Anastasius died in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new emperor with significant help from Justinian. Justinian showed a lot of ambition, and several sources claim that he was functioning as virtual regent long before Justin made him associate emperor, although there is no conclusive evidence of this. As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the *de facto* ruler. Following the general Vitalian's assassination in 520 (orchestrated by Justinian and Justin), Justinian was appointed consul and commander of the army of the east. Justinian remained Justin's close confidant, and in 525 was granted the titles of *nobilissimus* and *caesar* (heir-apparent). He was crowned co-emperor on 1 April 527, and became sole ruler after Justin's death on 1 August 527. As a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as "the emperor who never sleeps" for his work habits. Nevertheless, he seems to have been amiable and easy to approach. Around 525, he married his mistress, Theodora, in Constantinople. She was by profession an actress and some twenty years his junior. In earlier times, Justinian could not have married her owing to her class, but his uncle, Emperor Justin I, had passed a law lifting restrictions on marriages with ex-actresses. Though the marriage caused a scandal, Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire. Other talented individuals included Tribonian, his legal adviser; Peter the Patrician, the diplomat and long-time head of the palace bureaucracy; Justinian's finance ministers John the Cappadocian and Peter Barsymes, who managed to collect taxes more efficiently than any before, thereby funding Justinian's wars; and finally, his prodigiously talented generals, Belisarius and Narses. Justinian's rule was not universally popular; early in his reign he nearly lost his throne during the Nika riots, and a conspiracy against the emperor's life by dissatisfied entrepreneurs was discovered as late as 562. Justinian was struck by the plague in the early 540s but recovered. Theodora died in 548 at a relatively young age, possibly of cancer; Justinian outlived her by nearly twenty years. Justinian, who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively participated in debates on Christian doctrine, became even more devoted to religion during the later years of his life. He died on 14 November 565, childless. He was succeeded by Justin II, who was the son of his sister Vigilantia and married to Sophia, the niece of Theodora. Justinian's body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles until it was desecrated and robbed during the pillage of the city in 1204 by the Latin States of the Fourth Crusade. Reign ----- ### Legislative activities Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms, particularly through the complete revision of all Roman law, something that had not previously been attempted. The total of Justinian's legislation is known today as the *Corpus juris civilis*. It consists of the *Codex Justinianeus*, the *Digesta* or *Pandectae*, the *Institutiones*, and the *Novellae*. Early in his reign, Justinian had appointed the *quaestor* Tribonian to oversee this task. The first draft of the *Codex Justinianeus*, a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward, was issued on 7 April 529. (The final version appeared in 534.) It was followed by the *Digesta* (or *Pandectae*), a compilation of older legal texts, in 533, and by the *Institutiones*, a textbook explaining the principles of law. The *Novellae*, a collection of new laws issued during Justinian's reign, supplements the *Corpus*. As opposed to the rest of the corpus, the *Novellae* appeared in Greek, the common language of the Eastern Empire. The *Corpus* forms the basis of Latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiastical Canon Law) and, for historians, provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire. As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which the *leges* (laws) and the other rules were expressed or published: proper laws, senatorial consults (*senatusconsulta*), imperial decrees, case law, and jurists' opinions and interpretations (*responsa prudentium*). Tribonian's code ensured the survival of Roman law. It formed the basis of later Byzantine law, as expressed in the *Basilika* of Basil I and Leo VI the Wise. The only western province where the Justinianic code was introduced was Italy (after the conquest by the so-called Pragmatic Sanction of 554), from where it was to pass to Western Europe in the 12th century and become the basis of much Continental European law code, which was eventually spread by European empires to the Americas and beyond in the Age of Discovery. It eventually passed to Eastern Europe where it appeared in Slavic editions, and it also passed on to Russia. It remains influential to this day. He passed laws to protect prostitutes from exploitation and women from being forced into prostitution. Rapists were treated severely. Further, by his policies: women charged with major crimes should be guarded by other women to prevent sexual abuse; if a woman was widowed, her dowry should be returned; and a husband could not take on a major debt without his wife giving her consent twice. Family legislation also revealed a greater concern for the interests of children. This was particularly so with respect to children born out of wedlock. The law under Justinian also reveals a striking interest in child neglect issues. Justinian protected the rights of children whose parents remarried and produced more offspring, or who simply separated and abandoned their offspring, forcing them to beg. Justinian discontinued the regular appointment of Consuls in 541. ### Nika riots Justinian's habit of choosing efficient but unpopular advisers nearly cost him his throne early in his reign. In January 532, partisans of the chariot racing factions in Constantinople, normally rivals, united against Justinian in a revolt that has become known as the Nika riots. They forced him to dismiss Tribonian and two of his other ministers, and then attempted to overthrow Justinian himself and replace him with the senator Hypatius, who was a nephew of the late emperor Anastasius. While the crowd was rioting in the streets, Justinian considered fleeing the capital by sea, but eventually decided to stay, apparently on the prompting of his wife Theodora, who refused to leave. In the next two days, he ordered the brutal suppression of the riots by his generals Belisarius and Mundus. Procopius relates that 30,000 unarmed civilians were killed in the Hippodrome. On Theodora's insistence, and apparently against his own judgment, Justinian had Anastasius' nephews executed. The destruction that took place during the revolt provided Justinian with an opportunity to tie his name to a series of splendid new buildings, most notably the architectural innovation of the domed Hagia Sophia. ### Military activities One of the most spectacular features of Justinian's reign was the recovery of large stretches of land around the Western Mediterranean basin that had slipped out of Imperial control in the 5th century. As a Christian Roman emperor, Justinian considered it his divine duty to restore the Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries. Although he never personally took part in military campaigns, he boasted of his successes in the prefaces to his laws and had them commemorated in art. The re-conquests were in large part carried out by his general Belisarius. #### War with the Sassanid Empire, 527–532 From his uncle, Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with the Sassanid Empire. In 530 the Persian forces suffered a double defeat at Dara and Satala, but the next year saw the defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius near Callinicum. Justinian then tried to make alliance with the Axumites of Ethiopia and the Himyarites of Yemen against the Persians, but this failed. When king Kavadh I of Persia died (September 531), Justinian concluded an "Eternal Peace" (which cost him 11,000 pounds of gold) with his successor Khosrau I (532). Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Justinian turned his attention to the West, where Germanic kingdoms had been established in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire. #### Conquest of North Africa, 533–534 The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of the Vandals in North Africa. King Hilderic, who had maintained good relations with Justinian and the North African Catholic clergy, had been overthrown by his cousin Gelimer in 530 A.D. Imprisoned, the deposed king appealed to Justinian. Justinian protested Gelimer's actions, demanding that Gelimer return the kingdom to Hilderic. Gelimer replied, in effect, that Justinian had no authority to make these demands. Angered at this response, Justinian quickly concluded his ongoing war with the Sassanian Empire and prepared an expedition against the Vandals in 533. In 533, Belisarius sailed to Africa with a fleet of 92 dromons, escorting 500 transports carrying an army of about 15,000 men, as well as a number of barbarian troops. They landed at Caput Vada (modern Ras Kaboudia) in modern Tunisia. They defeated the Vandals, who were caught completely off guard, at Ad Decimum on 14 September 533 and Tricamarum in December; Belisarius took Carthage. King Gelimer fled to Mount Pappua in Numidia, but surrendered the next spring. He was taken to Constantinople, where he was paraded in a triumph. Sardinia and Corsica, the Balearic Islands, and the stronghold Septem Fratres near Mons Calpe (later named Gibraltar) were recovered in the same campaign. In this war, the contemporary Procopius remarks that Africa was so entirely depopulated that a person might travel several days without meeting a human being, and he adds, "it is no exaggeration to say, that in the course of the war 5,000,000 perished by the sword, and famine, and pestilence." An African prefecture, centered in Carthage, was established in April 534, but it would teeter on the brink of collapse during the next 15 years, amidst warfare with the Moors and military mutinies. The area was not completely pacified until 548, but remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed a measure of prosperity. The recovery of Africa cost the empire about 100,000 pounds of gold. #### War in Italy, first phase, 535–540 As in Africa, dynastic struggles in Ostrogothic Italy provided an opportunity for intervention. The young king Athalaric had died on 2 October 534, and a usurper, Theodahad, had imprisoned queen Amalasuintha, Theodoric's daughter and mother of Athalaric, on the island of Martana in Lake Bolsena, where he had her assassinated in 535. Thereupon Belisarius, with 7,500 men, invaded Sicily (535) and advanced into Italy, sacking Naples and capturing Rome on 9 December 536. By that time Theodahad had been deposed by the Ostrogothic army, who had elected Vitigis as their new king. He gathered a large army and besieged Rome from February 537 to March 538 without being able to retake the city. Justinian sent another general, Narses, to Italy, but tensions between Narses and Belisarius hampered the progress of the campaign. Milan was taken, but was soon recaptured and razed by the Ostrogoths. Justinian recalled Narses in 539. By then the military situation had turned in favour of the Romans, and in 540 Belisarius reached the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna. There he was offered the title of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace that would leave the region north of the Po River in Gothic hands. Belisarius feigned acceptance of the offer, entered the city in May 540, and reclaimed it for the Empire. Then, having been recalled by Justinian, Belisarius returned to Constantinople, taking the captured Vitigis and his wife Matasuntha with him. #### War with the Sassanid Empire, 540–562 Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by the Persians. Following a revolt against the Empire in Armenia in the late 530s and possibly motivated by the pleas of Ostrogothic ambassadors, King Khosrau I broke the "Eternal Peace" and invaded Roman territory in the spring of 540. He first sacked Beroea and then Antioch (allowing the garrison of 6,000 men to leave the city), besieged Daras, and then went on to attack the Byzantine base in the small but strategically significant satellite kingdom of Lazica near the Black Sea as requested by its discontented king Gubazes, exacting tribute from the towns he passed along his way. He forced Justinian I to pay him 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year. Belisarius arrived in the East in 541, but after some success, was again recalled to Constantinople in 542. The reasons for his withdrawal are not known, but it may have been instigated by rumours of his disloyalty reaching the court. The outbreak of the plague coupled with a rebellion in Persia brought Khosrow I's offensives to a halt. Exploiting this, Justinian ordered all the forces in the East to invade Persian Armenia, but the 30,000-strong Byzantine force was defeated by a small force at Anglon. The next year, Khosrau unsuccessfully besieged the major city of Edessa. Both parties made little headway, and in 545 a truce was agreed upon for the southern part of the Roman-Persian frontier. After that, the Lazic War in the North continued for several years: the Lazic king switched to the Byzantine side, and in 549 Justinian sent Dagisthaeus to recapture Petra, but he faced heavy resistance and the siege was relieved by Sasanian reinforcements. Justinian replaced him with Bessas, who was under a cloud after the loss of Rome in 546, but he managed to capture and dismantle Petra in 551. The war continued for several years until a second truce in 557, followed by a Fifty Years' Peace in 562. Under its terms, the Persians agreed to abandon Lazica in exchange for an annual tribute of 400 or 500 pounds of gold (30,000 *solidi*) to be paid by the Romans. #### War in Italy, second phase, 541–554 While military efforts were directed to the East, the situation in Italy took a turn for the worse. Under their respective kings Ildibad and Eraric (both murdered in 541) and especially Totila, the Ostrogoths made quick gains. After a victory at Faenza in 542, they reconquered the major cities of Southern Italy and soon held almost the entire Italian peninsula. Belisarius was sent back to Italy late in 544 but lacked sufficient troops and supplies. Making no headway, he was relieved of his command in 548. Belisarius succeeded in defeating a Gothic fleet of 200 ships. During this period the city of Rome changed hands three more times, first taken and depopulated by the Ostrogoths in December 546, then reconquered by the Byzantines in 547, and then again by the Goths in January 550. Totila also plundered Sicily and attacked Greek coastlines. Finally, Justinian dispatched a force of approximately 35,000 men (2,000 men were detached and sent to invade southern Visigothic Hispania) under the command of Narses. The army reached Ravenna in June 552 and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at the battle of Busta Gallorum in the Apennines, where Totila was slain. After a second battle at Mons Lactarius in October that year, the resistance of the Ostrogoths was finally broken. In 554, a large-scale Frankish invasion was defeated at Casilinum, and Italy was secured for the Empire, though it would take Narses several years to reduce the remaining Gothic strongholds. At the end of the war, Italy was garrisoned with an army of 16,000 men. The recovery of Italy cost the empire about 300,000 pounds of gold. Procopius estimated 15,000,000 Goths died. #### Other campaigns In addition to the other conquests, the Empire established a presence in Visigothic Hispania, when the usurper Athanagild requested assistance in his rebellion against King Agila I. In 552, Justinian dispatched a force of 2,000 men; according to the historian Jordanes, this army was led by the octogenarian Liberius. The Byzantines took Cartagena and other cities on the southeastern coast and founded the new province of Spania before being checked by their former ally Athanagild, who had by now become king. This campaign marked the apogee of Byzantine expansion. During Justinian's reign, the Balkans suffered from several incursions by the Turkic and Slavic peoples who lived north of the Danube. Here, Justinian resorted mainly to a combination of diplomacy and a system of defensive works. In 559 a particularly dangerous invasion of Sklavinoi and Kutrigurs under their khan Zabergan threatened Constantinople, but they were repulsed by the aged general Belisarius. #### Results Justinian's ambition to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory was only partly realized. In the West, the brilliant early military successes of the 530s were followed by years of stagnation. The dragging war with the Goths was a disaster for Italy, even though its long-lasting effects may have been less severe than is sometimes thought. The heavy taxes that the administration imposed upon Italian population were deeply resented. The final victory in Italy and the conquest of Africa and the coast of southern Hispania significantly enlarged the area of Byzantine influence and eliminated all naval threats to the empire, which in 555 reached its territorial zenith. Despite losing much of Italy soon after Justinian's death, the empire retained several important cities, including Rome, Naples, and Ravenna, leaving the Lombards as a regional threat. The newly founded province of Spania kept the Visigoths as a threat to Hispania alone and not to the western Mediterranean and Africa. Events of the later years of his reign showed that Constantinople itself was not safe from barbarian incursions from the north, and even the relatively benevolent historian Menander Protector felt the need to attribute the Emperor's failure to protect the capital to the weakness of his body in his old age. In his efforts to renew the Roman Empire, Justinian dangerously stretched its resources while failing to take into account the changed realities of 6th-century Europe. ### Religious activities Justinian saw the orthodoxy of his empire threatened by diverging religious currents, especially Monophysitism, which had many adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt. Monophysite doctrine, which maintains that Jesus Christ had one divine nature rather than a synthesis of divine and human nature, had been condemned as a heresy by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, and the tolerant policies towards Monophysitism of Zeno and Anastasius I had been a source of tension in the relationship with the bishops of Rome. Justin reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine, openly condemning the Monophysites. Justinian, who continued this policy, tried to impose religious unity on his subjects by forcing them to accept doctrinal compromises that might appeal to all parties, a policy that proved unsuccessful as he satisfied none of them. Near the end of his life, Justinian became ever more inclined towards the Monophysite doctrine, especially in the form of Aphthartodocetism, but he died before being able to issue any legislation. The empress Theodora sympathized with the Monophysites and is said to have been a constant source of pro-Monophysite intrigues at the court in Constantinople in the earlier years. In the course of his reign, Justinian, who had a genuine interest in matters of theology, authored a small number of theological treatises. #### Religious policy As in his secular administration, despotism appeared also in the Emperor's ecclesiastical policy. He regulated everything, both in religion and in law. At the very beginning of his reign, he deemed it proper to promulgate by law the Church's belief in the Trinity and the Incarnation, and to threaten all heretics with the appropriate penalties, whereas he subsequently declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense by due process of law. He made the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church and accorded legal force to the canons of the four ecumenical councils. The bishops in attendance at the Council of Constantinople (536) recognized that nothing could be done in the Church contrary to the emperor's will and command, while, on his side, the emperor, in the case of the Patriarch Anthimus, reinforced the ban of the Church with temporal proscription. Justinian protected the purity of the church by suppressing heretics. He neglected no opportunity to secure the rights of the Church and clergy, and to protect and extend monasticism. He granted the monks the right to inherit property from private citizens and the right to receive *solemnia*, or annual gifts, from the Imperial treasury or from the taxes of certain provinces and he prohibited lay confiscation of monastic estates. Although the despotic character of his measures is contrary to modern sensibilities, he was a "nursing father" of the Church. Both the *Codex* and the *Novellae* contain many enactments regarding donations, foundations, and the administration of ecclesiastical property; election and rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc. Justinian also rebuilt the Church of Hagia Sophia (which cost 20,000 pounds of gold), the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots. The new Hagia Sophia, with its numerous chapels and shrines, gilded octagonal dome, and mosaics, became the centre and most visible monument of Eastern Orthodoxy in Constantinople. #### Religious relations with Rome From the middle of the 5th century onward, increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in ecclesiastical matters. Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly after his uncle's accession in 518, and put an end to the Acacian schism. Previous Emperors had tried to alleviate theological conflicts by declarations that deemphasized the Council of Chalcedon, which had condemned Monophysitism, which had strongholds in Egypt and Syria, and by tolerating the appointment of Monophysites to church offices. The Popes reacted by severing ties with the Patriarch of Constantinople who supported these policies. Emperors Justin I (and later Justinian himself) rescinded these policies and reestablished the union between Constantinople and Rome. After this, Justinian also felt entitled to settle disputes in papal elections, as he did when he favored Vigilius and had his rival Silverius deported. This new-found unity between East and West did not, however, solve the ongoing disputes in the east. Justinian's policies switched between attempts to force Monophysites and Miaphysites (who were mistaken to be adherers of Monophysitism) to accept the Chalcedonian creed by persecuting their bishops and monks – thereby embittering their sympathizers in Egypt and other provinces – and attempts at a compromise that would win over the Monophysites without surrendering the Chalcedonian faith. Such an approach was supported by the Empress Theodora, who favoured the Miaphysites unreservedly. In the condemnation of the *Three Chapters*, three theologians that had opposed Monophysitism before and after the Council of Chalcedon, Justinian tried to win over the opposition. At the Fifth Ecumenical Council, most of the Eastern church yielded to the Emperor's demands, and Pope Vigilius, who was forcibly brought to Constantinople and besieged at a chapel, finally also gave his assent. However, the condemnation was received unfavourably in the west, where it led to new (albeit temporal) schism, and failed to reach its goal in the east, as the Monophysites remained unsatisfied – all the more bitter for him because during his last years he took an even greater interest in theological matters. #### Authoritarian rule Justinian's religious policy reflected the Imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith, and it appeared to him obvious that this faith could only be the orthodoxy (Chalcedonian). Those of a different belief were subjected to persecution, which imperial legislation had effected from the time of Constantius II and which would now vigorously continue. The *Codex* contained two statutes that decreed the total destruction of paganism, even in private life; these provisions were zealously enforced. Contemporary sources (John Malalas, Theophanes, and John of Ephesus) tell of severe persecutions, even of men in high position.[*dubious – discuss*] The original Academy of Plato had been destroyed by the Roman dictator Sulla in 86 BC. Several centuries later, in 410 AD, a Neoplatonic Academy was established that had no institutional continuity with Plato's Academy, and which served as a center for Neoplatonism and mysticism. It persisted until 529 AD when it was finally closed by Justinian I. Other schools in Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, which were the centers of Justinian's empire, continued. In Asia Minor alone, John of Ephesus was reported to have converted 70,000 pagans, which was probably an exaggerated number. Other peoples also accepted Christianity: the Heruli, the Huns dwelling near the Don, the Abasgi, and the Tzanni in Caucasia. The worship of Amun at the oasis of Awjila in the Libyan desert was abolished, and so were the remnants of the worship of Isis on the island of Philae, at the first cataract of the Nile. The Presbyter Julian and the Bishop Longinus conducted a mission among the Nabataeans, and Justinian attempted to strengthen Christianity in Yemen by dispatching a bishop from Egypt. The civil rights of Jews were restricted and their religious privileges threatened. Justinian also interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue and encouraged the Jews to use the Greek Septuagint in their synagogues in Constantinople. The Emperor faced significant opposition from the Samaritans, who resisted conversion to Christianity and were repeatedly in insurrection. He persecuted them with rigorous edicts, but could not prevent reprisals towards Christians from taking place in Samaria toward the close of his reign. The consistency of Justinian's policy meant that the Manicheans too suffered persecution, experiencing both exile and threat of capital punishment. At Constantinople, on one occasion, not a few Manicheans, after strict inquisition, were executed in the emperor's very presence: some by burning, others by drowning. ### Architecture, learning, art and literature Justinian was a prolific builder; the historian Procopius bears witness to his activities in this area. Under Justinian's reign, the San Vitale in Ravenna, which features two famous mosaics representing Justinian and Theodora, was completed under the sponsorship of Julius Argentarius. Most notably, he had the Hagia Sophia, originally a basilica-style church that had been burnt down during the Nika riots, splendidly rebuilt according to a completely different ground plan, under the architectural supervision of Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. On 26 December 537, according to Pseudo-Codinus, Justinian stated at the completion of this edifice: "Solomon, I have outdone thee" (in reference to the first Jewish temple). The church had a second inauguration on 24 December 562, after several reworks made by Isidore the Younger. This new cathedral, with its magnificent dome filled with mosaics, remained the centre of eastern Christianity for centuries. Another prominent church in the capital, the Church of the Holy Apostles, which had been in a very poor state near the end of the 5th century, was likewise rebuilt. The Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, later renamed Little Hagia Sophia, was also built between 532 and 536 by the imperial couple. Works of embellishment were not confined to churches alone: excavations at the site of the Great Palace of Constantinople have yielded several high-quality mosaics dating from Justinian's reign, and a column topped by a bronze statue of Justinian on horseback and dressed in a military costume was erected in the Augustaeum in Constantinople in 543. Rivalry with other, more established patrons from the Constantinopolitan and exiled Roman aristocracy might have enforced Justinian's building activities in the capital as a means of strengthening his dynasty's prestige. Justinian also strengthened the borders of the Empire from Africa to the East through the construction of fortifications and ensured Constantinople of its water supply through construction of underground cisterns (see Basilica Cistern). To prevent floods from damaging the strategically important border town Dara, an advanced arch dam was built. During his reign the large Sangarius Bridge was built in Bithynia, securing a major military supply route to the east. Furthermore, Justinian restored cities damaged by earthquake or war and built a new city near his place of birth called Justiniana Prima, which was intended to replace Thessalonica as the political and religious centre of Illyricum. In Justinian's reign, and partly under his patronage, Byzantine culture produced noteworthy historians, including Procopius and Agathias, and poets such as Paul the Silentiary and Romanus the Melodist flourished. On the other hand, centres of learning such as the Neoplatonic Academy in Athens and the famous Law School of Berytus lost their importance during his reign. ### Economy and administration As was the case under Justinian's predecessors, the Empire's economic health rested primarily on agriculture. In addition, long-distance trade flourished, reaching as far north as Cornwall where tin was exchanged for Roman wheat. Within the Empire, convoys sailing from Alexandria provided Constantinople with wheat and grains. Justinian made the traffic more efficient by building a large granary on the island of Tenedos for storage and further transport to Constantinople. Justinian also tried to find new routes for the eastern trade, which was suffering badly from the wars with the Persians. One important luxury product was silk, which was imported and then processed in the Empire. In order to protect the manufacture of silk products, Justinian granted a monopoly to the imperial factories in 541. In order to bypass the Persian landroute, Justinian established friendly relations with the Abyssinians, whom he wanted to act as trade mediators by transporting Indian silk to the Empire; the Abyssinians, however, were unable to compete with the Persian merchants in India. Then, in the early 550s, two monks succeeded in smuggling eggs of silk worms from Central Asia back to Constantinople, and silk became an indigenous product. Gold and silver were mined in the Balkans, Anatolia, Armenia, Cyprus, Egypt and Nubia. At the start of Justinian I's reign he had inherited a surplus 28,800,000 *solidi* (400,000 pounds of gold) in the imperial treasury from Anastasius I and Justin I. Under Justinian's rule, measures were taken to counter corruption in the provinces and to make tax collection more efficient. Greater administrative power was given to both the leaders of the prefectures and of the provinces, while power was taken away from the vicariates of the dioceses, of which a number were abolished. The overall trend was towards a simplification of administrative infrastructure. According to Brown (1971), the increased professionalization of tax collection did much to destroy the traditional structures of provincial life, as it weakened the autonomy of the town councils in the Greek towns. It has been estimated that before Justinian I's reconquests the state had an annual revenue of 5,000,000 *solidi* in AD 530, but after his reconquests, the annual revenue was increased to 6,000,000 *solidi* in AD 550. Throughout Justinian's reign, the cities and villages of the East thrived, although Antioch was struck by two earthquakes (526, 528) and sacked and evacuated by the Persians (540). Justinian had the city rebuilt, but on a slightly smaller scale. Despite all these measures, the Empire suffered several major setbacks in the course of the 6th century. The first one was the plague, which lasted from 541 to 543 and, by decimating the Empire's population, probably created a scarcity of labor and a rising of wages. The lack of manpower also led to a significant increase in the number of "barbarians" in the Byzantine armies after the early 540s. The protracted war in Italy and the wars with the Persians themselves laid a heavy burden on the Empire's resources, and Justinian was criticized for curtailing the government-run post service, which he limited to only one eastern route of military importance. Natural disasters ----------------- During the 530s, it seemed to many that God had abandoned the Christian Roman Empire. There were noxious fumes in the air and the Sun, while still providing daylight, refused to give much heat. The extreme weather events of 535–536 led to a famine such as had not been recorded before, affecting both Europe and the Middle East. These events may have been caused by an atmospheric dust veil resulting from a large volcanic eruption. The historian Procopius recorded in 536 in his work on the Vandalic War "during this year a most dread portent took place. For the sun gave forth its light without brightness … and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it shed were not clear". The causes of these disasters are not precisely known, but volcanoes at the Rabaul caldera, Lake Ilopango, Krakatoa, or, according to a recent finding, in Iceland are suspected. Seven years later in 542, a devastating outbreak of Bubonic Plague, known as the Plague of Justinian and second only to Black Death of the 14th century, killed tens of millions. Justinian and members of his court, physically unaffected by the previous 535–536 famine, were afflicted, with Justinian himself contracting and surviving the pestilence. The impact of this outbreak of plague has recently been disputed, since evidence for tens of millions dying is uncertain. In July 551, the eastern Mediterranean was rocked by the 551 Beirut earthquake, which triggered a tsunami. The combined fatalities of both events likely exceeded 30,000, with tremors felt from Antioch to Alexandria. Cultural depictions ------------------- In the *Paradiso* section of the *Divine Comedy*, Canto (chapter) VI, by Dante Alighieri, Justinian I is prominently featured as a spirit residing on the sphere of Mercury. The latter holds in Heaven the souls of those whose acts were righteous, yet meant to achieve fame and honor. Justinian's legacy is elaborated on, and he is portrayed as a defender of the Christian faith and the restorer of Rome to the Empire. Justinian confesses that he was partially motivated by fame rather than duty to God, which tainted the justice of his rule in spite of his proud accomplishments. In his introduction, "Cesare fui e son Iustinïano" ("Caesar I was, and am Justinian"), his mortal title is contrasted with his immortal soul, to emphasize that "glory in life is ephemeral, while contributing to God's glory is eternal", according to Dorothy L. Sayers. Dante also uses Justinian to criticize the factious politics of his 14th-century Italy, divided between Ghibellines and Guelphs, in contrast to the unified Italy of the Roman Empire. Justinian is a major character in the 1938 novel *Count Belisarius*, by Robert Graves. He is depicted as a jealous and conniving Emperor obsessed with creating and maintaining his own historical legacy. Justinian appears as a character in the 1939 time travel novel *Lest Darkness Fall*, by L. Sprague de Camp. *The Glittering Horn: Secret Memoirs of the Court of Justinian* was a novel written by Pierson Dixon in 1958 about the court of Justinian. Justinian occasionally appears in the comic strip *Prince Valiant*, usually as a nemesis of the title character. Justinian is played by Innokenty Smoktunovsky in the 1985 Soviet film *Primary Russia*. Justinian's Crown is a historical artifact claimed by the Byzantine Empire in the popular 2020 computer strategy game *Crusader Kings 3*, by Paradox Development Studio. Historical sources ------------------ Procopius provides the primary source for the history of Justinian's reign, but his opinion is tainted by a feeling of betrayal when Justinian became more pragmatic and less idealistic (Justinian and the Later Roman Empire by John W. Barker). He became very bitter towards Justinian and his empress, Theodora. In various Eastern Orthodox Churches, including the Orthodox Church in America, Justinian and his empress Theodora are commemorated on the anniversary of his death, 14 November. Some denominations translate the Julian calendar date to 27 November on the Gregorian calendar. The Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and the Lutheran Church–Canada also remember Justinian on 14 November. See also -------- * Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, rebuilt by Justinian * International Roman Law Moot Court * This article incorporates text from the *Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge*. Primary sources --------------- * Procopius, *Historia Arcana*. + *The Anecdota or Secret History*. Edited by H. B. Dewing. 7 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Harvard University Press and London, Hutchinson, 1914–40. Greek text and English translation. + *Procopii Caesariensis opera omnia*. Edited by J. Haury; revised by G. Wirth. 3 vols. Leipzig: Teubner, 1962–64. Greek text. + *The Secret History*, translated by G.A. Williamson. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1966. A readable and accessible English translation of the *Anecdota*. * John Malalas, *Chronicle*, translated by Elizabeth Jeffreys, Michael Jeffreys & Roger Scott, 1986. Byzantina Australiensia 4 (Melbourne: Australian Association for Byzantine Studies) ISBN 0-9593626-2-2 * Evagrius Scholasticus, *Ecclesiastical History*, translated by Edward Walford (1846), reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-88-6. Bibliography ------------ * Barker, John W. (1966). *Justinian and the Later Roman Empire*. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0299039448. * Ostrogorsky, George (1956). *History of the Byzantine State*. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. * Bury, J. B. (1958). *History of the later Roman Empire*. Vol. 2. New York (reprint). * Meyendorff, John (1989). *Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D.* The Church in history. Vol. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3. * Cameron, Averil; et al., eds. (2000). "Justinian Era". *The Cambridge Ancient History* (Second ed.). Cambridge. **14**. * Cumberland Jacobsen, Torsten (2009). *The Gothic War*. Westholme. * Dixon, Pierson (1958). *The Glittering Horn: Secret Memoirs of the Court of Justinian*. * Evans, James Allan (2005). *The Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine Empire*. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32582-3. * Garland, Lynda (1999). *Byzantine empresses: women and power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204*. London: Routledge. * Maas, Michael, ed. (2005). *The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian*. Cambridge. * Martindale, J.R., ed. (1980). "Fl. Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus 7". *Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire*. Vol. II. pp. 645–648. * Meier, Mischa (2003). *Das andere Zeitalter Justinians. Kontingenz Erfahrung und Kontingenzbewältigung im 6. Jahrhundert n. Chr* (in German). Gottingen. * Meier, Mischa (2004). *Justinian. Herrschaft, Reich, und Religion* (in German). Munich. * Moorhead, John (1994). *Justinian*. London. * Rosen, William (2007). *Justinian's Flea: Plague, Empire, and the Birth of Europe*. Viking Adult. ISBN 978-0-670-03855-8. * Rubin, Berthold (1960). *Das Zeitalter Iustinians*. Berlin. – German standard work; partially obsolete, but still useful. * Sarris, Peter (2006). *Economy and society in the age of Justinian*. Cambridge. * Ure, PN (1951). *Justinian and his Age*. Penguin, Harmondsworth. * Vasiliev, A. A. (1952). *History of the Byzantine Empire* (Second ed.). Madison. * Sidney Dean; Duncan B. Campbell; Ian Hughes; Ross Cowan; Raffaele D'Amato; Christopher Lillington-Martin, eds. (June–July 2010). "Justinian's fireman: Belisarius and the Byzantine empire". *Ancient Warfare*. **IV** (3). * Turlej, Stanisław (2016). *Justiniana Prima: An Underestimated Aspect of Justinian's Church Policy*. Krakow: Jagiellonian University Press. ISBN 978-8323395560. | Regnal titles | | --- | | Preceded byJustin I | **Byzantine emperor** 527–565*with Justin I* *(527)* | Succeeded byJustin II | | Political offices | | Preceded byRusticiusVitalianus | **Roman consul** 521 With: **Valerius** | Succeeded bySymmachusBoethius | | Preceded byVettius Agorius Basilius Mavortius | **Roman consul** 528 | Succeeded byDecius | | **Vacant**Title last held by**Rufius Gennadius Probus OrestesLampadius** | **Roman consul** 533–534*with Decius Paulinus* *(534)* | Succeeded byBelisarius |

Justinian I

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_I

**České Budějovice** (Czech: [ˈtʃɛskɛː ˈbuɟɛjovɪtsɛ] (); German: *Budweis* [ˈbʊtvaɪs] ()) is a city in the South Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 96,000 inhabitants. The city is located in the valley of the Vltava River, at its confluence with the Malše. České Budějovice is the largest city in the region and its political and commercial capital, the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of České Budějovice and the University of South Bohemia. It is famous for the Budweiser Budvar Brewery. The historic city centre is well preserved and is protected as an urban monument reservation. Administrative parts -------------------- České Budějovice is made up of seven city parts named České Budějovice 1–7. České Budějovice 5 forms an exclave of the municipal territory. Etymology --------- The name Budějovice is derived from personal Slavic name *Budivoj*, meaning "the village of the Budivoj's people". The name first appeared as *Budoywicz*, then it appeared in various similar forms. The German name was created by transcribing and shortening the Czech name. When the royal city was founded in 1265, the name appeared as *Budwoyz* and then it was adapted to *Budweis*. The name *Budvicium* was used in Latin. After the Hussite revolution in the first half of the 15th century, the name *České Budějovice* ("Bohemian Budějovice") appeared to distinguish it from Moravské Budějovice ("Moravian Budějovice"). Geography --------- České Budějovice is located about 120 kilometres (75 mi) south of Prague. The city lies in the České Budějovice Basin, a small eastern part extends into the Třeboň Basin. The city spread mostly across a plain making it nearly flat in the inner parts with hillier areas in the eastern suburbs. The highest point lies at about 560 metres (1,840 ft) above sea level. České Budějovice is situated in the valley of the Vltava River, at its confluence with the Malše. A set of large fish ponds is located in the northwestern part of the municipal territory. The largest pond is Novohaklovský with an area of 47.2 hectares (117 acres). Several of the ponds lies within the *Vrbenské rybníky* nature reserve. ### Climate České Budějovice has a cooler and wet inland version of a humid continental climate (*Dfb*) with an average annual temperature of 8.3 °C (46.9 °F). There are four seasons, with a murky dry winter between early December and early March, a sunny and wetter spring between half of March up to half of May changing to a rainy and warm summer during late May and early September when a dry autumn lasting to late November begins. There are between 1,550 and 1,800 hours of sunshine in most years. | Climate data for České Budějovice | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 1.4(34.5) | 2.9(37.2) | 8.6(47.5) | 13.9(57.0) | 19.2(66.6) | 22.1(71.8) | 24.0(75.2) | 23.5(74.3) | 19.4(66.9) | 13.3(55.9) | 6.3(43.3) | 2.7(36.9) | 13.1(55.6) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −1.9(28.6) | −0.9(30.4) | 3.7(38.7) | 8.2(46.8) | 13.2(55.8) | 16.3(61.3) | 18.0(64.4) | 17.6(63.7) | 13.8(56.8) | 8.4(47.1) | 3.1(37.6) | −0.1(31.8) | 8.3(46.9) | | Average low °C (°F) | −5.1(22.8) | −4.7(23.5) | −1.2(29.8) | 2.6(36.7) | 7.2(45.0) | 10.5(50.9) | 12.1(53.8) | 11.7(53.1) | 8.2(46.8) | 3.6(38.5) | 0.0(32.0) | −2.9(26.8) | 3.5(38.3) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 42(1.7) | 42(1.7) | 45(1.8) | 48(1.9) | 79(3.1) | 94(3.7) | 98(3.9) | 84(3.3) | 58(2.3) | 43(1.7) | 47(1.9) | 50(2.0) | 730(28.7) | | Source: Climate Data ORG | History ------- The first written mention of Budějovice is from 1251, when it was only a village. The royal city was founded on its site by King Ottokar II of Bohemia in 1265. The siting and planning of the city was carried out by the king's knight Hirzo. The German-speaking settlers were coming from the Bohemian Forest and Upper Austria. The royal city was created as a platform of the king's power in South Bohemia and to counterbalance the powerful noble House of Rosenberg, which became extinct in 1611. In 1341 King John of Bohemia allowed Jewish families to reside within the city walls, and the first synagogue was built in 1380; however several pogroms occurred in the late 15th and early 16th century. Since the Hussite Wars, the city was traditionally a bulwark of the Catholic Church during the long-lasting religious conflicts in the Kingdom of Bohemia. A part of the Habsburg monarchy from 1526, České Budějovice remained a loyal supporter of Emperor Ferdinand II in the Thirty Years' War. České Budějovice underwent a short occupation by Prussia during the Silesian Wars, and the war between the Habsburgs and the French army in 1742. In 1762 the Piarists established a gymnasium here and Emperor Joseph II founded the diocese in 1785. In 1847, the production of Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth pencils was relocated from Vienna to Budějovice. Aside from Hardtmuth, Adalbert Lanna the Elder belonged among the city's most prominent industrialists of the 19th century. During his time, Budějovice became a major trade hub. The Budweis–Linz Horse-Drawn Railway was built in 1825–1832 and became the second oldest public line in continental Europe (after the St. Étienne-Andrézieux line in France). The city remained a German-speaking enclave until 1880, after which Czechs became the majority. Until the end of World War II, the city contained a significant German minority (about 15.5% in 1930). For example, the ratios between the Germans and the Czechs were in 1880: 11,829 Germans to 11,812 Czechs, in 1890: 11,642 to 16,585, in 1900: 15,400 to 23,400, in 1910: 16,900 to 27,300 and in 1921: 7,415 to 35,800. During World War II, the city was occupied by Nazi Germany. The occupiers operated a Gestapo prison and a forced labour camp in the city. During the final stages of the war, in March 1945, České Budějovice's marshalling yard was twice targeted by United States Army Air Forces raids that greatly damaged the city and caused great loss of life. At the end of the war, on 9 May 1945, Soviet troops liberated the city. The entire German population was expelled in 1945 under the Beneš decrees and the Potsdam Agreement. Demographics ------------ Historical population| | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1869 | 19,232 | —     | | 1880 | 26,039 | +35.4% | | 1890 | 32,134 | +23.4% | | 1900 | 45,524 | +41.7% | | 1910 | 54,786 | +20.3% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1921 | 57,557 | +5.1% | | 1930 | 59,079 | +2.6% | | 1950 | 55,709 | −5.7% | | 1961 | 64,661 | +16.1% | | 1970 | 76,699 | +18.6% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1980 | 88,448 | +15.3% | | 1991 | 97,243 | +9.9% | | 2001 | 97,339 | +0.1% | | 2011 | 93,715 | −3.7% | | 2021 | 95,664 | +2.1% | | | Source: Censuses | Economy ------- České Budějovice is the economic centre of the entire South Bohemian Region and the seat of many large corporations. The largest employers with its headquarters in České Budějovice and at least 1,000 employers are: | Economic entity | Number of employees | Activity | | --- | --- | --- | | České Budějovice Hospital | 4,000–4,999 | Health care | | dm-drogerie markt | 3,000–3,999 | Retail sale | | Robert Bosch | 3,000–3,999 | Automotive industry | | University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice | 2,000–2,499 | Education | | ČEVAK | 1,000–1,499 | Operation of water management infrastructure | | E.ON Česká republika | 1,000–1,499 | Distributor of electricity and natural gas | | Jednota | 1,000–1,499 | Retail sale | | Groz-Beckert Czech | 1,000–1,499 | Manufacturer of tools for the textile industry | | Madeta | 1,000–1,499 | Dairy | | Swietelsky stavební | 1,000–1,499 | Construction | ### Beer brewing Budějovice has long been well known for the beer brewed there since the 13th century. In 1256 the Svitavy brewery was founded there, which was closed in 2002. For a time, the town was the imperial brewery for the Holy Roman Emperor, and *Budweiser Bier* (i.e. beer from Budweis) became, along with *Pilsner* from Plzeň, one of the best-known lagers. Brewing remains a major industry. The largest brewery, founded in 1895, is Budweiser Budvar, which has legal rights to market its beer under the "Budweiser" brand name in much of Europe. The same product is also sold elsewhere under the names "Budvar" and "Czechvar" due to legal disagreements with Anheuser-Busch over the Budweiser brand and Anheuser-Busch sells its beer as "Bud" in most of the European Union. The American lager was originally brewed as an imitation of the famous Bohemian original, but over time has developed its own identity and attained remarkable commercial success. Anheuser-Busch has made offers to buy out the Czech brewing company in order to secure global rights to the name "Budweiser", but the Czech government has refused all such offers, regarding the Czech Budweiser name as a matter of national pride. The oldest operating and second largest brewery, founded in 1795, was renamed to "Pivovar Samson", replacing its original German name "Budweiser Bürgerbräu" during the communist period. It also exported, mostly under the "Samson" and "Crystal" labels. Recently, they reacquired naming rights for Budweiser for Europe while offering "B. B. Bürgerbräu" in the US since 2005. Transport --------- The city can be reached from other locations by inter-city buses and by inter-city and euro-city trains. The city has access to the D3 motorway running from Prague to the Austrian border at Dolní Dvořiště. Internationally, a direct railroads built by the Czech-Austrian companies Emperor Franz Joseph Railway in 1868 and Empress Elisabeth Railway in 1871, connecting Vienna with Plzeň and Prague with Zürich, via Linz and Salzburg, also makes a stop in České Budějovice. The city is served by České Budějovice railway station, a Neo-Renaissance style station building in the new town. Local buses and trolleybuses take passengers to most areas of the city. The metropolitan area is served by regional busses and S-Bahn system of regional trains. Public domestic and international České Budějovice Airport is located 6 kilometres (3.7 miles) south-west from České Budějovice, in the nearby municipality of Planá. Sport ----- České Budějovice is the site of many sports facilities and national stadiums, including the football Stadion Střelecký ostrov, the ice-hockey Budvar Arena and the Athletic Stadium Sokol. The Swimming Stadium České Budějovice features a 50-metre indoor pool, a diving pool, saunas, an outdoor swimming pool and a children's pool. After the modernization in 1998 a covered water slide was added and after the modernization in 2017 a new whirlpool. Major sport clubs include: * SK Dynamo České Budějovice (Czech First League) * Motor České Budějovice (Czech Extraliga) * Jihostroj České Budějovice (Volleyball) * TJ Sokol České Budějovice (Athletics) * Hellboys České Budějovice (American football) * RC České Budějovice (Rugby football) * TJ Lokomotiva České Budějovice (Handball) * Budějovické Barakudy (Cricket) * FBC Štíři České Budějovice (Floorball) * TJ Dynamo České Budějovice (Football tennis) * SKVS České Budějovice (Canoe slalom) Sights ------ The historic city centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument reservation. Among the main landmarks of the city and most visited tourist destinations is the Black Tower (*Černá věž*). It was built in 1550–1577 as a guarding tower and a bell tower. It is 72 m (236 ft) high and 225 wooden steps lead to the top. The tower is equipped by six bells. The Iron Maiden Tower and the Rabenštejn Tower are a 14th-century former prisons and two of the few remains of the Old Town's Gothic fortifications. ### City square The historic city centre is formed by the large Přemysla Otakara II Square and its surroundings. The city square has the shape of a regular square and belongs among the largest squares in the country. The square is lined with Renaissance and Baroque houses with arcades. Most of the houses have a Gothic core. In the middle of the square is Samson Fountain. It is a Baroque fountain built in 1721–1727, which is the largest fountain in the Czech Republic with a diameter of 17 m (56 ft). Originally, it was not only decorative, but also served to supply the city with water from the Vltava river. Next to the fountain is the so-called Lost Rock, the only remnant of the original pavement. The City Hall is the most distinctive house on the square. It was originally a Renaissance house from the mid-16th century, completely rebuilt in the Baroque style in 1727–1730 according to the design of Anton Erhard Martinelli. The façade with three towers is decorated with four allegorical sculptures. On the highest tower there is a carillon from 1995. The City Hall still serves its purpose today, but it also offers guided tours. ### Sacral monuments Among the most valuable historic buildings in České Budějovice is the Dominican monastery with the Gothic Church of the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin Mary from the 13th century. ### Museums The Museum of South Bohemia was founded in 1870 and opened to the public in 1877 in a house next to the city hall. The current museum was built in the Neo-Renaissance style in 1899–1901 and opened in 1903. The museum has four permanent exhibitions: archaeological, natural science, geological and ethnographic. The Museum of the Horse Drawn Railway is a branch of the Museum of South Bohemia. It is located in a former guardhouse at the point where the Budweis–Linz Horse-Drawn Railway started. The house, as well as all the preserved sections of the horse-drawn railway, is protected as a national cultural monument. In literature ------------- The city is one of the major settings in the novel *The Good Soldier Švejk* by Jaroslav Hašek. České Budějovice is the setting and was the working title for the play *The Misunderstanding* by Albert Camus. Notable people -------------- * Adalbert Gyrowetz (1763–1850), composer * Franz Schuselka (1811–1886), politician * Otto Pilny (1866–1936), painter * Otto Steinhäusl (1879–1940), police officer * Jan Palouš (1888–1971), ice hockey player * Rudolf Tomaschek (1895–1966), experimental physicist * Anna Binder-Urbanová (1912–2004), philosophy lecturer * Norbert Frýd (1913–1976), writer * Rolf Thiele (1918–1994), film director and producer * Haro Senft (1928–2016), film director * Marta Kubišová (born 1942), singer * Vladimír Remek (born 1948), cosmonaut, pilot and politician * Pavel Tobiáš (born 1955), football player and manager * František Straka (born 1958), football player and manager * Zdeněk Tůma (born 1960), economist * Karel Roden (born 1962), actor * Karel Havlíček (born 1969), politician * Karel Vácha (born 1970), footballer * Jiří Lerch (born 1971), footballer * Jaroslav Modrý (born 1971), ice hockey player * Radek Mynář (born 1974), footballer * Stanislav Neckář (born 1975), ice hockey player * Václav Prospal (born 1975), ice hockey player * Martin Hofmann (born 1978), actor * Roman Lengyel (born 1978), footballer * Vladimíra Uhlířová (born 1978), tennis player * Josef Melichar (born 1979), ice hockey player * David Lafata (born 1981), footballer * Václav Nedorost (born 1982), ice hockey player * Filip Novák (born 1982), ice hockey player * Jiří Kladrubský (born 1985), footballer * Milan Gulaš (born 1985), ice hockey player * Tomáš Mertl (born 1986), ice hockey player * Martin Hanzal (born 1987), ice hockey player Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- České Budějovice is twinned with: * Austria Linz, Austria * France Lorient, France * Slovakia Nitra, Slovakia * Germany Passau, Germany * Germany Suhl, Germany See also -------- * flag Czech Republic portal * St. Catherine of Boletice

České Budějovice

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cesk%C3%A9_Bud%C4%9Bjovice

**Administrative law** is the division of law that governs the activities of executive branch agencies of government. Administrative law concerns executive branch rule making (executive branch rules are generally referred to as "regulations"), adjudication, and the enforcement of laws. Administrative law is considered a branch of public law. Administrative law deals with the decision-making of such administrative units of government that are part of the executive branch in such areas as international trade, manufacturing, the environment, taxation, broadcasting, immigration, and transport. Administrative law expanded greatly during the 20th century, as legislative bodies worldwide created more government agencies to regulate the social, economic and political spheres of human interaction. Civil law countries often have specialized administrative courts that review these decisions. In the last fifty years, the administrative law, in many countries of the civil law's tradition, has opened itself to the influence of rules posed by supranational legal orders, in which the judicial principles have a strong importance: it has lead, for one hand, to change some traditional concepts of that administrative law's model, as it has happened with the public procurements or with the judicial control of the administrative activity and, for the other hand, has brought to build a supranational or international public administration, has it has happened in the envioronment's sector or with reference to the school educaiton, for which, within the United Nations' system, it has been possible to assist to a further increase of administrative structure devoted to coordinate the States' activity in that sector. In civil law countries ---------------------- Unlike most common law jurisdictions, most civil law jurisdictions have specialized courts or sections to deal with administrative cases that as a rule apply procedural rules that are specifically designed for such cases and distinct from those applied in private law proceedings, such as contract or tort claims. ### Brazil In Brazil, administrative cases are typically heard either by the Federal Courts (in matters concerning the Federal Union) or by the Public Treasury divisions of State Courts (in matters concerning the States). In 1998, a constitutional reform, led by the government of President Fernando Henrique Cardoso, introduced regulatory agencies as a part of the executive branch. Since 1988, Brazilian administrative law has been strongly influenced by the judicial interpretations of the constitutional principles of public administration (art. 37 of Federal Constitution): legality, impersonality, publicity of administrative acts, morality and efficiency. ### Chile In Chile the President of the Republic exercises the administrative function, in collaboration with several Ministries or other authorities with *ministerial rank*. Each Ministry has one or more under-secretary that performs through public services the actual satisfaction of public needs. There is not a single specialized court to deal with actions against the Administrative entities, but instead there are several specialized courts and procedures of review. ### China Administrative law in the China was virtually non-existent before the economic reform era initiated by Deng Xiaoping. Since the 1980s, China has constructed a new legal framework for administrative law, establishing control mechanisms for overseeing the bureaucracy and disciplinary committees for the Chinese Communist Party. However, many have argued that the usefulness of these laws is vastly inadequate in terms of controlling government actions, largely because of institutional and systemic obstacles like a weak judiciary, poorly trained judges and lawyers, and corruption. In 1990, the Administrative Supervision Regulations (行政检查条例) and the Administrative Reconsideration Regulations (行政复议条例) were passed. The 1993 State Civil Servant Provisional Regulations (国家公务员暂行条例) changed the way government officials were selected and promoted, requiring that they pass exams and yearly appraisals, and introduced a rotation system. The three regulations have been amended and upgraded into laws. In 1994, the State Compensation Law (国家赔偿法) was passed, followed by the Administrative Penalties Law (行政处罚法) in 1996. Administrative Compulsory Law was enforced in 2012. Administrative Litigation Law was amended in 2014. The General Administrative Procedure Law is under way. ### France In France, there is a dual jurisdictional system with the judiciary branch responsible for civil law and criminal law, and the administrative branch having jurisdiction when a government institution is involved. Most claims against the national or local governments as well as claims against private bodies providing public services are handled by administrative courts, which use the *Conseil d'État* (Council of State) as a court of last resort for both ordinary and special courts. The main administrative courts are the *tribunaux administratifs* and appeal courts are the *cours administratives d'appel*. Special administrative courts include the National Court of Asylum Right as well as military, medical and judicial disciplinary bodies. The French body of administrative law is called "*droit administratif*". Over the course of their history, France's administrative courts have developed an extensive and coherent case law (*jurisprudence constante*) and legal doctrine (*principes généraux du droit* and *principes fondamentaux reconnus par les lois de la République*), often before similar concepts were enshrined in constitutional and legal texts. These principes include: * Right to fair trial (*droit à la défense*), including for internal disciplinary bodies * Right to challenge any administrative decision before an administrative court (*droit au recours*) * Equal treatment of public service users (*égalité devant le service public*) * Equal access to government employment (*égalité d'accès à la fonction publique*) without regard for political opinions * Freedom of association (*liberté d'association*) * Right to entrepreneurship (*Liberté du Commerce et de l'industrie*, lit. freedom of commerce and industry) * Right to legal certainty (*Droit à la sécurité juridique*) French administrative law, which is the founder of Continental administrative law, has a strong influence on administrative laws in several other countries such as Belgium, Greece, Turkey and Tunisia. ### Germany In Germany administrative law is called "**Verwaltungsrecht**", which generally rules the relationship between authorities and the citizens. It establishes citizens' rights and obligations against the authorities. It is a part of the public law, which deals with the organization, the tasks and the acting of the public administration. It also contains rules, regulations, orders and decisions created by and related to administrative agencies, such as federal agencies, federal state authorities, urban administrations, but also admission offices and fiscal authorities etc. Administrative law in Germany follows three basic principles. * Principle of the legality of the authority, which means that there is no acting against the law and no acting without a law. * Principle of legal security, which includes a principle of legal certainty and the principle of non-retroactivity * Principle of proportionality, which means that an act of an authority has to be suitable, necessary and appropriate Administrative law in Germany can be divided into **general administrative law** and **special administrative law**. #### General administrative law The general administration law is basically ruled in the administrative procedures law (*Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz* [VwVfG]). Other legal sources are the Rules of the Administrative Courts (Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung [VwGO]), the social security code (Sozialgesetzbuch [SGB]) and the general fiscal law (Abgabenordnung [AO]). ##### Administrative procedures Law The *Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz* (VwVfG), which was enacted in 1977, regulates the main administrative procedures of the federal government. It serves to ensure accordance with the rule of law by the public authority. Furthermore, it contains the regulations for mass processes and expands the legal protection against the authorities. The VwVfG basically applies for the entire public administrative activities of federal agencies as well as federal state authorities, in case of making federal law. One of the central clause is § 35 VwVfG. It defines the administrative act, the most common form of action in which the public administration occurs against a citizen. The definition in § 35 says, that an administration act is characterized by the following features: It is an official act of an authority in the field of public law to resolve an individual case with effect to the outside. §§ 36 – 39, §§ 58 – 59 and § 80 VwV––fG rule the structure and the necessary elements of the administrative act. § 48 and § 49 VwVfG have a high relevance in practice, as well. In these paragraphs, the prerequisites for redemption of an unlawful administration act (§ 48 VwVfG ) and withdrawal of a lawful administration act (§ 49 VwVfG), are listed. ##### Other legal sources Administration procedural law (Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung [VwGO]), which was enacted in 1960, rules the court procedures at the administrative court. The VwGO is divided into five parts, which are the constitution of the courts, action, remedies and retrial, costs and enforcement15 and final clauses and temporary arrangements. In absence of a rule, the VwGO is supplemented by the code of civil procedure (Zivilprozessordnung [ZPO]) and the judicature act (Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz [GVG]). In addition to the regulation of the administrative procedure, the VwVfG also constitutes the legal protection in administrative law beyond the court procedure. § 68 VwVGO rules the preliminary proceeding, called "Vorverfahren" or "Widerspruchsverfahren", which is a stringent prerequisite for the administrative procedure, if an action for rescission or a writ of mandamus against an authority is aimed. The preliminary proceeding gives each citizen, feeling unlawfully mistreated by an authority, the possibility to object and to force a review of an administrative act without going to court. The prerequisites to open the public law remedy are listed in § 40 I VwGO. Therefore, it is necessary to have the existence of a conflict in public law without any constitutional aspects and no assignment to another jurisdiction. The social security code (Sozialgesetzbuch [SGB]) and the general fiscal law are less important for the administrative law. They supplement the VwVfG and the VwGO in the fields of taxation and social legislation, such as social welfare or financial support for students (BaFÖG) etc. #### Special administrative law The special administrative law consists of various laws. Each special sector has its own law. The most important ones are the * Town and Country Planning Code (Baugesetzbuch [BauGB]) * Federal Control of Pollution Act (Bundesimmissionsschutzgesetz [BImSchG]) * Industrial Code (Gewerbeordnung [GewO]) * Police Law (Polizei- und Ordnungsrecht) * Statute Governing Restaurants (Gaststättenrecht [GastG]). In Germany, the highest administrative court for most matters is the federal administrative court Bundesverwaltungsgericht. There are federal courts with special jurisdiction in the fields of social security law (Bundessozialgericht) and tax law (Bundesfinanzhof). ### Italy In Italy administrative law is known as *Diritto amministrativo*, a branch of public law whose rules govern the organization of the public administration and the activities of the pursuit of the public interest of the public administration and the relationship between this and the citizens. Its genesis is related to the principle of division of powers of the State. The administrative power, originally called "executive", is to organize resources and people whose function is devolved to achieve the public interest objectives as defined by the law. ### Netherlands In the Netherlands administrative law provisions are usually contained in the various laws about public services and regulations. There is however also a single General Administrative Law Act (*Algemene wet bestuursrecht* or Awb), which is a rather good sample of procedural laws in Europe. It applies both to the making of administrative decisions and the judicial review of these decisions in courts. Another act about judicial procedures in general is the *Algemene termijnenwet* (General time provisions act), with general provisions about time schedules in procedures. On the basis of the Awb, citizens can oppose a decision (*besluit*) made by an administrative agency (*bestuursorgaan*) within the administration and apply for judicial review in courts if unsuccessful. Before going to court, citizens must usually first object to the decision with the administrative body who made it. This is called *bezwaar*. This procedure allows for the administrative body to correct possible mistakes themselves and is used to filter cases before going to court. Sometimes, instead of *bezwaar*, a different system is used called *administratief beroep* (administrative appeal). The difference with *bezwaar* is that *administratief beroep* is filed with a different administrative body, usually a higher ranking one, than the administrative body that made the primary decision. *Administratief beroep* is available only if the law on which the primary decision is based specifically provides for it. An example involves objecting to a traffic ticket with the district attorney (*officier van justitie*), after which the decision can be appealed in court. Unlike France or Germany, there are no special administrative courts of first instance in the Netherlands, but regular courts have an administrative "chamber" which specializes in administrative appeals. The courts of appeal in administrative cases however are specialized depending on the case, but most administrative appeals end up in the judicial section of the Council of State (Raad van State). ### Sweden In Sweden, there is a system of administrative courts that considers only administrative law cases, and is completely separate from the system of general courts. This system has three tiers, with 12 county administrative courts (*förvaltningsrätt*) as the first tier, four administrative courts of appeal (*kammarrätt*) as the second tier, and the Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden (*Högsta Förvaltningsdomstolen*) as the third tier. Migration cases are handled in a two-tier system, effectively within the system general administrative courts. Three of the administrative courts serve as migration courts (*migrationsdomstol*) with the Administrative Court of Appeal in Stockholm serving as the Migration Court of Appeal (*Migrationsöverdomstolen*). ### Taiwan (ROC) In Taiwan the recently enacted *Constitutional Procedure Act* (憲法訴訟法) in 2019 (former *Constitutional Interpretation Procedure Act, 1993*), the **Justices of the Constitutional Court** of Judicial Yuan of Taiwan is in charge of judicial interpretation. As of 2019, this council has made 757 interpretations. ### Turkey In Turkey, the lawsuits against the acts and actions of the national or local governments and public bodies are handled by administrative courts which are the main administrative courts. The decisions of the administrative courts are checked by the Regional Administrative Courts and Council of State. Council of State as a court of last resort is exactly similar to Conseil d'État in France. ### Ukraine Administrative law in Ukraine is a homogeneous legal substance isolated in a system of jurisprudence characterized as: (1) a branch of law; (2) a science; (3) a discipline. In common law countries ----------------------- Generally speaking, most countries that follow the principles of common law have developed procedures for judicial review that limit the reviewability of decisions made by administrative law bodies. Often these procedures are coupled with legislation or other common law doctrines that establish standards for proper rulemaking. Administrative law may also apply to review of decisions of so-called semi-public bodies, such as non-profit corporations, disciplinary boards, and other decision-making bodies that affect the legal rights of members of a particular group or entity. While administrative decision-making bodies are often controlled by larger governmental units, their decisions could be reviewed by a court of general jurisdiction under some principle of judicial review based upon due process (United States) or fundamental justice (Canada). Judicial review of administrative decisions is different from an administrative appeal. When sitting in review of a decision, the Court will only look at the method in which the decision was arrived at, whereas in an administrative appeal the correctness of the decision itself will be examined, usually by a higher body in the agency. This difference is vital in appreciating administrative law in common law countries. The scope of judicial review may be limited to certain questions of fairness, or whether the administrative action is *ultra vires*. In terms of ultra vires actions in the broad sense, a reviewing court may set aside an administrative decision if it is unreasonable (under Canadian law, following the rejection of the "Patently Unreasonable" standard by the Supreme Court in Dunsmuir v New Brunswick), *Wednesbury* unreasonable (under British law), or arbitrary and capricious (under U.S. Administrative Procedure Act and New York State law). Administrative law, as laid down by the Supreme Court of India, has also recognized two more grounds of judicial review which were recognized but not applied by English Courts, namely legitimate expectation and proportionality. The powers to review administrative decisions are usually established by statute, but were originally developed from the royal prerogative writs of English law, such as the writ of mandamus and the writ of certiorari. In certain common law jurisdictions, such as India or Pakistan, the power to pass such writs is a Constitutionally guaranteed power. This power is seen as fundamental to the power of judicial review and an aspect of the independent judiciary. ### Australia ### Canada ### Singapore ### United Kingdom ### United States In the United States, many government agencies are organized under the executive branch of government, although a few are part of the judicial or legislative branches. In the federal government, the executive branch, led by the president, controls the federal executive departments, which are led by secretaries who are members of the United States Cabinet. The many independent agencies of the United States government created by statutes enacted by Congress exist outside of the federal executive departments but are still part of the executive branch. Congress has also created some special judicial bodies known as Article I tribunals to handle some areas of administrative law. The actions of executive agencies and independent agencies are the main focus of American administrative law. In response to the rapid creation of new independent agencies in the early twentieth century (see discussion below), Congress enacted the Administrative Procedure Act (**APA**) in 1946. Many of the independent agencies operate as miniature versions of the tripartite federal government, with the authority to "legislate" (through rulemaking; see Federal Register and Code of Federal Regulations), "adjudicate" (through administrative hearings), and to "execute" administrative goals (through agency enforcement personnel). Because the United States Constitution sets no limits on this tripartite authority of administrative agencies, Congress enacted the APA to establish fair administrative law procedures to comply with the constitutional requirements of due process. Agency procedures are drawn from four sources of authority: the APA, organic statutes, agency rules, and informal agency practice. It is important to note, though, that agencies can only act within their congressionally delegated authority, and must comply with the requirements of the APA. At state level the first version of the Model State Administrative Procedure Act was promulgated and published in 1946 by the Uniform Law Commission (ULC), in which year the Federal Administrative Procedure Act was drafted. It is incorporated basic principles with only enough elaboration of detail to support essential features, therefore it is a "model", and not a "uniform", act. A model act is needed because state administrative law in the states is not uniform, and there are a variety of approaches used in the various states. Later it was modified in 1961 and 1981. The present version is the 2010 Model State Administrative Procedure Act (**MSAPA**) which maintains the continuity with earlier ones. The reason of the revision is that, in the past two decades state legislatures, dissatisfied with agency rule-making and adjudication, have enacted statutes that modify administrative adjudication and rule-making procedure. The American Bar Association's official journal concerning administrative law is the *Administrative Law Review*, a quarterly publication that is managed and edited by students at the Washington College of Law. #### Historical development Stephen Breyer, a U.S. Supreme Court Justice from 1994 to 2022, divides the history of administrative law in the United States into six discrete periods, in his book, *Administrative Law & Regulatory Policy* (3d Ed., 1992): * English antecedents & the American experience to 1875 * 1875 – 1930: the rise of regulation & the traditional model of administrative law * 1930 – 1945: the New Deal * 1945 – 1965: the Administrative Procedure Act & the maturation of the traditional model of administrative law * 1965 – 1985: critique and transformation of the administrative process * 1985 – ?: retreat or consolidation #### Agriculture The agricultural sector is one of the most heavily regulated sectors in the U.S. economy, as it is regulated in various ways at the international, federal, state, and local levels. Consequently, administrative law is a significant component of the discipline of agricultural law. The United States Department of Agriculture and its myriad agencies such as the Agricultural Marketing Service are the primary sources of regulatory activity, although other administrative bodies such as the Environmental Protection Agency play a significant regulatory role as well. See also -------- * Constitutionalism * Rule of law * Rechtsstaat Further reading --------------- * Davis, Kenneth Culp (1975). *Administrative Law and Government*. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing. * Page, Edward C.; Robson, William Alexander (24 August 2022), *Administrative law*, Encyclopedia Britannica, retrieved 21 January 2023.

Administrative law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_law

**Salisbury** (locally /ˈsɔːzb(ə)ri/ *SAWZ-b(ə-)ree*) is a cathedral city in Wiltshire, England with a population of 41,820, at the confluence of the rivers Avon, Nadder and Bourne. The city is approximately 20 miles (30 kilometres) from Southampton and 30 miles (50 kilometres) from Bath. Salisbury is in the south-east of Wiltshire, near the edge of Salisbury Plain. An ancient cathedral was north of the present city at Old Sarum. A new cathedral was built near the meeting of the rivers and a settlement grew up around it, which received a city charter in 1227 as **New Sarum**. This continued to be its official name until 2009, when Salisbury City Council was established. Salisbury railway station is an interchange between the West of England Main Line and the Wessex Main Line. Stonehenge, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is 8 miles (13 kilometres) north-west of Salisbury. Toponymy -------- The name *Salisbury*, which is first recorded around the year 900 as *Searoburg* (dative *Searobyrig*), is a partial translation of the Roman Celtic name *Sorbiodūnum*. The Brittonic suffix *-dūnon*, meaning "fortress" (in reference to the fort that stood at Old Sarum), was replaced by its Old English equivalent *-burg*. The first part of the name is of obscure origin. The form "Sarum" is a Latinization of *Sar*, a medieval abbreviation for Middle English *Sarisberie*. Salisbury appeared in the Welsh *Chronicle of the Britons* as *Caer-Caradog*, *Caer-Gradawc*, and *Caer-Wallawg.* Cair-Caratauc, one of the 28 cities listed in the *History of the Britons*, has also been identified with Salisbury. History ------- ### Old Sarum The hilltop at Old Sarum lies near the Neolithic sites of Stonehenge and Avebury and shows some signs of early settlement. It commanded a salient between the River Bourne and the Hampshire Avon, near a crossroads of several early trade routes. During the Iron Age, sometime between 600 and 300 BC, a hillfort (oppidum) was constructed around it. The Romans may have occupied the site or left it in the hands of an allied tribe. At the time of the Saxon invasions, Old Sarum fell to King Cynric of Wessex in 552. Preferring settlements in bottomland, such as nearby Wilton, the Saxons largely ignored Old Sarum until the Viking invasions led King Alfred (King of Wessex from 871 to 899) to restore its fortifications. Along with Wilton, however, it was abandoned by its residents to be sacked and burned by the Dano-Norwegian king Sweyn Forkbeard in 1003. It subsequently became the site of Wilton's mint. Following the Norman invasion of 1066, a motte-and-bailey castle was constructed by 1070. The castle was held directly by the Norman kings; its castellan was generally also the sheriff of Wiltshire. In 1075 the Council of London established Herman as the first bishop of Salisbury, uniting his former sees of Sherborne and Ramsbury into a single diocese which covered the counties of Dorset, Wiltshire, and Berkshire. In 1055, Herman had planned to move his seat to Malmesbury, but its monks and Earl Godwin objected. Herman and his successor, Saint Osmund, began the construction of the first Salisbury cathedral, though neither lived to see its completion in 1092. Osmund served as Lord Chancellor of England (in office c. 1070–1078); he was responsible for the codification of the Sarum Rite, the compilation of the Domesday Book, which was probably presented to William at Old Sarum, and, after centuries of advocacy from Salisbury's bishops, was finally canonised by Pope Callixtus III in 1457. The cathedral was consecrated on 5 April 1092 but suffered extensive damage in a storm, traditionally said to have occurred only five days later. Bishop Roger was a close ally of Henry I (reigned 1100–1135): he served as viceroy during the king's absence in Normandy and directed, along with his extended family, the royal administration and exchequer. He refurbished and expanded Old Sarum's cathedral in the 1110s and began work on a royal palace during the 1130s, prior to his arrest by Henry's successor, Stephen. After this arrest, the castle at Old Sarum was allowed to fall into disrepair, but the sheriff and castellan continued to administer the area under the king's authority. ### New Sarum Bishop of Salisbury Hubert Walter was instrumental in the negotiations with Saladin during the Third Crusade, but he spent little time in his diocese prior to his elevation to archbishop of Canterbury. The brothers Herbert and Richard Poore succeeded him and began planning the relocation of the cathedral into the valley almost immediately. Their plans were approved by King Richard I but repeatedly delayed: Herbert was first forced into exile in Normandy in the 1190s by the hostility of his archbishop Walter and then again to Scotland in the 1210s owing to royal hostility following the papal interdiction against King John. The secular authorities were particularly incensed, according to tradition, owing to some of the clerics debauching the castellan's female relations. In the end, the clerics were refused permission to reenter the city walls following their rogations and processions. This caused Peter of Blois to describe the church as "a captive within the walls of the citadel like the ark of God in the profane house of Baal". He advocated > Let us descend into the plain! There are rich fields and fertile valleys abounding in the fruits of the earth and watered by the living stream. There is a seat for the Virgin Patroness of our church to which the world cannot produce a parallel. > > > Herbert Poore's successor and brother Richard Poore eventually moved the cathedral to a new town on his estate at Veteres Sarisberias ("Old Salisburies") in 1220. The site was at "Myrifield" ("Merryfield"), a meadow near the confluence of the River Nadder and the Hampshire Avon. It was first known as "New Sarum" or New Saresbyri. The town was laid out on a grid. Work on the new cathedral building, the present Salisbury Cathedral, began in 1221. The site was supposedly established by shooting an arrow from Old Sarum, although this is certainly a legend: the distance is over three kilometres (2 mi). The legend is sometimes amended to claim that the arrow struck a white deer, which continued to run and died on the spot where the cathedral now rests. The structure was built upon wooden faggots on a gravel bed with unusually shallow foundations of 18 in (45 cm) and the main body was completed in only 38 years. The 123 m or 404 ft tall spire, the tallest in the UK, was built later. With royal approval, many of the stones for the new cathedral were taken from the old one; others came from Chilmark. They were probably transported by ox-cart, owing to the obstruction to boats on the River Nadder caused by its many weirs and watermills. The cathedral is considered a masterpiece of Early English architecture. The spire's large clock was installed in 1386, and is one of the oldest surviving mechanical clocks in the world. The cathedral also contains the best-preserved of the four surviving copies of Magna Carta. New Sarum was made a city by a charter from King Henry III in 1227 and, by the 14th century, was the largest settlement in Wiltshire. The city wall surrounds the Close and was built in the 14th century, again with stones removed from the former cathedral at Old Sarum. The wall now has five gates: the High Street Gate, St Ann's Gate, the Queen's Gate, and St Nicholas's Gate were original, while a fifth was constructed in the 19th century to allow access to Bishop Wordsworth's School, in the Cathedral Close. During his time in the city, the composer Handel stayed in a room above St Ann's gate. The original site of the city at Old Sarum, meanwhile, fell into disuse. It continued as a rotten borough: at the time of its abolition during the reforms of 1832, its Member of Parliament (MP) represented three households. In May 1289, there was uncertainty about the future of Margaret, Maid of Norway, and her father sent ambassadors to Edward I. Edward met Robert the Bruce and others at Salisbury in October 1289, which resulted in the Treaty of Salisbury, under which Margaret would be sent to Scotland before 1 November 1290 and any agreement on her future marriage would be delayed until she was in Scotland. The Parliament of England met at New Sarum in the years 1324, 1328, and 1384. In 1450, a number of riots broke out in Salisbury at roughly the same time as Jack Cade led a famous rebellion through London. The riots occurred for related reasons, although the declining fortunes of Salisbury's cloth trade may also have been influential. The violence peaked with the murder of the bishop, William Ayscough, who been involved with the government. In 1483, a large-scale rebellion against Richard III broke out, led by his own 'kingmaker', Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. After the revolt collapsed, Buckingham was executed at Salisbury, near the Bull's Head Inn. In 1664, an act for making the River Avon navigable from Christchurch to the city of New Sarum was passed and the work completed, only for the project to be ruined shortly thereafter by a major flood. Soon after, during the Great Plague of London, Charles II held court in Salisbury's cathedral close. Salisbury was the site chosen to assemble James II's forces to resist the Glorious Revolution. He arrived to lead his approximately 19 000 men on 19 November 1688. His troops were not keen to fight Mary or her husband William, and the loyalty of many of James's commanders was in doubt. The first blood was shed at the Wincanton Skirmish, in Somerset. In Salisbury, James heard that some of his officers had deserted, such as Edward Hyde, and he broke out in a nosebleed, which he took as an omen that he should retreat. His commander in chief, the Earl of Feversham, advised retreat on 23 November, and the next day John Churchill defected to William. On 26 November, James's own daughter, Princess Anne, did the same, and James returned to London the same day, never again to be at the head of a serious military force in England. ### 20th and 21st centuries: Salisbury Following the destruction by the Luftwaffe of the factories building Supermarine Spitfires in 1940 in Southampton, production was dispersed to shadow factories elsewhere in the south of England. Salisbury was the major centre of production, supplemented by Trowbridge and Reading. Several factories were set up in the centre of Salisbury and staffed by predominantly young women who had no previous mechanical experience but were trained for specific tasks in the aircraft construction process. Supporting the factories were many workers producing small components in home-based workshops and garden sheds. Sub-assemblies were built in the city centre factories and then transported to High Post airfield (north of the city, in Durnford parish) and Chattis Hill (northeast, near Stockbridge), where the aircraft were assembled, test flown and then distributed to RAF airfields across England. A total of over 2000 Spitfires were produced. The whole process was carried out in secret without the knowledge of even the local people and only emerged into public knowledge after the production of a film describing the whole process. In July 2021 a memorial to the workers, in the form of a life-size fibreglass model Mk IX Spitfire, was unveiled in Castle Road, Salisbury (near the rugby club) on the site of one of the factories. At the time of the 1948 Summer Olympics, held in London, a relay of runners carried the Olympic Flame from Wembley Stadium, where the Games were based, to the sailing centre at Torbay via Slough, Basingstoke, Salisbury, and Exeter. The 1972 Local Government Act eliminated the administration of the City of New Sarum under its former charters, but its successor, Wiltshire County's Salisbury District, continued to be accorded its former city status. The name was finally formally amended from "New Sarum" to "Salisbury" during the 2009 changes occasioned by the 1992 Local Government Act, which established the Salisbury City Council. On 4 March 2018, former Russian double agent Sergei Skripal and his daughter, Yulia Skripal, were poisoned in Salisbury with a Novichok nerve agent. Governance ---------- Salisbury is within the county of Wiltshire, and the administrative district of the same name. For local government purposes, it is administered by the Wiltshire Council unitary authority. Salisbury forms a civil parish with a parish council known as the Salisbury City Council. Since the local boundary review of 2020, two electoral wards – St Edmund and Harnham East – cover the city centre within the A36 ring road, and the rest of the unitary and city council areas are covered by six further wards. Laverstock and Ford parish council has the same boundary as the Laverstock ward, as well as part of the Old Sarum and Upper Bourne Valley ward, at unitary level. The Bishopdown Farm estate on the outskirts of Salisbury is now part of Laverstock and Ford, joining Hampton Park and Riverdown Park. Prior to 2009, Salisbury was part of the now abolished non-metropolitan county of Wiltshire. It was governed by Wiltshire County Council at the county level and Salisbury District Council, which oversaw most of south Wiltshire as well as the city. Salisbury (previously officially New Sarum) has had city status since time immemorial. The Member of Parliament for the Salisbury constituency, which includes the city, Amesbury and surrounding rural areas, is John Glen (Conservative), who was first elected in 2010. Wilton is the former county town for Wiltshire and is now located within Salisbury for parliamentary purposes. Geography --------- Salisbury is approximately halfway between Exeter and London being 80 miles (128 km) east-northeast of Exeter, 78 miles (126 km) west-southwest of London and also 34 miles (55 km) south of Swindon, 20 miles (32 km) northwest of Southampton and 32 miles (51 km) southeast of Bath. The geology of the area, as with much of South Wiltshire and Hampshire, is largely chalk. The rivers which flow through the city have been redirected, and along with landscaping, have been used to feed into public gardens. They are popular in the summer, particularly in Queen Elizabeth Gardens, as the water there is shallow and slow-flowing enough to enter safely. Because of the low-lying land, the rivers are prone to flooding, particularly during the winter months. The Town Path, a walkway that links Harnham with the rest of the city, is at times impassable. Water-meadows at Harnham, fed by two branches of the River Nadder, are first documented in the 17th century. East Harnham Meadows, in the floodplain of the Avon, is a Site of Special Scientific Interest. There are civil airfields at Old Sarum (where the experimental aircraft the Edgley Optica was developed and tested) and at Thruxton near Andover. ### Areas and suburbs Salisbury has many areas and suburbs, most of them being former villages that were absorbed by the growth of the city. The boundaries of these areas are for the most part unofficial and not fixed. All of these suburbs are within Salisbury's ONS Urban Area, which had a population of 44,748 in 2011. However, not all of these suburbs are administered by the city council, and are therefore not within the eight wards that had a combined population of 40,302 in 2011. Two parishes are part of the urban area but outside Salisbury parish. * Bemerton * Lower Bemerton * Bemerton Heath * Hampton Park * Laverstock and Ford (outside city council area) * City Centre * Churchfields * East Harnham * West Harnham * Harnham Hill * Stratford-sub-Castle * St Paul's * St Francis * Fisherton * St Mark's * Bishopdown * Milford * St Edmund * Petersfinger * Netherhampton (outside city council area) * Paul's Dene * Friary Estate (formerly known as Bugmore) * St Martin's Surrounding parishes, villages and towns rely on Salisbury for some services. The following are within a 4-mile radius of the city centre and are listed in approximately clockwise order: * Britford * Odstock * Quidhampton * Nunton * Homington * Old Sarum * Little Durnford * Fugglestone St Peter * Alderbury * Bodenham * Downton * Wilton * Charlton All Saints * Ditchampton * Bulbridge * Coombe Bissett * Ugford * South Newton * Winterbourne Earls * Winterbourne Gunner * Winterbourne Dauntsey Demography ---------- The civil parish of Salisbury, which does not include some of the city's suburbs such as Laverstock, Ford, Britford and Netherhampton, had a population of 40,302 at the 2011 census. The urban zone, which contains the wards immediately surrounding the city, had a population of 62,216 at the 2011 Census. The wards included in this figure are Laverstock, Britford, Downton, Alderbury, Odstock and the neighbouring town of Wilton, among others, however it does not include the towns of Amesbury or Romsey, as these support their own local populations and are further afield. At the 2011 census the population of the civil parish was 95.73% white (91.00% White British), 2.48% Asian (0.74% Indian, 0.41% Bangladeshi, 0.40% Chinese), 0.45% black and 1.15% mixed race. Within the parish, the largest ethnic minority group was 'other white' comprising 3.6% of the population as of 2011. There is not much contrast between areas when it comes to ethnic diversity. The ward of St Edmund and Milford is the most multiethnic, with 86.0% of the population being White British. The least multiethnic is the ward of St Francis and Stratford, which contains suburbs in the north of the city, with 94.8% of the population being White British. The city is represented by six other wards. Ethnic Groups, 2011| | Salisbury CP | Salisbury UA | Wiltshire | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | White British | 91.0% | 91.3% | 93.4% | | Asian | 2.5% | 2.4% | 1.3% | | Black | 0.5% | 0.4% | 0.7% | Within the parish, the largest ethnic minority group was 'other white' comprising 3.6% of the population as of 2011. 86.43% of the civil parish's population were born in England, 3.94% were born elsewhere in the UK. 4.94% were born elsewhere in the EU (including the Republic of Ireland), while 4.70% of the population were born outside the EU. 62.49% of the civil parish's population declared their religion to be Christianity, while 27.09% stated "no religion" and 8.02% declined to state their religion. 0.79% of the population declared their religion to be Islam, 0.41% Buddhism, 0.40% Hinduism and 0.80% as another religion. 95.89% of the civil parish's population considered their "main language" to be English, while 1.12% considered it to be Polish, 0.28% considered it to be Bengali and 0.24% considered it to be Tagalog. 99.43% of the population claimed to be able to speak English well or very well. In 2001, 22.33% of Salisbury's population were aged between 30 and 44, 42.76% were over 45, and 13.3% were between 18 and 29. Economy ------- Salisbury holds a Charter market on Tuesdays and Saturdays and has held markets regularly since 1227. In the 15th century the Market Place had four crosses: the Poultry Cross, whose name describes its market; the 'cheese and milk cross', which indicated that market and was in the triangle between the HSBC bank and the Salisbury Library; a third cross near the site of the present war memorial, which marked a woollen and yarn market; and a fourth, called Barnwell or Barnard's Cross, in the Culver Street and Barnard Street area, which marked a cattle and livestock market. Today, only the Poultry Cross remains, to which flying buttresses were added in the 19th century. In 1226, Henry III granted the Bishop of Salisbury a charter to hold a fair lasting eight days from the Feast of the Assumption of Mary (15 August). Over the centuries the dates of the fair have moved around, but in its modern guise, a funfair is now held in the Market Place for three days from the third Monday in October. From 1833 to the mid-1980s, the Salisbury Gas Light & Coke Company, which ran the city's gasworks, was one of the major employers in the area. The company was formed in 1832 with a share capital of £8,000, and its first chairman was the 3rd Earl of Radnor. The company was incorporated by a private Act of Parliament in 1864, and the Gas Orders Confirmation Act 1882 empowered it to raise capital of up to £40,000. At its peak, the gasworks were producing not only coal gas but also coke, which was sold off as the by-product of gas-making. Ammoniacal liquor, another by-product, was mixed with sulphuric acid, dried and ground to make a powder which was sold as an agricultural fertiliser. The clinker from the retort house was sold to a firm in London to be used as purifier beds in the construction of sewage works. Salisbury power station supplied electricity to Salisbury and the surrounding area from 1898 to 1970. The power station was at Town Mill and was owned and operated by Salisbury Electric Light and Supply Company Limited prior to the nationalisation of the British electricity supply industry in 1948. The coal-fired power station was redeveloped several times to incorporate new plant including a water driven turbine. From the Middle Ages to the start of the 20th century, Salisbury was noted for its cutlery industry. Early motor cars were manufactured in the city from 1902 by Dean and Burden Brothers, using the Scout Motors brand. In 1907 the company moved to a larger factory at Churchfields; each car took six to eight weeks to build, mostly using bodies made elsewhere by coachbuilders. By 1912, 150 men were employed and the company was also making small commercial vehicles and 20-seater buses, some of which were later used by the newly established Wilts & Dorset operator. The Scout company failed in 1921 after wartime disruption and competition from larger makers. Shopping centres include The Old George Mall, The Maltings, Winchester Street, and the Crosskeys precinct. Major employers include Salisbury District Hospital. Closure of the Friends Life office, the second largest employer, was announced in 2015. Culture ------- Salisbury was an important centre for music in the 18th century. The grammarian James Harris, a friend of Handel, directed concerts at the Assembly Rooms for almost 50 years up to his death in 1780. Many of the most famous musicians and singers of the day performed there. Salisbury holds an annual St George's Day pageant, the origins of which are claimed to go back to the 13th century. Salisbury has a strong artistic community, with galleries situated in the city centre, including one in the public library. In the 18th century, John Constable made a number of celebrated landscape paintings featuring the cathedral's spire and the surrounding countryside. Salisbury's annual International Arts Festival, started in 1973, and held in late May to early June, provides a programme of theatre, live music, dance, public sculpture, street performance and art exhibitions. Salisbury also houses a producing theatre, Salisbury Playhouse, which produces between eight and ten plays a year, as well as welcoming touring productions. ### The Salisbury Museum The Salisbury Museum is housed in the King's House, a Grade I listed building whose history dates back to the 13th century, opposite the west front of the cathedral. The permanent Stonehenge exhibition gallery has interactive displays about Stonehenge and the archaeology of south Wiltshire, and its collections include the skeleton of the Amesbury Archer, which is on display. The Pitt Rivers display holds a collection from General Augustus Pitt Rivers. The costume gallery showcases costume and textiles from the area, with costumes for children to try on while imagining themselves as characters from Salisbury's past. The former home of Sir Edward Heath, Arundells in the Cathedral Close, is now open as a museum. Twin towns and sister cities ---------------------------- Salisbury has been twinned with Saintes, France, since 1990, and with Xanten, Germany, since 2005. Salisbury is also a sister city of Salisbury, North Carolina and Salisbury, Maryland, both of which are in the United States. Education --------- There are several schools in and around Salisbury. The city has the only grammar schools in Wiltshire, South Wilts Grammar School for girls and Bishop Wordsworth's School for boys; since September 2020, both have mixed sixth forms. Other schools in or near the city include Salisbury Cathedral School, Chafyn Grove School, Leehurst Swan School, the Godolphin senior and prep schools, Sarum Academy, St Joseph's Catholic School, and Wyvern St Edmund's. Sixth form education is offered by Salisbury Sixth Form College, while the Salisbury campus of Wiltshire College offers a range of further education courses, as well as some higher education courses in association with Bournemouth University. Sarum College is a Christian theological college, within the Cathedral close. Transport --------- ### Road The main transport links for the city are the roads. Salisbury lies on the intersection of the A30, the A36, and the A338, and is at the end of the A343, A345, A354, and A360. Car parks around the periphery of the city are linked to the city centre by a park and ride scheme (see details in the bus section below). The A36 forms an almost complete ring road around the city centre. The A3094 comprises the southwestern quadrant of the ring road, passing through the city's outer suburbs. The lack of adequate roads is a cause of concern to the people of Salisbury as there are no motorway links to the ports of Southampton and Bristol. The closest motorway access is at junction 2 of the M27 at Southampton, and at junction 8 of the M3 near Basingstoke. Traffic passes around the city centre on the A36 to Bath. ### Bus There are bus links to Southampton, Bournemouth, Andover, Devizes, and Swindon, with limited services on Sundays. Salisbury Reds, a brand of Go South Coast, is the main local operator. Wheelers Travel provide services to Shaftesbury and Andover, as well as intermediate-distance services. Other operators include Stagecoach (Amesbury, Tidworth, Andover), Beeline (Warminster), and First (Warminster, Trowbridge, Bath). Salisbury has a Park and Ride bus scheme with five sites around the city. The scheme attempts to relieve pressure on the city centre, but as of 2010, ran at an annual loss of £1 million. Salisbury bus station, which opened in 1939, closed in January 2014 due to high operating costs and low usage. Situated in Endless Street, on the northeastern edge of the city centre, the site was later developed into retirement homes, which opened in February 2018. ### Railways Salisbury railway station is the crossing point of the West of England Main Line, from London Waterloo to Exeter St Davids, and the Wessex Main Line from Bristol Temple Meads to Southampton Central. The station is operated by South Western Railway. Great Western Railway hourly trains call from Cardiff Central, Bristol Temple Meads, Bath Spa to Southampton Central and Portsmouth Harbour. Churches -------- Besides the cathedral church of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Salisbury has several churches of various denominations. Three of them – St Martin, St Thomas and St Lawrence (Stratford-sub-Castle) – are Grade I listed. ### Medieval St Martin's Church predates the establishment of the cathedral at New Sarum. The church is on the south side of Milford Hill, beyond the eastern edge of the medieval town. The chancel is from c.1230, the tower (with spire) is 14th-century and the nave and aisles are from the late 15th century, but there is evidence of an earlier church and of Saxon burials. The parish has a long-standing Anglo-Catholic tradition. St Edmund's was founded as a collegiate church in 1269, in the north of the city. It was originally a larger building which was damaged when the central tower fell in 1653; the nave was demolished and a new tower built at the west end. A chancel was added in 1766 and then rebuilt in 1865–1867 by Sir George Gilbert Scott. The church was declared redundant in 1974 and reopened as Salisbury Arts Centre in 1975. A two-storey addition was built on the north side in 2003–2005. St Thomas' church has a central position, just west of the market square. It was founded in the early 13th century and rebuilt in the 15th at the expense of the city's prosperous merchants. Above the chancel arch is a large 15th-century doom painting, "one of the best surviving" according to Orbach. The churches of three rural parishes are in areas now absorbed into Salisbury. St George's at West Harnham was begun in the 12th century and altered in the early 14th century. St Lawrence, Stratford-sub-Castle, was built in the 13th century for the settlement near Old Sarum, at first as a chapelry of St Martin's. The small church of St Andrew at Bemerton was built in the 14th century on the site of an earlier church. It is associated with the poet and priest George Herbert, rector from 1630 until his death in 1633. ### 19th century St Osmund's (Catholic) is on Exeter Street in the city centre, a short distance east of the cathedral. It was designed by Augustus Pugin, who also designed some of the stained glass, and was consecrated in 1848. St Paul's church, serving part of the northern suburbs, was built near the start of the Devizes road in 1853. It was a replacement for St Clement's at Fisherton village, which had stood near the Nadder since at least the 14th century. The style of worship has been evangelical since the 1860s. The small All Saints' church was built at East Harnham in 1854, to designs of T.H. Wyatt. In 1861, St John's church was built at Bemerton to supplement St Andrew's. The building was declared redundant in 2010 and reopened in 2016 as a community centre and events venue. St Mark's was dedicated in 1894 to serve the expanding northern suburbs. The church is described as "ambitious" by Historic England and "expensively detailed" by Orbach. Construction was in stages, finishing in 1915, and the upper part of the tower was never built. 19th-century buildings for other denominations include, in the city centre, the Methodist Church (1811, enlarged later); the United Reformed Church (originally Congregational, 1879); Elim Pentecostal Church (originally Primitive Methodist, 1896, now a nightclub); and on Wilton Road, Emmanuel Church (1860). ### 20th century As the city's suburbs extended further north, St Francis's church was consecrated in 1940 to serve an area which had been part of Stratford-sub-Castle parish. Worship is evangelical in style, and services are designed to appeal to families and young people. Sport and leisure ----------------- The city has a football team, Salisbury F.C., who play in the Southern League Premier Division South and are based at the Raymond McEnhill Stadium, on the northern edge of the city. Non-league clubs are Bemerton Heath Harlequins F.C. and Laverstock & Ford F.C. Salisbury Rugby Club, which is based at Castle Road, play in Southern Counties South. South Wilts Cricket Club is based at the Salisbury and South Wiltshire Sports Club and play in the Southern Premier Cricket League. Salisbury Hockey Club is also based at the Salisbury and South Wilts Sports Club. The Five Rivers Leisure Centre and Swimming Pool, which was opened in 2002, is just outside the ring road. Salisbury Racecourse is a flat racing course to the south-west of the city. Five Rivers Indoor Bowls Club and Salisbury Snooker Club share a building on Tollgate Road, behind the college. Old Sarum Airfield, north of the city centre, is home to a variety of aviation-based businesses, including flying schools and the APT Charitable Trust for disabled flyers. The city's theatre is the Salisbury Playhouse. The City Hall is an entertainment venue and hosts comedy, musical performances (including those by the resident Musical Theatre Salisbury) as well as seminars and conventions. Salisbury Arts Centre, housed in a redundant church, has exhibitions and workshops. Salisbury is well-supplied with pubs. The *Haunch of Venison*, overlooking the Poultry Cross, operates from a 14th-century building; one of its attractions is a cast of a mummified hand, supposedly severed during a game of cards. The *Rai d’Or* has original deeds dating from 1292. It was the home of Agnes Bottenham, who used the profits of the tavern to found Trinity Hospital next door in circa 1380. Notable people -------------- ### Born before 1900 * John of Salisbury (c. 1120–1180), author, educationalist, diplomat and bishop of Chartres, born at Salisbury * Simon Forman (1552 in Quidhampton, Fugglestone St Peter – 1611), astrologer, occultist and herbalist * John Bevis (1695 in Old Sarum – 1771), doctor, electrical researcher and astronomer. He discovered the Crab Nebula in 1731. * James Harris (1709–1780), politician and grammarian, born and educated in Salisbury * James Harris, 1st Earl of Malmesbury (1746 in Salisbury – 1820), diplomat, politician and MP * Sir John Stoddart (1773 in Salisbury – 1856), writer and lawyer, and editor of *The Times* * Sir George Staunton, 2nd Baronet (1781 at Milford House near Salisbury – 1859), traveller and Orientalist * Henry Fawcett PC (1833 in Salisbury – 1884), academic, statesman and economist * John Neville Keynes (1852 in Salisbury – 1949), economist, father of John Maynard Keynes * Sir James Macklin (1864 in Harnham – 1944), jeweller, farmer and six times Mayor of Salisbury, from 1913 to 1919 * Herbert Ponting (1870 in Salisbury – 1935), professional photographer, expedition photographer and cinematographer for Robert Falcon Scott's Terra Nova Expedition * Lieutenant James Cromwell Bush (1891 in Salisbury – 1917), World War I flying ace * Lieutenant Colonel Tom Edwin Adlam (1893 in Salisbury – 1975), recipient of the Victoria Cross ### Since 1900 * William Golding (1911–1993), novelist, schoolteacher. He taught philosophy in 1939 and English from 1945 to 1961 at Bishop Wordsworth's School. * Daphne Pochin Mould (1920 in Salisbury – 2014), photographer, broadcaster, geologist, traveller, pilot and Ireland's first female flight instructor * John Rowan (1925 in Old Sarum – 2018 in London), author, one of the pioneers of Humanistic Psychology and Integrative Psychotherapy * Ann Patricia Christiansen [da] (1938 in Salisbury – 2016 in Copenhagen, Denmark), reality show participant in the Danish television programme *Familien fra Bryggen* * Iona Brown (1941 in Salisbury – 2004 in Salisbury), violinist and conductor. From 1968 to 2004 she lived in Bowerchalke. * Ray Teret (1941 in Salisbury – 2021), radio disc jockey and convicted rapist, sentenced to 25 years in prison in 2014 * Sir Jeffrey Tate (1943 in Salisbury – 2017), conductor of classical music * John Rhys-Davies (born in 1944 in Salisbury), actor known for playing Gimli in *The Lord of the Rings* film series * Anthony Daniels (born in 1946 in Salisbury), actor known for playing C-3PO in the *Star Wars* franchise * Jonathan Meades (born 1947 in Salisbury), writer, food journalist, essayist and film-maker * Prof. Martyn Thomas (born 1948 in Salisbury) software engineer, entrepreneur and academic * Richard Digance (born 1949), comedian and folk singer. He lives in Salisbury. * Kenneth Macdonald, Baron Macdonald of River Glaven (born 1953), Director of Public Prosecutions of England and Wales 2003–2008 and head of the Crown Prosecution Service. He attended Bishop Wordsworth's School in Salisbury. * Carolyn Browne (born 1958), diplomat, Ambassador to Kazakhstan. She attended South Wilts Grammar School for Girls. * Teresa Dent (born 1959), CEO of Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust. She lives in Salisbury. * Martin Foyle (born 1963 in Salisbury), footballer and manager. He played 533 League games, scoring 155 goals. * Dave Dee, Dozy, Beaky, Mick & Tich (formed 1964), 1960s pop/rock group, most of whom came from Salisbury or Wiltshire * Clare Moody (born 1965), Labour Member of the European Parliament for South West England 2014–201. She lives in Salisbury. * Joseph Fiennes (born 1970 in Salisbury), film and stage actor, educated in the town * David Mitchell (born 1974 in Salisbury), comedian, actor, writer and television presenter * Max Waller (born 1988 in Salisbury), cricketer, who plays for Somerset County Cricket Club * Henni Zuël (born 1990 in Salisbury), professional golfer; youngest player to join the Ladies European Tour as an amateur Media ----- BBC Radio Wiltshire is the BBC Local Radio public service station for the county, which sometimes broadcasts from or about the city. Salisbury used to have its own local radio station, Spire FM, which was purchased by Bauer Radio in 2019. Its frequency now transmits Greatest Hits Radio Salisbury, which broadcasts national and regional music programmes with local news bulletins. Regional television services are provided by BBC South and ITV Meridian, and a local television channel "That's Salisbury" is provided by That's TV. The *Salisbury Journal* is the local paid-for weekly newspaper, which is available in shops every Thursday. The local free weekly newspaper from the same publisher is the *Avon Advertiser*, which is delivered to houses in Salisbury and the surrounding area. In popular culture ------------------ The two names for the city, *Salisbury* and *Sarum*, are humorously alluded to in a 1928 limerick from *Punch*: > There was an old Sultan of Salisbury > > Who wanted some wives for his halisbury, > > So he had them sent down > > By a fast train from town, > > For he thought that his motor would scalisbury. > > The ambiguous pronunciation was also used in the following limerick, which also alludes to 'Hants', the shortened form of Hampshire: > There was a young curate of Salisbury, > > Whose manners were quite Halisbury-Scalisbury. > > He wandered round Hampshire, > > Without any pampshire, > > Till the Vicar compelled him to Walisbury. > > * Salisbury is the origin of "Melchester" in Thomas Hardy's novels, such as *Jude the Obscure* (1895). * A lively account of the Salisbury markets, as they were in 1842, is contained in Chapter 5 of *Martin Chuzzlewit* by Charles Dickens. * The fictitious Kingsbridge Cathedral in TV miniseries, *The Pillars of the Earth* (2010), based on a historical novel by the same name by Ken Follett, is modelled on the cathedrals of Wells and Salisbury. The final aerial shot of the series is of Salisbury Cathedral. * Kate Bush cites the city on the first song of her 1982 album *The Dreaming*. * The 1987 novel *Sarum* by Edward Rutherfurd describes the history of Salisbury. * The novel *The Spire* by William Golding tells the story of the building of the spire of an unnamed cathedral similar to Salisbury Cathedral. * Band Uriah Heep released an album and song called *Salisbury* in 1971. * Progressive rock band Big Big Train wrote two songs in their *Folklore* album in which the Salisbury Giant appears. * *The Salisbury Poisonings* is a three-part television drama which portrays the 2018 Novichok poisoning crisis, first broadcast on BBC One in June 2020. Climate ------- Salisbury experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification *Cfb*) similar to almost all of the United Kingdom. The nearest Met Office weather station to Salisbury is Boscombe Down, about 6 miles to the north of the city centre. In terms of the local climate, Salisbury is among the sunniest of inland areas in the UK, averaging over 1650 hours of sunshine in a typical year. Temperature extremes since 1960 have ranged from −12.4 °C (9.7 °F) in January 1963 to 34.5 °C (94.1 °F) during July 2006. The lowest temperature to be recorded in recent years was −10.1 °C (13.8 °F) during December 2010. | Climate data for Boscombe Down, elevation: 128 m (420 ft), 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1960–present | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 13.6(56.5) | 17.5(63.5) | 21.3(70.3) | 25.9(78.6) | 27.5(81.5) | 33.7(92.7) | 34.5(94.1) | 34.2(93.6) | 28.7(83.7) | 26.2(79.2) | 17.6(63.7) | 14.6(58.3) | 34.5(94.1) | | Average high °C (°F) | 7.2(45.0) | 7.5(45.5) | 10.3(50.5) | 13.1(55.6) | 16.6(61.9) | 19.5(67.1) | 21.9(71.4) | 21.6(70.9) | 18.6(65.5) | 14.4(57.9) | 10.3(50.5) | 7.5(45.5) | 14.1(57.4) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 4.3(39.7) | 4.3(39.7) | 6.6(43.9) | 8.6(47.5) | 11.9(53.4) | 14.7(58.5) | 16.9(62.4) | 16.8(62.2) | 14.3(57.7) | 10.9(51.6) | 7.1(44.8) | 4.6(40.3) | 10.1(50.2) | | Average low °C (°F) | 1.4(34.5) | 1.1(34.0) | 2.8(37.0) | 4.1(39.4) | 7.3(45.1) | 9.9(49.8) | 12.0(53.6) | 12.0(53.6) | 10.0(50.0) | 7.3(45.1) | 3.9(39.0) | 1.8(35.2) | 6.2(43.2) | | Record low °C (°F) | −12.4(9.7) | −9.6(14.7) | −9.6(14.7) | −4.7(23.5) | −2.4(27.7) | −0.1(31.8) | 4.4(39.9) | 3.6(38.5) | −0.1(31.8) | −3.4(25.9) | −6.4(20.5) | −11.3(11.7) | −12.4(9.7) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 74.5(2.93) | 52.0(2.05) | 57.2(2.25) | 51.4(2.02) | 54.4(2.14) | 51.0(2.01) | 48.9(1.93) | 51.5(2.03) | 59.4(2.34) | 82.6(3.25) | 84.0(3.31) | 81.7(3.22) | 748.6(29.47) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 12.0 | 9.5 | 10.6 | 9.6 | 9.4 | 8.9 | 8.5 | 8.7 | 9.0 | 11.8 | 11.9 | 11.9 | 122.0 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 62.2 | 80.8 | 119.2 | 175.0 | 205.9 | 217.7 | 223.3 | 205.3 | 152.3 | 114.9 | 75.1 | 57.8 | 1,689.4 | | Source 1: Met Office | | Source 2: KNMI | Freedom of the City ------------------- The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Salisbury. ### Individuals * Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson: 1800. ### Military Units * The Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry: 1944. * Royal Gloucestershire, Berkshire and Wiltshire Regiment: October 2004. * The Rifles: 20 November 2010. * 32nd Regiment, Royal Artillery: 7 July 2016. * The Royal Military Police: 13 June 2018. See also -------- * List of Grade I listed buildings in Salisbury Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. ↑ Other pronunciations include /ˈsɔːlzb(ə)ri/ *SAWLZ-b(ə-)ree*, /ˈsɒlzb(ə)ri/ *SOLZ-b(ə-)ree* and American English: /ˈsælzbəri/ *SALZ-bər-ee*.

Salisbury

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salisbury

**Human papillomavirus infection** (**HPV infection**) is caused by a DNA virus from the *Papillomaviridae* family. Many HPV infections cause no symptoms and 90% resolve spontaneously within two years. In some cases, an HPV infection persists and results in either warts or precancerous lesions. These lesions, depending on the site affected, increase the risk of cancer of the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, anus, mouth, tonsils, or throat. Nearly all cervical cancer is due to HPV and two strains – **HPV16** and **HPV18** – account for 70% of cases. **HPV16** is responsible for almost 90% of HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancers. Between 60% and 90% of the other cancers listed above are also linked to HPV. **HPV6** and **HPV11** are common causes of genital warts and laryngeal papillomatosis. An HPV infection is caused by the *human papillomavirus*, a DNA virus from the papillomavirus family. Over 200 types have been described. An individual can become infected with more than one type of HPV, and the disease is only known to affect humans. More than 40 types may be spread through sexual contact and infect the anus and genitals. Risk factors for persistent infection by sexually transmitted types include early age of first sexual intercourse, multiple sexual partners, smoking, and poor immune function. These types are typically spread by sustained direct skin-to-skin contact, with vaginal and anal sex being the most common methods. HPV infection can also spread from a mother to baby during pregnancy. There is no evidence that HPV can spread via common items like toilet seats, but the types that cause warts may spread via surfaces such as floors. HPV is not killed by common hand sanitizers and disinfectants, increasing the possibility of the virus being transferred via non-living infectious agents called fomites. HPV vaccines can prevent the most common types of infection. To be most effective, inoculation should occur before the onset of sexual activity, and are therefore recommended between the ages of 9–13 years. Cervical cancer screening, such as the Papanicolaou test ("pap smear"), or examination of the cervix after applying acetic acid, can detect both early cancer and abnormal cells that may develop into cancer. Screening allows for early treatment which results in better outcomes. Screening has reduced both the number of cases and the number of deaths from cervical cancer. Genital warts can be removed by freezing. Nearly every sexually active individual is infected by HPV at some point in their lives. HPV is the most common sexually transmitted infection (STI), globally. High-risk HPVs cause about 5% of all cancers worldwide, with an estimated 570,000 women and 60,000 men getting an HPV-related cancer each year. In the United States, about 36,000 cases of cancer due to HPV occur each year. Cervical cancer is among the most common cancers worldwide, causing an estimated 604,000 new cases and 342,000 deaths in 2020. About 90% of these new cases and deaths of cervical cancer occurred in low- and middle-income countries. Roughly 1% of sexually active adults have genital warts. Cases of skin warts have been described since the time of ancient Greece, but that they were caused by a virus was not determined until 1907. HPV types --------- HPV is a group of more than 200 related viruses, which are designated by a number for each virus type. Some HPV types, such as HPV5, may establish infections that persist for the lifetime of the individual without ever manifesting any clinical symptoms. HPV types 1 and 2 can cause common warts in some infected individuals. HPV types 6 and 11 can cause genital warts and laryngeal papillomatosis. Many HPV types are carcinogenic. About fourteen HPV types (including types 16, 18, 31, and 45) are called "high-risk" types because persistent infection has been linked to cancer of the oropharynx, larynx, vulva, vagina, cervix, penis, and anus. These cancers all involve sexually transmitted infection of HPV to the stratified epithelial tissue. HPV type 16 is the strain most likely to cause cancer and is present in about 47% of all cervical cancers, and in many vaginal and vulvar cancers, penile cancers, anal cancers, and cancers of the head and neck. The table below lists common symptoms of HPV infection and the associated types of HPV. | Disease | HPV type | | --- | --- | | Common warts | 2, 7, 22 | | Plantar warts | 1, 2, 4, 63 | | Flat warts | 3, 10, 28 | | Anogenital warts | 6, 11, 42, 44 and others | | Anal dysplasia (lesions) | 16, 18, 31, 53, 58 | | Genital cancers | * Highest risk: 16, 18, 31, 45 * Other high-risk:33, 35, 39, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, 68 * Probably high-risk: 26, 53, 73, 82 | | Epidermodysplasia verruciformis | more than 15 types | | Focal epithelial hyperplasia (mouth) | 13, 32 | | Mouth papillomas | 6, 7, 11, 16, 32 | | Oropharyngeal cancer | 16 | | Verrucous cyst | 60 | | Laryngeal papillomatosis | 6, 11 | Available HPV vaccines protect against either two, four, or nine types of HPV. There are six prophylactic HPV vaccines licensed for use: the bivalent vaccines *Cervarix*, *Cecolin*, and *Walrinvax*; the quadrivalent vaccines *Cervavax* and *Gardasil*; and the nonavalent vaccine *Gardasil 9*. All HPV vaccines protect against at least HPV types 16 and 18, which cause the greatest risk of cervical cancer. The quadrivalent vaccines also protect against HPV types 6 and 11. The nonavalent vaccine Gardasil 9 provides protection against those four types (6, 11, 16, and 18), along with five other high-risk HPV types responsible for 20% of cervical cancers (types 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58). Signs and symptoms ------------------ ### Warts Skin infection ("cutaneous" infection) with HPV is very widespread. Skin infections with HPV can cause noncancerous skin growths called warts (verrucae). Warts are caused by a rapid growth of cells on the outer layer of the skin. While cases of warts have been described since the time of ancient Greece, their viral cause was not known until 1907. Skin warts are most common in childhood and typically appear and regress spontaneously over the course of weeks to months. Recurring skin warts are common. All HPVs are believed to be capable of establishing long-term "latent" infections in small numbers of stem cells present in the skin. Although these latent infections may never be fully eradicated, immunological control is thought to block the appearance of symptoms such as warts. Immunological control is HPV type-specific, meaning an individual may become resistant to one HPV type while remaining susceptible to other types. Types of warts include: * Common warts are usually found on the hands and feet, but can also occur in other areas, such as the elbows or knees. Common warts have a characteristic cauliflower-like surface and are typically slightly raised above the surrounding skin. Cutaneous HPV types can cause genital warts but are not associated with the development of cancer. * Plantar warts are found on the soles of the feet; they grow inward, generally causing pain when walking. * Subungual or periungual warts form under the fingernail (subungual), around the fingernail, or on the cuticle (periungual). They are more difficult to treat than warts in other locations. * Flat warts are most commonly found on the arms, face, or forehead. Like common warts, flat warts occur most frequently in children and teens. In people with normal immune function, flat warts are not associated with the development of cancer. Common, flat, and plantar warts are much less likely to spread from person to person. #### Genital warts HPV infection of the skin in the genital area is the most common sexually transmitted infection worldwide. Such infections are associated with genital or anal warts (medically known as condylomata acuminata or venereal warts), and these warts are the most easily recognized sign of genital HPV infection. The strains of HPV that can cause genital warts are usually different from those that cause warts on other parts of the body, such as the hands or feet, or even the inner thighs. A wide variety of HPV types can cause genital warts, but types 6 and 11 together account for about 90% of all cases. However, in total more than 40 types of HPV are transmitted through sexual contact and can infect the skin of the anus and genitals. Such infections may cause genital warts, although they may also remain asymptomatic. The great majority of genital HPV infections never cause any overt symptoms and are cleared by the immune system in a matter of months. Moreover, people may transmit the virus to others even if they do not display overt symptoms of infection. Most people acquire genital HPV infections at some point in their lives, and about 10% of women are currently infected. A large increase in the incidence of genital HPV infection occurs at the age when individuals begin to engage in sexual activity. As with cutaneous HPVs, immunity to genital HPV is believed to be specific to a specific strain of HPV. #### Laryngeal papillomatosis In addition to genital warts, infection by HPV types 6 and 11 can cause a rare condition known as recurrent laryngeal papillomatosis, in which warts form on the larynx or other areas of the respiratory tract. These warts can recur frequently, may interfere with breathing, and in extremely rare cases can progress to cancer. For these reasons, repeated surgery to remove the warts may be advisable. ### Cancer #### Case statistics High-risk HPVs cause about 5% of all cancers worldwide, with an estimated 570,000 women and 60,000 men getting an HPV-related cancer each year, making HPV one of the most important infectious causes of cancer. Cervical cancer is among the most common cancers worldwide, causing an estimated 604,000 new cases and 342,000 deaths in 2020. About 90% of these new cases and deaths of cervical cancer occurred in low- and middle-income countries, where screening tests and treatment of early cervical cell changes are not readily available. In the United States, about 36,000 cases of cancer due to HPV occur each year. | | | The number of HPV-associated cancers in the period of 2008–2012 in the U.S.| Cancer area | Average annual number of cases | HPV attributable (estimated) | HPV 16/18 attributable (estimated) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Cervix | 11,771 | 10,700 | 7,800 | | Oropharynx (men) | 12,638 | 9,100 | 8,000 | | Oropharynx (women) | 3,100 | 2,000 | 1,600 | | Vulva | 3,554 | 2,400 | 1,700 | | Anus (women) | 3,260 | 3,000 | 2,600 | | Anus (men) | 1,750 | 1,600 | 1,400 | | Penis | 1,168 | 700 | 600 | | Vagina | 802 | 600 | 400 | | Rectum (women) | 513 | 500 | 400 | | Rectum (men) | 237 | 200 | 200 | | Total | 38,793 | 30,700 | 24,600 | #### Cancer development In some infected individuals, their immune systems may fail to control HPV. Lingering infection with high-risk HPV types, such as types 16, 18, 31, and 45, can favor the development of cancer. Co-factors such as cigarette smoke can also enhance the risk of such HPV-related cancers. HPV is believed to cause cancer by integrating its genome into nuclear DNA. Some of the early genes expressed by HPV, such as E6 and E7, act as oncogenes that promote tumor growth and malignant transformation. HPV genome integration can also cause carcinogenesis by promoting genomic instability associated with alterations in DNA copy number. E6 produces a protein (also called E6) that simultaneously binds to two host cell proteins called p53 and E6-Associated Protein (E6-AP). E6AP is an E3 Ubiquitin ligase, an enzyme whose purpose is to tag proteins with a post-translational modification called Ubiquitin. By binding both proteins, E6 induces E6AP to attach a chain of ubiquitin molecules to p53, thereby flagging p53 for proteosomal degradation. Normally, p53 acts to prevent cell growth and promotes cell death in the presence of DNA damage. p53 also upregulates the p21 protein, which blocks the formation of the cyclin D/Cdk4 complex, thereby preventing the phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein (RB), and in turn, halting cell cycle progression by preventing the activation of E2F. In short, p53 is a tumor-suppressor protein that arrests the cell cycle and prevents cell growth and survival when DNA damage occurs. Thus, the degradation of p53, induced by E6, promotes unregulated cell division, cell growth and cell survival, all characteristics of cancer. It is important to note, that while the interaction between E6, E6AP and p53 was the first to be characterized, there are multiple other proteins in the host cell which interact with E6 and assist the induction of cancer. #### Squamous cell carcinoma of the skin Studies have also shown a link between a wide range of HPV types and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. In such cases, *in vitro* studies suggest that the E6 protein of the HPV virus may inhibit apoptosis induced by ultraviolet light. #### Cervical cancer Nearly all cases of cervical cancer are associated with HPV infection, with two types, HPV16 and HPV18, present in 70% of cases. In 2012, twelve HPV types were considered carcinogenic for cervical cancer by the International Agency for Research on Cancer: 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, and 59. HPV is necessary for cervical cancer to occur. Persistent HPV infection increases the risk for developing cervical carcinoma. Individuals who have an increased incidence of these types of infection are women with HIV/AIDS, who are at a 22-fold increased risk of cervical cancer. The carcinogenic HPV types in cervical cancer belong to the alphapapillomavirus genus and can be grouped further into HPV clades. The two major carcinogenic HPV clades, alphapapillomavirus-9 (A9) and alphapapillomavirus-7 (A7), contain HPV16 and HPV18, respectively. These two HPV clades were shown to have different effects on tumour molecular characteristics and patient prognosis, with clade A7 being associated with more aggressive pathways and an inferior prognosis. In 2020, about 604,000 new cases and 342,000 deaths from cervical cancer occurred worldwide. Around 90% of these occurred in the developing world. Most HPV infections of the cervix are cleared rapidly by the immune system and do not progress to cervical cancer (see below the Clearance subsection in Virology). Because the process of transforming normal cervical cells into cancerous ones is slow, cancer occurs in people having been infected with HPV for a long time, usually over a decade or more (persistent infection). Furthermore, both the HPV infection and cervical cancer drive metabolic modifications that may be correlated with the aberrant regulation of enzymes related to metabolic pathways. Non-European (NE) HPV16 variants are significantly more carcinogenic than European (E) HPV16 variants. #### Anal cancer Studies show a link between HPV infection and anal cancers. Sexually transmitted HPVs are found in a large percentage of anal cancers. Moreover, the risk for anal cancer is 17 to 31 times higher among HIV-positive individuals who were coinfected with high-risk HPV, and 80 times higher for particularly HIV-positive men who have sex with men. Anal Pap smear screening for anal cancer might benefit some subpopulations of men or women engaging in anal sex. No consensus exists, though, that such screening is beneficial, or who should get an anal Pap smear. #### Penile cancer HPV is associated with approximately 50% of penile cancers. In the United States, penile cancer accounts for about 0.5% of all cancer cases in men. HPV16 is the most commonly associated type detected. The risk of penile cancer increases 2- to 3-fold for individuals who are infected with HIV as well as HPV. #### Head and neck cancers Oral infection with high-risk carcinogenic HPV types (most commonly HPV 16) is associated with an increasing number of head and neck cancers. This association is independent of tobacco and alcohol use. Sexually transmitted forms of HPV account for about 25% of cancers of the mouth and upper throat (the oropharynx) worldwide, but the local percentage varies widely, from 70% in the United States to 4% in Brazil. Engaging in anal or oral sex with an HPV-infected partner may increase the risk of developing these types of cancers. In the United States, the number of newly diagnosed, HPV-associated head and neck cancers has surpassed that of cervical cancer cases. The rate of such cancers has increased from an estimated 0.8 cases per 100,000 people in 1988 to 4.5 per 100,000 in 2012, and, as of 2021, the rate has continued to increase. Researchers explain these recent data by an increase in oral sex. This type of cancer is more common in men than in women. The mutational profile of HPV-positive and HPV-negative head and neck cancer has been reported, further demonstrating that they are fundamentally distinct diseases. #### Lung cancer Some evidence links HPV to benign and malignant tumors of the upper respiratory tract. The International Agency for Research on Cancer has found that people with lung cancer were significantly more likely to have several high-risk forms of HPV antibodies compared to those who did not have lung cancer. Researchers looking for HPV among 1,633 lung cancer patients and 2,729 people without the lung disease found that people with lung cancer had more types of HPV than noncancer patients did, and among lung cancer patients, the chances of having eight types of serious HPV were significantly increased. In addition, expression of HPV structural proteins by immunohistochemistry and *in vitro* studies suggest HPV presence in bronchial cancer and its precursor lesions. Another study detected HPV in the exhaled breath condensate (EBC), bronchial brushing and neoplastic lung tissue of cases, and found a presence of an HPV infection in 16.4% of the subjects affected by nonsmall cell lung cancer, but in none of the controls. The reported average frequencies of HPV in lung cancers were 17% and 15% in Europe and the Americas, respectively, and the mean number of HPV in Asian lung cancer samples was 35.7%, with a considerable heterogeneity between certain countries and regions. #### Skin cancer In very rare cases, HPV may cause epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV) in individuals with a weakened immune system. The virus, unchecked by the immune system, causes the overproduction of keratin by skin cells, resulting in lesions resembling warts or cutaneous horns which can ultimately transform into skin cancer, but the development is not well understood. The specific types of HPV that are associated with EV are HPV5, HPV8, and HPV14. Cause ----- ### Transmission Sexually transmitted HPV is divided into two categories: low-risk and high-risk. Low-risk HPVs cause warts on or around the genitals. Type 6 and 11 cause 90% of all genital warts and recurrent respiratory papillomatosis that causes benign tumors in the air passages. High-risk HPVs cause cancer and consist of about fourteen identified types. Types 16 and 18 are responsible for causing most of HPV-caused cancers. These high-risk HPVs cause 5% of the cancers in the world. In the United States, high-risk HPVs cause 3% of all cancer cases in women and 2% in men. Risk factors for persistent genital HPV infections, which increases the risk for developing cancer, include early age of first sexual intercourse, multiple partners, smoking, and immunosuppression. Genital HPV is spread by sustained direct skin-to-skin contact, with vaginal, anal, and oral sex being the most common methods. Occasionally it can spread from a mother to her baby during pregnancy. HPV is difficult to remove via standard hospital disinfection techniques, and may be transmitted in a healthcare setting on re-usable gynecological equipment, such as vaginal ultrasound transducers. The period of communicability is still unknown, but probably at least as long as visible HPV lesions persist. HPV may still be transmitted even after lesions are treated and no longer visible or present. #### Perinatal Although genital HPV types can be transmitted from mother to child during birth, the appearance of genital HPV-related diseases in newborns is rare. However, the lack of appearance does not rule out asymptomatic latent infection, as the virus has proven to be capable of hiding for decades. Perinatal transmission of HPV types 6 and 11 can result in the development of juvenile-onset recurrent respiratory papillomatosis (JORRP). JORRP is very rare, with rates of about 2 cases per 100,000 children in the United States. Although JORRP rates are substantially higher if a woman presents with genital warts at the time of giving birth, the risk of JORRP in such cases is still less than 1%. #### Genital infections Genital HPV infections are transmitted primarily by contact with the genitals, anus, or mouth of an infected sexual partner. Of the 120 known human papilloma viruses, 51 species and three subtypes infect the genital mucosa. Fifteen are classified as high-risk types (16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 68, 73, and 82), three as probable high-risk (26, 53, and 66), and twelve as low-risk (6, 11, 40, 42, 43, 44, 54, 61, 70, 72, 81, and 89). Condoms do not completely protect from the virus because the areas around the genitals including the inner thigh area are not covered, thus exposing these areas to the infected person's skin. #### Hands Studies have shown HPV transmission between hands and genitals of the same person and sexual partners. Hernandez tested the genitals and dominant hand of each person in 25 heterosexual couples every other month for an average of seven months. She found two couples where the man's genitals infected the woman's hand with high-risk HPV, two where her hand infected his genitals, one where her genitals infected his hand, two each where he infected his own hand, and she infected her own hand. Hands were not the main source of transmission in these 25 couples, but they were significant. Partridge reports men's fingertips became positive for high risk HPV at more than half the rate (26% per two years) as their genitals (48%). Winer reports 14% of fingertip samples from sexually active women were positive. Non-sexual hand contact seems to have little or no role in HPV transmission. Winer found all fourteen fingertip samples from virgin women negative at the start of her fingertip study. In a separate report on genital HPV infection, 1% of virgin women (1 of 76) with no sexual contact tested positive for HPV, while 10% of virgin women reporting non-penetrative sexual contact were positive (7 of 72). #### Shared objects Sharing of possibly contaminated objects, for example, razors, may transmit HPV. Although possible, transmission by routes other than sexual intercourse is less common for female genital HPV infection. Fingers-genital contact is a possible way of transmission but unlikely to be a significant source. #### Blood Though it has traditionally been assumed that HPV is not transmissible via blood – as it is thought to only infect cutaneous and mucosal tissues – recent studies have called this notion into question. Historically, HPV DNA has been detected in the blood of cervical cancer patients. In 2005, a group reported that, in frozen blood samples of 57 sexually naive pediatric patients who had vertical or transfusion-acquired HIV infection, 8 (14.0%) of these samples also tested positive for HPV-16. This seems to indicate that it may be possible for HPV to be transmitted via blood transfusion. However, as non-sexual transmission of HPV by other means is not uncommon, this could not be definitively proven. In 2009, a group tested Australian Red Cross blood samples from 180 healthy male donors for HPV, and subsequently found DNA of one or more strains of the virus in 15 (8.3%) of the samples. However, it is important to note that detecting the presence of HPV DNA in blood is not the same as detecting the virus itself in blood, and whether or not the virus itself can or does reside in blood in infected individuals is still unknown. As such, it remains to be determined whether HPV can or cannot be transmitted via blood. This is of concern, as blood donations are not currently screened for HPV, and at least some organizations such as the American Red Cross and other Red Cross societies do not presently appear to disallow HPV-positive individuals from donating blood. #### Surgery Hospital transmission of HPV, especially to surgical staff, has been documented. Surgeons, including urologists and/or anyone in the room, is subject to HPV infection by inhalation of noxious viral particles during electrocautery or laser ablation of a condyloma (wart). There has been a case report of a laser surgeon who developed extensive laryngeal papillomatosis after providing laser ablation to patients with anogenital condylomata. ### Virology HPV infection is limited to the basal cells of stratified epithelium, the only tissue in which they replicate. The virus cannot bind to live tissue; instead, it infects epithelial tissues through micro-abrasions or other epithelial trauma that exposes segments of the basement membrane. The infectious process is slow, taking 12–24 hours for initiation of transcription. It is believed that involved antibodies play a major neutralizing role while the virions still reside on the basement membrane and cell surfaces. HPV lesions are thought to arise from the proliferation of infected basal keratinocytes. Infection typically occurs when basal cells in the host are exposed to the infectious virus through a disturbed epithelial barrier as would occur during sexual intercourse or after minor skin abrasions. HPV infections have not been shown to be cytolytic; rather, viral particles are released as a result of degeneration of desquamating cells. HPV can survive for many months and at low temperatures without a host; therefore, an individual with plantar warts can spread the virus by walking barefoot. HPV is a small double-stranded circular DNA virus with a genome of approximately 8000 base pairs. The HPV life cycle strictly follows the differentiation program of the host keratinocyte. It is thought that the HPV virion infects epithelial tissues through micro-abrasions, whereby the virion associates with putative receptors such as alpha integrins, laminins, and annexin A2 leading to entry of the virions into basal epithelial cells through clathrin-mediated endocytosis and/or caveolin-mediated endocytosis depending on the type of HPV. At this point, the viral genome is transported to the nucleus by unknown mechanisms and establishes itself at a copy number of 10-200 viral genomes per cell. A sophisticated transcriptional cascade then occurs as the host keratinocyte begins to divide and become increasingly differentiated in the upper layers of the epithelium. #### Evolution The phylogeny of the various strains of HPV generally reflects the migration patterns of *Homo sapiens* and suggests that HPV may have diversified along with the human population. Studies suggest that HPV evolved along five major branches that reflect the ethnicity of human hosts, and diversified along with the human population. Researchers initially identified two major variants of HPV16, European (HPV16-E), and Non-European (HPV16-NE). More recent analyses based on thousands of HPV16 genomes show that indeed two major clades exist, that are further subdivided into four lineages (designated A-D) and even further subdivided into 16 sublineages (A1–4, B1–4, C1–4 and D1–4). The A1-A3 sublineages constitute the European variant, A4 the Asian variant, B1-B4 the African type I variant, C1–C4 the African type II variant, D1 the North American variant, D2 the Asian American type I variant, D3 the Asian American type II variant. The various lineages and sublineages have different oncogenic capacity, where overall, the non-European lineages are considered to increase the risk for cancer. Although HPV16 is a DNA virus, there are signs of recombination among the different lineages. Based on an analysis of more than 3600 genomes, between 0.3 and 1.2% of them could be recombinant. Thus, ideally, genotyping (for cancer-risk assessment) of HPV16 should not be based only on certain genes, but on all genes from the entire genome. A bioinformatics tool named HPV16-Genotyper performs i) HPV16 lineage genotyping, ii) it detects potential recombination events, iii) it identifies, within the submitted sequences, mutations/SNPs that have been reported (in literature) to increase the risk for cancer. #### E6/E7 proteins The two primary oncoproteins of high risk HPV types are E6 and E7. The "E" designation indicates that these two proteins are early proteins (expressed early in the HPV life cycle), while the "L" designation indicates that they are late proteins (late expression). The HPV genome is composed of six early (E1, E2, E4, E5, E6, and E7) open reading frames (ORF), two late (L1 and L2) ORFs, and a non-coding long control region (LCR). After the host cell is infected viral early promoter is activated and a polycistronic primary RNA containing all six early ORFs is transcribed. This polycistronic RNA then undergoes active RNA splicing to generate multiple isoforms of mRNAs. One of the spliced isoform RNAs, E6\*I, serves as an E7 mRNA to translate E7 protein. However, viral early transcription subjects to viral E2 regulation and high E2 levels repress the transcription. HPV genomes integrate into host genome by disruption of E2 ORF, preventing E2 repression on E6 and E7. Thus, viral genome integration into host DNA genome increases E6 and E7 expression to promote cellular proliferation and the chance of malignancy. The degree to which E6 and E7 are expressed is correlated with the type of cervical lesion that can ultimately develop. Role in cancer Sometimes papillomavirus genomes are found integrated into the host genome, and this is especially noticeable with oncogenic HPVs. The E6/E7 proteins inactivate two tumor suppressor proteins, p53 (inactivated by E6) and pRb (inactivated by E7). The viral oncogenes E6 and E7 are thought to modify the cell cycle so as to retain the differentiating host keratinocyte in a state that is favourable to the amplification of viral genome replication and consequent late gene expression. E6 in association with host E6-associated protein, which has ubiquitin ligase activity, acts to ubiquitinate p53, leading to its proteosomal degradation. E7 (in oncogenic HPVs) acts as the primary transforming protein. E7 competes for retinoblastoma protein (pRb) binding, freeing the transcription factor E2F to transactivate its targets, thus pushing the cell cycle forward. All HPV can induce transient proliferation, but only strains 16 and 18 can immortalize cell lines *in vitro*. It has also been shown that HPV 16 and 18 cannot immortalize primary rat cells alone; there needs to be activation of the ras oncogene. In the upper layers of the host epithelium, the late genes L1 and L2 are transcribed/translated and serve as structural proteins that encapsidate the amplified viral genomes. Once the genome is encapsidated, the capsid appears to undergo a redox-dependent assembly/maturation event, which is tied to a natural redox gradient that spans both suprabasal and cornified epithelial tissue layers. This assembly/maturation event stabilizes virions, and increases their specific infectivity. Virions can then be sloughed off in the dead squames of the host epithelium and the viral lifecycle continues. A 2010 study has found that E6 and E7 are involved in beta-catenin nuclear accumulation and activation of Wnt signaling in HPV-induced cancers. #### Latency period Once an HPV virion invades a cell, an active infection occurs, and the virus can be transmitted. Several months to years may elapse before squamous intraepithelial lesions (SIL) develop and can be clinically detected. The time from active infection to clinically detectable disease may make it difficult for epidemiologists to establish which partner was the source of infection. #### Clearance Most HPV infections are cleared up by most people without medical action or consequences. The table provides data for high-risk types (i.e. the types found in cancers). Clearance rates of high risk types of HPV| Months after initial positive test | 8 months | 12 months | 18 months | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | % of men tested negative | 70% | 80% | 100% | Clearing an infection does not always create immunity if there is a new or continuing source of infection. Hernandez' 2005-6 study of 25 couples reports "A number of instances indicated apparent reinfection [from partner] after viral clearance." Diagnosis --------- Over 200 types of HPV have been identified, and they are designated by numbers. They may be divided into "low-risk" and "high-risk" types. Low-risk types cause warts and high-risk types can cause lesions or cancer. ### Cervical testing Guidelines from the American Cancer Society recommend different screening strategies for cervical cancer based on a woman's age, screening history, risk factors and choice of tests. Because of the link between HPV and cervical cancer, the ACS currently recommends early detection of cervical cancer in average-risk asymptomatic adults primarily with cervical cytology by Pap smear, regardless of HPV vaccination status. Women aged 30–65 should preferably be tested every 5 years with both the HPV test and the Pap test. In other age groups, a Pap test alone can suffice unless they have been diagnosed with atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US). Co-testing with a Pap test and HPV test is recommended because it decreases the rate of false-negatives. According to the National Cancer Institute, "The most common test detects DNA from several high-risk HPV types, but it cannot identify the types that are present. Another test is specific for DNA from HPV types 16 and 18, the two types that cause most HPV-associated cancers. A third test can detect DNA from several high-risk HPV types and can indicate whether HPV-16 or HPV-18 is present. A fourth test detects RNA from the most common high-risk HPV types. These tests can detect HPV infections before cell abnormalities are evident. "Theoretically, the HPV DNA and RNA tests could be used to identify HPV infections in cells taken from any part of the body. However, the tests are approved by the FDA for only two indications: for follow-up testing of women who seem to have abnormal Pap test results and for cervical cancer screening in combination with a Pap test among women over age 30." ### Mouth testing Guidelines for oropharyngeal cancer screening by the Preventive Services Task Force and American Dental Association in the U.S. suggest conventional visual examination, but because some parts of the oropharynx are hard to see, this cancer is often only detected in later stages. The diagnosis of oropharyngeal cancer occurs by biopsy of exfoliated cells or tissues. The National Comprehensive Cancer Network and College of American Pathologists recommend testing for HPV in oropharyngeal cancer. However, while testing is recommended, there is no specific type of test used to detect HPV from oral tumors that is currently recommended by the FDA in the United States. Because HPV type 16 is the most common type found in oropharyngeal cancer, p16 immunohistochemistry is one test option used to determine if HPV is present, which can help determine course of treatment since tumors that are negative for p16 have better outcomes. Another option that has emerged as a reliable option is HPV DNA in situ hybridization (ISH) which allows for visualization of the HPV. ### Testing men There is not a wide range of tests available even though HPV is common; most studies of HPV used tools and custom analysis not available to the general public.[*needs update*] Clinicians often depend on the vaccine among young people and high clearance rates (see Clearance subsection in Virology) to create a low risk of disease and mortality, and treat the cancers when they appear. Others believe that reducing HPV infection in more men and women, even when it has no symptoms, is important (herd immunity) to prevent more cancers rather than just treating them.[*needs update*] Where tests are used, negative test results show safety from transmission, and positive test results show where shielding (condoms, gloves) is needed to prevent transmission until the infection clears. Studies have tested for and found HPV in men, including high-risk types (i.e. the types found in cancers), on fingers, mouth, saliva, anus, urethra, urine, semen, blood, scrotum and penis. The Qiagen/Digene kit mentioned in the previous section was used successfully off label to test the penis, scrotum and anus of men in long-term relationships with women who were positive for high-risk HPV. 60% of them were found to carry the virus, primarily on the penis.[*needs update*] Other studies used cytobrushes and custom analysis.[*needs update*] In one study researchers sampled subjects' urethra, scrotum and penis.[*needs update*] Samples taken from the urethra added less than 1% to the HPV rate. Studies like this led Giuliano to recommend sampling the glans, shaft and crease between them, along with the scrotum, since sampling the urethra or anus added very little to the diagnosis. Dunne recommends the glans, shaft, their crease, and the foreskin. In one study the subjects were asked not to wash their genitals for 12 hours before sampling, including the urethra as well as the scrotum and the penis. Other studies are silent on washing – a particular gap in studies of the hands. One small study used wet cytobrushes, rather than wet the skin. It found a higher proportion of men to be HPV-positive when the skin was rubbed with a 600 grit emery paper before being swabbed with the brush, rather than swabbed with no preparation. It's unclear whether the emery paper collected the virions or simply loosened them for the swab to collect. Studies have found self-collection (with emery paper and Dacron swabs) as effective as collection done by a clinician, and sometimes more so, since patients were more willing than a clinician to scrape vigorously.[*needs update*] Women had similar success in self-sampling using tampons, swabs, cytobrushes and lavage.[*needs update*] Several studies used cytobrushes to sample fingertips and under fingernails, without wetting the area or the brush.[*needs update*] Other studies analyzed urine, semen, and blood and found varying amounts of HPV, but there is not a publicly available test for those yet. ### Other testing Although it is possible to test for HPV DNA in other kinds of infections, there are no FDA-approved tests for general screening in the United States or tests approved by the Canadian government, since the testing is inconclusive and considered medically unnecessary. Genital warts are the only visible sign of low-risk genital HPV and can be identified with a visual check. These visible growths, however, are the result of non-carcinogenic HPV types. Five percent acetic acid (vinegar) is used to identify both warts and squamous intraepithelial neoplasia (SIL) lesions with limited success by causing abnormal tissue to appear white, but most doctors have found this technique helpful only in moist areas, such as the female genital tract. At this time, HPV tests for males are used only in research. Research into testing for HPV by antibody presence has been done. The approach is looking for an immune response in blood, which would contain antibodies for HPV if the patient is HPV positive. The reliability of such tests has not been proven, as there has not been a FDA approved product as of August 2018; testing by blood would be a less invasive test for screening purposes. Prevention ---------- The HPV vaccines can prevent the most common types of infection. To be effective they must be used before an infection occurs and are therefore recommended between the ages of nine and thirteen. Cervical cancer screening, such as with the Papanicolaou test (pap) or looking at the cervix after using acetic acid, can detect early cancer or abnormal cells that may develop into cancer. This allows for early treatment which results in better outcomes. Screening has reduced both the number and deaths from cervical cancer in the developed world. Warts can be removed by freezing. ### Vaccines Three vaccines are available to prevent infection by some HPV types: Gardasil, Gardasil 9 and Cervarix; all three protect against initial infection with HPV types 16 and 18, which cause most of the HPV-associated cancer cases. Gardasil also protects against HPV types 6 and 11, which cause 90% of genital warts. Gardasil is a recombinant quadrivalent vaccine, whereas Cervarix is bivalent, and is prepared from virus-like particles (VLP) of the L1 capsid protein. Gardasil 9 is nonavalent, it has the potential to prevent about 90% of cervical, vulvar, vaginal, and anal cancers. It can protect for HPV types 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58; the latter five cause up to 20% of cervical cancers which were not previously covered. The vaccines provide little benefit to women already infected with HPV types 16 and 18. For this reason, the vaccine is recommended primarily for those women not yet having been exposed to HPV during sex. The World Health Organization position paper on HPV vaccination clearly outlines appropriate, cost-effective strategies for using HPV vaccine in public sector programs. There is high-certainty evidence that HPV vaccines protect against precancerous cervical lesions in young women, particularly those vaccinated aged 15 to 26. HPV vaccines do not increase the risk of serious adverse events. Longer follow-up is needed to monitor the impact of HPV vaccines on cervical cancer. The CDC recommends the vaccines be delivered in two shots at an interval of least 6 months for those aged 11–12, and three doses for those 13 and older. In most countries, they are funded only for female use, but are approved for male use in many countries, and funded for teenage boys in Australia. The vaccine does not have any therapeutic effect on existing HPV infections or cervical lesions. In 2010, 49% of teenage girls in the US got the HPV vaccine. Following studies suggesting that the vaccine is more effective in younger girls than in older teenagers, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Mexico, the Netherlands and Quebec began offering the vaccine in a two-dose schedule for girls aged under 15 in 2014. Cervical cancer screening recommendations have not changed for females who receive HPV vaccine. It remains a recommendation that women continue cervical screening, such as Pap smear testing, even after receiving the vaccine, since it does not prevent all types of cervical cancer. Both men and women are carriers of HPV. The Gardasil vaccine also protects men against anal cancers and warts and genital warts. Duration of both vaccines' efficacy has been observed since they were first developed, and is expected to be longlasting. In December 2014, the FDA approved a nine-valent Gardasil-based vaccine, Gardasil 9, to protect against infection with the four strains of HPV covered by the first generation of Gardasil as well as five other strains responsible for 20% of cervical cancers (HPV-31, HPV-33, HPV-45, HPV-52, and HPV-58). ### Condoms The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention says that male "condom use may reduce the risk for genital human papillomavirus (HPV) infection" but provides a lesser degree of protection compared with other sexual transmitted diseases "because HPV also may be transmitted by exposure to areas (e.g., infected skin or mucosal surfaces) that are not covered or protected by the condom." ### Disinfection The virus is unusually hardy, and is immune to most common disinfectants. It is the first virus ever shown to be resistant to inactivation by glutaraldehyde, which is among the most common strong disinfectants used in hospitals. Diluted sodium hypochlorite bleach is effective, but cannot be used on some types of re-usable equipment, such as ultrasound transducers. As a result of these difficulties, there is developing concern about the possibility of transmitting the virus on healthcare equipment, particularly reusable gynecological equipment that cannot be autoclaved. For such equipment, some health authorities encourage use of UV disinfection or a non-hypochlorite "oxidizing‐based high‐level disinfectant [bleach] with label claims for non‐enveloped viruses", such as a strong hydrogen peroxide solution or chlorine dioxide wipes. Such disinfection methods are expected to be relatively effective against HPV. Management ---------- There is currently no specific treatment for HPV infection. However, the viral infection is usually cleared to undetectable levels by the immune system. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the body's immune system clears HPV naturally within two years for 90% of cases (see Clearance subsection in Virology for more detail). However, experts do not agree on whether the virus is eliminated or reduced to undetectable levels, and it is difficult to know when it is contagious.[*needs update*] Follow up care is usually recommended and practiced by many health clinics. Follow-up is sometimes not successful because a portion of those treated do not return to be evaluated. In addition to the normal methods of phone calls and mail, text messaging and email can improve the number of people who return for care. As of 2015 it is unclear the best method of follow up following treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Epidemiology ------------ Globally, 12% of women are positive for HPV DNA, with rates varying by age and country. The highest rates of HPV are in younger women, with a rate of 24% in women under 25 years. Rates decline in older age groups in Europe and the Americas, but less so in Africa and Asia. The rates are highest in Sub-Saharan Africa (24%) and Eastern Europe (21%) and lowest in North America (5%) and Western Asia (2%). The most common types of HPV worldwide are HPV16 (3.2%), HPV18 (1.4%), HPV52 (0.9%), HPV31 (0.8%), and HPV58 (0.7%). High-risk types of HPV are also distributed unevenly, with HPV16 having a rate around 13% in Africa and 30% in West and Central Asia. Like many diseases, HPV disproportionately affects low-income and resource-poor countries. The higher rates of HPV in Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, may be related to high exposure to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in the region. Other factors that impact the global spread of disease are sexual behaviors including age of sexual debut, number of sexual partners, and ease of access to barrier contraception, all of which vary globally. ### United States HPV prevalence among women by age, including 20 low-risk types and 23 high-risk types| Age (years) | Prevalence (%) | | --- | --- | | 14 to 19 | 24.5% | | 20 to 24 | 44.8% | | 25 to 29 | 27.4% | | 30 to 39 | 27.5% | | 40 to 49 | 25.2% | | 50 to 59 | 19.6% | | 14 to 59 | 26.8% | HPV is estimated to be the most common sexually transmitted infection in the United States. Most sexually active men and women will probably acquire genital HPV infection at some point in their lives. The American Social Health Association estimates that about 75–80% of sexually active Americans will be infected with HPV at some point in their lifetime. By the age of 50 more than 80% of American women will have contracted at least one strain of genital HPV. It was estimated that, in the year 2000, there were approximately 6.2 million new HPV infections among Americans aged 15–44; of these, an estimated 74% occurred to people between ages of 15 and 24. Of the STDs studied, genital HPV was the most commonly acquired. In the United States, it is estimated that 10% of the population has an active HPV infection, 4% has an infection that has caused cytological abnormalities, and an additional 1% has an infection causing genital warts. Estimates of HPV prevalence vary from 14% to more than 90%. One reason for the difference is that some studies report women who currently have a detectable infection, while other studies report women who have ever had a detectable infection. Another cause of discrepancy is the difference in strains that were tested for. One study found that, during 2003–2004, at any given time, 26.8% of women aged 14 to 59 were infected with at least one type of HPV. This was higher than previous estimates; 15.2% were infected with one or more of the high-risk types that can cause cancer. The prevalence for high-risk and low-risk types is roughly similar over time. Human papillomavirus is not included among the diseases that are typically reportable to the CDC as of 2011. ### Ireland On average 538 cases of HPV-associated cancers were diagnosed per year in Ireland during the period 2010 to 2014. Cervical cancer was the most frequent HPV-associated cancer with on average 292 cases per year (74% of the female total, and 54% of the overall total of HPV-associated cancers). A study of 996 cervical cytology samples in an Irish urban female, opportunistically screened population, found an overall HPV prevalence of 19.8%, HPV 16 at 20% and HPV 18 at 12% were the commonest high-risk types detected. In Europe, types 16 and 18 are responsible for over 70% of cervical cancers. Overall rates of HPV-associated invasive cancers may be increasing. Between 1994 and 2014, there was a 2% increase in the rate of HPV-associated invasive cancers per year for both sexes in Ireland. As HPV is known to be associated with ano-genital warts, these are notifiable to the Health Protection Surveillance Centre (HPSC). Genital warts are the second most common STI in Ireland. There were 1,281 cases of ano-genital warts notified in 2017, which was a decrease on the 2016 figure of 1,593. The highest age-specific rate for both male and female was in the 25–29 year old age range; 53% of cases were among males. ### Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka, the prevalence of HPV is 15.5% regardless of their cytological abnormalities. ### Inner Mongolia In the Autonomous Region of Inner Mongolia overall HPV prevalence is 14.5% but shows substantial ethnical disparity, the prevalence in Mongolian women (14.9%) being much higher than that of Han participants (4.3%). Urbanization, the number of sex partners, and PAP history appear as risk factors for HPV infection in Han, but not in Mongolian women. The region is thus an important example that epidemiology of HPV is more related to cultural and ethnical factors and not to geography per se. History ------- In 1972, the association of the human papillomaviruses with skin cancer in epidermodysplasia verruciformis was proposed by Stefania Jabłońska in Poland. In 1978, Jabłońska and Gerard Orth at the Pasteur Institute discovered HPV-5 in skin cancer. In 1976 Harald zur Hausen published the hypothesis that human papilloma virus plays an important role in the cause of cervical cancer. In 1983 and 1984 zur Hausen and his collaborators identified HPV16 and HPV18 in cervical cancer. The HeLa cell line contains extra DNA in its genome that originated from HPV type 18. Research -------- The Ludwig-McGill HPV Cohort is one of the world's largest longitudinal studies of the natural history of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and cervical cancer risk. It was established in 1993 by Ludwig Cancer Research and McGill University in Montreal, Canada.

Human papillomavirus infection

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_papillomavirus_infection

**Perlis** (Kedah Malay (Perlis dialect): *Peghelih*), also known by its honorific title **Perlis Indera Kayangan**, is the smallest and northernmost state in Malaysia by area and population. Located on the northwest coast of Peninsular Malaysia, it borders the Thai provinces of Satun and Songkhla to the north and the Malaysian state of Kedah to the south. It was called **Palit** (Thai: ปะลิส) by the Siamese when it was under their influence. Perlis had a population of 227,025 as of the 2010 census. The capital of Perlis is Kangar, and the royal capital is Arau. Another important town is Padang Besar, at the Malaysia–Thailand border and Kuala Perlis, the ferry town to Langkawi. The main port and ferry terminal is at the small village of Kuala Perlis, linking mostly to Langkawi Island. Another important lately developed area is Pauh Putra within subdistrict of Kurong Anai which houses the main campus of Malaysia University of Perlis and Politeknik Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin. Perlis has a famous snake farm and research centre at Sungai Batu Pahat. Perlis State Park and Gua Kelam are among the popular tourist attractions. Etymology --------- The origin of the toponym 'Perlis' is vague. However, there are several theories: * According to a Malaysian historian, Mohd Yusuf bin Adil, the name comes from the Thai phrase *"phrao loi"* (Southern Thai: พร้าวลอย) which means *kelapa hanyut* (coconut washed ashore) since there were many coconuts found on the shores of Kuala Perlis. The phrase has been shortened by locals until it sounded like *"pereleh"* or Perlis. * It has also been suggested Perlis may be a shortened form of a Malay word *"peroleh"* (obtain) as the state was a "gift" from Kedah, since it was a part of Kedah before becoming a state on its own. * According to *Negeri Perlis Indera Kayangan: Sejarah Pembentukan Sebuah Negeri Berdaulat* by Ahmad Ismail, the name comes from a tree of the same name, which may have gone extinct. * Some researches suggests the name is derived from a Northern Malay dialect word *"perelus"* which roughly translates as "foot falling into a crack", since Perlis is said to have a wide land filled with mud, and the people's feet may sink into the mud. * Additional suggestions include being named after someone, or derived from the French word *"perlite"* which means "rock" due to a huge rock near Sungai Perlis. The honorific **Indera Kayangan** was given by Tuanku Raja Syed Hussin Jamalullail (who ruled Perlis from 1843 to 1873) after the royal town of Indera Kayangan II (1797 until 1813) he was raised in now located in Kampung Langgar, Kayang within the Kuala Perlis area. However, this epithet became less popular under the recommendation of Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin Putra Jamalullail in 2015, in which according to him is inline with the official singular name given in the state constitution his father signed without any long epithets in general "which is related to deities, or any 'Darul'..."". History ------- Perlis was originally part of Kedah, although it occasionally came under rule by Siam or Aceh. Perlis was historically an important realm within the Kingdom of Kedah. Sultan Muhyiddin of Kedah made his capital in Kota Sena, while Sultan Dhiauddin II made Kota Indera Kayangan his capital. Sultan Dhiauddin II of Kedah was honorifically titled as **Raja Muda of Perlis and Kedah**, akin to the title Prince of Wales in the United Kingdom. During his reign as the Sultan of Kedah, he oversaw a treaty with George Leith to cede Province Wellesley to Penang. He was titled as Raja Muda of Perlis and Kedah. This fact depicted Perlis was a special realm within the Kedah sultanate. Sultan Dhiauddin then made Syed Harun Jamalullail, father of the future first Raja of Perlis as chieftain of Arau as a wedding gift to his marriage with his daughter, Tengku Sofiah. Syed Harun's descendant will eventually become deputy governor (1839) and Raja of Perlis. After the Siamese conquered Kedah in 1821, the British felt their interests in Perak to be threatened. This resulted in the 1826 Burney and Low Treaties formalising relations between the two Malay states and Siam, their nominal overlord. In the Burney Treaty, the exiled Sultan of Kedah, Ahmad Tajuddin was not restored to his throne. Sultan Ahmad and his armed supporters then fought in a series of war known as **Perang Musuh Bisik** for his restoration over twelve years (1830–1842). In 1842, the Sultan finally agreed to accept Siamese terms and was restored to his throne of Kedah. However, Siam separated Perlis into a separate principality directly vassal to Bangkok. The Siamese made Raja Long Krok as the Governor of Siam in Perlis while Syed (or Sayyid) Hussain Jamalullail as deputy governor. Finally, on 20 May 1843, the Siamese made Sayyid Hussain Jamalulail, the paternal grandson of a Hadhrami Arab Sayyid immigrant and maternal grandson of the Sultan of Kedah, became the first Raja of Perlis. This made Perlis as a sovereign state. His descendants still rule Perlis, but as *rajas*, instead of as *sultans*. In 1897, Kedah led by its Prime Minister, Wan Mat Saman started effort to end the sovereignty of Perlis as what had become to the Kingdom of Kubang Pasu, which was returned to Kedah crown. After several tense occasions and disputes, Siamese King Chulalongkorn sided with Perlis. Perlis also had several disputes with the state of Setul before the 1900s. As with Kedah, the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 forced Siam to relinquish its southern Malay vassal states of Kelantan, Trengganu, and Monthon Syburi (comprising Kedah, Perlis, and Satun (which remained with Thailand)) to Great Britain. The British installed a Resident in the Perlis Royal capital of Arau. Perlis was returned to Siam in World War II as a reward for Siam's alliance with Japan, but this brief annexation ended with the Japanese surrender. After World War II, Perlis returned to British rule until it became part of the Malayan Union, then the Federation of Malaya in 1957, and lastly, Malaysia in 1963. Since 2000, the Raja or hereditary monarch has been Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin. He was the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia from 13 December 2001 to 12 December 2006. Tuanku Syed Faizuddin Putra was the Regent of Perlis during the five-year period when Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin was Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The Chief Executive or *Menteri Besar* is currently Mohd. Shukri Ramli of the Perikatan Nasional. Geography --------- Government ---------- Perlis is ruled by the House of Jamalullail. Unlike other Malaysian monarchical states, in which the ruler is a "Sultan", the Perlis ruler is called the "Raja". Legislative power in the state is exercised by the Perlis State Legislative Assembly, a unicameral chamber in which all 15 seats are elected from single-member constituencies. After the 2022 state election, the Perikatan Nasional coalition, led by the Malaysian Islamic Party, holds 14 of the assembly's 15 seats. Raja appoints Menteri Besar (Chief Minister) and an Executive Council (akin to a Cabinet). Generally, the chief minister is a member of the legislative assembly who can command a majority on the assembly's floor. The Raja's appointment powers were at the centre of a brief constitutional crisis in the state after the 2008 general election. The Raja sought to appoint a Barisan Nasional assemblyman, Md Isa Sabu, as chief Minister despite Prime Minister Abdullah Badawi, who led the national coalition, nominating the incumbent Shahidan Kassim to continue in office. The Raja prevailed, and swore in Md Isa, who proceeded to serve a full term as chief minister. The state elects three members of the federal House of Representatives, for the constituencies of Arau, Kangar and Padang Besar. After the 2022 general elections, all three seats are held by Perikatan Nasional. The state also has two federal senators; like all other states, the senators are not directly elected but appointed by a vote of the state legislative assembly. Perlis, being the smallest state by area in Malaysia, is not divided into administrative districts. Nevertheless, it is still divided into several mukims (communes), namely: * Abi * Arau * Beseri * Chuping * Jejawi * Kaki Bukit * Kayang * Kechor * Kuala Perlis * Kurong Anai * Kurong Batang * Ngulang * Oran * Padang Pauh * Paya * Padang Siding * Sanglang * Sena * Seriab * Sungai Adam * Titi Tinggi (Padang Besar) * Utan Aji; and * Wang Bintong | | | --- | | | | Affiliation | Coalition/Party Leader | Status | Seats | | 2022 election | Current | |   | Perikatan Nasional | Mohd Shukri Ramli | Government | 14 | 14 | |   | Pakatan Harapan | Gan Ay Ling | Opposition | 1 | 1 | | Total | 15 | 15 | | Government majority | 9 | 9 | Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1970 | 121,062 | —     | | 1980 | 144,782 | +19.6% | | 1991 | 183,824 | +27.0% | | 2000 | 198,288 | +7.9% | | 2010 | 225,630 | +13.8% | | 2020 | 284,885 | +26.3% | | | | Source: | ### Religion | Religion in Perlis – 2010 Census | | --- | | religion | | percent | | Islam |   | 87.9% | | Buddhism |   | 10.0% | | Hinduism |   | 0.8% | | Christianity |   | 0.6% | | Chinese Ethnic Religion |   | 0.2% | | No Religion |   | 0.2% | | Unknown / None |   | 0.2% | | Others |   | 0.1% | As of 2010 the population of Perlis is 87.9% Muslim, 10.0% Buddhist, 0.8% Hindu, 0.6% Christian, 0.2% Taoist or Chinese religion followers, 0.2% non-religious, 0.2% unknown / none, and 0.1% followers of other religions. The Malaysian constitution strictly defines what makes a "Malay", considering Malays those who are Muslim, speak Malay regularly, practise Malay customs, and lived in or have ancestors from Brunei, Malaysia and Singapore. Statistics from the 2010 Census indicate that 83.6% of the Chinese population identify as Buddhist, with significant numbers of adherents following Taoism (3.4%) and Christianity (11.1%), along with small Hui-Muslim populations in areas like Penang. The majority of the Indian population follow Hinduism (86.2%), with a significant minority identifying as Christians (6.0%) or Muslims (4.1%). Christianity is the predominant religion of the non-Malay bumiputera community (46.5%) with an additional 40.4% identifying as Muslims. ### Languages Majority of Perlis' population speaks Perlis Malay which is a sub-dialect of Kedah Malay but also has its own unique features compared to those of neighbouring Kedah. Besides that there is also Hokkien, Mandarin, English, Tamil, Malayalam as well as small numbers of Southern Thai speakers, mostly ethnic Malaysian Siamese. However, large numbers of Perlisians regardless of ethnic origin mainly uses Perlis Malay as a lingua franca. In particular, Perlis is well known for its distinctive Hokkien language, known as Penang Hokkien. Hokkien serves as the lingua franca among the various ethnic Chinese communities in Perlis. Tourism ------- Some of the tourist attractions in Perlis are: * Perlis State Park – Situated on the longest continuous range of limestone hills in the country called the Nakawan Range, the park consists of Mata Ayer Forest Reserve and Wang Mu Forest Reserve with a total area of about 5000 ha. Some of the attractions in the park include caves such as the famed Gua Kelam and Gua Wang Burma, which is located within the 500-year-old Setul limestone formation. + Gua Kelam – A limestone cave that is one of the most visited destinations in Perlis. Located about 33 km north of Kangar, the capital of Perlis, near Kaki Bukit. * Perlis Snake Park - * Kuala Perlis – One of the popular activities here is fishing. There are also many restaurants that offer fresh seafood that is relatively cheaper than in the capital city.The town is also a transit point for tourists to be ferried to Langkawi. * Kota Kayang Museum - * Melati Lake Gardens - * Padang Besar - Located near the Malaysia-Thai border, the town is famed for its duty-free shopping scene. Recreation ---------- There is an outdoor rock climbing in the limestone hills of Bukit Keteri with over 50 sport climbing routes that are bolted by the world's climbing team Mammut & Camp5; the crags split into 2 next to each other and the rockfaces rising up about 350 m. The range of difficulty is from beginner to expert and many varieties of climbs are available. See also -------- * Breakdown of State Seats Representatives elected 2018

Perlis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perlis

The **mass media** is a diverse array of media that reach a large audience via mass communication. Broadcast media transmit information electronically via media such as films, radio, recorded music, or television. Digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication. Internet media comprise such services as email, social media sites, websites, and Internet-based radio and television. Many other mass media outlets have an additional presence on the web, by such means as linking to or running TV ads online, or distributing QR codes in outdoor or print media to direct mobile users to a website. In this way, they can use the easy accessibility and outreach capabilities the Internet affords, as thereby easily broadcast information throughout many different regions of the world simultaneously and cost-efficiently. **Outdoor media** transmit information via such media as AR advertising; billboards; blimps; flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes); placards or kiosks placed inside and outside buses, commercial buildings, shops, sports stadiums, subway cars, or trains; signs; or skywriting. **Print media** transmit information via physical objects, such as books, comics, magazines, newspapers, or pamphlets. Event organising and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media. The organisations that control these technologies, such as movie studios, publishing companies, and radio and television stations, are also known as the mass media.[*need quotation to verify*] Issues with definition ---------------------- In the late 20th century, mass media could be classified into eight mass media industries: books, the Internet, magazines, movies, newspapers, radio, recordings and television. The explosion of digital communication technology in the late 20th and early 21st centuries made prominent the question: what forms of media should be classified as "mass media"? For example, it is controversial whether to include mobile phones and video games (such as MMORPGs) in the definition. In the early 2000s, a classification called the "seven mass media" came into use. In order of introduction, they are: 1. Print (books, pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, posters, etc.) from the late 15th century 2. Recordings (gramophone records, magnetic tapes, cassettes, cartridges, CDs and DVDs) from the late 19th century 3. Cinema from about 1900 4. Radio from about 1910 5. Television from about 1950 6. The Internet from about 1990 7. Mobile phones from about 2000 Each mass medium has its own content types, creative artists, technicians and business models. For example, the Internet includes blogs, podcasts, web sites and various other technologies built atop the general distribution network. The sixth and seventh media, Internet and mobile phones, are often referred to collectively as digital media; and the fourth and fifth, radio and TV, as broadcast media. Some argue that video games have developed into a distinct mass form of media. While a telephone is a two-way communication device, mass media communicates to a large group. In addition, the telephone has transformed into a cell phone which is equipped with Internet access. A question arises whether this makes cell phones a mass medium or simply a device used to access a mass medium (the Internet). There is currently a system by which marketers and advertisers are able to tap into satellites, and broadcast commercials and advertisements directly to cell phones, unsolicited by the phone's user. This transmission of mass advertising to millions of people is another form of mass communication. Video games may also be evolving into a mass medium. Video games (for example, massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), such as *RuneScape*) provide a common gaming experience to millions of users across the globe and convey the same messages and ideologies to all their users. Users sometimes share the experience with one another by playing online. Excluding the Internet, however, it is questionable whether players of video games are sharing a common experience when they play the game individually. It is possible to discuss in great detail the events of a video game with a friend one has never played with, because the experience is identical to each. The question, then, is whether this is a form of mass communication. ### Characteristics Five characteristics of mass communication have been identified by sociologist John Thompson of Cambridge University: * "[C]omprises both technical and institutional methods of production and distribution" – This is evident throughout the history of mass media, from print to the Internet, each suitable for commercial utility * Involves the "commodification of symbolic forms" – as the production of materials relies on its ability to manufacture and sell large quantities of the work; as radio stations rely on their time sold to advertisements, so too newspapers rely on their space for the same reasons * "[S]eparate contexts between the production and reception of information" * Its "reach to those 'far removed' in time and space, in comparison to the producers" * "[I]nformation distribution" – a "one to many" form of communication, whereby products are mass-produced and disseminated to a great quantity of audiences ### Mass vs. mainstream and alternative The term "mass media" is sometimes erroneously used as a synonym for "mainstream media". Mainstream media are distinguished from alternative media by their content and point of view. Alternative media are also "mass media" outlets in the sense that they use technology capable of reaching many people, even if the audience is often smaller than the mainstream. In common usage, the term "mass" denotes not that a given number of individuals receives the products, but rather that the products are available in principle to a plurality of recipients. Forms of mass media ------------------- ### Broadcast The sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a schedule. With all technological endeavours a number of technical terms and slang have developed. Radio and television programs are distributed over frequency bands which are highly regulated in the United States. Such regulation includes determination of the width of the bands, range, licensing, types of receivers and transmitters used, and acceptable content. Cable television programs are often broadcast simultaneously with radio and television programs, but have a more limited audience. By coding signals and requiring a cable converter box at individual recipients' locations, cable also enables subscription-based channels and pay-per-view services. A broadcasting organisation may broadcast several programs simultaneously, through several channels (frequencies), for example BBC One and Two. On the other hand, two or more organisations may share a channel and each use it during a fixed part of the day, such as the Cartoon Network/Adult Swim. Digital radio and digital television may also transmit multiplexed programming, with several channels compressed into one ensemble. When broadcasting is done via the Internet the term webcasting is often used. In 2004, a new phenomenon occurred when a number of technologies combined to produce podcasting. Podcasting is an asynchronous broadcast/narrowcast medium. Adam Curry and his associates, the *Podshow*, are principal proponents of podcasting. ### Film The term '**film'** encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in general. The name comes from the photographic film (also called film stock), historically the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms for film exist, such as *motion pictures* (or just *pictures* and "picture"), *the silver screen*, *photoplays*, *the cinema*, *picture shows*, *flicks* and, most commonly, *movies*. Films are produced by recording people and objects with cameras, or by creating them using animation techniques or special effects. Films comprise a series of individual frames, but when these images are shown in rapid succession, an illusion of motion is created. Flickering between frames is not seen because of an effect known as persistence of vision, whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. Also of relevance is what causes the perception of motion: a psychological effect identified as beta movement. Film has emerged as an important art form. They entertain, educate, enlighten and inspire audiences. Any film can become a worldwide attraction, especially with the addition of dubbing or subtitles that translate the original language. ### Video games A video game is a computer-controlled game in which a video display, such as a monitor or television set, is the primary feedback device. The term "computer game" also includes games which display only text or which use other methods, such as sound or vibration, as their primary feedback device. There always must also be some sort of input device, usually in the form of button/joystick combinations (on arcade games), a keyboard and mouse/trackball combination (computer games), a controller (console games), or a combination of any of the above. Also, more esoteric devices have been used for input, e.g., the player's motion. Usually there are rules and goals, but in more open-ended games the player may be free to do whatever they like within the confines of the virtual universe. In common usage, an "arcade game" refers to a game designed to be played in an establishment in which patrons pay to play on a per-use basis. A "computer game" or "PC game" refers to a game that is played on a personal computer. A "Console game" refers to one that is played on a device specifically designed for the use of such, while interfacing with a standard television set. A "video game" (or "videogame") has evolved into a catchall phrase that encompasses the aforementioned along with any game made for any other device, including, but not limited to, advanced calculators, mobile phones, PDAs, etc. ### Audio recording and reproduction Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical or mechanical re-creation or amplification of sound, often as music. This involves the use of audio equipment such as microphones, recording devices and loudspeakers. From early beginnings with the invention of the phonograph using purely mechanical techniques, the field has advanced with the invention of electrical recording, the mass production of the 78 record, the magnetic wire recorder followed by the tape recorder, the vinyl LP record. The invention of the compact cassette in the 1960s, followed by Sony's Walkman, gave a major boost to the mass distribution of music recordings, and the invention of digital recording and the compact disc in 1983 brought massive improvements in ruggedness and quality. The most recent developments have been in digital audio players. An album is a collection of related audio recordings, released together to the public, usually commercially. The term record album originated from the fact that 78 RPM phonograph disc records were kept together in a book resembling a photo album. The first collection of records to be called an "album" was Tchaikovsky's *Nutcracker Suite*, release in April 1909 as a four-disc set by Odeon Records. It retailed for 16 shillings—about £15 in modern currency. A music video (also promo) is a short film or video that accompanies a complete piece of music, most commonly a song. Modern music videos were primarily made and used as a marketing device intended to promote the sale of music recordings. Although the origins of music videos go back much further, they came into their own in the 1980s, when Music Television's format was based on them. In the 1980s, the term "rock video" was often used to describe this form of entertainment, although the term has fallen into disuse. Music videos can accommodate all styles of filmmaking, including animation, live-action films, documentaries, and non-narrative, abstract film. ### Internet The Internet (also known simply as "the Net" or less precisely as "the Web") is a more interactive medium of mass media, and can be briefly described as "a network of networks". Specifically, it is the worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business and governmental networks, which together carry various information and services, such as email, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web. Contrary to some common usage, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not synonymous: the Internet is the system of interconnected *computer networks*, linked by copper wires, fibre-optic cables, wireless connections etc.; the Web is the contents, or the interconnected *documents*, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. The World Wide Web is accessible through the Internet, along with many other services including e-mail, file sharing and others described below. Toward the end of the 20th century, the advent of the World Wide Web marked the first era in which most individuals could have a means of exposure on a scale comparable to that of mass media. Anyone with a web site has the potential to address a global audience, although serving to high levels of web traffic is still relatively expensive. It is possible that the rise of peer-to-peer technologies may have begun the process of making the cost of bandwidth manageable. Although a vast amount of information, imagery, and commentary (i.e. "content") has been made available, it is often difficult to determine the authenticity and reliability of information contained in web pages (in many cases, self-published). The invention of the Internet has also allowed breaking news stories to reach around the globe within minutes. This rapid growth of instantaneous, decentralised communication is often deemed likely to change mass media and its relationship to society. "Cross-media" means the idea of distributing the same message through different media channels. A similar idea is expressed in the news industry as "convergence". Many authors understand cross-media publishing to be the ability to publish in both print and on the web without manual conversion effort. An increasing number of wireless devices with mutually incompatible data and screen formats make it even more difficult to achieve the objective "create once, publish many". The Internet is quickly becoming the center of mass media. Everything is becoming accessible via the internet. Rather than picking up a newspaper, or watching the 10 o'clock news, people can log onto the internet to get the news they want, when they want it. For example, many workers listen to the radio through the Internet while sitting at their desk. Even the education system relies on the Internet. Teachers can contact the entire class by sending one e-mail. They may have web pages on which students can get another copy of the class outline or assignments. Some classes have class blogs in which students are required to post weekly, with students graded on their contributions. #### Blogs (web logs) Blogging, too, has become a pervasive form of media. A blog is a website, usually maintained by an individual, with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or interactive media such as images or video. Entries are commonly displayed in reverse chronological order, with most recent posts shown on top. Many blogs provide commentary or news on a particular subject; others function as more personal online diaries. A typical blog combines text, images and other graphics, and links to other blogs, web pages, and related media. The ability for readers to leave comments in an interactive format is an important part of many blogs. Most blogs are primarily textual, although some focus on art (artlog), photographs (photoblog), sketchblog, videos (vlog), music (MP3 blog) and audio (podcasting), are part of a wider network of social media. Microblogging is another type of blogging which consists of blogs with very short posts. #### RSS feeds RSS is a format for syndicating news and the content of news-like sites, including major news sites like *Wired*, news-oriented community sites like Slashdot, and personal blogs. It is a family of Web feed formats used to publish frequently updated content such as blog entries, news headlines, and podcasts. An RSS document (which is called a "feed" or "web feed" or "channel") contains either a summary of content from an associated web site or the full text. RSS makes it possible for people to keep up with web sites in an automated manner that can be piped into special programs or filtered displays. #### Podcast A podcast is a series of digital-media files which are distributed over the Internet using syndication feeds for playback on portable media players and computers. The term podcast, like broadcast, can refer either to the series of content itself or to the method by which it is syndicated; the latter is also called podcasting. The host or author of a podcast is often called a podcaster. #### Mobile Mobile phones were introduced in Japan in 1979 but became a mass media only in 1998 when the first downloadable ringing tones were introduced in Finland. Soon most forms of media content were introduced on mobile phones, tablets and other portable devices, and today the total value of media consumed on mobile vastly exceeds that of internet content, and was worth over $31 billion in 2007 (source Informa). The mobile media content includes over $8 billion worth of mobile music (ringing tones, ringback tones, truetones, MP3 files, karaoke, music videos, music streaming services etc.); over $5 billion worth of mobile gaming; and various news, entertainment and advertising services. In Japan mobile phone books are so popular that five of the ten best-selling printed books were originally released as mobile phone books. Similar to the internet, mobile is also an interactive media, but has far wider reach, with 3.3 billion mobile phone users at the end of 2007 to 1.3 billion internet users (source ITU). Like email on the internet, the top application on mobile is also a personal messaging service, but SMS text messaging is used by over 2.4 billion people. Practically all internet services and applications exist or have similar cousins on mobile, from search to multiplayer games to virtual worlds to blogs. Mobile has several unique benefits which many mobile media pundits claim make mobile a more powerful media than either TV or the internet, starting with mobile being permanently carried and always connected. Mobile has the best audience accuracy and is the only mass media with a built-in payment channel available to every user without any credit cards or PayPal accounts or even an age limit. Mobile is often called the 7th Mass Medium and either the fourth screen (if counting cinema, TV and PC screens) or the third screen (counting only TV and PC). ### Print media #### Magazine A magazine is a periodical publication containing a variety of articles, generally financed by advertising or purchase by readers. Magazines are typically published weekly, biweekly, monthly, bimonthly or quarterly, with a date on the cover that is in advance of the date it is actually published. They are often printed in color on coated paper, and are bound with a soft cover. Magazines fall into two broad categories: consumer magazines and business magazines. In practice, magazines are a subset of periodicals, distinct from those periodicals produced by scientific, artistic, academic or special interest publishers which are subscription-only, more expensive, narrowly limited in circulation, and often have little or no advertising. Magazines can be classified as: * General interest magazines (e.g. *Frontline*, *India Today*, *The Week*, *The Sunday Times* etc.) * Special interest magazines (women's, sports, business, scuba diving, etc.) #### Newspaper A newspaper is a publication containing news and information and advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called newsprint. It may be general or special interest, most often published daily or weekly. The most important function of newspapers is to inform the public of significant events. Local newspapers inform local communities and include advertisements from local businesses and services, while national newspapers tend to focus on a theme, which can be exampled with *The Wall Street Journal* as they offer news on finance and business related-topics. The first printed newspaper was published in 1605, and the form has thrived even in the face of competition from technologies such as radio and television. Recent developments on the Internet are posing major threats to its business model, however. Paid circulation is declining in most countries, and advertising revenue, which makes up the bulk of a newspaper's income, is shifting from print to online; some commentators, nevertheless, point out that historically new media such as radio and television did not entirely supplant existing. The internet has challenged the press as an alternative source of information and opinion but has also provided a new platform for newspaper organisations to reach new audiences. According to the World Trends Report, between 2012 and 2016, print newspaper circulation continued to fall in almost all regions, with the exception of Asia and the Pacific, where the dramatic increase in sales in a few select countries has offset falls in historically strong Asian markets such as Japan and the Republic of Korea. Most notably, between 2012 and 2016, India's print circulation grew by 89 per cent. ### Outdoor media Outdoor media is a form of mass media which comprises billboards, signs, placards placed inside and outside commercial buildings/objects like shops/buses, flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes), blimps, skywriting, AR advertising. Many commercial advertisers use this form of mass media when advertising in sports stadiums. Tobacco and alcohol manufacturers used billboards and other outdoor media extensively. However, in 1998, the Master Settlement Agreement between the US and the tobacco industries prohibited the billboard advertising of cigarettes. In a 1994 Chicago-based study, Diana Hackbarth and her colleagues revealed how tobacco- and alcohol-based billboards were concentrated in poor neighbourhoods. In other urban centers, alcohol and tobacco billboards were much more concentrated in African-American neighbourhoods than in white neighbourhoods. Purposes -------- Mass media encompasses much more than just news, although it is sometimes misunderstood in this way. It can be used for various purposes: * Advocacy, both for business and social concerns. This can include advertising, marketing, propaganda, public relations and political communication. * Entertainment, traditionally through performances of acting, music and TV shows along with light reading; since the late 20th century also through video and computer games. * Public service announcements and emergency alerts (that can be used as political device to communicate propaganda to the public). Professions involving mass media -------------------------------- ### Journalism Journalism is the discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying and presenting information regarding current events, trends, issues and people. Those who practice journalism are known as journalists. News-oriented journalism is sometimes described as the "first rough draft of history" (attributed to Phil Graham), because journalists often record important events, producing news articles on short deadlines. While under pressure to be first with their stories, news media organisations usually edit and proofread their reports prior to publication, adhering to each organisation's standards of accuracy, quality and style. Many news organisation claim proud traditions of holding government officials and institutions accountable to the public, while media critics have raised questions about holding the press itself accountable to the standards of professional journalism. ### Public relations Public relations is the art and science of managing communication between an organisation and its key publics to build, manage and sustain its positive image. Examples include: * Corporations use marketing public relations to convey information about the products they manufacture or services they provide to potential customers to support their direct sales efforts. Typically, they support sales in the short and long term, establishing and burnishing the corporation's branding for a strong, ongoing market. * Corporations also use public relations as a vehicle to reach legislators and other politicians, seeking favorable tax, regulatory, and other treatment, and they may use public relations to portray themselves as enlightened employers, in support of human-resources recruiting programs. * Nonprofit organisations, including schools and universities, hospitals, and human and social service agencies, use public relations in support of awareness programs, fund-raising programs, staff recruiting, and to increase patronage of their services. * Politicians use public relations to attract votes and raise money, and when successful at the ballot box, to promote and defend their service in office, with an eye to the next election or, at career's end, to their legacy. ### Publishing Publishing is the industry concerned with the production of literature or information – the activity of making information available for public view. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books and newspapers. With the advent of digital information systems and the Internet, the scope of publishing has expanded to include websites, blogs and the like. As a business, publishing includes the development, marketing, production, and distribution of newspapers, magazines, books, literary works, musical works, software and other works dealing with information. Publication is also important as a legal concept; (1) as the process of giving formal notice to the world of a significant intention, for example, to marry or enter bankruptcy, and; (2) as the essential precondition of being able to claim defamation; that is, the alleged libel must have been published. #### Software publishing A software publisher is a publishing company in the software industry between the developer and the distributor. In some companies, two or all three of these roles may be combined (and indeed, may reside in a single person, especially in the case of shareware). Software publishers often license software from developers with specific limitations, such as a time limit or geographical region. The terms of licensing vary enormously, and are typically secret. Developers may use publishers to reach larger or foreign markets, or to avoid focussing on marketing. Or publishers may use developers to create software to meet a market need that the publisher has identified. ### Internet-based professions A YouTuber is anyone who has made their fame from creating and promoting videos on the public video-sharing site, YouTube. Many YouTube celebrities have made a profession from their site through sponsorships, advertisements, product placement, and network support. History ------- The history of mass media can be traced back to the days when dramas were performed in various ancient cultures. This was the first time when a form of media was "broadcast" to a wider audience. The first dated printed book known is the "Diamond Sutra", printed in China in 868 AD, although it is clear that books were printed earlier. Movable clay type was invented in 1041 in China. However, due to the slow spread of literacy to the masses in China, and the relatively high cost of paper there, the earliest printed mass-medium was probably European popular prints from about 1400. Although these were produced in huge numbers, very few early examples survive, and even most known to be printed before about 1600 have not survived. The term "mass media" was coined with the creation of print media, which is notable for being the first example of mass media, as we use the term today. This form of media started in Europe in the Middle Ages. Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press allowed the mass production of books to sweep the nation. He printed the first book, a Latin Bible, on a printing press with movable type in 1453. The invention of the printing press gave rise to some of the first forms of mass communication, by enabling the publication of books and newspapers on a scale much larger than was previously possible. The invention also transformed the way the world received printed materials, although books remained too expensive really to be called a mass-medium for at least a century after that. Newspapers developed from about 1612, with the first example in English in 1620; but they took until the 19th century to reach a mass-audience directly. The first high-circulation newspapers arose in London in the early 1800s, such as *The Times*, and were made possible by the invention of high-speed rotary steam printing presses, and railroads which allowed large-scale distribution over wide geographical areas. The increase in circulation, however, led to a decline in feedback and interactivity from the readership, making newspapers a more one-way medium. The phrase "the media" began to be used in the 1920s. The notion of "mass media" was generally restricted to print media up until the post-Second World War, when radio, television and video were introduced. The audio-visual facilities became very popular, because they provided both information and entertainment, because the colour and sound engaged the viewers/listeners and because it was easier for the general public to passively watch TV or listen to the radio than to actively read. In recent times, the Internet become the latest and most popular mass medium. Information has become readily available through websites, and easily accessible through search engines. One can do many activities at the same time, such as playing games, listening to music and social networking, irrespective of location. Whilst other forms of mass media are restricted in the type of information they can offer, the internet comprises a large percentage of the sum of human knowledge through such things as Google Books. Modern-day mass media includes the internet, mobile phones, blogs, podcasts and RSS feeds. During the 20th century, the growth of mass media was driven by technology, including that which allowed much duplication of material. Physical duplication technologies such as printing, record pressing and film duplication allowed the duplication of books, newspapers and movies at low prices to huge audiences. Radio and television allowed the electronic duplication of information for the first time. Mass media had the economics of linear replication: a single work could make money. An example of Riel and Neil's theory. proportional to the number of copies sold, and as volumes went up, unit costs went down, increasing profit margins further. Vast fortunes were to be made in mass media. In a democratic society, the media can serve the electorate about issues regarding government and corporate entities (see Media influence). Some consider the concentration of media ownership to be a threat to democracy. ### Mergers and acquisitions Between 1985 and 2018, about 76,720 deals have been announced in the media industry. This sums up to an overall value of around US$5,634 billion. There have been three major waves of M&A in the mass media sector (2000, 2007 and 2015), while the most active year in terms of numbers was 2007 with around 3,808 deals. The United States is the most prominent country in media M&A with 41 of the top 50 deals having an acquirer from the United States. The largest deal in history was the acquisition of Time Warner by AOL Inc. for US$164,746.86 million. Influence and sociology ----------------------- **Limited-effects theory**, originally tested in the 1940s and 1950s, considers that because people usually choose what media to interact with based on what they already believe, media exerts a negligible influence. **Class-dominant theory** argues that the media reflects and projects the view of a minority elite, which controls it. **Culturalist theory**, which was developed in the 1980s and 1990s, combines the other two theories and claims that people interact with media to create their own meanings out of the images and messages they receive. This theory states that audience members play an active, rather than passive role in relation to mass media. There is an article that argues 90 percent of all mass media including radio broadcast networks and programing, video news, sports entertainment, and others are owned by 6 major companies (GE, News-Corp, Disney, Viacom, Time Warner and CBS). According to Morris Creative Group, these six companies made over $200 billion in revenue in 2010. More diversity is brewing among many companies, but they have recently merged to form an elite which have the power to control the narrative of stories and alter people's beliefs. In the new media-driven age we live in, marketing has more value than ever before because of the various ways it can be implemented. Advertisements can convince citizens to purchase a specific product or have consumers avoid a particular product. The definition of what is acceptable by society can be heavily dictated by the media in regards to the amount of attention it receives. The documentary *Super Size Me* describes how companies like McDonald's have been sued in the past, the plaintiffs claiming that it was the fault of their liminal and subliminal advertising that "forced" them to purchase the product. The Barbie and Ken dolls of the 1950s are sometimes cited as the main cause for the obsession in modern-day society for women to be skinny and men to be buff. After the attacks of 9/11, the media gave extensive coverage of the event and exposed Osama Bin Laden's guilt for the attack, information they were told by the authorities. This shaped the public opinion to support the war on terrorism, and later, the war on Iraq. A main concern is that due to this extreme power of the mass media, portraying inaccurate information could lead to an immense public concern. In his book *The Commercialization of American Culture*, Matthew P. McAllister says that "a well-developed media system, informing and teaching its citizens, helps democracy move toward its ideal state." In 1997, J. R. Finnegan Jr. and K. Viswanath identified three main effects or functions of mass media: 1. **The Knowledge Gap:** The mass media influences knowledge gaps due to factors including "the extent to which the content is appealing, the degree to which information channels are accessible and desirable, and the amount of social conflict and diversity there is in a community". 2. **Agenda Setting:** People are influenced in how they think about issues due to the selective nature of what media groups choose for public consumption. After publicly disclosing that he had prostate cancer prior to the 2000 New York senatorial election, Rudolph Giuliani, the mayor of New York City (aided by the media) sparked a huge priority elevation of the cancer in people's consciousness. This was because news media began to report on the risks of prostate cancer, which in turn prompted a greater public awareness about the disease and the need for screening. This ability for the media to be able to change how the public thinks and behaves has occurred on other occasions. In mid-1970s when Betty Ford and Happy Rockefeller, wives of the then-President and then-Vice President, respectively, were both diagnosed with breast cancer. J. J. Davis states that "when risks are highlighted in the media, particularly in great detail, the extent of agenda setting is likely to be based on the degree to which a public sense of outrage and threat is provoked". When wanting to set an agenda, framing can be invaluably useful to a mass media organisation. Framing involves "taking a leadership role in the organisation of public discourse about an issue". The media is influenced by the desire for balance in coverage, and the resulting pressures can come from groups with particular political action and advocacy positions. Finnegan and Viswanath say, "groups, institutions and advocates compete to identify problems, to move them onto the public agenda, and to define the issues symbolically" (1997, p. 324). 3. **Cultivation of Perceptions:** The extent to which media exposure shapes audience perceptions over time is known as cultivation. Television is a common experience, especially in places like the United States, to the point where it can be described as a "homogenising agent" (S. W. Littlejohn). However, instead of being merely a result of the TV, the effect is often based on socioeconomic factors. Having a prolonged exposure to TV or movie violence might affect a viewer to the extent where they actively think community violence is a problem, or alternatively find it justifiable. The resulting belief is likely to be different depending on where people live, however. Since the 1950s, when cinema, radio and TV began to be the primary or the only source of information for a larger and larger percentage of the population, these media began to be considered as central instruments of mass control. Up to the point that it emerged the idea that when a country has reached a high level of industrialisation, the country itself "belongs to the person who controls communications." Mass media play a significant role in shaping public perceptions on a variety of important issues, both through the information that is dispensed through them, and through the interpretations they place upon this information. They also play a large role in shaping modern culture, by selecting and portraying a particular set of beliefs, values and traditions (an entire way of life), as reality. That is, by portraying a certain interpretation of reality, they shape reality to be more in line with that interpretation. Mass media also play a crucial role in the spread of civil unrest activities such as anti-government demonstrations, riots and general strikes. That is, the use of radio and television receivers has made the unrest influence among cities not only by the geographic location of cities, but also by proximity within the mass media distribution networks. ### Racism and stereotyping Mass media sources, through theories like framing and agenda-setting, can affect the scope of a story as particular facts and information are highlighted (media influence). This can directly correlate with how individuals may perceive certain groups of people, as the only media coverage a person receives can be very limited and may not reflect the whole story or situation; stories are often covered to reflect a particular perspective to target a specific demographic. According to Stephen Balkaran, an Instructor of Political Science and African American Studies at Central Connecticut State University, mass media has played a large role in the way white Americans perceive African Americans. The media focus on African American in the contexts of crime, drug use, gang violence and other forms of anti-social behavior has resulted in a distorted and harmful public perception of African Americans. In his 1999 article "Mass Media and Racism", Balkaran states: "The media has played a key role in perpetuating the effects of this historical oppression and in contributing to African Americans' continuing status as second-class citizens". This has resulted in an uncertainty among white Americans as to what the genuine nature of African Americans really is. Despite the resulting racial divide, the fact that these people are undeniably American has "raised doubts about the white man's value system". This means that there is a somewhat "troubling suspicion" among some Americans that their white America is tainted by the black influence. Mass media, as well as propaganda, tend to reinforce or introduce stereotypes to the general public. Ethical issues and criticism ---------------------------- Lack of local or specific topic focus is a common criticism of mass media. A mass news media outlet is often forced to cover national and international news due to it having to cater for and be relevant for a wide demographic. As such, it has to skip over many interesting or important local stories because they simply do not interest the large majority of their viewers. An example given by the website WiseGeek is that "the residents of a community might view their fight against development as critical, but the story would only attract the attention of the mass media if the fight became controversial or if precedents of some form were set". The term "mass" suggests that the recipients of media products constitute a vast sea of passive, undifferentiated individuals. This is an image associated with some earlier critiques of "mass culture" and mass society which generally assumed that the development of mass communication has had a largely negative impact on modern social life, creating a kind of bland and homogeneous culture which entertains individuals without challenging them. However, interactive digital media have also been seen to challenge the read-only paradigm of earlier broadcast media. Whilst some[*who?*] refer to the mass media as "opiate of the masses", others[*who?*] argue that is a vital aspect of human societies. By understanding mass media, one is then able to analyse and find a deeper understanding of one's population and culture. This valuable and powerful ability is one reason why the field of media studies is popular. As WiseGeek says, "watching, reading, and interacting with a nation's mass media can provide clues into how people think, especially if a diverse assortment of mass media sources are perused". Since the 1950s, in the countries that have reached a high level of industrialisation, the mass media of cinema, radio and TV have a key role in political power. Contemporary research demonstrates an increasing level of concentration of media ownership, with many media industries already highly concentrated and dominated by a small number of firms. ### Criticism When the study of mass media began the media was compiled of only mass media which is a very different media system than the social media empire of the 21st-century experiences. With this in mind, there are critiques that mass media no longer exists, or at least that it does not exist in the same form as it once did. This original form of mass media put filters on what the general public would be exposed to in regards to "news" something that is harder to do in a society of social media. Theorist Lance Bennett explains that excluding a few major events in recent history, it is uncommon for a group big enough to be labeled a mass, to be watching the same news via the same medium of mass production. Bennett's critique of 21st-century mass media argues that today it is more common for a group of people to be receiving different news stories, from completely different sources, and thus, mass media has been re-invented. As discussed above, filters would have been applied to original mass medias when the journalists decided what would or would not be printed. Social media is a large contributor to the change from mass media to a new paradigm because through social media what is mass communication and what is interpersonal communication is confused. Interpersonal/niche communication is an exchange of information and information in a specific genre. In this form of communication, smaller groups of people are consuming news/information/opinions. In contrast, mass media in its original form is not restricted by genre and it is being consumed by the masses. See also -------- * Commercial broadcasting * Digital rights management * History of journalism * History of newspaper publishing * Media bias * Media echo chamber * Media regulation * Media-system dependency * Mediatization (media) * State media Sources -------  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from *World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018​*, 202, UNESCO. Further reading --------------- * Blanchard, Margaret A. (1998). *History of the mass media in the United States: an encyclopedia*. Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 978-1-57958-012-4. * Bösch, Frank. *Mass Media and Historical Change: Germany in International Perspective, 1400 to the Present* (Berghahn, 2015). 212 pp. online review * Cull, Nicholas John, David Culbert and David Welch, eds. *Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present* (2003) 479 pp; worldwide coverage * Dauber, Cori Elizabeth. "The shots seen 'round the world: The impact of the images of Mogadishu on American military operations." *Rhetoric & Public Affairs* 4.4 (2001): 653–687 * Folkerts, Jean and Dwight Teeter, eds. *Voices of a Nation: A History of Mass Media in the United States* (5th Edition, 2008) * Fourie, Pieter J. *Media Studies: Media History, Media and Society* (2008) * Graber, Doris A., and Johanna Dunaway. *Mass media and American politics* (CQ Press, 2017) * Martin, James B. (2002). *Mass Media: a bibliography with indexes*. Nova. ISBN 978-1-59033-262-7. * Paneth, Donald, ed. *The Encyclopedia of American journalism* (1983) online * Ross, Corey. *Mass Communications, Society, and Politics from the Empire to the Third Reich* (Oxford University press 2010) 448 pp, on Germany * Vaughn, Stephen L., ed. *Encyclopedia of American Journalism* (2007) online * Wilke, Jürgen (2011). *Media Genres*. Institute of European History. **In languages other than English** * Hacker, Violaine. "Citoyenneté culturelle et politique européenne des médias: entre compétitivité et promotion des valeurs", *Nations, cultures et entreprises en Europe,* sous la direction de Gilles Rouet, Collection Local et Global, L’Harmattan, Paris, pp. 163–84

Mass media

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media

**Boötes** (/boʊˈoʊtiːz/ *boh-OH-teez*) is a constellation in the northern sky, located between 0° and +60° declination, and 13 and 16 hours of right ascension on the celestial sphere. The name comes from Latin: *Boōtēs*, which comes from Greek: Βοώτης, translit. **Boṓtēs** 'herdsman' or 'plowman' (literally, 'ox-driver'; from βοῦς *boûs* 'cow'). One of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, Boötes is now one of the 88 modern constellations. It contains the fourth-brightest star in the night sky, the orange giant Arcturus. Epsilon Boötis, or Izar, is a colourful multiple star popular with amateur astronomers. Boötes is home to many other bright stars, including eight above the fourth magnitude and an additional 21 above the fifth magnitude, making a total of 29 stars easily visible to the naked eye. History and mythology --------------------- In ancient Babylon, the stars of Boötes were known as SHU.PA. They were apparently depicted as the god Enlil, who was the leader of the Babylonian pantheon and special patron of farmers. Boötes may have been represented by the animal foreleg constellation in ancient Egypt, resembling that of an ox sufficiently to have been originally proposed as the "foreleg of ox" by Berio. Homer mentions Boötes in the *Odyssey* as a celestial reference for navigation, describing it as "late-setting" or "slow to set". Exactly whom Boötes is supposed to represent in Greek mythology is not clear. According to one version, he was a son of Demeter, Philomenus, twin brother of Plutus, a plowman who drove the oxen in the constellation Ursa Major. This agrees with the constellation's name. The ancient Greeks saw the asterism now called the "Big Dipper" or "Plough" as a cart with oxen. Some myths say that Boötes invented the plow and was memorialized for his ingenuity as a constellation. Another myth associated with Boötes by Hyginus is that of Icarius, who was schooled as a grape farmer and winemaker by Dionysus. Icarius made wine so strong that those who drank it appeared poisoned, which caused shepherds to avenge their supposedly poisoned friends by killing Icarius. Maera, Icarius' dog, brought his daughter Erigone to her father's body, whereupon both she and the dog committed suicide. Zeus then chose to honor all three by placing them in the sky as constellations: Icarius as Boötes, Erigone as Virgo, and Maera as Canis Major or Canis Minor. Following another reading, the constellation is identified with Arcas and also referred to as Arcas and Arcturus, son of Zeus and Callisto. Arcas was brought up by his maternal grandfather Lycaon, to whom one day Zeus went and had a meal. To verify that the guest was really the king of the gods, Lycaon killed his grandson and prepared a meal made from his flesh. Zeus noticed and became very angry, transforming Lycaon into a wolf and giving life back to his son. In the meantime Callisto had been transformed into a she-bear by Zeus's wife Hera, who was angry at Zeus's infidelity. This is corroborated by the Greek name for Boötes, *Arctophylax*, which means "Bear Watcher". Callisto, in the form of a bear was almost killed by her son, who was out hunting. Zeus rescued her, taking her into the sky where she became Ursa Major, "the Great Bear". Arcturus, the name of the constellation's brightest star, comes from the Greek word meaning "guardian of the bear". Sometimes Arcturus is depicted as leading the hunting dogs of nearby Canes Venatici and driving the bears of Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. Several former constellations were formed from stars now included in Boötes. Quadrans Muralis, the Quadrant, was a constellation created near Beta Boötis from faint stars. It was designated in 1795 by Jérôme Lalande, an astronomer who used a quadrant to perform detailed astronometric measurements. Lalande worked with Nicole-Reine Lepaute and others to predict the 1758 return of Halley's Comet. Quadrans Muralis was formed from the stars of eastern Boötes, western Hercules and Draco. It was originally called *Le Mural* by Jean Fortin in his 1795 *Atlas Céleste*; it was not given the name *Quadrans Muralis* until Johann Bode's 1801 *Uranographia*. The constellation was quite faint, with its brightest stars reaching the 5th magnitude. Mons Maenalus, representing the Maenalus mountains, was created by Johannes Hevelius in 1687 at the foot of the constellation's figure. The mountain was named for the son of Lycaon, Maenalus. The mountain, one of Diana's hunting grounds, was also holy to Pan. ### Non-Western astronomy The stars of Boötes were incorporated into many different Chinese constellations. Arcturus was part of the most prominent of these, variously designated as the celestial king's throne (*Tian Wang*) or the Blue Dragon's horn (*Daijiao*); the name *Daijiao*, meaning "great horn", is more common. Arcturus was given such importance in Chinese celestial mythology because of its status marking the beginning of the lunar calendar, as well as its status as the brightest star in the northern night sky. Two constellations flanked *Daijiao*: *Yousheti* to the right and *Zuosheti* to the left; they represented companions that orchestrated the seasons. *Zuosheti* was formed from modern Zeta, Omicron and Pi Boötis, while *Yousheti* was formed from modern Eta, Tau and Upsilon Boötis. *Dixi*, the Emperor's ceremonial banquet mat, was north of Arcturus, consisting of the stars 12, 11 and 9 Boötis. Another northern constellation was *Qigong*, the Seven Dukes, which mostly straddled the Boötes-Hercules border. It included either Delta Boötis or Beta Boötis as its terminus. The other Chinese constellations made up of the stars of Boötes existed in the modern constellation's north; they are all representations of weapons. *Tianqiang*, the spear, was formed from Iota, Kappa and Theta Boötis; *Genghe*, variously representing a lance or shield, was formed from Epsilon, Rho and Sigma Boötis. There were also two weapons made up of a singular star. *Xuange*, the halberd, was represented by Lambda Boötis, and *Zhaoyao*, either the sword or the spear, was represented by Gamma Boötis. Two Chinese constellations have an uncertain placement in Boötes. *Kangchi*, the lake, was placed south of Arcturus, though its specific location is disputed. It may have been placed entirely in Boötes, on either side of the Boötes-Virgo border, or on either side of the Virgo-Libra border. The constellation *Zhouding*, a bronze tripod-mounted container used for food, was sometimes cited as the stars 1, 2 and 6 Boötis. However, it has also been associated with three stars in Coma Berenices. Boötes is also known to Native American cultures. In Yup'ik language, Boötes is *Taluyaq*, literally "fish trap," and the funnel-shaped part of the fish trap is known as *Ilulirat.* Characteristics --------------- Boötes is a constellation bordered by Virgo to the south, Coma Berenices and Canes Venatici to the west, Ursa Major to the northwest, Draco to the northeast, and Hercules, Corona Borealis and Serpens Caput to the east. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "Boo". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 16 segments. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 13h 36.1m and 15h 49.3m , while the declination coordinates stretch from +7.36° to +55.1°. Covering 907 square degrees, Boötes culminates at midnight around 2 May and ranks 13th in area. Colloquially, its pattern of stars has been likened to a kite or ice cream cone. However, depictions of Boötes have varied historically. Aratus described him circling the north pole, herding the two bears. Later ancient Greek depictions, described by Ptolemy, have him holding the reins of his hunting dogs (Canes Venatici) in his left hand, with a spear, club, or staff in his right hand. After Hevelius introduced Mons Maenalus in 1681, Boötes was often depicted standing on the Peloponnese mountain. By 1801, when Johann Bode published his *Uranographia*, Boötes had acquired a sickle, which was also held in his left hand. The placement of Arcturus has also been mutable through the centuries. Traditionally, Arcturus lay between his thighs, as Ptolemy depicted him. However, Germanicus Caesar deviated from this tradition by placing Arcturus "where his garment is fastened by a knot". Features -------- ### Stars In his *Uranometria*, Johann Bayer used the Greek letters alpha through to omega and then A to k to label what he saw as the most prominent 35 stars in the constellation, with subsequent astronomers splitting Kappa, Mu, Nu and Pi as two stars each. Nu is also the same star as Psi Herculis. John Flamsteed numbered 54 stars for the constellation. Located 36.7 light-years from Earth, Arcturus, or Alpha Boötis, is the brightest star in Boötes and the fourth-brightest star in the sky at an apparent magnitude of −0.05; It is also the brightest star north of the celestial equator, just shading out Vega and Capella. Its name comes from the Greek for "bear-keeper". An orange giant of spectral class K1.5III, Arcturus is an ageing star that has exhausted its core supply of hydrogen and cooled and expanded to a diameter of 27 solar diameters, equivalent to approximately 32 million kilometers. Though its mass is approximately one solar mass (M☉), Arcturus shines with 133 times the luminosity of the Sun (L☉). Bayer located Arcturus above the Herdman's left knee in his *Uranometria*. Nearby Eta Boötis, or Muphrid, is the uppermost star denoting the left leg. It is a 2.68-magnitude star 37 light-years distant with a spectral class of G0IV, indicating it has just exhausted its core hydrogen and is beginning to expand and cool. It is 9 times as luminous as the Sun and has 2.7 times its diameter. Analysis of its spectrum reveals that it is a spectroscopic binary. Muphrid and Arcturus lie only 3.3 light-years away from each other. Viewed from Arcturus, Muphrid would have a visual magnitude of −2½, while Arcturus would be around visual magnitude −4½ when seen from Muphrid. Marking the herdsman's head is Beta Boötis, or Nekkar, a yellow giant of magnitude 3.5 and spectral type G8IIIa. Like Arcturus, it has expanded and cooled off the main sequence—likely to have lived most of its stellar life as a blue-white B-type main sequence star. Its common name comes from the Arabic phrase for "ox-driver". It is 219 light-years away and has a luminosity of 58 L☉. Located 86 light-years distant, Gamma Boötis, or Seginus, is a white giant star of spectral class A7III, with a luminosity 34 times and diameter 3.5 times that of the Sun. It is a Delta Scuti variable, ranging between magnitudes 3.02 and 3.07 every 7 hours. These stars are short period (six hours at most) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study asteroseismology. Delta Boötis is a wide double star with a primary of magnitude 3.5 and a secondary of magnitude 7.8. The primary is a yellow giant that has cooled and expanded to 10.4 times the diameter of the Sun. Of spectral class G8IV, it is around 121 light-years away, while the secondary is a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G0V. The two are thought to take 120,000 years to orbit each other. Mu Boötis, known as Alkalurops, is a triple star popular with amateur astronomers. It has an overall magnitude of 4.3 and is 121 light-years away. Its name is from the Arabic phrase for "club" or "staff". The primary appears to be of magnitude 4.3 and is blue-white. The secondary appears to be of magnitude 6.5, but is actually a close double star itself with a primary of magnitude 7.0 and a secondary of magnitude 7.6. The secondary and tertiary stars have an orbital period of 260 years. The primary has an absolute magnitude of 2.6 and is of spectral class F0. The secondary and tertiary stars are separated by 2 arcseconds; the primary and secondary are separated by 109.1 arcseconds at an angle of 171 degrees. Nu Boötis is an optical double star. The primary is an orange giant of magnitude 5.0 and the secondary is a white star of magnitude 5.0. The primary is 870 light-years away and the secondary is 430 light-years. Epsilon Boötis, also known as *Izar* or *Pulcherrima*, is a close triple star popular with amateur astronomers and the most prominent binary star in Boötes. The primary is a yellow- or orange-hued magnitude 2.5 giant star, the secondary is a magnitude 4.6 blue-hued main-sequence star, and the tertiary is a magnitude 12.0 star. The system is 210 light-years away. The name "Izar" comes from the Arabic word for "girdle" or "loincloth", referring to its location in the constellation. The name "Pulcherrima" comes from the Latin phrase for "most beautiful", referring to its contrasting colors in a telescope. The primary and secondary stars are separated by 2.9 arcseconds at an angle of 341 degrees; the primary's spectral class is K0 and it has a luminosity of 200 L☉. To the naked eye, Izar has a magnitude of 2.37. Nearby Rho and Sigma Boötis denote the herdsman's waist. Rho is an orange giant of spectral type K3III located around 160 light-years from Earth. It is ever so slightly variable, wavering by 0.003 of a magnitude from its average of 3.57. Sigma, a yellow-white main-sequence star of spectral type F3V, is suspected of varying in brightness from 4.45 to 4.49. It is around 52 light-years distant. Traditionally known as *Aulād al Dhiʼbah* (**أولاد الضباع** – *aulād al dhiʼb*), "the Whelps of the Hyenas", Theta, Iota, Kappa and Lambda Boötis (or Xuange) are a small group of stars in the far north of the constellation. The magnitude 4.05 Theta Boötis has a spectral type of F7 and an absolute magnitude of 3.8. Iota Boötis is a triple star with a primary of magnitude 4.8 and spectral class of A7, a secondary of magnitude 7.5, and a tertiary of magnitude 12.6. The primary is 97 light-years away. The primary and secondary stars are separated by 38.5 arcseconds, at an angle of 33 degrees. The primary and tertiary stars are separated by 86.7 arcseconds at an angle of 194 degrees. Both the primary and tertiary appear white in a telescope, but the secondary appears yellow-hued. Kappa Boötis is another wide double star. The primary is 155 light-years away and has a magnitude of 4.5. The secondary is 196 light-years away and has a magnitude of 6.6. The two components are separated by 13.4 arcseconds, at an angle of 236 degrees. The primary, with spectral class A7, appears white and the secondary appears bluish. An apparent magnitude 4.18 type A0p star, Lambda Boötis is the prototype of a class of chemically peculiar stars, only some of which pulsate as Delta Scuti-type stars. The distinction between the Lambda Boötis stars as a class of stars with peculiar spectra, and the Delta Scuti stars whose class describes pulsation in low-overtone pressure modes, is an important one. While many Lambda Boötis stars pulsate and are Delta Scuti stars, not many Delta Scuti stars have Lambda Boötis peculiarities, since the Lambda Boötis stars are a much rarer class whose members can be found both inside and outside the Delta Scuti instability strip. Lambda Boötis stars are dwarf stars that can be either spectral class A or F. Like BL Boötis-type stars they are metal-poor. Scientists have had difficulty explaining the characteristics of Lambda Boötis stars, partly because only around 60 confirmed members exist, but also due to heterogeneity in the literature. Lambda has an absolute magnitude of 1.8. There are two dimmer F-type stars, magnitude 4.83 12 Boötis, class F8; and magnitude 4.93 45 Boötis, class F5. Xi Boötis is a G8 yellow dwarf of magnitude 4.55, and absolute magnitude is 5.5. Two dimmer G-type stars are magnitude 4.86 31 Boötis, class G8, and magnitude 4.76 44 Boötis, class G0. Of apparent magnitude 4.06, Upsilon Boötis has a spectral class of K5 and an absolute magnitude of −0.3. Dimmer than Upsilon Boötis is magnitude 4.54 Phi Boötis, with a spectral class of K2 and an absolute magnitude of −0.1. Just slightly dimmer than Phi at magnitude 4.60 is O Boötis, which, like Izar, has a spectral class of K0. O Boötis has an absolute magnitude of 0.2. The other four dim stars are magnitude 4.91 6 Boötis, class K4; magnitude 4.86 20 Boötis, class K3; magnitude 4.81 Omega Boötis, class K4; and magnitude 4.83 A Boötis, class K1. There is one bright B-class star in Boötes; magnitude 4.93 Pi1 Boötis, also called Alazal. It has a spectral class of B9 and is 40 parsecs from Earth. There is also one M-type star, magnitude 4.81 34 Boötis. It is of class gM0. #### Multiple stars Besides Pulcherrima and Alkalurops, there are several other binary stars in Boötes: * Xi Boötis is a quadruple star popular with amateur astronomers. The primary is a yellow star of magnitude 4.7 and the secondary is an orange star of magnitude 6.8. The system is 22 light-years away and has an orbital period of 150 years. The primary and secondary have a separation of 6.7 arcseconds at an angle of 319 degrees. The tertiary is a magnitude 12.6 star (though it may be observed to be brighter) and the quaternary is a magnitude 13.6 star. * Pi Boötis is a close triple star. The primary is a blue-white star of magnitude 4.9, the secondary is a blue-white star of magnitude 5.8, and the tertiary is a star of magnitude 10.4. The primary and secondary components are separated by 5.6 arcseconds at an angle of 108 degrees; the primary and tertiary components are separated by 128 arcseconds at an angle of 128 degrees. * Zeta Boötis is a triple star that consists of a physical binary pair with an optical companion. Lying 205 light-years away from Earth, The physical pair has a period of 123.3 years and consists of a magnitude 4.5 and a magnitude 4.6 star. The two components are separated by 1.0 arcseconds at an angle of 303 degrees. The optical companion is of magnitude 10.9, separated by 99.3 arcseconds at an angle of 259 degrees. 44 Boötis is an eclipsing variable star. The primary is of variable magnitude and the secondary is of magnitude 6.2; they have an orbital period of 225 years. The components are separated by 1.0 arcsecond at an angle of 40 degrees. 44 Boötis (i Boötis) is a double variable star 42 light-years away. It has an overall magnitude of 4.8 and appears yellow to the naked eye. The primary is of magnitude 5.3 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.1; their orbital period is 220 years. The secondary is itself an eclipsing variable star with a range of 0.6 magnitudes; its orbital period is 6.4 hours. It is a W Ursae Majoris variable that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 7.1 to a maximum of 6.5 every 0.27 days. Both stars are G-type stars. Another eclipsing binary star is ZZ Boötis, which has two F2-type components of almost equal mass, and ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 6.79 to a maximum of 7.44 over a period of 5.0 days. #### Variable stars Two of the brighter Mira-type variable stars in the constellation are R and S Boötis. Both are red giants that range greatly in magnitude—from 6.2 to 13.1 over 223.4 days, and 7.8 to 13.8 over a period of 270.7 days, respectively. Also red giants, V and W Boötis are semi-regular variable stars that range in magnitude from 7.0 to 12.0 over a period of 258 days, and magnitude 4.7 to 5.4 over 450 days, respectively. BL Boötis is the prototype of its class of pulsating variable stars, the anomalous Cepheids. These stars are somewhat similar to Cepheid variables, but they do not have the same relationship between their period and luminosity. Their periods are similar to RRAB variables; however, they are far brighter than these stars. BL Boötis is a member of the cluster NGC 5466. Anomalous Cepheids are metal poor and have masses not much larger than the Sun's, on average, 1.5 M☉. BL Boötis type stars are a subtype of RR Lyrae variables. T Boötis was a nova observed in April 1860 at a magnitude of 9.7. It has never been observed since, but that does not preclude the possibility of it being a highly irregular variable star or a recurrent nova. #### Stars with planetary systems Extrasolar planets have been discovered encircling ten stars in Boötes as of 2012. Tau Boötis is orbited by a large planet, discovered in 1999. The host star itself is a magnitude 4.5 star of type F7V, 15.6 parsecs from Earth. It has a mass of 1.3 M☉ and a radius of 1.331 solar radii (R☉); a companion, GJ527B, orbits at a distance of 240 AU. Tau Boötis b, the sole planet discovered in the system, orbits at a distance of 0.046 AU every 3.31 days. Discovered through radial velocity measurements, it has a mass of 5.95 Jupiter masses (MJ). This makes it a hot Jupiter. The host star and planet are tidally locked, meaning that the planet's orbit and the star's particularly high rotation are synchronized. Furthermore, a slight variability in the host star's light may be caused by magnetic interactions with the planet. Carbon monoxide is present in the planet's atmosphere. Tau Boötis b does not transit its star, rather, its orbit is inclined 46 degrees. Like Tau Boötis b, HAT-P-4b is also a hot Jupiter. It is noted for orbiting a particularly metal-rich host star and being of low density. Discovered in 2007, HAT-P-4 b has a mass of 0.68 MJ and a radius of 1.27 RJ. It orbits every 3.05 days at a distance of 0.04 AU. HAT-P-4, the host star, is an F-type star of magnitude 11.2, 310 parsecs from Earth. It is larger than the Sun, with a mass of 1.26 M☉ and a radius of 1.59 R☉. Boötes is also home to multiple-planet systems. HD 128311 is the host star for a two-planet system, consisting of HD 128311 b and HD 128311 c, discovered in 2002 and 2005, respectively. HD 128311 b is the smaller planet, with a mass of 2.18 MJ; it was discovered through radial velocity observations. It orbits at almost the same distance as Earth, at 1.099 AU; however, its orbital period is significantly longer at 448.6 days. The larger of the two, HD 128311 c, has a mass of 3.21 MJ and was discovered in the same manner. It orbits every 919 days inclined at 50°, and is 1.76 AU from the host star. The host star, HD 128311, is a K0V-type star located 16.6 parsecs from Earth. It is smaller than the Sun, with a mass of 0.84 M☉ and a radius of 0.73 R☉; it also appears below the threshold of naked-eye visibility at an apparent magnitude of 7.51. There are several single-planet systems in Boötes. HD 132406 is a Sun-like star of spectral type G0V with an apparent magnitude of 8.45, 231.5 light-years from Earth. It has a mass of 1.09 M☉ and a radius of 1 R☉. The star is orbited by a gas giant, HD 132406 b, discovered in 2007. HD 132406 orbits 1.98 AU from its host star with a period of 974 days and has a mass of 5.61 MJ. The planet was discovered by the radial velocity method. WASP-23 is a star with one orbiting planet, WASP-23 b. The planet, discovered by the transit method in 2010, orbits every 2.944 days very close to its Sun, at 0.0376 AU. It is smaller than Jupiter, at 0.884 MJ and 0.962 RJ. Its star is a K1V-type star of apparent magnitude 12.7, far below naked-eye visibility, and smaller than the Sun at 0.78 M☉ and 0.765 R☉. HD 131496 is also encircled by one planet, HD 131496 b. The star is of type K0 and is located 110 parsecs from Earth; it appears at a visual magnitude of 7.96. It is significantly larger than the Sun, with a mass of 1.61 M☉ and a radius of 4.6 solar radii. Its one planet, discovered in 2011 by the radial velocity method, has a mass of 2.2 MJ; its radius is as yet undetermined. HD 131496 b orbits at a distance of 2.09 AU with a period of 883 days. Another single planetary system in Boötes is the HD 132563 system, a triple star system. The parent star, technically HD 132563B, is a star of magnitude 9.47, 96 parsecs from Earth. It is almost exactly the size of the Sun, with the same radius and a mass only 1% greater. Its planet, HD 132563B b, was discovered in 2011 by the radial velocity method. 1.49 MJ, it orbits 2.62 AU from its star with a period of 1544 days. Its orbit is somewhat elliptical, with an eccentricity of 0.22. HD 132563B b is one of very few planets found in triple star systems; it orbits the isolated member of the system, which is separated from the other components, a spectroscopic binary, by 400 AU. Also discovered through the radial velocity method, albeit a year earlier, is HD 136418 b, a two-Jupiter-mass planet that orbits the star HD 136418 at a distance of 1.32 AU with a period of 464.3 days. Its host star is a magnitude 7.88 G5-type star, 98.2 parsecs from Earth. It has a radius of 3.4 R☉ and a mass of 1.33 M☉. WASP-14 b is one of the most massive and dense exoplanets known, with a mass of 7.341 MJ and a radius of 1.281 RJ. Discovered via the transit method, it orbits 0.036 AU from its host star with a period of 2.24 days. WASP-14 b has a density of 4.6 grams per cubic centimeter, making it one of the densest exoplanets known. Its host star, WASP-14, is an F5V-type star of magnitude 9.75, 160 parsecs from Earth. It has a radius of 1.306 R☉ and a mass of 1.211 M☉. It also has a very high proportion of lithium. ### Deep-sky objects Boötes is in a part of the celestial sphere facing away from the plane of our home Milky Way galaxy, and so does not have open clusters or nebulae. Instead, it has one bright globular cluster and many faint galaxies. The globular cluster NGC 5466 has an overall magnitude of 9.1 and a diameter of 11 arcminutes. It is a very loose globular cluster with fairly few stars and may appear as a rich, concentrated open cluster in a telescope. NGC 5466 is classified as a Shapley–Sawyer Concentration Class 12 cluster, reflecting its sparsity. Its fairly large diameter means that it has a low surface brightness, so it appears far dimmer than the catalogued magnitude of 9.1 and requires a large amateur telescope to view. Only approximately 12 stars are resolved by an amateur instrument. Boötes has two bright galaxies. NGC 5248 (Caldwell 45) is a type Sc galaxy (a variety of spiral galaxy) of magnitude 10.2. It measures 6.5 by 4.9 arcminutes. Fifty million light-years from Earth, NGC 5248 is a member of the Virgo Cluster of galaxies; it has dim outer arms and obvious H II regions, dust lanes and young star clusters. NGC 5676 is another type Sc galaxy of magnitude 10.9. It measures 3.9 by 2.0 arcminutes. Other galaxies include NGC 5008, a type Sc emission-line galaxy, NGC 5548, a type S Seyfert galaxy, NGC 5653, a type S HII galaxy, NGC 5778 (also classified as NGC 5825), a type E galaxy that is the brightest of its cluster, NGC 5886, and NGC 5888, a type SBb galaxy. NGC 5698 is a barred spiral galaxy, notable for being the host of the 2005 supernova SN 2005bc, which peaked at magnitude 15.3. Further away lies the 250-million-light-year-diameter Boötes void, a huge space largely empty of galaxies. Discovered by Robert Kirshner and colleagues in 1981, it is roughly 700 million light-years from Earth. Beyond it and within the bounds of the constellation, lie two superclusters at around 830 million and 1 billion light-years distant. The Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, the largest-known structure in the Universe, covers a significant part of Boötes. ### Meteor showers Boötes is home to the Quadrantid meteor shower, the most prolific annual meteor shower. It was discovered in January 1835 and named in 1864 by Alexander Hershell. The radiant is located in northern Boötes near Kappa Boötis, in its namesake former constellation of Quadrans Muralis. Quadrantid meteors are dim, but have a peak visible hourly rate of approximately 100 per hour on January 3–4. The zenithal hourly rate of the Quadrantids is approximately 130 meteors per hour at their peak; it is also a very narrow shower. The Quadrantids are notoriously difficult to observe because of a low radiant and often inclement weather. The parent body of the meteor shower has been disputed for decades; however, Peter Jenniskens has proposed 2003 EH1, a minor planet, as the parent. 2003 EH1 may be linked to C/1490 Y1, a comet previously thought to be a potential parent body for the Quadrantids. 2003 EH1 is a short-period comet of the Jupiter family; 500 years ago, it experienced a catastrophic breakup event. It is now dormant. The Quadrantids had notable displays in 1982, 1985 and 2004. Meteors from this shower often appear to have a blue hue and travel at a moderate speed of 41.5–43 kilometers per second. On April 28, 1984, a remarkable outburst of the normally placid Alpha Bootids was observed by visual observer Frank Witte from 00:00 to 2:30 UTC. In a 6 cm telescope, he observed 433 meteors in a field of view near Arcturus with a diameter of less than 1°. Peter Jenniskens comments that this outburst resembled a "typical dust trail crossing". The Alpha Bootids normally begin on April 14, peaking on April 27 and 28, and finishing on May 12. Its meteors are slow-moving, with a velocity of 20.9 kilometers per second. They may be related to Comet 73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann 3, but this connection is only theorized. The June Bootids, also known as the Iota Draconids, is a meteor shower associated with the comet 7P/Pons–Winnecke, first recognized on May 27, 1916, by William F. Denning. The shower, with its slow meteors, was not observed prior to 1916 because Earth did not cross the comet's dust trail until Jupiter perturbed Pons–Winnecke's orbit, causing it to come within 0.03 AU (4.5 million km; 2.8 million mi) of Earth's orbit the first year the June Bootids were observed. In 1982, E. A. Reznikov discovered that the 1916 outburst was caused by material released from the comet in 1819. Another outburst of the June Bootids was not observed until 1998, because Comet Pons–Winnecke's orbit was not in a favorable position. However, on June 27, 1998, an outburst of meteors radiating from Boötes, later confirmed to be associated with Pons-Winnecke, was observed. They were incredibly long-lived, with trails of the brightest meteors lasting several seconds at times. Many fireballs, green-hued trails, and even some meteors that cast shadows were observed throughout the outburst, which had a maximum zenithal hourly rate of 200–300 meteors per hour. Two Russian astronomers determined in 2002 that material ejected from the comet in 1825 was responsible for the 1998 outburst. Ejecta from the comet dating to 1819, 1825 and 1830 was predicted to enter Earth's atmosphere on June 23, 2004. The predictions of a shower less spectacular than the 1998 showing were borne out in a display that had a maximum zenithal hourly rate of 16–20 meteors per hour that night. The June Bootids are not expected to have another outburst in the next 50 years. Typically, only 1–2 dim, very slow meteors are visible per hour; the average June Bootid has a magnitude of 5.0. It is related to the Alpha Draconids and the Bootids-Draconids. The shower lasts from June 27 to July 5, with a peak on the night of June 28. The June Bootids are classified as a class III shower (variable), and has an average entry velocity of 18 kilometers per second. Its radiant is located 7 degrees north of Beta Boötis. The Beta Bootids is a weak shower that begins on January 5, peaks on January 16, and ends on January 18. Its meteors travel at 43 km/s. The January Bootids is a short, young meteor shower that begins on January 9, peaks from January 16 to January 18, and ends on January 18. The Phi Bootids is another weak shower radiating from Boötes. It begins on April 16, peaks on April 30 and May 1, and ends on May 12. Its meteors are slow-moving, with a velocity of 15.1 km/s. They were discovered in 2006. The shower's peak hourly rate can be as high as six meteors per hour. Though named for a star in Boötes, the Phi Bootid radiant has moved into Hercules. The meteor stream is associated with three different asteroids: 1620 Geographos, 2062 Aten and 1978 CA. The Lambda Bootids, part of the Bootid-Coronae Borealid Complex, are a weak annual shower with moderately fast meteors; 41.75 km/s. The complex includes the Lambda Bootids, as well as the Theta Coronae Borealids and Xi Coronae Borealids. All of the Bootid-Coronae Borealid showers are Jupiter family comet showers; the streams in the complex have highly inclined orbits. There are several minor showers in Boötes, some of whose existence is yet to be verified. The Rho Bootids radiate from near the namesake star, and were hypothesized in 2010. The average Rho Bootid has an entry velocity of 43 km/s. It peaks in November and lasts for three days. 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Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 10 August 2014. * 2562 "BD+33 2562 - Star in double system". *SIMBAD Astronomical Database*. Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 10 August 2014. `{{cite web}}`: Check `|url=` value (help) * "Gamma Boötis - Variable star of Delta Scuti type". *SIMBAD Astronomical Database*. Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 8 August 2014. * "Rho Boötis - Variable star". *SIMBAD Astronomical Database*. Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 8 August 2014. * "Sigma Boötis - Variable star". *SIMBAD Astronomical Database*. Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 8 August 2014. * "NGC 5008". *SIMBAD*. Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 31 August 2012. * "NGC 5548". *SIMBAD*. Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 31 August 2012. * "NGC 5778". *SIMBAD*. Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 31 August 2012. * "NGC 5653". *SIMBAD*. Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 31 August 2012. * "NGC 5825". *SIMBAD*. Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 31 August 2012. * "NGC 5886". *SIMBAD*. Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 31 August 2012. * "NGC 5888". *SIMBAD*. Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 31 August 2012. * Štohl, J.; Porubčan, V. (6 July 1993). "Meteor streams of asteroidal origin". *Meteoroids and Their Parent Bodies, Proceedings of the International Astronomical Symposium*: 41. Bibcode:1993mtpb.conf...41S. * Thompson, Robert Bruce; Thompson, Barbara Fritchman (2007). *Illustrated Guide to Astronomical Wonders*. O'Reilly Books. ISBN 978-0-596-52685-6. * Wagman, Morton (2003). *Lost Stars: Lost, Missing and Troublesome Stars from the Catalogues of Johannes Bayer, Nicholas Louis de Lacaille, John Flamsteed, and Sundry Others*. Blacksburg, VA: The McDonald & Woodward Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-939923-78-6. * White, Gavin (2008). *Babylonian Star-lore*. Solaria Publications. * Walker, G. A. H.; Croll, B.; Matthews, J. M.; Kuschnig, R.; Huber, D.; Weiss, W. W.; Shkolnik, E.; Rucinski, S. M.; Guenther, D. B. (19 February 2008). Moffat, A. F. J.; Sasselov, D. "MOST detects variability on τ Bootis A possibly induced by its planetary companion". *Astronomy & Astrophysics*. **482** (2): 691–697. arXiv:0802.2732. Bibcode:2008A&A...482..691W. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078952. S2CID 56317105. Retrieved 31 August 2012. * "Boötes, constellation boundary". *The Constellations*. International Astronomical Union. Retrieved 3 July 2012.

Boötes

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bo%C3%B6tes

**Riccione** (Italian pronunciation: [ritˈtʃoːne]; Romagnol: *Arciôn* [arˈtsoːŋ]) is a *comune* in the Province of Rimini, Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy. As of 2018, Riccione had an estimated population of 35,003. History ------- The oldest archaeological findings in Riccione's area date to the 2nd century BC, although it was most likely settled in advance. At the time of the Roman Republic, it was known as *Vicus Popilius* and a bridge over the Rio Melo river. After a period of obscurity, in 1260 it was acquired by the Agolanti family, connected to the lords of Rimini, the Malatesta. In the 17th century some watchtowers were built on the seaside against assaults by pirates. Origins of the tourist fame of Riccione date to the late 19th century, mostly spurred by the construction of residences by rich Bolognese people. In the 1930s there were some 30,000 tourists a year, with some 80 hotels existing. Benito Mussolini had a villa built here in 1934. After World War II, tourist flow was further increased by its choosing as vacation resort by numerous famous people, such as Pelè, Mina, Ugo Tognazzi, Vittorio De Sica, Romano Mussolini (painter and jazz pianist), Maria Scicolone (sister of Sofia Loren), Pacifico Marchesini (bon-vivant/Italian diplomat and recipient of the Yad Vashem Award) and others. Tourism ------- Since the 1930s Riccione gained the status of a main destination of summer tourism on the Adriatic riviera of Romagna, and, together with Rimini, is one of the best known seaside resorts in Northern Italy. Every two years, a festival called the Festival Del Sol takes place. Tourism in Riccione is significant, including mostly young people attracted by its nightlife. The Adriatic coast in Emilia Romagna is called Riviera Romagnola and it has many night clubs. Riccione also attracts families with children, thanks to its theme parks, hotels organize baby sitting for kids all day in the hotel and on the beach. The hotels on the Riviera, one next to the other, determine the large number of tourists flowing there in summer. The main streets of Riccione, viale Dante and viale Ceccarini have numerous night spots, bars, and hotels, in the night and they are a place for shopping and eating during the day. The seafront is a long boulevard, shaped by a road and a bicycle lane, that reaches up to the town's end going along the sea. Cycling is common in the Emilia Romagna area and a number of Riccione's hotels provide specific facilities for cycling tourists, including bike hire, cycle storage and tour guides. Events ------ One of the main event in Riccione beaches is La Notte Rosa, literally the pink night, where the city becomes pink. There are parties on the beaches all the night for an entire week end and there are fireworks displays and free concerts. International stamp fair, the first week of September; held in the Palazzo del Turismo. National numismatic exhibition, the first week of September. Ilaria Alpi TV Journalism Award, the first week of June (replaced in 2015 by the Dig Awards, new award dedicated to investigative video journalism). Riccione Theater Award, biennial, last week of June. Riccione TTV - Theater Television Video, biennial, last week of May. Sport ----- From 4 to 15 September 2007, Riccione hosted the World Masters Athletics Championships. From 29 June to 6 July 2007, Riccione (with Rimini) hosted the CSIT championships. Riccione has a new swimming pool with 50-metre (160 ft) lanes indoors and outdoors. Every year, it hosts international competitions. The city has hosted the FINA World Masters Championships in swimming, diving, water polo, open water and synchronized swimming. Minor sport events are the beach line festival, tennis beach competitions. On the beach there are surf clubs and kitesurf clubs as well. In 2022, it will host the International Lifesaving Federation World Life Saving Championships. The absolute Padel championships have been held in Riccione since 2017. Transportation -------------- Riccione is linked with the nearby city of Rimini by two lines of the Rimini trolleybus system: a conventional trolleybus line along public streets that has connected the two cities since 1939 and a bus rapid transit line named Metromare that opened in 2019 and runs in a bus-only carriageway built next to the railway line. The Metromare has 15 intermediate stations between the railway stations of Rimini and Riccione. Riccione is also linked by train to several other cities, via a station on the Bologna–Ancona railway. The Riccione railway station was modernized in 2018 in its northern part, with dismantling of the third track and updating of the platforms of the two remaining tracks to accommodate high-speed trains. The underpass has also been improved and the rear part completely renovated with an iron and glass structure. The nearest airport is the Federico Fellini Airport in Miramare di Rimini, which is only a few kilometres (1.2 miles) from Riccione. The port is a canal port built at the mouth of the Rio Melo. The canal port often has draft problems due to silting. On the two piers there are restaurants and some shops. The canal port has about 500 berths. Notable people -------------- * Carlotta Montanari, actress. * Martina Colombari, Miss Italia 1991, actress. * Mattia Pasini, motorcycle road racer. * Madhu Sapre, Indian Super Model. * Isabella Santacroce, novelist. Further reading --------------- * Fabio Lombardi (2002). *Storia di Riccione*. Cesena: Il ponte vecchio. ISBN 88-8312-188-0. * Andrea Speziali (2005). *Villa Antolini a Riccione*. New York: Lulu. ISBN 978-1-4457-8644-5. * Andrea Speziali (2008). *Le ville di Riccione*. New York: Lulu. ISBN 978-1-4461-5980-4. * Andrea Speziali (2008). *Una Stagione del Liberty a Riccione*. Santarcangelo: Maggioli editore. ISBN 978-88-387-5649-8.

Riccione

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riccione

**Borscht** (English: /ˈbɔːrʃ, ˈbɔːrʃt/ ()) is a sour soup, made with meat stock and vegetables, common in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. In English, the word "borscht" is most often associated with the soup's variant of Ukrainian origin, made with red beetroots as one of the main ingredients, which give the dish its distinctive red color. The same name, however, is also used for a wide selection of sour-tasting soups without beetroots, such as sorrel-based green borscht, rye-based white borscht, and cabbage borscht. Borscht derives from an ancient soup originally cooked from pickled stems, leaves and umbels of common hogweed (*Heracleum sphondylium*), an herbaceous plant growing in damp meadows, which lent the dish its Slavic name. With time, it evolved into a diverse array of tart soups, among which the Ukrainian beet-based red borscht has become the most popular. It is typically made by combining meat or bone stock with sautéed vegetables, which – as well as beetroots – usually include cabbage, carrots, onions, potatoes, and tomatoes. Depending on the recipe, borscht may include meat or fish, or be purely vegetarian; it may be served either hot or cold, and it may range from a hearty one-pot meal to a clear broth or a smooth drink. It is often served with *smetana* or sour cream, hard-boiled eggs or potatoes, but there exists an ample choice of more involved garnishes and side dishes, such as **uszka** or **pampushky**, that can be served with the soup. Its popularity has spread throughout Eastern Europe and – by way of migration away from the Russian Empire – to other continents. In North America, borscht is often linked with either Jews or Mennonites, the groups who first brought it there from Europe. Several ethnic groups claim borscht, in its various local implementations, as their own national dish consumed as part of ritual meals within Eastern Orthodox, Greek Catholic, Roman Catholic, and Jewish religious traditions. In 2022, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) announced that it had placed borscht on the List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding due to the risk that Russia's invasion posed to the soup's status as an element of Ukraine's cultural heritage. The new status means Ukraine could now apply for special funds to finance projects promoting and protecting the dish. Etymology --------- The name ultimately derives from the word борщ (**borshch** or /borɕː/), which is common to East Slavic languages, such as Ukrainian. Together with cognates in other Slavic languages, it comes from Proto-Slavic *\*bŭrščǐ* 'hogweed' and ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *\*bhr̥stis* 'point, stubble'. Common hogweed (**Heracleum sphondylium**) was the soup's principal ingredient before it was replaced with other vegetables, notably beetroot in the Ukrainian version. Sometimes, borscht can be found as *barszcz* (a Polish word for borscht) or *borshch* (transliteration of Cyrillic "борщ"), but these are still foreign words in English and not natively used. The English spelling *bor**scht*** comes from Yiddish באָרשט (**borsht**), as the dish was first popularized in North America by Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe. Ingredients and preparation --------------------------- Traditional Ukrainian borscht is typically made from meat or bone stock, sautéed vegetables, and beet sour (i.e., fermented beetroot juice). Depending on the recipe, some of these components may be omitted or substituted. The stock is typically made by boiling meat, bones, or both. Beef, pork or a combination of both are most commonly used, with brisket, ribs, shank and chuck considered to give the most flavorful results, especially if cooked on a high flame. Marrow bones are considered best for the bone stock. Meat stock is usually cooked for about two hours, whereas bone stock takes four to six hours to prepare. Meat and bones are usually removed afterwards and the meat is only added back into the soup about 10–15 minutes before the borscht is done. Some recipes call for smoked meats, resulting in a distinctively smoky borscht, while others use poultry or mutton stock. Fasting varieties are typically made with fish stock to avoid the use of meat, while purely vegetarian recipes often substitute forest mushroom broth for the stock. The vegetables most commonly added to borscht are beetroots, white cabbage, carrots, parsley root, potatoes, onions and tomatoes. Some recipes may also call for beans, tart apples, turnip, swede, celeriac, zucchini or bell peppers. Parsnip may be used as a substitute for parsley root, and tomato paste is often used as well as or instead of fresh tomatoes. Vegetables are usually julienned, except for potatoes and zucchini, which are diced. The beetroots may be partially baked before being sprinkled with vinegar or lemon juice to preserve the color and braised separately from other vegetables. Onions, carrots, parsley root, turnip and other root vegetables are sautéed (traditionally in animal fat, especially lard or butter) and then mixed with tomatoes or tomato paste. Dry beans are boiled separately. Potatoes and cabbage are boiled in the stock for about 15 minutes before the precooked vegetables are added. The traditional technique of preparing the soup is to precook the vegetables – by sautéing, braising, boiling or baking – separately from the meat and only then to combine them with the stock. This distinctive feature of borscht derives from the practice of slow cooking in the Russian oven (traditional masonry stove, used for both cooking and heating), wherein the differences in cooking times of individual ingredients had to be taken into account in order to ensure that all components reach doneness at the same time. The importance of this method is reflected in the Russian language, where a variant in which all vegetables are added raw directly into the stock is referred to by the diminutive form **borshchok** rather than **borshch**. The soup is typically flavored with a wide selection of herbs, spices and condiments. Salt, black pepper, garlic, bay leaves and dill are among the most commonly used. Other aromatics often added to borscht include allspice, celery stalks, parsley, marjoram, hot peppers, saffron, horseradish, ginger and prunes. Some recipes require flour or roux to further thicken the borscht. A common opinion is that a good borscht should be thick enough for a spoon to stand upright in it. ### Beet sour The dominant tastes in borscht are sweet and sour. This combination is traditionally obtained by adding beet sour. The sour is made by covering sliced beetroots with lukewarm preboiled water and allowing bacteria to ferment some of the sugars present in beetroots into dextran (which gives the liquid a slightly viscous consistency), mannitol, acetic acid and lactic acid. Stale rye bread is often added to hasten the process, but usually omitted in Jewish recipes, as *chametz* (leavened bread) would make the sour unfit for Passover meals. Sugar, salt and lemon juice may also be added to balance the flavor. After about 2–5 days (or 2–3 weeks without the bread), the deep red, sweet and sour liquid may be strained and is ready to use. It is added to borscht shortly before the soup is done, as prolonged boiling would cause the tart flavor to dissipate. The beet sour is known in Slavic languages as *kvas* (literally 'sour, acid'; compare kvass) and in Yiddish as **rosl** (from a Slavic word originally referring to any brine obtained by steeping salted meat or vegetables in water; compare Russian **rassol** 'pickle juice', Polish **rosół** 'broth'). Apart from its employment in borscht, it may also be added to prepared horseradish or used as pot roast marinade. As the traditional method of making borscht with beet sour often requires planning at least several days ahead, many recipes for quicker borscht replace the beet sour with fresh beetroot juice, while the sour taste is imparted by other ingredients. Vinegar, tomato products, lemon juice or citric acid may be used, as well as dry red wine, dill pickle juice, murături juice, sauerkraut juice, tart apples, Mirabelle plums, apricots, or a fermented rye flour and water mixture. Variations ---------- ### Ukrainian As the home country of beetroot borscht, Ukraine boasts great diversity of the soup's regional variants, with virtually every oblast' having its own recipe. Differences between particular varieties may regard the type of stock used (meat, bone, or both), the kind of meat (beef, pork, poultry, etc.), the choice of vegetables and the method of cutting and cooking them. For example, although the typical recipe calls for beef and pork, the Kyiv variant uses mutton or lamb as well as beef, while in the Poltava region, the stock for borscht is cooked on poultry meat, that is, chicken, duck or goose. The use of zucchini, beans and apples is characteristic of the Chernihiv borscht; in this variant, beetroots are sautéed in vegetable oil rather than lard, and the sour taste comes solely from tomatoes and tart apples. The Lviv borscht is based on bone stock and is served with chunks of Vienna sausages. ### Russian Many regional recipes for borscht have also developed in Russian cuisine. Examples include the Moscow borscht, served with pieces of sausages, such as *doktorskaya kolbasa* (similar to Bologna sausage in consistency), smoked sausages or *saucisses* - sausages, similar to cervelats or Vienna sausages. It is possible, the association of sausage borscht with Moscow is tied to Anastas Mikoyan and Soviet industrial production of sausages. Other unique Russian variants include a Siberian style borscht, characterized by meatballs; Pskov borscht with dried smelt from the local lakes; monastic Lenten borscht with marinated kelp instead of cabbage and the Russian Navy borscht (**flotsky borshch**), the defining characteristic of which is that the vegetables are cut into square or diamond-shaped chunks rather than julienned. Some Russian cooks add mayo in place of either sour cream or vinegar or both as industry-grade Provance style mayo is rich with vinegar itself. ### Polish As well as the thick borschts described above, Polish cuisine offers a ruby-colored beetroot bouillon known as **barszcz czysty czerwony**, or clear red borscht. It is made by combining strained meat-and-vegetable stock with wild mushroom broth and beet sour. In some versions, smoked meat may be used for the stock and the tartness may be obtained or enhanced by adding lemon juice, dill pickle brine, or dry red wine. It may be served either in a soup bowl or – especially at dinner parties – as a hot beverage in a twin-handled cup, with a croquette or a filled pastry on the side. Unlike other types of borscht, it is not whitened with sour cream. **Barszcz wigilijny**, or Christmas Eve borscht, is a variant of the clear borscht that is traditionally served during the Polish Christmas Eve supper. In this version, meat stock is either omitted or replaced with fish broth, usually made by boiling the heads cut off from fish used in other Christmas Eve dishes. The mushrooms used for cooking the mushroom broth are reserved for **uszka** (small filled dumplings), which are then served with the borscht. ### Jewish Ashkenazi Jews living in Eastern Europe adopted beetroot borscht from their Slavic neighbors and adapted it to their taste and religious requirements. As combining meat with milk is proscribed by kosher dietary laws, Jews have developed two variants of the soup: meat (**fleischik**) and dairy (**milchik**). The meat variant is typically made from beef brisket (pork is never used) and cabbage, while the dairy one is vegetarian, blended with sour cream or a mixture of milk and egg yolks. Both variants typically contain beetroots and onions, and are flavored with beet sour, vinegar or citric acid for tartness and beet sugar for sweetness. Galician Jews traditionally liked their borscht particularly sweet. Jewish borscht may be served either hot or cold, typically with a hot boiled potato on the side. In prewar Eastern Europe it was traditionally put up to ferment around Purim so that it would be ready four weeks later for the Passover holiday. ### Cold borscht In the summertime, cold borscht is a popular alternative to the aforementioned variants, which are normally served hot. It consists of beet sour or beet juice blended with sour cream, buttermilk, soured milk, kefir or yogurt. The mixture has a distinctive pink or magenta color. It is served refrigerated, typically over finely chopped beetroot, cucumbers, radishes and green onion, together with halves of a hard-boiled egg and sprinkled with fresh dill. Chopped veal, ham, or crawfish tails may be added as well. This soup was known in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which comprised the territories of modern-day Belarus and Lithuania, and it is still part of the culinary traditions of these and neighboring nations. In Belarusian, it is known as *Chaladnik* and in Lithuanian as *Šaltibarščiai*. The Soviet "Encyclopedia of Housekeeping" has an article on borscht including a "cold borscht" recipe. "Coated" dressed herring salad resembles cold borsht as well, despite not being a soup. The similarity includes a strong color from using beets, a similar choice of vegetables, and the decorative addition of boiled eggs. Namesakes without beets ----------------------- Although *borscht* is mostly used to describe a beet-based soup, there are soups in some culinary traditions with the same or similar names, but with sometimes wide variations in ingredients and preparation methods. In such soups, beetroots are not used or merely optional. The principal common trait among such borschts is a tart flavor from sour-tasting ingredients. According to *A Gift to Young Housewives*, a book from the 19th century, "borscht" may or may not include beets (depending from recipe to recipe in the book). In Polish cuisine, white borscht (**barszcz biały**, also known as **żur** or **żurek**, 'sour soup') is made from a fermented mixture of rye flour or oatmeal and water. It is typically flavored with garlic and marjoram, and served over eggs and boiled fresh sausage; the water in which the sausage was boiled is often used instead of meat stock. In the Carpathian Mountains of southern Poland, variants of borscht are also made in which the tart taste comes from dairy products, such as whey or buttermilk. Although the deep red color of beetroot borscht may remind those unfamiliar with Polish cuisine of blood, the kind of borscht that does contain animal (usually poultry) blood mixed with vinegar is dark brownish-gray in color and aptly called "gray borscht" (**barszcz szary**), which is a regional name of the Polish blood soup better known as **czernina**. Green borscht (**zeleny borshch**), a light soup made from leaf vegetables, is an example common in Ukrainian and Russian cuisines. The naturally tart-tasting sorrel is most commonly used, but spinach, chard, nettle, garden orache and occasionally dandelion, goutweed or ramsons, may be added as well, especially after the spring season for sorrel has passed. Like beetroot borscht, it is based on meat or vegetable broth and is typically served with boiled potatoes and hard-boiled eggs, sprinkled with dill. There is also a variety of Ukrainian green borscht which includes both sorrel and beetroots. In Romanian and Moldovan cuisines, a mixture of wheat bran or cornmeal with water that has been left to ferment, similar to, but less cloudy than that used in Polish white borscht, is called **borș**. It is used to impart a sour taste to a variety of tangy Romanian soups, known as either also **borș** or **ciorbă**. Variants include **ciorbă de perișoare** (with meatballs), **ciorbă de burtă** (with tripe), **borș de pește** (with fish) and **borș de sfeclă roșie** (with beetroots). The Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian version of borscht is a hot soup made with beef stock, green peppers and other vegetables, which may or may not include beetroots, and flavored with chopped red chili and fresh cilantro. In ethnic Mennonite cuisine, *borscht* refers to a whole range of seasonal vegetable soups based on beef or chicken stock – from spring borscht made with spinach, sorrel and chard to summer borscht with cabbage, tomatoes, maize and squash to fall and winter borscht with cabbage, beets and potatoes. In Chinese cuisine, a soup known as **Luosong tang**, or "Russian soup", is based on red cabbage and tomatoes, and lacks beetroots altogether; also known as "Chinese borscht", it originated in Harbin, close to the Russian border in northeast China, and has spread as far as Hong Kong. In Shanghai's Haipai cuisine, tomatoes are the main ingredient; beef and its broth, onions and cabbages are also added; while flour, rather than sour cream, is used for thickening. Garnishes and sides ------------------- The diversity of borscht styles is matched by the wide choice of garnishes and side dishes with which various kinds of borscht may be served. Most often, borscht is served with sour cream, the East European version of which, known as **smetana**, is runnier than its American counterpart. The sour cream may be served in a separate pitcher for the diners to add the desired amount themselves or the borscht may come already "whitened", that is, blended with sour cream. Sometimes the cream is thickened with flour before being added to the soup. Yogurt and a mixture of milk and yolks are possible substitutes. Chopped herbs are often sprinkled on the surface of the soup; dill is most common, but parsley, chives or scallion are often added as well. Individual helpings may be spiced up with minced hot peppers or garlic. Many kinds of borscht are served over halves or quarters of hard-boiled chicken or quail eggs. Navy beans, broad beans or string beans are also a common addition. Meat, removed from the stock on which the borscht was based, may be cut into smaller chunks and either added back into the soup or served on the side with horseradish or mustard. Bacon and sausages are also commonly used as borscht garnishes. Borscht based on bone stock may be served Old Polish style, with marrow from the bones. Some kinds of the soup, such as Poltava borscht, may be served with **halushky*,* or thick noodles of wheat or buckwheat flour. Siberian borscht is eaten with boiled meatballs (**frikadelki**) of minced beef and onion. In Poland and parts of western Ukraine, borscht is typically ladled over **uszka**, or bite-sized ear-shaped dumplings made from pasta dough wrapped around mushroom, buckwheat or meat filling. Mushroom-filled **uszka** are particularly associated with Polish Christmas Eve borscht. Borscht, like any other soup in East Slavic cuisines, is seldom eaten by itself, but rather accompanied by a side dish. At a minimum, spoonfuls of borscht are alternated with bites of a slice of bread. Buckwheat groats or boiled potatoes, often topped with pork cracklings, are other simple possibilities, but a range of more involved sides exists as well. In Ukraine, borscht is often accompanied with **pampushky**, or savory, puffy yeast-raised rolls glazed with oil and crushed garlic. In Russian cuisine, borscht may be served with any of assorted side dishes based on **tvorog**, or the East European variant of farmer cheese, such as **vatrushki**, **syrniki** or **krupeniki**. **Vatrushki** are baked round cheese-filled tarts; **syrniki** are small pancakes wherein the cheese is mixed into the batter; and a **krupenik** is a casserole of buckwheat groats baked with cheese. **Pirozhki**, or baked dumplings with fillings as for **uszka**, are another common side for both thick and clear variants of borscht. Polish clear borscht may be also served with a croquette or **paszteciki**. A typical Polish croquette (**krokiet**) is made by wrapping a **crêpe** (thin pancake) around a filling and coating it in breadcrumbs before refrying; **paszteciki** (literally, 'little **pâtés**') are variously shaped filled hand-held pastries of yeast-raised or flaky dough. An even more exquisite way to serve borscht is with a coulibiac, or a large loaf-shaped pie. Possible fillings for croquettes, **paszteciki** and coulibiacs include mushrooms, sauerkraut and minced meat. History ------- ### Precursors Borscht derives from a soup originally made by the Slavs from common hogweed (**Heracleum sphondylium**, also known as cow parsnip), which lent the dish its Slavic name. Growing commonly in damp meadows throughout the north temperate zone, hogweed was used not only as fodder (as its English names suggest), but also for human consumption – from Eastern Europe to Siberia, to northwestern North America. The Slavs collected hogweed in May and used its roots for stewing with meat,. As for the stems, leaves, and umbels; these would be chopped, covered with water and left in a warm place to ferment. After a few days, lactic and alcoholic fermentation produced a mixture described as "something between beer and sauerkraut". This fermented product was then used for cooking a soup. The said soup—with aforementioned fermented hogweed concoction used—was characterized by a mouth-puckering amount of sourness in its taste, while its smell was described as pungent As the Polish ethnographer Łukasz Gołębiowski wrote in 1830, "Poles have been always partial to tart dishes, which are somewhat peculiar to their homeland and vital to their health." Simon Syrenius (Szymon Syreński), a 17th-century Polish botanist, described "our Polish hogweed" as a vegetable that was well known throughout Poland, Ruthenia, Lithuania and Samogitia (that is, most of the northern part of Eastern Europe), typically used for cooking a "tasty and graceful soup" with capon stock, eggs, sour cream and millet. More interested in the plant's medicinal properties than its culinary use, he also recommended pickled hogweed juice as a cure for fever or hangover. One of the earliest possible mentions of borscht as a soup is found in the diary of German merchant Martin Gruneweg, who visited Kyiv in 1584. After Gruneweg reached river Borshchahivka in Kyiv's vicinity on 17 October 1584, he wrote down a local legend saying that the river was so named because there was a borscht market. However, he doubted the story noting that: "Ruthenians buy borscht rarely or never, because everyone cooks their own at home as it's their staple food and drink". Another early written reference to the Slavic hogweed soup can be found in **Domostroy** (*Domestic Order*), a 16th-century Russian compendium of moral rules and homemaking advice. It recommends growing the plant "by the fence, around the whole garden, where the nettle grows", to cook a soup of it in springtime and reminds the reader to, "for the Lord's sake, share it with those in need". Hogweed borscht was mostly a poor man's food. The soup's humble beginnings are still reflected in Polish fixed expressions, where "cheap like borscht" is the equivalent of "dirt cheap" (also attested as a calque in Yiddish and Canadian English), whereas adding "two mushrooms into borscht" is synonymous with excess. For the professors of the University of Kraków, who led a monastic way of life in the 17th century, hogweed borscht was a fasting dish which they ate regularly from Lent till Rogation days. It was uncommon on the royal table, although according to the 16th-century Polish botanist Marcin of Urzędów – citing Giovanni Manardo, a court physician to the Jagiellonian kings of Hungary – the Polish-born King Vladislaus II used to have a Polish hogweed-based dish prepared for him at his court in Buda. ### Diversification With time, other ingredients were added to the soup, eventually replacing hogweed altogether, and the names **borshch** or **barszcz** became generic terms for any sour-tasting soup. In 19th-century rural Poland, this term included soups made from barberries, currants, gooseberries, cranberries, celery or plums. When describing the uses of common hogweed, John Gerard, a 17th-century English botanist, observed that "the people of [Poland] and Lithuania [used] to make [a] drink with the decoction of this herb and leaven or some other thing made of meal, which is used instead of beer and other ordinary drink." It may suggest that hogweed soup was on some occasions combined with a fermented mixture of water and barley flour, oatmeal or rye flour. Such soured, gelatinous flour-and-water mixture, originally known as kissel (from the Proto-Slavic root *\*kyslŭ*, 'sour') had been already mentioned in *The Tale of Bygone Years*, a 12th-century chronicle of Kievan Rus', and continued to be a staple of Ukrainian and Russian cooking until the middle of the 19th century. In Poland, a soup based on diluted kissel became known as either **żur** (from Middle High German **sur** 'sour') or **barszcz** and later – to distinguish it from the red beetroot borscht – as **barszcz biały** 'white borscht'. The earliest known Polish recipes for borscht, written by chefs catering to Polish magnates (aristocrats), are from the late 17th century. Stanisław Czerniecki, head chef to Prince Aleksander Michał Lubomirski, included several borscht recipes in his **Compendium ferculorum** (*A Collection of Dishes*), the first cookbook published originally in Polish, in 1682. They include such sour soups as lemon borscht and "royal borscht", the latter made from assorted dried, smoked or fresh fish and fermented rye bran. A manuscript recipe collection from the Radziwiłł family court, dating back to ca. 1686, contains an instruction for making hogweed borscht mixed with poppy seeds or ground almonds. As this was a Lenten dish, it was garnished, in a **trompe-l'œil** fashion typical of Baroque cuisine, with mock eggs made from finely chopped pike that was partly dyed with saffron and formed into oval balls. An alternative recipe for the almond borscht replaced pickled hogweed with vinegar. Borscht also evolved into a variety of sour soups to the east of Poland. Examples include onion borscht, a recipe for which was included in a 1905 Russian cookbook, and sorrel-based green borscht, which is still a popular summer soup in Ukraine and Russia. *A Gift to Young Housewives* by Elena Molokhovets, the best-selling Russian cookbook of the 19th century, first published in 1861, contains nine recipes for borscht, some of which are based on kvass, a traditional Slavic fermented beverage made from rye bread. Kvass-based variants were also known in Ukraine at that time; some of them were types of green borscht, while others were similar to the Russian **okroshka**. Before the advent of beet-based borscht, cabbage borscht was of particular importance. Made from either fresh cabbage or sauerkraut, it could be indistinguishable from the Russian **shchi**. Indeed, the mid-19th-century *Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language* defines **borshch** as "a kind of **shchi**" with beet sour added for tartness. The significance of cabbage as an essential ingredient of borscht is manifest in the Ukrainian proverb, "without bread, it's no lunch; without cabbage, it's no borscht." ### Novel ingredients: beets, tomatoes and potatoes Beet (**Beta vulgaris**), a plant native to the Mediterranean Basin, was already grown in antiquity. Only the leaves were of culinary use, as the tapered, tough, whitish and bitter-tasting root was considered unfit for human consumption. It is likely that beet greens were used in variants of green borscht long before the invention of the beetroot-based red borscht. Beet varieties with round, red, sweet taproots, known as beetroots, were not reliably reported until the 12th century and did not spread to Eastern Europe before the 16th century. Mikołaj Rej, a Polish Renaissance poet and moralist, included the earliest known Polish recipe for pickled beetroots in his 1568 book, *Life of an Honest Man*. It would later evolve into **ćwikła**, or **chrain mit burik**, a beet-and-horseradish relish popular in Polish and Jewish cuisines. Rej also recommended the "very tasty brine" left over from beetroot pickling, which was an early version of beet sour. The sour found some applications in Polish folk medicine as a cure for hangover and – mixed with honey – as a sore throat remedy. It may never be known who first thought of using beet sour to flavor borscht, which also gave the soup its now-familiar red color. One of the earliest mentions of borscht with pickled beets comes from Russian ethnographer Andrey Meyer, who wrote in his 1781 book that people in Ukraine make fermented red beets with *Acanthus*, which they in turn use to cook their borscht. The book "Description of the Kharkiv Governorate" of 1785, which describes the food culture of the Ukrainians, says that borscht was the most consumed food, cooked from beets and cabbage with various other herbal spices and millet, on sour kvass; it was always made with pork lard or beef lard, on holidays with lamb or poultry, and sometimes with game. Jerzy Samuel Bandtkie's Polish-German dictionary published in 1806 was the first to define **barszcz** as a tart soup made from pickled beetroots. The fact that certain 19th-century Russian and Polish cookbooks, such as *Handbook of the Experienced Russian Housewife* (1842) by Yekaterina Avdeyeva and *The Lithuanian Cook* (1854) by Wincenta Zawadzka, refer to beetroot-based borscht as "Little Russian borscht" (where "Little Russian" is a term used at the time for ethnic Ukrainians under imperial Russian rule) suggests that this innovation took place in what is now Ukraine, whose soils and climate are particularly well suited to beet cultivation. Ukrainian legends, probably of 19th-century origin, attribute the invention of beetroot borscht either to Zaporozhian Cossacks, serving in the Polish army, on their way to break the siege of Vienna in 1683, or to Don Cossacks, serving in the Russian army, while laying siege to Azov in 1695. Spanish conquistadors brought potatoes and tomatoes from the Americas to Europe in the 16th century, but these vegetables only became commonly grown and consumed in Eastern Europe in the 19th century. Eventually, both became staples of peasant diet and essential ingredients of Ukrainian and Russian borscht. Potatoes replaced turnips in borscht recipes, and tomatoes – fresh, canned or paste – took over from beet sour as the source of tartness. The turnip is rarely found in modern recipes, and even then, together with potatoes. In Ukraine, beet sour and tomatoes were both used for some time until the latter ultimately prevailed during the last third of the 19th century. ### Haute cuisine Russian and Polish aristocrats used to employ celebrated French chefs, who later presented their dishes as foreign curios back in France. One of the first French chefs to do so was Marie-Antoine Carême, who worked briefly for Emperor Alexander I in 1819. In his take on borscht, the original Russian soup served only as inspiration for an extravagant **haute cuisine** dish with an air of eastern exoticism. Apart from vegetables and beet sour, his recipe calls for a roast chicken, a fried chicken, a duck, a piece of veal, an oxtail, a marrow bone, one pound of bacon, and six large sausages, and suggests serving with beef quenelles, deviled eggs and croûtons. Auguste Escoffier, Carême's apprentice, who was mostly fascinated by the soup's vivid ruby-red color, simplified his master's recipe, while also securing the place of **potage bortsch** ("borscht soup") in French cuisine. Urbain Dubois and Émile Bernard, both of whom had been employed at Polish aristocratic courts, presented borscht to the French public as a Polish soup; their cookbook, **La cuisine classique**, published in 1856, contains a borscht recipe under the descriptive name, **potage au jus de betteraves à la polonaise** ("Polish-style beet-juice soup"), which had been changed to **potage barsch à la polonaise** by the third edition in 1868. In 1867, beetroot borscht was served, along with herrings, sturgeon, coulibiac, Pozharsky cutlets and vinaigrette salad, at a Russian-themed dinner at the International Exposition in Paris, strengthening its international association with Russian culture. ### Global spread Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, borscht's popularity spread beyond its Slavic homeland, largely due to such factors as territorial expansion of the Russian Empire, Russia's growing political clout and cultural stature, and waves of emigration out of the country. As Russia grew to cover most of northern and central Eurasia, borscht was introduced to the cuisines of various peoples inhabiting the territories both within and adjacent to the empire, from Finland to the Caucasus and Iran, to Central Asia and China, to Alaska (Russian America). Borscht's westward expansion was less successful; Germans used to scoff at the soup along with other East European fare. What helped the spread of borscht, however, was the popularization by various *haute cuisine* chefs who had their own dishes to present to West Europe. Mass migration from the Russian Empire to North America – initially mostly by members of persecuted religious minorities – was instrumental in bringing borscht across the Atlantic. Jews from the Pale of Settlement, an area that stretched along the western edges of the Russian Empire and included much of present-day Ukraine, brought with them Ukrainian variety of borscht with beetroot. * The earliest waves of migration, however, occurred at a time when cabbage-based borscht was still the dominant variant of the soup in at least parts of Russia. The Mennonites, who began arriving in Canada and the United States from Russia's Volga region in the 1870s, still eschew beetroots in their borscht; instead, Mennonite varieties include **Komst Borscht** (with cabbage or sauerkraut) and **Somma Borscht** (sorrel-based "summer borscht"). According to the *Jewish Encyclopedia* published in 1906, cabbage-based *kraut borscht* was also more popular than the beet-based variant in American Jewish cuisine at the time. Subsequent Jewish immigration helped popularize the red borscht in America. In the 1930s, when most American hotels refused to accept Jewish guests due to widespread anti-Semitism, New York Jews began flocking to Jewish-owned resorts in the Catskill Mountains for their summer vacations. The area grew into a major center of Jewish entertainment, with restaurants offering all-you-can-eat Ashkenazi Jewish fare, including copious amounts of borscht. Grossinger's, one of the largest resorts, served borscht throughout the day, every day of the year. The region became known, initially in derision, as the "Borscht Belt", reinforcing the popular association between borscht and American Jewish culture. As most visitors arrived in the summertime, the borscht was typically served cold. Marc Gold was one of its largest suppliers, producing 1,750 short tons (1,590 tonnes) a year in his business's heyday. Gold's borscht consists of puréed beetroots seasoned with sugar, salt and citric acid; it is usually blended with sour cream and served as a refreshing beverage, more aptly described as a "beet smoothie". Such kind of "purplish, watery broth" is, according to Nikolai Burlakoff, author of *The World of Russian Borsch*, "associated in America with borsch, in general, and Jewish borsch in particular." ### Borscht in the USSR In the Soviet Union, borscht was one of the most popular everyday dishes. It was described by James Meek, a British correspondent in Kyiv and Moscow, as "the common denominator of the Soviet kitchen, the dish that tied together ... the high table of the Kremlin and the meanest canteen in the boondocks of the Urals, ... the beetroot soup that pumped like the main artery through the kitchens of the east Slav lands". Among Soviet leaders, the Ukrainian-born Leonid Brezhnev was especially partial to borscht, which his wife continued to personally cook for him even after they had moved into the Kremlin. The soup has even played a role in the Soviet space program. In March 1961, as part of a communications equipment test, a pre-recorded recipe for borscht was broadcast from the Korabl-Sputnik 4 spacecraft. The craft, carrying animals and a mannequin, had been launched into low Earth orbit in preparation for crewed space flights. Actual borscht eventually made its way into outer space as space food for Soviet and, later, Russian cosmonauts. Originally, a puréed version of borscht was supplied in tubes. All ingredients for the space borscht (which include beef, beetroots, cabbage, potatoes, carrots, onions, parsley root, and tomato paste) were cooked separately, then combined one by one in strictly controlled order, sterilized, packed into tubes, sealed airtight and autoclaved. In the 1970s, the tubes were replaced with packages of rehydratable freeze-dried borscht with regular-size bits of cooked vegetables. However, with urbanization and mass construction of Khrushchyovka type housing, borscht would be affected; there would be no comfortable place to make own days-long dishes with "kvass" and sour foods, in a tiny apartment. At this rate, the idea of making its beet sour lost its initial appeal, making borscht in USSR mainly about beets, not about sourness. Such a typical Soviet-era book as *Entsyclopedia Domashnego Hozyaistva* (literally "Encyclopedia of Housekeeping") has an article on borscht. The article suggests to make a soup with beets, other vegetables, and a tartness source ("tomato puree") as a "borscht" in general, but its "no-nation" primary recipe of meat borscht says "*uksus po vkusu* (Cyrillic: уксус по вкусу)", e.g. only to add vinegar upon tasting the resulting soup. Simply put, the borscht's sourness became an option, not a requirement, for a "generic" Soviet borscht, effectively parting ways with older concepts of making sour soups (ones both with or without beets). * However, the same article mentions the sour variant of the beet soup: it lists separate "Ukrainian borscht" and "Cold borscht" recipes. The "Ukrainian borscht" one properly instructs to make the sour soup with beets by saying "*sbryznut' uksusom* (Cyrillic: сбрызнуть уксусом)", e.g. instructs to sprinkle it with some vinegar. * A beet infusion for borscht is also mentioned in the said article. It involves soaking a beet with boiled water and then adding some vinegar. Again, this makeshift-like substitute for beet sour is listed in the aforementioned Soviet encyclopedia as a way to color borscht, not to sour it. Era of Stagnation also would affect making borscht from time to time to the next level of simplification: the aforementioned canned tomato products, "paste" or "puree" would be a "deficit" item, a thing not available regularly in one's nearby convenience stores. On the other hand, due to urbanization, people wouldn't resort to making own batches of, say, pickled tomates. As result, many modern recipes of beet soups labeled as "borscht" list neither a tartness source (lack tomatoes, pickles, etc.) nor a sourness source (lack vinegar, lemon acid powder, let alone beet sour kvass). In culture ---------- ### As a ritual dish Borscht is often associated with its role in religious traditions of various denominations (Eastern Orthodox, Greek and Roman Catholic, and Jewish) that are common in Eastern Europe. In East Slavic countries, "memorial borscht" is served as the first course at a post-funeral wake. According to a traditional belief, the soul of the departed either feeds on or is carried up to heaven by puffs of steam rising from bowls of borscht and other hot dishes, such as blini, porridge, boiled potatoes or freshly baked bread. In the region of Polesye, straddling the Belarusian-Ukrainian border, the same steaming-hot dishes, including borscht, are given as an offering to the souls of deceased ancestors during the annual semi-pagan remembrance ceremony known as *Dzyady* or Forefathers' Night. In Poland and Ukraine, borscht is usually one of the dishes served at a Christmas Eve dinner. Celebrated after the first star has appeared in the sky on December 24 (Roman Catholic) or January 6 (Greek Catholic), it is a meal which is at the same time festive and fasting, a multicourse affair (traditionally, with twelve distinct dishes) that excludes ingredients of land-animal origin. Christmas Eve borscht is, therefore, either vegetarian or based on fish stock and is not typically mixed with sour cream. In Ukraine, the soup contains vegetables that are sautéed in vegetable oil rather than lard, as well as beans and mushrooms. It may be also thickened with wheat flour dry-roasted in a pan instead of the usual roux. The Polish version of Christmas Eve borscht is a clear ruby-red broth. Both Ukrainian and Polish variants are often served with **uszka**. While Christmas in Poland is traditionally linked to red borscht, Lent – the fasting period that leads up to Easter – is associated with a meatless version of white borscht, or **żur**. Youths used to celebrate Holy Saturday, the last day of the fast, with a mock "funeral" of the white borscht, in which a pot of the soup was either buried in the ground or broken, sometimes – to the crowd's amusement – while being carried by an unsuspecting boy on his head. On the next day, the white borscht would reappear on the Easter table, but this time, in its more coveted, meat-based guise with sausage, bacon and eggs. In Eastern European Ashkenazi Jewish tradition, vegetarian borscht served with sour cream and boiled potatoes on the side, known as **peysakhdiker borsht**, is considered an essential dish during the Passover period. As the holiday is observed in spring (March or April), the preparation of Passover borscht used to provide an opportunity to use up the beet sour left over from pickled beetroots that had been consumed during winter, remaining potatoes that had been stored throughout the winter and sour cream that was readily available in the new calving season. Cold borscht blended with sour cream is also popular on Shavuot (Feast of Weeks), a holiday customarily associated with dairy foods, observed in late May or early June. Seudah Shlishit, or the third meal of the Shabbat, often includes borscht as well. ### As an ethnic dish In its currently most popular, beet-based version, borscht most likely originated in what is now Ukraine. Borscht's role as a staple of everyday Ukrainian diet is reflected in the Ukrainian saying, "borscht and porridge are our food" (compare the equivalent Russian saying, where borscht is replaced with **shchi**). The hearty soup in which the beetroot is just one of sundry vegetables, as opposed to the typically Polish clear beet broth, is still known in Poland as "Ukrainian borscht". Borscht is associated with and claimed by several ethnic groups, especially Ukrainians, Russians, Poles, Lithuanians and Ashkenazi Jews, as their own national or ethnic dish and cultural icon. Such claims are not necessarily mutually exclusive, as the soup's history predates the emergence in Eastern Europe of modern nation states with their ever-shifting borders. Borscht, in the words of Burlakoff, "is perfectly suited to a global culture." He describes it as "a global phenomenon", in which "local variants are so numerous and diverse that it is hard sometimes for a non-specialist to grasp that any single example of it is something that is part of a unified tradition." In his view, borscht "is an almost perfect example of ... 'glocalization' – a phenomenon that is global in distribution but reflective of local needs and ways in its variants and adaptation; ... a highly localized product that became globalized, and in the process adapted to conditions other than the original ones." However, according to Irina Perianova, a Russian linguist and anthropologist, "people tend to be very proprietal about their food and proud of it." Perianova offers competing Russian and Ukrainian views on the origin and ingredients of borscht as an example of "a common connection between culinary and territorial claims", which results in the culinary area turning into "a battlefield generating and proliferating all kinds of myths." In 2020 Ukraine began the process to have borscht recognised as an element of the country's intangible cultural heritage, an initiative supported by chefs and food writers such as Marianna Dushar. A bowl of borscht together with its usual ingredients featured on Ukrainian postage stamps In the Soviet Union, government-sponsored cookbooks, such as *The Book of Tasty and Healthy Food* curated by Anastas Mikoyan, *Cookery* and *Directory of Recipes and Culinary Production*, promoted a unified Soviet cuisine with standardized and nutritionally "rational" versions of traditional dishes. The same cooking techniques and recipes were taught in culinary vocational schools throughout the country, establishing a common cooking style in Soviet cafés and restaurants. Though inspired by the cuisines of the country's various ethnic groups, many recipes were presented as part of an overall Soviet heritage, disassociated from their individual geographic origins. By many people both inside and outside the Soviet Union, borscht was increasingly seen not as an ethnic Ukrainian soup, but as a Soviet or – metonymically – Russian dish. This approach was criticized by William Pokhlebkin, a preeminent Russian food writer, who unequivocally described beet-based borscht as one of the "dishes of Ukrainian cookery" which "have entered the menu of international cuisine". "One could understand", he wrote, "and forgive foreigners for calling borscht or **varenyky** Russian national dishes, but when it turns out that they gleaned the information from Soviet cookbooks or from restaurant menus, one is embarrassed for our authors and chefs, who popularize the national cuisines of our peoples [that is, the ethnic groups of the Soviet Union] with such ignorance." According to Meek: > Pokhlebkin and the Soviet Union are dead, yet Borshchland lives on. Recipes, like birds, ignore political boundaries. ... The faint outline of the Tsarist-Soviet imperium still glimmers in the collective steam off bowls of beetroot and cabbage in meat stock, and the soft sound of dollops of sour cream slipping into soup, from the Black Sea to the Sea of Japan and, in emigration, from Brooklyn to Berlin. > > See also -------- * List of soups * Three grand soups in Japanese culture * Cabbage soup * Comfort food Sources ------- ### Secondary * Christian, David (April 1994). 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ISBN 978-1-4051-7358-2. * Volokh, Anne; Manus, Mavis (1983). *The Art of Russian Cuisine*. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-622090-3. #### Other languages * Artyukh, Lidiya (1977). *Ukrainska narodna kulynariia* Українська народна кулинарія [*Ukrainian Folk Cuisine*] (in Ukrainian). Kyyiv: Naukova dumka. * Artyukh, Lidiya (2006). *Tradytsiina ukrainska kukhnia v narodnomu kalendari* Традиційна українська кухня в народному календарі [*Traditional Ukrainian Cuisine in the Folk Calendar*] (in Ukrainian). Kyiv: Baltiya-Druk. ISBN 966-8137-24-8. * Dumanowski, Jarosław. "Barszcz, żur i post" [Borscht, sour rye soup, and fast]. *naTemat* (in Polish). Retrieved 2015-06-02. * Dumanowski, Jarosław. "Klasyczny barszcz: Francuscy mistrzowie o polskiej kuchni" [Classic borscht: French chefs about Polish cuisine]. *naTemat* (in Polish). Retrieved 2015-06-02. * Gołębiowski, Łukasz (1830). *Domy i dwory* [*Houses and Manors*] (in Polish). Warszawa: N. Glücksberg. * Guboglo, Mikhail Nikolayevich; Simchenko, Yury Borisovich (1992). *Ukraintsy: Istoriko-etnografichesky ocherk traditsionnoy kultury* Украинцы: Историко-этнографический очерк традиционной культуры [*Ukrainians: A Historical Ethnographic Essay of the Traditional Culture*] (in Russian). Moskva: Rossiyskaya akademiya nauk, Institut etnologii i antropologii im. N.N Miklukho-Maklaya. * Gurko, Alexandra V.; Chakvin, Igor V.; Kasperovich, Galina I., eds. (2010). *Etnokulturnye protsessy Vostochnogo Polesya v proshlom i nastoyashchem* Этнокультурные процессы Восточного Полесья в прошлом и настоящем [*Ethnocultural Processes of Eastern Polesye in the Past and Present*] (in Russian). Institut iskusstvovedeniya, etnografii i folklora imeni K. Krapivy NAN Belarusi. ISBN 978-985-08-1229-2. * Karbowiak, Antoni (1900). *Obiady profesorów Uniw. Jagiellońskiego w XVI. i XVII. wieku* [*Luncheons of Jagiellonian University Professors in the 16th–17th Centuries*] (in Polish). Kraków: Tow. Miłośników Historyi i Zabytków Krakowa. * Lepiavko, Serhii (3 November 2020). "Pro ukrainskyi borshch vid 1584 r. z istorychnymy prypravamy" Про український борщ від 1584 р. з історичними приправами [Of Ukrainian borscht after 1584 with historical seasonings]. *Istorychna Pravda* (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 2021-11-29. * Łozińska, Maja; Łoziński, Jan (2013). *Historia polskiego smaku: kuchnia, stół, obyczaje* [*History of Polish Taste: Kitchen, Table, Customs*] (in Polish). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. ISBN 978-83-7705-269-3. * Łuczaj, Łukasz (2012). "Brzozowy sok, "czeremsza" i zielony barszcz – ankieta etnobotaniczna wśród botaników ukraińskich" [Birch sap, ramsons and green borsch – an ethnobotanical survey among Ukrainian botanists] (PDF). *Etnobiologia Polska* (in Polish). Wojaszówka: Zakład Ekotoksykologii, Zamiejscowy Wydział Biotechnologii, Uniwersytet Rzeszowski. **2**: 15–22. ISSN 2083-6228. * Łuczaj, Łukasz (2013). *Dzika kuchnia* [*Wild Cuisine*] (in Polish). Warszawa: Nasza Księgarnia. ISBN 978-83-10-12378-7. * Majkowski, Hilary (1932). *Wyczółkowski 1852–1932* (in Polish). Poznań: Rolnicza Druk. i Księg. Nakładowa. Pages unnumbered. * Matyukhina, Yuliya (2013). *Russkaya dieta* Русская диета [*The Russian Diet*] (in Russian). Nauchnaya Kniga. ISBN 978-5-457-52538-2. * Mazitova, Hanna (2005-12-22). "Chyi borshch?" Чий борщ? [Whose borscht?]. *Den'* (in Ukrainian). Ukrayinska Pres-Grupa. Retrieved 2016-01-25. * Panek, Kazimierz (1905). *Mikroby oraz chemizm kiśnienia barszczu* [*Microbes and Chemistry of Borscht Fermentation*] (in Polish). Kraków: Akademia Umiejętności. * Pokhlebkin, William Vasilyevich (2004) [1978]. *Natsionalnye kukhni nashikh narodov* Национальные кухни наших народов [*National Cuisines of Our Peoples*] (in Russian). Moskva: Tsentrpoligraf. ISBN 5-9524-0718-8. * Rostafiński, Józef (1916). *O nazwach i użytku ćwikły, buraków i barszczu* [*Names and Uses of Chards, Beets and Hogweed*] (in Polish). Kraków: Akademia Umiejętności. * Vinogradova, Lyudmila; Levkievskaya, Yelena (2012). *Narodnaya demonologiya Polesya: Publikatsii tekstov v zapisyakh 80–90-kh gg. XX veka. Tom II: Demonologizatsiya umershikh lyudey* Народная демонология Полесья: Публикации текстов в записях 80–90-х гг. XX века. Том II: Демонологизация умерших людей [*Folk Demonology of Polesye: Publication of field notes from the 1980s and 90s. Vol. 2: Demonization of the Dead*] (in Russian). Moskva: Rukopisnye pamyatniki Drevney Rusi. ISBN 978-5-9551-0606-9. ISSN 1726-135X. Retrieved 2016-01-23. * Zhou, Sili; Sun, Yanru (2012-08-20). "Yībǎi gè Shànghǎi rén yǒu yībǎi zhǒng luó sòng tāng" 一百个上海人有一百种罗宋汤 [One hundred types of borscht for one hundred Shanghainese]. *Sina* (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2017-04-01. Retrieved 2017-05-10. ### Primary or self-published * Avdeyeva, Yekaterina Alekseyevna (1846) [1842]. *Ruchnaya kniga russkoy opytnoy khozyayki* Ручная книга русской опытной хозяйки [*Handbook of the Experienced Russian Housewife*] (in Russian). Sankt-Peterburg: Sveshnikov. * Burlakoff, Nikolai (2013). *The World of Russian Borsch: Explorations of Memory, People, History, Cookbooks & Recipes*. North Charleston, SC: Createspace Independent Pub. ISBN 978-1-4840-2740-0. * Czerniecki, Stanisław (1682). *Compendium ferculorum, albo Zebranie potraw* [*A Collection of Dishes*] (in Polish). Kraków: Drukarnia Jerzego i Mikołaja Schedlów. * Dubois, Urbain; Bernard, Émile (1868) [1856]. *La cuisine classique : études pratiques, raisonnées et démonstratives de l'École française appliquée au service à la russe* [*Classic Cuisine: Practical, Systematic and Demonstrative Studies of the French School of Russian Table Service*] (in French). Paris: E. Dentu. * Dumanowski, Jarosław; Jankowski, Rafał, eds. (2011). *Moda bardzo dobra smażenia różnych konfektów* [*A Very Good Way of Frying Various Confections*]. Monumenta Poloniae Culinaria (in Polish). Vol. 2. Warszawa: Muzeum Pałac w Wilanowie. ISBN 978-83-60959-18-3. * Gerard, John (1636). Johnson, Thomas (ed.). *The Herball Or Generall Historie of Plantes: Very Much Enlarged and Amended by Thomas Johnson Citizen and Apothecarye of London*. Vol. 2. Adam Islip Joice Norton and Richard Whitakers. * "Gold's Borscht, 24 fl oz, (Pack of 6)". Walmart. Retrieved 2016-01-18. * *Kulinariya* Кулинария [*Cookery*] (in Russian). Moskva: Gostorgizdat. 1955–58. * Kuroń, Maciej (2004). *Kuchnia polska: Kuchnia Rzeczypospolitej wielu narodów* [*Polish Cuisine: Cuisine of a Commonwealth of Many Nations*] (in Polish). Czarna Owca. 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Borscht

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borscht

**Nimrud** (/nɪmˈruːd/; Syriac: ܢܢܡܪܕ Arabic: النمرود) is an ancient Assyrian city (original Assyrian name Kalhu, biblical name Calah) located in Iraq, 30 kilometres (20 mi) south of the city of Mosul, and 5 kilometres (3 mi) south of the village of Selamiyah (Arabic: السلامية), in the Nineveh Plains in Upper Mesopotamia. It was a major Assyrian city between approximately 1350 BC and 610 BC. The city is located in a strategic position 10 kilometres (6 mi) north of the point that the river Tigris meets its tributary the Great Zab. The city covered an area of 360 hectares (890 acres). The ruins of the city were found within one kilometre (1,100 yd) of the modern-day Assyrian village of Noomanea in Nineveh Governorate, Iraq. The name Nimrud was recorded as the local name by Carsten Niebuhr in the mid-18th century. In the mid 19th century, biblical archaeologists proposed the Biblical name of **Kalhu** (the Biblical *Calah*), based on a description of the travels of Nimrod in Genesis 10. Archaeological excavations at the site began in 1845, and were conducted at intervals between then and 1879, and then from 1949 onwards. Many important pieces were discovered, with most being moved to museums in Iraq and abroad. In 2013, the UK's Arts and Humanities Research Council funded the "Nimrud Project", directed by Eleanor Robson, whose aims were to write the history of the city in ancient and modern times, to identify and record the dispersal history of artefacts from Nimrud, distributed amongst at least 76 museums worldwide (including 36 in the United States and 13 in the United Kingdom). In 2015, the terrorist organization Islamic State announced its intention to destroy the site because of its "un-Islamic" Assyrian nature. In March 2015, the Iraqi government reported that Islamic State had used bulldozers to destroy excavated remains of the city. Several videos released by ISIL showed the work in progress. In November 2016, Iraqi forces retook the site, and later visitors also confirmed that around 90% of the excavated portion of city had been completely destroyed. The ruins of Nimrud have remained guarded by Iraqi forces ever since. Reconstruction work is in progress. Early history -------------- ### Foundation The Assyrian king Shalmaneser I (1274–1245 BC) built up Kalhu (Nimrod) into a major city during the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1050 BC), rather than the fictional biblical king Nimrod. However, the ancient city of Assur remained the capital of Assyria, as it had been since c. 2600 BC. ### Capital of the Empire The city gained fame when king Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) made it his capital at the expense of Assur. He built a large palace and temples in the city, which had fallen into a degree of disrepair during the Bronze Age Collapse of the mid-11th to mid-10th centuries BC. Thousands of men worked to build an 8-kilometre-long (5 mi) wall surrounding the city and a grand palace. There were many inscriptions carved into limestone including one that said: "The palace of cedar, cypress, juniper, boxwood, mulberry, pistachio wood, and tamarisk, for my royal dwelling and for my lordly pleasure for all time, I founded therein. Beasts of the mountains and of the seas, of white limestone and alabaster I fashioned and set them up on its gates." The inscriptions also described plunder stored at the palace: "Silver, gold, lead, copper and iron, the spoil of my hand from the lands which I had brought under my sway, in great quantities I took and placed therein." The inscriptions also described great feasts he had to celebrate his conquests. However his victims were horrified by his conquests. The text also said: "Many of the captives I have taken and burned in a fire. Many I took alive; from some I cut off their hands to the wrists, from others I cut off their noses, ears and fingers; I put out the eyes of many of the soldiers. I burned their young men, women and children to death." About a conquest in another vanquished city he wrote: "I flayed the nobles as many as rebelled; and [I] spread their skins out on the piles." He wanted the city to become the grandest and luxuriant in the empire. He created a zoo and botanical gardens in the city which also featured exotic animals, trees and flowers he had brought back from his military campaigns. A grand opening ceremony with festivities and an opulent banquet in 864 BC is described in an inscribed stele discovered during archeological excavations. By 800 BC Nimrud had grown to 75,000 inhabitants making it the largest city in the world. King Ashurnasirpal's son Shalmaneser III (858–823 BC) continued where his father had left off. At Nimrud he built a palace that far surpassed his father's. It was twice the size and it covered an area of about 5 hectares (12 acres) and included more than 200 rooms. He built the monument known as the Great Ziggurat, and an associated temple. Nimrud remained the capital of the Assyrian Empire during the reigns of Shamshi-Adad V (822–811 BC), Adad-nirari III (810–782 BC), Queen Semiramis (810–806 BC), Adad-nirari III (806–782 BC), Shalmaneser IV (782–773 BC), Ashur-dan III (772–755 BC), Ashur-nirari V (754–746 BC), Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BC) and Shalmaneser V (726–723 BC). Tiglath-Pileser III in particular, conducted major building works in the city, as well as introducing Eastern Aramaic as the *lingua franca* of the empire, whose dialects still endure among the Christian Assyrians of the region today. However, in 706 BC Sargon II (722–705 BC) moved the capital of the empire to Dur Sharrukin, and after his death, Sennacherib (705–681 BC) moved it to Nineveh. It remained a major city and a royal residence until the city was largely destroyed during the fall of the Assyrian Empire at the hands of an alliance of former subject peoples, including the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes, Persians, Scythians, and Cimmerians (between 616 BC and 599 BC). ### Later geographical writings Ruins of a similarly located Assyrian city named "Larissa" were described by Xenophon in his *Anabasis* in the 5th century BC. A similar locality was described in the Middle Ages by a number of Arabic geographers including Yaqut al-Hamawi, Abu'l-Fida and Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi, using the name "Athur" (meaning Assyria) near Selamiyah. Archaeology ----------- ### Early writings and debate over name 2501851 sketch of Layard's expedition removing a Lamassu1849 sketch of Layard's expedition transporting a LamassuMany of Nineveh's archeological remains were transported to the major museums of the 19th century, including the British Museum and the Louvre #### Nimrud The name Nimrud in connection with the site in Western writings was first used in the travelogue of Carsten Niebuhr, who was in Mosul in March 1760. Niebuhr In 1830, traveller James Silk Buckingham wrote of "two heaps called Nimrod-Tuppé and Shah-Tuppé... The Nimrod-Tuppé has a tradition attached to it, of a palace having been built there by Nimrod". However, the name became the cause of significant debate amongst Assyriologists in the mid-nineteenth century, with much of the discussion focusing on the identification of four Biblical cities mentioned in Genesis 10: "From that land he went to Assyria, where he built Nineveh, the city Rehoboth-Ir, Calah and Resen". #### Larissa / Resen The site was described in more detail by the British traveler Claudius James Rich in 1820, shortly before his death. Rich identified the site with the city of Larissa in Xenophon, and noted that the locals "generally believe this to have been Nimrod's own city; and one or two of the better informed with whom I conversed at Mousul said it was Al Athur or Ashur, from which the whole country was denominated." The site of Nimrud was visited by William Francis Ainsworth in 1837. Ainsworth, like Rich, identified the site with Larissa (Λάρισσα) of Xenophon's *Anabasis*, concluding that Nimrud was the Biblical Resen on the basis of Bochart's identification of Larissa with Resen on etymological grounds. #### Rehoboth The site was subsequently visited by James Phillips Fletcher in 1843. Fletcher instead identified the site with Rehoboth on the basis that the city of Birtha described by Ptolemy and Ammianus Marcellinus has the same etymological meaning as Rehoboth in Hebrew. #### Ashur Sir Henry Rawlinson mentioned that the Arabic geographers referred to it as Athur. British traveler Claudius James Rich mentions, "one or two of the better informed with whom I conversed at Mosul said it was Al Athur or Ashur, from which the whole country was denominated." #### Nineveh Prior to 1850, Layard believed that the site of "Nimroud" was part of the wider region of "Nineveh" (the debate as to which excavation site represented the city of Nineveh had yet to be resolved), which also included the two mounds today identified as Nineveh-proper, and his excavation publications were thus labeled. #### Calah Henry Rawlinson identified the city with the Biblical Calah on the basis of a cuneiform reading of "Levekh" which he connected to the city following Ainsworth and Rich's connection of Xenophon's Larissa to the site. ### Excavations Initial excavations at Nimrud were conducted by Austen Henry Layard, working from 1845 to 1847 and from 1849 until 1851. Following Layard's departure, the work was handed over to Hormuzd Rassam in 1853-54 and then William Loftus in 1854–55. After George Smith briefly worked the site in 1873 and Rassam returned there from 1877 to 1879, Nimrud was left untouched for almost 60 years. A British School of Archaeology in Iraq team led by Max Mallowan resumed digging at Nimrud in 1949; these excavations resulted in the discovery of the 244 Nimrud Letters. The work continued until 1963 with David Oates becoming director in 1958 followed by Julian Orchard in 1963. Subsequent work was by the Directorate of Antiquities of the Republic of Iraq (1956, 1959–60, 1969–78 and 1982–92), the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology University of Warsaw directed by Janusz Meuszyński (1974–76), Paolo Fiorina (1987–89) with the Centro Ricerche Archeologiche e Scavi di Torino who concentrated mainly on Fort Shalmaneser, and John Curtis (1989). In 1974 to his untimely death in 1976 Janusz Meuszyński, the director of the Polish project, with the permission of the Iraqi excavation team, had the whole site documented on film—in slide film and black-and-white print film. Every relief that remained in situ, as well as the fallen, broken pieces that were distributed in the rooms across the site were photographed. Meuszyński also arranged with the architect of his project, Richard P. Sobolewski, to survey the site and record it in plan and in elevation. As a result, the entire relief compositions were reconstructed, taking into account the presumed location of the fragments that were scattered around the world. Excavations revealed remarkable bas-reliefs, ivories, and sculptures. A statue of Ashurnasirpal II was found in an excellent state of preservation, as were colossal winged man-headed lions weighing 10 short tons (9.1 t) to 30 short tons (27 t) each guarding the palace entrance. The large number of inscriptions dealing with king Ashurnasirpal II provide more details about him and his reign than are known for any other ruler of this epoch. The palaces of Ashurnasirpal II, Shalmaneser III, and Tiglath-Pileser III have been located. Portions of the site have been also been identified as temples to Ninurta and Enlil, a building assigned to Nabu, the god of writing and the arts, and as extensive fortifications. In 1988, the Iraqi Department of Antiquities discovered four queens' tombs at the site. ### Artworks Nimrud has been one of the main sources of Assyrian sculpture, including the famous palace reliefs. Layard discovered more than half a dozen pairs of colossal guardian figures guarding palace entrances and doorways. These are *lamassu*, statues with a male human head, the body of a lion or bull, and wings. They have heads carved in the round, but the body at the side is in relief. They weigh up to 27 tonnes (30 short tons). In 1847 Layard brought two of the colossi weighing 9 tonnes (10 short tons) each including one lion and one bull to London. After 18 months and several near disasters he succeeded in bringing them to the British Museum. This involved loading them onto a wheeled cart. They were lowered with a complex system of pulleys and levers operated by dozens of men. The cart was towed by 300 men. He initially tried to hook up the cart to a team of buffalo and have them haul it. However the buffalo refused to move. Then they were loaded onto a barge which required 600 goatskins and sheepskins to keep it afloat. After arriving in London a ramp was built to haul them up the steps and into the museum on rollers. Additional 27-tonne (30-short-ton) colossi were transported to Paris from Khorsabad by Paul Emile Botta in 1853. In 1928 Edward Chiera also transported a 36-tonne (40-short-ton) colossus from Khorsabad to Chicago. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York has another pair. The Statue of Ashurnasirpal II, Stela of Shamshi-Adad V and Stela of Ashurnasirpal II are large sculptures with portraits of these monarchs, all secured for the British Museum by Layard and the British archaeologist Hormuzd Rassam. Also in the British Museum is the famous Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, discovered by Layard in 1846. This stands six-and-a-half-feet tall and commemorates with inscriptions and 24 relief panels the king's victorious campaigns of 859–824 BC. It is shaped like a temple tower at the top, ending in three steps. Series of the distinctive Assyrian shallow reliefs were removed from the palaces and sections are now found in several museums (see gallery below), in particular the British Museum. These show scenes of hunting, warfare, ritual and processions. The Nimrud Ivories are a large group of ivory carvings, probably mostly originally decorating furniture and other objects, that had been brought to Nimrud from several parts of the ancient Near East, and were in a palace storeroom and other locations. These are mainly in the British Museum and the National Museum of Iraq, as well as other museums. Another storeroom held the Nimrud Bowls, about 120 large bronze bowls or plates, also imported. The "Treasure of Nimrud" unearthed in these excavations is a collection of 613 pieces of gold jewelry and precious stones. It has survived the confusions and looting after the invasion of Iraq in 2003 in a bank vault, where it had been put away for 12 years and was "rediscovered" on June 5, 2003. ### Significant inscriptions One panel of the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III has an inscription which includes the name *mIa-ú-a mar mHu-um-ri-i* Whilst Rawlinson originally translated this in 1850 as "Yahua, son of Hubiri", a year later reverend Edward Hincks, suggested it refers to king Jehu of Israel (2 Kings 9:2 ff. Whilst other interpretations exist, the obelisk is widely viewed by biblical archaeologists as therefore including the earliest known dedication of an Israelite. Note: all the kings of Israel were called "sons of Omri" by the Assyrians (mar means son). A number of other artifacts considered important to Biblical history were excavated from the site, such as the Nimrud Tablet K.3751 and the Nimrud Slab. The bilingual Assyrian lion weights were important to scholarly deduction of the history of the alphabet. Destruction ----------- Nimrud's various monuments had faced threats from exposure to the harsh elements of the Iraqi climate. Lack of proper protective roofing meant that the ancient reliefs at the site were susceptible to erosion from wind-blown sand and strong seasonal rains. In mid-2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) occupied the area surrounding Nimrud. ISIL destroyed other holy sites, including the Mosque of the Prophet Jonah in Mosul. In early 2015, they announced their intention to destroy many ancient artifacts, which they deemed idolatrous or otherwise un-Islamic; they subsequently destroyed thousands of books and manuscripts in Mosul's libraries. In February 2015, ISIL destroyed Akkadian monuments in the Mosul Museum, and on March 5, 2015, Iraq announced that ISIL militants had bulldozed Nimrud and its archaeological site on the basis that they were blasphemous. A member of ISIL filmed the destruction, declaring, "These ruins that are behind me, they are idols and statues that people in the past used to worship instead of Allah. The Prophet Muhammad took down idols with his bare hands when he went into Mecca. We were ordered by our prophet to take down idols and destroy them, and the companions of the prophet did this after this time, when they conquered countries." ISIL declared an intention to destroy the restored city gates in Nineveh. ISIL went on to do demolition work at the later Parthian ruined city of Hatra. On April 12 2015, an on-line militant video purportedly showed ISIL militants hammering, bulldozing and ultimately using explosives to blow up parts of Nimrud. Irina Bokova, the director general of UNESCO, stated "deliberate destruction of cultural heritage constitutes a war crime". The president of the Syriac League in Lebanon compared the losses at the site to the destruction of culture by the Mongol Empire. In November 2016, aerial photographs showed the systematic leveling of the Ziggurat by heavy machines. On 13 November 2016, the Iraqi Army recaptured the city from ISIL. The Joint Operations Command stated that it had raised the Iraqi flag above its buildings and also captured the Assyrian village of Numaniya, on the edge of the town. By the time Nimrud was retaken, around 90% of the excavated part of the city had been destroyed entirely. Every major structure had been damaged, the Ziggurat of Nimrud had been flattened, only a few scattered broken walls remained of the palace of Ashurnasirpal II, the Lamassu that once guarded its gates had been smashed and scattered across the landscape. ### Reconstruction of the site A renovation program started in July 2017 with the support of UNESCO. The first phase included conducting studies of the damage caused to the site, assembling an Iraqi maintenance and rehabilitation team, preservation and archiving of the city's cultural heritage in co-operation with the American Smithsonian Institution. Phase 2 was launched in October 2019 with the goal to restore the northern palace. As of 2020, archaeologists from the Nimrud Rescue Project have carried out two seasons of work at the site, training native Iraqi archaeologists on protecting heritage and helping preserve the remains. Plans for reconstruction and tourism are in the works but will likely not be implemented within the next decade. The first major excavation works, launched in mid-October 2022 by an excavation team from the University of Pennsylvania, reported the discovery of a door sill slab with inscriptions in December. ### Security post Islamic State Following the liberation from Islamic State, the security of the ancient city is run by the ethnic Assyrian security force Nineveh Plain Protection Units. Gallery ------- * Items excavated from Nimrud, located in museums around the world * Nimrud ivory plaque, with original gold leaf and paint, depicting a lion killing a human (British Museum)Nimrud ivory plaque, with original gold leaf and paint, depicting a lion killing a human (British Museum) * Ashurnasirpal II (Louvre)Ashurnasirpal II (Louvre) * Ashurnasirpal II (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)Ashurnasirpal II (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) * Assyrian lion hunt (Pergamon)Assyrian lion hunt (Pergamon) * Lamassu, Stelas, Statue, Relief Panels, including the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III (British Museum)Lamassu, Stelas, Statue, Relief Panels, including the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III (British Museum) * Lamassu of Tiglath-pileser III (British Museum)Lamassu of Tiglath-pileser III (British Museum) * City under siege (British Museum)City under siege (British Museum) * Cavalry battle (British Museum)Cavalry battle (British Museum) * Eagle-headed deity (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)Eagle-headed deity (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) * Lamassu (Metropolitan Museum)Lamassu (Metropolitan Museum) * Relief with Winged Genius (Walters Art Museum)Relief with Winged Genius (Walters Art Museum) * Two Nimrud ivories made in Egypt (British Museum)Two Nimrud ivories made in Egypt (British Museum) * Stela of Shamshi-Adad V, Height 195.2 cm, Width 92.5 cm, (British Museum)Stela of Shamshi-Adad V, Height 195.2 cm, Width 92.5 cm, (British Museum) * Two archers (Hermitage Museum)Two archers (Hermitage Museum) * A human-headed and winged apkallu holding a pine cone and bucket for religious rituals (Museum of the Ancient Orient)A human-headed and winged apkallu holding a pine cone and bucket for religious rituals (Museum of the Ancient Orient) * Tree of life (Brooklyn Museum)Tree of life (Brooklyn Museum) * The first publication of a Phoenician metal bowl, one of 16 metal bowls from Nimrud with a Phoenician inscription (see letters on top sketch of the side profile) The first publication of a Phoenician metal bowl, one of 16 metal bowls from Nimrud with a Phoenician inscription (see letters on top sketch of the side profile) See also -------- * Cities of the ancient Near East * Hatra * Islamic Iconoclasm * Nimrud lens * Short chronology timeline Further reading --------------- * Crawford, Vaughn E.; et al. (1980). *Assyrian reliefs and ivories in the Metropolitan Museum of Art: palace reliefs of Assurnasirpal II and ivory carvings from Nimrud*. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0870992605. * Russell, John Malcolm (1998). "The Program of the Palace of Assurnasirpal II at Nimrud: Issues in the Research and Presentation of Assyrian Art". *American Journal of Archaeology*. **102** (4): 655–715. doi:10.2307/506096. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 506096. S2CID 191618390. * Barbara Parker, Seals and Seal Impressions from the Nimrud Excavations, Iraq, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 26–40 1962 * Barbara Parker, "Nimrud Tablets, 1956: Economic and Legal Texts from the Nabu Temple", Iraq, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 125–138, 1957 * D. J. Wiseman, "The Nabu Temple Texts from Nimrud", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 248–250, 1968 * D. J. Wiseman, Fragments of Historical Texts from Nimrud, Iraq, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 118–124, 1964 * A. H. Layard, *Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon*, John Murray, 1853 * A. H. Layard, *The monuments of Nineveh; from drawings made on the spot*, John Murray, 1849 * Claudius James Rich, *Narrative of a residence in Koordistan, and on the site of ancient Nineveh*. Ed. by his widow, 1836 * James Phillips Fletcher, *Narrative of a Two Years' Residence at Nineveh*, Volume 2, 1850 * Muzahim Mahmoud Hussein, *Nimrud: The Queens' Tombs*. 2016

Nimrud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimrud

In Greek mythology, **Cadmus** (/ˈkædməs/; Greek: Κάδμος, translit. **Kádmos**) was the legendary Phoenician hero and founder of Boeotian Thebes. He was, alongside Perseus and Bellerophon, the greatest hero and slayer of monsters before the days of Heracles. Commonly stated to be a prince of Phoenicia, the son of king Agenor and queen Telephassa of Tyre, the brother of Phoenix, Cilix and Europa, Cadmus traced his origins back to Poseidon and Libya. Originally, he was sent by his royal parents to seek out and escort his sister Europa back to Tyre after she was abducted from the shores of Phoenicia by Zeus. In early accounts, Cadmus and Europa were instead the children of Phoenix. Cadmus founded or refounded the Greek city of Thebes, the acropolis of which was originally named *Cadmeia* in his honour. He is also credited with the foundation of several cities in Illyria, like Bouthoe and Lychnidus. In ancient Greek literature, the end of the mythical narrative of Cadmus and Harmonia is associated with Enchelei and Illyrians, a tradition deeply rooted among the Illyrian peoples. His parentage was sometimes modified to suit, e.g. claims of Theban origin name his mother as one of the daughters of Nilus, one of the Potamoi and deity of the Nile river. Overview -------- Cadmus was credited by the Greek historian Herodotus with introducing the original Phoenician alphabet to the Greeks, who adapted it to form their Greek alphabet. Modern scholarship has almost unanimously agreed with Herodotus concerning the Phoenician source of the alphabet. Herodotus estimates that Cadmus lived sixteen hundred years before his time, which would be around 2000 BC. Herodotus had seen and described the Cadmean writing in the temple of Apollo at Thebes engraved on certain tripods. He estimated those tripods to date back to the time of Laius the great-grandson of Cadmus. On one of the tripods there was this inscription in Cadmean writing, which, as he attested, resembled Ionian letters: Ἀμφιτρύων μ᾽ ἀνέθηκ᾽ ἐνάρων ἀπὸ Τηλεβοάων ("Amphitryon dedicated me from the spoils of [the battle of] Teleboae."). Although Greeks like Herodotus dated Cadmus's role in the founding myth of Thebes to well before the Trojan War (or, in modern terms, during the Aegean Bronze Age), this chronology conflicts with most of what is now known or thought to be known about the origins and spread of both the Phoenician and Greek alphabets. The earliest Greek inscriptions match Phoenician letter forms from the late 9th or 8th centuries BC—in any case, the Phoenician alphabet properly speaking was not developed until around 1050 BC (or after the Bronze Age collapse). The Homeric picture of the Mycenaean age betrays extremely little awareness of writing, possibly reflecting the loss during the Dark Age of the earlier Linear B script. Indeed, the only Homeric reference to writing was in the phrase "σήματα λυγρά", *sēmata lugra*, literally "baneful signs", when referring to the Bellerophontic letter. Linear B tablets have been found in abundance at Thebes, which might lead one to speculate that the legend of Cadmus as bringer of the alphabet could reflect earlier traditions about the origins of Linear B writing in Greece (as Frederick Ahl speculated in 1967). According to Greek myth, Cadmus's descendants ruled at Thebes on and off for several generations, including the time of the Trojan War. Etymology --------- The etymology of Cadmus' name remains uncertain. According to one view, the name originates from Phoenician, from the Semitic root *qdm*, which signifies "the east", the equation of *Kadmos* with the Semitic *qdm* was traced to a publication of 1646 by R. B. Edwards. According to another view, the name is of Greek origin, ultimately from the word *kekasmenos*. (Greek: κεκασμένος, lit. 'excellent'). Possible connected words include the Semitic triliteral root *qdm* (Ugaritic: 𐎖𐎄𐎎) which signifies "east" in Ugaritic, in Arabic, words derived from the root "qdm" include the verb "qdm" meaning "to come" as well as words meaning "primeval" and "forth" as well as "foot", names derived from it are "Qadim", which means "he who advances" and "of antiquity", ─ in Hebrew, *qedem* means "front", "east" and "ancient times"; the verb *qadam* (Syriac: ܩܕܡ) means "to be in front", and the Greek *kekasmai* (<\**kekadmai*) "to shine". Therefore, the complete meaning of the name might be: "He who excels" or "from the east". Wanderings ---------- ### Travel to Samothrace After his sister Europa had been carried off by Zeus from the shores of Phoenicia, Cadmus was sent out by his father to find her, and enjoined not to return without her. Unsuccessful in his search—or unwilling to go against Zeus—he came to Samothrace, the island sacred to the "Great Gods" or the Kabeiroi, whose mysteries would be celebrated also at Thebes. Cadmus did not journey alone to Samothrace; he appeared with his mother Telephassa in the company of his nephew (or brother) Thasus, son of Cilix, who gave his name to the island of Thasos nearby. An identically composed trio had other names at Samothrace, according to Diodorus Siculus: Electra and her two sons, Dardanos and Eetion or Iasion. There was a fourth figure, Electra's daughter, Harmonia, whom Cadmus took away as a bride, as Zeus had abducted Europa. The wedding was the first celebrated on Earth to which the gods brought gifts, according to Diodorus and dined with Cadmus and his bride. Cadmus and the Serpent (ca. 100 BC)Cadmus and the Serpent (ca. 100 BC) ### Founder of Thebes Cadmus came in the course of his wanderings to Delphi, where he consulted the oracle. He was ordered to give up his quest and follow a special cow, with a half moon on her flank, which would meet him, and to build a town on the spot where she should lie down exhausted. The cow was given to Cadmus by Pelagon, King of Phocis, and it guided him to Boeotia, where he founded the city of Thebes. Intending to sacrifice the cow to Athena, Cadmus sent some of his companions, Deioleon and Seriphus to the nearby Ismenian spring for water. They were slain by the spring's guardian water-dragon (compare the Lernaean Hydra), which was in turn destroyed by Cadmus, the duty of a culture hero of the new order. He was then instructed by Athena to sow the dragon's teeth in the ground, from which there sprang a race of fierce armed men, called the *Spartoi* ("sown"). By throwing a stone among them, Cadmus caused them to fall upon one another until only five survived, who assisted him to build the Cadmeia or citadel of Thebes, and became the founders of the noblest families of that city. The dragon had been sacred to Ares, so the god made Cadmus do penance for eight years by serving him. According to Theban tellings, it was at the expiration of this period that the gods gave him Harmonia ("harmony", literally "putting or assembling together", "good assembly", or "good composition") as wife. At Thebes, Cadmus and Harmonia began a dynasty with a son Polydorus, and four daughters, Agave, Autonoë, Ino and Semele. In rare account, the couple instead had six daughters which are called the Cadmiades: Ino, Agaue, Semele, Eurynome, Kleantho and Eurydike. At the wedding, whether celebrated at Samothrace or at Thebes, all the gods were present; Harmonia received as bridal gifts a *peplos* worked by Athena and a necklace made by Hephaestus. This necklace, commonly referred to as the Necklace of Harmonia, brought misfortune to all who possessed it. Notwithstanding the divinely ordained nature of his marriage and his kingdom, Cadmus lived to regret both: his family was overtaken by grievous misfortunes, and his city by civil unrest. Cadmus finally abdicated in favor of his grandson Pentheus, and went with Harmonia to Illyria, to fight on the side of the Enchelii. Later, as king, he founded the city of Lychnidos and Bouthoe. Nevertheless, Cadmus was deeply troubled by the ill-fortune which clung to him as a result of his having killed the sacred dragon, and one day he remarked that if the gods were so enamoured of the life of a serpent, he might as well wish that life for himself. Immediately he began to grow scales and change in form. Harmonia, seeing the transformation, thereupon begged the gods to share her husband's fate, which they granted (Hyginus). In another telling of the story, the bodies of Cadmus and his wife were changed after their deaths; the serpents watched their tomb while their souls were translated to the fields. In Euripides' *The Bacchae*, Cadmus is given a prophecy by Dionysus whereby both he and his wife will be turned into snakes for a period before eventually being brought to live among the blest. Genealogy --------- Cadmus was of ultimately divine ancestry, the grandson of the sea god Poseidon and Libya on his father's side, and of Nilus (the River Nile) on his mother's side; overall he was considered a member of the fifth generation of beings following the (mythological) creation of the world: **Argive genealogy in Greek mythology**| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Inachus | | Melia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Zeus | | Io | | Phoroneus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Epaphus | | Memphis | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Libya | | Poseidon | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Belus | | Achiroë | | | | | | | Agenor | | Telephassa | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Danaus | | Elephantis | | Aegyptus | | Cadmus | | Cilix | | Europa | | Phoenix | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Mantineus | | Hypermnestra | | | | Lynceus | | | | | | | | Harmonia | | | | | | | Zeus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Polydorus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Sparta | | Lacedaemon | | Ocalea | | Abas | | | | | | | | Agave | | Sarpedon | | | Rhadamanthus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Autonoë | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Eurydice | | Acrisius | | | | | | | | Ino | | | | Minos | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Zeus | | Danaë | | | | | | | Semele | | Zeus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Perseus | | | | | | | | | | | Dionysus | | | | | | | | --- | | Colour key:   Male   Female   Deity | | | Royal house of Thebes family tree | | --- | | * Solid lines indicate descendants. * Dashed lines indicate marriages. * Dotted lines indicate extra-marital relationships or adoptions. * Kings of Thebes are numbered with **bold** names and a light purple background. + Joint rules are indicated by a number and lowercase letter, for example, 5a. **Amphion** shared the throne with 5b. **Zethus**. * Regents of Thebes are alphanumbered (format AN) with **bold** names and a light red background. + The number N refers to the regency preceding the reign of the Nth king. Generally this means the regent served the Nth king but not always, as **Creon** (A9) was serving as regent to **Laodamas** (the 10th King) when he was slain by **Lycus II** (the usurping 9th king). + The letter A refers to the regency sequence. "A" is the first regent, "B" is the second, etc. * Deities have a yellow background color. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Harmonia | | 1.**Cadmus** | | | | | Polyxo | | A4.**Nycteus** (Regent) | | Dirce | | B4 & A6.**Lycus** (Regent) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Zeus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Zeus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Ino | | | Agave | | Echion | | 3.**Polydorus** | | Nycteis | | Antiope | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Semele | | Autonoë | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Dionysus | | | | | | | 2.**Pentheus** | | Epeiros | | 4.**Labdacus** | | 5a.**Amphion** | | 5b.**Zethus** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Menoeceus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Eurydice | | A7, A8 & A9.**Creon** (Regent) | | | | | | | | Jocasta | | 6.**Laius** | | Merope | | Polybus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Hipponome | | Alcaeus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Zeus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Alcmene | | Amphitryon | | | Perimede | | | | 7.**Oedipus** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Megara | | Heracles | | Iphicles | | Anaxo | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Henioche | | | Megareus | | | Haemon | | | Antigone | | | 8b.**Eteocles** | | Argea | | 8a.**Polynices** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Pyrrha | | Lycomedes | | | | | | | Ismene | | | | | | | | | | | 9.**Lycus II** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A12.**Peneleos** (Regent) | | | | 10.**Laodamas** | | Demonassa | | 11.**Thersander** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Opheltes | | | | | | | | | | 12.**Tisamenus** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 14.**Damasichthon** | | | | | | | | | | 13.**Autesion** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 15.**Ptolemy** | | | | | | Theras | | Argeia | | Aristodemus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 16.**Xanthos** | | | | | | | | | | Eurysthenes | | Procles | | | | | Offspring --------- With Harmonia, he was the father of Semele, Polydorus, Autonoe, Agave and Ino. Their youngest son was Illyrius. According to Greek mythology, Cadmus is the ancestor of Illyrians and Theban royalty. Samothracian connection ----------------------- The fact that Hermes was worshipped in Samothrace under the name of Cadmus or Cadmilus seems to show that the Theban Cadmus was interpreted as an ancestral Theban hero corresponding to the Samothracian. Another Samothracian connection for Cadmus is offered via his wife Harmonia, who is said by Diodorus Siculus to be daughter of Zeus and Electra and of Samothracian birth. Modern scholarship ------------------ ### Origins of Cadmus and his myth The question of Cadmus' eastern origin have been debated for a long time in modern scholarship. Homer mentions Cadmus only once, but he had already referred to the inhabitants of Thebes with the name "Cadmeans". Aeschylus and Sophocles, in particular, repeatedly mention the "city of Cadmus" and "Cadmeans", relating Thebes with Cadmus. Also Euripides linked Thebes with Cadmus, but he was one of the earliest authors and the only tragedian to mention "Cadmus the Tyrian". Herodotus refers to Cadmus the Tyrian, and he was the first to mention Cadmus' 'Phoenician' origins, but he certainly was not the initiator of this transformation, as his *Histories* provides evidence that the myth was already widespread. Since Herodotus Cadmus has been commonly described as a prince of Phoenicia. According to Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), Cadmus had Theban origins. Modern historian Albert Schachter has suggested that Cadmus was a fictitious hero named after the Thebean acropolis and was made 'Phoenician' due to the influence of immigrants from the East to Boeotia. According to M. L. West the myth of Cadmus and Harmonia at Thebes originated from 9th or 8th century BC Phoenician residents in the city. According to Jason Colavito, although modern scholars have debated on whether the myth came from Phoenicia, there is evidence that the core of Cadmus's myth originated in Near Eastern stories of the battle between a hero and a dragon. The myth of Cadmus the Phoenician was not a literal reinterpretation of an original Phoenician myth, although being probably inspired by one, rather it was the Greeks' interpretation of the Phoenician civilization and the benefits they acquired from it, specifically the alphabet. According to archaeologist John Boardman, the "Phoenicians" who came with Cadmus, were not "Phoenicians", but rather Greeks who had lived in the Near East for a while and had returned to teach what they had learned there, including the alphabet. Given the absence of a Phoenician colony in Thebes, several hypotheses arguing against Cadmus' eastern origin have been proposed by modern scholars: Mycenaean hypothesis According to historian Frederick M. Ahl, scholarly suggestions that Cadmus was a Mycenaean must be taken into account against Cadmus' Phoenician origin, as for him it is becoming harder and harder to reconcile literary and archaeological evidence, not to mention epigraphical difficulties. Ahl rather suggest that "Cadmus was a Mycenaean, and the writing he brought to Thebes was Linear B, which may have been known to Greek-speaking peoples then or later as *φοινικήια γράμματα*." Cretan hypothesis Henry Hall set forth an hypothesis, arguing that Cadmus and the Cadmeians came from Crete. There are a number of difficulties involved in this hypothesis, however, notably the assertion that Mycenaean society resulted from the triumph of the Minoan civilization over the mainland one. Argive hypothesis Cadmus was used as an identification figure by the Argives, representing an intriguing example of mythical requisition in relation to the wars between Argos and Thebes. According to the Argive legend, Cadmus' father Agenor was descended from the Argive princess Io. In this light, Cadmus becomes an Argive and Thebes his "home away from home", which is connected with the emergence of hybrid identities during the period of the Great Colonization. ### Hittite records controversy It has been argued by various scholars, that in a letter from the King of Ahhiyawa to the Hittite King, written in the Hittite language in c. 1250 BC, a specific Cadmus was mentioned as a forefather of the Ahhijawa people. The latter term most probably referred to the Mycenaean world (Achaeans), or at least to a part of it. Nevertheless, this reading about a supposed Cadmus as historical person is rejected by most scholars. Trivia ------ The Syrian city of Al-Qadmus is named after Cadmus. See also -------- * Cadmium * Cadmus of Miletus * Cadmean victory * Cadmean vixen * Theban kings in Greek mythology References ---------- ### Primary sources * Apollodorus, *The Library* with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. * Gaius Julius Hyginus, *Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus* translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. * Homer, *The Odyssey* with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. ISBN 978-0674995611. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. * Publius Ovidius Naso, *Metamorphoses* translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Publius Ovidius Naso, *Metamorphoses.* Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library. ### Secondary sources * Ahl, F. M. (1967). "Cadmus and the Palm-Leaf Tablets". *The American Journal of Philology*. **88** (2): 188–194. doi:10.2307/293470. ISSN 0002-9475. JSTOR 293470. * Colavito, Jason (2014). *Jason and the Argonauts through the Ages*. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-7972-6. * Castiglioni, Maria Paola (2006). "Cadmos-serpent chez les Illyriens". *Hypotheses*. **1** (9): 241. doi:10.3917/hyp.051.0241. * Castiglioni, Maria Paola (2010). *Cadmos-serpent en Illyrie. Itinéraire d'un héros civilisateur*. Pisa University Press. ISBN 978-8884927422. * Theoi Project * Harrison, Thomas (2019). *Greeks And Barbarians*. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-1-4744-6891-6. * Kerenyi, Karl. *The Heroes of the Greeks*, 1959. * Vian, F. *Les origines de Thébes: Cadmos et les Spartes*. Paris, 1963. * R. B. Edwards. *Kadmos, the Phoenician: A Study in Greek Legends and the Mycenaean Age*. Amsterdam, 1979. * T. Gantz. *Early Greek Myth.*, Volume 2, 467–73. * Matia Rocchi. *Kadmos e Harmonia: un matrimonio problemmatico*. Rome, Bretschneider, 1989. * Svetlana Janakieva, "Lе Mythe de Cadmos et l'aire ethnolinguistique paleobalkanique," *Thracia*, 11, 1995 (= Studia in honorem Alexandri Fol. Sofia, 1995). * This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cadmus". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 931. * Shavit, Yaacov (2001). *History in Black: African-Americans in Search of an Ancient Past*. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-7146-8216-7. * Schachter, A. (2012). "Cadmus". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). *The Oxford Classical Dictionary*. OUP Oxford. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8. * Schachter, Albert (2016), "Kadmos and the implications of the tradition for Boiotian history", *Boiotia in Antiquity: Selected Papers*, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 25–35, ISBN 978-1-107-05324-3 * Woodard, Roger D. (2013). "Alphabet". In Wilson, Nigel (ed.). *Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece*. Routledge. pp. 37–39. ISBN 9781136788000. Further reading --------------- * Calasso, Roberto (1993). *The Marriage of Cadmus and Harmony*. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0-394-58154-7. | Regnal titles | | --- | | **New creation** | **Mythical King of Thebes** | Succeeded byPentheus |

Cadmus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmus

A **microwave oven** (commonly referred to as a **microwave**) is an electric oven that heats and cooks food by it being exposed to electromagnetic radiation in the microwave frequency range. This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate and produce thermal energy in a process known as dielectric heating. Microwave ovens heat foods quickly and efficiently because excitation is fairly uniform in the outer 25–38 mm (1–1.5 inches) of a homogeneous, high-water-content food item. The development of the cavity magnetron in the United Kingdom made possible the production of electromagnetic waves of a small enough wavelength (microwaves). American engineer Percy Spencer is generally credited with inventing the modern microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war. Named the "Radarange", it was first sold in 1946. Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was introduced by Tappan in 1955, but it was still too large and expensive for general home use. Sharp Corporation introduced the first microwave oven with a turntable between 1964 and 1966. The countertop microwave oven was introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation. After microwave ovens became affordable for residential use in the late 1970s, their use spread into commercial and residential kitchens around the world, and prices fell rapidly during the 1980s. In addition to cooking food, microwave ovens are used for heating in many industrial processes. Microwave ovens are a common kitchen appliance and are popular for reheating previously cooked foods and cooking a variety of foods. They rapidly heat foods which can easily burn or turn lumpy if cooked in conventional pans, such as hot butter, fats, chocolate or porridge. Microwave ovens usually do not directly brown or caramelize food, since they rarely attain the necessary temperature to produce Maillard reactions. Exceptions occur in cases where the oven is used to heat frying-oil and other oily items (such as bacon), which attain far higher temperatures than that of boiling water. Microwave ovens have a limited role in professional cooking, because the boiling-range temperatures of a microwave oven does not produce the flavorful chemical reactions that frying, browning, or baking at a higher temperature produces. However, such high heat sources can be added to microwave ovens in the form of a convection microwave oven. History ------- ### Early developments Demonstration by Westinghouse of cooking sandwiches with a 60 MHz shortwave radio transmitter at the 1933 Chicago World's Fair The exploitation of high-frequency radio waves for heating substances was made possible by the development of vacuum tube radio transmitters around 1920. By 1930 the application of short waves to heat human tissue had developed into the medical therapy of diathermy. At the 1933 Chicago World's Fair, Westinghouse demonstrated the cooking of foods between two metal plates attached to a 10 kW, 60 MHz shortwave transmitter. The Westinghouse team, led by I. F. Mouromtseff, found that foods like steaks and potatoes could be cooked in minutes. The 1937 United States patent application by Bell Laboratories states: > This invention relates to heating systems for dielectric materials and the object of the invention is to heat such materials uniformly and substantially simultaneously throughout their mass. ... It has been proposed therefore to heat such materials simultaneously throughout their mass by means of the dielectric loss produced in them when they are subjected to a high voltage, high frequency field. > > However, lower-frequency dielectric heating, as described in the aforementioned patent, is (like induction heating) an electromagnetic heating effect, the result of the so-called near-field effects that exist in an electromagnetic cavity that is small compared with the wavelength of the electromagnetic field. This patent proposed radio frequency heating, at 10 to 20 megahertz (wavelength 30 to 15 meters, respectively). Heating from microwaves that have a wavelength that is small relative to the cavity (as in a modern microwave oven) is due to "far-field" effects that are due to classical electromagnetic radiation that describes freely propagating light and microwaves suitably far from their source. Nevertheless, the primary heating effect of all types of electromagnetic fields at both radio and microwave frequencies occurs via the dielectric heating effect, as polarized molecules are affected by a rapidly alternating electric field. ### Cavity magnetron The invention of the cavity magnetron made possible the production of electromagnetic waves of a small enough wavelength (microwaves). The magnetron was a crucial component in the development of short wavelength radar during World War II. In 1937–1940, a multi-cavity magnetron was built by British physicist Sir John Turton Randall, FRSE and coworkers, for the British and American military radar installations in World War II. A higher-powered microwave generator that worked at shorter wavelengths was needed, and in 1940, at the University of Birmingham in England, Randall and Harry Boot produced a working prototype. They invented a valve that could produce pulses of microwave radio energy at a wavelength of 10 cm, an unprecedented discovery. Sir Henry Tizard traveled to the U.S. in late September 1940 to offer the magnetron in exchange for their financial and industrial help (see Tizard Mission). An early 6 kW version, built in England by the General Electric Company Research Laboratories, Wembley, London, was given to the U.S. government in September 1940. The magnetron was later described by American historian James Phinney Baxter III as "[t]he most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores". Contracts were awarded to Raytheon and other companies for the mass production of the magnetron. ### Discovery In 1945, the heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer, an American self-taught engineer from Howland, Maine. Employed by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from an active radar set he was working on started to melt a Mr. Goodbar candy bar he had in his pocket. The first food deliberately cooked with Spencer's microwave oven was popcorn, and the second was an egg, which exploded in the face of one of the experimenters. To verify his finding, Spencer created a high-density electromagnetic field by feeding microwave power from a magnetron into a metal box from which it had no way to escape. When food was placed in the box with the microwave energy, the temperature of the food rose rapidly. On 8 October 1945, Raytheon filed a United States patent application for Spencer's microwave cooking process, and an oven that heated food using microwave energy from a magnetron was soon placed in a Boston restaurant for testing. Another early discovery of microwave oven technology was by British scientists, including James Lovelock, who in the 1950s used it to reanimate cryogenically frozen hamsters. ### Commercial availability In 1947, Raytheon built the "Radarange", the first commercially available microwave oven. It was almost 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in) tall, weighed 340 kilograms (750 lb) and cost about US$5,000 ($66,000 in 2022 dollars) each. It consumed 3 kilowatts, about three times as much as today's microwave ovens, and was water-cooled. The name was the winning entry in an employee contest. An early Radarange was installed (and remains) in the galley of the nuclear-powered passenger/cargo ship NS *Savannah*. An early commercial model introduced in 1954 consumed 1.6 kilowatts and sold for US$2,000 to US$3,000 ($22,000 to $33,000 in 2022 dollars). Raytheon licensed its technology to the Tappan Stove company of Mansfield, Ohio in 1952. Under contract to Whirlpool, Westinghouse, and other major appliance manufacturers looking to add matching microwave ovens to their conventional oven line, Tappan produced several variations of their built-in model from roughly 1955 to 1960. Due to maintenance (some units were water-cooled), in-built requirement, and cost—US$1,295 ($14,000 in 2022 dollars)—sales were limited. Japan's Sharp Corporation began manufacturing microwave ovens in 1961. Between 1964 and 1966, Sharp introduced the first microwave oven with a turntable, an alternative means to promote more even heating of food. In 1965, Raytheon, looking to expand their Radarange technology into the home market, acquired Amana to provide more manufacturing capability. In 1967, they introduced the first popular home model, the countertop Radarange, at a price of US$495 ($4,000 in 2022 dollars). Unlike the Sharp models, a motor driven mode stirrer in the top of the oven cavity rotated allowing the food to remain stationary. In the 1960s,[*specify*] Litton bought Studebaker's Franklin Manufacturing assets, which had been manufacturing magnetrons and building and selling microwave ovens similar to the Radarange. Litton developed a new configuration of the microwave oven: the short, wide shape that is now common. The magnetron feed was also unique. This resulted in an oven that could survive a no-load condition: an empty microwave oven where there is nothing to absorb the microwaves. The new oven was shown at a trade show in Chicago, and helped begin a rapid growth of the market for home microwave ovens. Sales volume of 40,000 units for the U.S. industry in 1970 grew to one million by 1975. Market penetration was even faster in Japan, due to a less expensive re-engineered magnetron. Several other companies joined in the market, and for a time most systems were built by defence contractors, who were most familiar with the magnetron. Litton was particularly well known in the restaurant business. ### Residential use While uncommon today, combination microwave-ranges were offered by major appliance manufacturers through much of the 1970's as a natural progression of the technology. Both Tappan and General Electric offered units that appeared to be conventional stove top/oven ranges, but included microwave capability in the conventional oven cavity. Such ranges were attractive to consumers since both microwave energy and conventional heating elements could be used simultaneously to speed cooking, and there was no loss of countertop space. The proposition was also attractive to manufacturers as the additional component cost could better be absorbed compared with countertop units where pricing was increasingly market-sensitive. By 1972, Litton (Litton Atherton Division, Minneapolis) introduced two new microwave ovens, priced at $349 and $399, to tap into the market estimated at $750 million by 1976, according to Robert I Bruder, president of the division. While prices remained high, new features continued to be added to home models. Amana introduced automatic defrost in 1974 on their RR-4D model, and was the first to offer a microprocessor controlled digital control panel in 1975 with their RR-6 model. The late 1970s saw an explosion of low-cost countertop models from many major manufacturers. Formerly found only in large industrial applications, microwave ovens increasingly became a standard fixture of residential kitchens in developed countries. By 1986, roughly 25% of households in the U.S. owned a microwave oven, up from only about 1% in 1971; the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that over 90% of American households owned a microwave oven in 1997. In Australia, a 2008 market research study found that 95% of kitchens contained a microwave oven and that 83% of them were used daily. In Canada, fewer than 5% of households had a microwave oven in 1979, but more than 88% of households owned one by 1998. In France, 40% of households owned a microwave oven in 1994, but that number had increased to 65% by 2004. Adoption has been slower in less-developed countries, as households with disposable income concentrate on more important household appliances like refrigerators and ovens. In India, for example, only about 5% of households owned a microwave oven in 2013, well behind refrigerators at 31% ownership. However, microwave ovens are gaining popularity. In Russia, for example, the number of households with a microwave oven grew from almost 24% in 2002 to almost 40% in 2008. Almost twice as many households in South Africa owned microwave ovens in 2008 (38.7%) as in 2002 (19.8%). Microwave oven ownership in Vietnam in 2008 was at 16% of households, versus 30% ownership of refrigerators; this rate was up significantly from 6.7% microwave oven ownership in 2002, with 14% ownership for refrigerators that year. Consumer household microwave ovens usually come with a cooking power of between 600 and 1200 watts. Microwave cooking power, also referred to as output wattage, is lower than its input wattage, which is the manufacturer's listed power rating. The size of household microwave ovens can vary, but usually have an internal volume of around 20 liters (1,200 cu in; 0.71 cu ft), and external dimensions of approximately 45–60 cm (1 ft 6 in – 2 ft 0 in) wide, 35–40 cm (1 ft 2 in – 1 ft 4 in) deep and 25–35 cm (9.8 in – 1 ft 1.8 in) tall. Microwaves can be turntable or flatbed. Turntable ovens include a glass plate or tray. Flatbed ones do not include a plate, so they have a flat and wider cavity. By position and type, US DOE classifies them as (1) countertop or (2) over the range and built-in (wall oven for a cabinet or a drawer model). Traditional microwaves rely on internal high voltage power from a line/mains transformer, but many newer models are powered by an inverter. Inverter microwaves can be useful for achieving more even cooking results, as they offer a seamless stream of cooking power. A traditional microwave only has two power output levels, fully on and fully off. Intermediate heat settings are achieved using duty-cycle modulation and switch between full power and off every few seconds, with more time on for higher settings. An inverter type, however, can sustain lower temperatures for a lengthy duration without having to switch itself off and on repeatedly. Apart from offering superior cooking ability, these microwaves are generally more energy-efficient. As of 2020[update], the majority of countertop microwave ovens (regardless of brand) sold in the United States were manufactured by the Midea Group. ### Categories Domestic Microwave ovens are typically marked with the Microwave-safe symbol, next to the devices approximate IEC 60705 Output Power rating, in Watts (typically either: 600W, 700W, 800W, 900W, 1000W), and a voluntary Heating Category (A-E). Principles ---------- A microwave oven heats food by passing microwave radiation through it. Microwaves are a form of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation with a frequency in the so-called microwave region (300 MHz to 300 GHz). Microwave ovens use frequencies in one of the ISM (industrial, scientific, medical) bands, which are otherwise used for communication amongst devices that do not need a license to operate, so they do not interfere with other vital radio services. It is a common misconception that microwave ovens heat food by operating at a special resonance of water molecules in the food. Instead, microwave ovens heat by causing molecules to spin under the influence of a constantly changing electric field, usually in the microwave frequencies range, and a higher wattage power of the microwave oven results in faster cooking times. Typically, consumer ovens work around a nominal 2.45 gigahertz (GHz) – a wavelength of 12.2 centimetres (4.80 in) in the 2.4 GHz to 2.5 GHz ISM band – while large industrial / commercial ovens often use 915 megahertz (MHz) – 32.8 centimetres (12.9 in). Among other differences, the longer wavelength of a commercial microwave oven allows the initial heating effects to begin deeper within the food or liquid, and therefore become evenly spread within its bulk sooner, as well as raising the temperature deep within the food more quickly. A microwave oven takes advantage of the electric dipole structure of water molecules, fats, and many other substances in the food, using a process known as dielectric heating. These molecules have a partial positive charge at one end and a partial negative charge at the other. In an alternating electric field, they will constantly spin around, as they continually try to align themselves with the electric field. This can happen over a wide range of frequencies. The electric field's energy is absorbed by the dipole molecules, as rotational energy (meaning, they spin). Then they hit other, non-dipole molecules and make them moving faster as well, sharing their increase in energy deeper into the substance, as molecular rotations, vibrations or other movement signifying an increase in the temperature of the food. So once the electrical field's energy is initially absorbed, heat will gradually spread through the object similarly to any other heat transfer by contact with a hotter body. ### Defrosting Microwave heating is more efficient on liquid water than on frozen water, where the movement of molecules is more restricted. Defrosting is done at a low power setting, allowing time for conduction to carry heat to still frozen parts of food. Dielectric heating of liquid water is also temperature-dependent: At 0 °C, dielectric loss is greatest at a field frequency of about 10 GHz, and for higher water temperatures at higher field frequencies. ### Fats and sugar Sugars and triglycerides (fats and oils) absorb microwaves due to the dipole moments of their hydroxyl groups or ester groups. Microwave heating is less efficient on fats and sugars than on water because they have a smaller molecular dipole moment. Although fats and sugar typically absorb energy less efficiently than water, paradoxically their temperatures rise faster and higher than water when cooking: Fats and oils require less energy delivered per gram of material to raise their temperature by 1°C than does water (they have lower specific heat capacity) and they begin cooling off by "boiling" only after reaching a higher temperature than water (the temperature they require to vaporize is higher), so inside microwave ovens they normally reach higher temperatures – sometimes *much* higher. This can induce temperatures in oil or fatty foods like bacon far above the boiling point of water, and high enough to induce some browning reactions, much in the manner of conventional broiling (UK: grilling), braising, or deep fat frying. The effect is most often noticed by consumers from unexpected damage to plastic containers when microwaving foods high in sugar, starch, or fat generates higher temperatures. Foods high in water content and with little oil rarely exceed the boiling temperature of water and do not damage plastic. ### Cookware Cookware must be transparent to microwaves. Conductive cookware, such as metal pots, reflects microwaves, and prevents the microwaves from reaching the food. Cookware made of materials with high electrical permittivity will absorb microwaves, resulting in the cookware heating, rather than the food. Cookware made of melamine resin is a common type of cookware that will heat in a microwave oven, reducing the effectiveness of the microwave oven and creating a hazard from burns or shattered cookware. ### Thermal runaway Microwave heating can cause localized thermal runaways in some materials with low thermal conductivity which also have dielectric constants that increase with temperature. An example is glass, which can exhibit thermal runaway in a microwave oven to the point of melting if preheated. Additionally, microwaves can melt certain types of rocks, producing small quantities of molten rock. Some ceramics can also be melted, and may even become clear upon cooling. Thermal runaway is more typical of electrically conductive liquids such as salty water. ### Penetration Another misconception is that microwave ovens cook food "from the inside out", meaning from the center of the entire mass of food outwards. This idea arises from heating behavior seen if an absorbent layer of water lies beneath a less absorbent drier layer at the surface of a food; in this case, the deposition of heat energy inside a food can exceed that on its surface. This can also occur if the inner layer has a lower heat capacity than the outer layer causing it to reach a higher temperature, or even if the inner layer is more thermally conductive than the outer layer making it feel hotter despite having a lower temperature. In most cases, however, with uniformly structured or reasonably homogeneous food item, microwaves are absorbed in the outer layers of the item at a similar level to that of the inner layers. Depending on water content, the depth of initial heat deposition may be several centimetres or more with microwave ovens, in contrast with broiling / grilling (infrared) or convection heating methods which thinly deposit heat at the food surface. Penetration depth of microwaves depends on food composition and the frequency, with lower microwave frequencies (longer wavelengths) penetrating deeper. ### Energy consumption In use, microwave ovens can be as low as 50% efficient at converting electricity into microwaves, but energy efficient models can exceed 64% efficiency. Stovetop cooking is 40-90% efficient depending on the type of appliance used. Because they are used fairly infrequently, the average residential microwave oven consumes only 72 kWh per year. Globally, microwave ovens used an estimated 77 TWh per year in 2018, or 0.3% of global electricity generation. A 2000 study by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory found that the average microwave drew almost 3 watts of standby power when not being used, which would total approximately 26 kWh per year. New efficiency standards imposed in 2016 by the United States Department of Energy require less than 1 watt, or approximately 9 kWh per year, of standby power for most types of microwave ovens. Components ---------- A microwave oven generally consists of: * a high-voltage DC power source, either: + a large high voltage transformer with a voltage doubler (a high-voltage capacitor and a diode) + an electronic power converter usually based around an inverter. * a cavity magnetron, which converts the high-voltage DC electric energy to microwave radiation * a magnetron control circuit (usually with a microcontroller) * a short waveguide (to couple microwave power from the magnetron into the cooking chamber) * a turntable and/or metal wave guide stirring fan * a control panel In most ovens, the magnetron is driven by a linear transformer which can only feasibly be switched completely on or off. (One variant of the GE Spacemaker had two taps on the transformer primary, for high and low power modes.) Usually choice of power level does not affect intensity of the microwave radiation; instead, the magnetron is cycled on and off every few seconds, thus altering the large scale duty cycle. Newer models use *inverter* power supplies that use pulse-width modulation to provide effectively continuous heating at reduced power settings, so that foods are heated more evenly at a given power level and can be heated more quickly without being damaged by uneven heating. The microwave frequencies used in microwave ovens are chosen based on regulatory and cost constraints. The first is that they should be in one of the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) frequency bands set aside for unlicensed purposes. For household purposes, 2.45 GHz has the advantage over 915 MHz in that 915 MHz is only an ISM band in some countries (ITU Region 2) while 2.45 GHz is available worldwide. Three additional ISM bands exist in the microwave frequencies, but are not used for microwave cooking. Two of them are centered on 5.8 GHz and 24.125 GHz, but are not used for microwave cooking because of the very high cost of power generation at these frequencies. The third, centered on 433.92 MHz, is a narrow band that would require expensive equipment to generate sufficient power without creating interference outside the band, and is only available in some countries. The cooking chamber is similar to a Faraday cage to prevent the waves from coming out of the oven. Even though there is no continuous metal-to-metal contact around the rim of the door, choke connections on the door edges act like metal-to-metal contact, at the frequency of the microwaves, to prevent leakage. The oven door usually has a window for easy viewing, with a layer of conductive mesh some distance from the outer panel to maintain the shielding. Because the size of the perforations in the mesh is much less than the microwaves' wavelength (12.2 cm for the usual 2.45 GHz), microwave radiation cannot pass through the door, while visible light (with its much shorter wavelength) can. ### Control panel Modern microwave ovens use either an analog dial-type timer or a digital control panel for operation. Control panels feature an LED, liquid crystal or vacuum fluorescent display, numeric buttons for entering the cook time, a power level selection feature and other possible functions such as a defrost setting and pre-programmed settings for different food types, such as meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, frozen vegetables, frozen dinners, and popcorn. In the 90s brands such as Panasonic and GE began offering models with a scrolling-text display showing cooking instructions. Power settings are commonly implemented, not by actually varying the effect, but by repeatedly turning the power off and on. The highest setting thus represents continuous power. Defrost might represent power for two seconds followed by no power for five seconds. To indicate cooking has completed, an audible warning such as a bell or a beeper is usually present, and/or "End" usually appears on the display of a digital microwave. Microwave control panels are often considered awkward to use and are frequently employed as examples for user interface design. Variants and accessories ------------------------ A variant of the conventional microwave oven is the convection microwave oven. A convection microwave oven is a combination of a standard microwave oven and a convection oven. It allows food to be cooked quickly, yet come out browned or crisped, as from a convection oven. Convection microwave ovens are more expensive than conventional microwave ovens. Some convection microwave ovens—those with exposed heating elements—can produce smoke and burning odors as food spatter from earlier microwave-only use is burned off the heating elements. Some ovens use high speed air; these are known as impingement ovens and are designed to cook food quickly in restaurants, but cost more and consume more power. In 2000, some manufacturers began offering high power quartz halogen bulbs to their convection microwave oven models, marketing them under names such as "Speedcook", "Advantium", "Lightwave" and "Optimawave" to emphasize their ability to cook food rapidly and with good browning. The bulbs heat the food's surface with infrared (IR) radiation, browning surfaces as in a conventional oven. The food browns while also being heated by the microwave radiation and heated through conduction through contact with heated air. The IR energy which is delivered to the outer surface of food by the lamps is sufficient to initiate browning caramelization in foods primarily made up of carbohydrates and Maillard reactions in foods primarily made up of protein. These reactions in food produce a texture and taste similar to that typically expected of conventional oven cooking rather than the bland boiled and steamed taste that microwave-only cooking tends to create. In order to aid browning, sometimes an accessory browning tray is used, usually composed of glass or porcelain. It makes food crisp by oxidizing the top layer until it turns brown. Ordinary plastic cookware is unsuitable for this purpose because it could melt. Frozen dinners, pies, and microwave popcorn bags often contain a susceptor made from thin aluminium film in the packaging or included on a small paper tray. The metal film absorbs microwave energy efficiently and consequently becomes extremely hot and radiates in the infrared, concentrating the heating of oil for popcorn or even browning surfaces of frozen foods. Heating packages or trays containing susceptors are designed for a single use and are then discarded as waste. Heating characteristics ----------------------- Microwave ovens produce heat directly within the food, but despite the common misconception that microwaved food cooks from the inside out, 2.45 GHz microwaves can only penetrate approximately 1 centimeter (0.39 in) into most foods. The inside portions of thicker foods are mainly heated by heat conducted from the outer 1 centimeter (0.39 in). Uneven heating in microwaved food can be partly due to the uneven distribution of microwave energy inside the oven, and partly due to the different rates of energy absorption in different parts of the food. The first problem is reduced by a stirrer, a type of fan that reflects microwave energy to different parts of the oven as it rotates, or by a turntable or carousel that turns the food; turntables, however, may still leave spots, such as the center of the oven, which receive uneven energy distribution. The location of dead spots and hot spots in a microwave oven can be mapped out by placing a damp piece of thermal paper in the oven. When the water-saturated paper is subjected to the microwave radiation it becomes hot enough to cause the dye to be darkened which can provide a visual representation of the microwaves. If multiple layers of paper are constructed in the oven with a sufficient distance between them a three-dimensional map can be created. Many store receipts are printed on thermal paper which allows this to be easily done at home. The second problem is due to food composition and geometry, and must be addressed by the cook, by arranging the food so that it absorbs energy evenly, and periodically testing and shielding any parts of the food that overheat. In some materials with low thermal conductivity, where dielectric constant increases with temperature, microwave heating can cause localized thermal runaway. Under certain conditions, glass can exhibit thermal runaway in a microwave oven to the point of melting. Due to this phenomenon, microwave ovens set at too-high power levels may even start to cook the edges of frozen food while the inside of the food remains frozen. Another case of uneven heating can be observed in baked goods containing berries. In these items, the berries absorb more energy than the drier surrounding bread and cannot dissipate the heat due to the low thermal conductivity of the bread. Often this results in overheating the berries relative to the rest of the food. "Defrost" oven settings either use low power levels or turn the power off and on repeatedly - designed to allow time for heat to be conducted within frozen foods from areas that absorb heat more readily to those which heat more slowly. In turntable-equipped ovens, more even heating can take place by placing food off-center on the turntable tray instead of exactly in the center, as this results in more even heating of the food throughout. There are microwave ovens on the market that allow full-power defrosting. They do this by exploiting the properties of the electromagnetic radiation LSM modes. LSM full-power defrosting may actually achieve more even results than slow defrosting. Microwave heating can be deliberately uneven by design. Some microwavable packages (notably pies) may include materials that contain ceramic or aluminium flakes, which are designed to absorb microwaves and heat up, which aids in baking or crust preparation by depositing more energy shallowly in these areas. Such ceramic patches affixed to cardboard are positioned next to the food, and are typically smokey blue or gray in colour, usually making them easily identifiable; the cardboard sleeves included with Hot Pockets, which have a silver surface on the inside, are a good example of such packaging. Microwavable cardboard packaging may also contain overhead ceramic patches which function in the same way. The technical term for such a microwave-absorbing patch is a susceptor. ### Effects on food and nutrients Any form of cooking diminishes overall nutrient content in food, particularly water-soluble vitamins common in vegetables, but the key variables are how much water is used in the cooking, how long the food is cooked, and at what temperature. Nutrients are primarily lost by leaching into cooking water, which tends to make microwave cooking effective, given the shorter cooking times it requires and that the water heated is in the food. Like other heating methods, microwaving converts vitamin B12 from an active to inactive form; the amount of conversion depends on the temperature reached, as well as the cooking time. Boiled food reaches a maximum of 100 °C (212 °F) (the boiling point of water), whereas microwaved food can get internally hotter than this, leading to faster breakdown of vitamin B12. The higher rate of loss is partially offset by the shorter cooking times required. Spinach retains nearly all its folate when cooked in a microwave oven; when boiled, it loses about 77%, leaching nutrients into the cooking water. Bacon cooked by microwave oven has significantly lower levels of nitrosamines than conventionally cooked bacon. Steamed vegetables tend to maintain more nutrients when microwaved than when cooked on a stovetop. Microwave blanching is 3–4 times more effective than boiled-water blanching for retaining of the water-soluble vitamins, folate, thiamin and riboflavin, with the exception of vitamin C, of which 29% is lost (compared with a 16% loss with boiled-water blanching). ### Safety benefits and features All microwave ovens use a timer to switch off the oven at the end of the cooking time. Microwave ovens heat food without getting hot themselves. Taking a pot off a stove, unless it is an induction cooktop, leaves a potentially dangerous heating element or trivet that remains hot for some time. Likewise, when taking a casserole out of a conventional oven, one's arms are exposed to the very hot walls of the oven. A microwave oven does not pose this problem. Food and cookware taken out of a microwave oven are rarely much hotter than 100 °C (212 °F). Cookware used in a microwave oven is often much cooler than the food because the cookware is transparent to microwaves; the microwaves heat the food directly and the cookware is indirectly heated by the food. Food and cookware from a conventional oven, on the other hand, are the same temperature as the rest of the oven; a typical cooking temperature is 180 °C (356 °F). That means that conventional stoves and ovens can cause more serious burns. The lower temperature of cooking (the boiling point of water) is a significant safety benefit compared with baking in the oven or frying, because it eliminates the formation of tars and char, which are carcinogenic. Microwave radiation also penetrates deeper than direct heat, so that the food is heated by its own internal water content. In contrast, direct heat can burn the surface while the inside is still cold. Pre-heating the food in a microwave oven before putting it into the grill or pan reduces the time needed to heat up the food and reduces the formation of carcinogenic char. Unlike frying and baking, microwaving does not produce acrylamide in potatoes, however unlike deep-frying, it is of only limited effectiveness in reducing glycoalkaloid (i.e., solanine) levels. Acrylamide has been found in other microwaved products like popcorn. ### Use in cleaning kitchen sponges Studies have investigated the use of the microwave oven to clean non-metallic domestic sponges which have been thoroughly wetted. A 2006 study found that microwaving wet sponges for two minutes (at 1000 watt power) removed 99% of coliforms, *E. coli* and MS2 phages. *Bacillus cereus* spores were killed at four minutes of microwaving. A 2017 study was less affirmative: about 60% of the germs were killed but the remaining ones quickly re-colonized the sponge. Issues ------ ### High temperatures #### Closed containers Closed containers, such as eggs, can explode when heated in a microwave oven due to the increased pressure from steam. Intact fresh egg yolks outside the shell also explode as a result of superheating. Insulating plastic foams of all types generally contain closed air pockets, and are generally not recommended for use in a microwave oven, as the air pockets explode and the foam (which can be toxic if consumed) may melt. Not all plastics are microwave-safe, and some plastics absorb microwaves to the point that they may become dangerously hot. #### Fires Products that are heated for too long can catch fire. Though this is inherent to any form of cooking, the rapid cooking and unattended nature of the use of microwave ovens results in additional hazard. #### Superheating In rare cases, water and other homogeneous liquids can superheat when heated in a microwave oven in a container with a smooth surface. That is, the liquid reaches a temperature slightly above its normal boiling point without bubbles of vapour forming inside the liquid. The boiling process can start explosively when the liquid is disturbed, such as when the user takes hold of the container to remove it from the oven or while adding solid ingredients such as powdered creamer or sugar. This can result in spontaneous boiling (nucleation) which may be violent enough to eject the boiling liquid from the container and cause severe scalding. ### Metal objects Contrary to popular assumptions, metal objects can be safely used in a microwave oven, but with some restrictions. Any metal or conductive object placed into the microwave oven acts as an antenna to some degree, resulting in an electric current. This causes the object to act as a heating element. This effect varies with the object's shape and composition, and is sometimes utilized for cooking. Any object containing pointed metal can create an electric arc (sparks) when microwaved. This includes cutlery, crumpled aluminium foil (though some foil used in microwave ovens is safe, see below), twist-ties containing metal wire, the metal wire carry-handles in oyster pails, or almost any metal formed into a poorly conductive foil or thin wire, or into a pointed shape. Forks are a good example: the tines of the fork respond to the electric field by producing high concentrations of electric charge at the tips. This has the effect of exceeding the dielectric breakdown of air, about 3 megavolts per meter (3×106 V/m). The air forms a conductive plasma, which is visible as a spark. The plasma and the tines may then form a conductive loop, which may be a more effective antenna, resulting in a longer lived spark. When dielectric breakdown occurs in air, some ozone and nitrogen oxides are formed, both of which are unhealthy in large quantities. Microwaving an individual smooth metal object without pointed ends, for example, a spoon or shallow metal pan, usually does not produce sparking. Thick metal wire racks can be part of the interior design in microwave ovens (see illustration). In a similar way, the interior wall plates with perforating holes which allow light and air into the oven, and allow interior-viewing through the oven door, are all made of conductive metal formed in a safe shape. The effect of microwaving thin metal films can be seen clearly on a Compact Disc or DVD (particularly the factory pressed type). The microwaves induce electric currents in the metal film, which heats up, melting the plastic in the disc and leaving a visible pattern of concentric and radial scars. Similarly, porcelain with thin metal films can also be destroyed or damaged by microwaving. Aluminium foil is thick enough to be used in microwave ovens as a shield against heating parts of food items, if the foil is not badly warped. When wrinkled, aluminium foil is generally unsafe in microwaves, as manipulation of the foil causes sharp bends and gaps that invite sparking. The USDA recommends that aluminium foil used as a partial food shield in microwave oven cooking cover no more than one quarter of a food object, and be carefully smoothed to eliminate sparking hazards. Another hazard is the resonance of the magnetron tube itself. If the microwave oven is run without an object to absorb the radiation, a standing wave forms. The energy is reflected back and forth between the tube and the cooking chamber. This may cause the tube to overload and burn out. High reflected power may also cause magnetron arcing, possibly resulting in primary power fuse failure, though such a causal relationship isn't easily established. Thus, dehydrated food, or food wrapped in metal which does not arc, is problematic for overload reasons, without necessarily being a fire hazard. Certain foods such as grapes, if properly arranged, can produce an electric arc. Prolonged arcing from food carries similar risks to arcing from other sources as noted above. Some other objects that may conduct sparks are plastic/holographic print thermoses (such as Starbucks novelty cups) or cups with metal lining. If any bit of the metal is exposed, all the outer shell can burst off the object or melt. The high electrical fields generated inside a microwave oven often can be illustrated by placing a radiometer or neon glow-bulb inside the cooking chamber, creating glowing plasma inside the low-pressure bulb of the device. ### Direct microwave exposure Direct microwave exposure is not generally possible, as microwaves emitted by the source in a microwave oven are confined in the oven by the material out of which the oven is constructed. Furthermore, ovens are equipped with redundant safety interlocks, which remove power from the magnetron if the door is opened. This safety mechanism is required by United States federal regulations. Tests have shown confinement of the microwaves in commercially available ovens to be so nearly universal as to make routine testing unnecessary. According to the United States Food and Drug Administration's Center for Devices and Radiological Health, a U.S. Federal Standard limits the amount of microwaves that can leak from an oven throughout its lifetime to 5 milliwatts of microwave radiation per square centimeter at approximately 5 cm (2 in) from the surface of the oven. This is far below the exposure level currently considered to be harmful to human health. The radiation produced by a microwave oven is non-ionizing. It therefore does not have the cancer risks associated with ionizing radiation such as X-rays and high-energy particles. Long-term rodent studies to assess cancer risk have so far failed to identify any carcinogenicity from 2.45 GHz microwave radiation even with chronic exposure levels (i.e. large fraction of life span) far larger than humans are likely to encounter from any leaking ovens. However, with the oven door open, the radiation may cause damage by heating. Microwave ovens are sold with a protective interlock so that it cannot be run when the door is open or improperly latched. Microwaves generated in microwave ovens cease to exist once the electrical power is turned off. They do not remain in the food when the power is turned off, any more than light from an electric lamp remains in the walls and furnishings of a room when the lamp is turned off. They do not make the food or the oven radioactive. In contrast with conventional cooking, the nutritional content of some foods may be altered differently, but generally in a positive way by preserving more micronutrients – see above. There is no indication of detrimental health issues associated with microwaved food. There are, however, a few cases where people have been exposed to direct microwave radiation, either from appliance malfunction or deliberate action. This exposure generally results in physical burns to the body, as human tissue, particularly the outer fat and muscle layers, has a similar composition to some foods that are typically cooked in microwave ovens and so experiences similar dielectric heating effects when exposed to microwave electromagnetic radiation. ### Chemical exposure The use of unmarked plastics for microwave cooking raises the issue of plasticizers leaching into the food, or the plastics chemically reacting to microwave energy, with by-products leaching into the food, suggesting that even plastic containers marked "microwavable" may still leach plastic by-products into the food. The plasticizers which received the most attention are bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates, although it is unclear whether other plastic components present a toxicity risk. Other issues include melting and flammability. An alleged issue of release of dioxins into food has been dismissed as an intentional red herring distraction from actual safety issues. Some current plastic containers and food wraps are specifically designed to resist radiation from microwaves. Products may use the term "microwave safe", may carry a microwave symbol (three lines of waves, one above the other) or simply provide instructions for proper microwave oven use. Any of these is an indication that a product is suitable for microwaving when used in accordance with the directions provided. ### Uneven heating Microwave ovens are frequently used for reheating leftover food, and bacterial contamination may not be repressed if the microwave oven is used improperly. If safe temperature is not reached, this can result in foodborne illness, as with other reheating methods. While microwave ovens can destroy bacteria as well as conventional ovens can, they cook rapidly and may not cook as evenly, similar to frying or grilling, leading to a risk of some food regions failing to reach recommended temperatures. Therefore, a standing period after cooking to allow temperatures in the food to equalize is recommended, as well as the use of a food thermometer to verify internal temperatures. ### Interference Microwave ovens, although shielded for safety purposes, still emit low levels of microwave radiation. This is not harmful to humans, but can sometimes cause interference to Wi-Fi and Bluetooth and other devices that communicate on the 2.45 GHz wavebands; particularly at close range. Conventional transformer ovens do not operate continuously over the mains cycle, but can cause significant slowdowns for many metres around the oven, whereas inverter based ovens can stop nearby networking entirely while operating. See also -------- * Countertop * Electromagnetic reverberation chamber * Induction cooker * List of cooking appliances * List of home appliances * Microwave chemistry * Peryton (astronomy) * Robert V. Decareau * Thelma Pressman * Wall oven

Microwave oven

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_oven

**Northamptonshire** (/nɔːrˈθæmptənʃɪər, -ʃər/; abbreviated **Northants.**) is a county in the East Midlands of England. In 2021, it had a population of 747,622. The county is administered by two unitary authorities: North Northamptonshire and West Northamptonshire. It is nicknamed "The Rose of the Shires". Covering an area of 2,364 square kilometres (913 sq mi), Northamptonshire is landlocked between eight other counties: Cambridgeshire to the east, Bedfordshire to the south-east, Buckinghamshire to the south, Oxfordshire to the south-west, Warwickshire to the west, Leicestershire and Rutland to the north, and Lincolnshire to the north-east—the last being England's shortest administrative county boundary, at 20 yards (18 metres). Northamptonshire is the southernmost county in the East Midlands. Apart from the county town of Northampton, other major population centres include Kettering, Corby, Wellingborough, Rushden and Daventry. Northamptonshire's county flower is the cowslip. The Soke of Peterborough falls within the historic boundaries of the county, but its area has been part of the ceremonial county of Cambridgeshire since 1974. History ------- Much of Northamptonshire's countryside appears to have remained somewhat intractable as regards early human occupation, resulting in an apparently sparse population and relatively few finds from the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. In about 500 BC the Iron Age was introduced into the area by a continental people in the form of the Hallstatt culture, and over the next century a series of hill-forts were constructed at Arbury Camp, Rainsborough camp, Borough Hill, Castle Dykes, Guilsborough, Irthlingborough, and most notably of all, Hunsbury Hill. There are two more possible hill-forts at Arbury Hill (Badby) and Thenford. In the 1st century BC, most of what later became Northamptonshire became part of the territory of the Catuvellauni, a Belgic tribe, the Northamptonshire area forming their most northerly possession. The Catuvellauni were in turn conquered by the Romans in 43 AD. The Roman road of Watling Street passed through the county, and an important Roman settlement, Lactodurum, stood on the site of modern-day Towcester. There were other Roman settlements at Northampton, Kettering and along the Nene Valley near Raunds. A large fort was built at Longthorpe. After the Romans left, the area eventually became part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia, and Northampton functioned as an administrative centre. The Mercians converted to Christianity in 654 AD with the death of the pagan king Penda. From about 889 the area was conquered by the Danes (as at one point almost all of England was, except for Athelney marsh in Somerset) and became part of the Danelaw – with Watling Street serving as the boundary – until being recaptured by the English under the Wessex king Edward the Elder, son of Alfred the Great, in 917. Northamptonshire was conquered again in 940, this time by the Vikings of York, who devastated the area, only for the county to be retaken by the English in 942. Consequently, it is one of the few counties in England to have both Saxon and Danish town-names and settlements. The county was first recorded in the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* (1011), as *Hamtunscire*: the *scire* (shire) of *Hamtun* (the homestead). The "North" was added to distinguish Northampton from the other important *Hamtun* further south: Southampton – though the origins of the two names are in fact different. Rockingham Castle was built for William the Conqueror and was used as a Royal fortress until Elizabethan times. In 1460, during the Wars of the Roses, the Battle of Northampton took place and King Henry VI was captured. The now-ruined Fotheringhay Castle was used to imprison Mary, Queen of Scots, before her execution. During the English Civil War, Northamptonshire strongly supported the Parliamentarian cause, and the Royalist forces suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Naseby in 1645 in the north of the county. King Charles I was imprisoned at Holdenby House in 1647. George Washington, the first President of the United States of America, was born into the Washington family who had migrated to America from Northamptonshire in 1656. George Washington's ancestor, Lawrence Washington, was Mayor of Northampton on several occasions and it was he who bought Sulgrave Manor from Henry VIII in 1539. It was George Washington's great-grandfather, John Washington, who emigrated in 1656 from Northamptonshire to Virginia. Before Washington's ancestors moved to Sulgrave, they lived in Warton, Lancashire. In the 18th and 19th centuries, parts of Northamptonshire and the surrounding area became industrialised. The local specialisation was shoemaking and the leather industry and became one of Britain's major centres for these crafts by the 19th century. In the north of the county a large ironstone quarrying industry developed from 1850. In 1823 Northamptonshire was said to "[enjoy] a very pure and wholesome air" because of its dryness and distance from the sea. Its livestock were celebrated: "Horned cattle, and other animals, are fed to extraordinary sizes: and many horses of the large black breed are reared." Nine years later, the county was described as "a county enjoying the reputation of being one of the healthiest and pleasantest parts of England" although the towns were "of small importance" with the exceptions of Peterborough and Northampton. In summer, the county hosted "a great number of wealthy families... country seats and villas are to be seen at every step." Northamptonshire is still referred to as the county of "spires and squires" because of the numbers of stately homes and ancient churches. Prior to 1901 the ancient hundreds were disused. Northamptonshire was administered as four major divisions: Northern, Eastern, Mid, and Southern. During the 1930s, the town of Corby was established as a major centre of the steel industry. Much of Northamptonshire nevertheless remains rural. Corby was designated a new town in 1950 and Northampton followed in 1968. As of 2005[update] the government is encouraging development in the South Midlands area, including Northamptonshire. ### Peterborough The Soke of Peterborough was historically associated with and considered part of Northamptonshire and the Church of England Diocese that covers Northamptonshire is centred in Peterborough Cathedral. However, Peterborough had its own courts of quarter sessions and, later, county council. In 1965 the administration was merged with that of neighbouring Huntingdonshire. Under the Local Government Act 1972 the city of Peterborough became a district of Cambridgeshire. Geography --------- Northamptonshire is located in NorthamptonshireNorthampton**Northampton**Kettering**Kettering**Wellingborough**Wellingborough**Corby**Corby**DaventryDaventryRushden**Rushden**ThrapstonThrapstonBrackleyBrackleyOundleOundleDesboroughDesboroughTowcesterTowcesterIrthlingboroughIrthlingboroughKings SuttonKings SuttonBrixworthBrixworthRaundsRaundsSilverstoneSilverstoneBanburyBanburyMarket HarboroughMarket HarboroughMilton Keynes**Milton Keynes**Leicester**Leicester**Rugby**Rugby**class=notpageimage| Notable places in and around Northamptonshire Northamptonshire is a landlocked county located in the southern part of the East Midlands region, which is sometimes known as the South Midlands. The county contains the watershed between the River Severn and The Wash, and several important rivers have their sources in the north-west of the county, including the River Nene, which flows north-eastwards to The Wash, and the "Warwickshire Avon", which flows south-west to the Severn. In 1830, it was boasted that "not a single brook, however insignificant, flows into it from any other district". The highest point in the county is Arbury Hill, at 225 metres (738 ft). There are several towns in the county, Northampton being the largest and most populous. At the time of the 2011 census a population of 691,952 lived in the county, with 212,069 living in Northampton. The table below shows all towns with over 10,000 inhabitants. | **Rank** | **Town** | **Population** | **Former Borough/District council** | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Northampton | 212,100 (2011) | Northampton Borough Council | | 2 | Kettering | 67,245 (2011) | Kettering Borough Council | | 3 | Corby | 56,514 (2011) | Corby Borough Council | | 4 | Wellingborough | 49,088 (2011) | Borough Council of Wellingborough | | 5 | Rushden | 29,265 (2011) | East Northamptonshire District Council | | 6 | Daventry | 25,066 (2011) | Daventry District Council | | 7 | Brackley | 13,018 (2011) | South Northamptonshire District Council | | 8 | Desborough | 10,697 (2011) | Kettering Borough Council | As of 2010 there were 16 settlements in Northamptonshire with a town charter: * Brackley, Burton Latimer, Corby, Daventry, Desborough, Higham Ferrers, Irthlingborough, Kettering, Northampton, Oundle, Raunds, Rothwell, Rushden, Towcester, Thrapston and Wellingborough. ### Climate Like the rest of the British Isles, Northamptonshire has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification). The table below shows the average weather for Northamptonshire from the Moulton weather station. | Climate data for Moulton, Northants | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 7(45) | 8(46) | 11(52) | 13(55) | 17(63) | 19(66) | 22(72) | 23(73) | 19(66) | 14(57) | 10(50) | 7(45) | 14(58) | | Average low °C (°F) | 2(36) | 2(36) | 4(39) | 4(39) | 7(45) | 10(50) | 12(54) | 12(54) | 10(50) | 8(46) | 5(41) | 3(37) | 7(44) | | Average precipitation cm (inches) | 4.51(1.78) | 3.39(1.33) | 2.87(1.13) | 4.39(1.73) | 3.49(1.37) | 4.66(1.83) | 4.21(1.66) | 4.69(1.85) | 5.49(2.16) | 5.68(2.24) | 4.8(1.9) | 4.98(1.96) | 53.16(20.94) | | Source: | Governance ---------- ### Local government Between 1974 and 2021, Northamptonshire, like most English counties, was divided into a number of local authorities. The seven borough/district councils covered 15 towns and hundreds of villages. The county had a two-tier structure of local government and an elected county council based in Northampton, and was also divided into seven districts each with their own district or borough councils: | **Council** | Council HQ Location | | --- | --- | | Corby Borough Council | Corby | | Daventry District Council | Daventry | | East Northamptonshire District Council | Thrapston | | Kettering Borough Council | Kettering | | Northampton Borough Council | Northampton | | South Northamptonshire District Council | Towcester | | Borough Council of Wellingborough | Wellingborough | Northampton itself is the most populous civil parish in England, and (prior to 2021) was the most populous urban district in England not to be administered as a unitary authority (even though several smaller districts are unitary). During the 1990s local government reform, Northampton Borough Council petitioned strongly for unitary status, which led to fractured relations with the County Council. The Soke of Peterborough is within the historic county of Northamptonshire, although it had had a separate county council since 1889 and separate courts of quarter sessions before then. The city of Peterborough has been a unitary authority since 1998, but it forms part of Cambridgeshire for ceremonial purposes. #### De facto bankruptcy of the county council In early 2018, Northamptonshire County Council was declared technically insolvent and would be able to provide only the bare essential services. According to The Guardian the problems were caused by "a reckless half-decade in which it refused to raise council tax to pay for the soaring costs of social care" and "partly due to past failings, the council is now having to make some drastic decisions to reduce services to a core offer." Some observers, such as Simon Edwards of the County Councils Network, added another perspective on the cause of the financial crisis, the United Kingdom government austerity programme: "It is clear that, partly due to past failings, the council is now having to make some drastic decisions to reduce services to a core offer. However, we can't ignore that some of the underlying causes of the challenges facing Northamptonshire, such as dramatic reductions to council budgets and severe demand for services, mean county authorities across the country face funding pressures of £3.2bn over the next two years." #### Structural changes In early 2018, following the events above, Government-appointed commissioners took over control of the council's affairs. Consequently, the Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government commissioned an independent report which, in March 2018, proposed structural changes to local government in Northamptonshire. These changes saw the existing county council and district councils abolished and two new unitary authorities created in their place. One authority, West Northamptonshire, consists of the former districts of Daventry, Northampton and South Northamptonshire and the other authority, North Northamptonshire, consists of Corby, East Northamptonshire, Kettering and Wellingborough districts. ### National representation Northamptonshire returns seven Members of Parliament (MPs). As of 2023[update], all are currently from the Conservative Party. Several of the constituencies have been marginal in the past, including the Northampton seats, Wellingborough, Kettering, and Corby, which were all Labour seats before 2005. In the 2016 EU referendum, all of the Northamptonshire districts voted to Leave, most by a significant margin. Two prominent Brexiteer MPs, Philip Hollobone and Peter Bone represent parts of the county. | **Constituency** | **Member of Parliament** | **Political party** | | --- | --- | --- | | Corby | Tom Pursglove | Conservative | | Daventry | Chris Heaton-Harris | Conservative | | Kettering | Philip Hollobone | Conservative | | Northampton North | Michael Ellis | Conservative | | Northampton South | Andrew Lewer | Conservative | | South Northamptonshire | Andrea Leadsom | Conservative | | Wellingborough | Peter Bone | Conservative | From 1993 until 2005, Northamptonshire County Council, for which each of the 73 electoral divisions in the county elect a single councillor, had been held by the Labour Party; it had been under no overall control since 1981. The councils of the rural districts – Daventry, East Northamptonshire, and South Northamptonshire – are strongly Conservative, whereas the political composition of the urban districts is more mixed. At the 2003 local elections, Labour lost control of Kettering, Northampton, and Wellingborough, retaining only Corby. Elections for the entire County Council are held every four years – the last were held on 5 May 2005 when control of the County Council changed from the Labour Party to the Conservatives. The County Council uses a leader and cabinet executive system and abolished its area committees in April 2006. Economy ------- Historically, Northamptonshire's main industry was manufacturing of boots and shoes. Many of the manufacturers closed down in the Thatcher era which in turn left many county people unemployed. Although R Griggs and Co Ltd, the manufacturer of Dr. Martens, still has its UK base in Wollaston near Wellingborough, the shoe industry has deeply declined as manufacturing has moved away from England. There were over 2,000 shoemakers in the region in the mid 19th century, today the number is over 30 left. Large employers include the breakfast cereal manufacturers Weetabix, in Burton Latimer, the Carlsberg brewery in Northampton, Avon Products, Siemens, Barclaycard, Saxby Bros Ltd and Golden Wonder. In the west of the county is the Daventry International Railfreight Terminal; which is a major rail freight terminal located on the West Coast Main Line near Rugby. Wellingborough also has a smaller railfreight depot on Finedon Road, called Nelisons sidings. This is a chart of trend of the regional gross value added of Northamptonshire at current basic prices in millions of British Pounds Sterling (correct on 21 December 2005): | Year | Regional Gross Value Added | Agriculture | Industry | Services | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1995 | **7,139** | 112 | 2,157 | 3,870 | | 2000 | **9,743** | 79 | 3,035 | 6,630 | | 2003 | **10,901** | 90 | 3,260 | 7,551 | The region of Northamptonshire, Oxfordshire and the South Midlands has been described as "Motorsport Valley... a global hub" for the motor sport industry. The Mercedes-AMG and Aston Martin Formula One teams have their bases at Brackley and Silverstone respectively, while Mercedes-Benz High Performance Engines and, formerly, Cosworth, are also in the county at Brixworth and Northampton respectively. International motor racing takes place at Silverstone Circuit and, formerly, Rockingham Motor Speedway; Santa Pod Raceway is just over the border in Bedfordshire but has a Northamptonshire postcode. A study commissioned by Northamptonshire Enterprise Ltd (NEL) reported that Northamptonshire's motorsport sites attract more than 2.1 million visitors per year who spend a total of more than £131 million within the county. ### Milton Keynes and South Midlands Growth area Northamptonshire forms part of the Milton Keynes and South Midlands Growth area which also includes Milton Keynes, Aylesbury Vale and Bedfordshire. This area has been identified as an area which is due to have tens of thousands additional homes built between 2010 and 2020. In North Northamptonshire (Boroughs of Corby, Kettering, Wellingborough and East Northants), over 52,000 homes are planned or newly built and 47,000 new jobs are also planned. In West Northamptonshire (boroughs of Northampton, Daventry and South Northants), over 48,000 homes are planned or newly built and 37,000 new jobs are planned. To oversee the planned developments, two urban regeneration companies have been created: North Northants Development Company (NNDC) and the West Northamptonshire Development Corporation. The NNDC launched a controversial campaign called *North Londonshire* to attract people from London to the county. There is also a county-wide tourism campaign with the slogan *Northamptonshire, Let yourself grow*. Education --------- ### Schools Northamptonshire County Council previously operated a comprehensive system of state-funded secondary schools. From May 2021 compulsory education in the county is administered by North Northamptonshire Council and West Northamptonshire Council. The county is home to private schools Oundle, Wellingborough School, Spratton Hall School, Northampton High School. The county's music and performing arts trust provides peripatetic music teaching to schools. It also supports 15 local Saturday morning music and performing arts centres around the county and provides a range of county-level music groups. ### Colleges There are seven colleges across the county, with the Tresham College of Further and Higher Education having four campuses in three towns: Corby, Kettering and Wellingborough. Tresham, which was taken over by Bedford College in 2017 due to failed Ofsted inspections, provides further education and offers vocational courses and re-sit GCSEs. It also offers Higher Education options in conjunction with several universities. Other colleges in the county are: Fletton House, Knuston Hall, Moulton College, Northampton College, Northampton New College and The East Northamptonshire College. ### University Northamptonshire has one university, the University of Northampton. It has two campuses 2.5 miles (4.0 km) apart and 10,000 students. It offers courses for needs and interests from foundation and undergraduate level to postgraduate, professional and doctoral qualifications. Subjects include traditional arts, humanities and sciences subjects, as well as entrepreneurship, product design and advertising. Healthcare ---------- ### Hospitals The main acute National Health Service hospitals in Northamptonshire Northampton General Hospital, which also operates Danetre Hospital in Daventry, and Kettering General Hospital. In the south-west of the county, the towns of Brackley, Towcester and surrounding villages are serviced by the Horton General Hospital in Banbury in neighbouring Oxfordshire for acute medical needs. A similar arrangement is in place for the town of Oundle and nearby villages, served by Peterborough City Hospital. In February 2011 a new satellite out-patient centre opened at Nene Park, Irthlingborough to provide over 40,000 appointments a year, as well as a minor injury unit to serve Eastern Northamptonshire. This was opened to relieve pressure off Kettering General Hospital, and has also replaced the dated Rushden Memorial Clinic which provided at the time about 8,000 appointments a year, when open. ### Water contamination In June 2008, Anglian Water found traces of *Cryptosporidium* in water supplies of Northamptonshire. The local reservoir at Pitsford was investigated and a European rabbit which had strayed into it, causing the problem, was found. About 250,000 residents were affected; by 14 July 2008, 13 cases of cryptosporidiosis attributed to water in Northampton had been reported. Following the end of the investigation, Anglian Water lifted its boil notice for all affected areas on 4 July 2008. Anglian Water revealed that it would pay up to £30 per household as compensation for customers hit by the water crisis. Transport --------- The gap in the hills at Watford Gap meant that many south-east to north-west routes passed through Northamptonshire. Watling Street, a Roman Road which is now part of the A5, passes through here, as did canals, railways and major roads in later years. ### Roads Major national roads, including the M1 motorway (London to Leeds) and the A14 (Rugby to Felixstowe), provide Northamptonshire with transport links both north–south and east–west. The A43 joins the M1 to the M40 motorway, passing through the south of the county to the junction west of Brackley, and the A45 links Northampton with Wellingborough and Peterborough. The county road network (excluding trunk roads and motorways), managed by West Northamptonshire Council and North Northamptonshire Council, includes the A45 west of the M1 motorway, the A43 between Northampton and the county boundary near Stamford, the A361 between Kilsby and Banbury (Oxon) and all B, C and unclassified roads. Since 2009, these highways have been managed on behalf of the county council by MGWSP, a joint venture between May Gurney and WSP. ### Rivers and canals Two major canals – the Oxford and the Grand Union – join in the county at Braunston. Notable features include a flight of 17 locks on the Grand Union at Rothersthorpe, the canal museum at Stoke Bruerne and a tunnel at Blisworth which, at 2,813 metres (3,076 yd), is the third-longest navigable canal tunnel on the UK canal network. A branch of the Grand Union Canal connects to the River Nene in Northampton and has been upgraded to a 'wide canal' in places and is known as the *Nene Navigation*. It is famous for its guillotine locks. ### Railways Two trunk railway routes, the Midland Main Line and the West Coast Main Line, cross the county. At its peak, Northamptonshire had 75 railway stations. It now has only six, at: Northampton and Long Buckby on the West Coast Main Line; Kettering, Wellingborough and Corby on the Midland Main Line; along with King's Sutton, only a few yards from the boundary with Oxfordshire on the Chiltern Main Line. Before nationalisation of the railways in 1948 and the creation of British Railways, three of the *Big Four* railway companies operated in Northamptonshire: the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, London and North Eastern Railway and Great Western Railway. Only the Southern Railway was not represented. As of 2019, it is served by Chiltern Railways, East Midlands Railway, Avanti West Coast and West Midlands Trains. Corby rail history Corby was described as the largest town in Britain without a railway station. The railway running through the town from Kettering to Oakham in Rutland was previously used only by freight traffic and occasional diverted passenger trains that did not stop at the station. The line through Corby was once part of a main line to Nottingham through Melton Mowbray, but the stretch between Melton and Nottingham was closed in 1968. In the 1980s, an experimental passenger shuttle service ran between Corby and Kettering but was withdrawn a few years later. On 23 February 2009, a new railway station opened, providing direct hourly access to London St Pancras. Following the opening of Corby Station, Rushden then became the largest town in the United Kingdom without a direct railway station. Closed lines and stations Railway services in Northamptonshire were reduced by the Beeching cuts in the 1960s. Closure of the line connecting Northampton to Peterborough by way of Wellingborough, Thrapston, and Oundle left eastern Northamptonshire devoid of railways. Part of this route was reopened in 1977 as the Nene Valley Railway. A section of one of the closed lines, the Northampton to Market Harborough line, is now the Northampton & Lamport heritage railway, while the route as a whole forms a part of the National Cycle Network, as the Brampton Valley Way. As early as 1897, Northamptonshire would have had its own Channel Tunnel rail link with the creation of the Great Central Railway, which was intended to connect to a tunnel under the English Channel. Although the complete project never came to fruition, the rail link through Northamptonshire was constructed, and had stations at Charwelton, Woodford Halse, Helmdon and Brackley. It became part of the London and North Eastern Railway in 1923 (and of British Railways in 1948) before its closure in 1966. Future In June 2009, the Association of Train Operating Companies (ATOC) recommended opening a new station on the former Irchester railway station site for Rushden, Higham Ferrers and Irchester, called Rushden Parkway. Network Rail is electrifying the Midland Main Line north of Bedford, to Kettering and Corby. An open access company has approached Network Rail for services to Oakham in Rutland to London via the county. The Rushden Historical Transport Society, operators of the Rushden, Higham and Wellingborough Railway, would like to see the railway fully reopen between Wellingborough and Higham Ferrers. The route of the planned High Speed 2 railway line (between London and Birmingham) will go through the southern part of the county but without any stations. ### Buses Most buses are operated by Stagecoach Midlands. Some town area routes have been named the Corby Star, Connect Kettering, Connect Wellingborough and Daventry Dart; the last three of these routes have route designations that include a letter (such as A, D1, W1, W2). Stagecoach's X4 route provides interurban links across the county, running between Northampton, Wellingborough, Kettering, Corby, Oundle and Peterborough. ### Airports Sywell Aerodrome, on the edge of Sywell village, has three grass runways and one concrete all-weather runway. It is, however, only 1000 metres long and therefore cannot be served by passenger jets. Media ----- ### Newspapers The two main newspapers in the county are the Northamptonshire Evening Telegraph and the Northampton Chronicle & Echo. ### Television BBC regions Most of Northamptonshire is served by the BBC's East region which is based in Norwich. The regional news television programme, **BBC Look East**, provides local news across the East of England, Milton Keynes and most of Northamptonshire. An opt-out in *Look East* covers the west part of the region only, broadcast from Cambridge. This area also is covered by the BBC's **The Politics Show: East** and **Inside Out: East**. A small part of the north of the county is covered by BBC East Midlands's regional news **BBC East Midlands Today**, while a small part of South Northamptonshire is covered by BBC Oxford's regional news **BBC Oxford News** which is part of the BBC South Today programme. ITV regions Most of Northamptonshire is covered by ITV's Anglia region (which broadcasts **Anglia Today/Tonight**); in the south-west of the county, primarily Brackley and the surrounding villages, broadcasts can be received from the Oxford transmitter which broadcasts ITV Meridian's **Meridian Today/Tonight**. ### Radio BBC Radio Northampton, broadcasts on two FM frequencies: 104.2 MHz for the south and west of the county (including Northampton and surrounding area) and 103.6 MHz for the north of the county (including Kettering, Wellingborough and Corby). BBC Radio Northampton is situated on Abington Street, Northampton. These services are broadcast from the Moulton Park & Geddington transmitters. There are three commercial radio stations in the county. The former *Kettering and Corby Broadcasting Company (KCBC)* station was called Connect Radio (97.2 and 107.4 MHz FM), following a merger with the Wellingborough-based station of the same name. It is now part of Smooth East Midlands. While both Heart East (96.6 MHz FM) and AM station Gold (1557 kHz) air very little local content as they form part of a national network. National digital radio is also available in Northamptonshire, though coverage is limited. Corby is served by its own dedicated station, Corby Radio (96.3 FM), based in the town and focused on local content. Sport ----- ### Rugby union Northamptonshire has many rugby union clubs. Its premier team Northampton Saints, competes in the Aviva Premiership and won the European championship in 2000 by defeating Munster for the Heineken Cup, 9–8. Saints are based at the 15,249 capacity Franklin's Gardens ground. In 2014 the club won the Aviva Premiership as well as the Challenge Cup. For the 2014/15 campaign the team finished top of the table for the first time in the premiership, eventually losing 24–29 to Saracens in the playoff semi-final. ### Association football Northamptonshire has twenty four football clubs operating in the top ten levels of the English football league system. The sport in the area is administered by the Northamptonshire Football Association, which is affiliated with the United Counties League, the Northamptonshire Combination Football League, the Northampton Town Football League, as well as the Peterborough and District Football League in neighbouring Cambridgeshire. Only two clubs in Northamptonshire to have competed in The Football League are Northampton Town and the defunct Rushden & Diamonds. #### Northampton Town F.C. The only fully-professional English football league club in the county is Northampton Town, which attracts between 4,000 and 6,000 fans on an average game day and has been part of the Football League since 1920. Their home ground is Sixfields Stadium which opened in 1994. The first match there took place on 15 October against Barnet Football Club. The stadium can hold up to 7,500 people, with provisions for disabled fans. #### Other clubs The county also a number of semi-professional sides that compete in levels 6 to 8 of the football pyramid. These are Kettering Town, Brackley Town, AFC Rushden & Diamonds, and Corby Town F.C. Nineteen teams compete in the United Counties League (UCL), a league operating at levels 9 and 10 of the English League system, and which encompasses all of Northamptonshire and parts of neighbouring counties. ### Cricket Northamptonshire County Cricket Club is in Division Two of the County Championship; the team (also known as The Steelbacks) play their home games at the County Cricket Ground, Northampton. They finished as runners-up in the Championship on four occasions in the period before it split into two divisions. In 2013 the club won the Friends Life t20, beating Surrey in the final. Appearing in their third final in four years, the Steelbacks beat Durham by four wickets at Edgbaston in 2016 to lift the Natwest t20 Blast trophy for the second time. The club also won the NatWest Trophy on two occasions, and the Benson & Hedges Cup once. ### Motor sport Silverstone is a major motor racing circuit, most notably used for the British Grand Prix. There is also a dedicated radio station for the circuit which broadcasts on 87.7 FM or 1602 MW when events are taking place. However, part of the circuit is across the border in Buckinghamshire. Rockingham Speedway, located near Corby, was one of the largest motor sport venues in the United Kingdom with 52,000 seats until it was closed permanently in 2018 to make way for a logistics hub for the automotive industry, hosting its last race in November of that year. It was a US-style elliptical racing circuit (the largest of its kind outside of the United States), and is used extensively for all kinds of motor racing events. The Santa Pod drag racing circuit, venue for the FIA European Drag Racing Championships, is just across the border in Bedfordshire but has a NN postcode. Two Formula One teams are based in Northamptonshire, with Mercedes at Brackley and Aston Martin in Silverstone. Aston Martin also have a secondary facility in Brackley, while Mercedes build engines for themselves, Aston Martin, McLaren and Williams at Brixworth. Cosworth, the high-performance engineering company, is based in Northampton. ### Swimming and diving There are seven competitive swimming clubs in the county: Northampton Swimming Club, Wellingborough Amateur Swimming Club, Rushden Swimming Club, Kettering Amateur Swimming Club, Corby Amateur Swimming Club, Daventry Dolphins Swimming Club, and Nene Valley Swimming Club. There is also one diving club: Corby Steel Diving Club. The main pool in the county is Corby East Midlands International Pool, which has an 8-lane 50m swimming pool with a floor that can adjust in depth to provide a 25m pool. The pool is home to the Northamptonshire Amateur Association's County Championships as well as some of the Youth Midland Championships. Northamptonshire is home to 2016 paralympian Ellie Robinson. She was talent-spotted in July 2012 and developed at Northampton Swimming Club, and was selected to compete for Great Britain at the 2016 IPC Swimming European Championships. She won there three bronze medals, and one silver medal. Culture ------- Jane Austen set her 1814 novel *Mansfield Park* mostly in Northamptonshire. Melrose Plant, a prominent secondary protagonist in the Richard Jury series of mystery novels by Martha Grimes, resides in Northamptonshire, and much of the action in the books takes place there. *Kinky Boots*, the 2005 British-American film and subsequent stage musical adaptation, was based on the true story of a traditional Northamptonshire shoe factory which, to stay afloat, entered the market for fetish footwear. Rock and pop bands originating in the area have included Bauhaus, Temples, The Departure, New Cassettes, Raging Speedhorn and Defenestration. Richard Coles, an English musician, partnered in the 1980s with Jimmy Somerville to create the band The Communards. They achieved three top ten hits and made the No. 1 in 1986 with a version of the song "Don't Leave Me This Way". In 2012, The University of Northampton awarded Coles an honorary doctorate. From 2011 to 2022 he was the vicar of Finedon in Northamptonshire. Northampton is the birthplace of composer Malcolm Arnold (born 21 October 1921) and of actor Marc Warren (born 20 March 1967). Places of interest ------------------ | | | --- | | **Key** | | | Abbey/Priory/Cathedral | | Accessible open space | Accessible open space | | | Amusement/Theme Park | | | Castle | | Country Park | Country Park | | | English Heritage | | | Forestry Commission | | Heritage railway | Heritage railway | | Historic house | Historic House | | Places of Worship | Places of Worship | | Museum (free)Museum | Museum (free/not free) | | National Trust | National Trust | | | Theatre | | | Zoo | * 78 Derngate * Althorp * Apethorpe Palace * Barnwell Country Park * Barnwell Manor * Billing Aquadrome * Borough Hill Daventry (Iron Age hill fort) * Boughton House (home of the Dukes of Buccleuch) * Blisworth tunnel * Brackley * Brampton Valley Way (linear park on a disused railway line) * Brixworth Country Park * Burghley House (in the Soke of Peterborough, so formerly in Northants), * Canons Ashby House * Castle Ashby (home of the Marquess of Northampton), * Coton Manor Garden * Cottesbrooke Hall * Daventry Country Park * Deene Park * Delapré Abbey * Derngate and Royal Theatre * Easton Neston * Fermyn Woods Country Park * Fotheringhay Castle & Church * Franklin's Gardens * Geddington's Eleanor cross * Holdenby House * Irchester Country Park * Jurassic Way (long-distance footpath) * Kelmarsh Hall * Kirby Hall * Knuston Hall * Lamport Hall * Lilford Hall * Lyveden New Bield * Pitsford Reservoir * Prebendal Manor House, Nassington * Naseby Field * Northampton Cathedral * Northampton & Lamport Railway * Northamptonshire Ironstone Railway * Roadmender - live music venue * Piddington Roman Villa * Rockingham Castle * Rockingham Forest * Rockingham Motor Speedway * Rushden Hall * Rushden, Higham and Wellingborough Railway * Rushden Station Railway Museum * Rushton Triangular Lodge * Salcey Forest * Silverstone Circuit * Southwick Hall * Stanwick Lakes * Stoke Bruerne Canal Museum * Sulgrave Manor * Summer Leys nature reserve * Syresham * Sywell Country Park * The Castle Theatre * Towcester Museum * Watford Locks * Wellingborough Museum * Whittlewood Forest * Wicksteed Park Annual events ------------- * Gretton Barn dance * British Grand Prix at Silverstone * Burghley Horse Trials * Crick Boat Show * Hollowell Steam Rally * Northampton Balloon Festival * Rothwell Fair * Rushden Cavalcade * St Crispin Street Fair * Wellingborough Carnival * World Conker Championships * Buckby Feast * Corby Highland Gathering See also -------- * Custos Rotulorum of Northamptonshire - list of Keepers of the Rolls * Grade I listed buildings in Northamptonshire * High Sheriff of Northamptonshire * History of Northamptonshire * List of places in Northamptonshire * Lord Lieutenant of Northamptonshire * Northamptonshire (UK Parliament constituency) - historical list of MPs for the Northamptonshire constituency * Northamptonshire Police * Northamptonshire Police and Crime Commissioner * Category:People from Northamptonshire

Northamptonshire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northamptonshire

**Livestock** are the domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to provide labor and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to animals who are raised for consumption, and sometimes used to refer solely to farmed ruminants, such as cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. Horses are considered livestock in the United States. The USDA classifies pork, veal, beef, and lamb (mutton) as livestock, and all livestock as red meat. Poultry and fish are not included in the category. The latter is likely due to the fact that fish products are not governed by the USDA, but by the FDA. The breeding, maintenance, slaughter and general subjugation of livestock, called *animal husbandry*, is a part of modern agriculture and has been practiced in many cultures since humanity's transition to farming from hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animal husbandry practices have varied widely across cultures and time periods. It continues to play a major economic and cultural role in numerous communities. Livestock farming practices have largely shifted to intensive animal farming. Intensive animal farming increases the yield of the various commercial outputs, but also negatively impacts animal welfare, the environment, and public health. In particular, beef, dairy and sheep are an outsized source of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Etymology --------- The word *livestock* was first used between 1650 and 1660, as a compound word combining the words "live" and "stock". In some periods, "cattle" and "livestock" have been used interchangeably. Today,[*specify*] the modern meaning of cattle is domesticated bovines, while livestock has a wider sense. United States federal legislation defines the term to make specified agricultural commodities eligible or ineligible for a program or activity. For example, the Livestock Mandatory Reporting Act of 1999 (P.L. 106–78, Title IX) defines livestock only as cattle, swine, and sheep, while the 1988 disaster assistance legislation defined the term as "cattle, sheep, goats, swine, poultry (including egg-producing poultry), equine animals used for food or in the production of food, fish used for food, and other animals designated by the Secretary". *Deadstock* is defined in contradistinction to livestock as "animals that have died before slaughter, sometimes from illness or disease". It is illegal in many countries, such as Canada, to sell or process meat from dead animals for human consumption. History ------- Animal-rearing originated during the cultural transition to settled farming communities from hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animals are domesticated when their breeding and living conditions are controlled by humans. Over time, the collective behaviour, lifecycle and physiology of livestock have changed radically. Many modern farmed animals are unsuited to life in the natural world. Dogs were domesticated early; dogs appear in Europe and the Far East from about 15,000 years ago. Goats and sheep were domesticated in multiple events sometime between 11,000 and 5,000 years ago in Southwest Asia. Pigs were domesticated by 8,500 BC in the Near East and 6,000 BC in China. Domestication of horses dates to around 4,000 BC. Cattle have been domesticated since approximately 10,500 years ago.[*specify*] Chickens and other poultry may have been domesticated around 7,000 BC. Types ----- The term "livestock" is indistinct and may be defined narrowly or broadly. Broadly, livestock refers to any population of animals kept by humans for a useful, commercial purpose. | Animal | Ancestor | Domestication | Utilization | Picture | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Horse | Tarpan | Mongolia | Riding, racing, carrying and pulling loads, meat, milk | | | Donkey | African wild ass | Africa | Carrying loads and draught | | | Cattle | Eurasian aurochs | Eurasia | Meat, milk and draught | | | Zebu | Indian aurochs | Eurasia | Milk, meat and draught | | | Bali cattle | Banteng | SE Asia | Meat, milk and draught | | | Yak | Wild yak | Tibet | Pack animals, milk, meat and hide | | | Water buffalo | Wild water buffalo | India and SE Asia | Meat, milk and carrying loads | | | Gayal | Gaur | India and Malaysia | Carrying loads and draught | | | Sheep | Mouflon | Iran and Asia Minor | Meat, milk and fleece. | | | Goat | Bezoar ibex | Greece and Pakistan | Meat, milk and fleece | | | Reindeer | Reindeer | Eurasia | Draught, milk, flesh and hide | | | Bactrian camel | Wild Bactrian camel | Central Asia | Riding and racing | | | Arabian camel | Thomas' camel | North Africa and SW Asia | Riding and racing | | | Llama | Guanaco | Andes | Pack animals and fleece | | | Alpaca | vicuña | Andes | Fleece | | | Domestic Pig | Wild boar | Eurasia | Meat | | | Chicken | red junglefowl | Southeast Asia | Meat, egg | | | Rabbit | European rabbit | Europe | Meat, wool | | | Guinea pig | Montane guinea pig | Andes | Meat | | ### Micro-livestock *Micro-livestock* is the term used for much-smaller animals, usually mammals. The two predominant categories are rodents and lagomorphs (rabbits). Even-smaller animals are kept and raised, such as crickets and honey bees. Micro-livestock does not generally include fish (aquaculture) or chickens (poultry farming). Farming practices ----------------- Traditionally, animal husbandry was part of the subsistence farmer's way of life, producing not only the food needed by the family but also the fuel, fertiliser, clothing, transport and draught power. Killing the animal for food was a secondary consideration, and wherever possible their products, such as wool, eggs, milk and blood (by the Maasai) were harvested while the animal was still alive. In the traditional system of transhumance, humans and livestock moved seasonally between fixed summer and winter pastures; in montane regions the summer pasture was up in the mountains, the winter pasture in the valleys. Animals can be kept extensively or intensively. Extensive systems involve animals roaming at will, or under the supervision of a herdsman, often for their protection from predators. Ranching in the Western United States involves large herds of cattle grazing widely over public and private lands. Similar cattle stations are found in South America, Australia and other places with large areas of land and low rainfall. Ranching systems have been used for sheep, deer, ostrich, emu, llama and alpaca. In the uplands of the United Kingdom, sheep are turned out on the fells in spring and graze the abundant mountain grasses untended, being brought to lower altitudes late in the year, with supplementary feeding being provided in winter. In rural locations, pigs and poultry can obtain much of their nutrition from scavenging, and in African communities, hens may live for months without being fed, and still produce one or two eggs a week. At the other extreme, in the more Western parts of the world, animals are often intensively managed; dairy cows may be kept in zero-grazing conditions with all their forage brought to them; beef cattle may be kept in high density feedlots; pigs may be housed in climate-controlled buildings and never go outdoors; poultry may be reared in barns and kept in cages as laying birds under lighting-controlled conditions. In between these two extremes are semi-intensive, often family-run farms where livestock graze outside for much of the year, silage or hay is made to cover the times of year when the grass stops growing, and fertiliser, feed and other inputs are bought onto the farm from outside. Predation --------- Livestock farmers have often dealt with natural world animals' predation and theft by rustlers. In North America, animals such as gray wolves, grizzly bears, cougars, and coyotes are sometimes considered a threat to livestock. In Eurasia and Africa, predators include wolves, leopards, tigers, lions, dholes, Asiatic black bears, crocodiles, spotted hyenas, and other carnivores. In South America, feral dogs, jaguars, anacondas, and spectacled bears are threats to livestock. In Australia, dingoes, foxes, and wedge-tailed eagles are common predators, with an additional threat from domestic dogs who may kill in response to a hunting instinct, leaving the carcass uneaten. Disease ------- Good husbandry, proper feeding, and hygiene are the main contributors to animal health on farms, bringing economic benefits through maximised production. When, despite these precautions, animals still become sick, they are treated with veterinary medicines, by the farmer and the veterinarian. In the European Union, when farmers treat the animals, they are required to follow the guidelines for treatment and to record the treatments given. Animals are susceptible to a number of diseases and conditions that may affect their health. Some, like classical swine fever and scrapie are specific to one population of animals, while others, like foot-and-mouth disease affect all cloven-hoofed animals. Where the condition is serious, governments impose regulations on import and export, on the movement of livestock, quarantine restrictions and the reporting of suspected cases. Vaccines are available against certain diseases, and antibiotics are widely used where appropriate. At one time, antibiotics were routinely added to certain compound foodstuffs to promote growth, but this is now[*specify*] considered poor practice in many countries because of the risk that it may lead to antibiotic resistance. Animals living under intensive conditions are particularly prone to internal and external parasites; increasing numbers of sea lice are affecting farmed salmon in Scotland. Reducing the parasite burdens of livestock results in increased productivity and profitability. According to the Special Report on Climate Change and Land, livestock diseases are expected to get worse as climate change increases temperature and precipitation variability. Transportation and marketing ---------------------------- Since many livestock are herd animals, they were historically driven to market "on the hoof" to a town or other central location. The method is still used in some parts of the world. Truck transport is now common in developed countries. Local and regional livestock auctions and specialized agricultural markets facilitate trade in livestock. In Canada at the Cargill slaughterhouse in High River, Alberta, 2,000 workers process 4,500 cattle per day, or more than one-third of Canada's capacity. It closed when some of its workers became infected with coronavirus disease 2019. The Cargill plant together with the JBS plant in Brooks, Alberta and the Harmony Beef plant in Balzac, Alberta represent fully three-quarters of the Canadian beef supply. In other areas, livestock may be bought and sold in a bazaar or wet market, such as may be found in many parts of Central Asia. In non-Western countries, providing access to markets has encouraged farmers to invest in livestock, with the result being improved livelihoods. For example, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) has worked in Zimbabwe to help farmers make their most of their livestock herds. In stock shows, farmers bring their best livestock to compete with one another. Biomass ------- Humans and livestock make up more than 90% of the biomass of all terrestrial vertebrates, and almost as much as all insects combined. Environmental impact -------------------- Mean greenhouse gas emissions for different food types| Food Types | Greenhouse Gas Emissions (g CO2-Ceq per g protein) | | --- | --- | | Ruminant Meat | 62 | | Recirculating Aquaculture | 30 | | Trawling Fishery | 26 | | Non-recirculating Aquaculture | 12 | | Pork | 10 | | Poultry | 10 | | Dairy | 9.1 | | Non-trawling Fishery | 8.6 | | Eggs | 6.8 | | Starchy Roots | 1.7 | | Wheat | 1.2 | | Maize | 1.2 | | Legumes | 0.25 | Animal husbandry has a significant impact on the world environment. It is responsible for somewhere between 20 and 33% of the fresh water usage in the world, and livestock, and the production of feed for them, occupy about a third of Earth's ice-free land. Livestock production is a contributing factor in species extinction, desertification, and habitat destruction. Meat is considered one of the prime factors contributing to the current sixth mass extinction. Animal agriculture contributes to species extinction in various ways. Habitat is destroyed by clearing forests and converting land to grow feed crops and for animal grazing (for example, animal husbandry is responsible for up to 91% of the deforestation in the Amazon region), while predators and herbivores are frequently targeted and hunted because of a perceived threat to livestock profits. The newest report released by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that between the 1970s and 2000s agricultural emission increases were directly linked to an increase in livestock. The population growth of livestock (including cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats) is done with the intention of increasing animal production, but in turn increases emissions. In addition, livestock produce greenhouse gases. The IPCC has estimated that agriculture (including not only livestock, but also food crop, biofuel and other production) accounted for about 10 to 12 percent of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (expressed as 100-year carbon dioxide equivalents) in 2005 and in 2010. Cattle produce some 79 million tons of methane per day. Livestock enteric methane account 30% of the overall methane emissions of the planet. Livestock are responsible for 34% of all human-related emissions of nitrous oxide, through feed production and manure. Livestock offer significant potential for reducing GHG emissions. Best production practices are estimated to be able to reduce livestock emissions by 30%. Economic and social benefits ---------------------------- The value of global livestock production in 2013 has been estimated at 883 billion dollars, (constant 2005–2006 dollars). However, economic implications of livestock production extend further: to downstream industry (saleyards, abattoirs, butchers, milk processors, refrigerated transport, wholesalers, retailers, food services, tanneries, etc.), upstream industry (feed producers, feed transport, farm and ranch supply companies, equipment manufacturers, seed companies, vaccine manufacturers, etc.) and associated services (veterinarians, nutrition consultants, shearers, etc.). Livestock provide a variety of food and non-food products; the latter include leather, wool, pharmaceuticals, bone products, industrial protein, and fats. For many abattoirs, very little animal biomass may be wasted at slaughter. Even intestinal contents removed at slaughter may be recovered for use as fertilizer. Livestock manure helps maintain the fertility of grazing lands. Manure is commonly collected from barns and feeding areas to fertilize cropland. In some places, animal manure is used as fuel, either directly (as in some non-Western countries), or indirectly (as a source of methane for heating or for generating electricity). In regions where machine power is limited, some classes of livestock are used as draft stock, not only for tillage and other on-farm use, but also for transport of people and goods. In 1997, livestock provided energy for between an estimated 25 and 64% of cultivation energy in the world's irrigated systems, and that 300 million draft animals were used globally in small-scale agriculture. Although livestock production serves as a source of income, it can provide additional economic values for rural families, often serving as a major contributor to food security and economic security. Livestock can serve as insurance against risk and is an economic buffer (of income and food supply) in some regions and some economies (e.g., during some African droughts). However, its use as a buffer may sometimes be limited where alternatives are present, which may reflect strategic maintenance of insurance in addition to a desire to retain productive assets. Even for some farmers in Western nations, livestock can serve as a kind of insurance. Some crop growers may produce livestock as a strategy for diversification of their income sources, to reduce risks related to weather, markets and other factors. Many studies[*which?*] have found evidence of the social, as well as economic, importance of livestock in non-Western countries and in regions of rural poverty, and such evidence is not confined to pastoral and nomadic societies. Social values in developed countries can also be considerable. For example, in a study of livestock ranching permitted on national forest land in New Mexico, US, it was concluded that "ranching maintains traditional values and connects families to ancestral lands and cultural heritage", and that a "sense of place, attachment to land, and the value of preserving open space were common themes". "The importance of land and animals as means of maintaining culture and way of life figured repeatedly in permittee responses, as did the subjects of responsibility and respect for land, animals, family, and community." In the US, profit tends to rank low among motivations for involvement in livestock ranching. Instead, family, tradition and a desired way of life tend to be major motivators for ranch purchase, and ranchers "historically have been willing to accept low returns from livestock production". See also -------- * Agribusiness * Agroecology * Amenable species * Bovine spongiform encephalopathy * California Proposition 2 (2008) * Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources * Cuniculture (rabbit farming) * Leave the gate as you found it * *Livestock's Long Shadow – Environmental Issues and Options* (UN report) * Pen * Sericulture (silkworm farming) * Sheep husbandry * Western Fair * Wildlife farming

Livestock

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livestock

The **Costa Rica national football team** (Spanish: *Selección de fútbol de Costa Rica*) represents Costa Rica in men's international football. The national team is administered by the Costa Rican Football Federation (FEDEFUTBOL), the governing body for football in Costa Rica. It has been a member of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) since 1927, the Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF) since 1961, and a member of the Central American Football Union (UNCAF) since 1990. Costa Rica is the most successful national football team from the region of Central America. Winning three CONCACAF Championships (1963, 1969, 1989) and leading the Copa Centroamericana tournament with four championships up until 2017, when it was absorbed into the CONCACAF Nations League. Costa Rica is the only national team in Central America to have played in six FIFA World Cup editions. Costa Rica's national football team has the all-time highest average Football Elo Ranking in Central America with 1597.1, and the all-time highest Football Elo Ranking in Central America, with 1806 in 2014. Since the late 1980s, the team has continuously been visible as a solidly competitive side, with a prominent performance in the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy, making it to the knockout stage in their debut after finishing second in their group during the first phase, below Brazil. They also qualified for the 2002 and 2006 FIFA World Cups. In 2014, Costa Rica achieved their best performance in history by finishing first in their group that consisted of three former World Cup champions: Uruguay, Italy, and England. During the round 16 they defeated Greece 5–3 via a penalty shoot-out after a 1–1 draw. Moreover, during their match against the Greek team, Keylor Navas saved more than 15 shots. They reached the quarter-finals for the first time but were defeated by the Netherlands, also in a penalty shoot-out (3–4) after a scoreless draw on 5 July. Both their 2018 and 2022 World Cup campaigns ended in a fourth place group stage exit, with their only points coming from a 2–2 draw against Switzerland in 2018 and a 1–0 win over Japan in 2022. History ------- ### Early history The national team made its debut in the Independence Centenary Games held in Guatemala City in September 1921, winning their first game 7–0 against El Salvador. In the final, Costa Rica defeated 6–0 Guatemala to claim the trophy. Costa Rica's team in the late 1940s acquired the nickname "The Gold Shorties". Throughout the '50s and '60s, they were the second strongest team in the CONCACAF zone behind Mexico, finishing runners-up in World Cup qualifying in the 1958, 1962 and 1966 qualifiers. Stars of the side during this period included Ruben Jimenez, Errol Daniels, Leonel Hernandez and Edgar Marin. However, Costa Rica was not able to utilize this advantage, hence failed to reach any World Cup at that decade. At the end of the 1960s their fortunes declined as Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Haiti, Trinidad & Tobago and Canada rose in prominence. ### 1980s Costa Rica failed to qualify for any of the World Cups in the 1970s and 1980s, and did not reach the final round of the CONCACAF qualifying until the 1986 qualifiers. They participated in two consecutive Summer Olympic Games, in Moscow 1980 and in Los Angeles 1984. In 1980, Costa Rica competed against Yugoslavia, Finland and Iraq in Group D, losing 3–2, 3–0 and 3–0 respectively. In Los Angeles, the Ticos lost 3–0 against the United States, and 4–1 against Egypt, but beat a strong Italy team, which included Walter Zenga, Pietro Vierchowod, Franco Baresi and Aldo Serena, 1–0 with a goal by the midfielder Enrique Rivers. ### 1990 World Cup **Gabelo Conejo** **Flores (C)** **Montero** **Chavarria** **Chaves** **Marchena** **González** **Cayasso** **Gómez** **Ramírez** **Jara** Team that played against Scotland in the World Cup Italy 1990 Costa Rica won the 1989 CONCACAF Championship to qualify for the finals of a World Cup for the first time. In the first round of the qualifiers, they beat Panama 3–1 on aggregate after a 2–0 away victory in the second leg, with goals by Juan Arnoldo Cayasso and Hernán Medford. They were drawn against Mexico in the second round, but advanced automatically when their opponents were disqualified for youth player age tampering. Costa Rica started the final qualifying group stage with a home victory and an away defeat against both Guatemala and the United States. They drew 1–1 with Trinidad and Tobago and then beat the same opponents 1–0 at home with a goal by Cayasso. They achieved an important away win, 4–2 against El Salvador at the Estadio Cuscatlán, with goals from Carlos Mario Hidalgo, Cayasso and a double from Leonidas Flores, before beating El Salvador 1–0 in San José with a goal from Pastor Fernández. They finished first in the group table, ahead of the United States on goal difference. Italy 1990, or Italia 90, is considered a seminal moment in Costa Rican football history. In particular, the players are notable for being primarily non-professionals, in that most players had other jobs and did not make a living playing football. Due to the success of the team during the World Cup, a number of the squad members went on to success in Costa Rican football (and international, in the case of Conejo). | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Costa Rica | 8 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 10 | 6 | +4 | 11 | |  United States | 8 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 6 | 3 | +3 | 11 | |  Trinidad and Tobago | 8 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 7 | 5 | +2 | 9 | |  Guatemala | 6 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 7 | −3 | 3 | |  El Salvador | 6 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 8 | −6 | 2 | Source: RSSSF Placed in Group C at the World Cup finals, Costa Rica began by beating Scotland 1–0 thanks to another goal by Cayasso. Although they lost to Brazil by the same score, they came from behind to beat Sweden 2–1 in their final group match to reach the knockout stages. There, they lost 4–1 to Czechoslovakia, for whom Tomáš Skuhravý scored a hat-trick. | Pos | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts | Qualification | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Brazil | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 | 6 | Advance to knockout stage | | 2 |  Costa Rica | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 2 | +1 | 4 | | 3 |  Scotland | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 3 | −1 | 2 | | | 4 |  Sweden | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 6 | −3 | 0 | Source: FIFA Rules for classification: Group stage tiebreakers ### 2002 World Cup The Ticos won the qualification for the 2002 World Cup held in South Korea and Japan. During the qualifiers, Costa Rica were coached by the Brazilian, Gílson Nunes, and then by the naturalised Brazilian, Alexandre Guimarães. The first qualifying group stage began with an unexpected 2–1 defeat to Barbados. After this humiliation, Costa Rica beat the United States 2–1 at the Ricardo Saprissa Stadium, with goals from Rolando Fonseca and Hernán Medford. They then beat Guatemala 2–1 in the Estadio Alejandro Morera Soto, with two goals from Paulo Wanchope and Barbados 3–0 at the Ricardo Saprissa, with goals from Jafet Soto, Fonseca and Medford. A draw against the United States and a 2–1 defeat to Guatemala forced Costa Rica into a play-off against Guatemala in Miami. Costa Rica won 5–2 with two goals from Fonseca and one each from Wanchope, Reynaldo Parks and Jafeth Soto. Costa Rica displayed fine attacking form during the final qualifying round, beginning with a 2–2 draw against Honduras at the Ricardo Saprissa, with goals from Fonseca and Rodrigo Cordero, and a 3–0 defeat of Trinidad and Tobago at the Morera Soto. Their only loss in this round came when the United States beat them 1–0. Costa Rica bounced back with a 2–1 win against Mexico in Mexico City, a match known as the *Aztecazo*, with goals from Fonseca and Medford. Further wins over Jamaica, Honduras and Trinidad and Tobago took Costa Rica to the brink of qualification, which they sealed with an emotional 2–0 win against the United States in the Saprissa, with a double from Fonseca. | Pos | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts | Qualification | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Costa Rica | 10 | 7 | 2 | 1 | 17 | 7 | +10 | 23 | Qualified to the 2002 FIFA World Cup | | 2 |  Mexico | 10 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 16 | 9 | +7 | 17 | | 3 |  United States | 10 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 11 | 8 | +3 | 17 | | 4 |  Honduras | 10 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 17 | 17 | 0 | 14 | | | 5 |  Jamaica | 10 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 7 | 14 | −7 | 8 | | 6 |  Trinidad and Tobago | 10 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 5 | 18 | −13 | 5 | Source: FIFA In the finals, Costa Rica were drawn into Group C with Brazil, China, and Turkey. Their campaign started in Gwangju, where the Ticos beat China 2–0. In their second game against Turkey in Incheon, Winston Parks scored an 86th-minute goal to earn a 1–1 draw. Against Brazil, Costa Rica fought back from 3–0 down to 3–2 early in the second half, only to concede two further goals and lose 5–2. With Turkey beating China 3–0, Costa Rica finished behind Turkey on goal difference and were eliminated. | Pos | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts | Qualification | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Brazil | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 3 | +8 | 9 | Advance to knockout stage | | 2 |  Turkey | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 3 | +2 | 4 | | 3 |  Costa Rica | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 6 | −1 | 4 | | | 4 |  China | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 9 | −9 | 0 | Source: FIFA Rules for classification: Tie-breaking criteria ### 2006 World Cup Costa Rica again managed to qualify for the World Cup finals in 2006, albeit with difficulties that saw their American coach Steve Sampson depart after they required away goals to beat Cuba in the preliminary phase. The Colombian Jorge Luis Pinto took over for the next round, which began with a disastrous 5–2 defeat at home against Honduras and a 2–1 loss in Guatemala. Costa Rica recovered with two wins over Canada and a resounding 5–0 triumph over Guatemala, when Wanchope scored a hat-trick and Carlos Hernández and Fonseca added further goals. Costa Rica advanced to the hexagonal round by winning the group. In the final round they started with a 2–1 defeat against Mexico at the Saprissa, before beating Panama by the same score, with goals from Wayne Wilson and Roy Myrie. Pinto was dismissed after a goalless draw with Trinidad and Tobago, and Guimarães returned as coach. His first match ended in a 3–0 defeat to the United States, but wins followed against Guatemala, Panama and Trinidad and Tobago. Costa Rica decisively beat the United States in the Saprissa, 3–0, with a goal from Wanchope and two from Hernández, to guarantee their third World Cup qualification. | Pos | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts | | United States | Mexico | Costa Rica | Trinidad and Tobago | Guatemala | Panama | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  United States | 10 | 7 | 1 | 2 | 16 | 6 | +10 | 22 | | — | 2–0 | 3–0 | 1–0 | 2–0 | 2–0 | | 2 |  Mexico | 10 | 7 | 1 | 2 | 22 | 9 | +13 | 22 | | 2–1 | — | 2–0 | 2–0 | 5–2 | 5–0 | | 3 |  Costa Rica | 10 | 5 | 1 | 4 | 15 | 14 | +1 | 16 | | 3–0 | 1–2 | — | 2–0 | 3–2 | 2–1 | | 4 |  Trinidad and Tobago | 10 | 4 | 1 | 5 | 10 | 15 | −5 | 13 | | 1–2 | 2–1 | 0–0 | — | 3–2 | 2–0 | | 5 |  Guatemala | 10 | 3 | 2 | 5 | 16 | 18 | −2 | 11 | | 0–0 | 0–2 | 3–1 | 5–1 | — | 2–1 | | 6 |  Panama | 10 | 0 | 2 | 8 | 4 | 21 | −17 | 2 | | 0–3 | 1–1 | 1–3 | 0–1 | 0–0 | — | Source: Notes: 1. 1 2 Tied on head-to-head points (3). Head-to-head goal difference: United States +1, Mexico −1. On 9 June 2006, Costa Rica made their debut in Munich in the opening match of the World Cup against the hosts, Germany. Wanchope scored to equalise an early goal from Philipp Lahm, and later added another, but Costa Rica lost 4–2. However, they failed to match this encouraging performance in their remaining two games, losing 3–0 against Ecuador and 2–1 against Poland in a dead rubber. | Pos | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts | Qualification | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Germany (H) | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 2 | +6 | 9 | Advance to knockout stage | | 2 |  Ecuador | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 3 | +2 | 6 | | 3 |  Poland | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 4 | −2 | 3 | | | 4 |  Costa Rica | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 9 | −6 | 0 | Source: FIFA Rules for classification: Tie-breaking criteria (H) Host ### 2010 World Cup Costa Rica began the qualifying competition for the 2010 World Cup against Grenada, winning 5–2 on aggregate (2–2, 3–0). They won all six games played in the next phase, against El Salvador (1–0, 3–1), Haiti (3–1, 2–0) and Suriname (7–0, 4–1). With two games left in the Hexagonal round, Costa Rica trailed Honduras by one point in trying to win the third automatic qualification place behind the United States and Mexico. When Honduras lost 3–2 at home to the United States, Costa Rica overtook them with a 4–0 win against Trinidad and Tobago. Needing to win the final match in Washington, D.C. against the United States to ensure qualification, the Ticos led 2–0 at half-time, but Jonathan Bornstein scored an injury-time equaliser to draw the match 2–2. Meanwhile, Honduras's 1–0 victory over El Salvador moved them into third place in the group table on goal difference. Costa Rica finished fourth, pushing them into a play-off with the fifth-placed team from the CONMEBOL region, Uruguay. The Ticos lost the first leg in San José 1–0, after a goal by Diego Lugano, and finished with ten men after Randall Azofeifa was sent off. In the second leg, played at the Estadio Centenario in Montevideo, Sebastián Abreu put Uruguay ahead twenty minutes from time, and although Walter Centeno equalised, the 1–1 draw sent Uruguay to the World Cup finals, 2–1 on aggregate. After failing to qualify, the team began a new era, with the young talent of players such as Azofeifa, Keylor Navas, Cristian Bolaños, Michael Barrantes and Joel Campbell. Rónald González was the interim coach before Ricardo La Volpe was appointed in September 2010. He lasted only ten months before being replaced by the Colombian, Jorge Luis Pinto, in his second spell in charge. During this period, Costa Rica played many friendlies against the top-ranked teams in the world, including the world champion Spain, most of them in the new national stadium, the Estadio Nacional, which was opened in 2011. ### 2014 World Cup The Ticos' 2014 World Cup campaign began with a 2–2 draw against El Salvador in the third round of the qualifiers. They followed this with a 4–0 win over Guyana with a hat-trick by Álvaro Saborío. Two defeats to Mexico put the Ticos one defeat away from elimination, but they resurrected their campaign with a 1–0 win against El Salvador, with the only goal scored by José Miguel Cubero. They clinched a final round berth with a 7–0 win over Guyana, with goals scored by Randall Brenes, Saborío, Cristian Bolaños, Celso Borges and Cristian Gamboa. The fourth round began with a 2–2 draw against Panama. In March, Costa Rica lost 1–0 against the United States in Denver, and launched an unsuccessful appeal against the match because of inclement weather. Costa Rica again fell 1–0 to the United States in the Gold Cup that June. Costa Rica then won 2–0 against Jamaica, beat Honduras 1–0 against, drew 0–0 at the Azteca against Mexico and won at home 2–0 against Panama. In September, they won 3–1 against the United States in San José. On 10 September 2013, Costa Rica drew 1–1 with Jamaica, thanks to a goal from Brenes, to qualify with two games to spare. After a 1–0 loss at Honduras and 2–1 win over Mexico in October, Costa Rica finished second in the table, behind the United States. | Pos | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts | Qualification | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  United States | 10 | 7 | 1 | 2 | 15 | 8 | +7 | 22 | Qualification to 2014 FIFA World Cup | | — | 1–0 | 1–0 | 2–0 | 2–0 | 2–0 | | 2 |  Costa Rica | 10 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 13 | 7 | +6 | 18 | | 3–1 | — | 1–0 | 2–1 | 2–0 | 2–0 | | 3 |  Honduras | 10 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 13 | 12 | +1 | 15 | | 2–1 | 1–0 | — | 2–2 | 2–2 | 2–0 | | 4 |  Mexico | 10 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 7 | 9 | −2 | 11 | Advance to inter-confederation play-offs | | 0–0 | 0–0 | 1–2 | — | 2–1 | 0–0 | | 5 |  Panama | 10 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 10 | 14 | −4 | 8 | | | 2–3 | 2–2 | 2–0 | 0–0 | — | 0–0 | | 6 |  Jamaica | 10 | 0 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 13 | −8 | 5 | | 1–2 | 1–1 | 2–2 | 0–1 | 1–1 | — | Source: Costa Rica were drawn in finals Group D against three previous tournament winners – Italy, England and Uruguay – and were given odds of 2500–1 to win the tournament. However, they beat Uruguay and Italy and drew 0–0 with England to finish top of the group and qualify for the knockout stage. | Pos | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts | Qualification | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Costa Rica | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 | 7 | Advance to knockout stage | | 2 |  Uruguay | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 6 | | 3 |  Italy | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 3 | −1 | 3 | | | 4 |  England | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 4 | −2 | 1 | Source: FIFA Rules for classification: Tie-breaking criteria In the second round, they beat Greece 5–3 on penalties after a 1–1 draw, seeing them through to the quarter-finals for the first time. There, they held the Netherlands to a 0–0 draw after extra time, before losing 4–3 on penalties. Costa Rica rose 12 places to 16th in the FIFA World Rankings. Former player Rónald González cited their long-term progress since 2007 as the reason for their achievement. ### 2018 World Cup The Ticos' qualification for the 2018 World Cup started with a bye to the fourth qualifying round, where they won five games and drew one, winning their group. In the final round, they finished second behind Mexico to qualify automatically, winning four matches, drawing four and losing two. | Pos | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts | Qualification | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Mexico | 10 | 6 | 3 | 1 | 16 | 7 | +9 | 21 | Qualification to 2018 FIFA World Cup | | — | 2–0 | 1–0 | 3–0 | 1–1 | 3–1 | | 2 |  Costa Rica | 10 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 14 | 8 | +6 | 16 | | 1–1 | — | 0–0 | 1–1 | 4–0 | 2–1 | | 3 |  Panama | 10 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 9 | 10 | −1 | 13 | | 0–0 | 2–1 | — | 2–2 | 1–1 | 3–0 | | 4 |  Honduras | 10 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 13 | 19 | −6 | 13 | Advance to inter-confederation play-offs | | 3–2 | 1–1 | 0–1 | — | 1–1 | 3–1 | | 5 |  United States | 10 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 17 | 13 | +4 | 12 | | | 1–2 | 0–2 | 4–0 | 6–0 | — | 2–0 | | 6 |  Trinidad and Tobago | 10 | 2 | 0 | 8 | 7 | 19 | −12 | 6 | | 0–1 | 0–2 | 1–0 | 1–2 | 2–1 | — | Source: FIFA Rules for classification: Qualification tiebreakers Costa Rica were drawn in Group E alongside Brazil, Switzerland and Serbia. Many key players from 2014 tournament remained in the squad, but they made a disappointing exit at the group stage. Costa Rica lost their first two games, against Serbia and Brazil, without scoring, but drew 2–2 with Switzerland in their last match after equalising in injury time. | Pos | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts | Qualification | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Brazil | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 1 | +4 | 7 | Advance to knockout stage | | 2 |  Switzerland | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 5 | 4 | +1 | 5 | | 3 |  Serbia | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 4 | −2 | 3 | | | 4 |  Costa Rica | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 5 | −3 | 1 | Source: FIFA Rules for classification: Group stage tiebreakers ### 2022 World Cup The Ticos' qualification for the 2022 World Cup started with a bye to the final qualifying round, they finished fourth behind United States to advance to inter-confederation play-offs winning seven matches, drawing four and losing three. In the inter-confederation play-offs in Al Rayyan, Costa Rica won the match 1–0 against New Zealand and qualified for the World Cup. | Pos | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts | Qualification | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Canada | 14 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 23 | 7 | +16 | 28 | Qualification for 2022 FIFA World Cup | | 2 |  Mexico | 14 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 17 | 8 | +9 | 28 | | 3 |  United States | 14 | 7 | 4 | 3 | 21 | 10 | +11 | 25 | | 4 |  Costa Rica | 14 | 7 | 4 | 3 | 13 | 8 | +5 | 25 | Advance to inter-confederation play-offs | | 5 |  Panama | 14 | 6 | 3 | 5 | 17 | 19 | −2 | 21 | | | 6 |  Jamaica | 14 | 2 | 5 | 7 | 12 | 22 | −10 | 11 | | 7 |  El Salvador | 14 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 8 | 18 | −10 | 10 | | 8 |  Honduras | 14 | 0 | 4 | 10 | 7 | 26 | −19 | 4 | Source: FIFA, CONCACAF Rules for classification: Tiebreakers 14 June 2022 (2022-06-14)21:00 UTC+3 | Costa Rica  | 1–0 |  New Zealand | | --- | --- | --- | | * Campbell 3' | Report | | Ahmad bin Ali Stadium, Al Rayyan, QatarAttendance: 10,803Referee: Mohammed Abdulla Hassan Mohamed (United Arab Emirates) On November 23, 2022, Costa Rica lost 7–0 against Spain becoming the biggest loss in World Cup history since 2010. This match also tied for their worst defeat in professional football with a match against Mexico, which ended with the result Mexico 7–0 Costa Rica (Mexico City, Mexico; 17 August 1975). Despite an improvement from beating Japan and initially make a little justice of scoring 2 goals from losing a goal of Germany in the first half, the latter scored 3 goals and thrashed Costa Rica’s qualification to Round of 16 hope. | Pos | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts | Qualification | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Japan | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 3 | +1 | 6 | Advanced to knockout stage | | 2 |  Spain | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 9 | 3 | +6 | 4 | | 3 |  Germany | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 5 | +1 | 4 | | | 4 |  Costa Rica | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 11 | −8 | 3 | Source: FIFA Rules for classification: Group stage tiebreakers Home stadium ------------ Estadio Nacional is the home stadium of the Costa Rica national team since its opening on 10 January 2011, after a short construction that took only 22 months. This venue hosts their friendly matches as well as the World Cup qualifying matches against CONCACAF rivals. Before the construction of the stadium the matches where played in Estadio Ricardo Saprissa or in Estadio Alejandro Morera Soto. Team image ---------- Costa Rica wears traditionally a red jersey with blue shorts and white socks. Their away kit historically was a Juventus-style black and white striped jersey with white shorts and white or black socks, due to these colors being the ones of CS La Libertad, one of the oldest clubs in Costa Rica. However, after 1997, the striped kit was replaced by a white kit. In 2015, Boston based sportswear company New Balance became the provider of the national team, after taking over for Italian company Lotto. Since 2023, Adidas is the kit provider for the national team. ### Kit sponsorship | Supplier | Period | | --- | --- | | Costa Rica Desport | 1980–1989 | | Italy Lotto | 1990–1994 | | United States Reebok | 1995–1999 | | Costa Rica Trooper | 1999 | | Mexico Atletica | 2000–2001 | | Spain Joma | 2001–2007 | | Italy Lotto | 2007–2014 | | United States New Balance | 2015–2022 | | Germany Adidas | 2023–present | Results and fixtures -------------------- The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.   Win   Draw   Loss   Fixture ### 2022 South Korea  v  Costa Rica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 23 September Friendly | **South Korea** | **2–2** | **Costa Rica** | Goyang, South Korea | | 20:00 UTC+9 | * Hwang Hee-chan 28' * Son Heung-min 85' | Report | * Bennette 41', 63' | Stadium: Goyang StadiumAttendance: 37,581Referee: Alex King (Australia) | Uzbekistan  v  Costa Rica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 27 September Friendly | **Uzbekistan** | **1–2** | **Costa Rica** | Suwon, South Korea | | 15:00 UTC+9 | * Shomurodov 25' | Report | * Hernández 90+2' * Waston 90+4' | Stadium: Suwon World Cup StadiumReferee: Kim Dae-Yong (South Korea) | Costa Rica  v  Nigeria | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 9 November Friendly | **Costa Rica** | **2–0** | **Nigeria** | San José, Costa Rica | | | * Duarte 7' * Waston 73' | Report | | Stadium: Estadio NacionalReferee: Fernando Hernández Gómez (Mexico) | Spain  v  Costa Rica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 23 November 2022 World Cup | **Spain** | **7–0** | **Costa Rica** | Doha, Qatar | | 19:00 UTC+3 | * Olmo 11' * Asensio 21' * F. Torres 31' (pen.), 54' * Gavi 74' * Soler 90' * Morata 90+2' | Report | | Stadium: Al Thumama StadiumAttendance: 40,013Referee: Mohammed Abdulla Hassan Mohamed (United Arab Emirates) | Japan  v  Costa Rica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 27 November 2022 World Cup | **Japan** | **0–1** | **Costa Rica** | Al Rayyan, Qatar | | 13:00 UTC+3 | | Report | * Fuller 81' | Stadium: Ahmad bin Ali StadiumAttendance: 41,479Referee: Michael Oliver (England) | Costa Rica  v  Germany | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 December 2022 World Cup | **Costa Rica** | **2–4** | **Germany** | Al Khor, Qatar | | 20:00 UTC+1 | * Tejeda 58' * Neuer 70' (o.g.) | Report | * Gnabry 10' * Havertz 73', 85' * Füllkrug 89' | Stadium: Al Bayt StadiumAttendance: 67,054Referee: Stéphanie Frappart (France) | ### 2023 Martinique  v  Costa Rica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 25 March 2022–23 Nations League | **Martinique** | **1–2** | **Costa Rica** | Fort-de-France, Martinique | | 19:00 UTC−4 | * Biron 18' | Report | * Suárez 88' * Contreras 90+2' | Stadium: Stade Pierre AlikerReferee: Drew Fischer (Canada) | Costa Rica  v  Panama | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 28 March 2022–23 Nations League | **Costa Rica** | **0–1** | **Panama** | San José, Costa Rica | | 20:00 UTC−6 | | Report | * Fajardo 77' | Stadium: Estadio NacionalReferee: César Ramos (Mexico) | Costa Rica  v  Guatemala | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 15 June Friendly | **Costa Rica** | **0–1** | **Guatemala** | Carson, United States | | 20:00 UTC−7 | | Report | Mejía 6' | Stadium: Dignity Health Sports ParkReferee: Nima Saghafi (United States) | Ecuador  v  Costa Rica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 20 June Friendly | **Ecuador** | **3–1** | **Costa Rica** | Chester, United States | | 20:00 UTC−4 | * Valencia 20' * Pacho 57' * Vite 82' | Report | * Campbell 66' | Stadium: Subaru ParkAttendance: 10,000Referee: Víctor Cáceres (Mexico) | Costa Rica  v  Panama | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 26 June 2023 CONCACAF Gold Cup | **Costa Rica** | **1–2** | **Panama** | Fort Lauderdale, United States | | 18:30 UTC−4 | * Suárez 90+1' | Report | * Fajardo 23' * Bárcenas 68' | Stadium: DRV PNK StadiumReferee: Drew Fischer (Canada) | El Salvador  v  Costa Rica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 30 June 2023 CONCACAF Gold Cup | **El Salvador** | **v** | **Costa Rica** | Harrison, United States | | 20:30 UTC−4 | | Report | | Stadium: Red Bull Arena | Costa Rica  v  Martinique | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 4 July 2023 CONCACAF Gold Cup | **Costa Rica** | **v** | **Martinique** | Harrison, United States | | 20:30 UTC−4 | | Report | | Stadium: Red Bull Arena | Coaching staff -------------- | Position | Name | | --- | --- | | Manager | Colombia Luis Fernando Suárez | | Assistant Coach 1 | Colombia John Jairo Bodmer | | Assistant Coach 2 | Costa Rica Rónald Gómez | | Goalkeeper's Coach | Costa Rica Luis Gabelo Conejo | | Fitness Coach 1 | Colombia Iván Mauricio Niño | | Fitness Coach 2 | Costa Rica Érick Sánchez | | Psychologist | Colombia Luis Felipe Camacho | | Video Analyst | Costa Rica Keylor Reyes | | Doctor | Costa Rica Alejandro Ramírez | | Physiotherapist | Costa Rica Martha Sisfontes | | Physiotherapist | Costa Rica Brayner Sánchez | | Nutritionist | Costa Rica Alhelí Mateos | | Massage Therapist | Costa Rica Óscar Segura | | Props | Costa Rica Randall Obando | | Props | Costa Rica Alberto Mena | | Team Administrator | Costa Rica Álvaro Herrera | ### Coaching history Caretaker managers are listed in *italics*. * Costa Rica Eladio Rosabal Cordero (1921) * Costa Rica Manolo Rodríguez (1930) * El Salvador Ricardo Saprissa (1935–1938) * Costa Rica Alejandro Morera Soto (1941, 1943) * Costa Rica Jorge Rojas (1943) * Costa Rica Hernán Bolaños (1946); (1948) * England Randolph Galloway & Costa Rica Hernán Bolaños (1946) * Costa Rica Santiago Bonilla (1950) * Costa Rica Ismael Quesada (1951) * El Salvador Ricardo Saprissa & Costa Rica Luis Cartín Paniagua (1951) * Brazil Otto Bumbel (1953) * Costa Rica Alfredo Piedra (1955–1957) * Uruguay Rubén Amorín (1960) * Chile Hugo Tassara (1960) * Spain Eduardo Toba Muíño (1961) * Costa Rica Alfredo Piedra (1961–1963) * Spain Eduardo Viso Abella, Costa Rica Alfredo Piedra, & Costa Rica Mario "Catato" Cordero (1965) * Costa Rica Rodolfo Ulloa Antillón (1967–1968) * BrazilHungary Américo Brunner (1968) * Costa Rica Rogelio Rojas (1969) * Costa Rica Marvin Rodríguez (1969, 1971, 1975, 1989–1990, 1999–2000) * Spain Eduardo Viso Abella (1970) * Argentina Humberto Maschio (1972) * Uruguay José Etchegoyen (1975) * Costa Rica Juan José Gámez (1976) * Spain Antonio Moyano (1979–1980, 1983–1984, 1994) * Czechoslovakia Ivan Mráz (1980) * Brazil Odir Jacques (1985) * Costa Rica Álvaro Grant MacDonald (1985, 1993) * Uruguay Gustavo De Simone (1987–1989) * Spain Antonio Moyano & Costa Rica Marvin Rodríguez (1989) * MexicoSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Bora Milutinović (1990) * Costa Rica Rolando Villalobos (1991, 1998) * Uruguay Héctor Núñez (1992) * Costa Rica Juan José Gámez (1993) * Spain Juan Luis Hernández Fuertes (1993–1994) * Costa Rica Toribio Rojas (1994–1995) * Costa Rica Juan Blanco (1995) * Brazil Valdeir Vieira (1996) * Argentina Horacio Cordero (1997) * Spain Juan Luis Hernández Fuertes (1997) * Colombia Francisco Maturana (1998–1999) * Brazil Gílson Nunes (2000) * Costa Rica Alexandre Guimarães (2001–2002, 2005–2006) * Costa Rica *Rodrigo Kenton* (2002) * United States Steve Sampson (2003–2004) * Colombia Jorge Luis Pinto (2004–2005, 2011–2014) * Costa Rica *Carlos Watson* (2006) * Costa Rica Hernán Medford (2007–2008) * Costa Rica Rodrigo Kenton (2008–2009) * Brazil Renê Simões (2009) * Costa Rica *Rónald González* (2010) * Argentina Ricardo La Volpe (2010–2011) * Costa Rica Paulo Wanchope (2014–2015) * Costa Rica Óscar Ramírez (2015–2018) * Costa Rica *Rónald González Brenes* (2018) * Uruguay Gustavo Matosas (2018–2019) * Costa Rica *Douglas Sequeira* (2019) * Costa Rica Rónald González Brenes (2019–2021) * Colombia Luis Fernando Suárez (2021–present) Players ------- ### Current squad The following 24 players were called up for the friendly matches against Guatemala and Ecuador on 15 and 20 June 2023, respectively. The squad will be reduced to 23 players for the 2023 CONCACAF Gold Cup after the friendly matches. *Caps and goals as of 1 December 2022, after the match against Germany.* | No. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1GK | Keylor Navas *(captain)* | (1986-12-15) 15 December 1986 (age 36) | 110 | 0 | England Nottingham Forest | | | 1GK | Kevin Chamorro | (2000-04-08) 8 April 2000 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | Costa Rica Saprissa | | | 1GK | Alexandre Lezcano | (2001-08-26) 26 August 2001 (age 21) | 0 | 0 | Costa Rica Santos de Guápiles | | --- | | | 2DF | Francisco Calvo | (1992-07-08) 8 July 1992 (age 30) | 77 | 8 | Turkey Konyaspor | | | 2DF | Óscar Duarte | (1989-06-03) 3 June 1989 (age 34) | 74 | 4 | Saudi Arabia Al-Wehda | | | 2DF | Kendall Waston | (1988-01-01) 1 January 1988 (age 35) | 66 | 9 | Costa Rica Saprissa | | | 2DF | Keysher Fuller | (1994-07-12) 12 July 1994 (age 28) | 36 | 3 | Costa Rica Herediano | | | 2DF | Juan Pablo Vargas | (1995-06-06) 6 June 1995 (age 28) | 13 | 1 | Colombia Millonarios | | | 2DF | Carlos Martínez | (1999-03-30) 30 March 1999 (age 24) | 8 | 0 | Costa Rica Alajuelense | | | 2DF | Suhander Zúñiga | (1997-01-15) 15 January 1997 (age 26) | 2 | 0 | Costa Rica Alajuelense | | | 2DF | Jefry Valverde | (1995-06-10) 10 June 1995 (age 28) | 2 | 0 | Costa Rica Saprissa | | --- | | 5 | 3MF | Celso Borges | (1988-05-27) 27 May 1988 (age 35) | 158 | 27 | Costa Rica Alajuelense | | | 3MF | Youstin Salas | (1996-06-17) 17 June 1996 (age 27) | 6 | 0 | Costa Rica Saprissa | | | 3MF | Aarón Suárez | (2002-06-27) 27 June 2002 (age 21) | 4 | 0 | Costa Rica Alajuelense | | | 3MF | Roan Wilson | (2002-05-01) 1 May 2002 (age 21) | 4 | 0 | Portugal Gil Vicente | | | 3MF | Cristopher Núñez | (1997-12-08) 8 December 1997 (age 25) | 3 | 0 | Greece Lamia | | | 2DF | Wilmer Azofeifa | (1994-06-04) 4 June 1994 (age 29) | 3 | 0 | Costa Rica San Carlos | | | 3MF | Carlos Mora | (2001-03-18) 18 March 2001 (age 22) | 3 | 0 | Costa Rica Alajuelense | | | 3MF | Josimar Alcócer | (2004-07-07) 7 July 2004 (age 18) | 0 | 0 | Costa Rica Alajuelense | | | 3MF | Warren Madrigal | (2004-07-24) 24 July 2004 (age 18) | 0 | 0 | Costa Rica Saprissa | | --- | | | 4FW | Joel Campbell | (1992-06-26) 26 June 1992 (age 31) | 122 | 25 | Mexico León | | | 4FW | Anthony Contreras | (2000-01-29) 29 January 2000 (age 23) | 12 | 2 | Costa Rica Herediano | | | 4FW | Diego Campos | (1995-10-01) 1 October 1995 (age 27) | 0 | 0 | Sweden Degerfors IF | ### Recent call-ups The following players have been called up within the last twelve months. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | Latest call-up | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | GK | Patrick Sequeira | (1999-03-01) 1 March 1999 (age 24) | 2 | 0 | Spain Lugo | v.  Panama, 28 March 2023 | | GK | Esteban Alvarado | (1989-04-28) 28 April 1989 (age 34) | 25 | 0 | Costa Rica Saprissa | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | --- | | DF | Daniel Chacón | (2001-04-11) 11 April 2001 (age 22) | 9 | 0 | United States Colorado Rapids 2 | v.  Panama, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Ian Lawrence | (2002-05-28) 28 May 2002 (age 21) | 3 | 0 | Costa Rica Alajuelense | v.  Panama, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Gerald Taylor | (2001-05-28) 28 May 2001 (age 22) | 0 | 0 | Costa Rica Saprissa | v.  Martinique, 25 March 2023 | | DF | Bryan Oviedo | (1990-02-18) 18 February 1990 (age 33) | 79 | 2 | United States Real Salt Lake | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | DF | Rónald Matarrita | (1994-07-09) 9 July 1994 (age 28) | 54 | 3 | Greece Aris | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | --- | | MF | Yeltsin Tejeda | (1992-03-17) 17 March 1992 (age 31) | 76 | 1 | Costa Rica Herediano | v.  Panama, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Alonso Martínez | (1998-10-15) 15 October 1998 (age 24) | 12 | 0 | Belgium Lommel | v.  Panama, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Brandon Aguilera | (2003-06-28) 28 June 2003 (age 19) | 7 | 0 | Portugal Estoril | v.  Panama, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Fabrizio Ramírez | (1997-04-01) 1 April 1997 (age 26) | 0 | 0 | Costa Rica Guadalupe | v.  Panama, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Jewison Bennette | (2004-06-15) 15 June 2004 (age 19) | 10 | 2 | England Sunderland | v.  Martinique, 25 March 2023 | | MF | Gerson Torres | (1997-08-28) 28 August 1997 (age 25) | 14 | 1 | Costa Rica Herediano | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | MF | Douglas López | (1998-09-21) 21 September 1998 (age 24) | 3 | 0 | Costa Rica Herediano | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | MF | Anthony Hernández | (2001-10-11) 11 October 2001 (age 21) | 3 | 1 | Costa Rica Puntarenas | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | MF | Álvaro Zamora | (2002-03-09) 9 March 2002 (age 21) | 4 | 0 | Costa Rica Saprissa | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | MF | Bryan Ruiz | (1985-08-18) 18 August 1985 (age 37) | 147 | 29 | *Retired* | 2022 FIFA World CupRET | | MF | Orlando Galo | (2000-08-11) 11 August 2000 (age 22) | 10 | 0 | Costa Rica Herediano | v.  Uzbekistan, 27 September 2022 | | --- | | FW | José Pablo Córdoba | (1998-12-10) 10 December 1998 (age 24) | 0 | 0 | Costa Rica Guanacasteca | v.  Panama, 28 March 2023 | | FW | Johan Venegas | (1988-11-27) 27 November 1988 (age 34) | 84 | 11 | Costa Rica Alajuelense | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | --- INJ Withdrew due to injury. RET Retired from international football. ILL Withdrew due to illness. PRE Preliminary squad. WD Withdrew for personal reasons. | Records ------- *As of 1 December 2022* *Players in **bold** are still active with Costa Rica.* ### Most appearances | Rank | Player | Caps | Goals | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | **Celso Borges** | **160** | 27 | 2008–present | | 2 | Bryan Ruiz | **147** | 29 | 2005–2022 | | 3 | Walter Centeno | **137** | 24 | 1995–2009 | | 4 | Luis Marín | **128** | 5 | 1993–2009 | | **Joel Campbell** | **128** | 26 | 2011–present | | 6 | Rolando Fonseca | **113** | 47 | 1992–2011 | | 7 | Álvaro Saborío | **111** | 36 | 2002–2019 | | 8 | Mauricio Solís | **110** | 6 | 1993–2006 | | **Keylor Navas** | **110** | 0 | 2008–present | | 10 | Michael Umaña | **103** | 1 | 2004–2017 | ### Top goalscorers | Rank | Player | Goals | Caps | Ratio | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Rolando Fonseca | **47** | 113 | 0.42 | 1992–2011 | | 2 | Paulo Wanchope | **45** | 73 | 0.62 | 1996–2008 | | 3 | Álvaro Saborío | **36** | 111 | 0.32 | 2002–2019 | | 4 | Bryan Ruiz | **29** | 147 | 0.2 | 2005–2022 | | 5 | Juan Ulloa | **27** | 27 | 1 | 1955–1970 | | **Celso Borges** | **27** | 160 | 0.17 | 2008–present | | 7 | **Joel Campbell** | **26** | 128 | 0.2 | 2011–present | | 8 | Rónald Gómez | **24** | 91 | 0.26 | 1993–2008 | | Walter Centeno | **24** | 137 | 0.18 | 1995–2009 | | 10 | Jorge Monge | **23** | 27 | 0.85 | 1955–1961 | Competitive record ------------------ ### FIFA World Cup | FIFA World Cup record | | Qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Uruguay 1930 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | Italy 1934 | | France 1938 | | Brazil 1950 | | Switzerland 1954 | | Sweden 1958 | *Did not qualify* | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 16 | 7 | | Chile 1962 | 9 | 5 | 1 | 3 | 22 | 14 | | England 1966 | 8 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 17 | 3 | | Mexico 1970 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 3 | | West Germany 1974 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 5 | | Argentina 1978 | 6 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 8 | 6 | | Spain 1982 | 8 | 1 | 4 | 3 | 6 | 10 | | Mexico 1986 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 1 | 10 | 8 | | Italy 1990 | Round of 16 | 13th | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 6 | Squad | 10 | 6 | 2 | 2 | 13 | 7 | | United States 1994 | *Did not qualify* | 8 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 16 | 11 | | France 1998 | 16 | 7 | 3 | 6 | 22 | 17 | | South Korea Japan 2002 | Group stage | 19th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 6 | Squad | 17 | 11 | 3 | 3 | 31 | 10 | | Germany 2006 | 31st | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 9 | Squad | 18 | 8 | 4 | 6 | 30 | 25 | | South Africa 2010 | *Did not qualify* | 20 | 12 | 3 | 5 | 41 | 22 | | Brazil 2014 | Quarter-finals | 8th | 5 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 5 | 2 | Squad | 16 | 8 | 4 | 4 | 27 | 12 | | Russia 2018 | Group stage | 29th | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 5 | Squad | 16 | 9 | 5 | 2 | 25 | 11 | | Qatar 2022 | 27th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 11 | Squad | 15 | 8 | 4 | 3 | 14 | 8 | | Canada Mexico United States 2026 | *To be determined* | *To be determined* | | Total | Quarter-finals | 6/22 | 21 | 6 | 5 | 10 | 22 | 39 | — | 187 | 93 | 47 | 47 | 309 | 184 | | FIFA World Cup history | | --- | | First match |  Costa Rica 1–0 Scotland  (11 June 1990; Genoa, Italy) | | Biggest win |  Uruguay 1–3 Costa Rica  (14 June 2014; Fortaleza, Brazil) | | Biggest defeat |  Spain 7–0 Costa Rica  (23 November 2022; Doha, Qatar) | | Best result | Quarter-finals (2014) | | Worst result | Group stage (2002, 2006, 2018, 2022) | *\*Draws include knockout matches decided via penalty shoot-out.* ### CONCACAF Gold Cup | CONCACAF Championship & Gold Cup record | | Qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | El Salvador 1963 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **5** | **1** | **0** | **14** | **2** | **Squad** | *Qualified automatically* | | Guatemala 1965 | Third place | 3rd | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | 4 | Squad | *Automatically entered* | | Honduras 1967 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | Costa Rica 1969 | **Champions** | **1st** | **5** | **4** | **1** | **0** | **13** | **2** | **Squad** | *Qualified as hosts* | | Trinidad and Tobago 1971 | Third place | 3rd | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 6 | 5 | Squad | *Qualified as defending champions* | | Haiti 1973 | *Did not qualify* | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 5 | | Mexico 1977 | 6 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 8 | 6 | | Honduras 1981 | 8 | 1 | 4 | 3 | 6 | 10 | | 1985 | Third place | 3rd | 8 | 2 | 5 | 1 | 10 | 8 | Squad | 5 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 5 | 9 | | 1989 | **Champions** | **1st** | **8** | **5** | **1** | **2** | **10** | **6** | **Squad** | *Qualified automatically* | | United States 1991 | Fourth place | 4th | 5 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 5 | 9 | Squad | *Qualified as defending champions* | | Mexico United States 1993 | Third place | 3rd | 5 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 6 | 5 | Squad | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 11 | 2 | | United States 1996 | *Did not qualify* | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 6 | | United States 1998 | Group stage | 5th | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 8 | 4 | Squad | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 12 | 3 | | United States 2000 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 3 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 6 | Squad | 5 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 13 | 3 | | United States 2002 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **5** | **3** | **1** | **1** | **8** | **5** | **Squad** | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 8 | 5 | | Mexico United States 2003 | Fourth place | 4th | 5 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 10 | 8 | Squad | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 1 | | United States 2005 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 4 | Squad | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 8 | 2 | | United States 2007 | 7th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | Squad | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 3 | | United States 2009 | Semi-finals | 4th | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 10 | 6 | Squad | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 9 | 1 | | United States 2011 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 8 | 6 | Squad | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 4 | | United States 2013 | 5th | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 2 | Squad | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 1 | | Canada United States 2015 | 7th | 4 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 4 | Squad | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 7 | 3 | | United States 2017 | Semi-finals | 4th | 5 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 3 | Squad | 5 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 2 | | Costa Rica Jamaica United States 2019 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 8 | 4 | Squad | *Qualified automatically* | | United States 2021 | 5th | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 6 | 4 | Squad | 4 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 3 | | Canada United States 2023 | *ongoing* | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | Squad | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 4 | | Total | 3 Titles | 22/27 | 101 | 44 | 28 | 29 | 161 | 103 | | 82 | 38 | 28 | 16 | 125 | 64 | ### CONCACAF Nations League | CONCACAF Nations League record | | --- | | League phase | | Finals | | Season | LG | GP | Pos | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | P/R | RK | Year | Pos | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | | 2019−20 | A | D | 1st | 4 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 3 | Same position | 4th | United States 2021 | **4th** | **2** | **0** | **2** | **0** | **2** | **2** | **Squad** | | 2022–23 | A | B | 2nd | 4 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | Same position | 6th | United States 2023 | *Did not qualify* | | Total | 8 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 8 | 7 | — | Total | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 2 | — | | CONCACAF Nations League history | | --- | | First Match |  Haiti 1–1 Costa Rica  (10 October 2019; Nassau, Bahamas) | | Biggest Win |  Costa Rica 2–0 Martinique  (5 June 2022; San José, Costa Rica) | | Biggest Defeat |  Panama 2–0 Costa Rica  (2 June 2022; Panama City, Panama) | | Best Result | **Fourth place** (2019–20) | | Worst Result | **Sixth place** (2022–23) | ### Copa América | Copa América record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | | Ecuador 1993\* | *Not invited* | | Uruguay 1995 | | Bolivia 1997 | Group stage | 10th | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 10 | Squad | | Paraguay 1999 | *Not invited* | | Colombia 2001 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 3 | Squad | | Peru 2004 | 7th | 4 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 8 | Squad | | Venezuela 2007 | *Not invited* | | Argentina 2011 | Group stage | 9th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 4 | Squad | | Chile 2015 | *Not invited* | | United States 2016 | Group stage | 10th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 6 | Squad | | Brazil 2019 | *Not invited* | | Brazil 2021 | | United States 2024 | *To be determined* | | Total | Quarter-finals | 5/12 | 17 | 5 | 3 | 9 | 17 | 31 | — | *\*Ecuador 1993 was the first time nations from outside CONMEBOL were invited.* ### Copa Centroamericana | Copa Centroamericana record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | | Costa Rica 1991 | **Champions** | 1st | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 1 | | Honduras 1993 | **Runners-up** | 2nd | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 2 | | El Salvador 1995 | Fourth place | 4th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 6 | | Guatemala 1997 | **Champions** | 1st | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 12 | 3 | | Costa Rica 1999 | **Champions** | 1st | 5 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 13 | 3 | | Honduras 2001 | **Runners-up** | 2nd | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 8 | 5 | | Panama 2003 | **Champions** | 1st | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 1 | | Guatemala 2005 | **Champions** | 1st | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 8 | 2 | | El Salvador 2007 | **Champions** | 1st | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 2 | | Honduras 2009 | **Runners-up** | 2nd | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 9 | 1 | | Panama 2011 | **Runners-up** | 2nd | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 5 | | Costa Rica 2013 | **Champions** | 1st | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 1 | | United States 2014 | **Champions** | 1st | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 7 | 3 | | Panama 2017 | Fourth place | 4th | 5 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 2 | | Total | 8 Titles | 13/13 | 59 | 34 | 16 | 9 | 103 | 37 | ### CCCF Championship | CCCF Championship record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | | Costa Rica 1941 | **Champions** | 1st | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 23 | 5 | | El Salvador 1943 | Third place | 3rd | 6 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 20 | 15 | | Costa Rica 1946 | **Champions** | 1st | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 24 | 6 | | Guatemala 1948 | **Champions** | 1st | 8 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 25 | 11 | | Panama 1951 | **Runners-up** | 2nd | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 13 | 5 | | Costa Rica 1953 | **Champions** | 1st | 6 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 19 | 2 | | Honduras 1955 | **Champions** | 1st | 6 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 19 | 4 | | Netherlands Antilles 1957 | *Withdrew* | | Cuba 1960 | **Champions** | 1st | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 14 | 4 | | Costa Rica 1961 | **Champions** | 1st | 7 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 32 | 4 | | Total | 7 Titles | 9/10 | 51 | 40 | 4 | 7 | 191 | 56 | ### Olympic Games | Olympic Games record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | | France 1900 | *Did not enter* | | United States 1904 | | United Kingdom 1908 | | Sweden 1912 | | Belgium 1920 | | France 1924 | | Netherlands 1928 | | Nazi Germany 1936 | | United Kingdom 1948 | | Finland 1952 | | Australia 1956 | | Italy 1960 | | Japan 1964 | | Mexico 1968 | *Did not qualify* | | West Germany 1972 | | Canada 1976 | | Soviet Union 1980 | Group stage | 16th | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 9 | Squad | | United States 1984 | Group stage | 13th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 7 | Squad | | South Korea 1988 | *Did not qualify* | | Since 1992 | *See Costa Rica national under-23 football team* | | Total | Group stage | 2/19 | 6 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 4 | 16 | — | ### Pan American Games | Pan American Games record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | | Argentina 1951 | **Silver medal** | 2nd | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 9 | 12 | | Mexico 1955 | *Did not participate* | | United States 1959 | Round-robin | 5th | 6 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 10 | 16 | | Brazil 1963 | *Did not participate* | | Canada 1967 | | Colombia 1971 | | Mexico 1975 | Fourth place | 4th | 6 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 7 | 13 | | Puerto Rico 1979 | Fourth place | 4th | 5 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 8 | 7 | | Venezuela 1983 | *Did not participate* | | United States 1987 | | Cuba 1991 | | Argentina 1995 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 12 | 6 | | Since 1999 | *See Costa Rica national under-23 football team* | | Total | 1 Silver medal | 5/12 | 25 | 10 | 3 | 12 | 46 | 54 | ### Panamerican Championship | Panamerican Championship record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | | Chile 1952 | *Did not participate* | | Mexico 1956 | Third place | 3rd | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 11 | 15 | | Costa Rica 1960 | Fourth place | 4th | 6 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 10 | | Total | Third place | 2/3 | 11 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 15 | 25 | Head-to-head record ------------------- The following table shows Costa Rica's all-time international record, correct as of 2 February 2022.   Positive Record   Neutral Record   Negative Record | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Argentina | 6 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 12 | –7 | |  Aruba | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 3 | 1 | |  Australia | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | –1 | |  Austria | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | –2 | |  Barbados | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 2 | |  Belgium | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 5 | –4 | |  Belize | 6 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 18 | 1 | 17 | |  Bermuda | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | |  Bolivia | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 7 | 1 | 6 | |  Bosnia and Herzegovina | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |  Brazil | 11 | 1 | 0 | 10 | 9 | 34 | –25 | |  Cameroon | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 5 | |  Canada | 23 | 8 | 9 | 6 | 21 | 18 | 3 | |  Chile | 11 | 6 | 2 | 3 | 13 | 10 | 3 | |  China | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 8 | 6 | 2 | |  Colombia | 15 | 4 | 1 | 10 | 17 | 30 | –13 | |  Cuba | 18 | 15 | 3 | 0 | 57 | 11 | 46 | |  Curaçao | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 1 | |  Czech Republic | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 5 | –5 | |  Dominican Republic | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 1 | 7 | |  Ecuador | 11 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 9 | 19 | –10 | |  El Salvador | 66 | 38 | 14 | 14 | 147 | 57 | 90 | |  England | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | –2 | |  Finland | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | |  France | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 5 | –2 | | *French Guiana* | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 3 | |  Germany | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 8 | –4 | |  Greece | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |  Grenada | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 2 | 3 | | *Guadeloupe* | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 2 | 7 | |  Guatemala | 63 | 32 | 15 | 16 | 132 | 71 | 61 | |  Guyana | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 0 | 11 | |  Haiti | 16 | 8 | 6 | 2 | 31 | 13 | 18 | |  Honduras | 68 | 25 | 24 | 19 | 111 | 83 | 28 | |  Hungary | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | –1 | |  Iran | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | –1 | |  Italy | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |  Jamaica | 31 | 15 | 11 | 4 | 56 | 19 | 37 | |  Japan | 6 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 13 | –9 | | *Martinique* | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 1 | 4 | |  Mexico | 57 | 6 | 20 | 31 | 34 | 86 | –52 | |  Netherlands | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |  New Zealand | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 5 | |  Nicaragua | 19 | 17 | 1 | 1 | 72 | 10 | 62 | |  Northern Ireland | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 3 | |  Norway | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | –1 | |  Oman | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 3 | 1 | |  Panama | 47 | 29 | 14 | 14 | 117 | 50 | 67 | |  Paraguay | 9 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 6 | –1 | |  Peru | 9 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 10 | 18 | –8 | |  Poland | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 8 | –5 | |  Puerto Rico | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 13 | |  Qatar | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |  Republic of Ireland | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |  Russia | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 0 | |  Saudi Arabia | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 9 | 5 | 4 | |  Scotland | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | |  Serbia | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | –1 | |  Slovakia | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 5 | 1 | |  South Africa | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 3 | –2 | |  South Korea | 10 | 3 | 2 | 5 | 10 | 12 | –2 | |  Spain | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 9 | –6 | |  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 1 | 12 | |  Suriname | 6 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 19 | 4 | 15 | |  Sweden | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | |  Switzerland | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 4 | –1 | |  Trinidad and Tobago | 26 | 19 | 4 | 3 | 59 | 15 | 44 | |  Tunisia | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | –1 | |  Turkey | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |  Ukraine | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 4 | –4 | |  Uruguay | 14 | 3 | 3 | 8 | 19 | 26 | –7 | |  United States | 40 | 16 | 5 | 19 | 47 | 49 | –2 | |  Venezuela | 16 | 7 | 5 | 4 | 28 | 24 | 4 | |  Wales | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1. ↑ include  Czechoslovakia 2. ↑ include  Soviet Union Honours ------- **Major competitions** * **FIFA World Cup** + Quarter-finals (1): 2014 * **CONCACAF Championship / Gold Cup** + **Champions (3):** 1963, 1969, 1989 + Runners-up (1): 2002 + Third place (4): 1965, 1971, 1985, 1993 **Other competitions** * **Panamerican Championship** + Third place (1): 1956 * **Central American and Caribbean Games** + **Runners-up (3):** 1930, 1935, 1938 * **CONCACAF Olympic Qualifying Tournament** + **Champions (2):** 1980, 1984 * **Copa Centroamericana** + **Champions (8):** 1991, 1997, 1999, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2013, 2014 + **Runners-up (4):** 1993, 2001, 2009, 2011 * **CCCF Championship** + **Champions (7):** 1941, 1946, 1948, 1953, 1955, 1960, 1961 + **Runners-up (1):** 1951 + **Third place (1):** 1943 * **Independence Centenary Games** + **Champions (1)**: 1921 Facts ----- * Costa Rica was the first (and so far the only) Central American football team to win a game at a FIFA World Cup tournament. * Costa Rica finished in first place in the 1990 and 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification final rounds, the latter of which was the best group record in the history of the CONCACAF hexagonal (23 points). * Costa Rica (in 2014) is one of two Central American or Caribbean teams (along with Cuba in 1938) to ever to advance to the quarter-finals of the FIFA World Cup. FIFA World Ranking ------------------ *Last update was on 27 May 2021* Source:   **Best Ranking**    **Worst Ranking**    **Best Mover**    **Worst Mover**   | Costa Rica's FIFA World Ranking History | | --- | | Rank | Year | Best | Worst | | Rank | Move | Rank | Move | | 50 | 2021 | — | — | — | — | | 51 | 2020 | 46 | Steady | 51 | Decrease 4 | | 46 | 2019 | 37 | Increase 1 | 47 | Decrease 5 | | 36 | 2018 | 23 | Increase 2 | 37 | Decrease 9 | | 26 | 2017 | 17 | Increase 5 | 26 | Decrease 7 | | 17 | 2016 | 17 | Increase 8 | 37 | Decrease 4 | | 37 | 2015 | 13 | Increase 3 | 42 | Decrease 27 | | 16 | 2014 | 15 | Increase 12 | 35 | Decrease 3 | | 31 | 2013 | 31 | Increase 16 | 66 | Decrease 3 | | 66 | 2012 | 57 | Increase 8 | 72 | Decrease 6 | | 65 | 2011 | 48 | Increase 21 | 69 | Decrease 5 | | 69 | 2010 | 40 | Increase 3 | 69 | Decrease 13 | | 44 | 2009 | 30 | Increase 11 | 47 | Decrease 8 | | 53 | 2008 | 53 | Increase 12 | 79 | Decrease 4 | | 70 | 2007 | 46 | Increase 12 | 70 | Decrease 10 | | 68 | 2006 | 21 | Steady | 68 | Decrease 19 | | 21 | 2005 | 19 | Increase 6 | 27 | Decrease 3 | | 27 | 2004 | 17 | Increase 5 | 33 | Decrease 5 | | 17 | 2003 | 17 | Increase 3 | 22 | Decrease 2 | | 21 | 2002 | 21 | Increase 5 | 30 | Decrease 2 | | 30 | 2001 | 29 | Increase 14 | 56 | Decrease 2 | | 60 | 2000 | 54 | Increase 8 | 69 | Decrease 5 | | 64 | 1999 | 64 | Increase 5 | 69 | Decrease 2 | | 67 | 1998 | 46 | Increase 7 | 67 | Decrease 15 | | 51 | 1997 | 51 | Increase 9 | 66 | Decrease 2 | | 72 | 1996 | 72 | Increase 12 | 93 | Decrease 6 | | 78 | 1995 | 56 | Increase 18 | 78 | Decrease 13 | | 65 | 1994 | 39 | Increase 3 | 65 | Decrease 9 | | 42 | 1993 | 37 | Increase 1 | 42 | Decrease 5 | See also -------- * Costa Rica national under-23 football team * Costa Rica national under-20 football team * Costa Rica national under-17 football team * Costa Rica at the FIFA World Cup

Costa Rica national football team

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costa_Rica_national_football_team

The **flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina** (Serbo-Croatian: **zastava Bosne i Hercegovine* / застава Босне и Херцеговине*) contains a medium blue field with a yellow right triangle separating said field, and there are seven full five-pointed white stars and two half stars top and bottom along the hypotenuse of the triangle. The three points of the triangle stand for the three main ethnic groups (or "constituent peoples") of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs. The triangle represents the approximate shape of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The stars, representing Europe, are meant to be infinite in number and thus they continue from top to bottom. The flag features colors often associated with neutrality and peace – white, blue, and yellow. They are also colors traditionally associated with Bosnian culture and history. The blue background is evocative of the flag of the European Union. The Bosnian national flag is also used for official purposes by the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, one of the constituent entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina. History ------- ### Bosnian Banate from 1154 until 1377 Used by Stjepan II Kotromanic. * Royal banner of the Banate of BosniaRoyal banner of the Banate of Bosnia ### Bosnian Kingdom from 1377 until 1463 The flag of the Kingdom of Bosnia was based on coat of arms of the Bosnian dynasty Kotromanić, king Tvrtko I and his successors. The flag of medieval Bosnia was white with the coat of arms of the Kotromanić dynasty in the middle which consisted of a blue shield with six gold fleur de lys displayed around a white bend. * Royal banner of the Kingdom of BosniaRoyal banner of the Kingdom of Bosnia ### Western Herzegovina 1760 flag The green flag with the white crescent and star pointing to the left was used by Bosniak landlords in border parts in southern and western Herzegovina. The flag was most commonly used in wars. It also accompanied the troops of the Eyalet of Bosnia during the second siege of Khotyn in Moldavia. It differs from Ottoman flag by size and direction of crescent, as well as its swallow-shape, similar to some West-European jacks and ensigns. * Western Herzegovina flag, 1760Western Herzegovina flag, 1760 ### Bosnian Revolt of 1830s flag In the 1830s revolt by Husein Gradaščević the green flag with a yellow crescent and star was used. The revolt's aim was for Bosnia to gain autonomy from the Ottoman Empire. * Bosnian Revolt Flag, 1831Bosnian Revolt Flag, 1831 ### Austro-Hungarian rule When the Austro-Hungarian Empire annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina the flag was changed. The province of Bosnia used a flag that was red and yellow horizontally, but the province of Herzegovina used the same flag but with reversed colors (yellow and red). The coat of arms is one of Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, Bosnian noble and duke from 14th century. The original medieval coat of arms had a white background and two red stripes in the top of the shield. It was Similar to the old flag of the Western Bosnian Flag. * Flag of the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina during Austro-Hungarian administration (the country was formally under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire) (1878–1908)Flag of the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina during Austro-Hungarian administration (the country was formally under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire) (1878–1908) * Flag of Bosnia after Austro-Hungarian annexation (1878–1908)Flag of Bosnia after Austro-Hungarian annexation (1878–1908) * Flag of Bosnia after Austro-Hungarian annexation (1908)Flag of Bosnia after Austro-Hungarian annexation (1908) * Flag of Herzegovina after Austro-Hungarian annexation (1878–1918)Flag of Herzegovina after Austro-Hungarian annexation (1878–1918) * Flag of Bosnia after Austro-Hungarian annexation (1908–1918)Flag of Bosnia after Austro-Hungarian annexation (1908–1918) ### Yugoslav period During the interwar period Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina had neither a status within it or a flag to go with. It was not until after World War II in Yugoslavia and disestablishment of the monarchy that this changed, as Bosnia and Herzegovina became its own republic within the newly established federal Yugoslavia. Without constitutional recognition, the mid-war Federal State of Bosnia and Herzegovina first adopted the flag flown by Bosnian-Herzegovinian Partisans during the war—a wholly red flag with a narrowly gold-bordered red star in its centre, both symbolizing socialism and communism. The flag was usually accompanied on official buildings by the flag of the federal Yugoslavia and the flag of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. A smaller version of the flag served as the civil ensign while an elongated banner version was seen flown in front of the Yugoslav parliament. * The flag of the Bosnian—Herzegovinian Partisans during World War II (27 November 1943)The flag of the Bosnian—Herzegovinian Partisans during World War II (27 November 1943) * The Flag of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia during World War II (1943–1946)The Flag of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia during World War II (1943–1946) * The Flag of the Yugoslav Partisans during World War II (16 December 1942)The Flag of the Yugoslav Partisans during World War II (16 December 1942) Wide public discussion ahead of constitutional adoption resulted in the overall opinion that the state flag should be red, like the one initially flown by liberation movements, and not in national pan-Slavic tricolors of Serbs and Croats which were argued to have been an "import" from a later stage of the war. This discussion was in response to the first proposed flag from 15 November 1946, which matched the federal flag except with an additional golden star placed behind the existing gold-bordered red star in the centre, with their rays positioned interchangeably. Belgrade officials listened to the public opinion, but proceeded to add the federal Yugoslav tricolor to the canton of a plain red flag to symbolize the republic's affiliation to the Federation, and as such it was officially adopted on 31 December 1946. In the real-world usage, this flag had a variant with a much larger canton which was offset from the edges and bordered in white. This variant was eventually proposed sometime in 1947, but was never adopted. Bosnia and Herzegovina also had a new coat of arms during Yugoslav rule; it was a symbol of Bosnian industrialism at the time. A red flag with central elements of this coat of arms in the canton was erroneously reported in one contemporary book to have been the flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina. * Proposed flag of the People's Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (15 November 1946)Proposed flag of the People's Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (15 November 1946) * The flag that was in an error reported as the new flag of BiH in one contemporary bookThe flag that was in an error reported as the new flag of BiH in one contemporary book * Proposed flag of the People's Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1947)Proposed flag of the People's Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1947) * Flag of the SR of Bosnia and Herzegovina (31 December 1946 − 6 April 1992)Flag of the SR of Bosnia and Herzegovina (31 December 1946 − 6 April 1992) ### Independent Republic Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992–1995) On 3 March 1992 Bosnia and Herzegovina declared its independence from Yugoslavia. Initially the newly independent Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina continued to use the flag of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina until a new flag was adopted on 20 May 1992 (after the independence of two entities). The flag picked was the arms of the Kings of Bosnia Kotromanić dynasty, who ruled from 1377 until 1463 over the area that is present day Bosnia and Herzegovina and Dalmatia, consisted of a blue shield with six golden lilies displayed around a white bend; the golden lily is the Lilium bosniacum, which is a native lily to the area. The flag chosen in 1992 has a white background with the Bosnian lily in the center. It was and it still is the main bosniak national flag. Though it is no longer an official flag of the state, the flag continues to be used unofficially by Bosniak civilians as their ethnic flag, used at football games, as part of political rallies, and other such events. * Flag of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (3 March 1992 − 20 May 1992)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (3 March 1992 − 20 May 1992) * Flag of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (20 May 1992 − 3 February 1998)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (20 May 1992 − 3 February 1998) ### Bosnia and Herzegovina after the Dayton Accords The Bosnian Serbs, after the signing of the Dayton Agreement, viewed the flag with the six fleurs-de-lys as only representing the Bosniaks (i.e. Bosnian Muslims) of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The flag of the state was eventually changed into the current, post-1998 flag. The current flag was introduced by the UN High Representative Carlos Westendorp after the Parliament of Bosnia and Herzegovina could not decide on a solution that was acceptable to all parties. Aside from the colors, the current flag contains no historical or other references to the Bosnian state. The flag is rarely ever seen in the Republika Srpska, whose residents prefer to fly either that entity's regional flag or the Serbian national flag instead. Some Bosniaks dislike or have no particular affinity for the flag, preferring the former Bosnian national flag used from 1992 to 1998 (which remains used by Bosniaks as their ethnic flag), or the former socialist-era Yugoslav flag instead. * Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina (4 February 1998 − present)Small vexillological symbol or pictogram in black and white showing the different uses of the flag Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina (4 February 1998 − present) * Construction sheetConstruction sheet * Vertical flag.Vertical flag. Colors scheme ------------- The official colors of the flag are: | Colors | Pantone | CMYK | RGB | Hexadecimal | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Blue | Reflex Blue C | 100, 87, 0, 20 | 0, 20, 137 | #001489 | | Yellow | 116 C | 0, 10, 98, 0 | 255, 205, 0 | #FFCD00 | Alternative flag proposals -------------------------- The first flag that was proposed in the First Set of Proposals was the "Czech Pattern", similar to the flag of the Czech Republic. It was intended to represent all three constitutive nations living in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The next proposal was the "Laurel branch". It is based on the light blue color of the United Nations Flag. It would have had a golden olive branch in the middle. The olive branch is taken from the United Nations emblem. The flag would have only one branch. The branch was rotated around 30 degrees counterclockwise. The third proposal was the "Map" proposal. It would also use the United Nations light blue color; however, there would be the addition of a white outline map of Bosnia and Herzegovina. No official text was ever published specifying the color of the outline, but it probably would have been white. * First alternative flag of first proposalFirst alternative flag of first proposal * Second alternative flag of first proposalSecond alternative flag of first proposal * Third alternative flag of first proposalThird alternative flag of first proposal The Second Set of Proposals had flags that were truly representative of Bosnia and Herzegovina as a whole. The first flag design was a diagonally striped tricolor pattern of red to white to blue (different colors but in the same pattern as the Flag of the Republic of the Congo). In the centre there would be a blue map of Bosnia and Herzegovina outlined in yellow in the middle inside a circle of 10 five-pointed yellow stars. The flag would have been a 1:2 ratio. The second flag proposed was very similar except it had 12 five-pointed stars to represent the European Union. The Flag of Europe has the 12 five-pointed stars. The third design was a bit more different from the first two designs. The diagonal tricolur shape was kept, but the diagonal white stripe was made wider so that the angle was not perfectly 45 degrees. In the center there was a yellow map of Bosnia and Herzegovina outlined in green and under it there were two green olive branches. The olive branch pattern was the same one that the United Nations uses in its flag. The final fourth design was kept the same emblem from the third design, but did not have the diagonal stripes. Instead it had a horizontal tricolor pattern of blue, white, and red (from top to bottom), similar to that of the former Yugoslavia. * First alternative flag of second proposalFirst alternative flag of second proposal * Second alternative flag of second proposalSecond alternative flag of second proposal * Third alternative flag of second proposalThird alternative flag of second proposal * Fourth alternative flag of second proposalFourth alternative flag of second proposal The first Westendorp alternative flag was a highly similar one to today's flag, a diagonally divided top-hoist to bottom-fly yellow over light blue flag with line of 9 white five-pointed stars in the light blue field along the diagonal. The only major difference was that the color of the background was UN blue. The second Carlos Westendorp alternative flag is a light blue flag (using the United Nations' flag's colors) with 5 bars interchangeably coming out of hoist and not reaching the other end. The colors are interchangeably yellow and white. In the third alternative flag, the field was light blue and had five narrow yellow bars. * First Carlos Westendorp alternative flag proposalFirst Carlos Westendorp alternative flag proposal * Second Carlos Westendorp alternative flag proposalSecond Carlos Westendorp alternative flag proposal * Third Carlos Westendorp alternative flag proposalThird Carlos Westendorp alternative flag proposal Westendorp's decision ended up being the first alternative flag. However, it was changed slightly to a darker blue, evocative of the European Union's flag. Flags of administrative divisions --------------------------------- ### Entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina * Flag of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (5 November 1996 – 14 June 2007)Flag of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (5 November 1996 – 14 June 2007) * Flag of Republika Srpska (6 April 1992 – present)Flag of Republika Srpska (6 April 1992 – present) See also -------- * List of Bosnian and Herzegovinian flags * Coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina * Flag of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina * Flag of Republika Srpska * Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina * Flag of Kosovo

Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina

**Oligarchy** (from Ancient Greek ὀλιγαρχία *(*oligarkhía*)* 'rule by few'; from ὀλίγος *(*olígos*)* 'few', and ἄρχω *(*árkhō*)* 'to rule, command') is a conceptual form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people. These people may or may not be distinguished by one or several characteristics, such as nobility, fame, wealth, education, or corporate, religious, political, or military control. Throughout history, power structures considered to be oligarchies have often been viewed as tyrannical, relying on public obedience or oppression to exist. Aristotle pioneered the use of the term as meaning rule by the rich, for which another term commonly used today is plutocracy. One of the first oligarchies in history is that of Sparta, which developed the concept alongside its rival Athens, and essentially provided a counterpoint to Athenian democracy. In the early 20th century Robert Michels developed the theory that democracies, like all large organizations, tend to turn into oligarchies. In his "Iron law of oligarchy" he suggests that the necessary division of labor in large organizations leads to the establishment of a ruling class mostly concerned with protecting their own power. Minority rule ------------- The exclusive consolidation of power by a dominant religious or ethnic minority has also been described as a form of oligarchy. Examples of this system include South Africa under *apartheid*, Liberia under Americo-Liberians, the Sultanate of Zanzibar, and Rhodesia, where the installation of oligarchic rule by the descendants of foreign settlers was primarily regarded as a legacy of various forms of colonialism. Putative oligarchies -------------------- A business group might be defined as an oligarchy if it satisfies all of the following conditions: * Owners are the largest private owners in the country. * It possesses sufficient political power to promote its own interests. * Owners control multiple businesses, which intensively coordinate their activities. Intellectual oligarchies ------------------------ George Bernard Shaw defined in his play *Major Barbara*, premiered in 1905 and first published in 1907, a new type of Oligarchy namely the intellectual oligarchy that acts against the interests of the common people: "I now want to give the common man weapons against the intellectual man. I love the common people. I want to arm them against the lawyer, the doctor, the priest, the literary man, the professor, the artist, and the politician, who, once in authority, is the most dangerous, disastrous, and tyrannical of all the fools, rascals, and impostors. I want a democratic power strong enough to force the intellectual oligarchy to use its genius for the general good or else perish." Cases perceived as oligarchies ------------------------------ Jeffrey A. Winters and Benjamin I. Page have described Colombia, Indonesia, Russia, Singapore, and the United States as oligarchies. ### Philippines During the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos from 1965 to 1986, several monopolies arose in the Philippines, particularly centred around the family and close associates of the president. This period, as well as subsequent decades, have led some analysts to describe the country as an oligarchy. President Rodrigo Duterte, who was elected in 2016, spoke of dismantling oligarchy during his presidency. ### Russian Federation Since the collapse of the Soviet Union and privatization of the economy in December 1991, privately owned Russia-based multinational corporations, including producers of petroleum, natural gas, and metal have, in the view of many analysts, led to the rise of Russian oligarchs. Most of these are connected directly to the highest-ranked government officials, such as the president. ### Iran The religious government of Iran formed after the 1979 Iranian revolution is described as a clerical oligarchy led by a coalition of militant Khomeinist ideologues and fundamentalist Shia clergy. The ruling system led by clerical oligarchs is known as "*Velayat e-Faqih*" , i.e, governance by a class of Twelver Shia *marja* designated with the title of "*Ayatollah*". Highest ranking Shia cleric in the political system is the "*Rahbar*" (Supreme Leader) who serves for life and is considered to be "protector of the faith" in Khomeinist theology. The clerical oligarchs supervise the activities of the parliament and controls the armed forces, state media, sectors of the national economy and religious funds. The *Rahbar* is also the military chief of the Iranian armed forces and directly controls the conglomerate of Khomeinist paramilitaries known as the IRGC. ### Ukraine The Ukrainian oligarchs are a group of business oligarchs that quickly appeared on the economic and political scene of Ukraine after its independence in 1991. Overall there are 35 oligarchic groups. On 23 September 2021 the Ukrainian government released law № 1780-ІХ which is primarily focused on protecting national interest and limiting oligarchs impact on democracy in Ukraine. ### United States Some contemporary authors have characterized conditions in the United States in the 21st century as oligarchic in nature. Simon Johnson wrote in 2009 that "the reemergence of an American financial oligarchy is quite recent", a structure which he delineated as being the "most advanced" in the world. Jeffrey A. Winters wrote that "oligarchy and democracy operate within a single system, and American politics is a daily display of their interplay." The top 1% of the U.S. population by wealth in 2007 had a larger share of total income than at any time since 1928. In 2011, according to PolitiFact and others, the top 400 wealthiest Americans "have more wealth than half of all Americans combined." In 1998, Bob Herbert of *The New York Times* referred to modern American plutocrats as "The Donor Class" (list of top donors) and defined the class, for the first time, as "a tiny group—just one-quarter of 1 percent of the population—and it is not representative of the rest of the nation. But its money buys plenty of access." French economist Thomas Piketty states in his 2013 book, *Capital in the Twenty-First Century,* that "the risk of a drift towards oligarchy is real and gives little reason for optimism about where the United States is headed." A 2014 study by political scientists Martin Gilens of Princeton University and Benjamin Page of Northwestern University stated that "majorities of the American public actually have little influence over the policies our government adopts." The study analyzed nearly 1,800 policies enacted by the US government between 1981 and 2002 and compared them to the expressed preferences of the American public as opposed to wealthy Americans and large special interest groups. It found that wealthy individuals and organizations representing business interests have substantial political influence, while average citizens and mass-based interest groups have little to none. The study did concede that "Americans do enjoy many features central to democratic governance, such as regular elections, freedom of speech and association, and a widespread (if still contested) franchise." Gilens and Page do not characterize the US as an "oligarchy" per se; however, they do apply the concept of "civil oligarchy" as used by Jeffrey Winters with respect to the US. Winters has posited a comparative theory of "oligarchy" in which the wealthiest citizens—even in a "civil oligarchy" like the United States—dominate policy concerning crucial issues of wealth- and income protection. Gilens says that average citizens only get what they want if wealthy Americans and business-oriented interest groups also want it; and that when a policy favored by the majority of the American public is implemented, it is usually because the economic elites did not oppose it. Other studies have criticized the Page and Gilens study. Page and Gilens have defended their study from criticism. In a 2015 interview, former President Jimmy Carter stated that the United States is now "an oligarchy with unlimited political bribery" due to the *Citizens United v. FEC* ruling which effectively removed limits on donations to political candidates. Wall Street spent a record $2 billion trying to influence the 2016 United States presidential election. See also -------- * Aristocracy * Cacique democracy * Despotism * Dictatorship * Inverted totalitarianism * Iron law of oligarchy * Kleptocracy * Meritocracy * Military dictatorship * Minoritarianism * Nepotism * Netocracy * Oligopoly * Oligarchical collectivism * Parasitism * Plutocracy * Political family * Power behind the throne * *The Power Elite* (1956 book by C. Wright Mills) * Polyarchy * Stratocracy * Synarchism * Theocracy * Timocracy Further reading --------------- * Aslund, Anders (2005), "Comparative Oligarchy: Russia, Ukraine and the United States", *CASE Network Studies and Analyses No. 296* (PDF), Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, doi:10.2139/ssrn.1441910, S2CID 153769623 * Gordon, Daniel (2010). "Hiring Law Professors: Breaking the Back of an American Plutocratic Oligarchy". *Widener Law Journal*. **19**: 1–29. SSRN 1412783. * Hollingsworth, Mark; Lansley, Stewart (2010). *Londongrad: From Russia with Cash: The Inside Story of the Oligarchs*. Fourth Estate. ISBN 978-0007356379. * Hudson, Michael (2023). *The Collapse of Antiquity: Greece and Rome as Civilization's Oligarchic Turning Point*. Islet. ISBN 978-3949546129. * J. M. Moore, ed. (1986). *Aristotle and Xenophon on democracy and oligarchy*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520029095. * Ostwald, M. (2000), *Oligarchia: The Development of a Constitutional Form in Ancient Greece (*Historia *Einzelschirften; 144)*. Stuttgart: Steiner, ISBN 3515076808. * Ramseyer, J. Mark; Rosenbluth, Frances McCall (1998). *The Politics of Oligarchy: Institutional Choice in Imperial Japan*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521636490. * Tabachnick, David; Koivukoski, Toivu (2012). *On Oligarchy: Ancient Lessons for Global Politics*. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1442661165. * Whibley, Leonard (1896). *Greek oligarchies, their character and organisations*. G. P. Putnam's Sons. * Winters, Jeffrey A. (2011). *Oligarchy*. Northwestern University, Illinois: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107005280.

Oligarchy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligarchy

**Kosovo** (Albanian: *Kosova* [kɔˈsɔva]; Serbian Cyrillic: Косово [kôsoʋo]), officially the **Republic of Kosovo** (Albanian: *Republika e Kosovës*; Serbian: Република Косово, romanized: *Republika Kosovo*), is a country in Southeast Europe with partial diplomatic recognition. Kosovo lies landlocked in the centre of the Balkans, bordered by Serbia to the north and east, North Macedonia to the southeast, Albania to the southwest, and Montenegro to the west. Most of central Kosovo is dominated by the vast plains and fields of Metohija and the Kosovo field. The Accursed Mountains and Šar Mountains rise in the southwest and southeast, respectively. Its capital and largest city is Pristina. In classical antiquity, the central tribe which emerged in the territory of Kosovo were the Dardani, who formed an independent polity known as the Kingdom of Dardania in the 4th century BC. It was annexed by the Roman Empire by the 1st century BC, and for the next millennium, the territory remained part of the Byzantine Empire, whose rule was eroded by Slavic invasions beginning in the 6th–7th century AD. In the centuries thereafter, control of the area alternated between the Byzantines and the First Bulgarian Empire. By the 13th century, Kosovo became the core of the Serbian medieval state, and has also been the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church from the 14th century, when its status was upgraded to a patriarchate. Ottoman expansion in the Balkans in the late 14th and 15th century led to the decline and fall of the Serbian Empire; the Battle of Kosovo of 1389 is considered to be one of the defining moments in Serbian medieval history. The Ottomans fully conquered the region after the Second Battle of Kosovo. The Ottoman Empire ruled the area for almost five centuries until 1912. In the late 19th century, Kosovo was the center of the Albanian National Movement and where the Albanian revolt of 1910 and Albanian revolt of 1912 took place. Following their defeat in the Balkan Wars, the Ottomans ceded Kosovo to Serbia and Montenegro. Both countries joined Yugoslavia after World War I, and following a period of Yugoslav unitarism in the Kingdom, the post-World War II Yugoslav constitution established the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija within the Yugoslav constituent republic of Serbia. Tensions between Kosovo's Albanian and Serb communities simmered through the 20th century and occasionally erupted into major violence, culminating in the Kosovo War of 1998 and 1999, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Yugoslav army and the establishment of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo. Kosovo unilaterally declared its independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, and has since gained diplomatic recognition as a sovereign state by 101 member states of the United Nations. Although Serbia does not officially recognise Kosovo as a sovereign state and continues to claim it as its constituent Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija, it accepts the governing authority of the Kosovo institutions as a part of the 2013 Brussels Agreement. Kosovo is a developing country, with an upper-middle-income economy. It has experienced solid economic growth over the last decade as measured by international financial institutions since the onset of the financial crisis of 2007–2008. Kosovo is a member of the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and has applied for membership in the Council of Europe, UNESCO, Interpol, and for observer status in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. In December 2022, Kosovo filed a formal application to become a member of the European Union. Name ---- The entire region that today corresponds to the territory is commonly referred to in English simply as *Kosovo* and in Albanian as *Kosova* (definite form, Albanian pronunciation: [kɔˈsɔva]) or **Kosovë** ("indefinite" form, Albanian pronunciation: [kɔˈsɔvə]). In Serbia, a formal distinction is made between the eastern and western areas; the term **Kosovo** (Косово) is used for the eastern part centred on the historical Kosovo Field, while the western part is called *Metohija* (known as *Dukagjini* in Albanian). *Kosovo* (Serbian Cyrillic: Косово, Serbian pronunciation: [kôsoʋo]) is the Serbian neuter possessive adjective of *kos* (кос) "blackbird", an ellipsis for *Kosovo Polje*, 'blackbird field', the name of a plain situated in the eastern half of today's Kosovo and the site of the 1389 Battle of Kosovo Field. The name of the plain was applied to the Kosovo Province created in 1864. Albanians also refer to Kosovo as *Dardania*, the name of an ancient kingdom and later Roman province, which covered the territory of modern-day Kosovo. The name is derived from the ancient tribe of the *Dardani*, related to the Proto-Albanian term *dardā*, which means "pear" (Modern Albanian: *dardhë*). The former Kosovo President Ibrahim Rugova had been an enthusiastic backer of a "Dardanian" identity, and the Kosovar presidential flag and seal refer to this national identity. However, the name "Kosova" remains more widely used among the Albanian population. In recent years, the flag of Dardania has gained official status (Presidential seal and standard) and is heavily featured in the institution of the presidency. The current borders of Kosovo were drawn while part of Yugoslavia in 1945, when the Autonomous Region of Kosovo and Metohija (1945–1963) was created as an administrative division of the new People's Republic of Serbia. In 1963, it was raised from the level of an autonomous region to the level of an autonomous province as the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija (1963–1968). In 1968, the dual name "Kosovo and Metohija" was reduced to a simple "Kosovo" in the name of the *Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo*. In 1990, the province was renamed the *Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija*. The official conventional long name of the state is *Republic of Kosovo*, as defined by the Constitution of Kosovo, and is used to represent Kosovo internationally. Additionally, as a result of an arrangement agreed between Pristina and Belgrade in talks mediated by the European Union, Kosovo has participated in some international forums and organizations under the title "Kosovo\*" with a footnote stating, "This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSC 1244 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence". This arrangement, which has been dubbed the "asterisk agreement", was agreed in an 11-point arrangement on 24 February 2012. History ------- ### Prehistory The strategic position including the abundant natural resources were favorable for the development of human settlements in Kosovo, as is highlighted by the hundreds of archaeological sites identified throughout its territory. The first archaeological expedition in Kosovo was organized by the Austro-Hungarian army during the World War I in the Illyrian tumuli burial grounds of Nepërbishti within the district of Prizren. Since 2000, the increase in archaeological expeditions has revealed many, previously unknown sites. The earliest documented traces in Kosovo are associated to the Stone Age; namely, indications that cave dwellings might have existed, such as Radivojce Cave near the source of the Drin River, Grnčar Cave in Viti Municipality and the Dema and Karamakaz Caves in Peja Municipality of Peja. The earliest archaeological evidence of organized settlement, which have been found in Kosovo, belong to the Neolithic Starčevo and Vinča cultures. Vlashnjë and Runik are important sites of the Neolithic era with the rock art paintings at Mrrizi i Kobajës near Vlashnjë being the first find of prehistoric art in Kosovo. Amongst the finds of excavations in Neolithic Runik is a baked-clay ocarina, which is the first musical instrument recorded in Kosovo. The beginning of the Bronze Age coincides with the presence of tumuli burial grounds in western Kosovo, like the site of Romajë. ### Antiquity The Dardani were the most important Paleo-Balkan tribe in the region of Kosovo. A wide area which consists of Kosovo, parts of Northern Macedonia and eastern Serbia was named Dardania after them in classical antiquity, reaching to the Thraco-Illyrian contact zone in the east. In archaeological research, Illyrian names are predominant in western Dardania, while Thracian names are mostly found in eastern Dardania. Thracian names are absent in western Dardania, while some Illyrian names appear in the eastern parts. Thus, their identification as either an Illyrian or Thracian tribe has been a subject of debate, the ethnolinguistic relationship between the two groups being largely uncertain and debated itself as well. The correspondence of Illyrian names, including those of the ruling elite, in Dardania with those of the southern Illyrians suggests a thracianization of parts of Dardania. The Dardani retained an individuality and continued to maintain social independence after Roman conquest, playing an important role in the formation of new groupings in the Roman era. The Roman state annexed Dardania by the first century AD. The importance of the area lay in its high mining potential, highlighted by the large mining complex of Municipium Dardanorum and the designation of part of the region as an imperial mining district. Kosovo was part of two provinces, Praevalitana and Dardania. Ulpiana is the most important municipium which developed in Kosovo. It was refounded as Justiniana Secunda under Justinian in the 6th century AD. ### Slavic invasion In the next centuries, Kosovo was a frontier province of the Byzantine Empire. The region was exposed to an increasing number of raids from the 4th century CE onward, culminating with the Slavic migrations of the 6th and 7th centuries. Toponymic evidence suggests that Albanian was probably spoken in Kosovo prior to the Slavic settlement of the region. There is one intriguing line of argument to suggest that the Slav presence in Kosovo and southernmost part of the Morava valley may have been quite weak in the first one or two centuries of Slav settlement. Only in the ninth century can the expansion of a strong Slav (or quasi-Slav) power into this region be observed. Under a series of ambitious rulers, the Bulgarians pushed westwards across modern Macedonia and eastern Serbia, until by the 850's they had taken over Kosovo and were pressing on the border of Serbian Principality. The First Bulgarian Empire acquired Kosovo by the mid-9th century, but Byzantine control was restored by the late 10th century. In 1072, the leaders of the Bulgarian Uprising of Georgi Voiteh traveled from their center in Skopje to Prizren and held a meeting in which they invited Mihailo Vojislavljević of Duklja to send them assistance. Mihailo sent his son, Constantine Bodin with 300 of his soldiers. After they met, the Bulgarian magnates proclaimed him "Emperor of the Bulgarians". Demetrios Chomatenos is the last Byzantine archbishop of Ohrid to include Prizren in his jurisdiction until 1219. Stefan Nemanja had seized the area along the White Drin in 1185 to 1195 and the ecclesiastical split of Prizren from the Patriarchate in 1219 was the final act of establishing Nemanjić rule. Konstantin Jireček concluded, from the correspondence of archbishop Demetrios of Ohrid from 1216 to 1236, that Dardania was increasingly populated by Albanians and the expansion started from Gjakova and Prizren area, prior to the Slavic expansion. During the 13th and 14th centuries, Kosovo was a political, cultural and religious centre of the Serbian Kingdom. In the late 13th century, the seat of the Serbian Archbishopric was moved to Peja, and rulers centred themselves between Prizren and Skopje, during which time thousands of Christian monasteries and feudal-style forts and castles were erected, Stefan Dušan using Prizren Fortress as one of his temporary courts for a time. When the Serbian Empire fragmented into a conglomeration of principalities in 1371, Kosovo became the hereditary land of the House of Branković. During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, parts of Kosovo, the easternmost area located near Pristina, were part of the Principality of Dukagjini, which was later incorporated into an anti-Ottoman federation of all Albanian principalities, the League of Lezhë. Medieval Monuments in Kosovo is a combined UNESCO World Heritage Site consisting of four Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries. The constructions were founded by members of the Nemanjić dynasty, a prominent dynasty of Middle Age Serbia. ### Ottoman Empire During the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, Ottoman forces defeated a coalition led by Lazar of Serbia. Some historians, most notably Noel Malcolm, argue that the battle of Kosovo in 1389 did not end with an Ottoman victory and "Serbian statehood did survive for another seventy years." Soon after, Lazar's son accepted Turkish nominal vassalage and Lazar's daughter was married to the Sultan to seal the peace. By 1459, Ottomans conquered the new Serbian capital of Smederevo, leaving Belgrade and Vojvodina under Hungarian rule until second quarter of the 16th century. Kosovo was part of the Ottoman Empire from 1455 to 1912, at first as part of the eyalet of Rumelia, and from 1864 as a separate province (vilayet). During this time, Islam was introduced to the population. The Vilayet of Kosovo was an area much larger than today's Kosovo; it included all of current-day Kosovo, sections of the Sandžak region cutting into present-day Šumadija and Western Serbia and Montenegro, and the Kukës municipality, the surrounding region in present-day northern Albania and also parts of north-western North Macedonia, with the city of Skopje (then Üsküp), as its capital. Between 1881 and 1912, the Vilayet expanded to include other regions of North Macedonia, including larger urban settlements such as Štip, Kumanovo and Kratovo. According to some historians, Serbs likely formed a majority of Kosovo from the 8th to the mid-19th century. However, this claim is difficult to prove, as historians who base their works on Ottoman sources of the time give solid evidence that at least the western and central parts of Kosovo had an Albanian majority — the scholar Fredrick F. Anscombe shows that Prizren and Vushtrri had no Serbian population in the early 17th century. Prizren was inhabited by a mix of Catholic and Muslim Albanians, while Vushtrri had a mix of Albanian and Turkish speakers, followed by a tiny Serbian minority. Gjakova was founded by Albanians in the 16th century, and Peja had a continuous presence of the Albanian Kelmendi tribe. Central Kosovo was mixed, but large parts of the Drenica Valley were ethnically Albanian. Central Kosovo, as well as the cities of Prizren, Gjakova, and the region of Has regularly supplied the Ottoman forces with levies and mercenaries. The Ottoman defters of the 15th-16th centuries indicate that the Plains of Dukagjin in western Kosovo were inhabited by a majority of Albanian Christians of both the Orthodox and Catholic rites. The Slavic population was a small minority that was concentrated in the Nahiya of Peja and a small pocket in the Nahiya of Prizren; the documentation of Albanians in Peja at the end of the 15th century presupposes that Kosovo Albanians were early inhabitants of the region that pre-dated the Ottoman period. According to Paul Cohen, in the early sixteenth century, a large migration of Albanians into Kosovo resulted in a sizeable ethnic Albanian presence in some parts of Western Kosovo which continued into the next century. Historian Noel Malcolm challenges this view, using 15th-18th century Ottoman immigration documents and 17th century northern Albanian Catholic emigration sources to argue that the majority of the migrants into the Kosovo region during this period were not Albanian. The population of Kosovo was also much bigger than that of northern and central Albania and its rate of growth lower. Kosovo was part of the wider Ottoman region to be occupied by Austrian forces during the Great War of 1683–99, but the Ottomans re-established their rule of the region. Such acts of assistance by the Austrian Empire (then arch-rivals of the Ottoman Empire), or Russia, were always abortive or temporary at best. In 1690, the Serbian Patriarch Arsenije III led thousands of people from Kosovo to the Christian north, in what came to be known as the Great Serb Migration. Anscombe casts doubt on the fact that this exodus affected Kosovo, since there is no evidence that parts of Kosovo were depopulated. Evidence of depopulation can only be found in areas between Niš and Belgrade. Some Albanians from Skopje and other regions were displaced in order to fill some areas around Niš, but there is no evidence that such events took place in Kosovo. Considering Albanians were a significant part of the population before 1690 and that Albanian majority was not achieved until mid 19th century, a mass exodus of Serbs out of Kosovo in 1690 seems unlikely, according to historian Noel Malcolm. In 1766, the Ottomans abolished the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć and fully imposed the *jizya* on its non-Muslim population. Although initially stout opponents of the advancing Turks, Albanian chiefs ultimately came to accept the Ottomans as sovereigns. The resulting alliance facilitated the mass conversion of Albanians to Islam. Given that the Ottoman Empire's subjects were divided along religious (rather than ethnic) lines, the spread of Islam greatly elevated the status of Albanian chiefs. Prior to this, they were organised along simple tribal lines, living in the mountainous areas of modern Albania (from Kruje to the Šar range). Soon, they expanded into a depopulated Kosovo, as well as northwestern Macedonia, although some might have been autochthonous to the region. However, Banac favours the idea that the main settlers of the time were Vlachs. Centuries earlier, Albanians of Kosovo were predominantly Christian and Albanians and Serbs for the most part co-existed peacefully. The Ottomans appeared to have a more deliberate approach to converting the Roman Catholic population who were mostly Albanians in comparison with the mostly Serbian adherents of Eastern Orthodoxy, as they viewed the former less favorably due to its allegiance to Rome, a competing regional power. ### League of Prizren Many Albanians gained prominent positions in the Ottoman government, with "little cause of unrest", according to author Dennis Hupchik. "If anything, they grew important in Ottoman internal affairs." In the 19th century, there was an awakening of ethnic nationalism throughout the Balkans. The underlying ethnic tensions became part of a broader struggle of Christian Serbs against Muslim Albanians. The ethnic Albanian nationalism movement was centred in Kosovo. In 1878 the League of Prizren (*Lidhja e Prizrenit*) was formed, a political organisation that sought to unify all the Albanians of the Ottoman Empire in a common struggle for autonomy and greater cultural rights, although they generally desired the continuation of the Ottoman Empire. The League was dis-established in 1881 but enabled the awakening of a national identity among Albanians, whose ambitions competed with those of the Serbs, the Kingdom of Serbia wishing to incorporate this land that had formerly been within its empire. The modern Albanian-Serbian conflict has its roots in the expulsion of the Albanians in 1877–1878 from areas that became incorporated into the Principality of Serbia. During and after the Serbian–Ottoman War of 1876–78, between 30,000 and 70,000 Muslims, mostly Albanians, were expelled by the Serb army from the Sanjak of Niš and fled to the Kosovo Vilayet. According to Austrian data, by the 1890s Kosovo was 70% Muslim (nearly entirely of Albanian descent) and less than 30% non-Muslim (primarily Serbs). In May 1901, Albanians pillaged and partially burned the cities of Novi Pazar, Sjenica and Pristina, and massacred Serbs in the area of Kolašin. ### Kingdom of Yugoslavia The Young Turk movement took control of the Ottoman Empire after a coup in 1912 which deposed Sultan Abdul Hamid II. The movement supported a centralised form of government and opposed any sort of autonomy desired by the various nationalities of the Ottoman Empire. An allegiance to Ottomanism was promoted instead. An Albanian uprising in 1912 exposed the empire's northern territories in Kosovo and Novi Pazar, which led to an invasion by the Kingdom of Montenegro. The Ottomans suffered a serious defeat at the hands of Albanians in 1912, culminating in the Ottoman loss of most of its Albanian-inhabited lands. The Albanians threatened to march all the way to Salonika and reimpose Abdul Hamid. A wave of Albanians in the Ottoman army ranks also deserted during this period, refusing to fight their own kin. In September 1912, a joint Balkan force made up of Serbian, Montenegrin, Bulgarian and Greek forces drove the Ottomans out of most of their European possessions. The rise of nationalism hampered relations between Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo, due to influence from Russians, Austrians and Ottomans. After the Ottomans' defeat in the First Balkan War, the 1913 Treaty of London was signed with Metohija ceded to the Kingdom of Montenegro and Eastern Kosovo ceded to the Kingdom of Serbia. During the Balkan Wars, over 100,000 Albanians left Kosovo and around 20,000 were killed. Soon, there were concerted Serbian colonisation efforts in Kosovo during various periods between Serbia's 1912 takeover of the province and World War II, causing the population of Serbs in Kosovo to sharply decline after a period of growth. Serbian authorities promoted creating new Serb settlements in Kosovo as well as the assimilation of Albanians into Serbian society, causing a mass exodus of Albanians from Kosovo. Numerous colonist Serb families moved into Kosovo, equalising the demographic balance between Albanians and Serbs. The figures of Albanians forcefully expelled from Kosovo range between 60,000 and 239,807, while Malcolm mentions 100,000–120,000. In combination with the politics of extermination and expulsion, there was also a process of assimilation through religious conversion of Albanian Muslims and Albanian Catholics into the Serbian Orthodox religion which took place as early as 1912. These politics seem to have been inspired by the nationalist ideologies of Ilija Garašanin and Jovan Cvijić. In the winter of 1915–16, during World War I, Kosovo saw the retreat of the Serbian army as Kosovo was occupied by Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary. In 1918, the Allied Powers pushed the Central Powers out of Kosovo. After the end of World War I, the Kingdom of Serbia was transformed into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenians on 1 December 1918. Kosovo was split into four counties, three belonging to Serbia (Zvečan, Kosovo and southern Metohija) and one to Montenegro (northern Metohija). However, the new administration system since 26 April 1922 split Kosovo among three districts (oblast) of the Kingdom: Kosovo, Raška and Zeta. In 1929, the country was transformed into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the territories of Kosovo were reorganised among the Banate of Zeta, the Banate of Morava and the Banate of Vardar. In order to change the ethnic composition of Kosovo, between 1912 and 1941 a large-scale Serbian re-colonisation of Kosovo was undertaken by the Belgrade government. Kosovar Albanians' right to receive education in their own language was denied alongside other non-Slavic or unrecognised Slavic nations of Yugoslavia, as the kingdom only recognised the Slavic Croat, Serb, and Slovene nations as constituent nations of Yugoslavia. Other Slavs had to identify as one of the three official Slavic nations and non-Slav nations deemed as minorities. Albanians and other Muslims were forced to emigrate, mainly with the land reform which struck Albanian landowners in 1919, but also with direct violent measures. In 1935 and 1938, two agreements between the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and Turkey were signed on the expatriation of 240,000 Albanians to Turkey, but the expatriation did not occur due to the outbreak of World War II. After the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941, most of Kosovo was assigned to Italian-controlled Albania, and the rest controlled by Germany and Bulgaria. A three-dimensional conflict ensued, involving inter-ethnic, ideological, and international affiliations. Albanian collaborators persecuted Serb and Montenegrin settlers, and killed an estimated 10,000 and expelled or transferred 70,000 to 100,000 more to concentration camps in Pristina and Mitrovica. Nonetheless, these conflicts were relatively low-level compared with other areas of Yugoslavia during the war years. Two Serb historians also estimate that 12,000 Albanians died. An official investigation conducted by the Yugoslav government in 1964 recorded nearly 8,000 war-related fatalities in Kosovo between 1941 and 1945, 5,489 of them Serb or Montenegrin and 2,177 Albanian. There had been large-scale Albanian immigration from Albania to Kosovo, by some scholars estimated in the range from 72,000 to 260,000 people. Some historians and contemporary references emphasise that a large-scale migration of Albanians from Albania to Kosovo is not recorded in Axis documents. ### Communist Yugoslavia The province in its current form first took shape in 1945 as the *Autonomous Kosovo-Metohian Area*. Until World War II, the only entity bearing the name of Kosovo had been a political unit carved from the former vilayet which bore no special significance to its internal population. In the Ottoman Empire (which previously controlled the territory), it was a vilayet and its borders were revised on several occasions. When the Ottoman province last existed, it included areas which were by now either ceded to Albania, or within the newly created Yugoslav republics of Montenegro, or Macedonia (including its previous capital, Skopje), with another part in the Sandžak region of southwest Serbia. Tensions between ethnic Albanians and the Yugoslav government were significant, not only due to ethnic tensions but also due to political ideological concerns, especially regarding relations with neighbouring Albania. Harsh repressive measures were imposed on Kosovo Albanians due to suspicions that there were sympathisers of the Stalinist regime of Enver Hoxha of Albania. In 1956, a show trial in Pristina was held in which multiple Albanian Communists of Kosovo were convicted of being infiltrators from Albania and given long prison sentences. High-ranking Serbian communist official Aleksandar Ranković sought to secure the position of the Serbs in Kosovo and gave them dominance in Kosovo's nomenklatura. Islam in Kosovo at this time was repressed and both Albanians and Muslim Slavs were encouraged to declare themselves to be Turkish and emigrate to Turkey. At the same time Serbs and Montenegrins dominated the government, security forces, and industrial employment in Kosovo. Albanians resented these conditions and protested against them in the late 1960s, caling the actions taken by authorities in Kosovo colonialist, and demanding that Kosovo be made a republic, or declaring support for Albania. After the ouster of Ranković in 1966, the agenda of pro-decentralisation reformers in Yugoslavia, especially from Slovenia and Croatia, succeeded in the late 1960s in attaining substantial decentralisation of powers, creating substantial autonomy in Kosovo and Vojvodina, and recognising a Muslim Yugoslav nationality. As a result of these reforms, there was a massive overhaul of Kosovo's nomenklatura and police, that shifted from being Serb-dominated to ethnic Albanian-dominated through firing Serbs in large scale. Further concessions were made to the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo in response to unrest, including the creation of the University of Pristina as an Albanian language institution. These changes created widespread fear among Serbs that they were being made second-class citizens in Yugoslavia. By the 1974 Constitution of Yugoslavia, Kosovo was granted major autonomy, allowing it to have its own administration, assembly, and judiciary; as well as having a membership in the collective presidency and the Yugoslav parliament, in which it held veto power. In the aftermath of the 1974 constitution, concerns over the rise of Albanian nationalism in Kosovo rose with the widespread celebrations in 1978 of the 100th anniversary of the founding of the League of Prizren. Albanians felt that their status as a "minority" in Yugoslavia had made them second-class citizens in comparison with the "nations" of Yugoslavia and demanded that Kosovo be a constituent republic, alongside the other republics of Yugoslavia. Protests by Albanians in 1981 over the status of Kosovo resulted in Yugoslav territorial defence units being brought into Kosovo and a state of emergency being declared resulting in violence and the protests being crushed. In the aftermath of the 1981 protests, purges took place in the Communist Party, and rights that had been recently granted to Albanians were rescinded – including ending the provision of Albanian professors and Albanian language textbooks in the education system. Due to very high birth rates, the proportion of Albanians increased from 75% to over 90%. In contrast, the number of Serbs barely increased, and in fact dropped from 15% to 8% of the total population, since many Serbs departed from Kosovo as a response to the tight economic climate and increased incidents with their Albanian neighbours. While there was tension, charges of "genocide" and planned harassment have been discredited as a pretext to revoke Kosovo's autonomy. For example, in 1986 the Serbian Orthodox Church published an official claim that Kosovo Serbs were being subjected to an Albanian program of 'genocide'. Even though they were disproved by police statistics,[*page needed*] they received wide attention in the Serbian press and that led to further ethnic problems and eventual removal of Kosovo's status. Beginning in March 1981, Kosovar Albanian students of the University of Pristina organised protests seeking that Kosovo become a republic within Yugoslavia and demanding their human rights. The protests were brutally suppressed by the police and army, with many protesters arrested. During the 1980s, ethnic tensions continued with frequent violent outbreaks against Yugoslav state authorities, resulting in a further increase in emigration of Kosovo Serbs and other ethnic groups. The Yugoslav leadership tried to suppress protests of Kosovo Serbs seeking protection from ethnic discrimination and violence. ### Breakup of Yugoslavia and Kosovo War Inter-ethnic tensions continued to worsen in Kosovo throughout the 1980s. In 1989, Serbian President Slobodan Milošević, employing a mix of intimidation and political maneuvering, drastically reduced Kosovo's special autonomous status within Serbia and started cultural oppression of the ethnic Albanian population. Kosovar Albanians responded with a non-violent separatist movement, employing widespread civil disobedience and creation of parallel structures in education, medical care, and taxation, with the ultimate goal of achieving the independence of Kosovo. In July 1990, the Kosovo Albanians proclaimed the existence of the Republic of Kosova, and declared it a sovereign and independent state in September 1992. In May 1992, Ibrahim Rugova was elected its president in an election in which only Kosovo Albanians participated. During its lifetime, the Republic of Kosova was only officially recognised by Albania. By the mid-1990s, the Kosovo Albanian population was growing restless, as the status of Kosovo was not resolved as part of the Dayton Agreement of November 1995, which ended the Bosnian War. By 1996, the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), an ethnic Albanian guerrilla paramilitary group that sought the separation of Kosovo and the eventual creation of a Greater Albania, had prevailed over the Rugova's non-violent resistance movement and launched attacks against the Yugoslav Army and Serbian police in Kosovo, resulting in the Kosovo War. The situation escalated further when Yugoslav and Serbian forces committed numerous massacres against Kosovo Albanians, such as the Prekaz massacre in which one of the KLA founders Adem Jasheri was surrounded in his home along with his extended family. In total 58 Kosovo Albanians were killed in this massacre, including 18 women and 10 children, in a massacre where mortars were fired on the houses and snipers shot those who fled. This massacre along with others motivated many Albanian men to join the KLA. By 1998, international pressure compelled Yugoslavia to sign a ceasefire and partially withdraw its security forces. Events were to be monitored by Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) observers according to an agreement negotiated by Richard Holbrooke. The ceasefire did not hold and fighting resumed in December 1998, culminating in the Račak massacre, which attracted further international attention to the conflict. Within weeks, a multilateral international conference was convened and by March had prepared a draft agreement known as the Rambouillet Accords, calling for the restoration of Kosovo's autonomy and the deployment of NATO peacekeeping forces. The Yugoslav delegation found the terms unacceptable and refused to sign the draft. Between 24 March and 10 June 1999, NATO intervened by bombing Yugoslavia, aiming to force Milošević to withdraw his forces from Kosovo, though NATO could not appeal to any particular motion of the Security Council of the United Nations to help legitimise its intervention. Combined with continued skirmishes between Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav forces the conflict resulted in a further massive displacement of population in Kosovo. During the conflict, roughly a million ethnic Albanians fled or were forcefully driven from Kosovo. In 1999 more than 11,000 deaths were reported to the office of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia prosecutor Carla Del Ponte. As of 2010[update], some 3,000 people were still missing, including 2,500 Albanians, 400 Serbs and 100 Roma. By June, Milošević agreed to a foreign military presence in Kosovo and the withdrawal of his troops. During the Kosovo War, over 90,000 Serbian and other non-Albanian refugees fled the province. In the days after the Yugoslav Army withdrew, over 80,000 Serb and other non-Albanian civilians (almost half of 200,000 estimated to live in Kosovo) were expelled from Kosovo, and many of the remaining civilians were victims of abuse. After the Kosovo and other Yugoslav Wars, Serbia became home to the highest number of refugees and IDPs (including Kosovo Serbs) in Europe. In some villages under Albanian control in 1998, militants drove ethnic Serbs from their homes. Some of those who remained are unaccounted for and are presumed to have been abducted by the KLA and killed. The KLA detained an estimated 85 Serbs during its 19 July 1998 attack on Rahovec. 35 of these were subsequently released but the others remained. On 22 July 1998, the KLA briefly took control of the Belaćevac mine near the town of Obilić. Nine Serb mineworkers were captured that day and they remain on the International Committee of the Red Cross's list of the missing and are presumed to have been killed. In August 1998, 22 Serbian civilians were reportedly killed in the village of Klečka, where the police claimed to have discovered human remains and a kiln used to cremate the bodies. In September 1998, Serbian police collected 34 bodies of people believed to have been seized and murdered by the KLA, among them some ethnic Albanians, at Lake Radonjić near Glođane (Gllogjan) in what became known as the Lake Radonjić massacre. Human Rights Watch have raised questions about the validity of at least some of these allegations made by Serbian authorities. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) prosecuted crimes committed during the Kosovo War. Nine senior Yugoslav officials, including Milošević, were indicted for crimes against humanity and war crimes committed between January and June 1999. Six of the defendants were convicted, one was acquitted, one died before his trial could commence, and one (Milošević) died before his trial could conclude. Six KLA members were charged with crimes against humanity and war crimes by the ICTY following the war, and one was convicted. In total around 10,317 civilians were killed during the war, of whom 8,676 were Albanians, 1,196 Serbs and 445 Roma and others in addition to 3,218 killed members of armed formations. ### Post-war On 10 June 1999, the UN Security Council passed UN Security Council Resolution 1244, which placed Kosovo under transitional UN administration (UNMIK) and authorised Kosovo Force (KFOR), a NATO-led peacekeeping force. Resolution 1244 provided that Kosovo would have autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and affirmed the territorial integrity of Yugoslavia, which has been legally succeeded by the Republic of Serbia. Estimates of the number of Serbs who left when Serbian forces left Kosovo vary from 65,000 to 250,000. Within post-conflict Kosovo Albanian society, calls for retaliation for previous violence done by Serb forces during the war circulated through public culture. Widespread attacks against Serbian cultural sites commenced following the conflict and the return of hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanian refugees to their homes. In 2004, prolonged negotiations over Kosovo's future status, sociopolitical problems and nationalist sentiments resulted in the Kosovo unrest. 11 Albanians and 16 Serbs were killed, 900 people (including peacekeepers) were injured, and several houses, public buildings and churches were damaged or destroyed. International negotiations began in 2006 to determine the final status of Kosovo, as envisaged under UN Security Council Resolution 1244. The UN-backed talks, led by UN Special Envoy Martti Ahtisaari, began in February 2006. Whilst progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself. In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draft UN Security Council Resolution which proposed 'supervised independence' for the province. A draft resolution, backed by the United States, the United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council, was presented and rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty. Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one of five permanent members, had stated that it would not support any resolution which was not acceptable to both Belgrade and Kosovo Albanians. Whilst most observers had, at the beginning of the talks, anticipated independence as the most likely outcome, others have suggested that a rapid resolution might not be preferable. After many weeks of discussions at the UN, the United States, United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council formally 'discarded' a draft resolution backing Ahtisaari's proposal on 20 July 2007, having failed to secure Russian backing. Beginning in August, a "Troika" consisting of negotiators from the European Union (Wolfgang Ischinger), the United States (Frank G. Wisner) and Russia (Alexander Botsan-Kharchenko) launched a new effort to reach a status outcome acceptable to both Belgrade and Pristina. Despite Russian disapproval, the U.S., the United Kingdom, and France appeared likely to recognise Kosovar independence. A declaration of independence by Kosovar Albanian leaders was postponed until the end of the Serbian presidential elections (4 February 2008). A significant portion of politicians in both the EU and the US had feared that a premature declaration could boost support in Serbia for the nationalist candidate, Tomislav Nikolić. ### Provisional self-government In November 2001, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe supervised the first elections for the Assembly of Kosovo. After that election, Kosovo's political parties formed an all-party unity coalition and elected Ibrahim Rugova as president and Bajram Rexhepi (PDK) as Prime Minister. After Kosovo-wide elections in October 2004, the LDK and AAK formed a new governing coalition that did not include PDK and Ora. This coalition agreement resulted in Ramush Haradinaj (AAK) becoming Prime Minister, while Ibrahim Rugova retained the position of President. PDK and Ora were critical of the coalition agreement and have since frequently accused that government of corruption. Parliamentary elections were held on 17 November 2007. After early results, Hashim Thaçi who was on course to gain 35 per cent of the vote, claimed victory for PDK, the Democratic Party of Kosovo, and stated his intention to declare independence. Thaçi formed a coalition with current president Fatmir Sejdiu's Democratic League which was in second place with 22 percent of the vote. The turnout at the election was particularly low. Most members of the Serb minority refused to vote. ### After declaration of independence Kosovo declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008. As of 4 September 2020, 114 UN states recognised its independence, including all of its immediate neighbours, with the exception of Serbia. However, 15 states have subsequently withdrawn recognition of the Republic of Kosovo. Russia and China do not recognise Kosovo's independence. Since declaring independence, it has become a member of international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and World Bank, though not of the United Nations. The Serb minority of Kosovo, which largely opposes the declaration of independence, has formed the Community Assembly of Kosovo and Metohija in response. The creation of the assembly was condemned by Kosovo's President Fatmir Sejdiu, while UNMIK has said the assembly is not a serious issue because it will not have an operative role. On 8 October 2008, the UN General Assembly resolved, on a proposal by Serbia, to ask the International Court of Justice to render an advisory opinion on the legality of Kosovo's declaration of independence. The advisory opinion, which is not binding over decisions by states to recognise or not recognise Kosovo, was rendered on 22 July 2010, holding that Kosovo's declaration of independence was not in violation either of general principles of international law, which do not prohibit unilateral declarations of independence, nor of specific international law – in particular UNSCR 1244 – which did not define the final status process nor reserve the outcome to a decision of the Security Council. Some rapprochement between the two governments took place on 19 April 2013 as both parties reached the Brussels Agreement, an agreement brokered by the EU that allowed the Serb minority in Kosovo to have its own police force and court of appeals. The agreement is yet to be ratified by either parliament. Presidents of Serbia and Kosovo organized two meetings, in Brussels on 27 February 2023 and Ohrid on 18 March 2023, to create and agree upon an 11-point agreement on implementing a European Union-backed deal to normalize ties between the two countries, which includes recognizing "each other's documents such as passports and license plates"; president Vučić stated that it "will become part of the negotiation framework for both sides." Governance ---------- | | | | --- | --- | | | | | Vjosa OsmaniPresident | Albin KurtiPrime Minister | Kosovo is a multi-party parliamentary representative democratic republic. It is governed by legislative, executive and judicial institutions, which derive from the constitution, although, until the Brussels Agreement, North Kosovo was in practice largely controlled by institutions of Serbia or parallel institutions funded by Serbia. Legislative functions are vested in both the Parliament and the ministers within their competencies. The Government exercises the executive power and is composed of the Prime Minister as the head of government, the Deputy Prime Ministers and the Ministers of the various ministries. The judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court and subordinate courts, a Constitutional Court, and independent prosecutorial institutions. There also exist multiple independent institutions defined by the constitution and law, as well as local governments. All citizens are equal before the law and gender equality is ensured by the constitution. The Constitutional Framework guarantees a minimum of ten seats in the 120-member Assembly for Serbs, and ten for other minorities, and also guarantees Serbs and other minorities places in the Government. The president serves as the head of state and represents the unity of the people, elected every five years, indirectly by the parliament through a secret ballot by a two-thirds majority of all deputies. The head of state invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. The president has the power to return draft legislation to the parliament for reconsideration and has a role in foreign affairs and certain official appointments. The Prime Minister serves as the head of government elected by the parliament. Ministers are nominated by the Prime Minister, and then confirmed by the parliament. The head of government exercises executive power of the territory. Corruption is a major problem and an obstacle to the development of democracy in the country. Those in the judiciary appointed by the government to fight corruption are often government associates. Moreover, prominent politicians and party operatives who commit offences are not prosecuted due to the lack of laws and political will. Organized crime also poses a threat to the economy due to the practices of bribery, extortion and racketeering. The government of Kosovo has exhibited severe shortcomings in the coordination of local and state police forces fighting international crime in the country. Since 2018, Kosovo Police was observed to raid warehouses and pharmacy establishments in Pristina and Mitrovica with no prior warning or coordination with city law enforcement. The smuggling of contraband goods, firearms as well as illicit drugs is a major obstacle for Kosovo's economic development and international recognition. ### Foreign relations and military The foreign relations of Kosovo are conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Pristina. As of 2023[update], 101 out of 193 United Nations member states recognise the Republic of Kosovo. Within the European Union, it is recognized by 22 of 27 members and is a potential candidate for the future enlargement of the European Union. On 15 December 2022 Kosovo filed a formal application to become a member of the European Union. Kosovo is a member of several international organizations including the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, International Road and Transport Union, Regional Cooperation Council, Council of Europe Development Bank, Venice Commission and European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. In 2015, Kosovo's bid to become a member of UNESCO fell three votes short of the two-thirds majority required to join. 23 countries maintain embassies in Kosovo. Kosovo maintains 24 diplomatic missions and 28 consular missions abroad. The relations with Albania are in a special case considering that both countries share the same language and culture. The Albanian language is one of the official languages of Kosovo. Albania has an embassy in the capital Pristina and Kosovo an embassy in Tirana. In 1992, Albania was the only country whose parliament voted to recognise the Republic of Kosova. Albania was also one of the first countries to officially announce its recognition of the Republic of Kosovo in February 2008. The Global Peace Index 2022 ranked Kosovo 71st out of 163 countries. Kosovo's biggest challenges were identified in the areas of ongoing conflicts and societal safety and security, which are affected by Kosovo's relations to its neighbors and its domestic societal and political stability. Kosovo's military is the Kosovo Security Force. The President holds the title of commander-in-chief of the military. Citizens over the age of 18 are eligible to serve in the Kosovo Security Force. Members of the force are protected from discrimination on the basis of gender or ethnicity. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) led the Kosovo Force (KFOR) and the Kosovo Protection Corps (KPC) in 2008, started preparations for the formation of the Kosovo Security Force. In 2014, the former Prime Minister Hashim Thaçi declared, that the National Government had decided to establish a Defense Ministry in 2019 and to officially transform the Kosovo Security Force into the Kosovo Armed Forces, an army which would meet all the standards of NATO members with the aim to join the alliance in the future. In December 2018, the parliament of Kosovo changed the mandate of the Kosovo Security Force by law and converted it to an army. It additionally established a Ministry of Defense. ### Law The judicial system of Kosovo follows a civil law framework and comprises regular civil and criminal courts, alongside administrative courts. Administered by the judicial council in Pristina, the system includes the supreme court as the highest judicial authority, a constitutional court and an independent prosecutorial institution. Following the independence of Kosovo in 2008, the Kosovo Police assumed the primary law enforcement responsibilities within the country. Covering a broad range of issues related to the status of Kosovo, the Ahtisaari Plan introduced two forms of international supervision for Kosovo following its independence, including the International Civilian Office (ICO) and the European Union Rule of Law Mission to Kosovo (EULEX). The ICO monitored plan implementation and possessed veto powers, while EULEX focused on developing judicial systems and had arrest and prosecution authority. These bodies were granted powers under Kosovo's declaration of independence and constitution. The legal status of the ICO depended upon the de facto situation and Kosovo legislation, with oversight provided by the International Steering Group (ISG) comprising states that recognized Kosovo. Serbia and non-recognizing states did not acknowledge the ICO. Despite initial opposition, EULEX gained acceptance from Serbia and the UN Security Council in 2008. It operated under the UNMIK mandate with operational independence. The ICO concluded operations in 2012 after fulfilling obligations, while EULEX continues to operate within Kosovo and international law. Its role has been extended, primarily focusing on monitoring with reduced responsibilities. ### Minorities The relations between Kosovar Albanians and Kosovar Serbs have been hostile since the rise of nationalism in the Balkans during the 19th century. During Communism in Yugoslavia, the ethnic Albanians and Serbs were strongly irreconcilable, with sociological studies during the Tito-era indicating that ethnic Albanians and Serbs rarely accepted each other as neighbors or friends and few held inter-ethnic marriages. Ethnic prejudices, stereotypes and mutual distrust between ethnic Albanians and Serbs have remained common for decades. The level of intolerance and separation between both communities during the Tito-period was reported by sociologists to be worse than that of Croat and Serb communities in Yugoslavia, which also had tensions but held some closer relations between each other. Despite their planned integration into the Kosovar society and their recognition in the Kosovar constitution, the Romani, Ashkali, and Egyptian communities continue to face many difficulties, such as segregation and discrimination, in housing, education, health, employment and social welfare. Many camps around Kosovo continue to house thousands of internally displaced people, all of whom are from minority groups and communities. Because many of the Roma are believed to have sided with the Serbs during the conflict, taking part in the widespread looting and destruction of Albanian property, Minority Rights Group International report that Romani people encounter hostility by Albanians outside their local areas. ### Administrative divisions Kosovo is divided into seven districts (Albanian: *rajon*; Serbian: *okrug*), according to the Law of Kosovo and the Brussels Agreement of 2013, which stipulated the formation of new municipalities with Serb majority populations. The districts are further subdivided into 38 municipalities (*komunë*; *opština*). The largest and most populous district of Kosovo is the District of Pristina with the capital in Pristina, having a surface area of 2,470 square kilometres (953.67 sq mi) and a population of 477,312. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | *Peja* *Gjakova* *Prizren* *Mitrovica* *Pristina* *Ferizaj* *Gjilan* | | | Districts | Seat | Area (km2) | Population | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | District of Peja | Peja | 1,365 | 174,235 | | District of Mitrovica | Mitrovica | 2,077 | 272,247 | | District of Pristina | Pristina | 2,470 | 477,312 | | District of Gjilan | Gjilan | 1,206 | 180,783 | | District of Gjakova | Gjakova | 1,129 | 194,672 | | District of Prizren | Prizren | 1,397 | 331,670 | | District of Ferizaj | Ferizaj | 1,030 | 185,806 | | | | | Geography --------- Defined in a total area of 10,887 square kilometres (4,203 square miles), Kosovo is landlocked and located in the center of the Balkan Peninsula in Southeastern Europe. It lies between latitudes 42° and 43° N, and longitudes 20° and 22° E. The northernmost point is Bellobërda at 43° 14' 06" northern latitude; the southernmost is Restelica at 41° 56' 40" northern latitude; the westernmost point is Bogë at 20° 3' 23" eastern longitude; and the easternmost point is Desivojca at 21° 44' 21" eastern longitude. The highest point is Velika Rudoka at 2,658 metres (8,720 ft) above sea level, and the lowest is the White Drin at 297 metres (974 ft). Most of the borders of Kosovo are dominated by mountainous and high terrain. The most noticeable topographical features are the Accursed Mountains and the Šar Mountains. The Accursed Mountains are a geological continuation of the Dinaric Alps. The mountains run laterally through the west along the border with Albania and Montenegro. The southeast is predominantly the Šar Mountains, which constitute the border with North Macedonia. Besides the mountain ranges, Kosovo's territory consists mostly of two major plains, the Kosovo Plain in the east and the Metohija Plain in the west. Additionally, Kosovo consists of multiple geographic and ethnographic regions, such as Drenica, Dushkaja, Gollak, Has, Highlands of Gjakova, Llap, Llapusha and Rugova. Kosovo's hydrological resources are relatively small; there are few lakes in Kosovo, the largest of which are Lake Gazivoda, Lake Radoniq, Lake Batlava and Lake Gračanica. In addition to these, Kosovo also does have karst springs, thermal and mineral water springs. The longest rivers of Kosovo include the White Drin, the South Morava and the Ibar. Sitnica, a tributary of Ibar, is the largest river lying completely within Kosovo's territory. River Nerodimka represents Europe's only instance of a river bifurcation flowing into the Black Sea and Aegean Sea. ### Climate Most of Kosovo experiences predominantly a Continental climate with Mediterranean and Alpine influences, strongly influenced by Kosovo's proximity to the Adriatic Sea in the west, the Aegean Sea in the south as well as the European continental landmass in the north. The coldest areas are situated in the mountainous region to the west and southeast, where an Alpine climate is prevalent. The warmest areas are mostly in the extreme southern areas close to the border with Albania, where a Mediterranean climate is the norm. Mean monthly temperature ranges between 0 °C (32 °F) (in January) and 22 °C (72 °F) (in July). Mean annual precipitation ranges from 600 to 1,300 mm (24 to 51 in) per year, and is well distributed year-round. To the northeast, the Kosovo Plain and Ibar Valley are drier with total precipitation of about 600 millimetres (24 inches) per year and more influenced by continental air masses, with colder winters and very hot summers. In the southwest, climatic area of Metohija receives more mediterranean influences with warmer summers, somewhat higher precipitation (700 mm (28 in)) and heavy snowfalls in the winter. The mountainous areas of the Accursed Mountains in the west, Šar Mountains on the south and Kopaonik in the north experiences alpine climate, with high precipitation (900 to 1,300 mm (35 to 51 in) per year), short and fresh summers, and cold winters. The average annual temperature of Kosovo is 9.5 °C (49.1 °F). The warmest month is July with average temperature of 19.2 °C (66.6 °F), and the coldest is January with −1.3 °C (29.7 °F). Except Prizren and Istog, all other meteorological stations in January recorded average temperatures under 0 °C (32 °F). ### Biodiversity Located in Southeastern Europe, Kosovo receives floral and faunal species from Europe and Eurasia. Forests are widespread in Kosovo and cover at least 39% of the region. Phytogeographically, it straddles the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. In addition, it falls within three terrestrial ecoregions: Balkan mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests, and Pindus Mountains mixed forests. Kosovo's biodiversity is conserved in two national parks, eleven nature reserves and one hundred three other protected areas. The Bjeshkët e Nemuna National Park and Sharr Mountains National Park are the most important regions of vegetation and biodiversity in Kosovo. Kosovo had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.19/10, ranking it 107th globally out of 172 countries. Flora encompasses more than 1,800 species of vascular plant species, but the actual number is estimated to be higher than 2,500 species. The diversity is the result of the complex interaction of geology and hydrology creating a wide variety of habitat conditions for flora growth. Although, Kosovo represents only 2.3% of the entire surface area of the Balkans, in terms of vegetation it has 25% of the Balkan flora and about 18% of the European flora. The fauna is composed of a wide range of species. The mountainous west and southeast provide a great habitat for several rare or endangered species including brown bears, lynxes, wild cats, wolves, foxes, wild goats, roebucks and deers. A total of 255 species of birds have been recorded, with raptors such as the golden eagle, eastern imperial eagle and lesser kestrel living principally in the mountains of Kosovo. ### Environmental issues Environmental issues in Kosovo include a wide range of challenges pertaining to air and water pollution, climate change, waste management, biodiversity loss and nature conservation. The vulnerability of the country to climate change is influenced by various factors, such as increased temperatures, geological and hydrological hazards, including droughts, flooding, fires and rains. Due to its current status, Kosovo is not a signatory to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol or the Paris Agreement. Consequently, the country is not mandated to submit a Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) that are voluntary commitments outlining a nation's actions and strategies for mitigating climate change and adapting to its impacts. However, since 2021, Kosovo is actively engaged in the process of formulating a voluntary NDC, with assistance provided from Japan. In 2023, the country has established a goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 16.3% as part of its broader objective to achieve carbon neutrality by the year 2050. Demographics ------------ The population of Kosovo, as defined by Agency of Statistics, was estimated in 2021 to be approximately 1,774,000. In 2023, the overall life expectancy at birth was 79.68 years; 77.38 years for males and 81.87 years for females. Kosovo ranks 11th most populous in the Balkans and 149th in the world. In 2005, the Provisional Institutions of Self Government estimated the population of Kosovo to be between 1.9 and 2.2 million with the Albanians and Serbs being the largest ethnic groups followed by other groups such as Bosniak, Gorani, Turkish and Romani. However, according to the 2009 CIA World Factbook, Kosovo's population stands at 1,804,838 persons. It stated that ethnic composition was 88% Albanians, 7% Serbs and 5% of other ethnic groups including Bosniaks, Gorani, Romani, Turks, Ashkalis, Balkan Egyptians and Janjevci – Croats. Albanians, steadily increasing in number, may have constituted a majority in Kosovo since the 19th century, although the region's historical ethnic composition is disputed. Kosovo's political boundaries do not fully coincide with the ethnic boundary by which Albanians compose an absolute majority in every municipality; for example, Serbs form a local majority in North Kosovo and two other municipalities, while there are large areas with an Albanian majority outside of Kosovo, namely in the neighbouring regions of former Yugoslavia: the north-west of North Macedonia, and in the Preševo Valley in Southern Serbia. At 1.3% per year as of 2008 data, ethnic Albanians in Kosovo have the fastest rate of growth in population in Europe. In the second half of the 20th century, Kosovo Albanians had three times higher birth rates than Serbs. The UNHCR estimated in 2019 that the total number of IDPs (Serbs and non-Serbs) from Kosovo in Serbia are 68,514. In addition, most of Kosovo's pre-1999 Serb population relocated to Serbia proper following the ethnic cleansing campaign in 1999. Municipalities of Kosovo are largely rural, with only eight municipalities having more than 40,000 inhabitants living in the urban areas. The official languages of Kosovo are Albanian and Serbian and the institutions are committed to ensure the equal use of those two languages. Turkish, Bosnian and Roma hold the status of official languages at municipal level if the linguistic community represents at least 5% of the total population of municipality. Albanian is spoken as a first language by approximately 95% of the population, while Bosnian and Serbian are spoken by 1.7% and 1.6% of the population, respectively. As censuses have been boycotted in North Kosovo by Serbian speakers, Bosnian appears to be the second most spoken language after Albanian, when in fact Serbian has more native speakers than Bosnian in Kosovo. Although both Albanian and Serbian are official languages, municipal civil servants are only required to speak one of them in a professional setting and, according to Language Commissioner of Kosovo, Slaviša Mladenović, statement from 2015, no organisations have all of their documents in both languages. The Law on the Use of Languages gives Turkish the status of an official language in the municipality of Prizren, irrespective of the size of the Turkish community living there. A 2020 research report funded by the EU shows that there is a limited scale of trust and overall contact between the major ethnic groups in Kosovo. ### Religion | Religion in Kosovo | | --- | | | | | | Muslim |   | 95.6% | | Christian |   | 3.7% | |  – Roman Catholic |   | 2.2% | |  – Eastern Orthodox |   | 1.5% | | Non-religious |   | 0.1% | | Other |   | 0.1% | | Unspecified |   | 0.1% | Kosovo is a secular state with no state religion; freedom of belief, conscience and religion is explicitly guaranteed in the Constitution of Kosovo. Kosovar society is strongly secularised and is ranked first in Southern Europe and ninth in the world as free and equal for tolerance towards religion and atheism. In the 2011 census, 95.6% of the population of Kosovo was counted as Muslim and 3.7% as Christian including 2.2% as Roman Catholic and 1.5% as Eastern Orthodox. The remaining 0.3% of the population reported having no religion, or another religion, or did not provide an adequate answer. Protestants, although recognized as a religious group in Kosovo by the government, were not represented in the census. The census was largely boycotted by the Kosovo Serbs, who predominantly identify as Serbian Orthodox Christians, especially in North Kosovo, leaving the Serb population underrepresented. Islam is the most widely practiced religion in Kosovo and was introduced in the Middle Ages by the Ottomans. Today, Kosovo has the second-highest number of Muslims as a percentage of its population in Europe after Turkey. The majority of the Muslim population of Kosovo are ethnic Albanians, Turks, and Slavs such as Gorani and Bosniaks. Followers of the Roman Catholic Church are predominantly Albanians while ethnic Serbs follow the Eastern Orthodox Church. In 2008, Protestant pastor Artur Krasniqi, primate of the Kosovo Protestant Evangelical Church, claimed that "as many as 15,000" Kosovar Albanians had converted to Protestantism since 1985. Relations between the Albanian Muslim and Albanian Catholic communities in Kosovo are good; however, both communities have few or no relations with the Serbian Orthodox community. In general, the Albanians define their ethnicity by language and not by religion, while religion reflects a distinguishing identity feature among the Slavs of Kosovo and elsewhere. Economy ------- The economy of Kosovo is a transitional economy. It suffered from the combined results of political upheaval, the Serbian dismissal of Kosovo employees and the following Yugoslav Wars. Despite declining foreign assistance, the GDP has mostly grown since its declaration of independence. This was despite the financial crisis of 2007–2008 and the subsequent European debt crisis. Additionally, the inflation rate has been low. Most economic development has taken place in the trade, retail and construction sectors. Kosovo is highly dependent on remittances from the diaspora, FDI and other capital inflows.In 2018, the International Monetary Fund reported that approximately one-sixth of the population lived below the poverty line and one-third of the working age population was unemployed, the highest rate in Europe. Kosovo's largest trading partners are Albania, Italy, Switzerland, China, Germany and Turkey. The Euro is its official currency. The Government of Kosovo has signed free-trade agreements with Albania, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and North Macedonia. Kosovo is a member of CEFTA, agreed with UNMIK, and enjoys free trade with most nearby non-European Union countries. Kosovo is dominated by the services sector, accounting for 54% of GDP and employing approximately 56.6% of the population. The industry accounted for 37.3% of GDP and employs roughly 24.8% of the labour force. There are several reasons for the stagnation, ranging from consecutive occupations, political turmoil and the War in Kosovo in 1999. While agriculture accounts for only 6.6% of GDP, albeit an increase of 0.5 percentage points from 2019, it forms 18.7% of Kosovo’s workforce, the highest proportion of agricultural employment in the region after Albania. Kosovo has large reserves of lead, zinc, silver, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and bauxite. The nation has the fifth-largest lignite reserves in the world and the 3rd in Europe. The Directorate for Mines and Minerals and the World Bank estimated that Kosovo had €13.5 billion worth of minerals in 2005. The primary sector is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units. 53% of the nation's area is agricultural land, 41% forest and forestry land, and 6% for others. Wine has historically been produced in Kosovo. The main heartland of Kosovo's wine industry is in Rahovec. The main cultivars include Pinot noir, Merlot, and Chardonnay. Kosovo exports wines to Germany and the United States. The four state-owned wine production facilities were not as much "wineries" as they were "wine factories". Only the Rahovec facility that held approximately 36% of the total vineyard area had the capacity of around 50 million litres annually. The major share of the wine production was intended for exports. At its peak in 1989, the exports from the Rahovec facility amounted to 40 million litres and were mainly distributed to the German market. ### Energy The electricity sector in Kosovo is considered one of the sectors with the greatest potential of development. Kosovo's electricity sector is highly dependent on coal-fired power plants, which use the abundant lignite, so efforts are being made to diversify electricity generation with more renewables sources, such as wind farms in Bajgora and Kitka. In April 2020 Kosovo with KOSTT, the government-owned Transmission System Operator, declared its independence from the Serbian electricity transmission operator Elektromreža Srbije with a vote by the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity, ENTSO-E, which has paved the way for Kosovo to become an independent regulatory zone for electricity. The vote confirms that a connection agreement will be signed between ENTSO-E and KOSTT, allowing KOSTT to join the 42 other transmission operators. A joint energy bloc between Kosovo and Albania, is in work after an agreement which was signed in December 2019. With that agreement Albania and Kosovo will now be able to exchange energy reserves, which is expected to result in €4 million in savings per year for Kosovo. ### Tourism The natural values of Kosovo represent quality tourism resources. The description of Kosovo's potential in tourism is closely related to its geographical location, in the center of the Balkan Peninsula in Southeastern Europe. It represents a crossroads which historically dates back to antiquity. Kosovo serves as a link in the connection between Central and Southern Europe and the Adriatic Sea and Black Sea. Kosovo is generally rich in various topographical features, including high mountains, lakes, canyons, steep rock formations and rivers. The mountainous west and southeast of Kosovo has great potential for winter tourism. Skiing takes place at the Brezovica ski resort within the Šar Mountains, with the close proximity to the Pristina Airport (60 km) and Skopje International Airport (70 km) which is a popular destination for international tourists. Kosovo also has beautiful lakes like Batllava Lake that serves as a popular destination for watersports, camping, and swimming. Other lakes include Ujmani Lake, Liqenati Lake, Zemra Lake. Other major attractions include the capital, Pristina, the historical cities of Prizren, Peja and Gjakova but also Ferizaj and Gjilan. *The New York Times* included Kosovo on the list of 41 places to visit in 2011. ### Transport Road transportation of passengers and freight is the most common form of transportation in Kosovo. Currently, there are two main motorways in Kosovo: the R7 connecting Kosovo with Albania and the R6 connecting Pristina with the Macedonian border at Elez Han. The construction of the new R7.1 Motorway began in 2017. The R7 Motorway (part of Albania-Kosovo Highway) links Kosovo to Albania's Adriatic coast in Durrës. Once the remaining European route (E80) from Pristina to Merdare section project will be completed, the motorway will link Kosovo through the present European route (E80) highway with the Pan-European corridor X (E75) near Niš in Serbia. The R6 Motorway, forming part of the E65, is the second motorway constructed in the region. It links the capital Pristina with the border with North Macedonia at Elez Han, which is about 20 km (12 mi) from Skopje. Construction of the motorway started in 2014 and finished in 2019. Trainkos operates daily passenger trains on two routes: Pristina – Fushë Kosovë – Pejë, as well as Pristina – Fushë Kosovë – Ferizaj – Skopje, North Macedonia (the latter in cooperation with Macedonian Railways). Also, freight trains run throughout the country. The nation hosts two airports, Pristina International Airport and Gjakova Airport. Pristina International Airport is located southwest of Pristina. It is Kosovo's only international airport and the only port of entry for air travelers to Kosovo. Gjakova Airport was built by the Kosovo Force (KFOR) following the Kosovo War, next to an existing airfield used for agricultural purposes, and was used mainly for military and humanitarian flights. The local and national government plans to offer Gjakova Airport for operation under a public-private partnership with the aim of turning it into a civilian and commercial airport. Infrastructure -------------- ### Health In the past, Kosovo's capabilities to develop a modern health care system were limited. Low GDP during 1990 worsened the situation even more. However, the establishment of Faculty of Medicine in the University of Pristina marked a significant development in health care. This was also followed by launching different health clinics which enabled better conditions for professional development. Nowadays the situation has changed, and the health care system in Kosovo is organized into three sectors: primary, secondary and tertiary health care. Primary health care in Pristina is organized into thirteen family medicine centers and fifteen ambulatory care units. Secondary health care is decentralized in seven regional hospitals. Pristina does not have any regional hospital and instead uses University Clinical Center of Kosovo for health care services. University Clinical Center of Kosovo provides its health care services in twelve clinics, where 642 doctors are employed. At a lower level, home services are provided for several vulnerable groups which are not able to reach health care premises. Kosovo health care services are now focused on patient safety, quality control and assisted health. ### Education Education for primary, secondary, and tertiary levels is predominantly public and supported by the state, run by the Ministry of Education. Education takes place in two main stages: primary and secondary education, and higher education. The primary and secondary education is subdivided into four stages: preschool education, primary and low secondary education, high secondary education and special education. Preschool education is for children from the ages of one to five. Primary and secondary education is obligatory for everyone. It is provided by gymnasiums and vocational schools and also available in languages of recognized minorities in Kosovo, where classes are held in Albanian, Serbian, Bosnian, Turkish and Croatian. The first phase (primary education) includes grades one to five, and the second phase (low secondary education) grades six to nine. The third phase (high secondary education) consists of general education but also professional education, which is focused on different fields. It lasts four years. However, pupils are offered possibilities of applying for higher or university studies. According to the Ministry of Education, children who are not able to get a general education are able to get a special education (fifth phase). Higher education can be received in universities and other higher-education institutes. These educational institutions offer studies for Bachelor, Master and PhD degrees. The students may choose full-time or part-time studies. Culture ------- ### Arts The architecture of Kosovo dates back to the Neolithic, Bronze and Middle Ages. It has been influenced by the presence of different civilizations and religions as evidenced by the structures which have survived to this day. Kosovo is home to many monasteries and churches from the 13th and 14th centuries that represent the Serbian Orthodox legacy. Architectural heritage from the Ottoman Period includes mosques and hamams from the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. Other historical architectural structures of interest include kullas from the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as a number of bridges, urban centers and fortresses. While some vernacular buildings are not considered important in their own right, taken together they are of considerable interest. During the 1999 conflict in Kosovo, many buildings that represent this heritage were destroyed or damaged. In the Dukagjini region, at least 500 kullas were attacked, and most of them destroyed or otherwise damaged. In 2004, UNESCO recognized the Visoki Dečani monastery as World Heritage Site for its outstanding universal value. Two years later, the site of patrimony was extended as a serial nomination, to include three other religious monuments: Patriarchate of Peja, Our Lady of Ljeviš and Gračanica monastery under the name of Medieval Monuments in Kosovo. It consists of four Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries, which represent the fusion of the eastern Orthodox Byzantine and the western Romanesque ecclesiastical architecture to form the Palaiologian Renaissance style. The construction was founded by members of Nemanjić dynasty, the most important dynasty of Serbia in the Middle Ages. These monuments have come under attack, especially during the 2004 ethnic violence. In 2006, the property was inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger due to difficulties in its management and conservation stemming from the region's political instability. Kosovar art was unknown to the international public for a very long time, because of the regime, many artists were unable to display their art in art galleries, and so were always on the lookout for alternatives, and even resorted to taking matters into their own hands. Until 1990, artists from Kosovo presented their art in many prestigious worldwide renowned centers. They were affirmed and evaluated highly because of their unique approach to the arts considering the circumstances in which they were created, making them distinguished and original. In February 1979, the Kosova National Art Gallery was founded. It became the highest institution of visual arts in Kosovo. It was named after one of the most prominent artists of Kosovo Muslim Mulliqi. Engjëll Berisha, Masar Caka, Tahir Emra, Abdullah Gërguri, Hysni Krasniqi, Nimon Lokaj, Aziz Nimani, Ramadan Ramadani, Esat Valla and Lendita Zeqiraj are some of few Albanian painters born in Kosovo. ### Cuisine The Kosovar cuisine is mixed with influences of the Albanian and Serbian origins of its majority population. Located at the crossroad of Albanian, Ottoman, Romance and Slavic cultures, Kosovo has enriched its own cuisine adopting and maintaining some of their cooking traditions and techniques. Food is an important component in the social life of the people of Kosovo particularly during religious holidays such as Christmas, Easter and Ramadan. For festive occasions, Baklava, Lokum and Halva are traditionally prepared in almost every household throughout Kosovo and the Balkans regardless of ethnicity or cultural identity.[*self-published source?*] Perhaps the most prominent and traditional examples of Kosovar food include the Flia and Pite which are served with assorted vegetables, fruit preserves, honey and yogurt. Flia is composed of multiple layered crepe and is predominantly brushed with cream while Pite are filled with a mixture of salty cheese, meat, potatoes or leek. The cuisine of Kosovo features a wide range of fresh fruits, vegetables and herbs such as salt, red and black pepper and vegeta. The people of Kosovo enjoy a wide variety of meat and fish products among other chicken, beef, kebab, Sujuk and lamb which is considered to be the traditional meat for religious occasions due to its religious connections. Tea such as Albanian-style mountain tea or Russian and Turkish-style black tea are a widely consumed beverage throughout Kosovo and particularly served at cafés, restaurants or at home. Coffee is another popular drink although Kosovo is steeped in culture and their coffee culture is a big part of the modern society. ### Sports Sport is a significant component of the society and culture of Kosovo. The most prominent sports in Kosovo include football, basketball, judo, boxing, volleyball and handball. The Olympic Committee of Kosovo became a full member of the International Olympic Committee in 2014. It participated at the 2015 European Games in Azerbaijan, 2019 European Games in Minsk and the 2016 Summer Olympics in Brazil. By far the most popular sport in Kosovo is football. 1922 saw the founding of Kosovo's first clubs, including KF Vëllaznimi and FC Prishtina. During the Cold War era from 1945 until 1991, football in former Yugoslavia advanced so rapidly that in 1946, the Federation of Kosovo was formed as a subsidiary of the Federation of Yugoslavia. Prishtina were the nation's most successful club during that period, spending five years in the top-tier Yugoslav First League and reaching the semi-finals of the 1987-88 Yugoslav Cup. In 1991, an unsanctioned Kosovar league system known as the *Liga e Pavarur e Kosovës* ("Independent League of Kosovo") was set up, running parallel to the official Yugoslav leagues; in 1999, in the wake of the Kosovo War, this became Kosovo's official league system. Three footballers from Kosovo – Milutin Šoškić, Fahrudin Jusufi, and Vladimir Durković – were part of the Yugoslavia squad that won a gold medal at the 1960 Summer Olympics and a silver medal at the 1960 European Championship. Kosovar-born goalkeeper Stevan Stojanović became the first goalkeeper to captain a European Cup-winning team when he captained Red Star Belgrade to victory in the 1991 European Cup Final. The 2010s saw an increase in the number of Kosovar players of Albanian origin playing in top European teams. These include Lorik Cana, who captained Marseille and Sunderland as well as the Albanian national team; Valon Behrami who played for West Ham United, Udinese, and the Swiss national team; Xherdan Shaqiri, who won the 2018-19 UEFA Champions League with Liverpool and also plays for Switzerland internationally; and Adnan Januzaj, who began his career at Manchester United and currently represents Belgium. Basketball is also a popular sport in Kosovo. The first championship was held in 1991, with the participation of eight teams. The Basketball Federation of Kosovo was accepted as a full member of FIBA on 13 March 2015. Notable players born in Kosovo who played for the successful Yugoslavia and Serbia national teams include Zufer Avdija, Marko Simonović and Dejan Musli, some of whom continue to compete for Serbia despite FIBA's recognition of Kosovo. Judoka Majlinda Kelmendi became World Champion in 2013 and 2014, and also the European Champion in 2014. At the Summer Olympics 2016, Kelmendi became the first decorated Kosovar athlete to win a gold medal, also the first gold medal for Kosovo in a major sport tournament. Nora Gjakova won the first medal for Kosovo at the first European Games in 2015, when she earned bronze in 57 kg category. In the second European Games in 2019, Kelmendi won a gold medal, Gjakova a silver medal and Loriana Kuka a bronze medal. ### Media Kosovo ranks 56th out of 180 countries in the 2023 Press Freedom Index report compiled by the Reporters Without Borders. The Media consists of different kinds of communicative media such as radio, television, newspapers, and internet web sites. Most of the media survive from advertising and subscriptions. As according to IREX there are 92 radio stations and 22 television stations. ### Music Although the music in Kosovo is diverse, authentic Albanian and Serbian music still exist. Albanian music is characterised by the use of the Çifteli. Classical music is well known in Kosovo and has been taught at several music schools and universities. In 2014, Kosovo submitted their first film for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, with *Three Windows and a Hanging* directed by Isa Qosja. In the past, epic poetry in Kosovo and Northern Albania was sung on a lahuta and then a more tuneful çiftelia was used which has two strings-one for the melody and one for drone. Kosovar music is influenced by Turkish music due to the almost 500-year span of Ottoman rule in Kosovo though Kosovar folklore has preserved its originality and exemplary. Archaeological research tells how old this tradition is and how it was developed in parallel with other traditional music in the Balkans. Roots dating to the 5th century BC have been found in paintings on stones of singers with instruments. (There is a famous portrait of "Pani" holding an instrument similar to a flute). The contemporary music artists Rita Ora, Dua Lipa and Era Istrefi, are all of Albanian origin and have achieved international recognition for their music. One widely recognised musician from Prizren is guitarist Petrit Çeku, winner of several international prizes. Serbian music from Kosovo presents a mixture of traditional music, which is part of the wider Balkan tradition, with its own distinctive sound, and various Western and Turkish influences. Serb songs from Kosovo were an inspiration for 12th song wreath by composer Stevan Mokranjac. Most of Serbian music from Kosovo was dominated by church music, with its own share of sung epic poetry. Serbian national instrument Gusle is also used in Kosovo. Viktorija is the only artist from Kosovo who represented Yugoslavia in the Eurovision Song Contest as part of Aska in 1982. Singer Rona Nishliu finished 5th in the 2012 Eurovision Song Contest, while Lindita represented Albania in 2017. Several Serbian singers from Kosovo have also participated in the Serbian national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest. Nevena Božović represented Serbia in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest and twice in the Eurovision Song Contest, firstly as a member of Moje 3 in 2013 and as a solo act in 2019. ### Cinema The film industry of Kosovo dates from the 1970s. In 1969, the parliament of Kosovo established Kosovafilm, a state institution for the production, distribution and showing of films. Its initial director was the actor Abdurrahman Shala, followed by writer and noted poet Azem Shkreli, under whose direction the most successful films were produced. Subsequent directors of Kosovafilm were Xhevar Qorraj, Ekrem Kryeziu and Gani Mehmetaj. After producing seventeen feature films, numerous short films and documentaries, the institution was taken over by the Serbian authorities in 1990 and dissolved. Kosovafilm was reestablished after Yugoslav withdrawal from the region in June 1999 and has since been endeavoring to revive the film industry in Kosovo. The International Documentary and Short Film Festival is the largest film event in Kosovo. The Festival is organised in August in Prizren, which attracts numerous international and regional artists. In this annually organised festival, films are screened twice a day in three open-air cinemas as well as in two regular cinemas. Except for its films, the festival is also well known for lively nights after the screening. Various events happen within the scope of the festival: workshops, DokuPhoto exhibitions, festival camping, concerts, which altogether turn the city into a charming place to be. In 2010, Dokufest was voted as one of the 25 best international documentary festivals. International actors of Albanian origin from Kosovo include Arta Dobroshi, James Biberi, Faruk Begolli and Bekim Fehmiu. The Prishtina International Film Festival is the largest film festival, held annually in Pristina, in Kosovo that screens prominent international cinema productions in the Balkan region and beyond, and draws attention to the Kosovar film industry. The movie *Shok* was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film at the 88th Academy Awards. The movie was written and directed by Oscar nominated director Jamie Donoughue, based on true events during the Kosovo war. *Shok'*s distributor is Ouat Media, and the social media campaign is led by Team Albanians. 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Kosovo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosovo

The **ancient Olympic Games** (Ancient Greek: Ὀλυμπιακοὶ ἀγῶνες; Latin: *Olympia*, neuter plural: "the Olympics") were a series of athletic competitions among representatives of city-states and were one of the Panhellenic Games of Ancient Greece. They were held at the Panhellenic religious sanctuary of Olympia, in honor of Zeus, and the Greeks gave them a mythological origin. The originating Olympic Games are traditionally dated to 776 BC. The games were held every four years, or Olympiad, which became a unit of time in historical chronologies. They continued to be celebrated when Greece came under Roman rule in the 2nd century BC. Their last recorded celebration was in AD 393, under the emperor Theodosius I, but archeological evidence indicates that some games were still held after this date. The games likely came to an end under Theodosius II, possibly in connection with a fire that burned down the temple of the Olympian Zeus during his reign. During the celebration of the games, the *ekecheiria* (an Olympic truce) was announced so that athletes and religious pilgrims could travel from their cities to the games in safety. The prizes for the victors were olive leaf wreaths or crowns. The games became a political tool used by city-states to assert dominance over their rivals. Politicians would announce political alliances at the games, and in times of war, priests would offer sacrifices to the gods for victory. The games were also used to help spread Hellenistic culture throughout the Mediterranean. The Olympics also featured religious celebrations. The statue of Zeus at Olympia was counted as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Sculptors and poets would congregate each Olympiad to display their works of art to would-be patrons. The ancient Olympics had fewer events than the modern games, and only freeborn Greek men were allowed to participate, although there were victorious women chariot owners. As long as they met the entrance criteria, athletes from any Greek city-state and kingdom were allowed to participate. The games were always held at Olympia rather than moving between different locations, as is the practice with the modern Olympic Games. Victors at the Olympics were honored, and their feats chronicled for future generations. Origin mythology ---------------- To the Ancient Greeks, it was important to root the Olympic Games in mythology. During the time of the ancient games their origins were attributed to the gods, and competing legends persisted as to who actually was responsible for the genesis of the games. These origin traditions have become nearly impossible to untangle, yet a chronology and patterns have arisen that help people understand the story behind the games. Greek historian, Pausanias provides a story about the dactyl Heracles (not to be confused with the Hercules who was the son of Zeus and joined the Roman pantheon) and four of his brothers, Paeonaeus, Epimedes, Iasius and Idas, who raced at Olympia to entertain the newborn Zeus. He crowned the victor with an olive wreath (which thus became a peace symbol), which also explains the four-year interval, bringing the games around every fifth year (counting inclusively). The other Olympian gods (so named because they lived permanently on Mount Olympus) would also engage in wrestling, jumping and running contests. Another myth of the origin of the games is the story of Pelops, a local Olympian hero. Oenomaus, the king of Pisa, had a daughter named Hippodamia, and according to an oracle, the king would be killed by her husband. Therefore, he decreed that any young man who wanted to marry his daughter was required to drive away with her in his chariot, and Oenomaus would follow in another chariot, and spear the suitor if he caught up with them. Now, the king's chariot horses were a present from the god Poseidon and therefore supernaturally fast. The king's daughter fell in love with a man called Pelops. Before the race however, Pelops persuaded Oenomaus' charioteer Myrtilus to replace the bronze axle pins of the king's chariot with wax ones. Naturally, during the race, the wax melted and the king fell from his chariot and was killed. After his victory, Pelops organized chariot races as a thanksgiving to the gods and as funeral games in honor of King Oenomaus, in order to be purified of his death. It was from this funeral race held at Olympia that the beginnings of the Olympic Games were inspired. Pelops became a great king, a local hero, and he gave his name to the Peloponnese. One (later) myth, attributed to Pindar, states that the festival at Olympia involved Heracles, the son of Zeus: According to Pindar, Heracles established an athletic festival to honor his father, Zeus, after he had completed his labors. The patterns that emerge from these myths are that the Greeks believed the games had their roots in religion, that athletic competition was tied to worship of the gods, and the revival of the ancient games was intended to bring peace, harmony and a return to the origins of Greek life. History ------- The Olympic games were held to be one of the two central rituals in ancient Greece, the other being the much older religious festival, the Eleusinian Mysteries. ### Prehistory Areas around the Mediterranean had a long tradition of athletic events. Ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians depicted athletic scenes in tombs of kings and their nobles. They did not, however, hold regular competitions, and those events that occurred were probably the preserve of kings and upper classes. Minoans culture held gymnastics in high esteem, with bull-leaping, tumbling, running, wrestling and boxing shown on their frescoes. The Mycenaeans adopted Minoan games and also raced chariots in religious or funerary ceremonies. Homer's heroes participate in athletic competitions to honor the dead. In the *Iliad* there are chariot races, boxing, wrestling, a foot race, as well as fencing, archery, and spear throwing. The *Odyssey* adds to these a long jump and discus throw. ### First games Aristotle reckoned the date of the first Olympics to be 776 BC, a date largely accepted by most, though not all, subsequent ancient historians. It is still the traditionally given date and archaeological finds confirm, approximately, the Olympics starting at or soon after this time. Archaeology suggests that major games at Olympia arose not in 776 but probably around 700. Christesen's important work on the Olympic victor lists shows that victors' names and details were unreliable until the sixth century. Moreover, scholars have demythologized ancient Olympia (and other famous games) by noting excessive violence, ethnic and gender chauvinism, corruption, commercialization, and political propaganda. Elis's independent state administered it, and while the Eleans managed the games well, there sometimes was bias and interference. Also, despite modern illusions, the famous Olympic truce only mandated safe passage for visitors; it did not stop all wars in Greece or even at Olympia. #### Olympiad calendar The historian Ephorus, who lived in the fourth century BC, is one potential candidate for establishing the use of Olympiads to count years, although credit for codifying this particular epoch usually falls to Hippias of Elis, to Eratosthenes, or even to Timaeus, whom Eratosthenes may have imitated. The Olympic Games were held at four-year intervals, and later, the ancient historians' method of counting the years even referred to these games, using *Olympiad* for the period between two games. Previously, the local dating systems of the Greek states were used (they continued to be used by everyone except historians), which led to confusion when trying to determine dates. For example, Diodorus states that there was a solar eclipse in the third year of the 113th Olympiad, which must be the eclipse of 316 BC. This gives a date of (mid-summer) 765 BC for the first year of the first Olympiad. Nevertheless, there is disagreement among scholars as to when the games began. According to the later Greek traveler Pausanias, who wrote in 175 AD, the only competition held at first was the *stadion*, a race over about 190 metres (620 feet). The word *stadium* is derived from this event. ### Early history Several groups fought over control of the sanctuary at Olympia, and hence the games, for prestige and political advantage. Pausanias later writes that in 668 BC, Pheidon of Argos was commissioned by the town of Pisa to capture the sanctuary from the town of Elis, which he did and then personally controlled the games for that year. The next year, Elis regained control. In the first 200 years of the games' existence, they only had regional religious importance. Only Greeks in proximity to Olympia competed in these early games. This is evidenced by the dominance of Peloponnesian athletes in the victors' roles. Greek sports also derived its origins from the concept that physical energy was being expended in a ritualistic manner, in which Paleolithic age hunting practices were turned into a more socially and glamorized function, thus becoming sport. The Greeks in particular were unique in the regard that their competitions were often held in grand facilities, with prizes and nudity that stressed the Greek idealisms of training one's body to be as fit as their mind. It is this ideology and athletic exceptionalism that resulted in theories claiming the Greeks were the inventors of sport Over time, the Olympic Games gained increasing recognition and became part of the Panhellenic Games, four separate games held at two- or four-year intervals, but arranged so that there was at least one set of games every year. The other Panhellenic Games were the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian Games, though the Olympic Games were considered the most prestigious. ### Imperial period #### Roman conquest of Greece After the Roman conquest of Greece the Olympics continued but the event declined in popularity throughout the pre-Augustan era. During this period, Romans largely concentrated on domestic problems, and paid less attention to their provinces. The fact that all equestrian victors were from the immediate locality and that there is a "paucity of victor statues in the Altis" from this period suggests the games were somewhat neglected. In 86 BC the Roman general Sulla robbed Olympia and other Greek treasuries to finance a war. He was the only Roman to commit violence against Olympia. Sulla hosted the games in 80 BC as a celebration of his victories over Mithridates. Supposedly the only contest held was the stadion race because all the athletes had been called to Rome. #### Augustus Under the rule of emperor Augustus the Olympics underwent a revival. Before he came to full power, Augustus' right-hand man Marcus Agrippa restored the damaged temple of Zeus and in 12 BC Augustus asked King Herod of Judea to subsidize the games. After Augustus was declared a god by the Senate after his death, a statue of his likeness was commissioned at Olympia. Subsequent divine emperors also had statues erected within the sacred Altis. The stadium was renovated at his command and Greek athletics in general were subsidized. #### Nero One of the most infamous events of Olympic history occurred under the rule of Nero. He desired victory in all chariot races of the Panhellenic Games in a single year, so he ordered the four main hosts to hold their games in 67 and therefore the scheduled Olympics of 65 were postponed. At Olympia he was thrown from his chariot, but still claimed victory. Nero also considered himself a talented musician, so he added contests in music and singing to those festivals that lacked them, including the Olympics. Nero won all of those contests, no doubt because judges were afraid to award victory to anyone else. After his assassination, the Olympic judges had to repay the bribes he had bestowed and declared the "Neronian Olympiad" to be void. #### Renaissance In the first half of the second century, the Philhellenic emperors, Hadrian and Antoninus Pius oversaw a new and successful phase in the history of the games. The Olympics attracted a great number of spectators and competitors and the victors' fame spread across the Roman Empire. The renaissance endured for most of the second century. Once again, "philosophers, orators, artists, religious proselytizers, singers, and all kinds of performers went to the festival of Zeus." ### Decline The 3rd century saw a decline in the popularity of the games. The victory list of Africanus ends at the Olympiad of 217 and no surviving text of subsequent authors mention any new Olympic victors. Excavated inscriptions show the games continued, however. Until recently the last securely datable winner was Publius Asclepiades of Corinth who won the pentathlon in 241. In 1994 a bronze plaque was found inscribed with victors of the combative events hailing from the mainland and Asia Minor; proof that an international Olympic Games continued until at least 385. The games continued past 385, by which time flooding and earthquakes had damaged the buildings and invasions by barbarians had reached Olympia. The last recorded games were held under Theodosius I in 393, but archeological evidence indicates that some games were still held. Location -------- Olympia lies in the valley of the Alfeiós River (Romanized as Alpheus) in the western part of the Peloponnese, today around 18 km away from the Ionian Sea but perhaps, in antiquity, half that distance. The Altis, as the sanctuary as was originally known, was an irregular quadrangular area more than 180 meters on each side and walled except to the North where it was bounded by the Mount Kronos. It consisted of a somewhat disordered arrangement of buildings, the most important of which are the Temple of Hera, the Temple of Zeus, the Pelopion and the area of the great altar of Zeus, where the largest sacrifices were made. The name Altis was derived from a corruption of the Elean word also meaning "the grove" because the area was wooded, olive and plane trees in particular. Uninhabited throughout the year, when the games were held the site became over congested. There were no permanent living structures for spectators, who, rich or poor, made do with tents. Ancient visitors recall being plagued by summer heat and flies; such a problem that sacrifices were made to Zeus Averter of Flies. The site's water supply and sanitation were finally improved after nearly a thousand years, by the mid-second century AD. > But you may say, there are some things disagreeable and troublesome in life. And are there none at Olympia? Are you not scorched? Are you not pressed by a crowd? Are you not without comfortable means of bathing? Are you not wet when it rains? Have you not abundance of noise, clamour, and other disagreeable things? But I suppose that setting all these things off against the magnificence of the spectacle, you bear and endure. > > — Epictetus, 1st century AD Culture ------- The ancient Olympics were as much a religious festival as an athletic event. The games were held in honor of the Greek god Zeus, and on the middle day of the games, 100 oxen would be sacrificed to him. Over time, Olympia, the site of the games, became a central spot for the worship of the head of the Greek pantheon and a temple, built by the Greek architect Libon, was erected on the mountaintop. The temple was one of the largest Doric temples in Greece. The sculptor Pheidias created a statue of Zeus made of gold and ivory. It stood 42 feet (13 m) tall. It was placed on a throne in the temple. The statue became one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. As the historian Strabo put it, > ... the glory of the temple persisted ... on account both of the festal assembly and of the Olympian Games, in which the prize was a crown and which were regarded as sacred, the greatest games in the world. The temple was adorned by its numerous offerings, which were dedicated there from all parts of Greece. > > Artistic expression was a major part of the games. Sculptors, poets, painters and other artisans would come to the games to display their works in what became an artistic competition. Poets would be commissioned to write poems in praise of the Olympic victors. Such victory songs or epinicians, were passed on from generation to generation and many of them have lasted far longer than any other honor made for the same purpose. Pierre de Coubertin, one of the founders of the modern Olympic Games, wanted to fully imitate the ancient Olympics in every way. Included in his vision was an artistic competition modeled on the ancient Olympics and held every four years, during the celebration of the Olympic Games. His desire came to fruition at the Olympics held in Athens in 1896. Politics -------- Power in ancient Greece became centered around the city-state in the 8th century BC. The city-state was a population center organized into a self-contained political entity. These city-states often lived in close proximity to each other, which created competition for limited resources. Though conflict between the city-states was ubiquitous, it was also in their self-interest to engage in trade, military alliances and cultural interaction. The city-states had a dichotomous relationship with each other: on one hand, they relied on their neighbors for political and military alliances, while on the other they competed fiercely with those same neighbors for vital resources. The Olympic Games were established in this political context and served as a venue for representatives of the city-states to peacefully compete against each other. The spread of Greek colonies in the 5th and 6th centuries BC is repeatedly linked to successful Olympic athletes. For example, Pausanias recounts that Cyrene was founded c. 630 BC by settlers from Thera with Spartan support. The support Sparta gave was primarily the loan of three-time Olympic champion Chionis. The appeal of settling with an Olympic champion helped to populate the colonies and maintain cultural and political ties with the city-states near Olympia. Thus, Hellenic culture and the games spread while the primacy of Olympia persisted. The games faced a serious challenge during the Peloponnesian War, which primarily pitted Athens against Sparta, but, in reality, touched nearly every Hellenic city-state. The Olympics were used during this time to announce alliances and offer sacrifices to the gods for victory. During the Olympic Games, a truce, or *ekecheiria* was observed. Three runners, known as *spondophoroi*, were sent from Elis to the participant cities at each set of games to announce the beginning of the truce. During this period, armies were forbidden from entering Olympia. Legal disputes and the use of the death penalty were forbidden. The truce — primarily designed to allow athletes and visitors to travel safely to the games — was, for the most part, observed. Thucydides wrote of a situation when the Spartans were forbidden from attending the games, and the violators of the truce were fined 2,000 minae for assaulting the city of Lepreum during the period of the *ekecheiria*. The Spartans disputed the fine and claimed that the truce had not yet taken hold. While a martial truce was observed by all participating city-states, no such reprieve from conflict existed in the political arena. The Olympic Games evolved the most influential athletic and cultural stage in ancient Greece, and arguably in the ancient world. As such the games became a vehicle for city-states to promote themselves. The result was political intrigue and controversy. For example, Pausanias, a Greek historian, explains the situation of the athlete Sotades, > Sotades at the ninety-ninth Festival was victorious in the long race and proclaimed a Cretan, as in fact he was. But at the next Festival he made himself an Ephesian, being bribed to do so by the Ephesian people. For this act he was banished by the Cretans. > > Events ------ Events at the Olympics| Olympiad | Year | Event first introduced | | --- | --- | --- | | 1st | 776 BC | *Stade* | | 14th | 724 BC | *Diaulos* | | 18th | 720 BC | Long-distance race (*Dolichos*) | | 18th | 708 BC | Pentathlon, wrestling | | 23rd | 688 BC | Boxing (*pygmachia*) | | 25th | 680 BC | Four horse chariot race (*tethrippon*) | | 33rd | 648 BC | Horse race (*keles*), pankration | | 37th | 632 BC | Boys' *stade* and wrestling | | 38th | 628 BC | Boys' pentathlon (discontinued same year) | | 41st | 616 BC | Boys' boxing | | 65th | 520 BC | Hoplite race (*hoplitodromos*) | | 70th | 500 BC | Mule-cart race (*apene*) | | 71st | 496 BC | Mare horse race (*calpe*) | | 84th | 444 BC | Mule-cart race (*apene*) and mare horse race (*calpe*), both discontinued | | 93rd | 408 BC | Two-horse chariot race (*synoris*) | | 96th | 396 BC | Competition for heralds and trumpeters | | 99th | 384 BC | Tethrippon for horse over one year | | 128th | 268 BC | Chariot for horse over one year | | 131st | 256 BC | Race for horses older than one year | | 145th | 200 BC | *Pankration* for boys | Apparently starting with just a single foot race, the program gradually increased to twenty-three contests, although no more than twenty featured at any one Olympiad. Participation in most events was limited to male athletes, except for women who were allowed to take part by entering horses in the equestrian events. Youth events are recorded as starting in 632 BC. Our knowledge of how the events were performed primarily derives from the paintings of athletes found on many vases, particularly those of the Archaic and Classical periods. Competitors had access to two gymnasiums for training purposes: the Xystos for the runners and pentathletes, and the Tetragono for wrestlers and boxers. In Olympic events, there were instances where athletes performed nude. Pausanias says that the first naked runner was Orsippus, winner of the *stadion* race in 720 BC, who simply lost his garment on purpose because running without it was easier. The 5th-century BC historian Thucydides credits the Spartans with introducing the custom of "publicly stripping and anointing themselves with oil in their gymnastic exercises. Formerly, even in the Olympic contests, the athletes who contended wore belts across their middles; and it is but a few years since that the practice ceased." ### Running The only event recorded at the first thirteen games was the *stade*, a straight-line sprint of just over 192 metres. The *diaulos* (lit. "double pipe"), or two-stade race, is recorded as being introduced at the 14th Olympiad in 724 BC. It is thought that competitors ran in lanes marked out with lime or gypsum for the length of a stade then turned around separate posts (*kampteres*), before returning to the start line. Xenophanes wrote that "Victory by speed of foot is honored above all." A third foot race, the *dolichos* ("long race"), was introduced in the next Olympiad. Accounts of the race's distance differ; it seems to have been from twenty to twenty-four laps of the track, around 7.5 km to 9 km, although it may have been lengths rather than laps and thus half as far. The last running event added to the Olympic program was the *hoplitodromos*, or "hoplite race", introduced in 520 BC and traditionally run as the last race of the games. Competitors ran either a single or double *diaulos* (approximately 400 or 800 metres) in full military armour. The *hoplitodromos* was based on a war tactic of soldiers running in full armor to surprise the enemy. ### Combat Wrestling (*pale*) is recorded as being introduced at the 18th Olympiad. Three throws were necessary for a win. A throw was counted if the body, hip, back or shoulder (and possibly knee) touched the ground. If both competitors fell nothing was counted. Unlike its modern counterpart Greco-Roman wrestling, it is likely that tripping was allowed. Boxing (*pygmachia*) was first listed in 688 BC, the boys' event sixty years later. The laws of boxing were ascribed to the first Olympic champion Onomastus of Smyrna. It appears that body-blows were either not permitted or not practised. The Spartans, who claimed to have invented boxing, quickly abandoned it and did not take part in boxing competitions. At first the boxers wore *himantes* (sing. *himas*), long leather strips which were wrapped around their hands. The *pankration* was introduced in the 33rd Olympiad (648 BC). Boys' *pankration* became an Olympic event in 200 BC, in the 145th Olympiad. As well as techniques from boxing and wrestling, athletes used kicks, locks, and chokes on the ground. Although the only prohibitions were against biting and gouging, the *pankration* was regarded as less dangerous than boxing. It was one of the most popular events: Pindar wrote eight odes praising victors of the *pankration*. A famous event in the sport was the posthumous victory of Arrhichion of Phigalia who "expired at the very moment when his opponent acknowledged himself beaten". ### Discus The discus (*diskos*) event was similar to the modern competition. Stone and iron *diskoi* have been found, although the most commonly used material appears to be bronze. To what extent the *diskos* was standardized is unclear, but the most common weight seems to be 2 kg size with a diameter of approximately 21 cm, roughly equivalent to the modern discus. ### Long jump In the long jump (*halma*) competitors swung a pair of weights called *halteres*. There was no set design; jumpers tended to use either spherical weights made of stone carved to fit the hand or longer lead weights. It is debated whether the jump was performed from a standing start or after a run-up. In his analysis of the event based on vase paintings, Hugh Lee concluded that there was probably a short run-up. ### Pentathlon The pentathlon was a competition made up of five events: running, long jump, discus throw, javelin throw, and wrestling. The pentathlon is said to have first appeared at the 18th Olympiad in 708 BC. The competition was held on a single day, but it is not known how the victor was decided, or in what order the events occurred, except that it finished with the wrestling. ### Equestrian events Horse racing and chariot racing were the most prestigious competitions in the games, due to only the wealthy being able to afford the maintenance and transportation of horses. These races consisted of different events: the four-horse chariot race, the two-horse chariot race, and the horse with rider race, the rider being hand picked by the owner. The four-horse chariot race was the first equestrian event to feature in the Olympics, being introduced in 680 BC. It consisted of two horses that were harnessed under a yoke in the middle, and two outer horses that were attached with a rope. The two-horse chariot was introduced in 408 BC. The horse with rider competition, on the other hand, was introduced in 648 BC. In this race, Greeks did not use saddles or stirrups (the latter was unknown in Europe until about the 6th century AD), so they required good grip and balance. Pausanias reports that a race for carts drawn by a pair of mules, and a trotting race, were instituted respectively at the seventieth Festival and the seventy-first, but were both abolished by proclamation at the eighty-fourth. The trotting race was for mares, and in the last part of the course the riders jumped off and ran beside the mares. The chariot races also saw the first woman to win an Olympic event, as the winner was deemed to be the wealthy benefactor or trainer that funded the team rather than those controlling the chariot (who could only be male). This allowed for horse trainer and spartan princess Cynisca to be the first female Olympic victor. Due to the winner being the benefactor, it was also possible for a particularly wealthy person to improve their odds by bringing multiple teams to the races; Alcibiades was stated to have brought seven chariots to a single competition (though that number was unprecedented), winning the first, second, and either the third or fourth place at once. In 67, the Roman Emperor Nero competed in the chariot race at Olympia. He was thrown from his chariot and was thus unable to finish the race. Nevertheless, he was declared the winner on the basis that he would have won if he had finished the race. Famous athletes --------------- * Running: + Koroibos of Elis (*stadion*, traditionally declared first Olympic champion) + Orsippus (*diaulos*, first to compete naked) + Leonidas of Rhodes (*stadion*, *diaulos* and *hoplitodromos*) + Chionis of Sparta (three-time *stadion*/*diaulos* winner and champion jumper) + Astylos of Croton (*stadion*, *diaulos* and *hoplitodromos*) + Alexander I of Macedon (*stadion*) * Combat: + Arrhichion (*pankratiast*, died while successfully defending his championship in the 54th Olympiad (564 BC). Described as "the most famous of all pankratiasts".) + Milo of Croton (*wrestling*, legendary six-time victor: once as youth, the rest in the men's event) + Diagoras of Rhodes (*boxing* 79th Olympiad, 464 BC) and his sons Akusilaos and Damagetos (boxing and *pankration*) + Timasitheos of Croton (*wrestling*) + Theagenes of Thasos (*boxer*, *pankratiast* and *runner*) + Sostratus of Sicyon (*pankratiast*, notorious for his finger-breaking technique) + Dioxippus (*pankratiast*, crowned champion by default in 336 BC when no other pankratiast dared compete. Such a victory was called *akoniti* (lit. without getting dusted) and remains the only one ever recorded in the Olympics in this discipline.) + Varastades (*boxing*, Prince and future King of Armenia, last known Ancient Olympic victor (boxing) during the 291st Olympic Games in the 4th century) * Equestrian: + Cynisca of Sparta (owner of a four-horse chariot) (first woman to be listed as an Olympic victor) + Pherenikos ("the most famous racehorse in antiquity", 470s BC) + Tiberius (steerer of a four-horse chariot) + Nero (steerer of a ten-horse chariot) * Other: + Herodorus of Megara (ten-time trumpet champ) Olympic festivals in other places --------------------------------- Athletic festivals under the name of "Olympic games", named in imitation of the original festival at Olympia, were established over time in various places all over the Greek world. Some of these are only known to us by inscriptions and coins; but others, as the Olympic festival at Antioch, obtained great celebrity. After these Olympic festivals had been established in several places, the great Olympic festival itself was sometimes designated in inscriptions by the addition of Pisa. See also -------- * Archaeological Museum of Olympia * Epinikion * Athletes and athletics in ancient Greek art * *Ludi*, the Roman games influenced by Greek traditions * New Testament athletic metaphors * Olympic Games ceremony * Panathenaic Games * History of physical training and fitness **Bibliography** * Gardiner, E. N. (1910). *Greek athletic sports and festivals*. London : Macmillan. * Gardiner, E. Norman, *Athletics of the Ancient World*, 246 pages, 200+ illustrations, with new material, Oxford University Press, 1930 * Young, David C. (2004). *A Brief History of the Olympic Games* (PDF). Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-1130-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2016. * Miller, Stephen G. (2006). *Ancient Greek Athletics*. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11529-1. * Golden, Mark, *Sport and Society in Ancient Greece*, Cambridge University Press, 1998. * Hansen, Mogens Herman (2006). *Polis, an Introduction to the Ancient Greek City-State*. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920849-4. Retrieved 12 February 2010. * Hanson, Victor Davis; Strassler, Robert B. (1996). *The Landmark Thucydides*. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-9087-3. Retrieved 12 February 2010. * Kotynski, Edward J. *The Athletics of the Ancient Olympics: A Summary and Research Tool*. 2006.( 2009-10-25); new link Archived 2 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine * Kyle, Donald G. (2007). *Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World*. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-22970-4. Retrieved 12 February 2010. * Mallowitz, Alfred. *Cult and Competition Locations at Olympia*. Raschke 79–109. * Miller, Stephen. "The Date of Olympic Festivals". Mitteilungen: Des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung. Vol. 90 (1975): 215–237. * Patay-Horváth, András (2015). *The Origins of the Olympic Games*. Budapest: Archaeolingua Foundation. ISBN 978-963-9911-72-7. * Raschke, Wendy J. (1988). *The Archaeology of the Olympics: the Olympics and Other Festivals in Antiquity*. Madison, Wisconsin: Wisconsin University Press. ISBN 978-0-299-11334-6. Retrieved 12 February 2010. * Remijsen, Sofie. *The End of Greek Athletics in Late Antiquity*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. * Spivey, Nigel (2005). *The Ancient Olympics*. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280433-4. Retrieved 12 February 2010. origins of the ancient olympics. * Stanton, Richard (2000). *The Forgotten Olympic Art Competitions:The story of the Olympic art competitions of the 20th century*. Victoria, Canada: Trafford. ISBN 978-1-55212-606-6. Retrieved 23 February 2010. * Swaddling, Judith (1999). *The ancient Olympic Games*. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-292-77751-4. Retrieved 12 February 2010. announcing olympic truce. * Tufts – "Women and the Games" * Ancient Olympics. Research by K. U. Leuven and Peking University Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine Further reading --------------- * Christesen, Paul. 2007. *Olympic Victor Lists and Ancient Greek History.* Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. * Lee, Hugh M. 2001. *The Program and Schedule of the Ancient Olympic Games.* Nikephoros Beihefte 6. Hildesheim, Germany: Weidmann. * Nielsen, Thomas Heine. 2007. *Olympia and the Classical Hellenic City-State Culture.* Historisk-filosofiske Meddeleser 96. Copenhagen: Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. * Sinn, Ulrich. 2000. *Olympia: Cult, Sport, and Ancient Festival.* Princeton, NJ: M. Wiener. * Valavanis, Panos. 2004. *Games and Sanctuaries in Ancient Greece: Olympia, Delphi, Isthmia, Nemea, Athens.* Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. * Swaddling, Judith. 1984. *The Ancient Olympic Games.* Austin: University of Texas.

Ancient Olympic Games

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games

**Anti-fascism** is a political movement in opposition to fascist ideologies, groups and individuals. Beginning in European countries in the 1920s, it was at its most significant shortly before and during World War II, where the Axis powers were opposed by many countries forming the Allies of World War II and dozens of resistance movements worldwide. Anti-fascism has been an element of movements across the political spectrum and holding many different political positions such as anarchism, communism, pacifism, republicanism, social democracy, socialism and syndicalism as well as centrist, conservative, liberal and nationalist viewpoints. Fascism, a far-right ultra-nationalistic ideology best known for its use by the Italian Fascists and the Nazis, became prominent beginning in the 1910s. Organization against fascism began around 1920. Fascism became the state ideology of Italy in 1922 and of Germany in 1933, spurring a large increase in anti-fascist action, including German resistance to Nazism and the Italian resistance movement. Anti-fascism was a major aspect of the Spanish Civil War, which foreshadowed World War II. Prior to World War II, the West had not taken seriously the threat of fascism, and anti-fascism was sometimes associated with communism. However, the outbreak of World War II greatly changed Western perceptions, and fascism was seen as an existential threat by not only the communist Soviet Union but also by the liberal-democratic United States and United Kingdom. The Axis Powers of World War II were generally fascist, and the fight against them was characterized in anti-fascist terms. Resistance during World War II to fascism occurred in every occupied country, and came from across the ideological spectrum. The defeat of the Axis powers generally ended fascism as a state ideology. After World War II, the anti-fascist movement continued to be active in places where organized fascism continued or re-emerged. There was a resurgence of antifa in Germany in the 1980s, as a response to the invasion of the punk scene by neo-Nazis. This influenced the antifa movement in the United States in the late 1980s and 1990s, which was similarly carried by punks. In the 21st century, this greatly increased in prominence as a response to the resurgence of the radical right, especially after the election of Donald Trump. Origins ------- With the development and spread of Italian Fascism, i.e. the original fascism, the National Fascist Party's ideology was met with increasingly militant opposition by Italian communists and socialists. Organizations such as *Arditi del Popolo* and the Italian Anarchist Union emerged between 1919 and 1921, to combat the nationalist and fascist surge of the post-World War I period. In the words of historian Eric Hobsbawm, as fascism developed and spread, a "nationalism of the left" developed in those nations threatened by Italian irredentism (e.g. in the Balkans, and Albania in particular). After the outbreak of World War II, the Albanian and Yugoslav resistances were instrumental in antifascist action and underground resistance. This combination of irreconcilable nationalisms and leftist partisans constitute the earliest roots of European anti-fascism. Less militant forms of anti-fascism arose later. During the 1930s in Britain, "Christians – especially the Church of England – provided both a language of opposition to fascism and inspired anti-fascist action". French philosopher Georges Bataille believed that Friedrich Nietzche was a forerunner of anti-fascism due to his derision for nationalism and racism. Michael Seidman argues that traditionally anti-fascism was seen as the purview of the political left but that in recent years this has been questioned. Seidman identifies two types of anti-fascism, namely revolutionary and counterrevolutionary: * Revolutionary anti-fascism was expressed amongst communists and anarchists, where it identified fascism and capitalism as its enemies and made little distinction between fascism and other forms of authoritarianism. It did not disappear after the Second World War but was used as an official ideology of the Soviet bloc, with the "fascist" West as the new enemy. * Counterrevolutionary anti-fascism was much more conservative in nature, with Seidman arguing that Charles de Gaulle and Winston Churchill represented examples of it and that they tried to win the masses to their cause. Counterrevolutionary antifascists desired to ensure the restoration or continuation of the prewar old regime and conservative antifascists disliked fascism's erasure of the distinction between the public and private spheres. Like its revolutionary counterpart, it would outlast fascism once the Second World War ended. Seidman argues that despite the differences between these two strands of anti-fascism, there were similarities. They would both come to regard violent expansion as intrinsic to the fascist project. They both rejected any claim that the Versailles Treaty was responsible for the rise of Nazism and instead viewed fascist dynamism as the cause of conflict. Unlike fascism, these two types of anti-fascism did not promise a quick victory but an extended struggle against a powerful enemy. During World War II, both anti-fascisms responded to fascist aggression by creating a cult of heroism which relegated victims to a secondary position. However, after the war, conflict arose between the revolutionary and counterrevolutionary anti-fascisms; the victory of the Western Allies allowed them to restore the old regimes of liberal democracy in Western Europe, while Soviet victory in Eastern Europe allowed for the establishment of new revolutionary anti-fascist regimes there. History ------- Anti-fascist movements emerged first in Italy during the rise of Benito Mussolini, but they soon spread to other European countries and then globally. In the early period, Communist, socialist, anarchist and Christian workers and intellectuals were involved. Until 1928, the period of the United front, there was significant collaboration between the Communists and non-Communist anti-fascists. In 1928, the Comintern instituted its ultra-left Third Period policies, ending co-operation with other left groups, and denouncing social democrats as "social fascists". From 1934 until the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Communists pursued a Popular Front approach, of building broad-based coalitions with liberal and even conservative anti-fascists. As fascism consolidated its power, and especially during World War II, anti-fascism largely took the form of partisan or resistance movements. ### Italy: against Fascism and Mussolini In Italy, Mussolini's Fascist regime used the term *anti-fascist* to describe its opponents. Mussolini's secret police was officially known as the Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism. During the 1920s in the Kingdom of Italy, anti-fascists, many of them from the labor movement, fought against the violent Blackshirts and against the rise of the fascist leader Benito Mussolini. After the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) signed a pacification pact with Mussolini and his Fasces of Combat on 3 August 1921, and trade unions adopted a legalist and pacified strategy, members of the workers' movement who disagreed with this strategy formed *Arditi del Popolo*. The Italian General Confederation of Labour (CGL) and the PSI refused to officially recognize the anti-fascist militia and maintained a non-violent, legalist strategy, while the Communist Party of Italy (PCd'I) ordered its members to quit the organization. The PCd'I organized some militant groups, but their actions were relatively minor. The Italian anarchist Severino Di Giovanni, who exiled himself to Argentina following the 1922 March on Rome, organized several bombings against the Italian fascist community. The Italian liberal anti-fascist Benedetto Croce wrote his *Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals*, which was published in 1925.[*page needed*] Other notable Italian liberal anti-fascists around that time were Piero Gobetti and Carlo Rosselli. Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana (English: Italian Anti-Fascist Concentration), officially known as Concentrazione d'Azione Antifascista (Anti-Fascist Action Concentration), was an Italian coalition of Anti-Fascist groups which existed from 1927 to 1934. Founded in Nérac, France, by expatriate Italians, the CAI was an alliance of non-communist anti-fascist forces (republican, socialist, nationalist) trying to promote and to coordinate expatriate actions to fight fascism in Italy; they published a propaganda paper entitled *La Libertà*. Giustizia e Libertà (English: Justice and Freedom) was an Italian anti-fascist resistance movement, active from 1929 to 1945. The movement was cofounded by Carlo Rosselli, Ferruccio Parri, who later became Prime Minister of Italy, and Sandro Pertini, who became President of Italy, were among the movement's leaders. The movement's members held various political beliefs but shared a belief in active, effective opposition to fascism, compared to the older Italian anti-fascist parties. *Giustizia e Libertà* also made the international community aware of the realities of fascism in Italy, thanks to the work of Gaetano Salvemini. Many Italian anti-fascists participated in the Spanish Civil War with the hope of setting an example of armed resistance to Franco's dictatorship against Mussolini's regime; hence their motto: "Today in Spain, tomorrow in Italy". Between 1920 and 1943, several anti-fascist movements were active among the Slovenes and Croats in the territories annexed to Italy after World War I, known as the Julian March. The most influential was the militant insurgent organization TIGR, which carried out numerous sabotages, as well as attacks on representatives of the Fascist Party and the military. Most of the underground structure of the organization was discovered and dismantled by the Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism (OVRA) in 1940 and 1941, and after June 1941 most of its former activists joined the Slovene Partisans. During World War II, many members of the Italian resistance left their homes and went to live in the mountains, fighting against Italian fascists and German Nazi soldiers during the Italian Civil War. Many cities in Italy, including Turin, Naples and Milan, were freed by anti-fascist uprisings. ### Slovenians and Croats under Italianization The anti-fascist resistance emerged within the Slovene minority in Italy (1920–1947), whom the Fascists meant to deprive of their culture, language and ethnicity. The 1920 burning of the National Hall in Trieste, the Slovene center in the multi-cultural and multi-ethnic Trieste by the Blackshirts, was praised by Benito Mussolini (yet to become Il Duce) as a "masterpiece of the Triestine fascism" (*capolavoro del fascismo triestino*). The use of Slovene in public places, including churches, was forbidden, not only in multi-ethnic areas, but also in the areas where the population was exclusively Slovene. Children, if they spoke Slovene, were punished by Italian teachers who were brought by the Fascist State from Southern Italy. Slovene teachers, writers, and clergy were sent to the other side of Italy. The first anti-fascist organization, called TIGR, was formed by Slovenes and Croats in 1927 in order to fight Fascist violence. Its guerrilla fight continued into the late 1920s and 1930s. By the mid-1930s, 70,000 Slovenes had fled Italy, mostly to Slovenia (then part of Yugoslavia) and South America. The Slovene anti-fascist resistance in Yugoslavia during World War II was led by Liberation Front of the Slovenian People. The Province of Ljubljana, occupied by Italian Fascists, saw the deportation of 25,000 people, representing 7.5% of the total population, filling up the Rab concentration camp and Gonars concentration camp as well as other Italian concentration camps. ### Germany: against the NSDAP and Hitlerism The specific term anti-fascism was primarily used by the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), which held the view that it was the only anti-fascist party in Germany. The KPD formed several explicitly anti-fascist groups such as *Roter Frontkämpferbund* (formed in 1924 and banned by the Social Democrats in 1929) and *Kampfbund gegen den Faschismus* (a *de facto* successor to the latter).[*need quotation to verify*][*need quotation to verify*] At its height, *Roter Frontkämpferbund* had over 100,000 members. In 1932, the KPD established the Antifaschistische Aktion as a "red united front under the leadership of the only anti-fascist party, the KPD". Under the leadership of the committed Stalinist Ernst Thälmann, the KPD primarily viewed fascism as the final stage of capitalism rather than as a specific movement or group, and therefore applied the term broadly to its opponents, and in the name of anti-fascism the KPD focused in large part on attacking its main adversary, the centre-left Social Democratic Party of Germany, whom they referred to as social fascists and regarded as the "main pillar of the dictatorship of Capital." The movement of Nazism, which grew ever more influential in the last years of the Weimar Republic, was opposed for different ideological reasons by a wide variety of groups, including groups which also opposed each other, such as social democrats, centrists, conservatives and communists. The SPD and centrists formed *Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold* in 1924 to defend liberal democracy against both the Nazi Party and the KPD, and their affiliated organizations. Later, mainly SPD members formed the Iron Front which opposed the same groups. The name and logo of *Antifaschistische Aktion* remain influential. Its two-flag logo, designed by Max Gebhard [de] and Max Keilson [de], is still widely used as a symbol of militant anti-fascists in Germany and globally, as is the Iron Front's Three Arrows logo. ### Spain: Civil War against the Nationalists The historian Eric Hobsbawm wrote: "The Spanish civil war was both at the centre and on the margin of the era of anti-fascism. It was central, since it was immediately seen as a European war between fascism and anti-fascism, almost as the first battle in the coming world war, some of the characteristic aspects of which – for example, air raids against civilian populations – it anticipated." In Spain, there were histories of popular uprisings in the late 19th century through to the 1930s against the deep-seated military dictatorships. of General Prim and the Primo de la Rivieras These movements further coalesced into large-scale anti-fascist movements in the 1930s, many in the Basque Country, before and during the Spanish Civil War. The republican government and army, the Antifascist Worker and Peasant Militias (MAOC) linked to the Communist Party (PCE), the International Brigades, the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM), Spanish anarchist militias, such as the Iron Column and the autonomous governments of Catalonia and the Basque Country, fought the rise of Francisco Franco with military force. The Friends of Durruti, associated with the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI), were a particularly militant group. Thousands of people from many countries went to Spain in support of the anti-fascist cause, joining units such as the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, the British Battalion, the Dabrowski Battalion, the Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion, the Naftali Botwin Company and the Thälmann Battalion, including Winston Churchill's nephew, Esmond Romilly. Notable anti-fascists who worked internationally against Franco included: George Orwell (who fought in the POUM militia and wrote *Homage to Catalonia* about his experience), Ernest Hemingway (a supporter of the International Brigades who wrote *For Whom the Bell Tolls* about his experience), and the radical journalist Martha Gellhorn. The Spanish anarchist guerrilla Francesc Sabaté Llopart fought against Franco's regime until the 1960s, from a base in France. The Spanish Maquis, linked to the PCE, also fought the Franco regime long after the Spanish Civil war had ended. ### France: against *Action Française* and Vichy In the 1920s and 1930s in the French Third Republic, anti-fascists confronted aggressive far-right groups such as the Action Française movement in France, which dominated the Latin Quarter students' neighborhood. After fascism triumphed via invasion, the French Resistance (French: *La Résistance française*) or, more accurately, resistance movements fought against the Nazi German occupation and against the collaborationist Vichy régime. Resistance cells were small groups of armed men and women (called the *maquis* in rural areas), who, in addition to their guerrilla warfare activities, were also publishers of underground newspapers and magazines such as *Arbeiter und Soldat* (*Worker and Soldier*) during World War Two, providers of first-hand intelligence information, and maintainers of escape networks. ### United Kingdom: against Mosley's BUF The rise of Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists (BUF) in the 1930s was challenged by the Communist Party of Great Britain, socialists in the Labour Party and Independent Labour Party, anarchists, Irish Catholic dockmen and working class Jews in London's East End. A high point in the struggle was the Battle of Cable Street, when thousands of eastenders and others turned out to stop the BUF from marching. Initially, the national Communist Party leadership wanted a mass demonstration at Hyde Park in solidarity with Republican Spain, instead of a mobilization against the BUF, but local party activists argued against this. Activists rallied support with the slogan *They shall not pass,* adopted from Republican Spain. There were debates within the anti-fascist movement over tactics. While many East End ex-servicemen participated in violence against fascists, Communist Party leader Phil Piratin denounced these tactics and instead called for large demonstrations. In addition to the militant anti-fascist movement, there was a smaller current of liberal anti-fascism in Britain; Sir Ernest Barker, for example, was a notable English liberal anti-fascist in the 1930s. ### United States, World War II Anti-fascist Italian expatriates in the United States founded the Mazzini Society in Northampton, Massachusetts in September 1939 to work toward ending Fascist rule in Italy. As political refugees from Mussolini's regime, they disagreed among themselves whether to ally with Communists and anarchists or to exclude them. The Mazzini Society joined with other anti-Fascist Italian expatriates in the Americas at a conference in Montevideo, Uruguay in 1942. They unsuccessfully promoted one of their members, Carlo Sforza, to become the post-Fascist leader of a republican Italy. The Mazzini Society dispersed after the overthrow of Mussolini as most of its members returned to Italy. During the Second Red Scare which occurred in the United States in the years that immediately followed the end of World War II, the term "premature anti-fascist" came into currency and it was used to describe Americans who had strongly agitated or worked against fascism, such as Americans who had fought for the Republicans during the Spanish Civil War, before fascism was seen as a proximate and existential threat to the United States (which only occurred generally after the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and only occurred universally after the attack on Pearl Harbor). The implication was that such persons were either Communists or Communist sympathizers whose loyalty to the United States was suspect. However, the historians John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr have written that no documentary evidence has been found of the US government referring to American members of the International Brigades as "premature antifascists": the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Office of Strategic Services, and United States Army records used terms such as "Communist", "Red", "subversive", and "radical" instead. Indeed, Haynes and Klehr indicate that they have found many examples of members of the XV International Brigade and their supporters referring to themselves sardonically as "premature antifascists". ### Burma, World War II The Anti-Fascist Organisation (AFO) was a resistance movement which advocated the independence of Burma and fought against the Japanese occupation of Burma during World War II. It was the forerunner of the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League. The AFO was formed during a meeting which was held in Pegu in August 1944, the meeting was held by the leaders of the Communist Party of Burma (CPB), the Burma National Army (BNA) led by General Aung San, and the People's Revolutionary Party (PRP), later renamed the Burma Socialist Party. Whilst in Insein prison in July 1941, CPB leaders Thakin Than Tun and Thakin Soe had co-authored the *Insein Manifesto*, which, against the prevailing opinion in the Burmese nationalist movement led by the *Dobama Asiayone*, identified world fascism as the main enemy in the coming war and called for temporary cooperation with the British in a broad allied coalition that included the Soviet Union. Soe had already gone underground to organise resistance against the Japanese occupation, and Than Tun as Minister of Land and Agriculture was able to pass on Japanese intelligence to Soe, while other Communist leaders Thakin Thein Pe and Thakin Tin Shwe made contact with the exiled colonial government in Simla, India. Aung San was War Minister in the puppet administration which was set up on 1 August 1943 and included the Socialist leaders Thakin Nu and Thakin Mya. During a meeting which was held between 1 and 3 March 1945, the AFO was reorganized as a multi-party front which was named the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League. ### Poland, World War II The Anti-Fascist Bloc was an organization of Polish Jews formed in the March 1942 in the Warsaw Ghetto. It was created after an alliance between leftist-Zionist, communist and socialist Jewish parties was agreed upon. The initiators of the bloc were Mordechai Anielewicz, Józef Lewartowski (Aron Finkelstein) from the Polish Workers' Party, Josef Kaplan from Hashomer Hatzair, Szachno Sagan from Poale Zion-Left, Jozef Sak as a representative of socialist-Zionists and Izaak Cukierman with his wife Cywia Lubetkin from Dror. The Jewish Bund did not join the bloc though they were represented at its first conference by Abraham Blum and Maurycy Orzech. ### After World War II The anti-fascist movements which emerged during the period of classical fascism, both liberal and militant, continued to operate after the defeat of the Axis powers in response to the resilience and mutation of fascism both in Europe and elsewhere. In Germany, as Nazi rule crumbled in 1944, veterans of the 1930s anti-fascist struggles formed *Antifaschistische Ausschüsse*, *Antifaschistische Kommittees*, or *Antifaschistische Aktion* groups, all typically abbreviated to "antifa". The socialist government of East Germany built the Berlin Wall in 1961, and the Eastern Bloc referred to it officially as the "Anti-fascist Protection Rampart". Resistance to fascists dictatorships in Spain and Portugal continued, including the activities of the Spanish Maquis and others, leading up to the Spanish transition to democracy and the Carnation Revolution, respectively, as well as to similar dictatorships in Chile and elsewhere. Other notable anti-fascist mobilisations in the first decades of the post-war period include the 43 Group in Britain. With the start of the Cold War between the former World War II allies of the United States and the Soviet Union, the concept of totalitarianism became prominent in Western anti-communist political discourse as a tool to convert pre-war anti-fascism into post-war anti-communism. Modern antifa politics can be traced to opposition to the infiltration of Britain's punk scene by white power skinheads in the 1970s and 1980s, and the emergence of neo-Nazism in Germany following the fall of the Berlin Wall. In Germany, young leftists, including anarchists and punk fans, renewed the practice of street-level anti-fascism. Columnist Peter Beinart writes that "in the late '80s, left-wing punk fans in the United States began following suit, though they initially called their groups Anti-Racist Action (ARA) on the theory that Americans would be more familiar with fighting racism than they would be with fighting fascism". #### Germany Logo of *Antifaschistische Aktion*, the militant anti-fascist network in 1930s Germany that inspired the antifa movementThe logo as it appears on a flag held by an antifa protester in Cologne, 2008 The contemporary antifa movement in Germany comprises different anti-fascist groups which usually use the abbreviation antifa and regard the historical *Antifaschistische Aktion* (Antifa) of the early 1930s as an inspiration, drawing on the historic group for its aesthetics and some of its tactics, in addition to the name. Many new antifa groups formed from the late 1980s onward. According to Loren Balhorn, contemporary antifa in Germany "has no practical historical connection to the movement from which it takes its name but is instead a product of West Germany's squatter scene and autonomist movement in the 1980s". One of the biggest antifascist campaigns in Germany in recent years was the ultimately successful effort to block the annual Nazi-rallies in the east German city of Dresden in Saxony which had grown into "Europe's biggest gathering of Nazis". Unlike the original Antifa which had links to the Communist Party of Germany and which was concerned with industrial working-class politics, the late 1980s and early 1990s, autonomists were independent anti-authoritarian libertarian Marxists and anarcho-communists not associated with any particular party. The publication *Antifaschistisches Infoblatt*, in operation since 1987, sought to expose radical nationalists publicly. German government institutions such as the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution and the Federal Agency for Civic Education describe the contemporary antifa movement as part of the extreme left and as partially violent. Antifa groups are monitored by the federal office in the context of its legal mandate to combat extremism. The federal office states that the underlying goal of the antifa movement is "the struggle against the liberal democratic basic order" and capitalism. In the 1980s, the movement was accused by German authorities of engaging in terrorist acts of violence. #### Greece In Greece anti-fascism is a popular part of leftist and anarchist culture, September 2013 anti-fascist hip-hop artist Pavlos 'Killah P' Fyssas was accosted and attacked with bats and knives by a large group of Golden Dawn affiliated people leaving Pavlos to be pronounced dead at the hospital. The attack lead international protests and riots, the retaliatory shooting of three Golden Dawn members outside of their Neo Irakleio as well as condemnations against the party by politicians and other public figures, including Prime Minister Antonis Samaras. This episode led to Golden Dawn to being criminally investigated, with the result in sixty-eight members of Golden Dawn being declared part of a criminal organization whilst fifteen out of the seventeen members accused in Pavlos's murder were convicted, "Effectively banning" the party. #### Italy Today's Italian constitution is the result of the work of the Constituent Assembly, which was formed by the representatives of all the anti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the Italian Civil War. Liberation Day is a national holiday in Italy that commemorates the victory of the Italian resistance movement against Nazi Germany and the Italian Social Republic, puppet state of the Nazis and rump state of the fascists, in the Italian Civil War, a civil war in Italy fought during World War II, which takes place on 25 April. The date was chosen by convention, as it was the day of the year 1945 when the National Liberation Committee of Upper Italy (CLNAI) officially proclaimed the insurgency in a radio announcement, propounding the seizure of power by the CLNAI and proclaiming the death sentence for all fascist leaders (including Benito Mussolini, who was shot three days later). *Associazione Nazionale Partigiani d'Italia* (ANPI; "National Association of Italian Partisans") is an association founded by participants of the Italian resistance against the Italian Fascist regime and the subsequent Nazi occupation during World War II. ANPI was founded in Rome in 1944 while the war continued in northern Italy. It was constituted as a charitable foundation on 5 April 1945. It persists due to the activity of its antifascist members. ANPI's objectives are the maintenance of the historical role of the partisan war by means of research and the collection of personal stories. Its goals are a continued defense against historical revisionism and the ideal and ethical support of the high values of freedom and democracy expressed in the 1948 constitution, in which the ideals of the Italian resistance were collected. Since 2008, every two years ANPI organizes its national festival. During the event, meetings, debates, and musical concerts that focus on antifascism, peace, and democracy are organized. *Bella ciao* (Italian pronunciation: [ˈbɛlla ˈtʃaːo]; "Goodbye beautiful") is an Italian folk song modified and adopted as an anthem of the Italian resistance movement by the partisans who opposed nazism and fascism, and fought against the occupying forces of Nazi Germany, who were allied with the fascist and collaborationist Italian Social Republic between 1943 and 1945 during the Italian Civil War. Versions of this Italian anti-fascist song continue to be sung worldwide as a hymn of freedom and resistance. As an internationally known hymn of freedom, it was intoned at many historic and revolutionary events. The song originally aligned itself with Italian partisans fighting against Nazi German occupation troops, but has since become to merely stand for the inherent rights of all people to be liberated from tyranny. #### United States Dartmouth College historian Mark Bray, author of *Antifa: The Anti-Fascist Handbook*, credits the ARA as the precursor of modern antifa groups in the United States. In the late 1980s and 1990s, ARA activists toured with popular punk rock and skinhead bands in order to prevent Klansmen, neo-Nazis and other assorted white supremacists from recruiting. Their motto was "We go where they go" by which they meant that they would confront far-right activists in concerts and actively remove their materials from public places. In 2002, the ARA disrupted a speech in Pennsylvania by Matthew F. Hale, the head of the white supremacist group World Church of the Creator, resulting in a fight and twenty-five arrests. In 2007, Rose City Antifa, likely the first group to utilize the name antifa, was formed in Portland, Oregon. Other antifa groups in the United States have other genealogies. In Minneapolis, Minnesota, a group called the Baldies was formed in 1987 with the intent to fight neo-Nazi groups directly. In 2013, the "most radical" chapters of the ARA formed the Torch Antifa Network which has chapters throughout the United States. Other antifa groups are a part of different associations such as NYC Antifa or operate independently. Modern antifa in the United States is a highly decentralized movement. Antifa political activists are anti-racists who engage in protest tactics, seeking to combat fascists and racists such as neo-Nazis, white supremacists, and other far-right extremists. This may involve digital activism, harassment, physical violence, and property damage against those whom they identify as belonging to the far-right. Much antifa activity is nonviolent, involving poster and flyer campaigns, delivering speeches, marching in protest, and community organizing on behalf of anti-racist and anti-white nationalist causes. A June 2020 study by the Center for Strategic and International Studies of 893 terrorism incidents in the United States since 1994 found one attack staged by an anti-fascist that led to a fatality (the 2019 Tacoma attack, in which the attacker, who identified as an anti-fascist, was killed by police), while attacks by white supremacists or other right-wing extremists resulted in 329 deaths. Since the study was published, one homicide has been connected to anti-fascism. A DHS draft report from August 2020 similarly did not include "antifa" as a considerable threat, while noting white supremacists as the top domestic terror threat. There have been multiple efforts to discredit antifa groups via hoaxes on social media, many of them false flag attacks originating from alt-right and 4chan users posing as antifa backers on Twitter. Some hoaxes have been picked up and reported as fact by right-leaning media. During the George Floyd protests in May and June 2020, the Trump administration blamed antifa for orchestrating the mass protests. Analysis of federal arrests did not find links to antifa. There had been repeated calls by the Trump administration to designate antifa as a terrorist organization, a move that academics, legal experts and others argued would both exceed the authority of the presidency and violate the First Amendment. #### Elsewhere Some post-war anti-fascist action took place in Romania under the Anti-Fascist Committee of German Workers in Romania, founded in March 1949. A Swedish group, *Antifascistisk Aktion*, was formed in 1993. The People's Anti-Fascist Front in Indian Administered Kashmir was formed after the Indian government, led by the far right RSS party, attempted an alleged demographic change in the region. Use of the term --------------- The Christian Democratic Union of Germany politician Tim Peters notes that the term is one of the most controversial terms in political discourse. Michael Richter, a researcher at the Hannah Arendt Institute for Research on Totalitarianism, highlights the ideological use of the term in the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc, in which the term *fascism* was applied to Eastern bloc dissidents regardless of any connection to historical fascism, and where the term *anti-fascism* served to legitimize the ruling government. See also -------- * Anti anti-communism * Anti-authoritarianism * Anti-capitalism * Anti-*Chinilpa* (Korea) * Anti-Germans (political current) * Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia * Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Serbia * Anti-Fascist Committee of Cham Immigrants * Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia * Antifascist Front of Slavs in Hungary * Anti-racism * Anti-Stalinist left * Denazification * Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee * All-Slavic Anti-Fascist Committee * Laws against Holocaust denial * Resistance during World War II * Redskin (subculture) * Slovak National Uprising * Squadism Further reading --------------- * David Berry "'Fascism or Revolution!' Anarchism and Antifascism in France, 1933–39" *Contemporary European History* Volume 8, Issue 1 March 1999, pp. 51–71 * Birchall, Sean, ed. (2013). *Beating The Fascists: The Untold Story of Anti-Fascist Action*. ISBN 978-1-904491-12-5. * Brasken, Kasper. "Making Anti-Fascism Transnational: The Origins of Communist and Socialist Articulations of Resistance in Europe, 1923–1924." *Contemporary European History* 25.4 (2016): 573–596. * Bray, Mark (2017). *Antifa: The Anti-Fascist Handbook*. New York: Melville House. ISBN 978-1612197036. OCLC 1016082358. * Bullstreet, K. (2001). *Bash the Fash: Anti-Fascist Recollections 1984–1993*. ISBN 978-1-873605-87-5. * Class War/3WayFight/Kate Sharpley Library Interview from *Beating Fascism: Anarchist Anti-Fascism in Theory and Practice*, anarkismo.net * Copsey, N. (2011) "From direct action to community action: The changing dynamics of anti-fascist opposition", in Copsey, Nigel (2011). *The British National Party : contemporary perspectives*. Abingdon, Oxon New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-48384-1. OCLC 657270952. * Nigel Copsey & Andrzej Olechnowicz (eds.), *Varieties of Anti-fascism. Britain in the Inter-war Period*, Palgrave Macmillan * Gilles Dauvé "Fascism/Antifascism Archived 30 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine", libcom.org * David Featherstone "Black Internationalism, Subaltern Cosmopolitanism, and the Spatial Politics of Antifascism" *Annals of the Association of American Geographers* Volume 103, 2013, Issue 6, pp. 1406–1420 * Joseph Fronczak "Local People's Global Politics: A Transnational History of the Hands Off Ethiopia Movement of 1935" *Diplomatic History*, Volume 39, Issue 2, 1 April 2015, pp. 245–274 * Hugo Garcia, ed, *Transnational Anti-Fascism: Agents, Networks, CirculationsContemporary European History* Volume 25, Issue 4 November 2016, pp. 563–572 * Key, Anna, ed. (2005). *Beating Fascism: Anarchist anti-fascism in theory and practice*. ISBN 978-1-873605-88-2. * Renton, Dave. *Fascism, Anti-fascism and Britain in the 1940s*. Springer, 2016. * Stout, James (24 June 2020). "A Brief History of Anti-Fascism". *Smithsonian Magazine*. Retrieved 4 September 2020. * Enzo Traverso "Intellectuals and Anti-Fascism: For a Critical Historization" *New Politics*, vol. 9, no. 4 (new series), whole no. 36, Winter 2004

Anti-fascism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-fascism

A bedroom in GermanyA hotel bedroom in South Africa A **bedroom** or **bedchamber** is a room situated within a residential or accommodation unit characterised by its usage for sleeping and sexual activity. A typical western bedroom contains as bedroom furniture one or two beds (ranging from a crib for an infant, a single or twin bed for a toddler, child, teenager, or single adult to bigger sizes like a full, double, queen, king or California king [eastern or waterbed size for a couple]), a clothes closet, and bedside table and dressing table, both of which usually contain drawers. Except in bungalows, ranch style homes, ground floor apartments, or one-storey motels, bedrooms are usually on one of the floors of a dwelling that is above ground level. History ------- In larger Victorian houses it was common to have accessible from the bedroom a boudoir for the lady of the house and a dressing room for the gentleman. Attic bedrooms exist in some houses; since they are only separated from the outside air by the roof they are typically cold in winter and may be too hot in summer. The slope of the rafters supporting a pitched roof also makes them inconvenient. In houses where servants were living in they often used attic bedrooms. In the 14th century the lower class slept on mattresses that were stuffed with hay and broom straws. During the 16th century mattresses stuffed with feathers started to gain popularity, with those who could afford them. The common person was doing well if he could buy a mattress after seven years of marriage. In the 18th century cotton and wool started to become more common. The first coil spring mattress was not invented until 1871. The most common and most purchased mattress is the innerspring mattress, though a wide variety of alternative materials are available including foam, latex, wool, and even silk. The variety of firmness choices range from relatively soft to a rather firm mattress. A bedroom may have bunk beds if two or more people share a room. A chamber pot kept under the bed or in a nightstand was usual in the period before modern domestic plumbing and bathrooms in dwellings. Furnishings ----------- Furniture and other items in bedrooms vary greatly, depending on taste, local traditions and the socioeconomic status of an individual. For instance, a master bedroom (primary bedroom)[*dead link*] (also referred to as a "**masters bedroom**" in the Philippines) may include a bed of a specific size (double, king or queen-sized); one or more dressers (or perhaps, a wardrobe armoire); a nightstand; one or more closets; and carpeting. Built-in closets are less common in Europe than in North America; thus there is greater use of freestanding wardrobes or armoires in Europe. An individual's bedroom is a reflection of their personality, as well as social class and socioeconomic status, and is unique to each person. However, there are certain items that are common in most bedrooms. Mattresses usually have a bed set to raise the mattress off the floor and the bed often provides some decoration. There are many different types of mattresses. Night stands are also popular. They are used to put various items on, such as an alarm clock or a small lamp. In the times before bathrooms existed in dwellings bedrooms often contained a washstand for tasks of personal hygiene. In the 2010s, having a television set in a bedroom is fairly common as well. 43% of American children from ages 3 to 4 have a television in their bedrooms. Along with television sets many bedrooms also have computers, video game consoles, and a desk to do work. In the late 20th century and early 21st century the bedroom became a more social environment and people[*who?*] started to spend a lot more time in their bedrooms than in the past. Bedding used in northern Europe (especially in Scandinavia) is significantly different from that used in North America and other parts of Europe. In Japan futons are common. In addition to a bed (or, if shared by two or more children, a bunk bed), a child's bedroom may include a small closet or dressers, a toy box or computer game console, bookcase or other items. Modern bedrooms --------------- ### Comfortable Bedding A restful sleep begins with comfortable bedding that envelops you in a cocoon of softness. Whether you prefer boys' bedding with athletic-inspired decor, a playful color palette, or a sporty theme, it's important to choose bedding that promotes cozy comfort and an energetic vibe. Consider a cozy comforter that provides warmth and visual appeal, ensuring a peaceful night's sleep. Explore our recommended comfortable bedding options to transform your bed into a haven of comfort. ### Ambient Lighting Create a soothing ambiance in your bedroom with the right lighting choices. Table lamps, floor lamps, string lights, and nightlights all play a role in setting the mood and providing soft illumination. Table lamps offer focused light for reading or creating a cozy atmosphere, while floor lamps provide overall brightness and style. String lights add a touch of magic and whimsy, and nightlights provide a gentle glow for a serene sleeping environment. Discover our recommended ambient lighting options to create the perfect atmosphere for relaxation. ### **Relaxing Colors and Textures:** The choice of colors and textures in your bedroom can significantly impact its overall cozy ambiance. Curtains in soothing hues can enhance privacy and create a serene atmosphere. A plush rug adds warmth and softness underfoot, while carefully selected throw pillows provide a cozy touch to your bed or seating area. Embrace soft textures that invite you to relax and unwind. Explore our recommended curtains, rugs, and throw pillows to infuse your bedroom with relaxation and comfort. ### **Functional and stylish furniture:** Functional and stylish furniture is essential to creating a cozy bedroom oasis. Framed art adds a personal touch and creates a focal point on the walls. A nightstand not only provides storage for essentials but also offers convenience and style. Introducing plants into your bedroom not only brings nature indoors but also improves air quality and promotes a sense of tranquility. Explore our recommended furniture pieces to elevate your bedroom's functionality and aesthetic appeal. Culture ------- Bedrooms typically have a door for privacy (in some cases lockable from inside) and a window for ventilation. In larger bedrooms, a small desk and chair or an upholstered chair and a chest of drawers may also be used. In Western countries, some large bedrooms, called master bedrooms, may also contain a bathroom. Where space allows bedrooms may also have televisions and / or video players, and in some cases a personal computer. Around the world ---------------- ### Japan In Japan, the notion of having a bedroom is much less important than it is in the west, especially as it pertains to having a private space for personal use. Indeed, having a unified house corresponds to having a unified family, a concept so important that areas are seldom personalized, even those pertaining to relationships. Everything is subject to the concept of primitive cohesion. This makes for flexibility in terms of the way various spaces are utilized: Each evening, the Japanese unroll their futon directly on their tatami mats, typically close to one another. They then put them away come morning in the oshiire. The unity of the household is also reinforced by the use of sliding partitions (shoji) lined with rice paper and insulating in every way. Materially, the Japanese tatami room, as opposed to its western counterpart (deemed The Western Room), has no door, bed, or even wall, making it barely detectable in space. This room is typically situated towards the back of the home, close to the place dedicated to the family ancestors and opposite of the southern façade, the gardens, and the general exterior. The second half of the twentieth century saw a considerable change in the bedroom style. Almost non-existent before World War Two, The Western Room continued to gain traction in new constructions to the point where there is a clear relationship between age of a building and presence of western-style bedrooms. Cultural habits, however, have not shifted as rapidly. In the most densely populated cities, there exists a type of hotel essentially consisting of stacks of individual rooms so cramped they hardly allow one to do more than lie down and sleep. These are called capsule hotels, and have spread to areas such as Singapore and Taiwan. See also -------- * Cabin (ship) * Chambre du Roi * Comforter * Laundry room * Nursery (room)

Bedroom

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedroom

A **Virtue** (Latin: *virtus*) is a trait of excellence that may be moral or intellectual. The cultivation and refinement of virtue is held to be the "good of humanity" and thus is valued as an end purpose of life or foundational principle of being. In human practical ethics, a virtue is a disposition to choose words and actions that are successful by showing high moral standards: doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong in a given field of endeavour. By taking pleasure in doing what is right, even when it is difficult or initially unpleasant, virtue becomes habitual. Such a person is said to be **Virtuous** through having cultivated the disposition. The opposite of virtue is vice, and the vicious person takes pleasure in habitual wrong-doing until it destroys him or her. Other examples of this notion include the concept of merit in Asian traditions as well as *De* (Chinese 德). Buddhism's four brahmavihara ("Divine States") can be regarded as virtues in the European sense. Etymology --------- The ancient Romans used the Latin word *virtus* (derived from *vir*, their word for *man*) to refer to all of the "excellent qualities of men, including physical strength, valorous conduct, and moral rectitude". The French words *vertu* and *virtu* came from this Latin root. The word *virtue* "was borrowed into English in the 13th century". Ancient Egypt ------------- Maat (or Ma'at) was the ancient Egyptian goddess of truth, balance, order, law, morality, and justice. The word maat was also used to refer to these concepts. Maat was also portrayed as regulating the stars, seasons, and the actions of both mortals and the deities. The deities set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation. Her (ideological) counterpart was Isfet, who symbolized chaos, lies, and injustice. Greco-Roman antiquity --------------------- ### Platonic virtue The four classic cardinal virtues are: * Prudence (φρόνησις, *phrónēsis*; Latin: *prudentia*; also Wisdom, *Sophia*, *sapientia*), the ability to discern the appropriate course of action to be taken in a given situation at the appropriate time. * Fortitude (ἀνδρεία, *andreía*; Latin: *fortitudo*): also termed courage, forbearance, strength, endurance, and the ability to confront fear, uncertainty, and intimidation. * Temperance (σωφροσύνη, *sōphrosýnē*; Latin: *temperantia*): also known as restraint, the practice of self-control, abstention, discretion, and moderation tempering the appetition. Plato considered *Sōphrosynē*, which may also be translated as sound-mindedness, to be the most important virtue. * Justice (δικαιοσύνη, *dikaiosýnē*; Latin: *iustitia*): also considered as fairness; the Greek word also having the meaning righteousness. This enumeration is traced to Greek philosophy and was listed by Plato in addition to piety: ὁσιότης (hosiotēs), with the exception that wisdom replaced prudence as virtue. Some scholars consider either of the above four virtue combinations as mutually reducible and therefore not cardinal. It is unclear whether multiple virtues were of later construct, and whether Plato subscribed to a unified view of virtues. In *Protagoras* and *Meno*, for example, he states that the separate virtues cannot exist independently and offers as evidence the contradictions of acting with wisdom, yet in an unjust way; or acting with bravery (fortitude), yet without wisdom. ### Aristotelian virtue In his work *Nicomachean Ethics*, Aristotle defined a virtue as a point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait. The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, but at a golden mean sometimes closer to one extreme than the other. However, the virtuous action is not simply the "mean" (mathematically speaking) between two opposite extremes. As Aristotle says in the Nicomachean Ethics: "at the right times, about the right things, towards the right people, for the right end, and in the right way, is the intermediate and best condition, and this is proper to virtue." This is not simply splitting the difference between two extremes. For example, generosity is a virtue between the two extremes of miserliness and being profligate. Further examples include: courage between cowardice and foolhardiness, and confidence between self-deprecation and vanity. In Aristotle's sense, virtue is excellence at being human. #### Intellectual virtues Aristotle also identifies "intellectual virtues" naming two in particular: art and science. ### Roman Virtues The term *virtue* itself is derived from the Latin "virtus" (the personification of which was the deity Virtus), and had connotations of "manliness", "honour", worthiness of deferential respect, and civic duty as both citizen and soldier. This virtue was but one of many virtues which Romans of good character were expected to exemplify and pass on through the generations, as part of the *mos maiorum*; ancestral traditions which defined "Roman-ness". Romans distinguished between the spheres of private and public life, and thus, virtues were also divided between those considered to be in the realm of private family life (as lived and taught by the paterfamilias), and those expected of an upstanding Roman citizen. Most Roman concepts of virtue were also personified as a numinous deity. The primary Roman virtues, both public and private, were: | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | **Latin** | **English** | **Description** | | *Abundantia* | Abundance or Prosperity | The ideal of there being enough food and prosperity for all segments of society, personified by Abundantia. A public virtue. | | *Auctoritas* | Spiritual Authority | The sense of one's social standing, built up through experience, Pietas, and Industria. This was considered to be essential for a magistrate's ability to enforce law and order. | | *Comitas* | Humour | Ease of manner, courtesy, openness, and friendliness. | | *Constantia* | Perseverance or Courage | Military stamina, as well as general mental and physical endurance in the face of hardship. | | *Clementia* | Mercy | Mildness and gentleness, and the ability to set aside previous transgressions, personified by Clementia. | | *Dignitas* | Dignity | A sense of self-worth, personal self-respect and self-esteem. | | *Disciplina* | Discipline | Considered essential to military excellence; also connotes adherence to the legal system, and upholding the duties of citizenship, personified by Disciplina. | | *Fides* | Good Faith | Mutual trust and reciprocal dealings in both government and commerce (public affairs), a breach meant legal and religious consequences, personified by Fides. | | *Firmitas* | Tenacity | Strength of mind, and the ability to stick to one's purpose at hand without wavering. | | *Frugalitas* | Frugility | Economy and simplicity in lifestyle, want for what we must have and not what we need, regardless of one's material possessions, authority or wants one has, an individual always has a degree of honour. Frugality is to eschew what has no practical use if it is in disuse and if it comes at the expense of the other virtues. | | *Gravitas* | Gravity | A sense of the importance of the matter at hand; responsibility, and being earnest. | | *Honestas* | Respectibility | The image and honor that one presents as a respectable member of society. | | *Humanitas* | Humanity | Refinement, civilization, learning, and generally being cultured. | | *Industria* | Industriousness or Diligence | Hard work. | | *Innocencia* | Selfless | Roman charity, always give without expectation of recognition, always give while expecting no personal gain, incorruptibility is aversion towards placing all power and influence from public office to increase personal gain in order to enjoy our personal or public life and deprive our community of their health, dignity and our sense of morality, that is an affront to every Roman. | | *Laetitia* | Joy or Gladness | The celebration of thanksgiving, often of the resolution of crisis, a public virtue. | | *Nobilitas* | Nobility | Man of fine appearance, deserving of honor, highly esteemed social rank, and, or, nobility of birth, a public virtue. | | *Justitia* | Justice | Sense of moral worth to an action; personified by the goddess Iustitia, the Roman counterpart to the Greek Themis. | | *Pietas* | Dutifulness | More than religious piety; a respect for the natural order: socially, politically, and religiously. Includes ideas of patriotism, fulfillment of pious obligation to the gods, and honoring other human beings, especially in terms of the patron and client relationship considered essential to an orderly society. | | *Prudentia* | Prudence | Foresight, wisdom, and personal discretion. | | *Salubritas* | Wholesomeness | General health and cleanliness, personified in the deity Salus. | | *Severitas* | Sternness | Self-control, considered to be tied directly to the virtue of gravitas. | | *Veritas* | Truthfulness | Honesty in dealing with others, personified by the goddess Veritas. Veritas, being the mother of Virtus, was considered the root of all virtue; a person living an honest life was bound to be virtuous. | | *Virtus* | Manliness | Valor, excellence, courage, character, and worth. 'Vir' is Latin for "man". | Ancient India ------------- ### Valluvar While religious scriptures generally consider *dharma* or *aṟam* (the Tamil term for virtue) as a divine virtue, Valluvar describes it as a way of life rather than any spiritual observance, a way of harmonious living that leads to universal happiness. For this reason, Valluvar keeps *aṟam* as the cornerstone throughout the writing of the Kural literature. Valluvar considered justice as a facet or product of *aram.* While many before his time opined that justice cannot be defined and that it was a divine mystery, Valluvar positively suggested that a divine origin is not required to define the concept of justice. In the words of V. R. Nedunchezhiyan, justice according to Valluvar "dwells in the minds of those who have knowledge of the standard of right and wrong; so too deceit dwells in the minds which breed fraud." Chivalric virtues in medieval Europe ------------------------------------ In the 8th century, upon the occasion of his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor, Charlemagne published a list of knightly virtues: * Love God * Love your neighbor * Give alms to the poor * Entertain strangers * Visit the sick * Be merciful to prisoners * Do ill to no man, nor consent unto such * Forgive as ye hope to be forgiven * Redeem the captive * Help the oppressed * Defend the cause of the widow and orphan * Render righteous judgement * Do not consent to any wrong * Persevere not in wrath * Shun excess in eating and drinking * Be humble and kind * Serve your liege lord faithfully * Do not steal * Do not perjure yourself, nor let others do so * Envy, hatred and violence separate men from the Kingdom of God * Defend the Church and promote her cause. Religious traditions -------------------- ### Abrahamic religions #### Bahá'í Faith The Baháʼí teachings speak of a "Greater Covenant", being universal and endless, and a "Lesser Covenant", being unique to each religious dispensation. At this time Baháʼís view Baháʼu'lláh's revelation as a binding lesser covenant for his followers; in the Baháʼí writings being firm in the covenant is considered a virtue to work toward. #### Christianity In Christianity, the three theological virtues are faith, hope and love, a list which comes from 1 Corinthians 13:13 (νυνὶ δὲ μένει πίστις *pistis* (faith), ἐλπίς *elpis* (hope), ἀγάπη *agape* (love), τὰ τρία ταῦτα· μείζων δὲ τούτων ἡ ἀγάπη). The same chapter describes love as the greatest of the three, and further defines love as "patient, kind, not envious, boastful, arrogant, or rude." (The Christian virtue of love is sometimes called charity and at other times a Greek word *agape* is used to contrast the love of God and the love of humankind from other types of love such as friendship or physical affection.) Christian scholars frequently add the four classic cardinal virtues (prudence, justice, temperance, and courage) to the theological virtues to give the seven heavenly virtues; for example, these seven are the ones described in the *Catechism of the Catholic Church*, sections 1803–1829. The Bible mentions additional virtues, such as in the "Fruit of the Holy Spirit," found in Galatians 5:22–23: "By contrast, the fruit of the Spirit it is benevolent-love: joy, peace, longsuffering, kindness, benevolence, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control. There is absolutely no law against such a thing." In 410 CE, Aurelius Prudentius Clemens listed seven "heavenly virtues" in his book Psychomachia (Battle of Souls) which is an allegorical story of conflict between vices and virtues. These virtues (later called the seven capital virtues) depicted were: * Chastity * Temperance * Charity * Diligence * Patience * Kindness * Humility. The medieval and renaissance periods saw a number of models of sin listing the seven deadly sins and the seven capital virtues opposed to each. | Vice | Latin | Virtue | Latin | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Pride | *Superbia* | Humility | *Humilitas* | | Envy | *Invidia* | Kindness | *Benevolentia* | | Gluttony | *Gula* | Temperance | *Temperantia* | | Lust | *Luxuria* | Chastity | *Castitas* | | Wrath | *Ira* | Patience | *Patientia* | | Greed | *Avaritia* | Charity | *Caritas* | | Sloth | *Acedia* | Diligence | *Industria* | #### Islam In Islam, the Quran is believed to be the literal word of God, and the definitive description of virtue while Muhammad is considered an ideal example of virtue in human form. The foundation of Islamic understanding of virtue was the understanding and interpretation of the Quran and the practices of Muhammad. Its meaning has always been in context of active submission to God performed by the community in unison. The motive force is the notion that believers are to "enjoin that which is virtuous and forbid that which is vicious" (*al-amr bi-l-maʿrūf wa-n-nahy ʿani-l-munkar*) in all spheres of life (Quran 3:110). Another key factor is the belief that mankind has been granted the faculty to discern God's will and to abide by it. This faculty most crucially involves reflecting over the meaning of existence. Therefore, regardless of their environment, humans are believed to have a moral responsibility to submit to God's will. Muhammad's preaching produced a "radical change in moral values based on the sanctions of the new religion and the present religion, and fear of God and of the Last Judgment". Later Muslim scholars expanded the religious ethics of the scriptures in immense detail. In the Hadith (Islamic traditions), it is reported by An-Nawwas bin Sam'an: > "The Prophet Muhammad said, "Virtue is good manner, and sin is that which creates doubt and you do not like people to know it."" > > — *Sahih Muslim*, 32:6195,*Sahih Muslim*, 32:6196 Wabisah bin Ma'bad reported: > "I went to Messenger of God and he asked me: "Have you come to inquire about virtue?" I replied in the affirmative. Then he said: "Ask your heart regarding it. Virtue is that which contents the soul and comforts the heart, and sin is that which causes doubts and perturbs the heart, even if people pronounce it lawful and give you verdicts on such matters again and again." > > — Ahmad and Ad-Darmi Virtue, as seen in opposition to sin, is termed *thawāb* (spiritual merit or reward) but there are other Islamic terms to describe virtue such as *faḍl* ("bounty"), *taqwa* ("piety") and *ṣalāḥ* ("righteousness"). For Muslims fulfilling the rights of others are valued as an important building block of Islam. According to Muslim beliefs, God will forgive individual sins but the bad treatment of people and injustice with others will only be pardoned by them and not by God. #### Judaism Loving God and obeying his laws, in particular the Ten Commandments, are central to Jewish conceptions of virtue. Wisdom is personified in the first eight chapters of the Book of Proverbs and is not only the source of virtue but is depicted as the first and best creation of God (Proverbs 8:12–31). A classic articulation of the Golden Rule came from the first century Rabbi Hillel the Elder. Renowned in the Jewish tradition as a sage and a scholar, he is associated with the development of the Mishnah and the Talmud and, as such, one of the most important figures in Jewish history. Asked for a summary of the Jewish religion in the most concise terms, Hillel replied (reputedly while standing on one leg): "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah. The rest is commentary; go and learn." ### Eastern religions #### Buddhism Buddhist practice as outlined in the Noble Eightfold Path can be regarded as a progressive list of virtues. 1. Right View – Realizing the Four Noble Truths (samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma). 2. Right Mindfulness – Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness (samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati). 3. Right Concentration – Wholesome one-pointedness of mind (samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi). Buddhism's four *brahmavihara* ("Divine States") can be more properly regarded as virtues in the European sense. They are: 1. Metta/Maitri: loving-kindness towards all; the hope that a person will be well; loving kindness is the wish that all sentient beings, without any exception, be happy. 2. Karuṇā: compassion; the hope that a person's sufferings will diminish; compassion is the wish for all sentient beings to be free from suffering. 3. Mudita: altruistic joy in the accomplishments of a person, oneself or other; sympathetic joy is the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and virtues of all sentient beings. 4. Upekkha/Upeksha: equanimity, or learning to accept both loss and gain, praise and blame, success and failure with detachment, equally, for oneself and for others. Equanimity means not to distinguish between friend, enemy or stranger, but to regard every sentient being as equal. It is a clear-minded tranquil state of mind – not being overpowered by delusions, mental dullness or agitation. There are also the Paramitas ("perfections"), which are the culmination of having acquired certain virtues. In Theravada Buddhism's canonical Buddhavamsa there are Ten Perfections (*dasa pāramiyo*). In Mahayana Buddhism, the Lotus Sutra (*Saddharmapundarika*), there are Six Perfections; while in the Ten Stages (*Dasabhumika*) Sutra, four more *Paramitas* are listed. #### Daoism "Virtue", translated from Chinese *de* (德), is also an important concept in Chinese philosophy, particularly Daoism. *De* (Chinese: 德; pinyin: **dé**; Wade–Giles: **te**) originally meant normative "virtue" in the sense of "personal character; inner strength; integrity", but semantically changed to moral "virtue; kindness; morality". Note the semantic parallel for English *virtue*, with an archaic meaning of "inner potency; divine power" (as in "by virtue of") and a modern one of "moral excellence; goodness". In early periods of Confucianism, moral manifestations of "virtue" include *ren* ("humanity"), *xiao* ("filial piety"), and *li* ("proper behavior, performance of rituals"). The notion of ren – according to Simon Leys – means "humanity" and "goodness". Ren originally had the archaic meaning in the Confucian Book of Poems of "virility", but progressively took on shades of ethical meaning. Some scholars consider the virtues identified in early Confucianism as non-theistic philosophy. The Daoist concept of *De*, compared to Confucianism, is more subtle, pertaining to the "virtue" or ability that an individual realizes by following the Dao ("the Way"). One important normative value in much of Chinese thinking is that one's social status should result from the amount of virtue that one demonstrates, rather than from one's birth. In the *Analects*, Confucius explains *de* as follows: "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it." In later periods, particularly from the Tang dynasty period, Confucianism as practiced, absorbed and melded its own concepts of virtues with those from Daoism and Buddhism. There are symbols that represent virtue in Chinese Culture. Chinese classic paintings have many symbolic meaning representing virtue. Plum Blossom represents resilience and perseverance. Orchid represents elegance, gentleness and quietness. Bamboo represents loyalty, trust-worthiness and humility. chrysanthemum represents genuineness and simplicity. #### Hinduism Virtue is a much debated and an evolving concept in ancient scriptures of Hinduism. The essence, need and value of virtue is explained in Hindu philosophy as something that cannot be imposed, but something that is realized and voluntarily lived up to by each individual. For example, Apastamba explained it thus: "virtue and vice do not go about saying – here we are!; neither the Gods, Gandharvas, nor ancestors can convince us – this is right, this is wrong; virtue is an elusive concept, it demands careful and sustained reflection by every man and woman before it can become part of one's life. Virtues lead to *punya* (Sanskrit: पुण्य, holy living) in Hindu literature; while vices lead to *pap* (Sanskrit: पाप, sin). Sometimes, the word *punya* is used interchangeably with virtue. The virtues that constitute a dharmic life – that is a moral, ethical, virtuous life – evolve in vedas and upanishads. Over time, new virtues were conceptualized and added by ancient Hindu scholars, some replaced, others merged. For example, Manusamhita initially listed ten virtues necessary for a human being to live a *dharmic* life: *Dhriti* (courage), *Kshama* (patience and forgiveness), *Dama* (temperance), *Asteya* (Non-covetousness/Non-stealing), *Saucha* (inner purity), *Indriyani-graha* (control of senses), *dhi* (reflective prudence), *vidya* (wisdom), *satyam* (truthfulness), *akrodha* (freedom from anger). In later verses, this list was reduced to five virtues by the same scholar, by merging and creating a broader concept. The shorter list of virtues became: *Ahimsa* (Non-violence), *Dama* (self restraint), *Asteya* (Non-covetousness/Non-stealing), *Saucha* (inner purity), *Satyam* (truthfulness). The Bhagavad Gita – considered one of the epitomes of historic Hindu discussion of virtues and an allegorical debate on what is right and what is wrong – argues some virtues are not necessarily always absolute, but sometimes relational; for example, it explains a virtue such as Ahimsa must be re-examined when one is faced with war or violence from the aggressiveness, immaturity or ignorance of others. #### Jainism In Jainism, attainment of enlightenment is possible only if the seeker possesses certain virtues. All Jains are supposed to take up the five vows of ahimsa (non violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non stealing), aparigraha (non attachment) and brahmacharya (celibacy) before becoming a monk. These vows are laid down by the Tirthankaras. Other virtues which are supposed to be followed by both monks as well as laypersons include forgiveness, humility, self-restraint and straightforwardness. These vows assists the seeker to escape from the karmic bondages thereby escaping the cycle of birth and death to attain liberation. #### Sikhism Sikh ethics emphasize the congruence between spiritual development and everyday moral conduct. Its founder Guru Nanak summarized this perspective: > Truth is the highest virtue, but higher still is truthful living. > > The Five Virtues of Sikhism are Sat (truth), Daya (compassion), Santokh (contentment), Nimrata (humility), and Pyaar (love). Modern philosophers' views -------------------------- ### René Descartes For the Rationalist philosopher René Descartes, virtue consists in the correct reasoning that should guide our actions. Men should seek the sovereign good that Descartes, following Zeno, identifies with virtue, as this produces a solid blessedness or pleasure. For Epicurus the sovereign good was pleasure, and Descartes says that in fact this is not in contradiction with Zeno's teaching, because virtue produces a spiritual pleasure, that is better than bodily pleasure. Regarding Aristotle's opinion that happiness depends on the goods of fortune, Descartes does not deny that these goods contribute to happiness, but remarks that they are in great proportion outside one's own control, whereas one's mind is under one's complete control. ### Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant, in his *Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime*, expresses true virtue as different from what commonly is known about this moral trait. In Kant's view, to be goodhearted, benevolent and sympathetic is not regarded as true virtue. The only aspect that makes a human truly virtuous is to behave in accordance with moral principles. Kant presents an example for more clarification; suppose that you come across a needy person in the street; if your sympathy leads you to help that person, your response does not illustrate your virtue. In this example, since you do not afford helping all needy ones, you have behaved unjustly, and it is out of the domain of principles and true virtue. Kant applies the approach of four temperaments to distinguish truly virtuous people. According to Kant, among all people with diverse temperaments, a person with melancholy frame of mind is the most virtuous whose thoughts, words and deeds are one of principles. ### Friedrich Nietzsche Friedrich Nietzsche's view of virtue is based on the idea of an order of rank among people. For Nietzsche, the virtues of the strong are seen as vices by the weak and slavish, thus Nietzsche's virtue ethics is based on his distinction between master morality and slave morality. Nietzsche promotes the virtues of those he calls "higher men", people like Goethe and Beethoven. The virtues he praises in them are their creative powers ("the men of great creativity" – "the really great men according to my understanding" (WP 957)). According to Nietzsche these higher types are solitary, pursue a "unifying project", revere themselves and are healthy and life-affirming. Because mixing with the herd makes one base, the higher type "strives instinctively for a citadel and a secrecy where he is saved from the crowd, the many, the great majority…" (BGE 26). The 'Higher type' also "instinctively seeks heavy responsibilities" (WP 944) in the form of an "organizing idea" for their life, which drives them to artistic and creative work and gives them psychological health and strength. The fact that the higher types are "healthy" for Nietzsche does not refer to physical health as much as a psychological resilience and fortitude. Finally, a Higher type affirms life because he is willing to accept the eternal return of his life and affirm this forever and unconditionally. In the last section of *Beyond Good and Evil*, Nietzsche outlines his thoughts on the noble virtues and places solitude as one of the highest virtues: > And to keep control over your four virtues: courage, insight, sympathy, solitude. Because solitude is a virtue for us, since it is a sublime inclination and impulse to cleanliness which shows that contact between people ("society") inevitably makes things unclean. Somewhere, sometime, every > community makes people – "base." (BGE §284) > > Nietzsche also sees truthfulness as a virtue: > Genuine honesty, assuming that this is our virtue and we cannot get rid of it, we free spirits – well then, we will want to work on it with all the love and malice at our disposal and not get tired of 'perfecting' ourselves in our virtue, the only one we have left: may its glory come to rest like a gilded, blue evening glow of mockery over this aging culture and its dull and dismal seriousness! (Beyond Good and Evil, §227) > > ### Benjamin Franklin These are the virtues that Benjamin Franklin used to develop what he called 'moral perfection'. He had a checklist in a notebook to measure each day how he lived up to his virtues. They became known through Benjamin Franklin's autobiography. 1. Temperance: Eat not to Dullness. Drink not to Elevation. 2. Silence: Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself. Avoid trifling Conversation. 3. Order: Let all your Things have their Places. Let each Part of your Business have its Time. 4. Resolution: Resolve to perform what you ought. Perform without fail what you resolve. 5. Frugality: Make no Expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e. Waste nothing. 6. Industry: Lose no Time. Be always employed in something useful. Cut off all unnecessary Actions. 7. Sincerity: Use no hurtful Deceit. Think innocently and justly; and, if you speak, speak accordingly. 8. Justice: Wrong none, by doing Injuries or omitting the Benefits that are your Duty. 9. Moderation: Avoid Extremes. Forbear resenting Injuries so much as you think they deserve. 10. Cleanliness: Tolerate no Uncleanness in Body, Clothes or Habitation. 11. Tranquility: Be not disturbed at Trifles, or at Accidents common or unavoidable. 12. Chastity: Rarely use Venery but for Health or Offspring; Never to Dullness, Weakness, or the Injury of your own or another's Peace or Reputation. 13. Humility: Imitate Jesus and Socrates. Contemporary views ------------------ ### Virtues as emotions Marc Jackson in his book *Emotion and Psyche* puts forward a new development of the virtues. He identifies the virtues as what he calls the good emotions "The first group consisting of love, kindness, joy, faith, awe and pity is good" These virtues differ from older accounts of the virtues because they are not character traits expressed by action, but emotions that are to be felt and developed by feeling not acting. In the Taoist traditions, emotions have been used as the excessive or deficient branch of its root virtue, through the study of the Wuxing (five elements). It has been said, Correct Actions lead to virtues intention, as Virtuous intentions lead to Correct Actions. Immanuel Kant, in his *Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime*, predicts and replies to Marc Johnson's view of emotions as virtues. To be goodhearted, benevolent and sympathetic is not regarded as true virtue, for one acts merely episodically, motivated by appeasing those naturally limited feelings, such as in the presence, for example, of a needy person in the street: in such a case, we do not act for a universal motive but simply as a response to end with a particular, individual, personal distress raised on us by our own sentiments. ### In modern psychology Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman, two leading researchers in positive psychology, recognizing the deficiency inherent in psychology's tendency to focus on dysfunction rather than on what makes a healthy and stable personality, set out to develop a list of "Character Strengths and Virtues". After three years of study, 24 traits (classified into six broad areas of virtue) were identified, having "a surprising amount of similarity across cultures and strongly indicat[ing] a historical and cross-cultural convergence." These six categories of virtue are courage, justice, humanity, temperance, transcendence, and wisdom. Some psychologists suggest that these virtues are adequately grouped into fewer categories; for example, the same 24 traits have been grouped into simply: Cognitive Strengths, Temperance Strengths, and Social Strengths. Vice as opposite ---------------- The opposite of a virtue is a vice. Vice is a habitual, repeated practice of wrongdoing. One way of organizing the vices is as the corruption of the virtues. As Aristotle noted, however, the virtues can have several opposites. Virtues can be considered the mean between two extremes, as the Latin maxim dictates *in medio stat virtus* – in the centre lies virtue. For instance, both cowardice and rashness are opposites of courage; contrary to prudence are both over-caution and insufficient caution; the opposites of pride (a virtue) are undue humility and excessive vanity. A more "modern" virtue, tolerance, can be considered the mean between the two extremes of narrow-mindedness on the one hand and over-acceptance on the other. Vices can therefore be identified as the opposites of virtues – but with the caveat that each virtue could have many different opposites, all distinct from each other. Within the Chinese Wuxing philosophy and Traditional Chinese Medicine vice and virture are expressed as excess or deficiency. See also -------- * Ahimsa * Bushido * Civic virtue * Common good * Consequentialism * Defence mechanism#Level 4: mature * Epistemic virtue * Evolution of morality * Foresight (psychology) * Humanity (virtue) * Ideal (ethics) * Intellectual virtues * List of virtues * Moral character * Nonviolence * Prussian virtues * Nine Noble Virtues (Asatru and Odinism) * Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers * Value theory * Virtue name * Virtue signalling Further reading --------------- * Bellarmine, Robert (1847). "The Sixth Precept, in Which Three Moral Virtues Are Explained.". *The Art of Dying Well*. Translated by John Dalton. Richardson and Son. * Deharbe, Joseph (1912). "Chap. V. Virtue and Christian Perfection". *A Complete Catechism of the Catholic Religion*. Translated by Rev. John Fander. Schwartz, Kirwin & Fauss. * Newton, John, Ph.D. *Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century*, 2000. ISBN 0967370574. * James Hankins. 2019. *Virtue Politics: Soulcraft and Statecraft in Renaissance Italy*. Harvard University Press. * Hein, David. "Christianity and Honor." *The Living Church*, August 18, 2013, pp. 8–10. * Den Uyl, Douglas (2008). "Virtue". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). *The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism*. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 521–22. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n318. ISBN 978-1412965804. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. * Waldron, Martin Augustine (1912). "Virtue". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). *Catholic Encyclopedia*. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

Virtue

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue

In mathematics, a **unit circle** is a circle of unit radius—that is, a radius of 1. Frequently, especially in trigonometry, the unit circle is the circle of radius 1 centered at the origin (0, 0) in the Cartesian coordinate system in the Euclidean plane. In topology, it is often denoted as *S*1 because it is a one-dimensional unit *n*-sphere. If (*x*, *y*) is a point on the unit circle's circumference, then |*x*| and |*y*| are the lengths of the legs of a right triangle whose hypotenuse has length 1. Thus, by the Pythagorean theorem, *x* and *y* satisfy the equation x 2 + y 2 = 1. {\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=1.} {\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=1.} Since *x*2 = (−*x*)2 for all *x*, and since the reflection of any point on the unit circle about the *x*- or *y*-axis is also on the unit circle, the above equation holds for all points (*x*, *y*) on the unit circle, not only those in the first quadrant. The interior of the unit circle is called the open unit disk, while the interior of the unit circle combined with the unit circle itself is called the closed unit disk. One may also use other notions of "distance" to define other "unit circles", such as the Riemannian circle; see the article on mathematical norms for additional examples. In the complex plane -------------------- In the complex plane, numbers of unit magnitude are called the unit complex numbers. This is the set of complex numbers z such that | z | = 1. {\displaystyle |z|=1.} |z|=1. When broken into real and imaginary components z = x + i y , {\displaystyle z=x+iy,} z=x+iy, this condition is | z | 2 = z z ¯ = x 2 + y 2 = 1. {\displaystyle |z|^{2}=z{\bar {z}}=x^{2}+y^{2}=1.} {\displaystyle |z|^{2}=z{\bar {z}}=x^{2}+y^{2}=1.} The complex unit circle can be parametrized by angle measure θ {\displaystyle \theta } \theta from the positive real axis using the complex exponential function, z = e i θ = cos ⁡ θ + i sin ⁡ θ . {\displaystyle z=e^{i\theta }=\cos \theta +i\sin \theta .} {\displaystyle z=e^{i\theta }=\cos \theta +i\sin \theta .} (See Euler's formula.) Under the complex multiplication operation, the unit complex numbers are group called the *circle group*, usually denoted T . {\displaystyle \mathbb {T} .} {\displaystyle \mathbb {T} .} In quantum mechanics, a unit complex number is called a phase factor. Trigonometric functions on the unit circle ------------------------------------------ The trigonometric functions cosine and sine of angle *θ* may be defined on the unit circle as follows: If (*x*, *y*) is a point on the unit circle, and if the ray from the origin (0, 0) to (*x*, *y*) makes an angle *θ* from the positive *x*-axis, (where counterclockwise turning is positive), then cos ⁡ θ = x and sin ⁡ θ = y . {\displaystyle \cos \theta =x\quad {\text{and}}\quad \sin \theta =y.} {\displaystyle \cos \theta =x\quad {\text{and}}\quad \sin \theta =y.} The equation *x*2 + *y*2 = 1 gives the relation cos 2 ⁡ θ + sin 2 ⁡ θ = 1. {\displaystyle \cos ^{2}\theta +\sin ^{2}\theta =1.} {\displaystyle \cos ^{2}\theta +\sin ^{2}\theta =1.} The unit circle also demonstrates that sine and cosine are periodic functions, with the identities cos ⁡ θ = cos ⁡ ( 2 π k + θ ) {\displaystyle \cos \theta =\cos(2\pi k+\theta )} {\displaystyle \cos \theta =\cos(2\pi k+\theta )} sin ⁡ θ = sin ⁡ ( 2 π k + θ ) {\displaystyle \sin \theta =\sin(2\pi k+\theta )} {\displaystyle \sin \theta =\sin(2\pi k+\theta )} for any integer *k*. Triangles constructed on the unit circle can also be used to illustrate the periodicity of the trigonometric functions. First, construct a radius OP from the origin O to a point P(*x*1,*y*1) on the unit circle such that an angle *t* with 0 < *t* < π/2 is formed with the positive arm of the *x*-axis. Now consider a point Q(*x*1,0) and line segments PQ ⊥ OQ. The result is a right triangle △OPQ with ∠QOP = *t*. Because PQ has length *y*1, OQ length *x*1, and OP has length 1 as a radius on the unit circle, sin(*t*) = *y*1 and cos(*t*) = *x*1. Having established these equivalences, take another radius OR from the origin to a point R(−*x*1,*y*1) on the circle such that the same angle *t* is formed with the negative arm of the *x*-axis. Now consider a point S(−*x*1,0) and line segments RS ⊥ OS. The result is a right triangle △ORS with ∠SOR = *t*. It can hence be seen that, because ∠ROQ = π − *t*, R is at (cos(π − *t*), sin(π − *t*)) in the same way that P is at (cos(*t*), sin(*t*)). The conclusion is that, since (−*x*1, *y*1) is the same as (cos(π − *t*), sin(π − *t*)) and (*x*1,*y*1) is the same as (cos(*t*),sin(*t*)), it is true that sin(*t*) = sin(π − *t*) and −cos(*t*) = cos(π − *t*). It may be inferred in a similar manner that tan(π − *t*) = −tan(*t*), since tan(*t*) = *y*1/*x*1 and tan(π − *t*) = *y*1/−*x*1. A simple demonstration of the above can be seen in the equality sin(π/4) = sin(3π/4) = 1/√2. When working with right triangles, sine, cosine, and other trigonometric functions only make sense for angle measures more than zero and less than π/2. However, when defined with the unit circle, these functions produce meaningful values for any real-valued angle measure – even those greater than 2π. In fact, all six standard trigonometric functions – sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant, as well as archaic functions like versine and exsecant – can be defined geometrically in terms of a unit circle, as shown at right. Using the unit circle, the values of any trigonometric function for many angles other than those labeled can be easily calculated by hand using the angle sum and difference formulas. Complex dynamics ---------------- The Julia set of discrete nonlinear dynamical system with evolution function: f 0 ( x ) = x 2 {\displaystyle f\_{0}(x)=x^{2}} {\displaystyle f_{0}(x)=x^{2}} is a unit circle. It is a simplest case so it is widely used in the study of dynamical systems. See also -------- * Angle measure * Pythagorean trigonometric identity * Riemannian circle * Radian * Unit disk * Unit sphere * Unit hyperbola * Unit square * Unit 731 * Turn (angle) * z-transform * Smith chart

Unit circle

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_circle

**Messier 2** or **M2** (also designated **NGC 7089**) is a globular cluster in the constellation Aquarius, five degrees north of the star Beta Aquarii. It was discovered by Jean-Dominique Maraldi in 1746, and is one of the largest known globular clusters. Discovery and Visibility ------------------------ M2 was discovered by the French astronomer Jean-Dominique Maraldi in 1746 while observing a comet with Jacques Cassini. Charles Messier rediscovered it in 1760, but thought that it is a nebula without any stars associated with it. William Herschel, in 1783, was the first to resolve individual stars in the cluster. M2 is, under extremely good conditions, just visible to the naked eye. Binoculars or a small telescope will identify this cluster as non-stellar, while larger telescopes will resolve individual stars, of which the brightest are of apparent magnitude 6.5. Characteristics --------------- M2 is about 55,000 light-years distant from Earth. At 175 light-years in diameter, it is one of the larger globular clusters known. The cluster is rich, compact, and significantly elliptical. It is 12.5 billion years old and one of the older globular clusters associated with the Milky Way galaxy. M2 contains about 150,000 stars, including 21 known variable stars. Its brightest stars are red and yellow giant stars. The overall spectral type is F4. M2 is part of the Gaia Sausage, the hypothesized remains of a merged dwarf galaxy. Data from *Gaia* has led to the discovery of an extended tidal stellar stream, about 45 degrees long and 300 light-years (100 pc) wide, that is likely associated with M2. It was possibly perturbed due to the presence of the Large Magellanic Cloud. Location in Universe -------------------- Messier 2 is located within our Milky Way galaxy, and is one of the oldest clusters of stars designated to the Milky Way. Like most globular clusters, M2 is found within the galactic halo, specifically in the southern galactic cap. This places it right below the southern pole of the Milky Way. Oosterhoff Classification ------------------------- M2 is defined as an Oosterhoff type II globular cluster. Oosterhoff type is a classification system of globular clusters originally observed by Pieter Oosterhoff in where globular clusters are generally separated into two types. Oosterhoff type is determined by metallicity, age, and average pulsation period of type ab RR Lyrae variable stars of the cluster. A cluster metallicity below -1.6, an age above 13 billion years, and an average RRab Lyrae pulsation period around .64 days indicates a type II cluster. This .64 day value, coupled with a metallicity of -1.65, provides evidence that M2 follows the Oosterhoff Gap phenomena. This is an observed gap in the grouping of type I and type II clusters in the Milky Way on a metallicity vs average RRab pulsation period plot. M2 is a bit of an anomaly in reference to Oosterhoff type. While it satisfies the metallicity and RRab Lyrae pulsation period conditions, it actually has an age of 12.5 Gyr, well below the cutoff age of 13 Gyr normal for a Oosterhoff type II cluster. This is unexpected because age of a cluster is generally determined from metallicity. However, this abnormality is explained in an article by Marín-Franch. See also -------- * List of Messier objects

Messier 2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier_2

A **logic gate** is an idealized or physical device that performs a Boolean function, a logical operation performed on one or more binary inputs that produces a single binary output. Depending on the context, the term may refer to an **ideal logic gate**, one that has, for instance, zero rise time and unlimited fan-out, or it may refer to a non-ideal physical device (see ideal and real op-amps for comparison). In the real world, the primary way of building logic gates uses diodes or transistors acting as electronic switches. Today, most logic gates are made from MOSFETs (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors). They can also be constructed using vacuum tubes, electromagnetic relays with relay logic, fluidic logic, pneumatic logic, optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements. With amplification, logic gates can be cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of the algorithms and mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic. **Logic circuits** include such devices as multiplexers, registers, arithmetic logic units (ALUs), and computer memory, all the way up through complete microprocessors, which may contain more than 100 million logic gates. Compound logic gates AND-OR-Invert (AOI) and OR-AND-Invert (OAI) are often employed in circuit design because their construction using MOSFETs is simpler and more efficient than the sum of the individual gates. In reversible logic, Toffoli or Fredkin gates are used. Electronic gates ---------------- A functionally complete logic system may be composed of relays, valves (vacuum tubes), or transistors. The simplest family of logic gates uses bipolar transistors, and is called resistor–transistor logic (RTL). Unlike simple diode logic gates (which do not have a gain element), RTL gates can be cascaded indefinitely to produce more complex logic functions. RTL gates were used in early integrated circuits. For higher speed and better density, the resistors used in RTL were replaced by diodes resulting in diode–transistor logic (DTL). Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) then supplanted DTL. As integrated circuits became more complex, bipolar transistors were replaced with smaller field-effect transistors (MOSFETs); see PMOS and NMOS. To reduce power consumption still further, most contemporary chip implementations of digital systems now use CMOS logic. CMOS uses complementary (both n-channel and p-channel) MOSFET devices to achieve a high speed with low power dissipation. For small-scale logic, designers now use prefabricated logic gates from families of devices such as the TTL 7400 series by Texas Instruments, the CMOS 4000 series by RCA, and their more recent descendants. Increasingly, these fixed-function logic gates are being replaced by programmable logic devices, which allow designers to pack many mixed logic gates into a single integrated circuit. The field-programmable nature of programmable logic devices such as FPGAs has reduced the 'hard' property of hardware; it is now possible to change the logic design of a hardware system by reprogramming some of its components, thus allowing the features or function of a hardware implementation of a logic system to be changed. Other types of logic gates include, but are not limited to: | Logic family | Abbreviation | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | Diode logic | DL | | | Tunnel diode logic | TDL | Exactly the same as diode logic but can perform at a higher speed.[*failed verification*] | | Neon logic | NL | Uses neon bulbs or 3-element neon trigger tubes to perform logic. | | Core diode logic | CDL | Performed by semiconductor diodes and small ferrite toroidal cores for moderate speed and moderate power level. | | 4Layer Device Logic | 4LDL | Uses thyristors and SCRs to perform logic operations where high current and or high voltages are required. | | Direct-coupled transistor logic | DCTL | Uses transistors switching between saturated and cutoff states to perform logic. The transistors require carefully controlled parameters. Economical because few other components are needed, but tends to be susceptible to noise because of the lower voltage levels employed. Often considered to be the father to modern TTL logic. | | Metal–oxide–semiconductor logic | MOS | Uses MOSFETs (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors), the basis for most modern logic gates. The MOS logic family includes PMOS logic, NMOS logic, complementary MOS (CMOS), and BiCMOS (bipolar CMOS). | | Current-mode logic | CML | Uses transistors to perform logic but biasing is from constant current sources to prevent saturation and allow extremely fast switching. Has high noise immunity despite fairly low logic levels. | | Quantum-dot cellular automata | QCA | Uses tunnelable q-bits for synthesizing the binary logic bits. The electrostatic repulsive force in between two electrons in the quantum dots assigns the electron configurations (that defines high-level logic state 1 or low-level logic state 0) under the suitably driven polarizations. This is a transistorless, currentless, junctionless binary logic synthesis technique allowing it to have very fast operation speeds. | Electronic logic gates differ significantly from their relay-and-switch equivalents. They are much faster, consume much less power, and are much smaller (all by a factor of a million or more in most cases). Also, there is a fundamental structural difference. The switch circuit creates a continuous metallic path for current to flow (in either direction) between its input and its output. The semiconductor logic gate, on the other hand, acts as a high-gain voltage amplifier, which sinks a tiny current at its input and produces a low-impedance voltage at its output. It is not possible for current to flow between the output and the input of a semiconductor logic gate. Another important advantage of standardized integrated circuit logic families, such as the 7400 and 4000 families, is that they can be cascaded. This means that the output of one gate can be wired to the inputs of one or several other gates, and so on. Systems with varying degrees of complexity can be built without great concern of the designer for the internal workings of the gates, provided the limitations of each integrated circuit are considered. The output of one gate can only drive a finite number of inputs to other gates, a number called the 'fan-out limit'. Also, there is always a delay, called the 'propagation delay', from a change in input of a gate to the corresponding change in its output. When gates are cascaded, the total propagation delay is approximately the sum of the individual delays, an effect which can become a problem in high-speed synchronous circuits. Additional delay can be caused when many inputs are connected to an output, due to the distributed capacitance of all the inputs and wiring and the finite amount of current that each output can provide. History and development ----------------------- The binary number system was refined by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (published in 1705), influenced by the ancient *I Ching*'s binary system. Leibniz established that using the binary system combined the principles of arithmetic and logic. In an 1886 letter, Charles Sanders Peirce described how logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits. Early electro-mechanical computers were constructed from switches and relay logic rather than the later innovations of vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) or transistors (from which later electronic computers were constructed). Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced a version of the 16-row truth table as proposition 5.101 of *Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus* (1921). Walther Bothe, inventor of the coincidence circuit, got part of the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics, for the first modern electronic AND gate in 1924. Konrad Zuse designed and built electromechanical logic gates for his computer Z1 (from 1935 to 1938). From 1934 to 1936, NEC engineer Akira Nakashima, Claude Shannon and Victor Shestakov introduced switching circuit theory in a series of papers showing that two-valued Boolean algebra, which they discovered independently, can describe the operation of switching circuits. Using this property of electrical switches to implement logic is the fundamental concept that underlies all electronic digital computers. Switching circuit theory became the foundation of digital circuit design, as it became widely known in the electrical engineering community during and after World War II, with theoretical rigor superseding the *ad hoc* methods that had prevailed previously. Metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) devices in the forms of PMOS and NMOS were demonstrated by Bell Labs engineers Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1960. Both types were later combined and adapted into complementary MOS (CMOS) logic by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963. Active research is taking place in molecular logic gates. Symbols ------- There are two sets of symbols for elementary logic gates in common use, both defined in ANSI/IEEE Std 91-1984 and its supplement ANSI/IEEE Std 91a-1991. The "distinctive shape" set, based on traditional schematics, is used for simple drawings and derives from United States Military Standard MIL-STD-806 of the 1950s and 1960s. It is sometimes unofficially described as "military", reflecting its origin. The "rectangular shape" set, based on ANSI Y32.14 and other early industry standards as later refined by IEEE and IEC, has rectangular outlines for all types of gate and allows representation of a much wider range of devices than is possible with the traditional symbols. The IEC standard, IEC 60617-12, has been adopted by other standards, such as EN 60617-12:1999 in Europe, BS EN 60617-12:1999 in the United Kingdom, and DIN EN 60617-12:1998 in Germany. The mutual goal of IEEE Std 91-1984 and IEC 617-12 was to provide a uniform method of describing the complex logic functions of digital circuits with schematic symbols. These functions were more complex than simple AND and OR gates. They could be medium-scale circuits such as a 4-bit counter to a large-scale circuit such as a microprocessor. IEC 617-12 and its renumbered successor IEC 60617-12 do not explicitly show the "distinctive shape" symbols, but do not prohibit them. These are, however, shown in ANSI/IEEE Std 91 (and 91a) with this note: "The distinctive-shape symbol is, according to IEC Publication 617, Part 12, not preferred, but is not considered to be in contradiction to that standard." IEC 60617-12 correspondingly contains the note (Section 2.1) "Although non-preferred, the use of other symbols recognized by official national standards, that is distinctive shapes in place of symbols [list of basic gates], shall not be considered to be in contradiction with this standard. Usage of these other symbols in combination to form complex symbols (for example, use as embedded symbols) is discouraged." This compromise was reached between the respective IEEE and IEC working groups to permit the IEEE and IEC standards to be in mutual compliance with one another. In the 1980s, schematics were the predominant method to design both circuit boards and custom ICs known as gate arrays. Today custom ICs and the field-programmable gate array are typically designed with Hardware Description Languages (HDL) such as Verilog or VHDL. | Type | Distinctive shape(IEEE Std 91/91a-1991) | Rectangular shape(IEEE Std 91/91a-1991)(IEC 60617-12:1997) | Boolean algebra between A & B | Truth table | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Single-input gates | | **Buffer** | Buffer symbol | Buffer symbol | A {\displaystyle {A}} {A} | | | | | --- | --- | | **Input** | **Output** | | A | Q | | 0 | 0 | | 1 | 1 | | | **NOT**(inverter) | NOT symbol | NOT symbol | A ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {A}}} {\overline {A}} or ¬ A {\displaystyle \neg A} \neg A | | | | | --- | --- | | **Input** | **Output** | | A | Q | | 0 | 1 | | 1 | 0 | | | In electronics a NOT gate is more commonly called an inverter. The circle on the symbol is called a *bubble* and is used in logic diagrams to indicate a logic negation between the external logic state and the internal logic state (1 to 0 or vice versa). On a circuit diagram it must be accompanied by a statement asserting that the *positive logic convention* or *negative logic convention* is being used (high voltage level = 1 or low voltage level = 1, respectively). The *wedge* is used in circuit diagrams to directly indicate an active-low (low voltage level = 1) input or output without requiring a uniform convention throughout the circuit diagram. This is called *Direct Polarity Indication*. See IEEE Std 91/91A and IEC 60617-12. Both the *bubble* and the *wedge* can be used on distinctive-shape and rectangular-shape symbols on circuit diagrams, depending on the logic convention used. On pure logic diagrams, only the *bubble* is meaningful. | | Conjunction and Disjunction | | **AND** | AND symbol | AND symbol | A ⋅ B {\displaystyle A\cdot B} A\cdot B or A ∧ B {\displaystyle A\land B} A\land B | | | | | --- | --- | | **Input** | **Output** | | A | B | Q | | 0 | 0 | 0 | | 0 | 1 | 0 | | 1 | 0 | 0 | | 1 | 1 | 1 | | | **OR** | OR symbol | OR symbol | A + B {\displaystyle A+B} A+B or A ∨ B {\displaystyle A\lor B} A\lor B | | | | | --- | --- | | **Input** | **Output** | | A | B | Q | | 0 | 0 | 0 | | 0 | 1 | 1 | | 1 | 0 | 1 | | 1 | 1 | 1 | | | Alternative denial and Joint denial | | **NAND** | NAND symbol | NAND symbol | A ⋅ B ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {A\cdot B}}} \overline{A \cdot B} or A ↑ B {\displaystyle A\uparrow B} A\uparrow B | | | | | --- | --- | | **Input** | **Output** | | A | B | Q | | 0 | 0 | 1 | | 0 | 1 | 1 | | 1 | 0 | 1 | | 1 | 1 | 0 | | | **NOR** | NOR symbol | NOR symbol | A + B ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {A+B}}} \overline{A + B} or A ↓ B {\displaystyle A\downarrow B} {\displaystyle A\downarrow B} | | | | | --- | --- | | **Input** | **Output** | | A | B | Q | | 0 | 0 | 1 | | 0 | 1 | 0 | | 1 | 0 | 0 | | 1 | 1 | 0 | | | Exclusive or and Biconditional | | **XOR** | XOR symbol | XOR symbol | A ⊕ B {\displaystyle A\oplus B} A\oplus B or A ⊻ B {\displaystyle A\veebar B} {\displaystyle A\veebar B} | | | | | --- | --- | | **Input** | **Output** | | A | B | Q | | 0 | 0 | 0 | | 0 | 1 | 1 | | 1 | 0 | 1 | | 1 | 1 | 0 | | | The output of a two input exclusive-OR is true only when the two input values are *different*, and false if they are equal, regardless of the value. If there are more than two inputs, the output of the distinctive-shape symbol is undefined. The output of the rectangular-shaped symbol is true if the number of true inputs is exactly one or exactly the number following the "=" in the qualifying symbol. | | **XNOR** | XNOR symbol | XNOR symbol | A ⊕ B ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {A\oplus B}}} \overline{A \oplus B} or A ⊙ B {\displaystyle {A\odot B}} {A \odot B} | | | | | --- | --- | | **Input** | **Output** | | A | B | Q | | 0 | 0 | 1 | | 0 | 1 | 0 | | 1 | 0 | 0 | | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Truth tables ------------ Output comparison of 1-input logic gates. | | | | --- | --- | | **Input** | **Output** | | A | Buffer | Inverter | | 0 | 0 | 1 | | 1 | 1 | 0 | Output comparison of 2-input logic gates. | | | | --- | --- | | **Input** | **Output** | | A | B | AND | NAND | OR | NOR | XOR | XNOR | | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | | 1 | 0 | | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | Universal logic gates --------------------- Charles Sanders Peirce (during 1880–1881) showed that NOR gates alone (or alternatively NAND gates alone) can be used to reproduce the functions of all the other logic gates, but his work on it was unpublished until 1933. The first published proof was by Henry M. Sheffer in 1913, so the NAND logical operation is sometimes called *Sheffer stroke*; the logical NOR is sometimes called *Peirce's arrow*. Consequently, these gates are sometimes called *universal logic gates*. | type | NAND construction | NOR construction | | --- | --- | --- | | NOT | | | | AND | | | | NAND | | | | OR | | | | NOR | | | | XOR | | | | XNOR | | | De Morgan equivalent symbols ---------------------------- By use of De Morgan's laws, an *AND* function is identical to an *OR* function with negated inputs and outputs. Likewise, an *OR* function is identical to an *AND* function with negated inputs and outputs. A NAND gate is equivalent to an OR gate with negated inputs, and a NOR gate is equivalent to an AND gate with negated inputs. This leads to an alternative set of symbols for basic gates that use the opposite core symbol (*AND* or *OR*) but with the inputs and outputs negated. Use of these alternative symbols can make logic circuit diagrams much clearer and help to show accidental connection of an active high output to an active low input or vice versa. Any connection that has logic negations at both ends can be replaced by a negationless connection and a suitable change of gate or vice versa. Any connection that has a negation at one end and no negation at the other can be made easier to interpret by instead using the De Morgan equivalent symbol at either of the two ends. When negation or polarity indicators on both ends of a connection match, there is no logic negation in that path (effectively, bubbles "cancel"), making it easier to follow logic states from one symbol to the next. This is commonly seen in real logic diagrams – thus the reader must not get into the habit of associating the shapes exclusively as OR or AND shapes, but also take into account the bubbles at both inputs and outputs in order to determine the "true" logic function indicated. A De Morgan symbol can show more clearly a gate's primary logical purpose and the polarity of its nodes that are considered in the "signaled" (active, on) state. Consider the simplified case where a two-input NAND gate is used to drive a motor when either of its inputs are brought low by a switch. The "signaled" state (motor on) occurs when either one OR the other switch is on. Unlike a regular NAND symbol, which suggests AND logic, the De Morgan version, a two negative-input OR gate, correctly shows that OR is of interest. The regular NAND symbol has a bubble at the output and none at the inputs (the opposite of the states that will turn the motor on), but the De Morgan symbol shows both inputs and output in the polarity that will drive the motor. De Morgan's theorem is most commonly used to implement logic gates as combinations of only NAND gates, or as combinations of only NOR gates, for economic reasons. Data storage and sequential logic --------------------------------- Logic gates can also be used to hold a state, allowing data storage. A storage element can be constructed by connecting several gates in a "latch" circuit. Latching circuitry is used in static random-access memory. More complicated designs that use clock signals and that change only on a rising or falling edge of the clock are called edge-triggered "flip-flops". Formally, a flip-flop is called a bistable circuit, because it has two stable states which it can maintain indefinitely. The combination of multiple flip-flops in parallel, to store a multiple-bit value, is known as a register. When using any of these gate setups the overall system has memory; it is then called a sequential logic system since its output can be influenced by its previous state(s), i.e. by the *sequence* of input states. In contrast, the output from combinational logic is purely a combination of its present inputs, unaffected by the previous input and output states. These logic circuits are used in computer memory. They vary in performance, based on factors of speed, complexity, and reliability of storage, and many different types of designs are used based on the application. Three-state logic gates ----------------------- A three-state logic gate is a type of logic gate that can have three different outputs: high (H), low (L) and high-impedance (Z). The high-impedance state plays no role in the logic, which is strictly binary. These devices are used on buses of the CPU to allow multiple chips to send data. A group of three-states driving a line with a suitable control circuit is basically equivalent to a multiplexer, which may be physically distributed over separate devices or plug-in cards. In electronics, a high output would mean the output is sourcing current from the positive power terminal (positive voltage). A low output would mean the output is sinking current to the negative power terminal (zero voltage). High impedance would mean that the output is effectively disconnected from the circuit. Manufacturing ------------- Since the 1990s, most logic gates are made in CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) technology that uses both NMOS and PMOS transistors. Often millions of logic gates are packaged in a single integrated circuit. ### Non-electronic logic gates Non-electronic implementations are varied, though few of them are used in practical applications. Many early electromechanical digital computers, such as the Harvard Mark I, were built from relay logic gates, using electro-mechanical relays. Logic gates can be made using pneumatic devices, such as the Sorteberg relay or mechanical logic gates, including on a molecular scale. Various types of fundamental logic gates have been constructed using molecules (molecular logic gates), which are based on chemical inputs and spectroscopic outputs. Logic gates have been made out of DNA (see DNA nanotechnology) and used to create a computer called MAYA (see MAYA-II). Logic gates can be made from quantum mechanical effects, see quantum logic gate. Photonic logic gates use nonlinear optical effects. In principle any method that leads to a gate that is functionally complete (for example, either a NOR or a NAND gate) can be used to make any kind of digital logic circuit. Note that the use of 3-state logic for bus systems is not needed, and can be replaced by digital multiplexers, which can be built using only simple logic gates (such as NAND gates, NOR gates, or AND and OR gates). ### Logic families There are several logic families with different characteristics (power consumption, speed, cost, size) such as: RDL (resistor–diode logic), RTL (resistor-transistor logic), DTL (diode–transistor logic), TTL (transistor–transistor logic) and CMOS. There are also sub-variants, e.g. standard CMOS logic vs. advanced types using still CMOS technology, but with some optimizations for avoiding loss of speed due to slower PMOS transistors. See also -------- * And-inverter graph * Boolean algebra topics * Boolean function * Digital circuit * Espresso heuristic logic minimizer * Fan-out * Field-programmable gate array (FPGA) * Flip-flop (electronics) * Functional completeness * Karnaugh map * Combinational logic * List of 4000 series integrated circuits * List of 7400 series integrated circuits * Logic family * Logic level * Logical graph * NMOS logic * Processor design * Programmable logic controller (PLC) * Programmable logic device (PLD) * Propositional calculus * Quantum logic gate * Race hazard * Reversible computing * Truth table Further reading --------------- * Awschalom, D. D.; Loss, D.; Samarth, N. (2002). *Semiconductor Spintronics and Quantum Computation*. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-42176-4. * Bostock, Geoff (1988). *Programmable logic devices: technology and applications*. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-006611-3. * Brown, Stephen D.; Francis, Robert J.; Rose, Jonathan; Vranesic, Zvonko G. (1992). *Field Programmable Gate Arrays*. Kluwer Academic. ISBN 978-0-7923-9248-4.

Logic gate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gate

**Messier 63** or **M63**, also known as **NGC 5055** or the seldom-used **Sunflower Galaxy**, is a spiral galaxy in the northern constellation of Canes Venatici with approximately 400 billion stars. M63 was first discovered by the French astronomer Pierre Méchain, then later verified by his colleague Charles Messier on June 14, 1779. The galaxy became listed as object 63 in the Messier Catalogue. In the mid-19th century, Anglo-Irish astronomer Lord Rosse identified spiral structures within the galaxy, making this one of the first galaxies in which such structure was identified. The shape or morphology of this galaxy has a classification of SAbc, indicating a spiral form with no central bar feature (SA) and moderate to loosely wound arms (bc). There is a general lack of large-scale continuous spiral structure in visible light, so it is considered a *flocculent galaxy*. However, when observed in the near infrared, a symmetric, two-arm structure is seen. Each arm wraps 150° around the galaxy and extends out to 13,000 light-years (4,000 parsecs) from the nucleus. M63 is a weakly active galaxy with a LINER nucleus – short for 'low-ionization nuclear emission-line region'. This displays as an unresolved source at the galactic nucleus that is cloaked in a diffuse emission. The latter is extended along a position angle of 110° relative to the north celestial pole, and both soft X-rays and hydrogen (H-alpha) emission can be observed coming from along nearly the same direction. The existence of a supermassive black hole (SMBH) at the nucleus is uncertain; if it does exist, then the mass is estimated as (8.5±1.9)×108 *M*☉, or around 850 million times the mass of the Sun. Radio observations at the 21-cm hydrogen line show the gaseous disk of M63 extends outward to a radius of 130,000 light-years (40 kiloparsecs), well past the bright optical disk. This gas shows a symmetrical form that is warped in a pronounced manner, starting at a radius of 33,000 light-years (10 kiloparsecs). The form suggests a dark matter halo that is offset with respect to the inner region. The reason for the warp is unclear, but the position angle points toward the smaller companion galaxy, UGC 8313. The distance to M63, based upon the luminosity-distance measurement is 29,300,000 light-years (8.99 megaparsecs). The radial velocity relative to the Local Group yields an estimate of 15,200,000 light-years (4.65 megaparsecs). Estimates based on the Tully–Fisher relation range over 16,000,000–34,000,000 light-years (5.0–10.3 megaparsecs). The tip of the red-giant branch technique gives a distance of 28,930,000 ± 950,000 light-years (8.87 ± 0.29 megaparsecs). M63 is part of the M51 Group, a group of galaxies that also includes M51 (the 'Whirlpool Galaxy'). In 1971, a supernova with a magnitude of 11.8 appeared in one of the arms. It was discovered on May 24 and reached peak light around May 26. The spectrum of this, SN 1971I, is consistent with a supernova of type I. However, the spectroscopic behavior appeared anomalous. Gallery ------- * M63 imaged in UV light by the GALEX satellite. The UV light is produced primarily by young, massive stars, so the UV-bright areas are regions where stars are currently forming. Credit NASA / WikiSkyM63 imaged in UV light by the GALEX satellite. The UV light is produced primarily by young, massive stars, so the UV-bright areas are regions where stars are currently forming. Credit NASA / WikiSky * Messier 63 seen in the infrared by the Spitzer Space Telescope. The infrared radiation traces the dust within the spiral arms, which does not radiate visible light. A small dust ring can be seen just outside of the galaxy's center.Messier 63 seen in the infrared by the Spitzer Space Telescope. The infrared radiation traces the dust within the spiral arms, which does not radiate visible light. A small dust ring can be seen just outside of the galaxy's center. See also -------- * List of Messier objects

Messier 63

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier_63

**This article contains Indic text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text. **Lucknow** (/ˈlʌknaʊ/, Hindustani: [ˈləkʰnəuː] () *Lakhnaū*) is the capital and the largest city of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and it is also the second largest urban agglomeration in Uttar Pradesh. Lucknow is the administrative headquarters of the eponymous district and division. Having a population of 2.8 million as per 2011 census, it is the eleventh most populous city and the twelfth-most populous urban agglomeration of India. Lucknow has always been a multicultural city that flourished as a North Indian cultural and artistic hub, and the seat of power of Nawabs in the 18th and 19th centuries. It continues to be an important centre of governance, administration, education, commerce, aerospace, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, culture, tourism, music and poetry. Lucknow stands at an elevation of approximately 123 metres (404 ft) above sea level. The city had an area of 402 km2 (155 square miles) until December 2019, when 88 villages were added to the municipal limits and the area increased to 631 km2 (244 square miles). Bounded on the east by Barabanki, on the west by Unnao, on the south by Raebareli and in the north by Sitapur and Hardoi, Lucknow sits on the northwestern shore of the Gomti River. As of 2008[update], there were 110 wards in the city. Morphologically, three clear demarcations exist: The Central business district, which is a fully built up area, comprises Hazratganj, Aminabad and Chowk. A middle zone surrounds the inner zone with cement houses while the outer zone consists of slums. Historically, Lucknow was the capital of the Awadh region, controlled by the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire. It was transferred to the Nawabs of Awadh. In 1856, the British East India Company abolished local rule and took complete control of the city along with the rest of Awadh and, in 1857, transferred it to the British Raj. Along with the rest of India, Lucknow became independent from Britain on 15 August 1947. It has been listed as the 17th-fastest growing city in India and 74th in the world. Lucknow, along with Agra and Varanasi, is in the Uttar Pradesh Heritage Arc, a chain of survey triangulations created by the Government of Uttar Pradesh to boost tourism in the state. Etymology --------- "Lucknow" is the anglicised spelling of the local pronunciation "Lakhnau". According to one legend, the city is named after Lakshmana, a hero of the Hindu epic *Ramayana*. The legend states that Lakshmana had a palace or an estate in the area, which was called *Lakshmanapuri* (Sanskrit: लक्ष्मणपुरी, lit. *Lakshmana's city*). The settlement came to be known as Lakhanpur (or Lachhmanpur) by the 11th century, and later, Lucknow. A similar theory states that the city was known as *Lakshmanavati* (Sanskrit: लक्ष्मणवती, fortunate) after Lakshmana. The name changed to *Lakhanavati*, then Lakhnauti and finally Lakhnau. Yet another theory states that the city's name is connected with Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth. Over time, the name changed to Laksmanauti, Laksmnaut, Lakhsnaut, Lakhsnau and, finally, Lakhnau. History ------- From 1350 onwards, Lucknow and parts of the Awadh region were ruled by the Delhi Sultanate, Sharqi Sultanate, Mughal Empire, Nawabs of Awadh, the British East India Company and the British Raj. For about eighty-four years (from 1394 to 1478), Awadh was part of the Sharqi Sultanate of Jaunpur. Emperor Humayun made it a part of the Mughal Empire around 1555. Emperor Jahangir (1569–1627) granted an estate in Awadh to a favoured nobleman, Sheikh Abdul Rahim, who later built Machchi Bhawan on this estate. It later became the seat of power from where his descendants, the *Sheikhzadas*, controlled the region. The Nawabs of Lucknow, in reality, the Nawabs of Awadh, acquired the name after the reign of the third Nawab when Lucknow became their capital. The city became North India's cultural capital, and its nawabs, best remembered for their refined and extravagant lifestyles, were patrons of the arts. Under their dominion, music and dance flourished, and construction of numerous monuments took place. Of the monuments standing today, the Bara Imambara, the Chota Imambara, and the Rumi Darwaza are notable examples. One of the Nawab's enduring legacies is the region's syncretic Hindu–Muslim culture that has come to be known as the *Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb*. Until 1719, the *subah* of Awadh was a province of the Mughal Empire administered by a governor appointed by the emperor. Persian adventurer Saadat Khan, also known as Burhan-ul-Mulk, was appointed *Nizam* of Awadh in 1722 and established his court in Faizabad, near Lucknow. Many independent kingdoms, such as Awadh, were established as the Mughal Empire disintegrated. The third Nawab, Shuja-ud-Daula (r. 1753–1775), fell out with the British after aiding the fugitive Nawab of Bengal, Mir Qasim. Roundly defeated at the Battle of Buxar by the East India Company, he was forced to pay heavy penalties and surrender parts of his territory. Awadh's capital, Lucknow rose to prominence when Asaf-ud-Daula, the fourth Nawab, shifted his court to the city from Faizabad in 1775. The British East India Company appointed a resident (ambassador) in 1773 and by early 19th century gained control of more territory and authority in the state. They were, however, disinclined to capture Awadh outright and come face to face with the Maratha Empire and the remnants of the Mughal Empire. In 1798, the fifth Nawab Wazir Ali Khan alienated both his people and the British and was forced to abdicate. The British then helped Saadat Ali Khan take the throne. He became a puppet king, and in a treaty of 1801, yielded large part of Awadh to the East India Company while also agreeing to disband his own troops in favour of a hugely expensive, British-controlled army. This treaty effectively made the state of Awadh a vassal of the East India Company, although it continued to be part of the Mughal Empire in name until 1819. The treaty of 1801 proved a beneficial arrangement for the East India Company as they gained access to Awadh's vast treasuries, repeatedly digging into them for loans at reduced rates. In addition, the revenues from running Awadh's armed forces brought them useful returns while the territory acted as a buffer state. The Nawabs were ceremonial kings, busy with pomp and show. By the mid-nineteenth century, however, the British had grown impatient with the arrangement and demanded direct control over Awadh. In 1856, the East India Company first moved its troops to the border, then annexed the state for alleged maladministration. Awadh was placed under a chief commissioner – Sir Henry Lawrence. Wajid Ali Shah, the then Nawab, was imprisoned, then exiled by the East India Company to Calcutta. In the subsequent Indian Rebellion of 1857, his 14-year-old son Birjis Qadra, whose mother was Begum Hazrat Mahal, was crowned ruler. Following the rebellion's defeat, Begum Hazrat Mahal and other rebel leaders sought asylum in Nepal. Lucknow was one of the major centres of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and actively participated in India's independence movement, emerging as a strategically important North Indian city. During the Rebellion (also known as the First War of Indian Independence and the Indian Mutiny), the majority of the East India Company's troops were recruited from both the people and nobility of Awadh. The rebels seized control of the state, and it took the British 18 months to reconquer the region. During that period, the garrison based at the Residency in Lucknow was besieged by rebel forces during the Siege of Lucknow. The siege was relieved first by forces under the command of Sir Henry Havelock and Sir James Outram, followed by a stronger force under Sir Colin Campbell. Today, the ruins of the Residency and the *Shaheed Smarak* offer an insight into Lucknow's role in the events of 1857. With the rebellion over, Oudh returned to British governance under a chief commissioner. In 1877, the offices of lieutenant-governor of the North-Western Provinces and chief commissioner of Oudh were combined; then in 1902, the title of chief commissioner was dropped with the formation of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, although Oudh still retained some marks of its former independence. The Khilafat Movement had an active base of support in Lucknow, creating united opposition to British rule. In 1901, after remaining the capital of Oudh since 1775, Lucknow, with a population of 264,049, was merged into the newly formed United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. In 1920, the provincial seat of government moved from Allahabad to Lucknow. Upon Indian independence in 1947, the United Provinces were reorganised into the state of Uttar Pradesh, and Lucknow remained its capital. Lucknow witnessed some of the pivotal moments in the history of India. One is the first meeting of the stalwarts Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru and Mohd Ali Jinnah during the Indian National Congress session of 1916 (the Lucknow pact was signed and moderates and extremists came together through the efforts of Annie Besant during this session only). The Congress President for that session, Ambica Charan Majumdar in his address said that "If the Congress was buried at Surat, it is reborn in Lucknow in the garden of Wajid Ali Shah." The Kakori conspiracy involving Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaq Ullah Khan, Rajendra Nath Lahiri, Roshan Singh and others, followed by the Kakori trial which captured the imagination of the country, also took place in Lucknow. Culturally, Lucknow has also had a tradition of courtesans, with popular culture distilling it in the avatar of the fictional Umrao Jaan. Geography --------- The Gomti River, Lucknow's chief geographical feature, meanders through the city and divides it into the Trans-Gomti and Cis-Gomti regions. Situated in the middle of the Indus-Gangetic Plain, the city is surrounded by rural towns and villages: the orchard town of Malihabad, Kakori, Mohanlalganj, Gosainganj, Chinhat and Itaunja. To the east lies Barabanki, to the west Unnao, to the south Raebareli, while to the north lie the Sitapur and Hardoi. Lucknow city is located in a seismic zone III. ### Climate Lucknow has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen *Cwa*) with cool, dry winters from mid-November to February and dry, hot summers with sunshine from March to mid-May. More than nine-tenths of the annual rainfall occurs from June to October when the city receives an average of 827.2 millimetres (32.57 in) from the southwest monsoon winds, although occasionally frontal rainfall from the northeast monsoon will occur in January. In winter the maximum temperature is around 25 °C or 77 °F and the minimum is in the 3 to 7 °C (37.4 to 44.6 °F) range. Fog is quite common from mid-December to late January. Occasionally, Lucknow experiences colder winter spells than places like Shimla and Mussoorie which are situated way high up in the Himalayas. In the extraordinary winter cold spell of 2012–2013, Lucknow recorded temperatures below freezing point on two consecutive days and the minimum temperature hovered around freezing point for over a week. Summers are very hot with temperatures rising into the 40 to 45 °C (104 to 113 °F) range, the average maxima being in the high 30s Celsius. | Climate data for Lucknow (Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport) 1981–2010, extremes 1952–2012 | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 30.4(86.7) | 35.9(96.6) | 40.9(105.6) | 45.0(113.0) | 46.5(115.7) | 47.7(117.9) | 44.2(111.6) | 40.4(104.7) | 40.1(104.2) | 37.7(99.9) | 38.0(100.4) | 29.9(85.8) | 47.7(117.9) | | Mean maximum °C (°F) | 27.2(81.0) | 31.1(88.0) | 37.6(99.7) | 42.2(108.0) | 44.0(111.2) | 43.5(110.3) | 38.7(101.7) | 36.5(97.7) | 36.5(97.7) | 35.6(96.1) | 32.2(90.0) | 28.1(82.6) | 44.6(112.3) | | Average high °C (°F) | 22.1(71.8) | 26.2(79.2) | 32.3(90.1) | 38.2(100.8) | 39.6(103.3) | 38.3(100.9) | 34.1(93.4) | 33.5(92.3) | 33.3(91.9) | 32.8(91.0) | 29.1(84.4) | 24.4(75.9) | 32.0(89.6) | | Average low °C (°F) | 7.9(46.2) | 10.7(51.3) | 15.2(59.4) | 20.7(69.3) | 24.7(76.5) | 26.6(79.9) | 26.1(79.0) | 25.7(78.3) | 24.3(75.7) | 19.4(66.9) | 13.2(55.8) | 9.1(48.4) | 18.6(65.5) | | Mean minimum °C (°F) | 3.8(38.8) | 6.5(43.7) | 10.3(50.5) | 15.5(59.9) | 20.3(68.5) | 22.6(72.7) | 23.6(74.5) | 23.4(74.1) | 21.6(70.9) | 14.7(58.5) | 9.1(48.4) | 5.2(41.4) | 3.6(38.5) | | Record low °C (°F) | −1.0(30.2) | 0.0(32.0) | 5.4(41.7) | 10.9(51.6) | 17.0(62.6) | 19.7(67.5) | 21.5(70.7) | 22.2(72.0) | 17.2(63.0) | 10.0(50.0) | 3.9(39.0) | 0.5(32.9) | −1.0(30.2) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 16.7(0.66) | 16.1(0.63) | 8.6(0.34) | 5.6(0.22) | 24.4(0.96) | 107.8(4.24) | 255.3(10.05) | 213.7(8.41) | 205.6(8.09) | 44.8(1.76) | 6.4(0.25) | 12.3(0.48) | 917.3(36.09) | | Average rainy days | 1.3 | 1.4 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 2.0 | 5.2 | 11.8 | 10.6 | 8.4 | 1.7 | 0.6 | 0.8 | 45.3 | | Average relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST) | 60 | 47 | 33 | 25 | 32 | 49 | 73 | 77 | 74 | 65 | 61 | 62 | 55 | | Average dew point °C (°F) | 9(48) | 12(54) | 13(55) | 14(57) | 19(66) | 23(73) | 26(79) | 26(79) | 25(77) | 19(66) | 14(57) | 10(50) | 18(63) | | Average ultraviolet index | 5 | 7 | 9 | 11 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 10 | 8 | 6 | 5 | 9 | | Source 1: India Meteorological DepartmentTime and Date (dewpoints, 2005-2015) | | Source 2: Weather Atlas | Flora and fauna --------------- Lucknow has a total of 5.66 percent of forest cover. The state average is around 7 percent. *Shisham*, *Dhak*, *Mahuamm*, *Babul*, *Neem*, *Peepal*, *Ashok*, *Khajur*, *Mango* and *Gular* trees are all grown here. Several varieties of mangoes, especially Dasheri, are grown in the Malihabad adjacent to the city and a block of the Lucknow district for export. The main crops are wheat, paddy, sugarcane, mustard, potatoes, and vegetables such as cauliflower, cabbage, tomato and *brinjals*. Similarly, sunflowers, roses, and marigolds are cultivated over a fairly extensive area. Many medicinal and herbal plants are also grown here while common Indian monkeys are found in patches in and around city forests such as Musa Bagh. The Lucknow Zoo, one of the oldest in the country, was established in 1921. It houses a rich collection of animals from Asia, and other continents. The zoo also has enjoyable toy train rides for the visitors. The city also has a botanical garden, which is a zone of wide botanical diversity. It also houses the Uttar Pradesh State Museum. It has sculptural masterpieces dating back to the 3rd century AD, including intricately carved Mathura sculptures ranging from dancing girls to scenes from the life of Buddha. * Lucknow is known for its dasheri mangoes, which are exported to many countriesLucknow is known for its dasheri mangoes, which are exported to many countries * Baby elephant at Lucknow ZooBaby elephant at Lucknow Zoo Economy ------- The major industries in the Lucknow urban agglomeration include aeronautics, automotive, machine tools, distillery chemicals, furniture and Chikan embroidery. Lucknow is among the top cities of India by GDP. It is a centre for research and development as home to the R&D centres of the National Milk Grid of the National Dairy Development Board, the Central Institute of Medical and Aromatic Plants, the National Handloom Development Corporation and U.P. Export Corporation. Lucknow is ranked sixth in a list of the ten fastest growing job-creating cities in India according to a study conducted by Assocham Placement Pattern, Lucknow's economy was formerly based on the tertiary sector and the majority of the workforce were employed as government servants. Large-scale industrial establishments are few compared to other northern Indian state capitals like New Delhi. The economy is growing with contributions from the fields of IT, manufacturing and processing and medical/biotechnology. Business-promoting institutions such as the CII have set up their service centres in the city. Major export items are marbled products, handicrafts, art pieces, gems, jewellery, textiles, electronics, software products, computers, hardware products, apparel, brass products, silk, leather goods, glass items and chemicals. Lucknow has promoted public-private partnerships in sectors such as electricity supply, roads, expressways, and educational ventures. Multiple software and IT companies are present in the city. Tata Consultancy Services, HCL Technologies are present in the city. IT companies are located in Gomtinagar. There are many local open source technology companies. The city is also home to a number of important national and state level headquarters for companies including Sony Corporation and Reliance Retail. The handicrafts sector accounts for 60 percent of total exports from the state. Companies such as Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, KARAM, Tata Marcopolo, Exide Industries, Tata Motors set up their plants in Lucknow. Lucknow is an emerging automobile hub. Tata Motors have a plant primarily for light commercial vehicles. It was set up in 1992 and has a production capacity of 640 vehicles per day. Additionally there is a plant of Tata Marcopolo in the city. To promote the textile industry in the city, the Indian government has allocated Rs. 2 billion (2000 million rupees) to set up a textile business cluster in the city. A sprawling 40 hectares (0.40 km2; 100 acres) IT city costing 15 billion Rupees is planned by the state government at the Chak Ganjaria farms site on the road to Sultanpur and they have already approved special economic zone status for the project, which is expected to create thousands of job opportunities in the state. A defense industrial corridor is also coming in the city. Administration -------------- ### Administration #### General administration Lucknow division which consists of six districts, and is headed by the Divisional Commissioner of Lucknow, who is an IAS officer of high seniority, the Commissioner is the head of local government institutions (including municipal corporations) in the division, is in charge of infrastructure development in his division, and is also responsible for maintaining law and order in the division. The District Magistrate of Lucknow reports to the divisional commissioner. The current commissioner is Mukesh Meshram. Lucknow district administration is headed by the District Magistrate of Lucknow, who is an IAS officer. The DM is in charge of property records and revenue collection for the central government and oversees the elections held in the city. The district has five tehsils, viz. Sadar, Mohanlalganj, Bakshi ka Talab, Malihabad and Sarojini Nagar, each headed by a Sub-Divisional Magistrate. The current DM is Abhishek Prakash. The district magistrate is assisted by a Chief Development Officer (CDO), eight Additional District Magistrates (ADM) (Finance/Revenue, East, West Trans-Gomti, Executive, Land Acquisition-I, Land Acquisition-II, Civil Supply), one City Magistrate (CM) and seven Additional City Magistrates (ACM). #### Civic administration The Lucknow Municipal Corporation oversees civic activities in the city. The city's first municipal body dates from 1862 when the municipal board was established. The first Indian mayor, Syed Nabiullah, was elected in 1917 after the enforcement of the UP Municipalities Act, 1916. In 1948, the Uttar Pradesh government changed the system from an electoral one to an administrator-run one and Bhairav Datt Sanwal became the administrator. In 1959, the UP Municipalities Act, 1916 was replaced with Uttar Pradesh Municipal Corporation Act, 1959 and Lucknow Municipal Corporation was established in 1960 with Raj Kumar Shrivastava becoming the mayor. The head of the corporation is the mayor, but the executive and administration of the corporation are the responsibility of the municipal commissioner, who is an Uttar Pradesh government-appointed Indian Administrative Services (IAS) officer of high seniority. The last municipal election took place in 2017 when Sanyukta Bhatia from Bharatiya Janata Party became the first female mayor of Lucknow. Bharatiya Janata Party won 57 councillor seats, Samajwadi Party won 31 seats, independent candidates won 14 seats, and Indian National Congress won 8 seats. Ajay Kumar Dwivedi, an IAS officer, is the present municipal commissioner since 17 August 2020. The Uttar Pradesh Municipal Corporation Act, 1959 gives provisions for the establishment of ward committees, but they have not been formed yet. The sources for revenue generation for Lucknow Municipal Corporation include property tax, user charges for SWM, penalties, rent from municipal properties, income from water storage, water transmission, drainage and sanitation, grants, and charges for services such as birth and death certificates. The municipal corporation has the following administrative departments: Health Department, House Tax Department, Engineering Department, Park Department, Advertisement Department, Accounting Department, Property Department. There is also an executive committee (कार्यकारिणी समिति) made up of 12 elected councillors from different political parties, who decide on policy matters of the corporation. #### Police administration The Police Commissionerate System was introduced in Lucknow on 14 January 2020. The district police is headed by a Commissioner of Police (CP), who is an IPS officer of ADGP rank and is assisted by two Joint Commissioners of Police (IG rank), and five Deputy Commissioners of Police (SP rank). Lucknow is divided into five zones, each headed by a Deputy Commissioner of Police. Of the two Joint Commissioners, one looks after law and order, the other crime. The current police commissioner of Lucknow City is IPS SB Shirodkar. The district police observes the citizenry through high-technology control rooms and all important streets and intersections are under surveillance with the help of CCTVs and drone cameras. Crowd-control is carried out with the help of pepper-spraying drones. There are more than 10,000 CCTV cameras deployed by the Lucknow Police Department across the city roads and trijunctions, making Lucknow the first city in the country to do so. The Lucknow Modern Police Control Room (abbreviated as MCR) is India's biggest 'Dial 112' service centre with 300 communication officers to receive distress calls from all over the state and 200 dispatch officers to rush for police help. It is billed as the India's most hi-tech police control room. Lucknow is also the center for 1090 Women Power line, a call center based service directed at dealing with eve-teasing. An Integrated 'Dial 112' Control Room building is also there which is having the world's biggest modern Police Emergency Response System (PERS). The Lucknow Fire Brigade department is headed by the chief fire officer, who is subordinate to the district magistrate and is assisted by a deputy chief fire officer and divisional officers. Judicial institutions --------------------- There is a bench of the Allahabad High Court in Lucknow. Aside from this, Lucknow has a District & Sessions Court, five CBI Courts, one family court and two railway courts. The High Court Bench as well as the District & Sessions Court and the CBI courts are located in Qaiser Bagh, and the railway courts are in Charbagh. Central government offices -------------------------- Since 1 May 1963, Lucknow has been the headquarters of the Central Command of the Indian Army, before which it was the headquarters of Eastern Command. Lucknow also houses a branch office of National Investigation Agency which is responsible for combating terrorist activities in India. It oversees five states of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh for Naxal and terrorist activities. The Commission of Railway Safety of India, under the Ministry of Civil Aviation, has its head office in the Northeast Railway Compound in Lucknow. ### Infrastructure The development of infrastructure in the city is overseen by Lucknow Development Authority (LDA), which comes under the Housing Department of Uttar Pradesh government. The Divisional Commissioner of Lucknow acts as the *ex-officio* chairman of LDA, whereas a vice-chairman, a government-appointed IAS officer, looks after the daily matters of the authority. The current vice-chairman of the Lucknow Development Authority is IAS Akshay Tripathi. LDA prepared the Lucknow master plan 2031. ### Politics As the seat of the government of Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow is the site of the Uttar Pradesh Vidhan Sabha, a bench of the Allahabad High Court and numerous government departments and agencies. Rajnath Singh, the Union Defense Minister, from Bharatiya Janata Party is the Member of Parliament from Lucknow Lok Sabha Constituency. Kaushal Kishore is the Member of Parliament from Mohanlalganj (Lok Sabha constituency), the second Lok Sabha constituency in Lucknow. Apart from the Lok Sabha Constituency, there are nine Vidhan Sabha Constituencies within Lucknow city: Vidhan Sabha Constituencies in Lucknow| Constituency | MLA | Political Party | | --- | --- | --- | | Lucknow West | Armaan Khan | Samajwadi Party | | Lucknow North | Dr. Neeraj Bora | Bharatiya Janata Party | | Lucknow East | Asutosh Tandon (Gopal Ji) | Bharatiya Janata Party | | Lucknow Central | Ravidas Mehotra | Samajwadi Party | | Lucknow Cantt | Brajesh Pathak | Bharatiya Janata Party | | Malihabad | Jai Devi | Bharatiya Janata Party | | Bakhshi Ka Talab | Yogesh Shukla | Bharatiya Janata Party | | Sarojni Nagar | Rajeshwar Singh | Bharatiya Janata Party | | Mohanlal Ganj | Amresh Kumar | Bharatiya Janata Party | Public utilities ---------------- Madhyanchal Power Distribution Corporation Limited, also known as Madhyanchal Vidyut Vitaran Nigam is responsible for supplying electricity in Lucknow. It is under the Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Ltd. Fire safety services are provided by the Uttar Pradesh Fire Service, which is under the state government. Jal Nigam is responsible for developing and maintaining the infrastructure for water supply, sewer lines, and storm water drains. Jal Sansthan is responsible for supplying water and providing water and sewer connections. Lucknow Municipal Corporation is responsible for the solid waste management of Lucknow. Transport --------- ### Roads Two major Indian National Highways have their intersection at Lucknow's Hazratganj intersection: NH-30 to Shahjahanpur Via Sitapur in north and NH-30 to south Allahabad via Raebareli, NH-27 to Kanpur and Porbandar via Jhansi and Silchar via Gorakhpur. Multiple modes of public transport are available such as metro rail, taxis, city buses, cycle rickshaws, auto rickshaws and compressed natural gas (CNG) low-floor buses with and without air-conditioning. CNG was introduced as an auto fuel to keep air pollution under control. Radio Taxis are operated by several major companies like Ola and Uber. ### Bus #### City buses Lucknow city's bus service is operated by Lucknow City Transport Services Limited (LCTSL), a public sector passenger road transport corporation headquartered in Triloki Nath Margh. It has 260 buses operating in the city. There are around 35 routes in the city. Terminals for city buses are located in Gudamba, Viraj Khand, Alambagh, Scooter India, Institute of Engineering and Technology, Babu Banarasi Das University, Safedabad, Pasi qila, Charbagh, Andhe Ki Chowki, Jankipuram, Gomti Nagar Railway Station, Budheshwar Intersection, Faizabad Road and Qaiserbagh. There are four bus depots in Gomti Nagar, Charbagh, Amausi, and Dubagga. #### Inter-state buses The major Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar Inter-state Bus Terminal (ISBT) in Alambagh provides the main inter and intrastate bus lines in Lucknow. Located on National Highway 25, it provides adequate services to ongoing and incoming customers. There is a smaller bus station at Qaiserbagh. The bus terminal formally operated at Charbagh, in front of the main railway station, has now been re-established as a city bus depot. This decision was taken by the state government and UPSRTC to decongest traffic in the railway station area. Kanpur Lucknow Roadways Service is a key service for daily commuters who travel back and forth to the city for business and educational purposes. Air conditioned "Royal Cruiser" buses manufactured by Volvo are operated by UPSRTC for inter state bus services. Main cities served by the UPSRTC intrastate bus service are Allahabad, Varanasi, Jaipur, Jhansi, Agra, Delhi, Gorakhpur. The cities outside Uttar Pradesh that are covered by inter-state bus services are Jaipur, New Delhi, Kota, Singrauli, Faridabad, Gurgaon, Dausa, Ajmer, Dehradun, and Haridwar. ### Railways Lucknow is served by several railway stations in different parts of the city. The main long-distance railway station is Lucknow Railway Station located at Charbagh. It has an imposing structure built in 1923 and acts as the divisional headquarters of the Northern Railway division. Its neighbouring and second major long-distance railway station is Lucknow Junction railway station operated by the North Eastern Railway. The city is an important junction with links to all major cities of the state and country such as New Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Chandigarh, Nashik, Amritsar, Jammu, Chennai, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Pune, Indore, Bhopal, Jhansi, Jabalpur, Jaipur, Raipur and Siwan. The city has a total of fourteen railway stations. Earlier the meter-gauge services originated at Aishbagh and connected to Lucknow city, Daliganj and Mohibullapur. Now all the stations have been converted to broad gauge. All stations lie within the city limits and are well interconnected by bus services and other public road transport. Suburban stations include Bakshi Ka Talab and Kakori. The Lucknow–Kanpur Suburban Railway was started in 1867 to cater for the needs of commuters travelling between Lucknow and Kanpur. Trains running on this service also stop at numerous stations at different locations in the city forming a suburban rail network. ### Air transport Direct air connections are available in Lucknow to New Delhi, Patna, Kolkata, Mumbai, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Chennai, Guwahati, Jaipur, Raipur and other major cities via Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport. The airport has been ranked the second-best in the world in the small airport category. The airport is suitable for all-weather operations and provides parking facilities for up to 14 aircraft. At present Air India, Air India Express, GoAir, IndiGo, Saudi Airlines, Flydubai, Oman Air and Vistara operate domestic and international flights to and from Lucknow. Covering 480 hectares (4.80 km2; 1,187 acres), with Terminal 1 for international flights and Terminal 2 for domestic flights, the airport can handle Boeing 767 to Boeing 747-400 aircraft allowing significant passenger and cargo traffic. International destinations include Dubai, Muscat, Sharjah, Riyadh, Bangkok, Dammam and Jeddah. The planned expansion of the airport will allow Airbus A380 jumbo jets to land at the airport. The Nagarjuna construction company (NCC) has started the construction of the new terminal at Lucknow Airport which is expected to be completed by December 2021 to meet the growing demand. There is also a plan for runway expansion. It is the tenth busiest airport in India, the busiest in Uttar Pradesh, and the second-busiest in northern India. In February 2019, the airport was privatised and leased to Adani Group for 50 years at the highest bid of ₹171 per passenger. ### Metro **Lucknow Metro** is a rapid transit system which started its operations from 6 September 2017. Lucknow Metro system is the most-quickly built metro system in the world and most economical high-speed rapid transit system project in India. The commencement of civil works started on 27 September 2014. In February, Chief Minister Akhilesh Yadav approved to set up of a metro rail system for the state capital. It is divided into two corridors the North-south corridor connecting Munshipulia to CCS International Airport and the East-west corridor connecting Charbagh Railway Station to Vasant Kunj. This will be the most expensive public transport system in the state but will provide a rapid means of mass transport to decongest traffic on city roads. Construction of the first phase will be complete by March 2017. The completion of metro rail project is the primary object of Uttar Pradesh government currently headed by the chief minister Yogi Adityanath On 5 September 2017, Home Minister Rajnath Singh and CM Yogi Adityanath showed green flag to the Lucknow Metro. ### Cycling Lucknow is among the most bicycle-friendly cities in Uttar Pradesh. Bike-friendly tracks have been established near the chief minister's residence in the city. The four-and-a-half-kilometre (2.8 mi) track encompasses La-Martiniere College Road next to a golf club on Kalidas Marg, where the chief minister resides, and Vikramaditya Marg, which houses the office of the ruling party. The dedicated four-metre (13 ft) lane for cyclists is separate from the footpath and the main road. With Amsterdam as the inspiration, new cycle tracks are to be constructed in the city to make it more cycle-friendly, with facilities like bike rental also in the works. In the year 2015, Lucknow also hosted a national level cycling event called 'The Lucknow Cyclothon' in which professional and amateur cyclists took part. An under-construction cycle track network by the government of Uttar Pradesh is set to make Lucknow the city with India's biggest cycle network. Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1865 | 300,000 | —     | | 1871 | 284,800 | −5.1% | | 1881 | 261,300 | −8.3% | | 1891 | 273,000 | +4.5% | | 1901 | 264,000 | −3.3% | | 1911 | 259,800 | −1.6% | | 1921 | 240,600 | −7.4% | | 1931 | 274,700 | +14.2% | | 1941 | 387,177 | +40.9% | | 1951 | 496,900 | +28.3% | | 1961 | 595,400 | +19.8% | | 1968 | 763,600 | +28.2% | | 1971 | 814,000 | +6.6% | | 1981 | 1,007,604 | +23.8% | | 1991 | 1,669,204 | +65.7% | | 2001 | 2,245,509 | +34.5% | | 2011 | 2,902,601 | +29.3% | | Source: | | Religion in Lucknow City (2011) | | --- | | Religion | | Percent | | Hinduism |   | 71.71% | | Islam |   | 26.36% | | Sikhism |   | 0.76% | | Christianity |   | 0.58% | | Others |   | 0.59% | The population of Lucknow Urban Agglomeration (LUA) rose above one million in 1981, while the 2001 census estimated it had risen to 2.24 million. This included about 60,000 people in the Lucknow Cantonment and 2.18 million in Lucknow city and represented an increase of 34.53% over the 1991 figure. According to the provisional report of 2011 Census of India, Lucknow city had a population of 2,815,601, of which 1,470,133 were men and 1,345,468 women. This was an increase of 25.36% compared to the 2001 figures. Between 1991 and 2001, the population registered growth of 32.03%, significantly lower than the 37.14% which was registered between 1981 and 1991. The initial provisional data suggests a population density of 1,815 inhabitants per square kilometre (4,700/sq mi) in 2011, compared to 1,443 in 2001. As the total area covered by the Lucknow district is only about 2,528 square kilometres (976 sq mi), the population density was much than the 690 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,800/sq mi) recorded at the state level. The Scheduled Caste population of the state represented 21.3% of the total population, a figure higher than the state average of 21.15%. The sex ratio in Lucknow city stood at 915 females per 1000 males in 2011, compared to the 2001 census figure of 888. The average national sex ratio in India is 940 according to the Census 2011 Directorate. The city has a total literacy level in 2011 of 84.72% compared to 67.68% for Uttar Pradesh as a whole. In 2001 these same figures stood at 75.98% and 56.27%. In Lucknow city, the total literate population totalled 2,147,564 people of which 1,161,250 were male and 986,314 were female. Despite the fact that the overall work-participation rate in the district (32.24%) is higher than the state average (23.7%), the rate among females in Lucknow is very low at only 5.6% and shows a decline from the 1991 figure of 5.9%. Architecture ------------ Lucknow's buildings show different styles of architecture with the many iconic buildings built during the British and Mughal era. More than half of these buildings lie in the old part of the city. The Uttar Pradesh Tourism Department organises a "Heritage Walk" for tourists covering the popular monuments. Among the extant architecture, there are religious buildings such as Imambaras, mosques, and other Islamic shrines as well as secular structures such as enclosed gardens, *baradaris*, and palace complexes. Bara Imambara in Hussainabad is a colossal edifice built in 1784 by the then Nawab of Lucknow, Asaf-ud-Daula. It was originally built to provide assistance to people affected by the deadly famine, which struck the whole of Uttar Pradesh in the same year. It is the largest hall in Asia without any external support from wood, iron or stone beams. The monument required approximately 22,000 labourers during construction. The 18 m (60 feet) tall Rumi Darwaza, built by Nawab Asaf-ud-daula (r. 1775–1797) in 1784, served as the entrance to the city of Lucknow. It is also known as the Turkish Gateway, as it was erroneously thought to be identical to the gateway at Constantinople. The edifice provides the west entrance to the Great Imambara and is embellished with lavish decorations. Various architectural styles can be seen in the historical areas of Lucknow. The University of Lucknow shows a huge inspiration from the European style while Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture is prominently present in the Uttar Pradesh Vidhan Sabha building and Charbagh Railway station. Dilkusha Kothi is the remains of a palace constructed by the British resident Major Gore Ouseley around 1800 and showcases English Baroque architecture. It served as a hunting lodge for the Nawab of Awadhs and as a summer resort. The Chattar Manzil, which served as the palace for the rulers of Awadh and their wives is topped by an umbrella-like dome and so named on account of *Chattar* being the Hindi word for "umbrella". Opposite Chattar Manzil stands the 'Lal Baradari' built by Nawab Saadat Ali Khan I between 1789 and 1814. It functioned as a throne room at coronations for the royal courts. The building is now used as a museum and contains delicately executed portraits of men who played major roles in the administration of the kingdom of Oudh. Another example of mixed architectural styles is La Martiniere College, which shows a fusion of Indian and European ideas. It was built by Major-General Claude Martin who was born in Lyon and died in Lucknow on 13 September 1800. Originally named "Constantia", the ceilings of the building are domed with no wooden beams used for construction. Glimpses of Gothic architecture can also be seen in the college building. Lucknow's Asafi Imambara exhibits vaulted halls as its architectural speciality. The Bara Imambara, Chhota Imambara and Rumi Darwaza stand in testament to the city's Nawabi mixture of Mughlai and Turkish styles of architecture while La Martiniere college bears witness to the Indo-European style. Even the new buildings are fashioned using characteristic domes and pillars, and at night these illuminated monuments become the city's main attractions. Around Hazratganj, the city's central shopping area, there is a fusion of old and modern architecture. It has a multi-level parking lot in place of an old and dilapidated police station making way for extending the corridors into pebbled pathways, adorned with piazzas, green areas and wrought-iron and cast-iron lamp-posts, reminiscent of the Victorian era, flank both sides of the street. Culture ------- In common with other metropolitan cities across India, Lucknow is multicultural and multilingual. Many of the cultural traits and customs peculiar to Lucknow have become living legends today. The city's contemporary culture is the result of the amalgamation of the Hindu and Muslim rulers who ruled the city simultaneously. The credit for this goes to the secular and syncretic traditions of the Nawabs of Awadh, who took a keen interest in every walk of life and encouraged these traditions to attain a rare degree of sophistication. Modern-day Lucknowites are known for their polite and polished way of speaking which is noticed by visitors. The residents of Lucknow call themselves *Lucknowites* or *Lakhnavi*. It also represents the melting pot of globalisation where the legacy of Nawab's culture continues to be reflected in the traditional vocabulary of the Hindi language of the city along with better avenues for modernisation present here. ### Traditional Outfit Lucknow is known for its ghararas. It is a traditional women's outfit that originated from the Nawabs of Awadh. It is a pair of loose trousers with pleats below the knee worn with a kurta (shirt) and a dupatta (veil). It is embroidered with zari and zardozi along with gota (decorative lace on the knee area). This dress is made from over 24 metres (26 yd) of fabric, mostly silk, brocade and kamkhwab. ### Language and poetry Although Uttar Pradesh's primary official language is Hindi, the most commonly spoken language is colloquial Hindustani. Indian English is also well understood and is widely used for business and administrative purposes, as a result of India's British heritage and Commonwealth tradition, as well as globalisation. The Urdu language is also a part of Lucknowi culture and heritage. It is mostly used by wealthier families, the remaining members of the royal family as well as in Urdu poetry and on public signs. The government has taken many innovative steps to promote Urdu. Awadhi, a dialect of the Hindi dialect continuum, is the native dialect of Lucknow and has played an important role in Lucknow's history and is still used in the city's rural areas and by the urban population on the streets. Historically, Lucknow was considered one of the great centres of Muslim culture. Two poets, Mir Babar Ali Anis and Mirza Dabeer, became legendary exponents of a unique genre of Muslim elegiacal poetry called *marsiya* centred on Imam Husain's supreme sacrifice in the Battle of Karbala, which is commemorated during the annual observance of Muharram. The revolutionary Ram Prasad Bismil, who was hanged by the British at Gorakhpur jail, was largely influenced by the culture of Lucknow and remembered its name in his poetry. Surrounding towns such as Kakori, Daryabad, Fatehpur, Barabanki, Rudauli, and Malihabad produced many eminent Urdu poets and litterateurs including Mohsin Kakorvi, Majaz, Khumar Barabankvi and Josh Malihabadi. ### Cuisine The Awadh region has its own distinct Nawabi-style cuisine. Since ages, the *Bawarchis* (chefs) and *Rakabdars* (royal chefs) have developed great finesse in cooking and presentation of food, under royal patronage. This gave rise to the art of cooking over a slow fire (or *Dum* style cooking), which has become synonymous with "Awadhi" cuisine. These *Bawarchis* added elaborately prepared dishes like *kababs*, *kormas*, *kaliya*, *nahari-kulchas*, *zarda*, *sheermal*, *roomali rotis* and *warqi parathas* to the traditional "Awadhi" *dastarkhwaan* (feast of dishes). The best-known dishes of this area consist of biryanis, kebabs and breads. Kebabs are served in a variety of styles; *kakori*, *galawati*, *shami*, *boti*, *patili-ke*, *ghutwa* and *seekh* are among the available varieties. Tunde ke kabab restaurants are popular for a type of soft kebab developed by a one-armed chef (hence the name Tunday) for a Nawab who had lost his teeth. The reputation of Lucknow's kebabs is not limited to the local population and the dish attracts people from other cities as well as other countries. Lucknow is also known for its chaats, street food, kulfi, paan and sweets. Nahari, a dish prepared using mutton, is popular among non-vegetarians. Sheermal is a type of sweet bread (paratha) prepared in Lucknow. Makkhan-malai is another sweet delicacy of Lucknow made and sold only during winters. Some restaurants in the city are around a century old; there are also many high-end restaurants, bakeries, lounges and pubs which cater to the affluent class and foreign travellers. ### Festivals Indian festivals such as Christmas, Diwali, Durga Puja, Eid, Holi, Raksha Bandhan and Vijayadashami are celebrated with great pomp and show in the city. Some of the other festivals or processions are as follows: * Lucknow Mahotsav Lucknow Festival is organised every year to showcase Uttar Pradesh art and culture and to promote tourism. With 1975–76 designated South Asian Tourism Year, Lucknow took the opportunity to promote the city's art, culture and tourism to national and international tourists. The first Lucknow Festival was staged as a part of this promotion and ever since, with some exceptions, Lucknow Mahotsava has taken place annually. * Lucknow Literature Festival This is an annual literature festival held in the month of November every year since 2013. Lucknow LitFest is India's second-largest literature festival featuring some of the greatest writers and thinkers from across the globe. * Muharram Lucknow is known as a seat of Shia Islam and the epitome of Shia culture in India. Muslims observe Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar and on Ashura (the tenth day of the month) mourn the memory of Imam Husain, grandson of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. Muharram processions in Lucknow have a special significance and began during the reign of the Awadh Nawabs. Processions such as *Shahi Zarih*, *Jaloos-e-Mehndi*, *Alam-e-Ashura* and *Chup Tazia* had special significance by the Shia community and were affected with great religious zeal and fervour until 1977 the government of Uttar Pradesh banned public Azadari processions. For the following twenty years, processions and gatherings took place in private or community spaces including Talkatora Karbala, Bara Imambara (Imambara Asifi), Chota Imambara (Imambara Husainabad), Dargah Hazrat Abbas, Shah Najaf and Imambara Ghufran Ma'ab. The ban was partially lifted in 1997 and Shias were successful in taking out the first Azadari procession in January 1998 on the 21st of Ramadan, the Muslim fasting month. The Shias are authorised to stage nine processions out of the nine hundred that are listed in the register of the Shias. * Deva Mela Deva Mela is celebrated during the anniversary of Sufi saint Haji Waris Ali Shah at Dewa, India which is 26 K.M from Lucknow city. Sufi songs (Qawwalis) are recited at the Dargah. Devotees also carry sheets/Chadars to the shrines. * Chup Tazia The procession originated in Lucknow before spreading to other parts of South Asia. Dating back to the era of the Nawabs, it was started by Nawab Ahmed Ali Khan Shaukat Yar Jung a descendant of Bahu Begum. It has become one of the most important Azadari processions in Lucknow and one of the nine permitted by the government. This last mourning procession takes place on the morning of the 8th of Rabi' al-awwal, the third Muslim month and includes *alam* (flags), *Zari* and a *ta'zieh* (an imitation of the mausoleums in Karbala). It originates at the Imambara Nazim Saheb in Victoria Street then moves in complete silence through Patanala until it terminates at the Karbala Kazmain, where the colossal black *ta'zieh* is buried. * Bada Mangal festival is celebrated in May as a birthday of the ancient Hanuman temple known as Purana Mandir. During this festival, fairs are conducted by the local public in the whole city. Bhandara is organised by local people almost in all streets across the city and serves free food to all the passersby irrespective of religion. Many of the Muslim Community also set up these Bhandara. It is celebrated in the name of Hindu God Lord Hanuman and reflects the Ganga Jamuni Tehzeeb. ### Dance, drama and music The classical Indian dance form *Kathak* originated from Lucknow. Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, was a great patron and a passionate champion of *Kathak*. Lachhu Maharaj, Acchchan Maharaj, Shambhu Maharaj and Birju Maharaj have kept this tradition alive. Lucknow is also the home city of the eminent *ghazal* singer Begum Akhtar. A pioneer of the style, *"Ae Mohabbat Tere anjaam pe rona aaya"* is one of her best known musical renditions. Bhatkande Music Institute University at Lucknow is named after the musician Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande Bhartendu Academy of Dramatic Arts (BNA), also known as Bhartendu Natya Academy, is a theatre-training institute situated at Gomti Nagar. It is a deemed university and an autonomous organisation under the Ministry of Culture, Government of Uttar Pradesh. It was set up in 1975 by the Sangeet Natak Akademy (government of Uttar Pradesh), and became an independent drama school in 1977. Apart from government institutes, there are many private theatre groups including IPTA, Theatre Arts Workshop (TAW), Darpan, Manchkriti and the largest youth theatre group, Josh. This is a group for young people to experience theatre activities, workshops and training. Lucknow is also the birthplace of musicians including Naushad, Talat Mahmood, Anup Jalota and Baba Sehgal as well as British pop celebrity Sir Cliff Richard. ### Lucknow Chikan Lucknow is known for embroidery works including *chikankari*, *zari*, *zardozi*, *kamdani* and *gota* making (gold lace weaving). *Chikankari* is an embroidery work well known all over India. This 400-year-old art in its present form was developed in Lucknow and it remains the only location where the skill is practised today. *Chikankari* constitutes 'shadow work' and is a delicate and artistic hand embroidery done using white thread on fine white cotton cloth such as fine muslin or chiffon. Yellowish *muga* silk is sometimes used in addition to the white thread. The work is done on caps, *kurta*s, *sari*s, scarfs, and other vestments. The *chikan* industry, almost unknown under the Nawabs, has not only survived but has flourished. About 2,500 entrepreneurs have engaged in manufacturing *chikan* for sale in local, national and international markets with Lucknow the largest exporter of *chikan* embroidered garments. As a sign of recognition, in December 2008, the Indian Geographical Indication Registry (GIR) accorded Geographical Indication (GI) status for *chikankari*, recognising Lucknow as the exclusive hub for its manufacture. ### Quality of life Lucknow was ranked "India's second happiest city" in a survey conducted by IMRB International and LG Corporation, after only Chandigarh. It fared better than other metropolitan cities in India including New Delhi, Bangalore and Chennai. Lucknow was found to be better than other cities in areas such as food, transit and overall citizen satisfaction. Education --------- Lucknow is home to a number of prominent educational and research organisations including Indian Institute of Management Lucknow (IIM-L), Indian Institute of Information Technology, Lucknow (IIIT-L), Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI), Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI), Institute of Engineering and Technology (IET Lko), Dr**.** Ram Manohar Lohia National Law University (RMNLU), Institute of Hotel Management, Lucknow (IHM), Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences (SGPGI), Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Institute of Medical Sciences and King George's Medical University (KGMU). The National P. G. College (NPGC), affiliated to the University of Lucknow, was ranked as the second-best college imparting formal education in the country by the National Assessment and Accreditation Council in 2014. Educational institutions in the city include seven universities including the University of Lucknow, a Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, a technical university (Uttar Pradesh Technical University), a law university (RMLNLU), an Islamic university (DUNU) and many polytechnics, engineering institutes and industrial-training institutes. Other research organisations in the state include the Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Central Food Technological Research Institute, and the Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute. Some of Uttar Pradesh's major schools are located in Lucknow including Delhi Public School having its branches in Eldeco, Indiranagar. Lucknow International Public School, City Montessori School, Colvin Taluqdars' College, Centennial Higher Secondary School, St. Francis' College, Loreto Convent Lucknow, St. Mary's Convent Inter College, Kendriya Vidyalaya, Lucknow Public School, Stella Maris Inter College, Seth M.R. Jaipuria School, Cathedral School, Mary Gardiner's Convent School, Modern School, Amity International School, St. Agnes, Army Public School, Mount Carmel College, Study Hall, Christ Church College, Rani Laxmi Bai School and Central Academy. City Montessori School, with over 20 branches spread throughout the city, is the only school in the world to have been awarded a UNESCO Prize for Peace Education. CMS also holds a Guinness World Record for being the largest school in the world, with over 40,000 pupils. The school consistently ranks among the top schools of India. La Martiniere Lucknow, founded in 1845, is the only school in the world to have been awarded a battle honour. It is one of the oldest schools in India, often ranked among the top ten schools in the country. Lucknow also has a sports college named Guru Gobind Singh Sports College. * Indian Institute of Management LucknowIndian Institute of Management Lucknow * Institute of Engineering and Technology, LucknowInstitute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow * Indian Institute of Information Technology, LucknowIndian Institute of Information Technology, Lucknow * La Martiniere CollegeLa Martiniere College * University of LucknowUniversity of Lucknow * Central Drug Research InstituteCentral Drug Research Institute * Amity University Lucknow Campus, also known as Mango Orchard CampusAmity University Lucknow Campus, also known as Mango Orchard Campus * BBD groups of colleges Campus in LucknowBBD groups of colleges Campus in Lucknow * BBD University building in BBD Campus in LucknowBBD University building in BBD Campus in Lucknow Media ----- Lucknow has had an influence on the Hindi film industry as the birthplace of poet, dialogue writer and script writer K. P. Saxena, Suresh Chandra Shukla born 10 February 1954 along with veteran Bollywood and Bengali film actor Pahari Sanyal, who came from the city's well known Sanyal family. Several movies have used Lucknow as their backdrop including Shashi Kapoor's *Junoon*, Muzaffar Ali's *Umrao Jaan* and *Gaman*, Satyajit Ray's *Shatranj ke khiladi*. Ismail Merchant's *Shakespeare Wallah*, PAA and Shailendra Pandey's *JD*. In the movie *Gadar: Ek Prem Katha* Lucknow was used to depict Pakistan, with locations including Lal Pul, the Taj Hotel and the Rumi Darwaza used in *Tanu Weds Manu*. Some parts of *Ladies vs Ricky Bahl*, *Bullett Raja*, *Ishaqzaade*, *Ya Rab* and *Dabangg 2* were shot in Lucknow or at other sites nearby. A major section of the Bollywood movie, Daawat-e-Ishq starring Aditya Roy Kapur and Parineeti Chopra was shot in the city as was Baawre, an Indian TV drama, airing on the Life OK channel. The government has announced to develop two film cities in Lucknow. Here are some newspaper companies working and give online news services to the news readers including Amar Ujala, *Dainik Jagran, Hindustan Times, The Times of India* and *Dainik Bhaskar*. *The Pioneer* newspaper, headquartered in Lucknow and started in 1865, is the second-oldest English-language newspaper in India still in production. The country's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru founded *The National Herald* in the city prior to World War II with Manikonda Chalapathi Rau as its editor. One of the earliest All India Radio stations has been operational in Lucknow since 1938. FM radio transmission started in Lucknow in 2000. The city has the following FM radio stations: * Radio City 91.1 MHz * Red FM 93.5 MHz * Radio Mirchi 98.3 MHz * AIR FM Rainbow 100.7 MHz * Fever 104 FM 104.0 MHz * Gyan Vani 105.6 MHz (educational) * AIR FM Vividh Bharti 101.6 MHz * CMS FM 90.4 MHz (educational) * Mirchi Love 107.2 FM * BBDU FM 90.8 MHz (of Babu Banarsi Das University) "My Lucknow My Pride" is a mobile app launched by the district administration of Lucknow circa December 2015 in efforts to preserve "the cultural heritage of Lucknow" and to encourage tourism. Sports ------ Cricket, association football, badminton, golf, and hockey are among the most popular sports in the city. The main sports hub is the K. D. Singh Babu Stadium, which also has a swimming pool and indoor games complex. There are plans to develop KDSB stadium along the lines of Ekana Stadium. KDSB stadium needs Rs 2 billion in funds to redesign and upgrade as per international standards. The other stadiums are Dhyan Chand Astroturf Stadium, Mohammed Shahid Synthetic Hockey Stadium, Dr. Akhilesh Das Gupta Stadium at Northern India Engineering College, Babu Banarsi Das UP Badminton Academy, Charbagh, Mahanagar, Chowk and the Sports College near the Integral University. In September 2017, Ekana International Cricket Stadium was opened to the public as it hosted 2017–18 Duleep Trophy. On 6 November 2018 Ekana International Cricket Stadium hosted its first T20 international match between Indian national cricket team and West Indies cricket team. It is the Third largest cricket stadium in India by capacity after Kolkata's Eden Gardens and Ahmedabad's Narendra Modi Stadium. For decades Lucknow hosted the Sheesh Mahal Cricket Tournament. Lucknow is the headquarters for the Badminton Association of India. Located in Gomti Nagar, it was formed in 1934 and has been holding national-level tournaments in India since 1936. Syed Modi Grand Prix is an international Badminton competition held here. Junior-level Badminton players receive their training in Lucknow after which they are sent to Bangalore. The Lucknow Race Course in Lucknow Cantonment is spread over 28.42 hectares (0.2842 km2; 70.22 acres); the course's 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi)-long race track is the longest in India. The Lucknow Golf Club is on the sprawling greens of La Martinière College. The city has produced several national and world-class sporting personalities. Lucknow sports hostel has produced international-level cricketers Mohammad Kaif, Piyush Chawla, Suresh Raina, Gyanendra Pandey, Praveen Kumar and R. P. Singh. Other notable sports personalities include hockey Olympians K. D. Singh, Jaman Lal Sharma, Mohammed Shahid and Ghaus Mohammad, the tennis player who became the first Indian to reach the quarter finals at Wimbledon. In October 2021, an IPL franchise based in Lucknow was officially formed and was later named Lucknow Super Giants. It will play its home matches at BRSABV Ekana Cricket Stadium. ### City-based clubs | Club | Sport | Team | Homeground | Founded | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Uttar Pradesh Cricket Team | Cricket | Ranji Trophy Vijay Hazare Trophy Syed Musthaq Ali Trophy | BRSABV Ekana Cricket Stadium | 1934 | | K.D Singh Babu Stadium | | Awadhe Warriors | Badminton | Premier Badminton League | Babu Banarasi Das Indoor Stadium | 2015 | | Uttar Pradesh Wizards | Field hockey | Hockey India League | Major Dhyan Chand Stadium | 2012 | | Lucknow Super Giants | Cricket | Indian Premier League | BRSABV Ekana Cricket Stadium | 2021 | | UP Yoddha | Kabaddi | Pro Kabaddi League | Babu Banarasi Das Indoor Stadium | 2017 | | UP Warriorz | Cricket | Women's Premier League | BRSABV Ekana Cricket Stadium | 2023 | Parks and recreation -------------------- The city has parks and recreation areas managed by the Lucknow Development Authority. These include Kukrail Reserve Forest, Qaisar Bagh, Gomti Riverfront Park, Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Park, Eco Park, Ambedkar Memorial Park, Janeshwar Mishra park, the largest park in Asia, Buddha Park, Hathi Park. It boasts lush greenery, a human-made lake, India's longest cycling and jogging track and a variety of flora. The plan is also to set up a giant Ferris wheel inside the park on the lines of London Eye, providing a panoramic view of the city. Kukrail Picnic Spot (crocodile-breeding sanctuary), located near Lucknow Indiranagar Area. This is Asia's largest crocodile-breeding center. This along with a small zoo and ample open space make it unique. Sister cities ------------- | Country | City | State / region | | --- | --- | --- | | Australia Australia | Brisbane | Queensland | Notable individuals ------------------- Historical places ----------------- * Bara Imambara * Chhota Imambara * Imambara Ghufran Ma'ab * Aminabad * Colvin Taluqdars' College * La Martiniere Lucknow * Isabella Thoburn College * Qaisar Bagh * Rumi Darwaza * Shah Najaf Imambara * Dargah of Hazrat Abbas * Dilkusha Kothi * Karbala of Dayanat-ud-Daulah * Tomb of Mir Babar Ali Anis * Imambara Sibtainabad (Maqbara of Amjad Ali Shah) * Rauza Kazmain * Residency * Usman Enclave * All Saints Garrison Church, Lucknow * Alambagh * Begum Hazrat Mahal Park See also -------- * Amir-ud-daula Public Library * Bharwara Sewage Treatment Plant * Fun Republic Mall * List of cities in India by population * List of million-plus urban agglomerations in India * List of tallest buildings in Lucknow * List of twin towns and sister cities in India * National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources Further reading --------------- * Darogha Ubbas Alli (1874). *The Lucknow Album*. Baptist Mission Press,Calcutta. * Poorno Chunder Mookherji (1883). *The Pictorial Lucknow*. P.C. Mookherji. * Veena Talwar Oldenburg (1984). *The Making of Colonial Lucknow, 1856–1877*. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-06590-X. * Violette Graff (13 November 1997). *Lucknow: Memories of a City*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-563790-9. * Amaresh Misra (1998). *Lucknow, Fire of Grace: The Story of its Renaissance, Revolution and the Aftermath*. HarperCollins Publishers India. ISBN 81-7223-288-8. * Rosie Llewellyn-Jones; Ravi Kapoor (2003). *Lucknow, Then and Now*. Marg Publications. ISBN 81-85026-61-0. * Rosie Llewellyn-Jones (2006). *Lucknow: City of Illusion*. Prestel Verlag. ISBN 3-7913-3130-2. * Shamim A. Aarzoo (2014). *Discovering Lucknow*. Lucknow Society. ISBN 978-81-928747-0-8. ASIN 8192874702. * Vipul B. Varshney (2017). *Lucknow: The City of Heritage and Culture, A walk through history*. Niyogi Books. ISBN 978-93-85285-52-3. * Vipul B. Varshney; Shaam -e Awadh (2017). *A visual journey of Lucknow*. Bloomsbury.

Lucknow

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucknow

**Derbyshire** (/ˈdɑːrbiʃɪər, -ʃər, -ɪ-/ *DAR-bee-sheer, -⁠shər, -⁠ih*) is a ceremonial county in the East Midlands of England. It borders Greater Manchester, West Yorkshire, and South Yorkshire to the north, Nottinghamshire to the east, Leicestershire to the south-east, Staffordshire to the south and west, and Cheshire to the west. The city of Derby is the county town. The county has an area of and a population of 1,053,316. The west of the county is more densely populated than the east, and contains the county's largest settlements: Derby (261,400), Chesterfield (88,483), and Swadlincote (45,000). Several towns near the Nottinghamshire border are part of Nottingham built-up-area. Most of the county is governed by Derbyshire County Council and eight borough councils, with Derby governed as a unitary authority by the Derby City Council. The north of Derbyshire is hilly and contains the southern end of the Pennines, most of which are part of the Peak District National Park. They include Kinder Scout, at 636 m (2,087 ft) the highest point in the county. The River Derwent is the longest in the county, at 66 mi (106 km), and flows south until it meets the River Trent just south of Derby. Church Flatts Farm at Coton in the Elms, near Swadlincote, is the furthest point from the sea in the UK. History ------- The area that is now Derbyshire was first visited, probably briefly, by humans 200,000 years ago during the Aveley interglacial, as shown by a Middle Paleolithic Acheulean hand axe found near Hopton. Further occupation came with the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age when Mesolithic hunter-gatherers roamed the hilly tundra. Evidence of these nomadic tribes has been found in limestone caves located on the Nottinghamshire border. Deposits left in the caves date the occupancy at around 12,000 to 7,000 BCE. Burial mounds of Neolithic settlers are also situated throughout the county. These chambered tombs were designed for collective burial and are mostly located in the central Derbyshire region. There are tombs at Minninglow and Five Wells that date back to between 2000 and 2500 BCE. Three miles west of Youlgreave lies the Neolithic henge monument of Arbor Low, which has been dated to 2500 BCE. It is not until the Bronze Age that real signs of agriculture and settlement are found in the county. In the moors of the Peak District signs of clearance, arable fields and hut circles were found after archaeological investigation. However this area and another settlement at Swarkestone are all that have been found. During the Roman conquest of Britain, the invaders were attracted to Derbyshire for its lead ore in the limestone hills of the area. They settled throughout the county, with forts built near Brough in the Hope Valley and near Glossop. Later they settled round Buxton, famed for its warm springs, and set up a fort near modern-day Derby in an area now known as Little Chester. Several kings of Mercia are buried in the Repton area. Following the Norman Conquest, much of the county was subject to the forest laws. To the northwest was the Forest of High Peak under the custodianship of William Peverel and his descendants. The rest of the county was bestowed upon Henry de Ferrers, a part of it becoming Duffield Frith. In time the whole area was given to the Duchy of Lancaster. Meanwhile, the Forest of East Derbyshire covered the whole county to the east of the River Derwent from the reign of Henry II to that of Edward I. Geography --------- MapInteractive map of Derbyshire and its districts The terrain of Derbyshire mostly consists of uplands to the north and centre of the county, and lowlands to the south and east. The southern foothills and uplands of the Pennines extend from the north of the Trent Valley throughout the Peak District and into the north of the county, reaching the county's highest point at Kinder Scout. The terrain is relatively low-lying across the lower Dove Valley, from the Trent Valley and southwards, and near its eastern borders with Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire. The main rivers in the county are the River Derwent and the River Dove which both join the River Trent in the south. The River Derwent rises in the moorland of Bleaklow and flows throughout the Peak District and county for the majority of its course, while the River Dove rises in Axe Edge Moor and forms a boundary between Derbyshire and Staffordshire for most of its length. ### Landscape character The varied landscapes within Derbyshire have been formed mainly as a consequence of the underlying geology, but also by the way the land has been managed and shaped by human activity. The county contains 11 discrete landscape types, known as National Character Areas, which have been described in detail by Natural England and further refined, mapped and described by Derbyshire County Council and the Peak District National Park. The 11 National Character Areas found within Derbyshire are: * Dark Peak * White Peak * South West Peak * Derbyshire Peak Fringe and Lower Derwent * Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and Yorkshire Coalfield * Southern Magnesian Limestone * Needwood and South Derbyshire Claylands * Trent Valley Washlands * Melbourne Parklands * Leicestershire & South Derbyshire Coalfield * Mease/Sence Lowlands ### Geology Derbyshire's solid geology can be split into two very different halves. The oldest rocks occur in the northern, more upland half of the county, and are mostly of Carboniferous age, comprising limestones, gritstones, sandstones and shales. In its north-east corner to the east of Bolsover, there are also Magnesian Limestone rocks of Permian age. In contrast, the southern and more lowland half of Derbyshire contains much softer rocks, mainly mudstones and sandstones of Permo-Triassic age, which create gentler, more rolling landscapes with few rock outcrops. Across both regions can be found drift deposits of Quaternary age – mainly terrace and river gravel deposits and boulder clays. Landslip features are found on unstable layers of sandstones and shales, with Mam Tor and Alport Castles being the best-known. Cemented screes and tufa deposits occur very rarely in the limestone dales and rivers, whilst cave systems have been created naturally in the limestone since Pleistocene times. A recently discovered cave chamber near Castleton, named Titan, is the deepest shaft and biggest chamber of any cave in Britain. The oldest rocks are Lower Carboniferous limestones of Dinantian age, which form the core of the White Peak within the Peak District National Park. Because northern Derbyshire is effectively an uplifted dome of rock layers that have subsequently eroded to expose older rocks in the centre of the Derbyshire Dome, these are encircled by progressively younger limestone rocks, until they in turn give way on three sides to Upper Carboniferous shales, gritstones and sandstones of Namurian age. Younger still are the sandstones, shales and coal deposits found on the eastern flank of Derbyshire, forming the coal measures, which are of Westphalian age. All these rock layers disappear south of a line drawn between Ashbourne and Derby under layers of clays and sandstones (Mercia Mudstone Group and Sherwood Sandstones) of Permo-Triassic age. Small amounts of carboniferous limestones, gritstones and coal measures reappear in the far south of Derbyshire from Ticknall (limestone) to Swadlincote (coal measures). Some areas of the White Peak exhibit contemporaneous basalt flows (e.g. Ravens Tor at Millers Dale), as well as subsequent dolerite sill intrusion at a much later stage (e.g. near Tideswell Dale), whilst mineralisation of the carboniferous limestone in a subsequent period created extensive lead and fluorite deposits which have formed a significant part of Derbyshire's economy, as did coal mining. Lead mining has been important here since Roman Times. The more recent river gravels of the Trent valley remain a significant extractive industry today in south Derbyshire, as does the mining of limestone rock in central and northern parts of the county. Coarse sandstones were once extensively quarried both for local building materials and for the production of gritstone grinding wheels for use in mills, and both former industries have left their mark on the Derbyshire landscape. ### Green belts As well as the protections afforded to the Peak District area under national and local policies, there are several green belts within the county, aimed at preserving the landscape surrounding main urban areas. There are four such areas, the first three being portions of much larger green belts that extend outside the county and surround large conurbations: | Derbyshire green belt area | Part of the larger | Communities contained within | Communities on the outskirts | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | North West Derbyshire Green Belt | North West Green Belt for Manchester | Glossop, Hadfield, Charlesworth, Furness Vale, New Mills | Hayfield, Chinley, Whaley Bridge | | North East Derbyshire Green Belt | South and West Yorkshire Green Belt for Sheffield | Dronfield, Eckington, Killamarsh, High Lane/Ridgeway, Holymoorside | Chesterfield, Staveley, Barlborough | | South East Derbyshire Green Belt | Nottingham and Derby Green Belt for Derby/Nottingham | Ilkeston, Long Eaton, Heanor, Ripley, Borrowash, Duffield, West Hallam | Belper, Derby | | South Derbyshire Green Belt | Burton upon Trent and Swadlincote Green Belt | Stanhope Bretby, Stanton | Burton-upon-Trent, Swadlincote | Ecology ------- Due to its central location in England and altitude range from 27 metres in the south to 636 metres in the north, Derbyshire contains many species at the edge of their UK distribution ranges. Some species with a predominantly northern British distribution are at the southern limit of their range, whilst others with a more southern distribution are at their northern limit in Derbyshire. As climate change progresses, a number of sensitive species are now being seen to be either expanding or contracting their range as a result. For the purposes of protecting and recording the county's most important habitats, Derbyshire has been split into two regions, each with its own Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP), based around National Character Areas. The Peak District BAP includes all of Derbyshire's uplands of the Dark Peak, South-West Peak and White Peak, including an area of limestone beyond the national park boundary. The remaining areas are monitored and recorded in the Lowland Derbyshire Biodiversity Action Plan, which subdivides the landscape into eight smaller Action Areas. The Derbyshire Biological Records Centre was formerly based at Derby Museum and Art Gallery, but since 2011 has been managed by Derbyshire Wildlife Trust. Two of Englands 48 Local Nature Partnerships (LNP) also cover Derbyshire; these are the Peak District LNP and the Lowland Derbyshire & Nottinghamshire LNP. ### Botany Since 2002, the county flower for Derbyshire has been Jacob's-ladder (*Polemonium caeruleum*), a relatively rare species, and characteristic of certain limestone dales in the White Peak. Derbyshire is known to have contained 1,919 separate taxa of vascular plants (including species, hybrids and micro-species) since modern recording began, of which 1,133 are known to be either native or archaeophyte, the remainder being non-native species. These comprise 336 established species, 433 casuals and 17 unassigned. It is known that 34 species of plants once native here have been lost from Derbyshire (i.e. become locally extinct) since modern plant recording began in the 17th century. Derbyshire contains two endemic vascular plants, found nowhere else in the world: *Rubus durescens*, a bramble occurring in central Derbyshire, and Derby hawkweed (*Hieracium naviense*), still known only from Winnats Pass. One endemic species of moss, Derbyshire Feather Moss, occurs in one small 3-metre patch in just one Derbyshire limestone dale, its sole world location intentionally kept confidential. The distribution and status of vascular plants in Derbyshire have been recorded over the last 120 years in a series of four major botanical works, each by different authors between 1889 and 2015, all entitled *The Flora of Derbyshire*. Plant recording is mainly undertaken locally by volunteers from the Derbyshire Flora Group, and by staff at Derbyshire Wildlife Trust and the Peak District National Park. The Dark Peak is marked by heathlands, bogs, gritstone edges and acid grasslands containing relatively few species, with plants such as heather (*Calluna vulgaris*), crowberry (*Empetrum nigrum*), bilberry (*Vaccinium myrtillus*) and hare's-tail cotton grass (*Eriophorum vaginatum*) being dominant on the high moors. The dales of the White Peak are known for habitats such as calcareous grassland, ash woodlands and rock outcrops in all of which a much greater richness of lime-loving species occurs than elsewhere in the county. These include various orchids (such as early purple orchid (*Orchis mascula*), dark-red helleborine (*Epipactis atrorubens*) and fly orchid (*Ophrys insectifera*)), common rockrose (*Helianthemum nummularium*), spring cinquefoil (*Helianthemum nummularium*) and grass of parnassus (*Parnassia palustris*). Specialised communities of plants occur on former lead workings, where typical metallophyte species include spring sandwort (*Minuartia verna*), alpine penny-cress (*Thlaspi caerulescens*) (both known locally in Derbyshire as Leadwort), as well as mountain pansy (*Viola lutea*) and moonwort (*Botrychium lunaria*). In 2015, Derbyshire contained 304 vascular plant species now designated as of international, national or local conservation concern, for their rarity or recent declines, and collectively listed as Derbyshire Red Data plants. Work on recording and publishing a bryophyte flora for Derbyshire still continues: by 2012 a total of 518 bryophyte species had been recorded for the county. Botanical recording in the UK predominantly uses the unchanging vice-county boundary system, which results in a slightly different map of Derbyshire from the modern geographic county. ### Zoology A number of specialist organisations protect, promote and monitor records of individual animal groups across Derbyshire. The main ones are Derbyshire Ornithological Society; Derbyshire Mammal Group; Derbyshire Bat Group, Derbyshire Amphibian and Reptile Group, and the Derbyshire & Nottingham Entomological Society. All maintain databases of wildlife sightings, whilst some such as the Derbyshire Ornithological Society provide alerts of rare sightings on their websites or social media pages and also publish major works describing the status and distribution of species. Economy ------- Derbyshire has a mixture of a rural economy in the west, with a former coal-mining economy in the north-east (Bolsover district), the Erewash Valley around Ilkeston and in the south around Swadlincote. The rural landscape varies from arable farmland in the flatlands to the south of Derby, to upland pasture and moorland in the high gritstone uplands of the southern Pennines. Derbyshire is rich in natural mineral resources such as lead, iron, coal, and limestone, which have been exploited over a long period. Lead, for example, has been mined since Roman times. The limestone outcrops in the central area led to the establishment of large quarries to supply the industries of surrounding towns with lime for building and steelmaking, and latterly in the 20th-century cement manufacture. The Industrial Revolution also increased demand for building stone, and in the late 19th and early 20th-century, the arrival of the railways led to a large number of stone quarries being established. This industry has left its mark on the countryside, but is still a major industry: a lot of the stone is supplied as crushed stone for road building and concrete manufacture, and is moved by rail. Derbyshire's relative remoteness in the late 18th century and an abundance of fast-flowing streams led to a proliferation of the use of hydropower at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, following the mills pioneered by Richard Arkwright. Derbyshire has been said to be the home of the Industrial Revolution, and part of the Derwent Valley has been given World Heritage status in acknowledgement of this historic importance. Nationally famous companies in Derbyshire include Rolls-Royce, one of the world's leading aerospace companies, based since before World War I in Derby, Thorntons just south of Alfreton and Toyota, who have one of the UK's largest car manufacturing plants at Burnaston. Ashbourne Water used to be bottled in Buxton by Nestlé Waters UK until 2006 and Buxton Water still is. Derbyshire is one of only three counties permitted to make cheese that is labelled as Stilton cheese. The others are Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire. The smallest of six companies making this product is Hartington Creamery at Pikehall. As of March 2021, Hartington Stilton was marketing within the UK but also exporting to the US, EU and Canada. The company director told the BBC that they had "a surge in interest and consumer sales from the US". Governance ---------- The county is divided into eleven constituencies for the election of members of parliament (MPs) to the House of Commons. As of December 2019, nine constituencies are represented by Conservative MPs, whilst the remaining two are represented by Labour MPs. The results of the 2019 United Kingdom general election in Derbyshire (including the city of Derby) are as follows: | Party | Conser­vative | Labour | Liberal Democrats | Brexit | Green | Others | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Votes | 277,723 ​**(52.3%)** | 184,295 ​**(34.7%)** | 38,253 ​**(7.2%)** | 14,487 ​**(2.7%)** | 13,658 ​**(2.6%)** | 2,711 ​**(0.5%)** | | Seats won | 9Increase3 | 2Decrease3 | 0Steady | 0Steady | 0Steady | 0Steady | Derbyshire has a three-tier local government since the local government reorganisation in 1974. It has a county council based in Matlock and eight district councils and since 1997, a unitary authority area of the City of Derby. Derby remains part of Derbyshire only for ceremonial purposes. Derbyshire has become fractionally smaller during government reorganisation over the years. The Sheffield suburbs Woodseats, Beauchief, Handsworth, Woodhouse, Norton, Mosborough, Totley, Bradway and Dore were previously parts of the county, but were lost to Sheffield between 1900 and 1933; Mosborough was transferred in 1967. However, Derbyshire gained part of the Longdendale valley and Tintwistle from Cheshire in 1974. The current area of the geographic/ceremonial county of Derbyshire is only 4.7 square kilometres less than it was over 100 years ago. At the third tier are the parish councils, which do not cover all areas. The eight district councils in Derbyshire and the unitary authority of Derby are shown in the map above. These district councils are responsible for local planning and building control, local roads, council housing, environmental health, markets and fairs, refuse collection and recycling, cemeteries and crematoria, leisure services, parks, and tourism. Education, social services, libraries, main roads, public transport, policing and fire services, trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning are the responsibility of the County Council. Although Derbyshire is in the East Midlands, some parts, such as High Peak (which incorporated former areas of Cheshire after boundary changes in 1974), are closer to the northern cities of Manchester and Sheffield and these receive services more affiliated with northern England; for example, the North West Ambulance Service, Granada Television and United Utilities serve the Glossop area and the NHS Trusts here are governed by the Greater Manchester Health Authority. Outside the main city of Derby, the largest town in the county is Chesterfield. Derbyshire is also part of multiple combined authorities. High Peak is not part of Greater Manchester Combined Authority but is connected to the county both by rail and sharing a close area with Tameside at Glossop and Hadfield. The Erewash, Amber Valley and Derby districts are part of the D2N2 partnership with neighbouring Nottinghamshire. The Derbyshire Dales, Bolsover, North East Derbyshire and Chesterfield districts are part of the South Yorkshire Mayoral Combined Authority (as non constituent members). Education --------- The Derbyshire school system is comprehensive with no selective schools. The independent sector includes Repton School, Trent College and The Elms School. Settlements ----------- Derbyshire is located in DerbyshireDerby**Derby**ChesterfieldChesterfieldSwadlincoteSwadlincoteGlossopGlossopIlkestonIlkestonBelperBelperDronfieldDronfieldBuxtonBuxtonBolsoverBolsoverLongEatonLong EatonMatlockMatlockclass=notpageimage| The major settlements of Derbyshire. There are several towns in the county, with Derby the largest and most populous. At the time of the 2011 census, a population of 770,600 lived in the county with 248,752 (32%) living in Derby. The table below shows all towns with over 10,000 inhabitants. | Rank | Town | Population | Borough/District | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Derby | 248,752 (2011) | City of Derby | | | 2 | Chesterfield | 103,788 (2011) | Chesterfield | | | 3 | Long Eaton | 45,000 | Erewash | | | 4 | Ilkeston | 38,640 (2011) | Erewash | | | 5 | Swadlincote | 36,000 (2004) | South Derbyshire | | | 6 | Belper | 21,823 (2011) | Amber Valley | Figure is for Belper civil parish, which includes Milford and Blackbrook | | 7 | Dronfield | 21,261 (2011) | North East Derbyshire | Figure is for Dronfield civil parish, which includes Dronfield Woodhouse and Coal Aston | | 8 | Buxton | 20,836 (2001) | High Peak | | | 9 | Ripley | 20,807 (2011) | Amber Valley | Figure is for Ripley civil parish, which includes Heage, Ambergate and Waingroves | | 10 | Staveley | 18,247 (2011) | Chesterfield | Figure is for Staveley civil parish, which includes Mastin Moor, Duckmanton, Inkersall Green and Hollingwood | | 11 | Glossop | 17,576 (2011) | High Peak | Figure is for the electoral wards of Howard Town, Old Glossop, Dinting, Simmondley and Whitfield. | | 12 | Heanor | 17,251 (2011) | Amber Valley | Figure is for Heanor and Loscoe civil parish, which includes Loscoe but excludes Heanor Gate | | 13 | Bolsover | 11,673 (2011) | Bolsover | Figure is for Old Bolsover civil parish, which includes Shuttlewood, Stanfree and Whaley, but excludes part of Hillstown. | | 14 | Eckington | 11,855 (2011) | North East Derbyshire | Figure is for Eckington civil parish, which includes Renishaw, Spinkhill, Marsh Lane and Ridgeway. | ### Historic areas Some settlements which were historically part of the county now fall under the counties of Greater Manchester, Leicestershire, South Yorkshire, and Staffordshire: | | | | --- | --- | | Cheshire/Greater Manchester | Marple Bridge (historically part of Marple) | | Leicestershire | Measham | | South Yorkshire | Mosborough, Totley, Dore | | Staffordshire | Burton-upon-Trent (*part*) | Television ---------- Because of the size of the county, southern parts of Derbyshire such as Derby, Matlock, Ashbourne and Bakewell are covered by BBC East Midlands and ITV Central in Nottingham, broadcast from Waltham. Northeast Derbyshire, Chesterfield, the eastern High Peak (Hope Valley) and northern area of the Derbyshire Dales (Tideswell and Hathersage) are covered by ITV Yorkshire and BBC Yorkshire from Emley Moor, with their ITV News Calendar and *Look North* programmes, both from Leeds. The western area of the High Peak (Buxton, Glossop, New Mills and Chapel-en-le-Frith) is covered by BBC North West from Winter Hill and ITV Granada, both based in Salford. Sport ----- Derbyshire has one Football League team, Derby County, which plays in EFL League One, the third tier of English football. The next highest-placed team is Chesterfield, which participates in the National League, the fifth tier of English football. There are also many non-league teams playing throughout the county, most notably Alfreton Town, which plays in the National League North. The county is currently home to the world's oldest football club, Sheffield F.C., which plays in Dronfield in north-east Derbyshire. Glossop was the smallest town in the country to have a football team in the top tier of English football, Glossop North End. Derbyshire has a cricket team based at the County Cricket Ground. Derbyshire County Cricket Club currently plays in Division Two of the County Championship. There are also rugby league clubs based in the north of the county, the North Derbyshire Chargers and in Derby (Derby City RLFC). The county has numerous rugby union clubs, including Derby, Chesterfield Panthers, Matlock, Ilkeston, Ashbourne, Bakewell and Amber Valley. The county is a popular area for a variety of recreational sports such as rock climbing, hill walking, hang gliding, caving, sailing on its many reservoirs, and cycling along the many miles of disused rail tracks that have been turned into cycle trails, such as the Monsal Trail and High Peak Trail. The town of Ashbourne in Derbyshire is known for its Royal Shrovetide Football, described as a "medieval football game", played annually on Shrove Tuesday and Ash Wednesday. Derbyshire is host to one of the only community Muggle quidditch teams in the country, known as Derby Union Quidditch Club. The Club recruits players from the age of 16 upwards from all over Derby, and has representatives from most local sixth forms and the University of Derby. The team has competed against both the Leeds Griffins and the Leicester Lovegoods in the past and is part of the vibrant UK quidditch scene. It is also an official International Quidditch Association team. Local attractions ----------------- The county of Derbyshire has many attractions for tourists and local people. It offers Peak District scenery such as Mam Tor and Kinder Scout, and more urban attractions such as Bakewell, Buxton and Derby. Such places include Bolsover Castle, Castleton, Chatsworth House, National Tramway Museum at Crich, Peak Rail steam railway, Midland Railway steam railway, Dovedale, Haddon Hall, the Heights of Abraham and Matlock Bath. In the north of the county, three large reservoirs, Howden, Derwent and Ladybower, were built in the early part of the 20th century to supply the rapidly growing populations of Sheffield, Derby and Leicester with drinking water. The moorland catchment area around these is part of the Peak District National Park and extensively used for leisure pursuits such as walking and cycling. There are many properties and lands in the care of the National Trust that are open to the public, such as Calke Abbey, Hardwick Hall, High Peak Estate, Ilam Park, Kedleston Hall, Longshaw Estate near Hathersage, and Sudbury Hall on the Staffordshire border. Notable gardens in Derbyshire include the formal ones in 17th–18th-century French style at Melbourne Hall south of Derby, the listed garden at Renishaw Hall near Eckington, Lea Rhododendron Gardens near Matlock, the Royal Horticultural Society recommended Bluebell Arboretum near Swadlincote, and the extensive gardens at Chatsworth House. Ardotalia, also known as Melandra, or Melandra Castle, is an ancient Roman fort built in the north-west of the county. The ruins and foundations are open free of charge to the public. County emblems -------------- As part of a 2002 marketing campaign, the plant conservation charity Plantlife chose the Jacob's-ladder as the county flower. In September 2006, a proposal for a county flag was introduced, largely on the initiative of BBC Radio Derby. It consists of a white-bordered dark green cross encompassing a golden Tudor rose (a historical symbol of the county) all set in a blue field. The blue field represents the many waters of the county, its rivers and reservoirs, while the cross is green to mark the great areas of countryside. The flag was subsequently registered with the Flag Institute in September 2008. In 2015, BBC Radio Derby commissioned a Derbyshire anthem entitled "Our Derbyshire", including lyrics suggested by its listeners. It received its first performance on 17 September 2015 at Derby Cathedral. Demographics ------------ Derbyshire Compared| UK Census 2011 | Derby | Derbyshire | East Midlands | England | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Total population | 248,752 | 769,686 | 4,533,222 | 53,012,456 | | Foreign born (outside Europe) | 9.3% | *1.4%* | 6.4% | 9.3% | | White | 80.2% | 97.5% | 89.3% | 85.5% | | Asian | 12.6% | 1.1% | 6.4% | 7.7% | | Black | 3.0% | 0.4% | 1.7% | 3.4% | | Christian | 52.7% | 63.6% | 58.8% | 59.4% | | Muslim | 7.6% | 0.3% | 3.1% | 5.0% | | Hindu | 0.9% | 0.2% | 2.0% | 1.5% | | No religion | 27.6% | 28.0% | 27.5% | 24.7% | | Over 65 | 15.1% | 18.6% | 17.1% | 16.3% | | Unemployed | 5.2% | 3.9% | 4.2% | 4.4% | In 1801 the population was 147,481 According to the UK Census 2001 there were 956,301 people spread over the county's 254,615 hectares. This was estimated to have risen to 990,400 in 2006. The county's population grew by 3.0 per cent from 1991 to 2001 which is around 21,100 people. This figure is higher than the national average of 2.65 per cent, but lower than the East Midlands average of 4.0 per cent. The county as a whole has an average population density of 2.9 people per hectare, making it less densely populated than England as a whole. The density varies throughout the county, with the lowest being in the region of Derbyshire Dales at 0.88 per hectare, and the highest outside the main cities in the region of Erewash, which has 10.04 people per hectare. Population since 1801| Year | **1801** | **1851** | **1901** | **1911** | **1921** | **1931** | **1939** | **1951** | **1961** | **1971** | **1981** | **1991** | **2001** | **2011** | | Derbyshirenon-metropolitan county | 132,786 | 223,414 | 465,896 | 542,697 | 565,826 | 590,470 | 613,301 | 637,645 | 651,284 | 666,013 | 687,404 | 717,935 | 734,585 | 769,686 | | Derbyunitary authority | 14,695 | 48,506 | 118,469 | 132,188 | 142,824 | 154,316 | 167,321 | 181,423 | 199,578 | 219,558 | 214,424 | 225,296 | 221,716 | 248,752 | | Totalas a ceremonial county | **147,481** | **271,920** | **584,365** | **674,885** | **708,650** | **744,786** | **780,622** | **819,068** | **850,862** | **885,571** | **901,828** | **943,231** | **956,301** | **1,018,438** | In literature and popular culture --------------------------------- In Jane Austen's novel *Pride and Prejudice*, Pemberley, the country house of Fitzwilliam Darcy, is in Derbyshire. Chatsworth House in Derbyshire is named as one of the estates Elizabeth Bennet visits before arriving at Pemberley. In the 2005 film adaptation of the novel, Chatsworth House itself represents Pemberley. In one scene characters discuss visits to Matlock and Dovedale. Sir Walter Scott's 1823 novel *Peveril of the Peak* is partly set in Derbyshire. The events of Tom Stoppard's play *Arcadia* take place in the fictional country house of Sidley Park in Derbyshire. Georgette Heyer's detective/romance novel *The Toll-Gate* is set in 1817 around a fictional toll-gate in Derbyshire. The 1969 film *Women in Love* by Ken Russell had scenes filmed in and around Elvaston Castle, notably the Greco-Roman wrestling scene, which was filmed in the castle's Great Hall. The 1986 film *Lady Jane* by Trevor Nunn, starring Helena Bonham Carter and Cary Elwes, has scenes filmed at Haddon Hall. The 1987 film *The Princess Bride* by Rob Reiner, starring Robin Wright and Cary Elwes, was partly filmed in Derbyshire. It included scenes at Haddon Hall and in the White Peak and Dark Peak. The 1988 film *The Lair of the White Worm* by Ken Russell, starring Hugh Grant, was filmed in Derbyshire. The opening title sequence is of Thor's Cave in the Manifold valley. The 2008 film *The Duchess* includes scenes filmed at Chatsworth House and at Kedleston Hall. The 1993–2002 TV series *Peak Practice* was set in Crich and Fritchley, except for the twelfth and final series, and originally starred Kevin Whately and Amanda Burton. In 2003 an unrelated and less successful medical TV drama, *Sweet Medicine*, was mostly filmed in the historic market town of Wirksworth. Other Derbyshire locations in which British TV scenes have been filmed include: * Alderwasley: *Stig of the Dump* * Ashbourne and Vernon Street in Derby: *Nanny* * Chesterfield: The twisted spire of Church of St Mary and All Saints, Chesterfield, was made famous by its use in the opening credits of the 1966–1971 ecclesiastical BBC TV sitcom *All Gas and Gaiters*, featuring Derek Nimmo. * Hadfield: *The League of Gentlemen* * The Peak District is the scene of a series of four crime novels of the 21st century by Sarah Ward: *Bitter Chill* (2015), *The Shrouded Path* (2020), *A Deadly Thaw* and *A Patient Fury*. * Repton and especially Repton School: *Goodbye, Mr. Chips* (in both 1939 and 1983 versions) * Shirebrook: *The Full Monty* * Wingfield Manor: 1980s BBC TV series of *The Chronicles of Narnia* See also -------- * Custos Rotulorum of Derbyshire – Keepers of the Rolls * Derbyshire (UK Parliament constituency) * Derbyshire Police and Crime Commissioner * High Sheriff of Derbyshire * History of Derbyshire * Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire Further reading --------------- * Smith, Roly (1999). *Towns & Villages of Britain: Derbyshire*. Cheshire: Sigma Press. ISBN 1-85058-622-5. * Pevsner, Nikolaus (1953). *The Buildings of England: Derbyshire*. Middlesex: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-071008-6. * Pevsner & Williamson, Elizabeth (1978). *The Buildings of England: Derbyshire*. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-071008-6. * Willmot, Alan; Moyes, Nick (2015). *The Flora of Derbyshire*. Pisces Publication. ISBN 978-1-874357-65-0. * Frost, Roy; Shaw, Steve (2014). *The Birds of Derbyshire*. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 9781846319563. * Alston, Debbie; Mallon, Dave; Whiteley, Derek (2013). *The Mammals of Derbyshire*. Derbyshire Mammal Group and Sorby Natural History Society. ISBN 9780950039688. * Cope, F. Wolverson (1998). *Geology Explained in the Peak District*. Scarthin Books. ISBN 0907758983.

Derbyshire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derbyshire

The **coat of arms of Germany** displays a black eagle with a red beak, a red tongue and red feet on a golden field, which is blazoned: *Or, an eagle displayed sable beaked langued and membered gules*. This is the ***Bundesadler*** (German for "Federal Eagle"), formerly known as *Reichsadler* (German for "Imperial Eagle"). It is one of the oldest coats of arms in the world, and today the oldest national symbol used in Europe. It is a re-introduction of the coat of arms of the Weimar Republic (in use 1919–1935), which was adopted by the Federal Republic of Germany in 1950. The current official design is due to Karl-Tobias Schwab [de] (1887–1967) and was originally introduced in 1928. The German Empire of 1871–1918 had re-introduced the medieval coat of arms of the Holy Roman Emperors, in use during the 13th and 14th centuries (a black single-headed eagle on a golden background), before the emperors adopted the double-headed eagle, beginning with Sigismund of Luxemburg in 1433. The single-headed Prussian Eagle (on a white background; blazoned: *Argent, an eagle displayed sable*) was used as an escutcheon to represent the Prussian kings as dynasts of the German Empire. The Weimar Republic introduced a version in which the escutcheon and other monarchical symbols were removed. The Federal Republic of Germany adopted the Weimar eagle as its symbol in 1950. Since then, it has been known as the *Bundesadler* ("federal eagle"). The legal basis of the use of this coat of arms is the announcement by President Theodor Heuss, Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and Interior Minister Gustav Heinemann of 20 January 1950, which is word for word identical to the announcement by President Friedrich Ebert and Interior Minister Erich Koch-Weser by 11 November 1919: > By reason of a decision of the Federal Government I hereby announce that the Federal coat of arms on a gold-yellow shield shows the one headed black eagle, the head turned to the right, the wings open but with closed feathering, beak, tongue and claws of red color. If the Federal Eagle is shown without a frame, the same charge and colors as those of the eagle of the Federal coat of arms are to be used, but the tops of the feathers are directed outside. The patterns kept by the Federal Ministry of the Interior are definitive for the heraldic design. The artistic design is reserved to each special purpose. > > — The Federal President Theodor Heuß, The Federal Chancellor Adenauer, The Federal Minister of the Interior Heinemann, Announcement concerning the federal coat of arms and the federal eagle. Since the accession (1990) of the states that used to form the German Democratic Republic, the Federal Eagle has been the symbol of the reunified Germany. Official depictions of the eagle can be found not only in the federal coat of arms but also on the federal institutions flag, the standard of the president of Germany and official seals. These are designs by various artists of the Weimar period and differ primarily in the shape and position of the wings. A large and rather plump version of the eagle decorates the chamber of the Bundestag, the German parliament; it is sometimes called *Fette Henne* ("Fat Hen"), with a similar representation found on the German euro coins. In addition to the official depictions, artistic renderings of the federal eagle are permitted and have found their way onto coins, stamps and the letterhead of federal authorities. In 1997 the Federal Press Office implemented a slightly simplified version of the original von Weech seal design which has since been used as a corporate design of the Federal government especially for publications and media appearances. It has no official status though as it is not mentioned in any ordinance or shown in the binding patterns of 1952 still in effect. | Variants employed by institutions | | --- | | | | | | | | Bundestag | Bundesrat | President | Cabinet | Federal Constitutional Court | The arms emblazoned on the German 1 euro coin (l.), as well Ludwig Gies's sculpture of the eagle charge, as displayed previously in the Federal parliament in Bonn (m.) and presently in the Reichstag building in Berlin (r.), respectively. Previous versions ----------------- ### Holy Roman Empire The German Imperial Eagle (*Reichsadler*) originates from a proto-heraldic emblem believed to have been used by Charlemagne, the first Frankish ruler crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope in 800, and derived ultimately from the *Aquila* or eagle standard, of the Roman army. By the 13th century the imperial coat of arms was generally recognized as: *Or, an eagle displayed sable beaked and membered gules* (a black eagle with wings expanded with red beak and legs on a gold field). During the medieval period the imperial eagle was usually single-headed. A double-headed eagle is attributed as the arms of Frederick II in the *Chronica Majora* (c. 1250). In 1433 the double-headed eagle was adopted by Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor. Thereafter the double-headed eagle was used as the arms of the German emperor, and hence as the symbol of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. From the 12th century the Emperors also used a personal coat of arms separate from the imperial arms. From the reign of Albert II (reigned 1438–39), the Emperors bore the old Imperial arms with an inescutcheon of pretence of his personal family arms, which appears as the black eagle with an escutcheon on his breast. * Coats of arms of the Holy Roman Empire * First depiction of the Reichsadler as a double-headed eagle (coat of arms of Otto IV from the Chronica Majora, c. 1250)First depiction of the *Reichsadler* as a double-headed eagle (coat of arms of Otto IV from the Chronica Majora, c. 1250) * Coat of arms of the Holy Roman Empire with two putti (1540s manuscript)Coat of arms of the Holy Roman Empire with two putti (1540s manuscript) * Imperial coat of arms (Römischer Kayserlicher und Königlicher Mayestät Wappen) from Siebmachers Wappenbuch (1605)Imperial coat of arms (*Römischer Kayserlicher und Königlicher Mayestät Wappen*) from Siebmachers Wappenbuch (1605) * Coat of arms from 1804 to 1806 under Francis IICoat of arms from 1804 to 1806 under Francis II ### German Confederation In 1815, a German Confederation (*Bund*) of 39 loosely united German states was founded on the territory of the former Holy Roman Empire. Until 1848, the confederation did not have a coat of arms of its own. The Federal Diet (*Bundestag*) meeting at Frankfurt am Main used a seal which carried the emblem of the Austrian Empire, since Austria had taken over the union's leadership. It showed a black, double-headed eagle, which Austria had adopted just before the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 1848 revolution, a new *Reich* coat of arms was adopted by the National Assembly that convened in St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt. The black double-headed eagle was retained, but without the four symbols of the emperor: the sword, the imperial orb, the sceptre and the crown. The eagle rested on a golden shield; above was a five-pointed golden star. On both sides the shield was flanked by three flags with the colors black-red-gold. The emblem, however, never gained general acceptance. The coat of arms itself was the result of a decision of the federal assembly: > The federal assembly constitutes the old German imperial eagle with the surrounding scripture "German Confederation" and the colors of the former German imperial coat of arms – black, red, gold – to be the coat of arms and colors of the German Confederation and reserves the right, to make further decision about its use according to the lecture of the committee. > > — The Federal Assembly of the German Confederation, Federal decision about coat of arms and colors of the German Confederation of 19 March 1848 > * Coats of arms in the times of the German Confederation * Coat of arms of the Austrian Empire, 1804–1867Coat of arms of the Austrian Empire, 1804–1867 * Coat of arms of the German Confederation, 1815–1866Coat of arms of the German Confederation, 1815–1866 * Coat of arms of the German Empire, 1848–1849Coat of arms of the German Empire, 1848–1849 ### North German Confederation In 1867, the North German Confederation was established without Austria and the four southern German states (Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt with only its southern half) and under the leadership of the Kingdom of Prussia (see Coat of arms of Prussia). A new coat of arms was adopted, which consisted of a shield with the colors black-white-red, flanked by two wild men holding cudgels and standing on a pedestal. | Coat of arms of the North German Confederation | | --- | | | | ### German Empire The *Reichsadler* had already been introduced at the Proclamation of Versailles, although the first version had been only a provisional one. The design of the eagle was altered at least twice during the German Empire (1871–1918). It shows the imperial eagle, a comparatively realistic black eagle, with the heraldic crown of the German Empire. The eagle has a red beak, tongue and claws, with open wings and feathers. In contrast to its predecessor, the eagle of the German Confederation, it has only one head, looking to the right, symbolising that important parts of the old empire, Austria and Bohemia, were not part of this new empire. Its legal basis was an imperial rescript: > To the Reich Chancellor Prince of Bismarck. Following your report of 27 June of this year I authorise: 1. that public authorities and public servants, appointed by the Emperor according to the requirements of the constitution and the laws of the German Empire, are to be called imperial; 2. that the black, one-headed, rightward-looking eagle with red beak, tongue and claws, without scepter and orb, on the breast shield the Prussian eagle, overlaid with the shield of the House of Hohenzollern, *(i.e. with inescutcheon of pretence of Hohenzollern ("quarterly argent and sable"))* over the same the crown in the form of the crown of Charlemagne, but with two crossing bows, may be brought into use; 3. that the Imperial standard [Script continues] > > — Kaiser Wilhelm, Rescript of August third, 1871, concerning the names of the public authorities and public servants of the German Empire, as well as the declaration of the Imperial coat of arms and the Imperial standard * The coats of arms of the German Empire (1871–1918) * Lesser coat of arms of the German EmperorLesser coat of arms of the German Emperor * Coat of arms of the German Emperor with crest: imperial coat of arms of His Majesty, 27 April 1871 – 3 August 1871Coat of arms of the German Emperor with crest: imperial coat of arms of His Majesty, 27 April 1871 – 3 August 1871 * Greater coat of arms of the German Emperor: imperial coat of arms of His MajestyGreater coat of arms of the German Emperor: imperial coat of arms of His Majesty * Middle coat of arms of the German EmperorMiddle coat of arms of the German Emperor * Provisional coat of arms of the German Empire at the Proclamation of VersaillesProvisional coat of arms of the German Empire at the Proclamation of Versailles * Small or 'lesser' coat of arms of the German Empire, 1871–1889Small or 'lesser' coat of arms of the German Empire, 1871–1889 * Small or 'lesser' coat of arms of the German Empire, 1889–1918Small or 'lesser' coat of arms of the German Empire, 1889–1918 ### Weimar Republic After the introduction of the republic the coat of arms of Germany was also altered accounting for the political changes. The Weimar Republic (1918–1933), retained the Reichsadler without the symbols of the former Monarchy (Crown, Collar, Breast shield with the Prussian Arms). This left the black eagle with one head, facing to the right, with open wings but closed feathers, with a red beak, tongue and claws and white highlighting. The republican Reichsadler is based on the Reichsadler introduced by the Paulskirche Constitution of 1849, which was decided by the Germany National Assembly in Frankfurt upon Main, at the peak of the German civic movement demanding parliamentary participation and the unification of the German states. The achievements and signs of this movement had been mostly done away after its downfall and the political reaction in the 1850s. Only the tiny German Principality of Waldeck-Pyrmont upheld the tradition and continued to use the German colours called Schwarz-Rot-Gold in German (English: Black-Red-Or). These signs had remained symbols of the Paulskirche movement and Weimar Germany wanted to express its view of being also originated in that political movement between 1848 and 1852. The republican coat of arms took up the idea of the German crest established by the Paulskirche movement, using the same charge animal, an eagle, in the same colors (black, red and or), but modernising its form, including a reduction of the heads from two to one. The artistic rendition of the eagle was very realistic. This eagle is mounted on a yellow (golden) shield. The coat of arms was announced in 1919 by the President Friedrich Ebert and Interior Minister Erich Koch-Weser: > By reason of a decision of the Reich's Government I hereby announce, that the Imperial coat of arms on a gold-yellow shield shows the one headed black eagle, the head turned to the right, the wings open but with closed feathering, beak, tongue and claws in red colour. If the Reich's Eagle is shown without a frame, the same charge and colors as those of the eagle of the Reich's coat of arms are to be used, but the tops of the feathers are directed outside. The patterns kept by the Federal Ministry of the Interior are decisive for the heraldic design. The artistic design may be varied for each special purpose. > > — President Ebert; Minister of the Interior, Koch, Announcement concerning the federal coat of arms and the imperial eagle of 11 November 1919 However, in 1928 the Reichswappen (Reich's coat of arms) designed by Tobias Schwab (1887–1967) in 1926 (or 1924) for the German Olympic team became the official emblem. The Reichswehr adopted the new Reichswappen already in 1927. Emil Doepler's earlier design then became the *Reichsschild* (Reich's escutcheon) with restricted use such as pennant for government vehicles. In 1920, Sigmund von Weech [de] designed a *Staatssiegel* (State seal), of which the smaller version was used since 1921 by all Reich ministries and authorities on official documents as a consistent sign. It also appeared on the German passports. In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany adopted all signs of Weimar Republic, Reichswappen, Reichsschild, Staatssiegel, Reichsflagge as Bundeswappen, Bundesschild. Bundessiegel and Bundesflagge in the 1950s. | Coats of arms of the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) | | --- | | | | | Bundesadler | | Coat of arms of the German Reich (*Reichswappen*), 1919–28 | Coat of arms of the German Reich (*Reichswappen*), 1928–35 | The *Reichsschild* (Reich's escutcheon), used on governmental flags of the Weimar Republic between 1921 and 1933 | The small coat of arms as used on official seals and for federal institutions, 1921–1935 | ### Nazi Germany Nazi Germany used the Weimar coat of arms until 1935. The Nazi Party used a black eagle above a stylised oak wreath, with a swastika at its centre. With the eagle looking over its left shoulder, that is, looking to the right from the viewer's point of view, it symbolises the Nazi Party, and was therefore called the *Parteiadler*. After 1935 the Nazis introduced their party symbol as the national insignia (*Hoheitszeichen*) as well. This version symbolises the country (*Reich*), and was therefore called the *Reichsadler*. It can be distinguished from the *Parteiadler* because the eagle of the latter is looking over its right shoulder, that is, looking to the left from the viewer's point of view. The emblem was established by a regulation made by Adolf Hitler, 5 November 1935: > To express the unity of party and state in relation to their emblems too, I decide: > **Article 1** The reich holds as emblem of its nationality the national emblem of the National Socialist German Workers Party. > **Article 2** The national emblems of the Wehrmacht remain intact. > **Article 3** The announcement concerning the imperial coat of arms and the imperial eagle (Reichsgesetzbl. Pg 1877) is cancelled. > **Article 4** In agreement with the Representative of the Führer, the Reich Minister of the Interior will enact the regulations necessary to implement article 1. > > — The Führer and Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler (and others), Regulation concerning the national emblem of the reich of 5 November 1935 Hitler added on 7 March 1936, that: > In relation to the Regulation concerning the national emblem of the reich of 5 November 1935, article 1 I decide: The national emblem of the Reich shows the swastika, surrounded by an oak wreath, on the oak wreath an eagle with spread wings. The head of the eagle is turned to the right. For the heraldic design of the national emblem, the included patterns are decisive. The artistic design is varied for each special purpose. > > — The Führer and Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler (and others), Regulation concerning the design of the national emblem of the Reich of 7 March 1936 | Insignia of Nazi Germany (1933–45) | | --- | | | | | | | | Coat of arms of the German Reich (*Reichswappen*), 1933–35 | Emblem of the German Reich (*Reichsadler*), 1935–45 | Emblem of the NSDAP (*Parteiadler*) | Variant emblem of the NSDAP (*Parteiadler*) | Variant emblem of the German Reich for a German Army (*Heer*) helmet | ### German Democratic Republic East Germany (German Democratic Republic) used a socialist insignia from 1950 until its reunification with West Germany in 1990. In 1959 the insignia was also added to the flag of East Germany. | Insignia of the German Democratic Republic | | --- | | | | | | Coat of arms of East Germany, 1950–53 | Coat of arms of East Germany, 1953–55 | Coat of arms of East Germany, 1955–90 | See also -------- * Armorial of Germany * Coat of arms of Austria * Coat of arms of Prussia * Coats of arms of German colonies * Coats of arms of the Holy Roman Empire * Origin of the coats of arms of German federal states Further reading --------------- * Ströhl, Hugo Gerard (1897), *Deutsche Wappenrolle* (Reprint Cologne ed.), Stuttgart, ISBN 3-89836-545-X. * Laitenberger, Birgit; Bassier, Maria (2000), *Wappen und Flaggen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und ihrer Länder* (5th revised ed.), Cologne, ISBN 3-452-24262-5.

Coat of arms of Germany

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany

In mathematics, the **gamma function** (represented by Γ, the capital letter gamma from the Greek alphabet) is one commonly used extension of the factorial function to complex numbers. The gamma function is defined for all complex numbers except the non-positive integers. For every positive integer n, Γ ( n ) = ( n − 1 ) ! . {\displaystyle \Gamma (n)=(n-1)!\,.} {\displaystyle \Gamma (n)=(n-1)!\,.} Derived by Daniel Bernoulli, for complex numbers with a positive real part, the gamma function is defined via a convergent improper integral: Γ ( z ) = ∫ 0 ∞ t z − 1 e − t d t ,   ℜ ( z ) > 0 . {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=\int \_{0}^{\infty }t^{z-1}e^{-t}\,dt,\ \qquad \Re (z)>0\,.} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=\int _{0}^{\infty }t^{z-1}e^{-t}\,dt,\ \qquad \Re (z)>0\,.} The gamma function then is defined as the analytic continuation of this integral function to a meromorphic function that is holomorphic in the whole complex plane except zero and the negative integers, where the function has simple poles. The gamma function has no zeros, so the reciprocal gamma function 1/Γ(*z*) is an entire function. In fact, the gamma function corresponds to the Mellin transform of the negative exponential function: Γ ( z ) = M { e − x } ( z ) . {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\mathcal {M}}\{e^{-x}\}(z)\,.} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\mathcal {M}}\{e^{-x}\}(z)\,.} Other extensions of the factorial function do exist, but the gamma function is the most popular and useful. It is a component in various probability-distribution functions, and as such it is applicable in the fields of probability and statistics, as well as combinatorics. Motivation ---------- The gamma function can be seen as a solution to the following interpolation problem: "Find a smooth curve that connects the points (*x*, *y*) given by *y* = (*x* − 1)! at the positive integer values for x." A plot of the first few factorials suggests that such a curve can be drawn, but it would be preferable to have a formula that precisely describes the curve, in which the number of operations does not depend on the size of x. The simple formula for the factorial, *x*! = 1 × 2 × ⋯ × *x*, cannot be used directly for non-integer values of x since it is only valid when x is a natural number (or positive integer). There are, relatively speaking, no such simple solutions for factorials; no finite combination of sums, products, powers, exponential functions, or logarithms will suffice to express *x*!; but it is possible to find a general formula for factorials using tools such as integrals and limits from calculus. A good solution to this is the gamma function. There are infinitely many continuous extensions of the factorial to non-integers: infinitely many curves can be drawn through any set of isolated points. The gamma function is the most useful solution in practice, being analytic (except at the non-positive integers), and it can be defined in several equivalent ways. However, it is not the only analytic function that extends the factorial, as adding to it any analytic function that is zero on the positive integers, such as *k* sin *mπx* for an integer m, will give another function with that property. Such a function is known as a pseudogamma function, the most famous being the Hadamard function. A more restrictive property than satisfying the above interpolation is to satisfy the recurrence relation defining a translated version of the factorial function, f ( 1 ) = 1 , {\displaystyle f(1)=1,} {\displaystyle f(1)=1,} f ( x + 1 ) = x f ( x ) , {\displaystyle f(x+1)=xf(x),} {\displaystyle f(x+1)=xf(x),} for any positive real number x. But this would allow for multiplication by any function *g*(*x*) satisfying both *g*(*x*) = *g*(*x*+1) for all real numbers *x* and *g*(0) = 1, such as the function *g*(*x*) = *e* *k* sin *2mπx*. One of several ways to resolve the ambiguity comes from the Bohr–Mollerup theorem. It states that when the condition that *f* be logarithmically convex (or "super-convex", meaning that ln ∘ f {\displaystyle \ln \circ f} {\displaystyle \ln \circ f} is convex) is added, it uniquely determines *f* for positive, real inputs. From there, the gamma function can be extended to all real and complex values (except the negative integers and zero) by using the unique analytic continuation of *f*. Definition ---------- ### Main definition The notation Γ ( z ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)} \Gamma (z) is due to Legendre. If the real part of the complex number z is strictly positive ( ℜ ( z ) > 0 {\displaystyle \Re (z)>0} {\displaystyle \Re (z)>0}), then the integral Γ ( z ) = ∫ 0 ∞ t z − 1 e − t d t {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=\int \_{0}^{\infty }t^{z-1}e^{-t}\,dt} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=\int _{0}^{\infty }t^{z-1}e^{-t}\,dt} converges absolutely, and is known as the **Euler integral of the second kind**. (Euler's integral of the first kind is the beta function.) Using integration by parts, one sees that: Γ ( z + 1 ) = ∫ 0 ∞ t z e − t d t = [ − t z e − t ] 0 ∞ + ∫ 0 ∞ z t z − 1 e − t d t = lim t → ∞ ( − t z e − t ) − ( − 0 z e − 0 ) + z ∫ 0 ∞ t z − 1 e − t d t . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma (z+1)&=\int \_{0}^{\infty }t^{z}e^{-t}\,dt\\&={\Bigl [}-t^{z}e^{-t}{\Bigr ]}\_{0}^{\infty }+\int \_{0}^{\infty }zt^{z-1}e^{-t}\,dt\\&=\lim \_{t\to \infty }\left(-t^{z}e^{-t}\right)-\left(-0^{z}e^{-0}\right)+z\int \_{0}^{\infty }t^{z-1}e^{-t}\,dt.\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma (z+1)&=\int _{0}^{\infty }t^{z}e^{-t}\,dt\\&={\Bigl [}-t^{z}e^{-t}{\Bigr ]}_{0}^{\infty }+\int _{0}^{\infty }zt^{z-1}e^{-t}\,dt\\&=\lim _{t\to \infty }\left(-t^{z}e^{-t}\right)-\left(-0^{z}e^{-0}\right)+z\int _{0}^{\infty }t^{z-1}e^{-t}\,dt.\end{aligned}}} Recognizing that − t z e − t → 0 {\displaystyle -t^{z}e^{-t}\to 0} {\displaystyle -t^{z}e^{-t}\to 0} as t → ∞ , {\displaystyle t\to \infty ,} {\displaystyle t\to \infty ,} Γ ( z + 1 ) = z ∫ 0 ∞ t z − 1 e − t d t = z Γ ( z ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma (z+1)&=z\int \_{0}^{\infty }t^{z-1}e^{-t}\,dt\\&=z\Gamma (z).\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma (z+1)&=z\int _{0}^{\infty }t^{z-1}e^{-t}\,dt\\&=z\Gamma (z).\end{aligned}}} We can calculate Γ ( 1 ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (1)} {\displaystyle \Gamma (1)}: Γ ( 1 ) = ∫ 0 ∞ t 1 − 1 e − t d t = ∫ 0 ∞ e − t d t = 1. {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma (1)&=\int \_{0}^{\infty }t^{1-1}e^{-t}\,dt\\&=\int \_{0}^{\infty }e^{-t}\,dt\\&=1.\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma (1)&=\int _{0}^{\infty }t^{1-1}e^{-t}\,dt\\&=\int _{0}^{\infty }e^{-t}\,dt\\&=1.\end{aligned}}} Thus we can show that Γ ( n ) = ( n − 1 ) ! {\displaystyle \Gamma (n)=(n-1)!} \Gamma (n)=(n-1)! for any positive integer n by induction. Specifically, the base case is that Γ ( 1 ) = 1 = 0 ! {\displaystyle \Gamma (1)=1=0!} {\displaystyle \Gamma (1)=1=0!}, and the induction step is that Γ ( n + 1 ) = n Γ ( n ) = n ( n − 1 ) ! = n ! {\displaystyle \Gamma (n+1)=n\Gamma (n)=n(n-1)!=n!} {\displaystyle \Gamma (n+1)=n\Gamma (n)=n(n-1)!=n!}. The identity Γ ( z ) = Γ ( z + 1 ) z {\textstyle \Gamma (z)={\frac {\Gamma (z+1)}{z}}} {\textstyle \Gamma (z)={\frac {\Gamma (z+1)}{z}}} can be used (or, yielding the same result, analytic continuation can be used) to uniquely extend the integral formulation for Γ ( z ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)} \Gamma (z) to a meromorphic function defined for all complex numbers z, except integers less than or equal to zero. It is this extended version that is commonly referred to as the gamma function. ### Alternative definitions There are many equivalent definitions. #### Euler's definition as an infinite product For a fixed integer m {\displaystyle m} m, as the integer n {\displaystyle n} n increases, we have that lim n → ∞ n ! ( n + 1 ) m ( n + m ) ! = 1 . {\displaystyle \lim \_{n\to \infty }{\frac {n!\,\left(n+1\right)^{m}}{(n+m)!}}=1\,.} {\displaystyle \lim _{n\to \infty }{\frac {n!\,\left(n+1\right)^{m}}{(n+m)!}}=1\,.} If m {\displaystyle m} m is not an integer then it is not possible to say whether this equation is true because we have not yet (in this section) defined the factorial function for non-integers. However, we do get a unique extension of the factorial function to the non-integers by insisting that this equation continue to hold when the arbitrary integer m {\displaystyle m} m is replaced by an arbitrary complex number z {\displaystyle z} z, lim n → ∞ n ! ( n + 1 ) z ( n + z ) ! = 1 . {\displaystyle \lim \_{n\to \infty }{\frac {n!\,\left(n+1\right)^{z}}{(n+z)!}}=1\,.} {\displaystyle \lim _{n\to \infty }{\frac {n!\,\left(n+1\right)^{z}}{(n+z)!}}=1\,.} Multiplying both sides by ( z − 1 ) ! {\displaystyle (z-1)!} {\displaystyle (z-1)!} gives Γ ( z ) = ( z − 1 ) ! = 1 z lim n → ∞ n ! z ! ( n + z ) ! ( n + 1 ) z = 1 z lim n → ∞ ( 1 ⋯ n ) 1 ( 1 + z ) ⋯ ( n + z ) ( 2 1 ⋅ 3 2 ⋯ n + 1 n ) z = 1 z ∏ n = 1 ∞ [ 1 1 + z n ( 1 + 1 n ) z ] . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma (z)&=(z-1)!\\[8pt]&={\frac {1}{z}}\lim \_{n\to \infty }n!{\frac {z!}{(n+z)!}}(n+1)^{z}\\[8pt]&={\frac {1}{z}}\lim \_{n\to \infty }(1\cdots n){\frac {1}{(1+z)\cdots (n+z)}}\left({\frac {2}{1}}\cdot {\frac {3}{2}}\cdots {\frac {n+1}{n}}\right)^{z}\\[8pt]&={\frac {1}{z}}\prod \_{n=1}^{\infty }\left[{\frac {1}{1+{\frac {z}{n}}}}\left(1+{\frac {1}{n}}\right)^{z}\right].\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma (z)&=(z-1)!\\[8pt]&={\frac {1}{z}}\lim _{n\to \infty }n!{\frac {z!}{(n+z)!}}(n+1)^{z}\\[8pt]&={\frac {1}{z}}\lim _{n\to \infty }(1\cdots n){\frac {1}{(1+z)\cdots (n+z)}}\left({\frac {2}{1}}\cdot {\frac {3}{2}}\cdots {\frac {n+1}{n}}\right)^{z}\\[8pt]&={\frac {1}{z}}\prod _{n=1}^{\infty }\left[{\frac {1}{1+{\frac {z}{n}}}}\left(1+{\frac {1}{n}}\right)^{z}\right].\end{aligned}}} This infinite product, which is due to Euler, converges for all complex numbers z {\displaystyle z} z except the non-positive integers, which fail because of a division by zero. Intuitively, this formula indicates that Γ ( z ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)} \Gamma (z) is approximately the result of computing Γ ( n + 1 ) = n ! {\displaystyle \Gamma (n+1)=n!} \Gamma (n+1)=n! for some large integer n {\displaystyle n} n, multiplying by ( n + 1 ) z {\displaystyle (n+1)^{z}} {\displaystyle (n+1)^{z}} to approximate Γ ( n + z + 1 ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (n+z+1)} {\displaystyle \Gamma (n+z+1)}, and using the relationship Γ ( x + 1 ) = x Γ ( x ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (x+1)=x\Gamma (x)} {\displaystyle \Gamma (x+1)=x\Gamma (x)} backwards n + 1 {\displaystyle n+1} n+1 times to get an approximation for Γ ( z ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)} \Gamma (z); and furthermore that this approximation becomes exact as n {\displaystyle n} n increases to infinity. #### Weierstrass's definition The definition for the gamma function due to Weierstrass is also valid for all complex numbers z except the non-positive integers: Γ ( z ) = e − γ z z ∏ n = 1 ∞ ( 1 + z n ) − 1 e z / n , {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\frac {e^{-\gamma z}}{z}}\prod \_{n=1}^{\infty }\left(1+{\frac {z}{n}}\right)^{-1}e^{z/n},} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\frac {e^{-\gamma z}}{z}}\prod _{n=1}^{\infty }\left(1+{\frac {z}{n}}\right)^{-1}e^{z/n},} where γ ≈ 0.577216 {\displaystyle \gamma \approx 0.577216} {\displaystyle \gamma \approx 0.577216} is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. This is the Hadamard product of 1 / Γ ( z ) {\displaystyle 1/\Gamma (z)} {\displaystyle 1/\Gamma (z)} in a rewritten form. | Proof of equivalence of the three definitions | | --- | | **Equivalence of the integral definition and Weierstrass definition** By the integral definition, the relation Γ ( z + 1 ) = z Γ ( z ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (z+1)=z\Gamma (z)} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z+1)=z\Gamma (z)} and Hadamard factorization theorem, 1 Γ ( z ) = z e c 1 z + c 2 ∏ n = 1 ∞ e − z n ( 1 + z n ) , z ∈ C ∖ Z 0 − {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\Gamma (z)}}=ze^{c\_{1}z+c\_{2}}\prod \_{n=1}^{\infty }e^{-{\frac {z}{n}}}\left(1+{\frac {z}{n}}\right),\quad z\in \mathbb {C} \setminus \mathbb {Z} \_{0}^{-}} {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\Gamma (z)}}=ze^{c_{1}z+c_{2}}\prod _{n=1}^{\infty }e^{-{\frac {z}{n}}}\left(1+{\frac {z}{n}}\right),\quad z\in \mathbb {C} \setminus \mathbb {Z} _{0}^{-}} for some constants c 1 , c 2 {\displaystyle c\_{1},c\_{2}} {\displaystyle c_{1},c_{2}} since 1 / Γ {\displaystyle 1/\Gamma } {\displaystyle 1/\Gamma } is an entire function of order 1 {\displaystyle 1} 1. Since z Γ ( z ) → 1 {\displaystyle z\Gamma (z)\to 1} {\displaystyle z\Gamma (z)\to 1} as z → 0 {\displaystyle z\to 0} {\displaystyle z\to 0}, c 2 = 0 {\displaystyle c\_{2}=0} {\displaystyle c_{2}=0} (or an integer multiple of 2 π i {\displaystyle 2\pi i} 2\pi i) and since Γ ( 1 ) = 1 {\displaystyle \Gamma (1)=1} {\displaystyle \Gamma (1)=1}, e − c 1 = ∏ n = 1 ∞ e − 1 n ( 1 + 1 n ) = exp ⁡ ( lim N → ∞ ∑ n = 1 N ( log ⁡ ( 1 + 1 n ) − 1 n ) ) = exp ⁡ ( lim N → ∞ ( log ⁡ ( N + 1 ) − ∑ n = 1 N 1 n ) ) = exp ⁡ ( lim N → ∞ ( log ⁡ N + log ⁡ ( 1 + 1 N ) − ∑ n = 1 N 1 n ) ) = exp ⁡ ( lim N → ∞ ( log ⁡ N − ∑ n = 1 N 1 n ) ) = e − γ . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}e^{-c\_{1}}&=\prod \_{n=1}^{\infty }e^{-{\frac {1}{n}}}\left(1+{\frac {1}{n}}\right)\\&=\exp \left(\lim \_{N\to \infty }\sum \_{n=1}^{N}\left(\log \left(1+{\frac {1}{n}}\right)-{\frac {1}{n}}\right)\right)\\&=\exp \left(\lim \_{N\to \infty }\left(\log(N+1)-\sum \_{n=1}^{N}{\frac {1}{n}}\right)\right)\\&=\exp \left(\lim \_{N\to \infty }\left(\log N+\log \left(1+{\frac {1}{N}}\right)-\sum \_{n=1}^{N}{\frac {1}{n}}\right)\right)\\&=\exp \left(\lim \_{N\to \infty }\left(\log N-\sum \_{n=1}^{N}{\frac {1}{n}}\right)\right)\\&=e^{-\gamma }.\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}e^{-c_{1}}&=\prod _{n=1}^{\infty }e^{-{\frac {1}{n}}}\left(1+{\frac {1}{n}}\right)\\&=\exp \left(\lim _{N\to \infty }\sum _{n=1}^{N}\left(\log \left(1+{\frac {1}{n}}\right)-{\frac {1}{n}}\right)\right)\\&=\exp \left(\lim _{N\to \infty }\left(\log(N+1)-\sum _{n=1}^{N}{\frac {1}{n}}\right)\right)\\&=\exp \left(\lim _{N\to \infty }\left(\log N+\log \left(1+{\frac {1}{N}}\right)-\sum _{n=1}^{N}{\frac {1}{n}}\right)\right)\\&=\exp \left(\lim _{N\to \infty }\left(\log N-\sum _{n=1}^{N}{\frac {1}{n}}\right)\right)\\&=e^{-\gamma }.\end{aligned}}} Whence c 1 = γ + 2 π i k {\displaystyle c\_{1}=\gamma +2\pi ik} {\displaystyle c_{1}=\gamma +2\pi ik} for some integer k {\displaystyle k} k. Since Γ ( z ) ∈ R {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)\in \mathbb {R} } {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)\in \mathbb {R} } for z ∈ R ∖ Z 0 − {\displaystyle z\in \mathbb {R} \setminus \mathbb {Z} \_{0}^{-}} {\displaystyle z\in \mathbb {R} \setminus \mathbb {Z} _{0}^{-}}, we have k = 0 {\displaystyle k=0} k=0 and 1 Γ ( z ) = z e γ z ∏ n = 1 ∞ e − z n ( 1 + z n ) , z ∈ C ∖ Z 0 − . {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\Gamma (z)}}=ze^{\gamma z}\prod \_{n=1}^{\infty }e^{-{\frac {z}{n}}}\left(1+{\frac {z}{n}}\right),\quad z\in \mathbb {C} \setminus \mathbb {Z} \_{0}^{-}.} {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\Gamma (z)}}=ze^{\gamma z}\prod _{n=1}^{\infty }e^{-{\frac {z}{n}}}\left(1+{\frac {z}{n}}\right),\quad z\in \mathbb {C} \setminus \mathbb {Z} _{0}^{-}.} **Equivalence of the Weierstrass definition and Euler definition** Γ ( z ) = e − γ z z ∏ n = 1 ∞ ( 1 + z n ) − 1 e z / n = 1 z lim n → ∞ e z ( ln ⁡ n − 1 − 1 2 − 1 3 − ⋯ − 1 n ) e z ( 1 + 1 2 + 1 3 + ⋯ + 1 n ) ( 1 + z ) ( 1 + z 2 ) ⋯ ( 1 + z n ) = 1 z lim n → ∞ 1 ( 1 + z ) ( 1 + z 2 ) ⋯ ( 1 + z n ) e z ln ⁡ ( n ) = lim n → ∞ n ! n z z ( z + 1 ) ⋯ ( z + n ) , z ∈ C ∖ Z 0 − {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma (z)&={\frac {e^{-\gamma z}}{z}}\prod \_{n=1}^{\infty }\left(1+{\frac {z}{n}}\right)^{-1}e^{z/n}\\&={\frac {1}{z}}\lim \_{n\to \infty }e^{z\left(\ln n-1-{\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{3}}-\cdots -{\frac {1}{n}}\right)}{\frac {e^{z\left(1+{\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {1}{3}}+\cdots +{\frac {1}{n}}\right)}}{\left(1+z\right)\left(1+{\frac {z}{2}}\right)\cdots \left(1+{\frac {z}{n}}\right)}}\\&={\frac {1}{z}}\lim \_{n\to \infty }{\frac {1}{\left(1+z\right)\left(1+{\frac {z}{2}}\right)\cdots \left(1+{\frac {z}{n}}\right)}}e^{z\ln \left(n\right)}\\&=\lim \_{n\to \infty }{\frac {n!n^{z}}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n)}},\quad z\in \mathbb {C} \setminus \mathbb {Z} \_{0}^{-}\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma (z)&={\frac {e^{-\gamma z}}{z}}\prod _{n=1}^{\infty }\left(1+{\frac {z}{n}}\right)^{-1}e^{z/n}\\&={\frac {1}{z}}\lim _{n\to \infty }e^{z\left(\ln n-1-{\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{3}}-\cdots -{\frac {1}{n}}\right)}{\frac {e^{z\left(1+{\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {1}{3}}+\cdots +{\frac {1}{n}}\right)}}{\left(1+z\right)\left(1+{\frac {z}{2}}\right)\cdots \left(1+{\frac {z}{n}}\right)}}\\&={\frac {1}{z}}\lim _{n\to \infty }{\frac {1}{\left(1+z\right)\left(1+{\frac {z}{2}}\right)\cdots \left(1+{\frac {z}{n}}\right)}}e^{z\ln \left(n\right)}\\&=\lim _{n\to \infty }{\frac {n!n^{z}}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n)}},\quad z\in \mathbb {C} \setminus \mathbb {Z} _{0}^{-}\end{aligned}}} Let Γ n ( z ) = n ! n z z ( z + 1 ) ⋯ ( z + n ) {\displaystyle \Gamma \_{n}(z)={\frac {n!n^{z}}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n)}}} {\displaystyle \Gamma _{n}(z)={\frac {n!n^{z}}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n)}}} and G n ( z ) = ( n − 1 ) ! n z z ( z + 1 ) ⋯ ( z + n − 1 ) . {\displaystyle G\_{n}(z)={\frac {(n-1)!n^{z}}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n-1)}}.} {\displaystyle G_{n}(z)={\frac {(n-1)!n^{z}}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n-1)}}.} Then Γ n ( z ) = n z + n G n ( z ) {\displaystyle \Gamma \_{n}(z)={\frac {n}{z+n}}G\_{n}(z)} {\displaystyle \Gamma _{n}(z)={\frac {n}{z+n}}G_{n}(z)} and lim n → ∞ G n + 1 ( z ) = lim n → ∞ G n ( z ) = lim n → ∞ Γ n ( z ) = Γ ( z ) , {\displaystyle \lim \_{n\to \infty }G\_{n+1}(z)=\lim \_{n\to \infty }G\_{n}(z)=\lim \_{n\to \infty }\Gamma \_{n}(z)=\Gamma (z),} {\displaystyle \lim _{n\to \infty }G_{n+1}(z)=\lim _{n\to \infty }G_{n}(z)=\lim _{n\to \infty }\Gamma _{n}(z)=\Gamma (z),} therefore Γ ( z ) = lim n → ∞ n ! ( n + 1 ) z z ( z + 1 ) ⋯ ( z + n ) , z ∈ C ∖ Z 0 − . {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=\lim \_{n\to \infty }{\frac {n!(n+1)^{z}}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n)}},\quad z\in \mathbb {C} \setminus \mathbb {Z} \_{0}^{-}.} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=\lim _{n\to \infty }{\frac {n!(n+1)^{z}}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n)}},\quad z\in \mathbb {C} \setminus \mathbb {Z} _{0}^{-}.} Then n ! ( n + 1 ) z z ( z + 1 ) ⋯ ( z + n ) = ( 2 / 1 ) z ( 3 / 2 ) z ( 4 / 3 ) z ⋯ ( ( n + 1 ) / n ) z z ( 1 + z ) ( 1 + z / 2 ) ( 1 + z / 3 ) ⋯ ( 1 + z / n ) = 1 z ∏ k = 1 n ( 1 + 1 / k ) z 1 + z / k , z ∈ C ∖ Z 0 − {\displaystyle {\frac {n!(n+1)^{z}}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n)}}={\frac {(2/1)^{z}(3/2)^{z}(4/3)^{z}\cdots ((n+1)/n)^{z}}{z(1+z)(1+z/2)(1+z/3)\cdots (1+z/n)}}={\frac {1}{z}}\prod \_{k=1}^{n}{\frac {(1+1/k)^{z}}{1+z/k}},\quad z\in \mathbb {C} \setminus \mathbb {Z} \_{0}^{-}} {\displaystyle {\frac {n!(n+1)^{z}}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n)}}={\frac {(2/1)^{z}(3/2)^{z}(4/3)^{z}\cdots ((n+1)/n)^{z}}{z(1+z)(1+z/2)(1+z/3)\cdots (1+z/n)}}={\frac {1}{z}}\prod _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {(1+1/k)^{z}}{1+z/k}},\quad z\in \mathbb {C} \setminus \mathbb {Z} _{0}^{-}} and taking n → ∞ {\displaystyle n\to \infty } n\to \infty gives the desired result. | Properties ---------- ### General Other important functional equations for the gamma function are Euler's reflection formula Γ ( 1 − z ) Γ ( z ) = π sin ⁡ π z , z ∉ Z {\displaystyle \Gamma (1-z)\Gamma (z)={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi z}},\qquad z\not \in \mathbb {Z} } {\displaystyle \Gamma (1-z)\Gamma (z)={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi z}},\qquad z\not \in \mathbb {Z} } which implies Γ ( z − n ) = ( − 1 ) n − 1 Γ ( − z ) Γ ( 1 + z ) Γ ( n + 1 − z ) , n ∈ Z {\displaystyle \Gamma (z-n)=(-1)^{n-1}\;{\frac {\Gamma (-z)\Gamma (1+z)}{\Gamma (n+1-z)}},\qquad n\in \mathbb {Z} } {\displaystyle \Gamma (z-n)=(-1)^{n-1}\;{\frac {\Gamma (-z)\Gamma (1+z)}{\Gamma (n+1-z)}},\qquad n\in \mathbb {Z} } and the Legendre duplication formula Γ ( z ) Γ ( z + 1 2 ) = 2 1 − 2 z π Γ ( 2 z ) . {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)\Gamma \left(z+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\right)=2^{1-2z}\;{\sqrt {\pi }}\;\Gamma (2z).} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)\Gamma \left(z+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\right)=2^{1-2z}\;{\sqrt {\pi }}\;\Gamma (2z).} | Derivation of Euler's reflection formula | | --- | | **Proof 1** We can use Euler's infinite product Γ ( z ) = 1 z ∏ n = 1 ∞ ( 1 + 1 / n ) z 1 + z / n {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\frac {1}{z}}\prod \_{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {(1+1/n)^{z}}{1+z/n}}} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\frac {1}{z}}\prod _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {(1+1/n)^{z}}{1+z/n}}} to compute 1 Γ ( 1 − z ) Γ ( z ) = 1 ( − z ) Γ ( − z ) Γ ( z ) = z ∏ n = 1 ∞ ( 1 − z / n ) ( 1 + z / n ) ( 1 + 1 / n ) − z ( 1 + 1 / n ) z = z ∏ n = 1 ∞ ( 1 − z 2 n 2 ) = sin ⁡ π z π , {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\Gamma (1-z)\Gamma (z)}}={\frac {1}{(-z)\Gamma (-z)\Gamma (z)}}=z\prod \_{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {(1-z/n)(1+z/n)}{(1+1/n)^{-z}(1+1/n)^{z}}}=z\prod \_{n=1}^{\infty }\left(1-{\frac {z^{2}}{n^{2}}}\right)={\frac {\sin \pi z}{\pi }}\,,} {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\Gamma (1-z)\Gamma (z)}}={\frac {1}{(-z)\Gamma (-z)\Gamma (z)}}=z\prod _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {(1-z/n)(1+z/n)}{(1+1/n)^{-z}(1+1/n)^{z}}}=z\prod _{n=1}^{\infty }\left(1-{\frac {z^{2}}{n^{2}}}\right)={\frac {\sin \pi z}{\pi }}\,,} where the last equality is a known result. A similar derivation begins with Weierstrass's definition. **Proof 2** First we prove that I = ∫ − ∞ ∞ e a x 1 + e x d x = ∫ 0 ∞ v a − 1 1 + v d v = π sin ⁡ π a , a ∈ ( 0 , 1 ) . {\displaystyle I=\int \_{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {e^{ax}}{1+e^{x}}}\,dx=\int \_{0}^{\infty }{\frac {v^{a-1}}{1+v}}\,dv={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi a}},\quad a\in (0,1).} {\displaystyle I=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {e^{ax}}{1+e^{x}}}\,dx=\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {v^{a-1}}{1+v}}\,dv={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi a}},\quad a\in (0,1).} Consider the positively oriented rectangular contour C R {\displaystyle C\_{R}} C_{R} with vertices at R {\displaystyle R} R, − R {\displaystyle -R} {\displaystyle -R}, R + 2 π i {\displaystyle R+2\pi i} R+2\pi i and − R + 2 π i {\displaystyle -R+2\pi i} {\displaystyle -R+2\pi i} where R ∈ R + {\displaystyle R\in \mathbb {R} ^{+}} {\displaystyle R\in \mathbb {R} ^{+}}. Then by the residue theorem, ∫ C R e a z 1 + e z d z = − 2 π i e a π i . {\displaystyle \int \_{C\_{R}}{\frac {e^{az}}{1+e^{z}}}\,dz=-2\pi ie^{a\pi i}.} {\displaystyle \int _{C_{R}}{\frac {e^{az}}{1+e^{z}}}\,dz=-2\pi ie^{a\pi i}.} Let I R = ∫ − R R e a x 1 + e x d x {\displaystyle I\_{R}=\int \_{-R}^{R}{\frac {e^{ax}}{1+e^{x}}}\,dx} {\displaystyle I_{R}=\int _{-R}^{R}{\frac {e^{ax}}{1+e^{x}}}\,dx} and let I R ′ {\displaystyle I\_{R}'} {\displaystyle I_{R}'} be the analogous integral over the top side of the rectangle. Then I R → I {\displaystyle I\_{R}\to I} {\displaystyle I_{R}\to I} as R → ∞ {\displaystyle R\to \infty } {\displaystyle R\to \infty } and I R ′ = − e 2 π i a I R {\displaystyle I\_{R}'=-e^{2\pi ia}I\_{R}} {\displaystyle I_{R}'=-e^{2\pi ia}I_{R}}. If A R {\displaystyle A\_{R}} A_R denotes the right vertical side of the rectangle, then | ∫ A R e a z 1 + e z d z | ≤ ∫ 0 2 π | e a ( R + i t ) 1 + e R + i t | d t ≤ C e ( a − 1 ) R {\displaystyle \left|\int \_{A\_{R}}{\frac {e^{az}}{1+e^{z}}}\,dz\right|\leq \int \_{0}^{2\pi }\left|{\frac {e^{a(R+it)}}{1+e^{R+it}}}\right|\,dt\leq Ce^{(a-1)R}} {\displaystyle \left|\int _{A_{R}}{\frac {e^{az}}{1+e^{z}}}\,dz\right|\leq \int _{0}^{2\pi }\left|{\frac {e^{a(R+it)}}{1+e^{R+it}}}\right|\,dt\leq Ce^{(a-1)R}} for some constant C {\displaystyle C} C and since a < 1 {\displaystyle a<1} a<1, the integral tends to 0 {\displaystyle 0} {\displaystyle 0} as R → ∞ {\displaystyle R\to \infty } {\displaystyle R\to \infty }. Analogously, the integral over the left vertical side of the rectangle tends to 0 {\displaystyle 0} {\displaystyle 0} as R → ∞ {\displaystyle R\to \infty } {\displaystyle R\to \infty }. Therefore I − e 2 π i a I = − 2 π i e a π i , {\displaystyle I-e^{2\pi ia}I=-2\pi ie^{a\pi i},} {\displaystyle I-e^{2\pi ia}I=-2\pi ie^{a\pi i},} from which I = π sin ⁡ π a , a ∈ ( 0 , 1 ) . {\displaystyle I={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi a}},\quad a\in (0,1).} {\displaystyle I={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi a}},\quad a\in (0,1).} Then Γ ( 1 − z ) = ∫ 0 ∞ e − u u − z d u = t ∫ 0 ∞ e − v t ( v t ) − z d v , t > 0 {\displaystyle \Gamma (1-z)=\int \_{0}^{\infty }e^{-u}u^{-z}\,du=t\int \_{0}^{\infty }e^{-vt}(vt)^{-z}\,dv,\quad t>0} {\displaystyle \Gamma (1-z)=\int _{0}^{\infty }e^{-u}u^{-z}\,du=t\int _{0}^{\infty }e^{-vt}(vt)^{-z}\,dv,\quad t>0} and Γ ( z ) Γ ( 1 − z ) = ∫ 0 ∞ ∫ 0 ∞ e − t ( 1 + v ) v − z d v d t = ∫ 0 ∞ v − z 1 + v d v = π sin ⁡ π ( 1 − z ) = π sin ⁡ π z , z ∈ ( 0 , 1 ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma (z)\Gamma (1-z)&=\int \_{0}^{\infty }\int \_{0}^{\infty }e^{-t(1+v)}v^{-z}\,dv\,dt\\&=\int \_{0}^{\infty }{\frac {v^{-z}}{1+v}}\,dv\\&={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi (1-z)}}\\&={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi z}},\quad z\in (0,1).\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma (z)\Gamma (1-z)&=\int _{0}^{\infty }\int _{0}^{\infty }e^{-t(1+v)}v^{-z}\,dv\,dt\\&=\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {v^{-z}}{1+v}}\,dv\\&={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi (1-z)}}\\&={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi z}},\quad z\in (0,1).\end{aligned}}} Proving the reflection formula for all z ∈ ( 0 , 1 ) {\displaystyle z\in (0,1)} {\displaystyle z\in (0,1)} proves it for all z ∈ C ∖ Z {\displaystyle z\in \mathbb {C} \setminus \mathbb {Z} } {\displaystyle z\in \mathbb {C} \setminus \mathbb {Z} } by analytic continuation. | | Derivation of the Legendre duplication formula | | --- | | The beta function can be represented as B ( z 1 , z 2 ) = Γ ( z 1 ) Γ ( z 2 ) Γ ( z 1 + z 2 ) = ∫ 0 1 t z 1 − 1 ( 1 − t ) z 2 − 1 d t . {\displaystyle \mathrm {B} (z\_{1},z\_{2})={\frac {\Gamma (z\_{1})\Gamma (z\_{2})}{\Gamma (z\_{1}+z\_{2})}}=\int \_{0}^{1}t^{z\_{1}-1}(1-t)^{z\_{2}-1}\,dt.} {\displaystyle \mathrm {B} (z_{1},z_{2})={\frac {\Gamma (z_{1})\Gamma (z_{2})}{\Gamma (z_{1}+z_{2})}}=\int _{0}^{1}t^{z_{1}-1}(1-t)^{z_{2}-1}\,dt.} Setting z 1 = z 2 = z {\displaystyle z\_{1}=z\_{2}=z} {\displaystyle z_{1}=z_{2}=z} yields Γ 2 ( z ) Γ ( 2 z ) = ∫ 0 1 t z − 1 ( 1 − t ) z − 1 d t . {\displaystyle {\frac {\Gamma ^{2}(z)}{\Gamma (2z)}}=\int \_{0}^{1}t^{z-1}(1-t)^{z-1}\,dt.} {\displaystyle {\frac {\Gamma ^{2}(z)}{\Gamma (2z)}}=\int _{0}^{1}t^{z-1}(1-t)^{z-1}\,dt.} After the substitution t = 1 + u 2 {\displaystyle t={\frac {1+u}{2}}} {\displaystyle t={\frac {1+u}{2}}} we get Γ 2 ( z ) Γ ( 2 z ) = 1 2 2 z − 1 ∫ − 1 1 ( 1 − u 2 ) z − 1 d u . {\displaystyle {\frac {\Gamma ^{2}(z)}{\Gamma (2z)}}={\frac {1}{2^{2z-1}}}\int \_{-1}^{1}\left(1-u^{2}\right)^{z-1}\,du.} {\displaystyle {\frac {\Gamma ^{2}(z)}{\Gamma (2z)}}={\frac {1}{2^{2z-1}}}\int _{-1}^{1}\left(1-u^{2}\right)^{z-1}\,du.} The function ( 1 − u 2 ) z − 1 {\displaystyle (1-u^{2})^{z-1}} {\displaystyle (1-u^{2})^{z-1}} is even, hence 2 2 z − 1 Γ 2 ( z ) = 2 Γ ( 2 z ) ∫ 0 1 ( 1 − u 2 ) z − 1 d u . {\displaystyle 2^{2z-1}\Gamma ^{2}(z)=2\Gamma (2z)\int \_{0}^{1}(1-u^{2})^{z-1}\,du.} {\displaystyle 2^{2z-1}\Gamma ^{2}(z)=2\Gamma (2z)\int _{0}^{1}(1-u^{2})^{z-1}\,du.} Now assume B ( 1 2 , z ) = ∫ 0 1 t 1 2 − 1 ( 1 − t ) z − 1 d t , t = s 2 . {\displaystyle \mathrm {B} \left({\frac {1}{2}},z\right)=\int \_{0}^{1}t^{{\frac {1}{2}}-1}(1-t)^{z-1}\,dt,\quad t=s^{2}.} {\displaystyle \mathrm {B} \left({\frac {1}{2}},z\right)=\int _{0}^{1}t^{{\frac {1}{2}}-1}(1-t)^{z-1}\,dt,\quad t=s^{2}.} Then B ( 1 2 , z ) = 2 ∫ 0 1 ( 1 − s 2 ) z − 1 d s = 2 ∫ 0 1 ( 1 − u 2 ) z − 1 d u . {\displaystyle \mathrm {B} \left({\frac {1}{2}},z\right)=2\int \_{0}^{1}(1-s^{2})^{z-1}\,ds=2\int \_{0}^{1}(1-u^{2})^{z-1}\,du.} {\displaystyle \mathrm {B} \left({\frac {1}{2}},z\right)=2\int _{0}^{1}(1-s^{2})^{z-1}\,ds=2\int _{0}^{1}(1-u^{2})^{z-1}\,du.} This implies 2 2 z − 1 Γ 2 ( z ) = Γ ( 2 z ) B ( 1 2 , z ) . {\displaystyle 2^{2z-1}\Gamma ^{2}(z)=\Gamma (2z)\mathrm {B} \left({\frac {1}{2}},z\right).} {\displaystyle 2^{2z-1}\Gamma ^{2}(z)=\Gamma (2z)\mathrm {B} \left({\frac {1}{2}},z\right).} Since B ( 1 2 , z ) = Γ ( 1 2 ) Γ ( z ) Γ ( z + 1 2 ) , Γ ( 1 2 ) = π , {\displaystyle \mathrm {B} \left({\frac {1}{2}},z\right)={\frac {\Gamma \left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)\Gamma (z)}{\Gamma \left(z+{\frac {1}{2}}\right)}},\quad \Gamma \left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)={\sqrt {\pi }},} {\displaystyle \mathrm {B} \left({\frac {1}{2}},z\right)={\frac {\Gamma \left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)\Gamma (z)}{\Gamma \left(z+{\frac {1}{2}}\right)}},\quad \Gamma \left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)={\sqrt {\pi }},} the Legendre duplication formula follows: Γ ( z ) Γ ( z + 1 2 ) = 2 1 − 2 z π Γ ( 2 z ) . {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)\Gamma \left(z+{\frac {1}{2}}\right)=2^{1-2z}{\sqrt {\pi }}\;\Gamma (2z).} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)\Gamma \left(z+{\frac {1}{2}}\right)=2^{1-2z}{\sqrt {\pi }}\;\Gamma (2z).} | The duplication formula is a special case of the multiplication theorem (see  Eq. 5.5.6): ∏ k = 0 m − 1 Γ ( z + k m ) = ( 2 π ) m − 1 2 m 1 2 − m z Γ ( m z ) . {\displaystyle \prod \_{k=0}^{m-1}\Gamma \left(z+{\frac {k}{m}}\right)=(2\pi )^{\frac {m-1}{2}}\;m^{{\frac {1}{2}}-mz}\;\Gamma (mz).} {\displaystyle \prod _{k=0}^{m-1}\Gamma \left(z+{\frac {k}{m}}\right)=(2\pi )^{\frac {m-1}{2}}\;m^{{\frac {1}{2}}-mz}\;\Gamma (mz).} A simple but useful property, which can be seen from the limit definition, is: Γ ( z ) ¯ = Γ ( z ¯ ) ⇒ Γ ( z ) Γ ( z ¯ ) ∈ R . {\displaystyle {\overline {\Gamma (z)}}=\Gamma ({\overline {z}})\;\Rightarrow \;\Gamma (z)\Gamma ({\overline {z}})\in \mathbb {R} .} {\displaystyle {\overline {\Gamma (z)}}=\Gamma ({\overline {z}})\;\Rightarrow \;\Gamma (z)\Gamma ({\overline {z}})\in \mathbb {R} .} In particular, with *z* = *a* + *bi*, this product is | Γ ( a + b i ) | 2 = | Γ ( a ) | 2 ∏ k = 0 ∞ 1 1 + b 2 ( a + k ) 2 {\displaystyle |\Gamma (a+bi)|^{2}=|\Gamma (a)|^{2}\prod \_{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{1+{\frac {b^{2}}{(a+k)^{2}}}}}} {\displaystyle |\Gamma (a+bi)|^{2}=|\Gamma (a)|^{2}\prod _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{1+{\frac {b^{2}}{(a+k)^{2}}}}}} If the real part is an integer or a half-integer, this can be finitely expressed in closed form: | Γ ( b i ) | 2 = π b sinh ⁡ π b | Γ ( 1 2 + b i ) | 2 = π cosh ⁡ π b | Γ ( 1 + b i ) | 2 = π b sinh ⁡ π b | Γ ( 1 + n + b i ) | 2 = π b sinh ⁡ π b ∏ k = 1 n ( k 2 + b 2 ) , n ∈ N | Γ ( − n + b i ) | 2 = π b sinh ⁡ π b ∏ k = 1 n ( k 2 + b 2 ) − 1 , n ∈ N | Γ ( 1 2 ± n + b i ) | 2 = π cosh ⁡ π b ∏ k = 1 n ( ( k − 1 2 ) 2 + b 2 ) ± 1 , n ∈ N {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}|\Gamma (bi)|^{2}&={\frac {\pi }{b\sinh \pi b}}\\[1ex]\left|\Gamma \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}+bi\right)\right|^{2}&={\frac {\pi }{\cosh \pi b}}\\[1ex]\left|\Gamma \left(1+bi\right)\right|^{2}&={\frac {\pi b}{\sinh \pi b}}\\[1ex]\left|\Gamma \left(1+n+bi\right)\right|^{2}&={\frac {\pi b}{\sinh \pi b}}\prod \_{k=1}^{n}\left(k^{2}+b^{2}\right),\quad n\in \mathbb {N} \\[1ex]\left|\Gamma \left(-n+bi\right)\right|^{2}&={\frac {\pi }{b\sinh \pi b}}\prod \_{k=1}^{n}\left(k^{2}+b^{2}\right)^{-1},\quad n\in \mathbb {N} \\[1ex]\left|\Gamma \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}\pm n+bi\right)\right|^{2}&={\frac {\pi }{\cosh \pi b}}\prod \_{k=1}^{n}\left(\left(k-{\tfrac {1}{2}}\right)^{2}+b^{2}\right)^{\pm 1},\quad n\in \mathbb {N} \\[-1ex]&\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}|\Gamma (bi)|^{2}&={\frac {\pi }{b\sinh \pi b}}\\[1ex]\left|\Gamma \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}+bi\right)\right|^{2}&={\frac {\pi }{\cosh \pi b}}\\[1ex]\left|\Gamma \left(1+bi\right)\right|^{2}&={\frac {\pi b}{\sinh \pi b}}\\[1ex]\left|\Gamma \left(1+n+bi\right)\right|^{2}&={\frac {\pi b}{\sinh \pi b}}\prod _{k=1}^{n}\left(k^{2}+b^{2}\right),\quad n\in \mathbb {N} \\[1ex]\left|\Gamma \left(-n+bi\right)\right|^{2}&={\frac {\pi }{b\sinh \pi b}}\prod _{k=1}^{n}\left(k^{2}+b^{2}\right)^{-1},\quad n\in \mathbb {N} \\[1ex]\left|\Gamma \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}\pm n+bi\right)\right|^{2}&={\frac {\pi }{\cosh \pi b}}\prod _{k=1}^{n}\left(\left(k-{\tfrac {1}{2}}\right)^{2}+b^{2}\right)^{\pm 1},\quad n\in \mathbb {N} \\[-1ex]&\end{aligned}}} | Proof of absolute value formulas for arguments of integer or half-integer real part | | --- | | First, consider the reflection formula applied to z = b i {\displaystyle z=bi} {\displaystyle z=bi}. Γ ( b i ) Γ ( 1 − b i ) = π sin ⁡ π b i {\displaystyle \Gamma (bi)\Gamma (1-bi)={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi bi}}} {\displaystyle \Gamma (bi)\Gamma (1-bi)={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi bi}}} Applying the recurrence relation to the second term, we have − b i ⋅ Γ ( b i ) Γ ( − b i ) = π sin ⁡ π b i {\displaystyle -bi\cdot \Gamma (bi)\Gamma (-bi)={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi bi}}} {\displaystyle -bi\cdot \Gamma (bi)\Gamma (-bi)={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi bi}}} which with simple rearrangement gives Γ ( b i ) Γ ( − b i ) = π − b i sin ⁡ π b i = π b sinh ⁡ π b {\displaystyle \Gamma (bi)\Gamma (-bi)={\frac {\pi }{-bi\sin \pi bi}}={\frac {\pi }{b\sinh \pi b}}} {\displaystyle \Gamma (bi)\Gamma (-bi)={\frac {\pi }{-bi\sin \pi bi}}={\frac {\pi }{b\sinh \pi b}}} Second, consider the reflection formula applied to z = 1 2 + b i {\displaystyle z={\tfrac {1}{2}}+bi} {\displaystyle z={\tfrac {1}{2}}+bi}. Γ ( 1 2 + b i ) Γ ( 1 − ( 1 2 + b i ) ) = Γ ( 1 2 + b i ) Γ ( 1 2 − b i ) = π sin ⁡ π ( 1 2 + b i ) = π cos ⁡ π b i = π cosh ⁡ π b {\displaystyle \Gamma ({\tfrac {1}{2}}+bi)\Gamma \left(1-({\tfrac {1}{2}}+bi)\right)=\Gamma ({\tfrac {1}{2}}+bi)\Gamma ({\tfrac {1}{2}}-bi)={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi ({\tfrac {1}{2}}+bi)}}={\frac {\pi }{\cos \pi bi}}={\frac {\pi }{\cosh \pi b}}} {\displaystyle \Gamma ({\tfrac {1}{2}}+bi)\Gamma \left(1-({\tfrac {1}{2}}+bi)\right)=\Gamma ({\tfrac {1}{2}}+bi)\Gamma ({\tfrac {1}{2}}-bi)={\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi ({\tfrac {1}{2}}+bi)}}={\frac {\pi }{\cos \pi bi}}={\frac {\pi }{\cosh \pi b}}} Formulas for other values of z {\displaystyle z} z for which the real part is integer or half-integer quickly follow by induction using the recurrence relation in the positive and negative directions. | Perhaps the best-known value of the gamma function at a non-integer argument is Γ ( 1 2 ) = π , {\displaystyle \Gamma \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}\right)={\sqrt {\pi }},} {\displaystyle \Gamma \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}\right)={\sqrt {\pi }},} which can be found by setting z = 1 2 {\textstyle z={\frac {1}{2}}} {\textstyle z={\frac {1}{2}}} in the reflection or duplication formulas, by using the relation to the beta function given below with z 1 = z 2 = 1 2 {\textstyle z\_{1}=z\_{2}={\frac {1}{2}}} {\textstyle z_{1}=z_{2}={\frac {1}{2}}}, or simply by making the substitution u = z {\displaystyle u={\sqrt {z}}} {\displaystyle u={\sqrt {z}}} in the integral definition of the gamma function, resulting in a Gaussian integral. In general, for non-negative integer values of n {\displaystyle n} n we have: Γ ( 1 2 + n ) = ( 2 n ) ! 4 n n ! π = ( 2 n − 1 ) ! ! 2 n π = ( n − 1 2 n ) n ! π Γ ( 1 2 − n ) = ( − 4 ) n n ! ( 2 n ) ! π = ( − 2 ) n ( 2 n − 1 ) ! ! π = π ( − 1 / 2 n ) n ! {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}+n\right)&={(2n)! \over 4^{n}n!}{\sqrt {\pi }}={\frac {(2n-1)!!}{2^{n}}}{\sqrt {\pi }}={\binom {n-{\frac {1}{2}}}{n}}n!{\sqrt {\pi }}\\[8pt]\Gamma \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}-n\right)&={(-4)^{n}n! \over (2n)!}{\sqrt {\pi }}={\frac {(-2)^{n}}{(2n-1)!!}}{\sqrt {\pi }}={\frac {\sqrt {\pi }}{{\binom {-1/2}{n}}n!}}\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}+n\right)&={(2n)! \over 4^{n}n!}{\sqrt {\pi }}={\frac {(2n-1)!!}{2^{n}}}{\sqrt {\pi }}={\binom {n-{\frac {1}{2}}}{n}}n!{\sqrt {\pi }}\\[8pt]\Gamma \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}-n\right)&={(-4)^{n}n! \over (2n)!}{\sqrt {\pi }}={\frac {(-2)^{n}}{(2n-1)!!}}{\sqrt {\pi }}={\frac {\sqrt {\pi }}{{\binom {-1/2}{n}}n!}}\end{aligned}}} where the double factorial ( 2 n − 1 ) ! ! = ( 2 n − 1 ) ( 2 n − 3 ) ⋯ ( 3 ) ( 1 ) {\displaystyle (2n-1)!!=(2n-1)(2n-3)\cdots (3)(1)} {\displaystyle (2n-1)!!=(2n-1)(2n-3)\cdots (3)(1)}. See Particular values of the gamma function for calculated values. It might be tempting to generalize the result that Γ ( 1 2 ) = π {\textstyle \Gamma \left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)={\sqrt {\pi }}} {\textstyle \Gamma \left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)={\sqrt {\pi }}} by looking for a formula for other individual values Γ ( r ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (r)} {\displaystyle \Gamma (r)} where r {\displaystyle r} r is rational, especially because according to Gauss's digamma theorem, it is possible to do so for the closely related digamma function at every rational value. However, these numbers Γ ( r ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (r)} {\displaystyle \Gamma (r)} are not known to be expressible by themselves in terms of elementary functions. It has been proved that Γ ( n + r ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (n+r)} {\displaystyle \Gamma (n+r)} is a transcendental number and algebraically independent of π {\displaystyle \pi } \pi for any integer n {\displaystyle n} n and each of the fractions r = 1 6 , 1 4 , 1 3 , 2 3 , 3 4 , 5 6 {\textstyle r={\frac {1}{6}},{\frac {1}{4}},{\frac {1}{3}},{\frac {2}{3}},{\frac {3}{4}},{\frac {5}{6}}} {\textstyle r={\frac {1}{6}},{\frac {1}{4}},{\frac {1}{3}},{\frac {2}{3}},{\frac {3}{4}},{\frac {5}{6}}}. In general, when computing values of the gamma function, we must settle for numerical approximations. The derivatives of the gamma function are described in terms of the polygamma function, *ψ*(0)(*z*): Γ ′ ( z ) = Γ ( z ) ψ ( 0 ) ( z ) . {\displaystyle \Gamma '(z)=\Gamma (z)\psi ^{(0)}(z).} {\displaystyle \Gamma '(z)=\Gamma (z)\psi ^{(0)}(z).} For a positive integer m the derivative of the gamma function can be calculated as follows: Γ ′ ( m + 1 ) = m ! ( − γ + ∑ k = 1 m 1 k ) = m ! ( − γ + H ( m ) ) , {\displaystyle \Gamma '(m+1)=m!\left(-\gamma +\sum \_{k=1}^{m}{\frac {1}{k}}\right)=m!\left(-\gamma +H(m)\right)\,,} {\displaystyle \Gamma '(m+1)=m!\left(-\gamma +\sum _{k=1}^{m}{\frac {1}{k}}\right)=m!\left(-\gamma +H(m)\right)\,,} where H(m) is the mth harmonic number and *γ* is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. For ℜ ( z ) > 0 {\displaystyle \Re (z)>0} {\displaystyle \Re (z)>0} the n {\displaystyle n} nth derivative of the gamma function is: d n d z n Γ ( z ) = ∫ 0 ∞ t z − 1 e − t ( ln ⁡ t ) n d t . {\displaystyle {\frac {d^{n}}{dz^{n}}}\Gamma (z)=\int \_{0}^{\infty }t^{z-1}e^{-t}(\ln t)^{n}\,dt.} {\displaystyle {\frac {d^{n}}{dz^{n}}}\Gamma (z)=\int _{0}^{\infty }t^{z-1}e^{-t}(\ln t)^{n}\,dt.} (This can be derived by differentiating the integral form of the gamma function with respect to z {\displaystyle z} z, and using the technique of differentiation under the integral sign.) Using the identity Γ ( n ) ( 1 ) = ( − 1 ) n n ! ∑ π ⊢ n ∏ i = 1 r ζ ∗ ( a i ) k i ! ⋅ a i ζ ∗ ( x ) := { ζ ( x ) x ≠ 1 γ x = 1 {\displaystyle \Gamma ^{(n)}(1)=(-1)^{n}n!\sum \limits \_{\pi \,\vdash \,n}\,\prod \_{i=1}^{r}{\frac {\zeta ^{\*}(a\_{i})}{k\_{i}!\cdot a\_{i}}}\qquad \zeta ^{\*}(x):={\begin{cases}\zeta (x)&x\neq 1\\\gamma &x=1\end{cases}}} {\displaystyle \Gamma ^{(n)}(1)=(-1)^{n}n!\sum \limits _{\pi \,\vdash \,n}\,\prod _{i=1}^{r}{\frac {\zeta ^{*}(a_{i})}{k_{i}!\cdot a_{i}}}\qquad \zeta ^{*}(x):={\begin{cases}\zeta (x)&x\neq 1\\\gamma &x=1\end{cases}}} where ζ ( z ) {\displaystyle \zeta (z)} \zeta (z) is the Riemann zeta function, and π {\displaystyle \pi } \pi is a partition of n {\displaystyle n} n given by π = a 1 + ⋯ + a 1 ⏟ k 1  terms + ⋯ + a r + ⋯ + a r ⏟ k r  terms , {\displaystyle \pi =\underbrace {a\_{1}+\cdots +a\_{1}} \_{k\_{1}{\text{ terms}}}+\cdots +\underbrace {a\_{r}+\cdots +a\_{r}} \_{k\_{r}{\text{ terms}}},} {\displaystyle \pi =\underbrace {a_{1}+\cdots +a_{1}} _{k_{1}{\text{ terms}}}+\cdots +\underbrace {a_{r}+\cdots +a_{r}} _{k_{r}{\text{ terms}}},} we have in particular the Laurent series expansion of the gamma function Γ ( z ) = 1 z − γ + 1 2 ( γ 2 + π 2 6 ) z − 1 6 ( γ 3 + γ π 2 2 + 2 ζ ( 3 ) ) z 2 + O ( z 3 ) . {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\frac {1}{z}}-\gamma +{\tfrac {1}{2}}\left(\gamma ^{2}+{\frac {\pi ^{2}}{6}}\right)z-{\tfrac {1}{6}}\left(\gamma ^{3}+{\frac {\gamma \pi ^{2}}{2}}+2\zeta (3)\right)z^{2}+O(z^{3}).} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\frac {1}{z}}-\gamma +{\tfrac {1}{2}}\left(\gamma ^{2}+{\frac {\pi ^{2}}{6}}\right)z-{\tfrac {1}{6}}\left(\gamma ^{3}+{\frac {\gamma \pi ^{2}}{2}}+2\zeta (3)\right)z^{2}+O(z^{3}).} ### Inequalities When restricted to the positive real numbers, the gamma function is a strictly logarithmically convex function. This property may be stated in any of the following three equivalent ways: * For any two positive real numbers x 1 {\displaystyle x\_{1}} x_{1} and x 2 {\displaystyle x\_{2}} x_{2}, and for any t ∈ [ 0 , 1 ] {\displaystyle t\in [0,1]} {\displaystyle t\in [0,1]}, Γ ( t x 1 + ( 1 − t ) x 2 ) ≤ Γ ( x 1 ) t Γ ( x 2 ) 1 − t . {\displaystyle \Gamma (tx\_{1}+(1-t)x\_{2})\leq \Gamma (x\_{1})^{t}\Gamma (x\_{2})^{1-t}.} {\displaystyle \Gamma (tx_{1}+(1-t)x_{2})\leq \Gamma (x_{1})^{t}\Gamma (x_{2})^{1-t}.} * For any two positive real numbers x 1 {\displaystyle x\_{1}} x_{1} and x 2 {\displaystyle x\_{2}} x_{2}, and x 2 {\displaystyle x\_{2}} x_{2} > x 1 {\displaystyle x\_{1}} x_{1} ( Γ ( x 2 ) Γ ( x 1 ) ) 1 x 2 − x 1 > exp ⁡ ( Γ ′ ( x 1 ) Γ ( x 1 ) ) . {\displaystyle \left({\frac {\Gamma (x\_{2})}{\Gamma (x\_{1})}}\right)^{\frac {1}{x\_{2}-x\_{1}}}>\exp \left({\frac {\Gamma '(x\_{1})}{\Gamma (x\_{1})}}\right).} {\displaystyle \left({\frac {\Gamma (x_{2})}{\Gamma (x_{1})}}\right)^{\frac {1}{x_{2}-x_{1}}}>\exp \left({\frac {\Gamma '(x_{1})}{\Gamma (x_{1})}}\right).} * For any positive real number x {\displaystyle x} x, Γ ″ ( x ) Γ ( x ) > Γ ′ ( x ) 2 . {\displaystyle \Gamma ''(x)\Gamma (x)>\Gamma '(x)^{2}.} {\displaystyle \Gamma ''(x)\Gamma (x)>\Gamma '(x)^{2}.} The last of these statements is, essentially by definition, the same as the statement that ψ ( 1 ) ( x ) > 0 {\displaystyle \psi ^{(1)}(x)>0} {\displaystyle \psi ^{(1)}(x)>0}, where ψ ( 1 ) {\displaystyle \psi ^{(1)}} {\displaystyle \psi ^{(1)}} is the polygamma function of order 1. To prove the logarithmic convexity of the gamma function, it therefore suffices to observe that ψ ( 1 ) {\displaystyle \psi ^{(1)}} {\displaystyle \psi ^{(1)}} has a series representation which, for positive real x, consists of only positive terms. Logarithmic convexity and Jensen's inequality together imply, for any positive real numbers x 1 , … , x n {\displaystyle x\_{1},\ldots ,x\_{n}} x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n} and a 1 , … , a n {\displaystyle a\_{1},\ldots ,a\_{n}} a_1, \ldots, a_n, Γ ( a 1 x 1 + ⋯ + a n x n a 1 + ⋯ + a n ) ≤ ( Γ ( x 1 ) a 1 ⋯ Γ ( x n ) a n ) 1 a 1 + ⋯ + a n . {\displaystyle \Gamma \left({\frac {a\_{1}x\_{1}+\cdots +a\_{n}x\_{n}}{a\_{1}+\cdots +a\_{n}}}\right)\leq {\bigl (}\Gamma (x\_{1})^{a\_{1}}\cdots \Gamma (x\_{n})^{a\_{n}}{\bigr )}^{\frac {1}{a\_{1}+\cdots +a\_{n}}}.} {\displaystyle \Gamma \left({\frac {a_{1}x_{1}+\cdots +a_{n}x_{n}}{a_{1}+\cdots +a_{n}}}\right)\leq {\bigl (}\Gamma (x_{1})^{a_{1}}\cdots \Gamma (x_{n})^{a_{n}}{\bigr )}^{\frac {1}{a_{1}+\cdots +a_{n}}}.} There are also bounds on ratios of gamma functions. The best-known is Gautschi's inequality, which says that for any positive real number x and any *s* ∈ (0, 1), x 1 − s < Γ ( x + 1 ) Γ ( x + s ) < ( x + 1 ) 1 − s . {\displaystyle x^{1-s}<{\frac {\Gamma (x+1)}{\Gamma (x+s)}}<\left(x+1\right)^{1-s}.} {\displaystyle x^{1-s}<{\frac {\Gamma (x+1)}{\Gamma (x+s)}}<\left(x+1\right)^{1-s}.} ### Stirling's formula The behavior of Γ ( x ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (x)} \Gamma(x) for an increasing positive real variable is given by Stirling's formula Γ ( x + 1 ) ∼ 2 π x ( x e ) x , {\displaystyle \Gamma (x+1)\sim {\sqrt {2\pi x}}\left({\frac {x}{e}}\right)^{x},} {\displaystyle \Gamma (x+1)\sim {\sqrt {2\pi x}}\left({\frac {x}{e}}\right)^{x},} where the symbol ∼ {\displaystyle \sim } \sim means asymptotic convergence; the ratio of the two sides converges to 1 in the limit x → + ∞ {\textstyle x\to +\infty } {\textstyle x\to +\infty }. This growth is faster than exponential, exp ⁡ ( β x ) {\displaystyle \exp(\beta x)} {\displaystyle \exp(\beta x)}, for any fixed value of β {\displaystyle \beta } \beta . Another useful limit for asymptotic approximations for x → + ∞ {\displaystyle x\to +\infty } {\displaystyle x\to +\infty } is: Γ ( x + α ) ∼ Γ ( x ) x α , α ∈ C . {\displaystyle {\Gamma (x+\alpha )}\sim {\Gamma (x)x^{\alpha }},\qquad \alpha \in \mathbb {C} .} {\displaystyle {\Gamma (x+\alpha )}\sim {\Gamma (x)x^{\alpha }},\qquad \alpha \in \mathbb {C} .} ### Residues The behavior for non-positive z {\displaystyle z} z is more intricate. Euler's integral does not converge for ℜ ( z ) ≤ 0 {\displaystyle \Re (z)\leq 0} {\displaystyle \Re (z)\leq 0}, but the function it defines in the positive complex half-plane has a unique analytic continuation to the negative half-plane. One way to find that analytic continuation is to use Euler's integral for positive arguments and extend the domain to negative numbers by repeated application of the recurrence formula, Γ ( z ) = Γ ( z + n + 1 ) z ( z + 1 ) ⋯ ( z + n ) , {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\frac {\Gamma (z+n+1)}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n)}},} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\frac {\Gamma (z+n+1)}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n)}},} choosing n {\displaystyle n} n such that z + n {\displaystyle z+n} {\displaystyle z+n} is positive. The product in the denominator is zero when z {\displaystyle z} z equals any of the integers 0 , − 1 , − 2 , … {\displaystyle 0,-1,-2,\ldots } {\displaystyle 0,-1,-2,\ldots }. Thus, the gamma function must be undefined at those points to avoid division by zero; it is a meromorphic function with simple poles at the non-positive integers. For a function f {\displaystyle f} f of a complex variable z {\displaystyle z} z, at a simple pole c {\displaystyle c} c, the residue of f {\displaystyle f} f is given by: Res ⁡ ( f , c ) = lim z → c ( z − c ) f ( z ) . {\displaystyle \operatorname {Res} (f,c)=\lim \_{z\to c}(z-c)f(z).} {\displaystyle \operatorname {Res} (f,c)=\lim _{z\to c}(z-c)f(z).} For the simple pole z = − n , {\displaystyle z=-n,} {\displaystyle z=-n,} we rewrite recurrence formula as: ( z + n ) Γ ( z ) = Γ ( z + n + 1 ) z ( z + 1 ) ⋯ ( z + n − 1 ) . {\displaystyle (z+n)\Gamma (z)={\frac {\Gamma (z+n+1)}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n-1)}}.} {\displaystyle (z+n)\Gamma (z)={\frac {\Gamma (z+n+1)}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n-1)}}.} The numerator at z = − n , {\displaystyle z=-n,} {\displaystyle z=-n,} is Γ ( z + n + 1 ) = Γ ( 1 ) = 1 {\displaystyle \Gamma (z+n+1)=\Gamma (1)=1} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z+n+1)=\Gamma (1)=1} and the denominator z ( z + 1 ) ⋯ ( z + n − 1 ) = − n ( 1 − n ) ⋯ ( n − 1 − n ) = ( − 1 ) n n ! . {\displaystyle z(z+1)\cdots (z+n-1)=-n(1-n)\cdots (n-1-n)=(-1)^{n}n!.} {\displaystyle z(z+1)\cdots (z+n-1)=-n(1-n)\cdots (n-1-n)=(-1)^{n}n!.} So the residues of the gamma function at those points are: Res ⁡ ( Γ , − n ) = ( − 1 ) n n ! . {\displaystyle \operatorname {Res} (\Gamma ,-n)={\frac {(-1)^{n}}{n!}}.} {\displaystyle \operatorname {Res} (\Gamma ,-n)={\frac {(-1)^{n}}{n!}}.}The gamma function is non-zero everywhere along the real line, although it comes arbitrarily close to zero as *z* → −∞. There is in fact no complex number z {\displaystyle z} z for which Γ ( z ) = 0 {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=0} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=0}, and hence the reciprocal gamma function 1 Γ ( z ) {\textstyle {\frac {1}{\Gamma (z)}}} {\textstyle {\frac {1}{\Gamma (z)}}} is an entire function, with zeros at z = 0 , − 1 , − 2 , … {\displaystyle z=0,-1,-2,\ldots } {\displaystyle z=0,-1,-2,\ldots }. ### Minima and maxima On the real line, the gamma function has a local minimum at *z*min ≈ +1.46163214496836234126 where it attains the value Γ(*z*min) ≈ +0.88560319441088870027. The gamma function rises to either side of this minimum. The solution to Γ(*z* − 0.5) = Γ(*z* + 0.5) is *z* = +1.5 and the common value is Γ(1) = Γ(2) = +1. The positive solution to Γ(*z* − 1) = Γ(*z* + 1) is *z* = *φ* ≈ +1.618, the golden ratio, and the common value is Γ(*φ* − 1) = Γ(*φ* + 1) = *φ*! ≈ +1.44922960226989660037. The gamma function must alternate sign between its poles at the non-positive integers because the product in the forward recurrence contains an odd number of negative factors if the number of poles between z {\displaystyle z} z and z + n {\displaystyle z+n} {\displaystyle z+n} is odd, and an even number if the number of poles is even. The extrema values of the Gamma function between the non-positive integers are Γ(-0.50408300826454938526...) = -3.54464361115500508912..., Γ(-1.57349847316239045877...) = 2.30240725833968013582..., Γ(-2.61072086844414465000...) = -0.88813635840124192009..., Γ(-3.63529336643690109783...) = 0.24512753983436625043..., Γ(-4.65323776174314244171...) = -0.05277963958731940076..., etc. ### Integral representations There are many formulas, besides the Euler integral of the second kind, that express the gamma function as an integral. For instance, when the real part of z is positive, Γ ( z ) = ∫ − ∞ ∞ e z t − e t d t {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=\int \_{-\infty }^{\infty }e^{zt-e^{t}}\,dt} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }e^{zt-e^{t}}\,dt} and Γ ( z ) = ∫ 0 1 ( log ⁡ 1 t ) z − 1 d t , {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=\int \_{0}^{1}\left(\log {\frac {1}{t}}\right)^{z-1}\,dt,} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=\int _{0}^{1}\left(\log {\frac {1}{t}}\right)^{z-1}\,dt,} Γ ( z ) = 2 ∫ 0 ∞ t 2 z − 1 e − t 2 d t {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=2\int \_{0}^{\infty }t^{2z-1}e^{-t^{2}}\,dt} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=2\int _{0}^{\infty }t^{2z-1}e^{-t^{2}}\,dt} where the three integrals respectively follow from the substitutions t = e − x {\displaystyle t=e^{-x}} {\displaystyle t=e^{-x}}, t = − log ⁡ x {\displaystyle t=-\log x} {\displaystyle t=-\log x} and t = x 2 {\displaystyle t=x^{2}} {\displaystyle t=x^{2}} in Euler's second integral. The last integral in particular makes clear the connection between the gamma function at half integer arguments and the Gaussian integral: if we let z = 1 / 2 {\displaystyle z=1/2} {\displaystyle z=1/2} we get Γ ( 1 / 2 ) = π = 2 ∫ 0 ∞ e − t 2 d t {\textstyle \Gamma (1/2)={\sqrt {\pi }}=2\int \_{0}^{\infty }e^{-t^{2}}\,dt} {\textstyle \Gamma (1/2)={\sqrt {\pi }}=2\int _{0}^{\infty }e^{-t^{2}}\,dt}. Binet's first integral formula for the gamma function states that, when the real part of z is positive, then: log ⁡ Γ ( z ) = ( z − 1 2 ) log ⁡ z − z + 1 2 log ⁡ ( 2 π ) + ∫ 0 ∞ ( 1 2 − 1 t + 1 e t − 1 ) e − t z t d t . {\displaystyle \log \Gamma (z)=\left(z-{\frac {1}{2}}\right)\log z-z+{\frac {1}{2}}\log(2\pi )+\int \_{0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{t}}+{\frac {1}{e^{t}-1}}\right){\frac {e^{-tz}}{t}}\,dt.} {\displaystyle \log \Gamma (z)=\left(z-{\frac {1}{2}}\right)\log z-z+{\frac {1}{2}}\log(2\pi )+\int _{0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{t}}+{\frac {1}{e^{t}-1}}\right){\frac {e^{-tz}}{t}}\,dt.} The integral on the right-hand side may be interpreted as a Laplace transform. That is, log ⁡ ( Γ ( z ) ( e z ) z 2 π z ) = L ( 1 2 t − 1 t 2 + 1 t ( e t − 1 ) ) ( z ) . {\displaystyle \log \left(\Gamma (z)\left({\frac {e}{z}}\right)^{z}{\sqrt {2\pi z}}\right)={\mathcal {L}}\left({\frac {1}{2t}}-{\frac {1}{t^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{t(e^{t}-1)}}\right)(z).} {\displaystyle \log \left(\Gamma (z)\left({\frac {e}{z}}\right)^{z}{\sqrt {2\pi z}}\right)={\mathcal {L}}\left({\frac {1}{2t}}-{\frac {1}{t^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{t(e^{t}-1)}}\right)(z).} Binet's second integral formula states that, again when the real part of z is positive, then: log ⁡ Γ ( z ) = ( z − 1 2 ) log ⁡ z − z + 1 2 ln ⁡ ( 2 π ) + 2 ∫ 0 ∞ arctan ⁡ ( t / z ) e 2 π t − 1 d t . {\displaystyle \log \Gamma (z)=\left(z-{\frac {1}{2}}\right)\log z-z+{\frac {1}{2}}\ln(2\pi )+2\int \_{0}^{\infty }{\frac {\arctan(t/z)}{e^{2\pi t}-1}}\,dt.} {\displaystyle \log \Gamma (z)=\left(z-{\frac {1}{2}}\right)\log z-z+{\frac {1}{2}}\ln(2\pi )+2\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {\arctan(t/z)}{e^{2\pi t}-1}}\,dt.} Let *C* be a Hankel contour, meaning a path that begins and ends at the point ∞ on the Riemann sphere, whose unit tangent vector converges to −1 at the start of the path and to 1 at the end, which has winding number 1 around 0, and which does not cross [0, ∞). Fix a branch of log ⁡ ( − t ) {\displaystyle \log(-t)} {\displaystyle \log(-t)} by taking a branch cut along [0, ∞) and by taking log ⁡ ( − t ) {\displaystyle \log(-t)} {\displaystyle \log(-t)} to be real when t is on the negative real axis. Assume z is not an integer. Then Hankel's formula for the gamma function is: Γ ( z ) = − 1 2 i sin ⁡ π z ∫ C ( − t ) z − 1 e − t d t , {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=-{\frac {1}{2i\sin \pi z}}\int \_{C}(-t)^{z-1}e^{-t}\,dt,} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=-{\frac {1}{2i\sin \pi z}}\int _{C}(-t)^{z-1}e^{-t}\,dt,} where ( − t ) z − 1 {\displaystyle (-t)^{z-1}} {\displaystyle (-t)^{z-1}} is interpreted as exp ⁡ ( ( z − 1 ) log ⁡ ( − t ) ) {\displaystyle \exp((z-1)\log(-t))} {\displaystyle \exp((z-1)\log(-t))}. The reflection formula leads to the closely related expression 1 Γ ( z ) = i 2 π ∫ C ( − t ) − z e − t d t , {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\Gamma (z)}}={\frac {i}{2\pi }}\int \_{C}(-t)^{-z}e^{-t}\,dt,} {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\Gamma (z)}}={\frac {i}{2\pi }}\int _{C}(-t)^{-z}e^{-t}\,dt,} again valid whenever *z* is not an integer. ### Continued fraction representation The gamma function can also be represented by a sum of two continued fractions: Γ ( z ) = e − 1 2 + 0 − z + 1 z − 1 2 + 2 − z + 2 z − 2 2 + 4 − z + 3 z − 3 2 + 6 − z + 4 z − 4 2 + 8 − z + 5 z − 5 2 + 10 − z + ⋱ + e − 1 z + 0 − z + 0 z + 1 + 1 z + 2 − z + 1 z + 3 + 2 z + 4 − z + 2 z + 5 + 3 z + 6 − ⋱ {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\cfrac {e^{-1}}{2+0-z+1{\cfrac {z-1}{2+2-z+2{\cfrac {z-2}{2+4-z+3{\cfrac {z-3}{2+6-z+4{\cfrac {z-4}{2+8-z+5{\cfrac {z-5}{2+10-z+\ddots }}}}}}}}}}}}+{\cfrac {e^{-1}}{z+0-{\cfrac {z+0}{z+1+{\cfrac {1}{z+2-{\cfrac {z+1}{z+3+{\cfrac {2}{z+4-{\cfrac {z+2}{z+5+{\cfrac {3}{z+6-\ddots }}}}}}}}}}}}}}} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\cfrac {e^{-1}}{2+0-z+1{\cfrac {z-1}{2+2-z+2{\cfrac {z-2}{2+4-z+3{\cfrac {z-3}{2+6-z+4{\cfrac {z-4}{2+8-z+5{\cfrac {z-5}{2+10-z+\ddots }}}}}}}}}}}}+{\cfrac {e^{-1}}{z+0-{\cfrac {z+0}{z+1+{\cfrac {1}{z+2-{\cfrac {z+1}{z+3+{\cfrac {2}{z+4-{\cfrac {z+2}{z+5+{\cfrac {3}{z+6-\ddots }}}}}}}}}}}}}}} where z ∈ C {\displaystyle z\in \mathbb {C} } z\in\mathbb{C}. ### Fourier series expansion The logarithm of the gamma function has the following Fourier series expansion for 0 < z < 1 : {\displaystyle 0<z<1:} {\displaystyle 0<z<1:} ln ⁡ Γ ( z ) = ( 1 2 − z ) ( γ + ln ⁡ 2 ) + ( 1 − z ) ln ⁡ π − 1 2 ln ⁡ sin ⁡ ( π z ) + 1 π ∑ n = 1 ∞ ln ⁡ n n sin ⁡ ( 2 π n z ) , {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z)=\left({\frac {1}{2}}-z\right)(\gamma +\ln 2)+(1-z)\ln \pi -{\frac {1}{2}}\ln \sin(\pi z)+{\frac {1}{\pi }}\sum \_{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {\ln n}{n}}\sin(2\pi nz),} {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z)=\left({\frac {1}{2}}-z\right)(\gamma +\ln 2)+(1-z)\ln \pi -{\frac {1}{2}}\ln \sin(\pi z)+{\frac {1}{\pi }}\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {\ln n}{n}}\sin(2\pi nz),} which was for a long time attributed to Ernst Kummer, who derived it in 1847. However, Iaroslav Blagouchine discovered that Carl Johan Malmsten first derived this series in 1842. ### Raabe's formula In 1840 Joseph Ludwig Raabe proved that ∫ a a + 1 ln ⁡ Γ ( z ) d z = 1 2 ln ⁡ 2 π + a ln ⁡ a − a , a > 0. {\displaystyle \int \_{a}^{a+1}\ln \Gamma (z)\,dz={\tfrac {1}{2}}\ln 2\pi +a\ln a-a,\quad a>0.} {\displaystyle \int _{a}^{a+1}\ln \Gamma (z)\,dz={\tfrac {1}{2}}\ln 2\pi +a\ln a-a,\quad a>0.} In particular, if a = 0 {\displaystyle a=0} a=0 then ∫ 0 1 ln ⁡ Γ ( z ) d z = 1 2 ln ⁡ 2 π . {\displaystyle \int \_{0}^{1}\ln \Gamma (z)\,dz={\tfrac {1}{2}}\ln 2\pi .} {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{1}\ln \Gamma (z)\,dz={\tfrac {1}{2}}\ln 2\pi .} The latter can be derived taking the logarithm in the above multiplication formula, which gives an expression for the Riemann sum of the integrand. Taking the limit for a → ∞ {\displaystyle a\to \infty } a\to \infty gives the formula. ### Pi function An alternative notation that was originally introduced by Gauss is the Π {\displaystyle \Pi } \Pi -function, which, in terms of the gamma function, is Π ( z ) = Γ ( z + 1 ) = z Γ ( z ) = ∫ 0 ∞ e − t t z d t , {\displaystyle \Pi (z)=\Gamma (z+1)=z\Gamma (z)=\int \_{0}^{\infty }e^{-t}t^{z}\,dt,} {\displaystyle \Pi (z)=\Gamma (z+1)=z\Gamma (z)=\int _{0}^{\infty }e^{-t}t^{z}\,dt,} so that Π ( n ) = n ! {\displaystyle \Pi (n)=n!} {\displaystyle \Pi (n)=n!} for every non-negative integer n {\displaystyle n} n. Using the pi function the reflection formula takes on the form Π ( z ) Π ( − z ) = π z sin ⁡ ( π z ) = 1 sinc ⁡ ( z ) {\displaystyle \Pi (z)\Pi (-z)={\frac {\pi z}{\sin(\pi z)}}={\frac {1}{\operatorname {sinc} (z)}}} {\displaystyle \Pi (z)\Pi (-z)={\frac {\pi z}{\sin(\pi z)}}={\frac {1}{\operatorname {sinc} (z)}}} where sinc is the normalized sinc function, while the multiplication theorem takes on the form Π ( z m ) Π ( z − 1 m ) ⋯ Π ( z − m + 1 m ) = ( 2 π ) m − 1 2 m − z − 1 2 Π ( z )   . {\displaystyle \Pi \left({\frac {z}{m}}\right)\,\Pi \left({\frac {z-1}{m}}\right)\cdots \Pi \left({\frac {z-m+1}{m}}\right)=(2\pi )^{\frac {m-1}{2}}m^{-z-{\frac {1}{2}}}\Pi (z)\ .} {\displaystyle \Pi \left({\frac {z}{m}}\right)\,\Pi \left({\frac {z-1}{m}}\right)\cdots \Pi \left({\frac {z-m+1}{m}}\right)=(2\pi )^{\frac {m-1}{2}}m^{-z-{\frac {1}{2}}}\Pi (z)\ .} We also sometimes find π ( z ) = 1 Π ( z )   , {\displaystyle \pi (z)={\frac {1}{\Pi (z)}}\ ,} {\displaystyle \pi (z)={\frac {1}{\Pi (z)}}\ ,} which is an entire function, defined for every complex number, just like the reciprocal gamma function. That π ( z ) {\displaystyle \pi (z)} \pi (z) is entire entails it has no poles, so Π ( z ) {\displaystyle \Pi \left(z\right)} {\displaystyle \Pi \left(z\right)}, like Γ ( z ) {\displaystyle \Gamma \left(z\right)} \Gamma \left(z\right), has no zeros. The volume of an *n*-ellipsoid with radii *r*1, …, *r**n* can be expressed as V n ( r 1 , … , r n ) = π n 2 Π ( n 2 ) ∏ k = 1 n r k . {\displaystyle V\_{n}(r\_{1},\dotsc ,r\_{n})={\frac {\pi ^{\frac {n}{2}}}{\Pi \left({\frac {n}{2}}\right)}}\prod \_{k=1}^{n}r\_{k}.} {\displaystyle V_{n}(r_{1},\dotsc ,r_{n})={\frac {\pi ^{\frac {n}{2}}}{\Pi \left({\frac {n}{2}}\right)}}\prod _{k=1}^{n}r_{k}.} ### Relation to other functions * In the first integral above, which defines the gamma function, the limits of integration are fixed. The upper and lower incomplete gamma functions are the functions obtained by allowing the lower or upper (respectively) limit of integration to vary. * The gamma function is related to the beta function by the formula B ( z 1 , z 2 ) = ∫ 0 1 t z 1 − 1 ( 1 − t ) z 2 − 1 d t = Γ ( z 1 ) Γ ( z 2 ) Γ ( z 1 + z 2 ) . {\displaystyle \mathrm {B} (z\_{1},z\_{2})=\int \_{0}^{1}t^{z\_{1}-1}(1-t)^{z\_{2}-1}\,dt={\frac {\Gamma (z\_{1})\,\Gamma (z\_{2})}{\Gamma (z\_{1}+z\_{2})}}.} {\displaystyle \mathrm {B} (z_{1},z_{2})=\int _{0}^{1}t^{z_{1}-1}(1-t)^{z_{2}-1}\,dt={\frac {\Gamma (z_{1})\,\Gamma (z_{2})}{\Gamma (z_{1}+z_{2})}}.} * The logarithmic derivative of the gamma function is called the digamma function; higher derivatives are the polygamma functions. * The analog of the gamma function over a finite field or a finite ring is the Gaussian sums, a type of exponential sum. * The reciprocal gamma function is an entire function and has been studied as a specific topic. * The gamma function also shows up in an important relation with the Riemann zeta function, ζ ( z ) {\displaystyle \zeta (z)} {\displaystyle \zeta (z)}. π − z 2 Γ ( z 2 ) ζ ( z ) = π − 1 − z 2 Γ ( 1 − z 2 ) ζ ( 1 − z ) . {\displaystyle \pi ^{-{\frac {z}{2}}}\;\Gamma \left({\frac {z}{2}}\right)\zeta (z)=\pi ^{-{\frac {1-z}{2}}}\;\Gamma \left({\frac {1-z}{2}}\right)\;\zeta (1-z).} {\displaystyle \pi ^{-{\frac {z}{2}}}\;\Gamma \left({\frac {z}{2}}\right)\zeta (z)=\pi ^{-{\frac {1-z}{2}}}\;\Gamma \left({\frac {1-z}{2}}\right)\;\zeta (1-z).} It also appears in the following formula: ζ ( z ) Γ ( z ) = ∫ 0 ∞ u z e u − 1 d u u , {\displaystyle \zeta (z)\Gamma (z)=\int \_{0}^{\infty }{\frac {u^{z}}{e^{u}-1}}\,{\frac {du}{u}},} {\displaystyle \zeta (z)\Gamma (z)=\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {u^{z}}{e^{u}-1}}\,{\frac {du}{u}},} which is valid only for ℜ ( z ) > 1 {\displaystyle \Re (z)>1} {\displaystyle \Re (z)>1}. The logarithm of the gamma function satisfies the following formula due to Lerch: log ⁡ Γ ( z ) = ζ H ′ ( 0 , z ) − ζ ′ ( 0 ) , {\displaystyle \log \Gamma (z)=\zeta \_{H}'(0,z)-\zeta '(0),} {\displaystyle \log \Gamma (z)=\zeta _{H}'(0,z)-\zeta '(0),} where ζ H {\displaystyle \zeta \_{H}} {\displaystyle \zeta _{H}} is the Hurwitz zeta function, ζ {\displaystyle \zeta } \zeta is the Riemann zeta function and the prime (′) denotes differentiation in the first variable. * The gamma function is related to the stretched exponential function. For instance, the moments of that function are ⟨ τ n ⟩ ≡ ∫ 0 ∞ d t t n − 1 e − ( t τ ) β = τ n β Γ ( n β ) . {\displaystyle \langle \tau ^{n}\rangle \equiv \int \_{0}^{\infty }dt\,t^{n-1}\,e^{-\left({\frac {t}{\tau }}\right)^{\beta }}={\frac {\tau ^{n}}{\beta }}\Gamma \left({n \over \beta }\right).} {\displaystyle \langle \tau ^{n}\rangle \equiv \int _{0}^{\infty }dt\,t^{n-1}\,e^{-\left({\frac {t}{\tau }}\right)^{\beta }}={\frac {\tau ^{n}}{\beta }}\Gamma \left({n \over \beta }\right).} ### Particular values Including up to the first 20 digits after the decimal point, some particular values of the gamma function are: Γ ( − 3 2 ) = 4 π 3 ≈ + 2.36327 18012 07354 70306 Γ ( − 1 2 ) = − 2 π ≈ − 3.54490 77018 11032 05459 Γ ( 1 2 ) = π ≈ + 1.77245 38509 05516 02729 Γ ( 1 ) = 0 ! = + 1 Γ ( 3 2 ) = π 2 ≈ + 0.88622 69254 52758 01364 Γ ( 2 ) = 1 ! = + 1 Γ ( 5 2 ) = 3 π 4 ≈ + 1.32934 03881 79137 02047 Γ ( 3 ) = 2 ! = + 2 Γ ( 7 2 ) = 15 π 8 ≈ + 3.32335 09704 47842 55118 Γ ( 4 ) = 3 ! = + 6 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{rcccl}\Gamma \left(-{\tfrac {3}{2}}\right)&=&{\tfrac {4{\sqrt {\pi }}}{3}}&\approx &+2.36327\,18012\,07354\,70306\\\Gamma \left(-{\tfrac {1}{2}}\right)&=&-2{\sqrt {\pi }}&\approx &-3.54490\,77018\,11032\,05459\\\Gamma \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}\right)&=&{\sqrt {\pi }}&\approx &+1.77245\,38509\,05516\,02729\\\Gamma (1)&=&0!&=&+1\\\Gamma \left({\tfrac {3}{2}}\right)&=&{\tfrac {\sqrt {\pi }}{2}}&\approx &+0.88622\,69254\,52758\,01364\\\Gamma (2)&=&1!&=&+1\\\Gamma \left({\tfrac {5}{2}}\right)&=&{\tfrac {3{\sqrt {\pi }}}{4}}&\approx &+1.32934\,03881\,79137\,02047\\\Gamma (3)&=&2!&=&+2\\\Gamma \left({\tfrac {7}{2}}\right)&=&{\tfrac {15{\sqrt {\pi }}}{8}}&\approx &+3.32335\,09704\,47842\,55118\\\Gamma (4)&=&3!&=&+6\end{array}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{rcccl}\Gamma \left(-{\tfrac {3}{2}}\right)&=&{\tfrac {4{\sqrt {\pi }}}{3}}&\approx &+2.36327\,18012\,07354\,70306\\\Gamma \left(-{\tfrac {1}{2}}\right)&=&-2{\sqrt {\pi }}&\approx &-3.54490\,77018\,11032\,05459\\\Gamma \left({\tfrac {1}{2}}\right)&=&{\sqrt {\pi }}&\approx &+1.77245\,38509\,05516\,02729\\\Gamma (1)&=&0!&=&+1\\\Gamma \left({\tfrac {3}{2}}\right)&=&{\tfrac {\sqrt {\pi }}{2}}&\approx &+0.88622\,69254\,52758\,01364\\\Gamma (2)&=&1!&=&+1\\\Gamma \left({\tfrac {5}{2}}\right)&=&{\tfrac {3{\sqrt {\pi }}}{4}}&\approx &+1.32934\,03881\,79137\,02047\\\Gamma (3)&=&2!&=&+2\\\Gamma \left({\tfrac {7}{2}}\right)&=&{\tfrac {15{\sqrt {\pi }}}{8}}&\approx &+3.32335\,09704\,47842\,55118\\\Gamma (4)&=&3!&=&+6\end{array}}} (See sequences A245886, A019707, A002161, A019704, A245884, and A245885 in the OEIS.) The complex-valued gamma function is undefined for non-positive integers, but in these cases the value can be defined in the Riemann sphere as ∞. The reciprocal gamma function is well defined and analytic at these values (and in the entire complex plane): 1 Γ ( − 3 ) = 1 Γ ( − 2 ) = 1 Γ ( − 1 ) = 1 Γ ( 0 ) = 0. {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\Gamma (-3)}}={\frac {1}{\Gamma (-2)}}={\frac {1}{\Gamma (-1)}}={\frac {1}{\Gamma (0)}}=0.} {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\Gamma (-3)}}={\frac {1}{\Gamma (-2)}}={\frac {1}{\Gamma (-1)}}={\frac {1}{\Gamma (0)}}=0.} The log-gamma function ---------------------- Because the gamma and factorial functions grow so rapidly for moderately large arguments, many computing environments include a function that returns the natural logarithm of the gamma function (often given the name `lgamma` or `lngamma` in programming environments or `gammaln` in spreadsheets); this grows much more slowly, and for combinatorial calculations allows adding and subtracting logs instead of multiplying and dividing very large values. It is often defined as ln ⁡ Γ ( z ) = − γ z − ln ⁡ z + ∑ k = 1 ∞ [ z k − ln ⁡ ( 1 + z k ) ] . {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z)=-\gamma z-\ln z+\sum \_{k=1}^{\infty }\left[{\frac {z}{k}}-\ln \left(1+{\frac {z}{k}}\right)\right].} {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z)=-\gamma z-\ln z+\sum _{k=1}^{\infty }\left[{\frac {z}{k}}-\ln \left(1+{\frac {z}{k}}\right)\right].} The digamma function, which is the derivative of this function, is also commonly seen. In the context of technical and physical applications, e.g. with wave propagation, the functional equation ln ⁡ Γ ( z ) = ln ⁡ Γ ( z + 1 ) − ln ⁡ z {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z)=\ln \Gamma (z+1)-\ln z} {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z)=\ln \Gamma (z+1)-\ln z} is often used since it allows one to determine function values in one strip of width 1 in z from the neighbouring strip. In particular, starting with a good approximation for a z with large real part one may go step by step down to the desired z. Following an indication of Carl Friedrich Gauss, Rocktaeschel (1922) proposed for ln ⁡ ( Γ ( z ) ) {\displaystyle \ln(\Gamma (z))} {\displaystyle \ln(\Gamma (z))} an approximation for large Re(*z*): ln ⁡ Γ ( z ) ≈ ( z − 1 2 ) ln ⁡ z − z + 1 2 ln ⁡ ( 2 π ) . {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z)\approx (z-{\tfrac {1}{2}})\ln z-z+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\ln(2\pi ).} {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z)\approx (z-{\tfrac {1}{2}})\ln z-z+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\ln(2\pi ).} This can be used to accurately approximate ln(Γ(*z*)) for z with a smaller Re(*z*) via (P.E.Böhmer, 1939) ln ⁡ Γ ( z − m ) = ln ⁡ Γ ( z ) − ∑ k = 1 m ln ⁡ ( z − k ) . {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z-m)=\ln \Gamma (z)-\sum \_{k=1}^{m}\ln(z-k).} {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z-m)=\ln \Gamma (z)-\sum _{k=1}^{m}\ln(z-k).} A more accurate approximation can be obtained by using more terms from the asymptotic expansions of ln(Γ(*z*)) and Γ(*z*), which are based on Stirling's approximation. Γ ( z ) ∼ z z − 1 2 e − z 2 π ( 1 + 1 12 z + 1 288 z 2 − 139 51 840 z 3 − 571 2 488 320 z 4 ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)\sim z^{z-{\frac {1}{2}}}e^{-z}{\sqrt {2\pi }}\left(1+{\frac {1}{12z}}+{\frac {1}{288z^{2}}}-{\frac {139}{51\,840z^{3}}}-{\frac {571}{2\,488\,320z^{4}}}\right)} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)\sim z^{z-{\frac {1}{2}}}e^{-z}{\sqrt {2\pi }}\left(1+{\frac {1}{12z}}+{\frac {1}{288z^{2}}}-{\frac {139}{51\,840z^{3}}}-{\frac {571}{2\,488\,320z^{4}}}\right)} as |*z*| → ∞ at constant |arg(*z*)| < π. (See sequences A001163 and A001164 in the OEIS.) In a more "natural" presentation: ln ⁡ Γ ( z ) = z ln ⁡ z − z − 1 2 ln ⁡ z + 1 2 ln ⁡ 2 π + 1 12 z − 1 360 z 3 + 1 1260 z 5 + o ( 1 z 5 ) {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z)=z\ln z-z-{\tfrac {1}{2}}\ln z+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\ln 2\pi +{\frac {1}{12z}}-{\frac {1}{360z^{3}}}+{\frac {1}{1260z^{5}}}+o\left({\frac {1}{z^{5}}}\right)} {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z)=z\ln z-z-{\tfrac {1}{2}}\ln z+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\ln 2\pi +{\frac {1}{12z}}-{\frac {1}{360z^{3}}}+{\frac {1}{1260z^{5}}}+o\left({\frac {1}{z^{5}}}\right)} as |*z*| → ∞ at constant |arg(*z*)| < π. (See sequences A046968 and A046969 in the OEIS.) The coefficients of the terms with *k* > 1 of *z*1−*k* in the last expansion are simply B k k ( k − 1 ) {\displaystyle {\frac {B\_{k}}{k(k-1)}}} {\displaystyle {\frac {B_{k}}{k(k-1)}}} where the *Bk* are the Bernoulli numbers. The Gamma function also has Stirling Series (derived by Charles Hermite in 1900) equal to log ⁡ Γ ( 1 + x ) = x ( x − 1 ) 2 ! log ⁡ ( 2 ) + x ( x − 1 ) ( x − 2 ) 3 ! ( log ⁡ ( 3 ) − 2 log ⁡ ( 2 ) ) + ⋯ , ℜ ( x ) > 0. {\displaystyle \log \Gamma (1+x)={\frac {x(x-1)}{2!}}\log(2)+{\frac {x(x-1)(x-2)}{3!}}(\log(3)-2\log(2))+\cdots ,\quad \Re (x)>0.} {\displaystyle \log \Gamma (1+x)={\frac {x(x-1)}{2!}}\log(2)+{\frac {x(x-1)(x-2)}{3!}}(\log(3)-2\log(2))+\cdots ,\quad \Re (x)>0.} ### Properties The Bohr–Mollerup theorem states that among all functions extending the factorial functions to the positive real numbers, only the gamma function is log-convex, that is, its natural logarithm is convex on the positive real axis. Another characterisation is given by the Wielandt theorem. The gamma function is the unique function that simultaneously satisfies 1. Γ ( 1 ) = 1 {\displaystyle \Gamma (1)=1} \Gamma (1)=1, 2. Γ ( z + 1 ) = z Γ ( z ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (z+1)=z\Gamma (z)} \Gamma (z+1)=z\Gamma (z) for all complex numbers z {\displaystyle z} z except the non-positive integers, and, 3. for integer n, lim n → ∞ Γ ( n + z ) Γ ( n ) n z = 1 {\textstyle \lim \_{n\to \infty }{\frac {\Gamma (n+z)}{\Gamma (n)\;n^{z}}}=1} {\textstyle \lim _{n\to \infty }{\frac {\Gamma (n+z)}{\Gamma (n)\;n^{z}}}=1} for all complex numbers z {\displaystyle z} z. In a certain sense, the ln(Γ) function is the more natural form; it makes some intrinsic attributes of the function clearer. A striking example is the Taylor series of ln(Γ) around 1: ln ⁡ Γ ( z + 1 ) = − γ z + ∑ k = 2 ∞ ζ ( k ) k ( − z ) k ∀ | z | < 1 {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z+1)=-\gamma z+\sum \_{k=2}^{\infty }{\frac {\zeta (k)}{k}}\,(-z)^{k}\qquad \forall \;|z|<1} {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z+1)=-\gamma z+\sum _{k=2}^{\infty }{\frac {\zeta (k)}{k}}\,(-z)^{k}\qquad \forall \;|z|<1} with *ζ*(*k*) denoting the Riemann zeta function at k. So, using the following property: ζ ( s ) Γ ( s ) = ∫ 0 ∞ t s e t − 1 d t t {\displaystyle \zeta (s)\Gamma (s)=\int \_{0}^{\infty }{\frac {t^{s}}{e^{t}-1}}\,{\frac {dt}{t}}} {\displaystyle \zeta (s)\Gamma (s)=\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {t^{s}}{e^{t}-1}}\,{\frac {dt}{t}}} we can find an integral representation for the ln(Γ) function: ln ⁡ Γ ( z + 1 ) = − γ z + ∫ 0 ∞ e − z t − 1 + z t t ( e t − 1 ) d t {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z+1)=-\gamma z+\int \_{0}^{\infty }{\frac {e^{-zt}-1+zt}{t\left(e^{t}-1\right)}}\,dt} {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z+1)=-\gamma z+\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {e^{-zt}-1+zt}{t\left(e^{t}-1\right)}}\,dt} or, setting *z* = 1 to obtain an integral for *γ*, we can replace the *γ* term with its integral and incorporate that into the above formula, to get: ln ⁡ Γ ( z + 1 ) = ∫ 0 ∞ e − z t − z e − t − 1 + z t ( e t − 1 ) d t . {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z+1)=\int \_{0}^{\infty }{\frac {e^{-zt}-ze^{-t}-1+z}{t\left(e^{t}-1\right)}}\,dt\,.} {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma (z+1)=\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {e^{-zt}-ze^{-t}-1+z}{t\left(e^{t}-1\right)}}\,dt\,.} There also exist special formulas for the logarithm of the gamma function for rational z. For instance, if k {\displaystyle k} k and n {\displaystyle n} n are integers with k < n {\displaystyle k<n} k<n and k ≠ n / 2 , {\displaystyle k\neq n/2\,,} {\displaystyle k\neq n/2\,,} then ln ⁡ Γ ( k n ) = ( n − 2 k ) ln ⁡ 2 π 2 n + 1 2 { ln ⁡ π − ln ⁡ sin ⁡ π k n } + 1 π ∑ r = 1 n − 1 γ + ln ⁡ r r ⋅ sin ⁡ 2 π r k n − 1 2 π sin ⁡ 2 π k n ⋅ ∫ 0 ∞ e − n x ⋅ ln ⁡ x cosh ⁡ x − cos ⁡ ( 2 π k / n ) d x {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\ln \Gamma \left({\frac {k}{n}}\right)={}&{\frac {\,(n-2k)\ln 2\pi \,}{2n}}+{\frac {1}{2}}\left\{\,\ln \pi -\ln \sin {\frac {\pi k}{n}}\,\right\}+{\frac {1}{\pi }}\!\sum \_{r=1}^{n-1}{\frac {\,\gamma +\ln r\,}{r}}\cdot \sin {\frac {\,2\pi rk\,}{n}}\\&{}-{\frac {1}{2\pi }}\sin {\frac {2\pi k}{n}}\cdot \!\int \_{0}^{\infty }\!\!{\frac {\,e^{-nx}\!\cdot \ln x\,}{\,\cosh x-\cos(2\pi k/n)\,}}\,{\mathrm {d} }x\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\ln \Gamma \left({\frac {k}{n}}\right)={}&{\frac {\,(n-2k)\ln 2\pi \,}{2n}}+{\frac {1}{2}}\left\{\,\ln \pi -\ln \sin {\frac {\pi k}{n}}\,\right\}+{\frac {1}{\pi }}\!\sum _{r=1}^{n-1}{\frac {\,\gamma +\ln r\,}{r}}\cdot \sin {\frac {\,2\pi rk\,}{n}}\\&{}-{\frac {1}{2\pi }}\sin {\frac {2\pi k}{n}}\cdot \!\int _{0}^{\infty }\!\!{\frac {\,e^{-nx}\!\cdot \ln x\,}{\,\cosh x-\cos(2\pi k/n)\,}}\,{\mathrm {d} }x\end{aligned}}} see. This formula is sometimes used for numerical computation, since the integrand decreases very quickly. ### Integration over log-gamma The integral ∫ 0 z ln ⁡ Γ ( x ) d x {\displaystyle \int \_{0}^{z}\ln \Gamma (x)\,dx} {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{z}\ln \Gamma (x)\,dx} can be expressed in terms of the Barnes *G*-function (see Barnes *G*-function for a proof): ∫ 0 z ln ⁡ Γ ( x ) d x = z 2 ln ⁡ ( 2 π ) + z ( 1 − z ) 2 + z ln ⁡ Γ ( z ) − ln ⁡ G ( z + 1 ) {\displaystyle \int \_{0}^{z}\ln \Gamma (x)\,dx={\frac {z}{2}}\ln(2\pi )+{\frac {z(1-z)}{2}}+z\ln \Gamma (z)-\ln G(z+1)} {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{z}\ln \Gamma (x)\,dx={\frac {z}{2}}\ln(2\pi )+{\frac {z(1-z)}{2}}+z\ln \Gamma (z)-\ln G(z+1)} where Re(*z*) > −1. It can also be written in terms of the Hurwitz zeta function: ∫ 0 z ln ⁡ Γ ( x ) d x = z 2 ln ⁡ ( 2 π ) + z ( 1 − z ) 2 − ζ ′ ( − 1 ) + ζ ′ ( − 1 , z ) . {\displaystyle \int \_{0}^{z}\ln \Gamma (x)\,dx={\frac {z}{2}}\ln(2\pi )+{\frac {z(1-z)}{2}}-\zeta '(-1)+\zeta '(-1,z).} {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{z}\ln \Gamma (x)\,dx={\frac {z}{2}}\ln(2\pi )+{\frac {z(1-z)}{2}}-\zeta '(-1)+\zeta '(-1,z).} When z = 1 {\displaystyle z=1} z=1 it follows that ∫ 0 1 ln ⁡ Γ ( x ) d x = 1 2 ln ⁡ ( 2 π ) , {\displaystyle \int \_{0}^{1}\ln \Gamma (x)\,dx={\frac {1}{2}}\ln(2\pi ),} {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{1}\ln \Gamma (x)\,dx={\frac {1}{2}}\ln(2\pi ),} and this is a consequence of Raabe's formula as well. O. Espinosa and V. Moll derived a similar formula for the integral of the square of ln ⁡ Γ {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma } {\displaystyle \ln \Gamma }: ∫ 0 1 ln 2 ⁡ Γ ( x ) d x = γ 2 12 + π 2 48 + 1 3 γ L 1 + 4 3 L 1 2 − ( γ + 2 L 1 ) ζ ′ ( 2 ) π 2 + ζ ′ ′ ( 2 ) 2 π 2 , {\displaystyle \int \_{0}^{1}\ln ^{2}\Gamma (x)dx={\frac {\gamma ^{2}}{12}}+{\frac {\pi ^{2}}{48}}+{\frac {1}{3}}\gamma L\_{1}+{\frac {4}{3}}L\_{1}^{2}-\left(\gamma +2L\_{1}\right){\frac {\zeta ^{\prime }(2)}{\pi ^{2}}}+{\frac {\zeta ^{\prime \prime }(2)}{2\pi ^{2}}},} {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{1}\ln ^{2}\Gamma (x)dx={\frac {\gamma ^{2}}{12}}+{\frac {\pi ^{2}}{48}}+{\frac {1}{3}}\gamma L_{1}+{\frac {4}{3}}L_{1}^{2}-\left(\gamma +2L_{1}\right){\frac {\zeta ^{\prime }(2)}{\pi ^{2}}}+{\frac {\zeta ^{\prime \prime }(2)}{2\pi ^{2}}},} where L 1 {\displaystyle L\_{1}} L_{1} is 1 2 ln ⁡ ( 2 π ) {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2}}\ln(2\pi )} {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2}}\ln(2\pi )}. D. H. Bailey and his co-authors gave an evaluation for L n := ∫ 0 1 ln n ⁡ Γ ( x ) d x {\displaystyle L\_{n}:=\int \_{0}^{1}\ln ^{n}\Gamma (x)\,dx} {\displaystyle L_{n}:=\int _{0}^{1}\ln ^{n}\Gamma (x)\,dx} when n = 1 , 2 {\displaystyle n=1,2} n=1,2 in terms of the Tornheim–Witten zeta function and its derivatives. In addition, it is also known that lim n → ∞ L n n ! = 1. {\displaystyle \lim \_{n\to \infty }{\frac {L\_{n}}{n!}}=1.} {\displaystyle \lim _{n\to \infty }{\frac {L_{n}}{n!}}=1.} Approximations -------------- Complex values of the gamma function can be approximated using Stirling's approximation or the Lanczos approximation, Γ ( z ) ∼ 2 π z z − 1 / 2 e − z as  z → ∞  in  | arg ⁡ ( z ) | < π . {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)\sim {\sqrt {2\pi }}z^{z-1/2}e^{-z}\quad {\hbox{as }}z\to \infty {\hbox{ in }}\left|\arg(z)\right|<\pi .} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)\sim {\sqrt {2\pi }}z^{z-1/2}e^{-z}\quad {\hbox{as }}z\to \infty {\hbox{ in }}\left|\arg(z)\right|<\pi .} This is precise in the sense that the ratio of the approximation to the true value approaches 1 in the limit as |*z*| goes to infinity. The gamma function can be computed to fixed precision for Re ⁡ ( z ) ∈ [ 1 , 2 ] {\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} (z)\in [1,2]} {\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} (z)\in [1,2]} by applying integration by parts to Euler's integral. For any positive number x the gamma function can be written Γ ( z ) = ∫ 0 x e − t t z d t t + ∫ x ∞ e − t t z d t t = x z e − x ∑ n = 0 ∞ x n z ( z + 1 ) ⋯ ( z + n ) + ∫ x ∞ e − t t z d t t . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma (z)&=\int \_{0}^{x}e^{-t}t^{z}\,{\frac {dt}{t}}+\int \_{x}^{\infty }e^{-t}t^{z}\,{\frac {dt}{t}}\\&=x^{z}e^{-x}\sum \_{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {x^{n}}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n)}}+\int \_{x}^{\infty }e^{-t}t^{z}\,{\frac {dt}{t}}.\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma (z)&=\int _{0}^{x}e^{-t}t^{z}\,{\frac {dt}{t}}+\int _{x}^{\infty }e^{-t}t^{z}\,{\frac {dt}{t}}\\&=x^{z}e^{-x}\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {x^{n}}{z(z+1)\cdots (z+n)}}+\int _{x}^{\infty }e^{-t}t^{z}\,{\frac {dt}{t}}.\end{aligned}}} When Re(*z*) ∈ [1,2] and x ≥ 1 {\displaystyle x\geq 1} x \geq 1, the absolute value of the last integral is smaller than ( x + 1 ) e − x {\displaystyle (x+1)e^{-x}} {\displaystyle (x+1)e^{-x}}. By choosing a large enough x {\displaystyle x} x, this last expression can be made smaller than 2 − N {\displaystyle 2^{-N}} {\displaystyle 2^{-N}} for any desired value N {\displaystyle N} N. Thus, the gamma function can be evaluated to N {\displaystyle N} N bits of precision with the above series. A fast algorithm for calculation of the Euler gamma function for any algebraic argument (including rational) was constructed by E.A. Karatsuba. For arguments that are integer multiples of 1/24, the gamma function can also be evaluated quickly using arithmetic–geometric mean iterations (see particular values of the gamma function). Applications ------------ One author describes the gamma function as "Arguably, the most common special function, or the least 'special' of them. The other transcendental functions […] are called 'special' because you could conceivably avoid some of them by staying away from many specialized mathematical topics. On the other hand, the gamma function Γ(*z*) is most difficult to avoid." ### Integration problems The gamma function finds application in such diverse areas as quantum physics, astrophysics and fluid dynamics. The gamma distribution, which is formulated in terms of the gamma function, is used in statistics to model a wide range of processes; for example, the time between occurrences of earthquakes. The primary reason for the gamma function's usefulness in such contexts is the prevalence of expressions of the type f ( t ) e − g ( t ) {\displaystyle f(t)e^{-g(t)}} {\displaystyle f(t)e^{-g(t)}} which describe processes that decay exponentially in time or space. Integrals of such expressions can occasionally be solved in terms of the gamma function when no elementary solution exists. For example, if *f* is a power function and *g* is a linear function, a simple change of variables u := a ⋅ t {\displaystyle u:=a\cdot t} {\displaystyle u:=a\cdot t} gives the evaluation ∫ 0 ∞ t b e − a t d t = 1 a b ∫ 0 ∞ u b e − u d ( u a ) = Γ ( b + 1 ) a b + 1 . {\displaystyle \int \_{0}^{\infty }t^{b}e^{-at}\,dt={\frac {1}{a^{b}}}\int \_{0}^{\infty }u^{b}e^{-u}d\left({\frac {u}{a}}\right)={\frac {\Gamma (b+1)}{a^{b+1}}}.} {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{\infty }t^{b}e^{-at}\,dt={\frac {1}{a^{b}}}\int _{0}^{\infty }u^{b}e^{-u}d\left({\frac {u}{a}}\right)={\frac {\Gamma (b+1)}{a^{b+1}}}.} The fact that the integration is performed along the entire positive real line might signify that the gamma function describes the cumulation of a time-dependent process that continues indefinitely, or the value might be the total of a distribution in an infinite space. It is of course frequently useful to take limits of integration other than 0 and ∞ to describe the cumulation of a finite process, in which case the ordinary gamma function is no longer a solution; the solution is then called an incomplete gamma function. (The ordinary gamma function, obtained by integrating across the entire positive real line, is sometimes called the *complete gamma function* for contrast.) An important category of exponentially decaying functions is that of Gaussian functions a e − ( x − b ) 2 c 2 {\displaystyle ae^{-{\frac {(x-b)^{2}}{c^{2}}}}} {\displaystyle ae^{-{\frac {(x-b)^{2}}{c^{2}}}}} and integrals thereof, such as the error function. There are many interrelations between these functions and the gamma function; notably, the factor π {\displaystyle {\sqrt {\pi }}} {\sqrt {\pi }} obtained by evaluating Γ ( 1 2 ) {\textstyle \Gamma \left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)} {\textstyle \Gamma \left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)} is the "same" as that found in the normalizing factor of the error function and the normal distribution. The integrals we have discussed so far involve transcendental functions, but the gamma function also arises from integrals of purely algebraic functions. In particular, the arc lengths of ellipses and of the lemniscate, which are curves defined by algebraic equations, are given by elliptic integrals that in special cases can be evaluated in terms of the gamma function. The gamma function can also be used to calculate "volume" and "area" of *n*-dimensional hyperspheres. ### Calculating products The gamma function's ability to generalize factorial products immediately leads to applications in many areas of mathematics; in combinatorics, and by extension in areas such as probability theory and the calculation of power series. Many expressions involving products of successive integers can be written as some combination of factorials, the most important example perhaps being that of the binomial coefficient ( n k ) = n ! k ! ( n − k ) ! . {\displaystyle {\binom {n}{k}}={\frac {n!}{k!(n-k)!}}.} {\displaystyle {\binom {n}{k}}={\frac {n!}{k!(n-k)!}}.} The example of binomial coefficients motivates why the properties of the gamma function when extended to negative numbers are natural. A binomial coefficient gives the number of ways to choose k elements from a set of n elements; if *k* > *n*, there are of course no ways. If *k* > *n*, (*n* − *k*)! is the factorial of a negative integer and hence infinite if we use the gamma function definition of factorials—dividing by infinity gives the expected value of 0. We can replace the factorial by a gamma function to extend any such formula to the complex numbers. Generally, this works for any product wherein each factor is a rational function of the index variable, by factoring the rational function into linear expressions. If *P* and *Q* are monic polynomials of degree m and n with respective roots *p*1, …, *pm* and *q*1, …, *qn*, we have ∏ i = a b P ( i ) Q ( i ) = ( ∏ j = 1 m Γ ( b − p j + 1 ) Γ ( a − p j ) ) ( ∏ k = 1 n Γ ( a − q k ) Γ ( b − q k + 1 ) ) . {\displaystyle \prod \_{i=a}^{b}{\frac {P(i)}{Q(i)}}=\left(\prod \_{j=1}^{m}{\frac {\Gamma (b-p\_{j}+1)}{\Gamma (a-p\_{j})}}\right)\left(\prod \_{k=1}^{n}{\frac {\Gamma (a-q\_{k})}{\Gamma (b-q\_{k}+1)}}\right).} {\displaystyle \prod _{i=a}^{b}{\frac {P(i)}{Q(i)}}=\left(\prod _{j=1}^{m}{\frac {\Gamma (b-p_{j}+1)}{\Gamma (a-p_{j})}}\right)\left(\prod _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {\Gamma (a-q_{k})}{\Gamma (b-q_{k}+1)}}\right).} If we have a way to calculate the gamma function numerically, it is a breeze to calculate numerical values of such products. The number of gamma functions in the right-hand side depends only on the degree of the polynomials, so it does not matter whether *b* − *a* equals 5 or 105. By taking the appropriate limits, the equation can also be made to hold even when the left-hand product contains zeros or poles. By taking limits, certain rational products with infinitely many factors can be evaluated in terms of the gamma function as well. Due to the Weierstrass factorization theorem, analytic functions can be written as infinite products, and these can sometimes be represented as finite products or quotients of the gamma function. We have already seen one striking example: the reflection formula essentially represents the sine function as the product of two gamma functions. Starting from this formula, the exponential function as well as all the trigonometric and hyperbolic functions can be expressed in terms of the gamma function. More functions yet, including the hypergeometric function and special cases thereof, can be represented by means of complex contour integrals of products and quotients of the gamma function, called Mellin–Barnes integrals. ### Analytic number theory An application of the gamma function is the study of the Riemann zeta function. A fundamental property of the Riemann zeta function is its functional equation: Γ ( s 2 ) ζ ( s ) π − s 2 = Γ ( 1 − s 2 ) ζ ( 1 − s ) π − 1 − s 2 . {\displaystyle \Gamma \left({\frac {s}{2}}\right)\zeta (s)\pi ^{-{\frac {s}{2}}}=\Gamma \left({\frac {1-s}{2}}\right)\zeta (1-s)\pi ^{-{\frac {1-s}{2}}}.} {\displaystyle \Gamma \left({\frac {s}{2}}\right)\zeta (s)\pi ^{-{\frac {s}{2}}}=\Gamma \left({\frac {1-s}{2}}\right)\zeta (1-s)\pi ^{-{\frac {1-s}{2}}}.} Among other things, this provides an explicit form for the analytic continuation of the zeta function to a meromorphic function in the complex plane and leads to an immediate proof that the zeta function has infinitely many so-called "trivial" zeros on the real line. Borwein *et al.* call this formula "one of the most beautiful findings in mathematics". Another contender for that title might be ζ ( s ) Γ ( s ) = ∫ 0 ∞ t s e t − 1 d t t . {\displaystyle \zeta (s)\;\Gamma (s)=\int \_{0}^{\infty }{\frac {t^{s}}{e^{t}-1}}\,{\frac {dt}{t}}.} {\displaystyle \zeta (s)\;\Gamma (s)=\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {t^{s}}{e^{t}-1}}\,{\frac {dt}{t}}.} Both formulas were derived by Bernhard Riemann in his seminal 1859 paper "*Ueber die Anzahl der Primzahlen unter einer gegebenen Größe*" ("On the Number of Primes Less Than a Given Magnitude"), one of the milestones in the development of analytic number theory—the branch of mathematics that studies prime numbers using the tools of mathematical analysis. Factorial numbers, considered as discrete objects, are an important concept in classical number theory because they contain many prime factors, but Riemann found a use for their continuous extension that arguably turned out to be even more important. History ------- The gamma function has caught the interest of some of the most prominent mathematicians of all time. Its history, notably documented by Philip J. Davis in an article that won him the 1963 Chauvenet Prize, reflects many of the major developments within mathematics since the 18th century. In the words of Davis, "each generation has found something of interest to say about the gamma function. Perhaps the next generation will also." ### 18th century: Euler and Stirling The problem of extending the factorial to non-integer arguments was apparently first considered by Daniel Bernoulli and Christian Goldbach in the 1720s. In particular, in a letter from Bernoulli to Goldbach dated 6 October 1729 Bernoulli introduced the product representation x ! = lim n → ∞ ( n + 1 + x 2 ) x − 1 ∏ k = 1 n k + 1 k + x {\displaystyle x!=\lim \_{n\to \infty }\left(n+1+{\frac {x}{2}}\right)^{x-1}\prod \_{k=1}^{n}{\frac {k+1}{k+x}}} {\displaystyle x!=\lim _{n\to \infty }\left(n+1+{\frac {x}{2}}\right)^{x-1}\prod _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {k+1}{k+x}}} which is well defined for real values of *x* other than the negative integers. Leonard Euler later gave two different definitions: the first was not his integral but an infinite product that is well defined for all complex numbers *n* other than the negative integers, n ! = ∏ k = 1 ∞ ( 1 + 1 k ) n 1 + n k , {\displaystyle n!=\prod \_{k=1}^{\infty }{\frac {\left(1+{\frac {1}{k}}\right)^{n}}{1+{\frac {n}{k}}}}\,,} {\displaystyle n!=\prod _{k=1}^{\infty }{\frac {\left(1+{\frac {1}{k}}\right)^{n}}{1+{\frac {n}{k}}}}\,,} of which he informed Goldbach in a letter dated 13 October 1729. He wrote to Goldbach again on 8 January 1730, to announce his discovery of the integral representation n ! = ∫ 0 1 ( − ln ⁡ s ) n d s , {\displaystyle n!=\int \_{0}^{1}(-\ln s)^{n}\,ds\,,} {\displaystyle n!=\int _{0}^{1}(-\ln s)^{n}\,ds\,,} which is valid when the real part of the complex number *n* is strictly greater than −1 (i.e., ℜ ( n ) > − 1 {\displaystyle \Re (n)>-1} {\displaystyle \Re (n)>-1}). By the change of variables *t* = −ln *s*, this becomes the familiar Euler integral. Euler published his results in the paper "De progressionibus transcendentibus seu quarum termini generales algebraice dari nequeunt" ("On transcendental progressions, that is, those whose general terms cannot be given algebraically"), submitted to the St. Petersburg Academy on 28 November 1729. Euler further discovered some of the gamma function's important functional properties, including the reflection formula. James Stirling, a contemporary of Euler, also attempted to find a continuous expression for the factorial and came up with what is now known as Stirling's formula. Although Stirling's formula gives a good estimate of *n*!, also for non-integers, it does not provide the exact value. Extensions of his formula that correct the error were given by Stirling himself and by Jacques Philippe Marie Binet. ### 19th century: Gauss, Weierstrass and Legendre Carl Friedrich Gauss rewrote Euler's product as Γ ( z ) = lim m → ∞ m z m ! z ( z + 1 ) ( z + 2 ) ⋯ ( z + m ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=\lim \_{m\to \infty }{\frac {m^{z}m!}{z(z+1)(z+2)\cdots (z+m)}}} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)=\lim _{m\to \infty }{\frac {m^{z}m!}{z(z+1)(z+2)\cdots (z+m)}}} and used this formula to discover new properties of the gamma function. Although Euler was a pioneer in the theory of complex variables, he does not appear to have considered the factorial of a complex number, as instead Gauss first did. Gauss also proved the multiplication theorem of the gamma function and investigated the connection between the gamma function and elliptic integrals. Karl Weierstrass further established the role of the gamma function in complex analysis, starting from yet another product representation, Γ ( z ) = e − γ z z ∏ k = 1 ∞ ( 1 + z k ) − 1 e z k , {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\frac {e^{-\gamma z}}{z}}\prod \_{k=1}^{\infty }\left(1+{\frac {z}{k}}\right)^{-1}e^{\frac {z}{k}},} {\displaystyle \Gamma (z)={\frac {e^{-\gamma z}}{z}}\prod _{k=1}^{\infty }\left(1+{\frac {z}{k}}\right)^{-1}e^{\frac {z}{k}},} where *γ* is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. Weierstrass originally wrote his product as one for 1/Γ, in which case it is taken over the function's zeros rather than its poles. Inspired by this result, he proved what is known as the Weierstrass factorization theorem—that any entire function can be written as a product over its zeros in the complex plane; a generalization of the fundamental theorem of algebra. The name gamma function and the symbol Γ were introduced by Adrien-Marie Legendre around 1811; Legendre also rewrote Euler's integral definition in its modern form. Although the symbol is an upper-case Greek gamma, there is no accepted standard for whether the function name should be written "gamma function" or "Gamma function" (some authors simply write "Γ-function"). The alternative "pi function" notation Π(*z*) = *z*! due to Gauss is sometimes encountered in older literature, but Legendre's notation is dominant in modern works. It is justified to ask why we distinguish between the "ordinary factorial" and the gamma function by using distinct symbols, and particularly why the gamma function should be normalized to Γ(*n* + 1) = *n*! instead of simply using "Γ(*n*) = *n*!". Consider that the notation for exponents, *xn*, has been generalized from integers to complex numbers *xz* without any change. Legendre's motivation for the normalization does not appear to be known, and has been criticized as cumbersome by some (the 20th-century mathematician Cornelius Lanczos, for example, called it "void of any rationality" and would instead use *z*!). Legendre's normalization does simplify some formulae, but complicates others. From a modern point of view, the Legendre normalization of the Gamma function is the integral of the additive character *e*−*x* against the multiplicative character *xz* with respect to the Haar measure d x x {\textstyle {\frac {dx}{x}}} {\textstyle {\frac {dx}{x}}} on the Lie group **R**+. Thus this normalization makes it clearer that the gamma function is a continuous analogue of a Gauss sum. ### 19th–20th centuries: characterizing the gamma function It is somewhat problematic that a large number of definitions have been given for the gamma function. Although they describe the same function, it is not entirely straightforward to prove the equivalence. Stirling never proved that his extended formula corresponds exactly to Euler's gamma function; a proof was first given by Charles Hermite in 1900. Instead of finding a specialized proof for each formula, it would be desirable to have a general method of identifying the gamma function. One way to prove would be to find a differential equation that characterizes the gamma function. Most special functions in applied mathematics arise as solutions to differential equations, whose solutions are unique. However, the gamma function does not appear to satisfy any simple differential equation. Otto Hölder proved in 1887 that the gamma function at least does not satisfy any *algebraic* differential equation by showing that a solution to such an equation could not satisfy the gamma function's recurrence formula, making it a transcendentally transcendental function. This result is known as Hölder's theorem. A definite and generally applicable characterization of the gamma function was not given until 1922. Harald Bohr and Johannes Mollerup then proved what is known as the *Bohr–Mollerup theorem*: that the gamma function is the unique solution to the factorial recurrence relation that is positive and *logarithmically convex* for positive z and whose value at 1 is 1 (a function is logarithmically convex if its logarithm is convex). Another characterisation is given by the Wielandt theorem. The Bohr–Mollerup theorem is useful because it is relatively easy to prove logarithmic convexity for any of the different formulas used to define the gamma function. Taking things further, instead of defining the gamma function by any particular formula, we can choose the conditions of the Bohr–Mollerup theorem as the definition, and then pick any formula we like that satisfies the conditions as a starting point for studying the gamma function. This approach was used by the Bourbaki group. Borwein & Corless review three centuries of work on the gamma function. ### Reference tables and software Although the gamma function can be calculated virtually as easily as any mathematically simpler function with a modern computer—even with a programmable pocket calculator—this was of course not always the case. Until the mid-20th century, mathematicians relied on hand-made tables; in the case of the gamma function, notably a table computed by Gauss in 1813 and one computed by Legendre in 1825. Tables of complex values of the gamma function, as well as hand-drawn graphs, were given in *Tables of Functions With Formulas and Curves* by Jahnke and Emde [de], first published in Germany in 1909. According to Michael Berry, "the publication in J&E of a three-dimensional graph showing the poles of the gamma function in the complex plane acquired an almost iconic status." There was in fact little practical need for anything but real values of the gamma function until the 1930s, when applications for the complex gamma function were discovered in theoretical physics. As electronic computers became available for the production of tables in the 1950s, several extensive tables for the complex gamma function were published to meet the demand, including a table accurate to 12 decimal places from the U.S. National Bureau of Standards. Double-precision floating-point implementations of the gamma function and its logarithm are now available in most scientific computing software and special functions libraries, for example TK Solver, Matlab, GNU Octave, and the GNU Scientific Library. The gamma function was also added to the C standard library (math.h). Arbitrary-precision implementations are available in most computer algebra systems, such as Mathematica and Maple. PARI/GP, MPFR and MPFUN contain free arbitrary-precision implementations. In some software calculators, e.g. Windows Calculator and GNOME Calculator, the factorial function returns Γ(x+1) when the input x is a non-integer value. See also -------- * Ascending factorial * Cahen–Mellin integral * Elliptic gamma function * Gauss's constant * Hadamard's gamma function * Lanczos approximation * Multiple gamma function * Multivariate gamma function * *p*-adic gamma function * Pochhammer *k*-symbol * *q*-gamma function * Ramanujan's master theorem * Spouge's approximation * Stirling's approximation * *This article incorporates material from the Citizendium article "Gamma function", which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL.* Further reading --------------- * Abramowitz, Milton; Stegun, Irene A., eds. (1972). "Chapter 6". *Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables*. New York: Dover. * Andrews, G. E.; Askey, R.; Roy, R. (1999). "Chapter 1 (Gamma and Beta functions)". *Special Functions*. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78988-2. * Artin, Emil (2006). "The Gamma Function". In Rosen, Michael (ed.). *Exposition by Emil Artin: a selection*. History of Mathematics. Vol. 30. Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society. * Askey, R.; Roy, R. (2010), "Gamma function", in Olver, Frank W. J.; Lozier, Daniel M.; Boisvert, Ronald F.; Clark, Charles W. (eds.), *NIST Handbook of Mathematical Functions*, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-19225-5, MR 2723248 * Birkhoff, George D. (1913). "Note on the gamma function". *Bull. Amer. Math. Soc*. **20** (1): 1–10. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1913-02429-7. MR 1559418. * Böhmer, P. E. (1939). *Differenzengleichungen und bestimmte Integrale* [*Differential Equations and Definite Integrals*]. Leipzig: Köhler Verlag. * Davis, Philip J. (1959). "Leonhard Euler's Integral: A Historical Profile of the Gamma Function". *American Mathematical Monthly*. **66** (10): 849–869. doi:10.2307/2309786. JSTOR 2309786. * Post, Emil (1919). "The Generalized Gamma Functions". *Annals of Mathematics*. Second Series. **20** (3): 202–217. doi:10.2307/1967871. JSTOR 1967871. Retrieved 5 March 2021. * Press, W. H.; Teukolsky, S. A.; Vetterling, W. T.; Flannery, B. P. (2007). "Section 6.1. Gamma Function". *Numerical Recipes: The Art of Scientific Computing* (3rd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88068-8. * Rocktäschel, O. R. (1922). *Methoden zur Berechnung der Gammafunktion für komplexes Argument* [*Methods for Calculating the Gamma Function for Complex Arguments*]. Dresden: Technical University of Dresden. * Temme, Nico M. (1996). *Special Functions: An Introduction to the Classical Functions of Mathematical Physics*. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-11313-3. * Whittaker, E. T.; Watson, G. N. (1927). *A Course of Modern Analysis*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-58807-2.

Gamma function

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function

**Zadar County** (Croatian: *Zadarska županija* [zâdarskaː ʒupǎnija]) is a county in Croatia, it encompasses northern Dalmatia and southeastern Lika. Its seat is the city of Zadar. Geography --------- Among the largest towns in the county of Zadar are: Zadar, Benkovac, Bibinje, Biograd, Nin, Obrovac and Pag. The county of Zadar includes the islands of Dugi otok, Ugljan, Pašman, Molat, Lavdara, Zverinac, Vir and most of Pag, as well as a number of other, smaller islands. It also features the Paklenica national park. The county's area is 7,854 km2, 3,646 km2 is land, which accounts for 6.4% of the territory of Croatia. The sea area of the county is 3,632 km2 (around 12% of the territorial waters) and the insular area is 580 km2, with more than 300 smaller and larger islands (Zadar Archipelago). The length of its coastline (including the islands) is 1,300 km. Administrative division ----------------------- Zadar County is divided into: * City + Zadar * Towns + Benkovac + Biograd na Moru + Nin + Obrovac + Pag * Municipalities + Bibinje + Galovac + Gračac + Jasenice + Kali + Kolan + Kukljica + Lišane Ostrovičke + Novigrad + Pakoštane + Pašman + Polača + Poličnik + Posedarje + Povljana + Preko + Privlaka + Ražanac + Sali + Stankovci + Starigrad + Sukošan + Sveti Filip i Jakov + Škabrnja + Tkon + Vir + Vrsi + Zemunik Donji County government ----------------- See organization of Croatian counties. As of 2014[update], the Župan is Božidar Longin of the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), and the county assembly's 42 representatives are affiliated as follows: * Croatian Democratic Union: 15 * Social Democratic Party of Croatia (SDP): 8 * Croatian Party of Rights dr. Ante Starčević: 5 * *Akcija mladih*: 3 * *Lista grupe birača*: 2 * Croatian Party of Pensioners (HSU): 2 * Croatian Peasants Party (HSS): 1 * Croatian Social Liberal Party (HSLS): 1 * Croatian Party of Rights (HSP): 1 * Democratic Party of Pensioners (DSU): 1 * Croatian Pure Party of Rights (HČSP): 1 * Croatian Labourists – Labour Party: 1 * Independent: 1 ### Minority councils and representatives Directly elected minority councils and representatives are tasked with consulting tasks for the local or regional authorities in which they are advocating for minority rights and interests, integration into public life and participation in the management of local affairs. At the 2023 Croatian national minorities councils and representatives elections Albanians and Serbs of Croatia fulfilled legal requirements to each elect their own 25 members minority councils of the Zadar County while Bosniaks and Slovenes of Croatia elect individual representatives and with Hungarian, German and Italian representatives remaining unelected due to the absence of candidatures. Some municipalities and towns in the county elected their own local minority councils as well but disproportionally high number of local minority elections were not held due to the absence of candidatures. Demographics ------------ According to the 2011 census, Zadar County has population of 170,017, accounting for 4.0% of the total Croatia's population. Croats make up the majority with 92.57% of the population, while Serbs, Bosniaks, Albanians and Italians form the remainder. **Zadar County**: Population trends 1857–2021 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | population | 84091 | 94156 | 98063 | 108330 | 123375 | 136522 | 146375 | 149855 | 154026 | 162682 | 174957 | 190356 | 194098 | 214777 | 162045 | 170017 | 160340 | | | 1857 | 1869 | 1880 | 1890 | 1900 | 1910 | 1921 | 1931 | 1948 | 1953 | 1961 | 1971 | 1981 | 1991 | 2001 | 2011 | 2021 | **Sources**: Croatian Bureau of Statistics publications Infrastructure -------------- The County of Zadar plays a leading role in road and railway traffic links between northern and southern Croatia. The Adriatic Highway, the main road along the Adriatic Sea passes through the county, as does the A1 motorway, completed as far as Split in 2005. The Zagreb-Knin-Split railway line with branch-lines to Zadar and Šibenik pass through the county. Maritime traffic is carried by the coastal route of the Adriatic Sea, by the Zadar-Ancona international car ferry route which is the shortest link between Central Europe and Italy, via Zagreb and Zadar to Rome and southward. Another route by which intensive traffic is carried is Zadar - Maslenica Bridge - St. Rok Tunnel - Zagreb. The Zadar Airport has recently been reconstructed and modernised. With runway improvements still to be undertaken it will eventually have the capacity to handle jumbo-jets. There is also a very frequent maritime passenger port in the town of Zadar and the cargo maritime port in the Gaženica area whose current manipulative capacity amounts to one million tonnes per year. A construction of a wharf would raise this significantly. The port's manipulative and warehouse capacities are used only in part. Economy ------- The Ravni Kotari area constitutes the greater part of the county's inland, containing most of the cultivated farmland and towns having industry, crafts, trade and traffic development potential. Tourism is one of the county's most important industries, owing to its geographical position, mild climate, indented coast, clear sea, numerous bays, inlets and beaches on 1,300 km of the sea coast and islands. Tourist amenities of the Zadar County are also the areas of outstanding natural beauty: the Velebit, Telaščica and Paklenica and adjacent Krka and Kornati national parks in the south and the Plitvice Lakes national park in the north. 44°01′05″N 15°53′42″E / 44.018°N 15.895°E / 44.018; 15.895

Zadar County

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zadar_County

**Melilla** (US: /məˈliːjə/ *mə-LEE-yə*, UK: /mɛˈ-/ *meh-*; Spanish: [meˈliʎa]; Tarifit: Mřič [mrɪtʃ]; Arabic: مليلية [maˈliːlja]) is an autonomous city of Spain in North Africa. It lies on the eastern side of the Cape Three Forks, bordering Morocco and facing the Mediterranean Sea. It has an area of 12.3 km2 (4.7 sq mi). It was part of the Province of Málaga until 14 March 1995, when the Statute of Autonomy of Melilla was passed. Melilla is one of the special member state territories of the European Union. Movements to and from the rest of the EU and Melilla are subject to specific rules, provided for *inter alia* in the Accession Agreement of Spain to the Schengen Convention. As of 2019, Melilla had a population of 86,487. The population is chiefly divided between people of Iberian and Riffian extraction. There is also a small number of Sephardic Jews and Sindhi Hindus. Melilla features a diglossia between the official Spanish and Tarifit. Like the autonomous city of Ceuta and Spain's other territories in Africa, Melilla is subject to an irredentist claim by Morocco. Names ----- Melilla's original name (currently rendered as *Rusadir*) was a Punic language name, coming from the name of the nearby Cape Three Forks. *Addir* meant "powerful". The name creation is similar to that of other names given in Antiquity to outlets along the North African coast, including *Rusguniae*, *Rusubbicari*, *Rusuccuru*, *Rusippisir*, *Rusigan* (Rachgoun), *Rusicade*, *Ruspina*, *Ruspe* or *Rsmlqr*. The etymology of *Melilla* (dating back to the 9th century) is uncertain. Since Melilla was an active beekeeping location in the past, the name has been related to honey; this is tentatively backed up by two ancient coins featuring a bee as well as the inscriptions RSADR and RSA. Others relate the name to "discord" or "fever" or to an ancient Arab personality. History ------- ### Antiquity and Middle Ages Melilla was a Phoenician and later Punic trade establishment under the name Rusadir (*Rusaddir* for the Romans and *Russadeiron* (Ancient Greek: Ῥυσσάδειρον) for the Greeks). Later, Rome absorbed it as part of the Roman province of Mauretania Tingitana. Ptolemy (IV, 1) and Pliny (V, 18) mention Rusaddir, calling it *"oppidum et portus"* (a fortified town and port). It was also cited by Mela (I, 33) as *Rusicada*, and by the *Itinerarium Antonini*. Rusaddir was said to have once been the seat of a bishop, but there is no record of any bishop of the purported see, which is not included in the Catholic Church's list of titular sees. As centuries passed, it was ruled by Vandal, Byzantine and Visigoth bands. The political history is similar to that of towns in the region of the Moroccan Rif and southern Spain. Local rule passed through a succession of Phoenician, Punic, Roman, Umayyad, Cordobese, Idrisid, Almoravid, Almohad, Marinid, and then Wattasid rulers. ### Early Modern period During the 15th century, the city subsumed into decadence, like most of the cities of the Kingdom of Fez along the Mediterranean coast, eclipsed by those along the Atlantic facade. After the Catholic Monarchs' conquest of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada in 1492, their Secretary Hernando de Zafra [es] compiled information about the sorry state of the north African coast with the prospect of a potential territorial expansion in mind, sending field agents to investigate, and subsequently reporting to the Catholic Monarchs that, by early 1494, locals had expelled the authority of the Sultan of Fez and had offered to pledge service. While the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas put Melilla and Cazaza (until then reserved to the Portuguese) under the sphere of Castile, the conquest of the city had to wait, delayed by Charles VIII of France's occupation of Naples. The Duke of Medina Sidonia, Juan Alfonso Pérez de Guzmán, promoted the seizure of the place, to be headed by Pedro de Estopiñán [es], while the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, endorsed the initiative, also providing the assistance of their artillery officer Francisco Ramírez de Madrid for the operation. Melilla was occupied on 17 September 1497 virtually without violence as it was on the border between the Kingdom of Tlemcen and the Kingdom of Fez, and as a result had been fought over many times and been left abandoned. No large-scale expansion into the Kingdom of Fez ensued, and, barring the enterprises of the Cardinal Cisneros along the coast in Mers El Kébir and Oran (in the Algerian coast), and the rock of Badis (in the territorial scope of the Kingdom of Fez), the Hispanic monarchy's imperial impetus was eventually directed elsewhere, to the Italian Wars waged against France, and, particularly since 1519, to the newly discovered continent across the Atlantic. Melilla was initially jointly administered by the House of Medina Sidonia and the Crown, and a 1498 settlement forced the former to station a 700-men garrison in Melilla and forced the latter to provide the city with a number of maravedíes and wheat *fanegas*. The Crown's interest in Melilla decreased during the reign of Charles V. During the 16th century, soldiers stationed in Melilla were badly remunerated, leading to many desertions. The Duke of Medina Sidonia relinquished responsibility over the garrison of the place on 7 June 1556. During the late 17th century, Alaouite sultan Ismail Ibn Sharif attempted to conquer the *presidio*, taking the outer fortifications in the 1680s and further unsuccessfully besieging Melilla in the 1690s. One Spanish officer reflected, "an hour in Melilla, from the point of view of merit, was worth more than thirty years of service to Spain." ### Late Modern period The current limits of the Spanish territory around the Melilla fortress were fixed by treaties with Morocco in 1859, 1860, 1861, and 1894. In the late 19th century, as Spanish influence expanded in this area, the Crown authorized Melilla as the only centre of trade on the Rif coast between Tetuan and the Algerian frontier. The value of trade increased, with goat skins, eggs and beeswax being the principal exports, and cotton goods, tea, sugar and candles being the chief imports. Melilla's civil population in 1860 still amounted to only 375 estimated inhabitants. In a 1866 Hispano-Moroccan arrangement signed in Fes, both parts agreed to allow for the installment of a customs office near the border with Melilla, to be operated by Moroccan officials. The Treaty of Peace with Morocco that followed the 1859–60 War entailed the acquisition of a new perimeter for Melilla, bringing its area to the 12 km2 the autonomous city currently stands. Following the declaration of Melilla as free port in 1863, the population began to increase, chiefly by Sephardi Jews fleeing from Tetouan who fostered trade in and out the city. The first Jews from Tetouan probably arrived in 1864, meanwhile the first rabbi arrived in 1867 and began to operate the first synagogue, located in the Calle de San Miguel. Many Jews arrived fleeing from persecution in Morocco, instigated by Roghi Bu Hamara. Following the 1868 lifting of the veto to emigrate to Melilla from Peninsular Spain, the population further increased with Spaniards. The Jewish population, who also progressively acquired Spanish citizenship, increased to 572 in 1893. The economic opportunities created in Melilla henceforth favoured the installment of a Berber population. * * The first proper body of local government was the *junta de arbitrios*, created in 1879, and in which the military used to enjoy preponderance. The Polígono excepcional de Tiro, the first neighborhood outside the walled core (Melilla la Vieja), began construction in 1888. In 1893, Riffian tribesmen launched the First Melillan campaign to take back this area; the Spanish government sent 25,000 soldiers to defend against them. The conflict was also known as the *Margallo War*, after Spanish General Juan García y Margallo, Governor of Melilla, who was killed in the battle. The new 1894 agreement with Morocco that followed the conflict increased trade with the hinterland, bringing the economic prosperity of the city to a new level. The total population of Melilla amounted for 10,004 inhabitants in 1896. The turn of the new century saw attempts by France (based in French Algeria) to profit from their newly acquired sphere of influence in Morocco to counter Melilla's trading prowess by fostering trade links with the Algerian cities of Ghazaouet and Oran. Melilla began to suffer from this, to which the instability brought by revolts against Muley Abdel Aziz in the hinterland also added, although after 1905 Sultan pretender El Rogui (Bou Hmara) carried out a defusing policy in the area that favoured Spain. The French occupation of Oujda in 1907 compromised the Melillan trade with that city, and the enduring instability in the Rif still threatened Melilla. Between 1909 and 1945, the *modernista* (Art Nouveau) style was prevalent in local architecture, making Melilla's streets a "true museum of *modernista*-style architecture", second only to Barcelona, mainly stemming from the work of architect Enrique Nieto. Mining companies began to enter the hinterland of Melilla by 1908. A Spanish one, the Compañía Española de las Minas del Rif [es], was constituted in July 1908, shared by Clemente Fernández, Enrique Macpherson, the Count of Romanones, the Duke of Tovar [es] and Juan Antonio Güell [es], who appointed Miguel Villanueva as chairman. Thus two mining companies under the protection of Bou Hmara, started mining lead and iron 20 kilometers (12.4 miles) from Melilla. They started to construct a railway between the port and the mines. In October of that year, Bou Hmara's vassals revolted against him and raided the mines, which remained closed until June 1909. By July the workmen were again attacked and several were killed. Severe fighting between the Spaniards and the tribesmen followed, in the Second Melillan campaign that took place in the vicinity of Melilla. In 1910, the Spaniards restarted the mines and undertook harbor works at Mar Chica, but hostilities broke out again in 1911. On 22 July 1921, the Berbers under the leadership of Abd el Krim inflicted a grave defeat on the Spanish at the Battle of Annual. The Spanish retreated to Melilla, leaving most of the protectorate under the control of the Republic of Rif. A royal decree pursuing the creation of an *ayuntamiento* in Melilla was signed on 13 December 1918 but the regulation did not come into force, and thus the existing government body, the *junta de arbitrios*, remained in force. A "junta municipal" with a rather civil composition was created in 1927; on 10 April 1930, an *ayuntamiento* featuring the same membership as the junta was created, equalling to the same municipal regime as the rest of Spain on 14 April 1931, with the arrival of the first democratically elected municipal corporation on the wake of the proclamation of the Second Republic. The city was used as one of the staging grounds for the July 1936 military coup d'état that started the Spanish Civil War. In the context of the passing of the Ley de Extranjería in 1986, and following social mobilization from the Berber community, conditions for citizenship acquisition were flexibilised and allowed for the naturalisation of a substantial number of inhabitants, until then born in Melilla but without Spanish citizenship. ### Recent developments In 1995, Melilla (until then just another municipality of the Province of Málaga) became an "autonomous city", as the Statute of Autonomy of Melilla was passed. On 6 November 2007, King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofia visited Melilla, which caused a demonstration of support. The visit also sparked protests from the Moroccan government. It was the first time a Spanish monarch had visited Melilla in 80 years. Melilla (and Ceuta) declared the Muslim holiday of Eid al-Adha, or Feast of the Sacrifice, an official public holiday from 2010 onward. It is the first time a non-Christian religious festival has been officially celebrated in Spain since the Reconquista. In 2018, Morocco decided to close the customs office near Melilla, in operation since the mid-19th century, without consulting the counterparty. The customs office was expected to reopen in January 2023. Geography --------- ### Location Melilla is in northwest Africa, on the shores of the Alboran Sea, a marginal sea of the Mediterranean, the latter's westernmost portion. The city is arranged in a wide semicircle around the beach and the Port of Melilla, on the eastern side of the peninsula of Cape Tres Forcas, at the foot of Mount Gurugú [es] and around the mouth of the Río de Oro intermittent water stream, 1 meter (3 ft 3 in) above sea level. The urban nucleus was originally a fortress, Melilla la Vieja, built on a peninsular mound about 30 meters (98 ft) in height. The Moroccan settlement of Beni Ansar lies immediately south of Melilla. The nearest Moroccan city is Nador, and the ports of Melilla and Nador are within the same bay; nearby is the Bou Areg Lagoon. ### Climate Melilla has a warm Mediterranean climate influenced by its proximity to the sea, rendering much cooler summers and more precipitation than inland areas deeper into Africa. The climate, in general, is similar to the southern coast of peninsular Spain and the northern coast of Morocco, with relatively small temperature differences between seasons. | Climate data for Melilla 47 m (1991–2020) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 27.0(80.6) | 34.2(93.6) | 29.6(85.3) | 30.6(87.1) | 33.0(91.4) | 37.0(98.6) | 41.8(107.2) | 40.0(104.0) | 36.0(96.8) | 35.0(95.0) | 34.0(93.2) | 30.6(87.1) | 41.8(107.2) | | Average high °C (°F) | 16.9(62.4) | 17.1(62.8) | 18.5(65.3) | 20.2(68.4) | 22.9(73.2) | 26.0(78.8) | 29.0(84.2) | 29.6(85.3) | 27.0(80.6) | 23.8(74.8) | 20.2(68.4) | 17.8(64.0) | 22.4(72.3) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 13.6(56.5) | 13.9(57.0) | 15.3(59.5) | 16.9(62.4) | 19.6(67.3) | 22.7(72.9) | 25.6(78.1) | 26.3(79.3) | 23.8(74.8) | 20.6(69.1) | 17.0(62.6) | 14.6(58.3) | 19.2(66.6) | | Average low °C (°F) | 10.3(50.5) | 10.8(51.4) | 12.1(53.8) | 13.6(56.5) | 16.3(61.3) | 19.4(66.9) | 22.2(72.0) | 23.1(73.6) | 20.7(69.3) | 17.4(63.3) | 13.8(56.8) | 11.4(52.5) | 15.9(60.6) | | Record low °C (°F) | 0.4(32.7) | 2.8(37.0) | 3.4(38.1) | 6.0(42.8) | 9.4(48.9) | 12.4(54.3) | 16.0(60.8) | 14.6(58.3) | 13.6(56.5) | 9.4(48.9) | 5.0(41.0) | 4.0(39.2) | 0.4(32.7) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 55.3(2.18) | 48.2(1.90) | 43.6(1.72) | 37.7(1.48) | 15.2(0.60) | 7.2(0.28) | 0.5(0.02) | 3.8(0.15) | 18.9(0.74) | 42.6(1.68) | 53.3(2.10) | 48.2(1.90) | 374.5(14.75) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 6.1 | 5.0 | 4.9 | 4.5 | 2.3 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 2.6 | 4.7 | 5.7 | 5.6 | 43 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 194 | 188 | 214 | 232 | 277 | 299 | 305 | 280 | 223 | 205 | 184 | 179 | 2,780 | | Source: Météo Climat | | Climate data for Melilla 47 m (1981–2010) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 27.0(80.6) | 34.2(93.6) | 29.6(85.3) | 30.6(87.1) | 33.0(91.4) | 37.0(98.6) | 41.8(107.2) | 40.0(104.0) | 36.0(96.8) | 35.0(95.0) | 34.0(93.2) | 30.6(87.1) | 41.8(107.2) | | Average high °C (°F) | 16.7(62.1) | 17.0(62.6) | 18.5(65.3) | 20.1(68.2) | 22.5(72.5) | 25.8(78.4) | 28.9(84.0) | 29.4(84.9) | 27.1(80.8) | 23.7(74.7) | 20.3(68.5) | 17.8(64.0) | 22.3(72.1) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 13.3(55.9) | 13.8(56.8) | 15.2(59.4) | 16.6(61.9) | 19.1(66.4) | 22.4(72.3) | 25.3(77.5) | 25.9(78.6) | 23.8(74.8) | 20.4(68.7) | 17.0(62.6) | 14.6(58.3) | 18.9(66.0) | | Average low °C (°F) | 9.9(49.8) | 10.6(51.1) | 11.9(53.4) | 13.2(55.8) | 15.7(60.3) | 19.0(66.2) | 21.7(71.1) | 22.4(72.3) | 20.5(68.9) | 17.2(63.0) | 13.7(56.7) | 11.2(52.2) | 15.6(60.1) | | Record low °C (°F) | 0.4(32.7) | 2.8(37.0) | 3.4(38.1) | 6.0(42.8) | 9.4(48.9) | 12.4(54.3) | 16.0(60.8) | 14.6(58.3) | 13.6(56.5) | 9.4(48.9) | 5.0(41.0) | 4.0(39.2) | 0.4(32.7) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 58(2.3) | 57(2.2) | 44(1.7) | 36(1.4) | 20(0.8) | 7(0.3) | 1(0.0) | 4(0.2) | 16(0.6) | 40(1.6) | 57(2.2) | 50(2.0) | 391(15.4) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 6 | 44 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 72 | 74 | 73 | 69 | 67 | 67 | 66 | 69 | 72 | 75 | 74 | 73 | 71 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 184 | 170 | 192 | 220 | 258 | 279 | 289 | 268 | 210 | 194 | 176 | 168 | 2,607 | | Source: Agencia Estatal de Meteorología | Government and administration ----------------------------- ### Self-government institutions The government bodies stipulated in the Statute of Autonomy are the Assembly of Melilla, the President of Melilla and the Council of Government. The assembly is a 25-member body whose members are elected through universal suffrage every 4 years in closed party lists following the schedule of local elections at the national level. Its members are called "local deputies" but they rather enjoy the status of *concejales* (municipal councillors). Unlike regional legislatures (and akin to municipal councils), the assembly does not enjoy right of initiative for primary legislation. The president of Melilla (who, often addressed as Mayor-President, also exerts the roles of Mayor, president of the Assembly, president of the Council of Government and representative of the city) is invested by the Assembly. After local elections, the president is invested through a qualified majority from among the leaders of the election lists, or, failing to achieve the former, the leader of the most voted list at the election is invested to the office. In case of a motion of no confidence the president can only be ousted with a qualified majority voting for an alternative assembly member. The Council of Government is the traditional collegiate executive body for parliamentary systems. Unlike the municipal government boards in the standard *ayuntamientos*, the members of the Council of Government (including the vice-presidents) do not need to be members of the assembly. Melilla is the city in Spain with the highest proportion of postal voting; vote buying (via mail-in ballots) is widely reported to be a common practice in the poor neighborhoods of Melilla. Court cases in this matter had involved the PP, the CPM and the PSOE. On 15 June 2019, following the May 2019 Melilla Assembly election, the regionalist and left-leaning party of Muslim and Amazigh persuasion Coalition for Melilla (CPM, 8 seats), the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE, 4 seats) and Citizens–Party of the Citizenry (Cs, 1 seat) voted in favour of the Cs' candidate (Eduardo de Castro) as the Presidency of the Autonomous City, ousting Juan José Imbroda, from the People's Party (PP, 10 seats), who had been in office since 2000. Melilla also maintains a local police force known as Policia Local de Melilla (Ciudad Autonoma de Melilla - Policia Local) ### Administrative subdivisions Melilla is subdivided into eight districts (*distritos*), which are further subdivided into neighbourhoods (*barrios*): * 1st + Barrio de Medina Sidonia. + Barrio del General Larrea. + Barrio de Ataque Seco. * 2nd + Barrio Héroes de España. + Barrio del General Gómez Jordana. + Barrio Príncipe de Asturias. * 3rd + Barrio del Carmen. * 4th + Barrio Polígono Residencial La Paz. + Barrio Hebreo-Tiro Nacional. * 5th + Barrio de Cristóbal Colón. + Barrio de Cabrerizas. + Barrio de Batería Jota. + Barrio de Hernán Cortes y Las Palmeras. + Barrio de Reina Regente. * 6th + Barrio de Concepción Arenal. + Barrio Isaac Peral (Tesorillo). * 7th + Barrio del General Real. + Polígono Industrial SEPES. + Polígono Industrial Las Margaritas. + Parque Empresarial La Frontera. * 8th + Barrio de la Libertad. + Barrio del Hipódromo. + Barrio de Alfonso XIII. + Barrio Industrial. + Barrio Virgen de la Victoria. + Barrio de la Constitución. + Barrio de los Pinares. + Barrio de la Cañada de Hidum Economy ------- The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 1.6 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 0.1% of Spanish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 19,900 euros or 66% of the EU27 average in the same year. Melilla was the NUTS2 region with the lowest GDP per capita in Spain. Melilla does not participate in the European Union Customs Union (EUCU). There is no VAT (IVA) tax, but a local reduced-rate tax called IPSI. Preserving the status of free port, imports are free of tariffs and the only tax concerning them is the IPSI. Exports to the Customs Union (including Peninsular Spain) are however subject to the correspondent customs tariff and are taxed with the correspondent VAT. There are some special manufacturing taxes regarding electricity and transport, as well as complementary charges on tobacco and oil and fuel products. Night view of Melilla (centre) and Beni Ensar in Morocco (right) The principal industry is fishing. Cross-border commerce (legal or smuggled) and Spanish and European grants and wages are the other income sources. Melilla is regularly connected to the Iberian peninsula by air and sea traffic and is also economically connected to Morocco: most of its fruit and vegetables are imported across the border. Moroccans in the city's hinterland are attracted to it: 36,000 Moroccans cross the border daily to work, shop or trade goods. The port of Melilla offers several daily connections to Almería and Málaga. Melilla Airport offers daily flights to Almería, Málaga and Madrid. Spanish operators Air Europa and Iberia operate in Melilla's airport. Many people travelling between Europe and Morocco use the ferry links to Melilla, both for passengers and for freight. Because of this, the port and related companies form an important economic driver for the city. ### Tourism In order to boost growth and as a measure to promote tourism in the Autonomous City of Melilla, the Tourist Board has developed a Regulatory Decree for bonuses for Tourist Packages to Melilla. The Tourist package consists of the application of discounts on return tickets by plane or boat provided that they include accommodation during the stay in Melilla in one of the types of tourist accommodation or at the home of a resident of the city and do not exceed , between the round trip dates, ten days. Water supply ------------ Melilla's water supply primarily came from a network of dug wells (which by the turn of the 21st century suffered from overexploitation and had also experienced a degradation of the water quality and the intrusion of seawater), as well as the capture of the Río de Oro's underflow. Seeking to address the water supply problem, works for the construction of a desalination plant in the Aguadú cliffs, projected to produce 22,000 m3 (29,000 cu yd) a day, started in November 2003. The plant entered operation in March 2007. Its daily operation is partially funded by the central government. Relative to the Spanish average (and similarly to the Canary and Balearic Islands), the city's population spends a comparatively larger amount of money on bottled water. Funded by the European Regional Development Fund and the Confederación Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir [es], works for the expansion of the plant's production capabilities up to 30,000 m3 (39,000 cu yd) a day started by September 2020. Architecture ------------ The dome of the Chapel of Santiago, built in the mid-16th century by Miguel de Perea with help from Sancho de Escalante, is a rare instance of Gothic architecture in the African continent. Parallel to the urban development of Melilla in the early 20th century, the new architectural style of *modernismo* (irradiated from Barcelona and associated to the bourgeois class) was imported to the city, granting it a *modernista* architectural character, primarily through the works of the prolific Catalan architect Enrique Nieto. Accordingly, Melilla has the second most important concentration of *Modernista* works in Spain after Barcelona. Nieto was in charge of designing the main Synagogue, the Central Mosque and various Catholic Churches. * Dome of the Chapel of Santiago [es]Dome of the Chapel of Santiago [es] * Modernista building, former headquarters of El Telegrama del Rif newspaper.*Modernista* building, former headquarters of *El Telegrama del Rif* newspaper. * Local synagogueLocal synagogue * Melilla's central mosqueMelilla's central mosque Demographics ------------ ### Religion Melilla has been praised as an example of multiculturalism, being a small city in which one can find Christians, Muslims, Jews, Hindus, and Buddhists represented. There is a small, autonomous, and commercially important Hindu community present in Melilla, which has fallen over the past decades as its members move to the Spanish mainland and numbers about 100 members today. According to the Spanish Center for Sociological Research, Roman Catholicism is the largest religion in Melilla. In 2019, the proportion of Melillans that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 65.0% (31.7% define themselves as not practising, while 33.3% as practising). 30% identify as followers of other faiths, 2.7% identify as non-believers, and 2.3% identify as atheists. Muslims may account for roughly half the population in Melilla. The Roman Catholic churches in Melilla belong to the Diocese of Málaga. ### Language Melilla features a diglossia, with Spanish first and official language and Tarifit as the second language, with limited written codification, and usage restricted to family and domestic relations and oral speech. The population can be thus divided into monolingual Spanish speakers of European ethnic origin (without competence in any other language than those formally taught at school); those descended from Tamazight-speaking parents, usually bilingual in Spanish and Tamazight; and Moroccan immigrants and cross-border workers, with a generally dominant Tamazight language (with some also competent in Arabic) and a L2 competence in Spanish. The Spanish spoken in Melilla is similar to the Andalusian variety from Cádiz, whereas the Berber variant spoken in Melilla is the Riffian language common with the neighbouring Nador area. Rather than Berber (Spanish: *bereber*), Berber speakers in Melilla use either the glotonym *Tmaziɣt*, or, in Spanish, *cherja* for their language. The first attempt to legislate a degree of recognition for Berber in Melilla was in 1994, in the context of the elaboration of the Statute of Autonomy, by mentioning the promotion of the linguistic and cultural pluralism (without explicitly mentioning the Berber language). The initiative went nowhere, voted down by PP and PSOE. Reasons cited for not recognizing Tamazight are related to the argument that the variety is not standardized. Border security --------------- ### Defence and Civil Guard The defence of the enclave is the responsibility of the Spanish Armed Forces' General Command of Melilla. The Spanish Army's combat components of the command include: * 52nd *Regulares* Infantry Regiment; * 1st Tercio *Gran Capitán* Regiment of the Spanish Legion; * 10th 'Alcántara' Cavalry Regiment equipped with Leopard 2 main battle tanks and Pizarro infantry fighting vehicles; * 32nd Mixed Artillery Regiment with *Grupo de Artillería de Campaña I/32* equipped with 155/52mm towed howitzers and *Grupo de Artillería Antiaérea II/32* equipped with 35/90 SKYDOR/35/90 GDF-007 anti-aircraft guns; and, * 8th Engineer Regiment The command also includes its headquarters battalion as well as logistics elements. In addition to the defence of Melilla, the garrison is also responsible for the defence of islands and rock formations claimed by Spain off the coast of Morocco. Units of the garrison are deployed to these rock formations to secure them against Moroccan incursions and did so notably during the Perejil Island crisis in 2002. To enhance coastal security, the Spanish Navy plans to base a dedicated patrol boat (*Isla Pinto*) in Melilla by mid-2023. Melilla itself is about 350 kilometres (220 mi) distant from the main Spanish naval base at Rota on the Spanish mainland while the Spanish Air Force's Morón Air Base is within 300 kilometres (190 mi) proximity. The Civil Guard is responsible for border security and protects both the territory's fortified land border against frequent, and sometimes significant, migrant incursions. ### Trans-border relations Melilla forms a sort of trans-border urban conurbation with limited integration together with the neighbouring Moroccan settlements, located at one of the ends of a linear succession of urban sprawl spanning southward in Morocco along the R19 road from Beni Ensar down to Nador and Selouane. The urban system features a high degree of hierarchization, specialization and division of labour, with Melilla as chief provider of services, finance and trade; Nador as an eminently industrial city whereas the rest of Moroccan settlements found themselves in a subordinate role, presenting agro-town features and operating as providers of workforce. The asymmetry, as reflected for example in the provision of healthcare, has fostered situations such as the large-scale use of the Melillan health services by Moroccan citizens, with Melilla attending a number of urgencies more than four times the standard for its population in 2018. In order to satisfy the workforce needs of Melilla (mainly in areas such as domestic service, construction and cross-border bale workers, often under informal contracts), Moroccan inhabitants of the province of Nador were granted exemptions from visa requirement to enter the autonomous city. This development in turn induced a strong flux of internal migration from other Moroccan provinces to Nador, in order to acquire the aforementioned exemption. The 'fluid' trans-border relations between Melilla and its surroundings are however not free from conflict, as they are contingent upon the 'tense' trans-national relations between Morocco and Spain. ### Securing the border Following the increasing influx of Algerian and sub-Saharan irregular migrants into Ceuta and Melilla in the early 1990s, a process of border fortification in both cities ensued after 1995 to reduce the border's permeability, a target attained to some degree by 1999, although peak level of fortification was reached in 2005. Melilla's border with Morocco is secured by the Melilla border fence, a 6 metres (20 ft) tall double fence with watch towers; yet migrants (in groups of tens or sometimes hundreds) storm the fence and manage to cross it from time to time. Since 2005, at least 14 migrants have died trying to cross the fence. The Melilla migrant reception centre was built with a capacity of 480. In 2020 works to remove the barbed wire from the top of the fence (meanwhile raising its height up to more than 10 metres (33 ft) in the stretches most susceptible to breaches) were commissioned to Tragsa [es]. In June 2022, at least 23 sub-Saharan migrants and two Moroccan security personnel were killed when around 2,000 migrants stormed the border. The death toll has been estimated to be as high as 37 by certain NGOs. Around 200 Spanish and Moroccan law enforcement officers and at least 76 migrants were injured. Hundreds of migrants succeeded in breaching the fence, and 133 made it across the border. Widely circulated footage showed dozens of motionless migrants piled together. It was the worst such incident in Melilla's history. The United Nations, the African Union and a number of human rights groups condemned what they deemed excessive force used by Moroccan and Spanish border guards, although no lethal weapons were employed, and the deaths were later attributed to "mechanical asphyxiation". Morocco has been paid tens of million euros by both Spain and the European Union to outsource the EU migration control. Besides the double fence in the Spanish side of the border, there is an additional 3 metres (9.8 ft) high fence entirely made of razor wire lying on the Moroccan side as well as a moat in between. Transportation -------------- Annual passenger traffic at MLN airport. See Wikidata query. Melilla Airport is serviced by Air Nostrum, flying to the Spanish cities of Málaga, Madrid, Barcelona, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Palma de Mallorca, Granada, Badajoz, Sevilla and Almería. In April 2013, a local enterprise set up Melilla Airlines, flying from the city to Málaga. The city is linked to Málaga, Almería and Motril by ferry. Three roads connect Melilla and Morocco but require clearance through border checkpoints. Sport ----- Melilla is a surfing destination. The city's football club, UD Melilla, plays in the third tier of Spanish football, the Segunda División B. The club was founded in 1943 and since 1945 have played at the 12,000-seater Estadio Municipal Álvarez Claro. Until the other club was dissolved in 2012, UD Melilla played the Ceuta-Melilla derby against AD Ceuta. The clubs travelled to each other via the Spanish mainland to avoid entering Morocco. The second-highest ranked club in the city are Casino del Real CF of the fourth-tier Tercera División. The football's governing institution is the Melilla Football Federation. Dispute with Morocco -------------------- The government of Morocco has repeatedly called for Spain to transfer the sovereignty of Ceuta and Melilla, along with uninhabited islets such as the Alhucemas Islands, the rock of Vélez de la Gomera and the Perejil island, drawing comparisons with Spain's territorial claim to Gibraltar. In both cases, the national governments and local populations of the disputed territories reject these claims by a large majority. The Spanish position states that both Ceuta and Melilla are integral parts of Spain, and have been since the 16th century, centuries prior to Morocco's independence from France in 1956, whereas Gibraltar, being a British Overseas Territory, is not and never has been part of the United Kingdom. Both cities also have the same semi-autonomous status as the mainland region in Spain. Melilla has been under Spanish rule for longer than cities in northern Spain such as Pamplona or Tudela, and was conquered roughly in the same period as the last Muslim cities of Southern Spain such as Granada, Málaga, Ronda or Almería: Spain claims that the enclaves were established before the creation of the Kingdom of Morocco. Morocco denies these claims and maintains that the Spanish presence on or near its coast is a remnant of the colonial past which should be ended. The United Nations list of non-self-governing territories does not include these Spanish territories and the dispute remains bilaterally debated between Spain and Morocco. In 1986, Spain entered the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. However Ceuta and Melilla are not under NATO protection since Article 6 of the treaty limits the coverage to Europe and North America and islands north of the Tropic of Cancer. This contrasts with French Algeria which was explicitly included in the treaty. Legal experts have interpreted that other articles could cover the Spanish North African cities but this take has not been tested in practice. On the occasion of NATO's Madrid Summit in 2022, the issue of the protection Ceuta and Melilla was a prominent one with NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg stating: "On which territories NATO protects and Ceuta and Melilla, NATO is there to protect all Allies against any threats. At the end of the day, it will always be a political decision to invoke Article 5, but rest assured NATO is there to protect and defend all Allies". On 21 December 2020, after Moroccan Prime Minister Saadeddine Othmani said that Ceuta and Melilla "are Moroccan as the [Western] Sahara [is]", Spain urgently summoned the Moroccan Ambassador to convey that Spain expects respect from all its partners to the sovereignty and territorial integrity of its country and asked for explanation of Othmani's words. Notable people -------------- Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Melilla is twinned with: * Venezuela Caracas (Venezuela). * Philippines Cavite City (Philippines). * Spain Ceuta (Spain). * Spain Toledo (Spain). * Spain Málaga (Spain). * Uruguay Montevideo (Uruguay). * Spain Motril (Spain); since January 2008. * Spain Almería (Spain). * Italy Mantua (Italy); since September 2013. * Spain Vélez-Málaga (Spain); since January 2014. * Spain Antequera (Spain); as of 2016, in process. See also -------- * European enclaves in North Africa before 1830 * Melilla (Congress of Deputies constituency) Citations Bibliography * Bascón Jiménez, Milagrosa; Cazallo Antúnez, Ana; Lechuga Cardozo, Jorge; Meñaca Guerrero, Indira (2016). "Necesidad de implantar un servicio público de transporte entre las ciudades de Ceuta-Tetuán y Melilla-Nador". *Desarrollo Gerencial*. Barranquilla: Universidad Simón Bolívar. **8** (2): 37–57. doi:10.17081/dege.8.2.2553. * Bravo Nieto, Antonio (1990). "La ocupación de Melilla en 1497 y las relaciones entre los Reyes Católicos y el Duque de Medina Sidonia". *Aldaba*. Melilla: UNED (15): 15–37. doi:10.5944/aldaba.15.1990.20168. ISSN 0213-7925. * Bravo Nieto, Antonio (2002). "Tradición y modernidad en el Renacimiento español: la Puerta y Capilla de Santiago de Melilla" (PDF). *Akros: Revista de Patrimonio* (1): 36–41. ISSN 1579-0959. * Cantón Fernández, Laura; Riaño López, Ana (1984). "El ámbito modernista de Melilla" (PDF). *Aldaba* (3): 11–25. doi:10.5944/aldaba.3.1984.19523. ISSN 0213-7925. * Díaz Rodríguez, Ángeles (2011). "El sillón de estudio del Rabino Abraham Hacohen" (PDF). *Akros* (10): 67–70. ISSN 1579-0959. * Escudero, Antonio (2014). "Las minas de Guelaya y la Guerra del Rif" (PDF). *Pasado y Memoria. Revista de Historia Contemporánea*. Alicante: Universidad de Alicante (13): 329–336. ISSN 1579-3311. * Fernández Díaz, María Elena (2009). "La instauración del primer Ayuntamiento de Melilla" (PDF). *Akros: Revista de Patrimonio* (8): 25–30. ISSN 1579-0959. * Fernández García, Alicia (2015). "Repensar las fronteras lingüísticas del territorio español: Melilla, entre mosaico sociológico y paradigma lingüístico" (PDF). *ELUA. Estudios de Lingüística*. San Vicente del Raspeig: Universidad de Alicante. **29** (29): 105–126. doi:10.14198/ELUA2015.29.05. * Lara Peinado, Fernando (1998). "Melilla: entre Oriente y Occidente" (PDF). *Aldaba*. Melilla: UNED (30): 13–34. ISSN 0213-7925. * López Guzmán, Tomás J.; González Fernández, Virgilio; Herrera Torres, Lucía; Lorenzo Quiles, Oswaldo (2007). "Melilla: ciudad fronteriza internacional e intercontinental. Análisis histórico, económico y educativo" (PDF). *Frontera Norte*. Tijuana: El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, A.C. **19** (37): 7–33. * López Pardo, Fernando (2015). "La fundación de Rusaddir y la época púnica". *Gerión*. Madrid: Ediciones Complutense. **33**: 135–156. doi:10.5209/rev\_GERI.2015.49055. ISSN 0213-0181. * Loureiro Soto, Jorge Luis (2015). *Los conflictos por Ceuta y Melilla: 600 años de controversias* (PDF). UNED. * Márquez Cruz, Guillermo (2003). "La formación de gobierno y la práctica coalicional en las ciudades autónomas de Ceuta y Melilla (1979–2007)" (PDF). *Working Papers*. Barcelona: Institut de Ciències Polítiques i Socials (227). ISSN 1133-8962. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 June 2020. Retrieved 26 June 2020. * Montero Alonso, Miguel Ángel; Sayahi, Lotfi (2021). "Bilingüismo y actitud lingüística en Melilla (España)". *Lengua y migración*. Alcalá de Henares: Editorial Universidad de Alcalá. **13** (1): 55–75. doi:10.37536/LYM.13.1.2021.1363. ISSN 1889-5425. S2CID 237911620. * Morala Martínez, Paulina (1985). "Reformas de la administración local durante la Dictadura: de la Junta de Arbitrios a la Junta Municipal (1923–1927)" (PDF). *Aldaba* (40): 107–120. * Morón Pérez, María del Carmen (2006). "El régimen fiscal de las ciudades autónomas de Ceuta y Melilla: presente y futuro" (PDF). *Crónica Tributaria* (121): 59–96. ISSN 0210-2919. * Perpén Rueda, Adoración (1987). "La masonería en Melilla en el s. XIX: las logias 'Amor' y 'Africa'" (PDF). In Ferrer Benimeli, José Antonio (ed.). *La masonería en la España del siglo XIX*. Vol. I. pp. 289–296. ISBN 84-505-5233-8. * Polo, Monique (1986). "La vida cotidiana en Melilla en el siglo XVI" (PDF). *Criticón* (36): 8. ISSN 0247-381X – via Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. * Ponce Herrero, Gabino; Martí Ciriquián, Pablo (2019). "El complejo urbano transfronterizo Melilla-Nador" (PDF). *Investigaciones Geográficas*. Alicante: San Vicente del Raspeig (72): 101–124. doi:10.14198/INGEO2019.72.05. hdl:10045/99969. ISSN 1989-9890. S2CID 213966829. * Remacha Tejada, José Ramón (1994). "Las fronteras de Ceuta y Melilla" (PDF). *Anuario Español de Derecho Internacional*. Pamplona: Universidad de Navarra (10): 195–238. ISSN 0212-0747. * Sánchez Suárez, Mª Ángeles (2003). "Reflexiones acerca de la enseñanza del español como lengua de segunda adquisición a personas adultas hablantes de tamazight". *Aldaba* (29): 189–235. doi:10.5944/aldaba.29.2003.20438. * Saro Gandarillas, Francisco (1985). "La expansión urbana de Melilla: aproximación a su estudio" (PDF). *Aldaba*. **3** (5): 23–34. doi:10.5944/aldaba.5.1985.19602. * Saro Gandarillas, Francisco (1993). "Los orígenes de la Campaña del Rif de 1909". *Aldaba*. Melilla: UNED (22): 97–130. doi:10.5944/aldaba.22.1993.20298. ISSN 0213-7925. * Tilmatine, Mohand (2011). "El contacto español-bereber: la lengua de los informativos en Melilla". *Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana*. **9** (2): 15–45. JSTOR 41678469. * Trinidad, Jamie (2012). "An Evaluation of Morocco's Claims to Spain's Remaining Territories in Africa". *International and Comparative Law Quarterly*. Cambridge University Press. **61** (4): 961–975. doi:10.1017/S0020589312000371. ISSN 0020-5893. JSTOR 23279813. S2CID 232180584. * This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Melilla". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 94.

Melilla

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melilla

**Shymkent** (Kazakh pronunciation: [ʃɯmˈkʲent] (); Шымкент, Şymkent,شىمكەنت), known until 1993 as **Chimkent**, is a city in Kazakhstan. It is near the border with Uzbekistan. It is one of three Kazakh cities which have the status equal to that of a region (“city of republican significance”). It is the third-most populous city in Kazakhstan, behind Almaty and Astana, with an estimated population of 1,002,291 as of 1 June 2018[update]. According to regional and city officials, the millionth resident of Shymkent was born on 17 May 2018. It is a regional cultural centre. Shymkent is situated 690 kilometres (430 mi) west of Almaty and 1,483 kilometres (920 mi) south of Astana. It is also 120 kilometres (75 mi) to the north of Tashkent, Uzbekistan. Etymology --------- The name Chimkent comes from two Sogdian words, *chim* (meaning 'turf') and *kent* (or *kand*) (meaning 'city') (also found in the name of nearby Toshkent); thus, it literally means "the city in the grass/turf." After Kazakhstan gained independence, the city was renamed *Shymkent* in 1993 as part of the government's campaign to apply Kazakh names to cities. The formal spelling of Shymkent, as codified in Kazakhstan's Constitution, goes against the original Uzbek spelling rules of never having the letter "ы" follow the letter "ш". (Uzbek itself has no letter ы. Furthermore, what is spelled as ш in Kazakh is spelled as ч in Uzbek.) As a result, the new name Шымкент (Shymkent) is used only in Kazakhstan, while other countries continue to use the original spelling Чимкент (Chimkent). History ------- Shymkent was founded in the twelfth century as a caravanserai to protect a nearby Silk Road trade town, Sayram, 10 km to the east. Shymkent grew as a market center for trade between Turkic nomads and the settled Sogdians. It was destroyed several times: by Genghis Khan, soldiers from the southern Khanates, and by nomad attacks. In the early 19th century, it became part of the khanate of Kokand before it was captured by the Russians in 1864. It was renamed Chernyaev in 1914 and renamed *Shymkent* in 1924. Following the Russian conquest, Shymkent was a city of trade between nomadic Turks and sedentary Turks, and was famous for its kumis. Shymkent was founded as a hub for economic development in South Kazakhstan in the 20th century, and rapid growth was evolving in the second half of the century. To date, there are about 70 factories, plants and other manufacturing companies in the area. A settlement on the territory of modern Shymkent already existed at the turn of the 11th – 12th centuries. At the same time, there is a hypothesis about its earlier establishment based on the burials found during the archaeological excavations, which, according to experts, date back to the 5th – 6th centuries. In the sources that have reached our time, the Central Asian historian Sharaf ad-din Yazdi (1425) first mentioned Shymkent in the book Zafar Name (Book of Victories), when describing the military campaigns of Timur. Chimkent (Shymkent), as a city-settlement already existed in the 6th century AD. Its name links to the famous traveler Xuan Jiang, who mentioned it in his notes about Isfijab - Sairam. It is widely believed that the city existed in the 12th century. This information is taken from the book of A. Dobrosmyslov "Cities of the Syr-Darya region", where he reports the following: "The name of the city of Chimkent comes from the words chim - sod and kent - city. Indigenous people of Chimkent relate the time of its establishment to the 12th century, referring to the grave of St. Baba Dervish, a contemporary of Khoja Ahmet Yasawi." In 1914, in honour of the 50th anniversary of Shymkent becoming part of the Russian Empire, the city was named Chernyaev, but in 1924 the Soviet authorities returned to the city its former name. A lead plant was built in Shymkent in the 1930s. It accounted for 70% of the total lead produced in the Soviet Union. An oil and fat plant, a hosiery and a mirror factory were commissioned. In 1932, an agricultural aviation base was created, which led to the creation and development of the city airport. During the Second World War, a number of Soviet industrial enterprises were evacuated in Shymkent. From the front line, 17 plants and factories were relocated here. The city produced spare parts for tanks, shells, metal, lead for bullets, optical instruments and other products. Seven Shymkent residents were awarded the title of the Hero of the Soviet Union. There was a gulag near Shymkent, and as a result, many Russian-speaking people came to the area through imprisonment in that gulag. In January 2015, Shymkent officials sent a request to UNESCO to be recognized as an ancient city. Until 2018, Shymkent was the administrative center of South Kazakhstan Region. On 19 June 2018 it was taken out of South Kazakhstan Region and subordinated directly to the government of Kazakhstan. As a result, the administrative center of the region is moved to Turkistan, and the region was renamed as Turkistan Region. Geography --------- ### Climate Shymkent features a humid continental climate (Köppen *Dsa*) bordering on a mediterranean climate (*Csa*). Shymkent features hot, relatively dry summers and cold winters. Winters here are noticeably warmer than in more northerly cities like Almaty and Astana, with the mean monthly temperature during the city's coldest month (January) averaging around −1 °C (30.2 °F). Winter snowfalls are common, although rainfall during that season occurs mixed in with that. Shymkent averages just under 600 millimetres (23.62 in) of precipitation annually. | Climate data for Shymkent (1991–2020, extremes 1948–present) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 22.2(72.0) | 25.2(77.4) | 31.5(88.7) | 33.7(92.7) | 37.8(100.0) | 42.6(108.7) | 47.2(117.0) | 43.0(109.4) | 38.3(100.9) | 35.0(95.0) | 30.5(86.9) | 25.7(78.3) | 47.2(117.0) | | Average high °C (°F) | 4.5(40.1) | 6.5(43.7) | 13.6(56.5) | 20.5(68.9) | 26.5(79.7) | 32.1(89.8) | 34.5(94.1) | 33.6(92.5) | 27.9(82.2) | 19.7(67.5) | 11.8(53.2) | 5.6(42.1) | 19.7(67.5) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −0.8(30.6) | 0.8(33.4) | 7.4(45.3) | 14.3(57.7) | 19.8(67.6) | 25.0(77.0) | 27.3(81.1) | 26.1(79.0) | 20.2(68.4) | 12.7(54.9) | 5.9(42.6) | 0.3(32.5) | 13.3(55.8) | | Average low °C (°F) | −5.2(22.6) | −4.0(24.8) | 2.0(35.6) | 8.2(46.8) | 12.8(55.0) | 17.1(62.8) | 19.0(66.2) | 17.8(64.0) | 12.5(54.5) | 6.4(43.5) | 1.0(33.8) | −4.0(24.8) | 7.0(44.5) | | Record low °C (°F) | −31.1(−24.0) | −28.9(−20.0) | −23.9(−11.0) | −7.8(18.0) | −2.8(27.0) | 5.0(41.0) | 7.8(46.0) | 6.2(43.2) | −1.1(30.0) | −12.0(10.4) | −30.0(−22.0) | −28.8(−19.8) | −31.1(−24.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 77(3.0) | 97(3.8) | 81(3.2) | 74(2.9) | 56(2.2) | 24(0.9) | 10(0.4) | 4(0.2) | 9(0.4) | 39(1.5) | 70(2.8) | 77(3.0) | 618(24.3) | | Average rainy days | 5 | 7 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 72 | | Average snowy days | 8 | 7 | 4 | 0.3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.4 | 3 | 6 | 29 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 75 | 73 | 67 | 63 | 56 | 44 | 39 | 34 | 39 | 55 | 69 | 75 | 57 | | Source: Pogoda.ru.net | ### Vegetation The vegetation of the city is known for its extreme diversity. Trees like oak, elm, poplar, cannan maple, willow, chestnut, acacia, ailanthus, thuja, pine, spruce grow in the city. Farm horticultural crops cherry, apricot, dried apricot, plum, pomegranate, walnut, quince, and grape varieties are widespread. Demographics ------------ According to a government estimate in 2012, the city had 669,326 inhabitants. In 2009, the population of Shymkent was 603,499 (2009 Census results); in 1999, it was 423,902 (1999 Census results). By the beginning of 2015, Shymkent was joined by the areas of adjacent districts. In this connection, the city population has increased up to 858,147 people within the new boundaries by the beginning of 2015. By that time, 711,783 people resided in the former area of Shymkent. By 1 June 2018, the population of Shymkent was 1,002,291. The following tables are the total population of Shymkent since 1897: Historical population| | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1897 | 11,194 | —     | | 1908 | 17,000 | +51.9% | | 1913 | 19,000 | +11.8% | | 1939 | 74,000 | +289.5% | | 1959 | 153,000 | +106.8% | | 1970 | 247,000 | +61.4% | | 1977 | 303,000 | +22.7% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1979 | 321,535 | +6.1% | | 1989 | 392,977 | +22.2% | | 1992 | 405,500 | +3.2% | | 1993 | 409,700 | +1.0% | | 1994 | 411,400 | +0.4% | | 1995 | 414,400 | +0.7% | | 1996 | 417,900 | +0.8% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1997 | 417,400 | −0.1% | | 1998 | 419,700 | +0.6% | | 1999 | 435,300 | +3.7% | | 2000 | 482,900 | +10.9% | | 2001 | 502,700 | +4.1% | | 2002 | 506,700 | +0.8% | | 2003 | 513,100 | +1.3% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 2004 | 521,200 | +1.6% | | 2005 | 526,100 | +0.9% | | 2006 | 535,100 | +1.7% | | 2007 | 554,600 | +3.6% | | 2008 | 602,300 | +8.6% | | 2009 | 615,000 | +2.1% | | 2010 | 629,100 | +2.3% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 2011 | 642,600 | +2.1% | | 2012 | 662,300 | +3.1% | | 2013 | 683,300 | +3.2% | | 2015 | 858,147 | +25.6% | | 2016 | 885,799 | +3.2% | | 2017 | 932,234 | +5.2% | | 2018 | 1,002,291 | +7.5% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 2019 | 1,023,618 | +2.1% | | 2020 | 1,056,309 | +3.2% | | Ethnic groups (2020): * Kazakh: 67.47% * Uzbek: 17.69% * Russian: 8.91% * Azerbaijani: 1.74% * Tatar: 1.01% * Others: 3.18% Region and development ---------------------- On 19 June 2018 by the decree of the President of Kazakhstan, Shymkent was recognized as one of Kazakhstan's cities with a population of over a million people, along with the capital, Astana, and Almaty. Shymkent was given the status of a city of republican significance. It was removed from the South Kazakhstan region, which was renamed Turkestan by the same decree. The city of Shymkent became an independent administrative-territorial unit, and the 17th region in Kazakhstan. In 2016, construction began on Shymkent City, a new district comprising residential and administrative areas, in the northern part of the city. This construction is part of then-President of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev's promotion of the development of Shymkent as the "third Kazakhstani megalopolis". Economy ------- Formerly dominated by lead mining, industrial growth began in the 1930s. A lead smelter was opened in Shymkent in 1934 or 1938. It supplied a major part of the USSR's metals needs, copper as well as lead and others, including three-quarters of all bullets fired by the Red Army. Smelting continued until 2008, causing extreme levels of pollution (lead, cadmium, etc.) in the surrounding ground, and then controversially restarted in 2010, briefly, under a major UK-listed company, Kazakhmys. The city also has industries producing refined zinc, processed karakul pelts, textiles, foodstuffs, and pharmaceuticals. Also, the city has a medium-sized refinery, which is owned and operated by PetroKazakhstan. Shymkent is one of the leading industrial and economic centres of Kazakhstan. The city has industrial enterprises of non-ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering, chemical, oil refining and food industries. The petrochemical and pharmaceutical industries include "PetroKazakhstan Oil Products" LLP (oil refining), "Khimpharm" JSC (medicines). Metallurgical goods are produced by "Yuzhpolymetal" JSC (lead and other products). Mechanical engineering is represented by Cardanval JSC (cardan shafts and crosspieces for cars and tractors), Yuzhmash JSC (forging and pressing machines, spare parts and equipment), Elektroapparat LLP (power switches and other products). As for light industry, enterprises include "Voskhod" (garments from woolen and semi-woolen fabrics: suits, coats, jackets, etc.), "Adal" (textile), "Elastic" (socks from high-quality yarn). Construction materials are produced by "Shymkentcement" and "Kurylys materialdary" JSC (bricks). "Shymkentmai" JSC and "Kainar" LLP (processing of cotton, sunflower, safflower, soybean, production of refined edible oil and other products), "Shymkentpivo" JSC (beer), "Visit" JSC (soft drinks), "Shymkentsut" JSC (dairy products) are also operating in the city. Industrial production increased by 15% compared to 2018. Agricultural production increased by 6.3%, housing construction - by 19.2%, retail trade - by 7.1%. In the last 3 years, as part of the Industrial and Innovative Development Programme, 24 enterprises were opened in Shymkent, and 1,300 permanent jobs were created. There are 2 industrial zones in the city. To date investments worth 64 billion tenge have been attracted, 72 projects have been launched, more than 4,000 people have been employed. In February 2021, it was announced that authorities in Shymkent are planning for 123 investment projects worth over 1.36 trillion tenge (US$3.3 billion) to be launched over the next 5 years. These projects are expected to create approximately 11,500 jobs for the region. Culture ------- Shymkent has throughout its 2200-year history been under many different cultural influences of its controlling civilizations. Shymkent served as the Cultural Capital of the Commonwealth of Independent States in 2020. Transportation -------------- ### Public Transport The city is a major railroad junction in the Turkestan-Siberia Railway. All passenger trains are operated by Kazakhstan Temir Zholy. The express trains using comfortable Tulpar Talgo rolling stock. The Bus service uses modern Yutong CNG buses to reach close to every corner of the city and also decrease the air pollution of the region.At some parks and public places are also e-scooters are available for sharing. ### Roads Currently, there are over two thousand streets in the city, the total length of all streets and roads is 2135 km. Major roads passing through Shymkent include M32 (to Aktobe, Oral and Samara) and A2 (Tashkent and Almaty). ### Airports The Shymkent International Airport was opened in 1932 and is located 12 km northwest of the city center. The airport offers air connections to all major cities in Kazakhstan as well as major international destinations like Dubai, Moscow and Istanbul, and international connections. Another small airfield is located near Sairam and is used mostly for sport and agriculture flights. Sightseeing ----------- ### Streets Before 1864, the city consisted of a chaotic interweaving of winding streets around the citadel of the ancient city of Shymkent (the so-called "Old City"). But after it became a town of the Syrdarya region in 1867, the "New City" gradually emerged - an area that has a rectangular-quarter street layout. It was limited to Nikolaevskaya (now Kazybek-bi), Stepnaya (Kunaev Boulevard), Sadovaya (Tauke Khan Avenue) and Meshchanskaya (now Turkestan) streets. **Ordabasy Square** In the 19th century, the eastern border of the city passed here, and there were also fortified gates leading to Sayram and Taraz. In those days, there was a bazaar nearby, therefore this square was called Bazaar; the street got the same name, which originated from this square. Currently, three streets converge on the Ordabasy Square, named after three Kazakh wise men - Tole Bi, Kazybek Bi, Aiteke Bi. The monument *Zher-ana* was erected right in the center of the square. It has three faces with a height of 34 meters. Famous quotes of the three wise Kazakh men are carved on each face of the monument. The top of the monument is crowned by the figure of a young woman, symbolizing Mother Earth, who releases seven swallows into the sky. Under the square flows the Koshkar Ata river and the square contains two fountains next to the monument. The Ordabasy Square connects to the Independence Park through a 104-meter-long pedestrian bridge. ### Parks **Ken Baba Park** This park (formerly the Cathedral Garden, Nikolsky Church Park, and Children's Park) is one of the oldest in the city, located on Kazybek Bi Street at the intersection with Tauke Khan Avenue. In 1908, St. Nicholas Cathedral was built in the area by the architect Matsevich, which opened in the autumn of 1914. This three-story building is considered one of the best examples of religious construction in the "red brick style." In the Soviet years, it was transformed into a regional library, and later into the Palace of Pioneers. Now it is the regional puppet theatre. Valuable trees (mainly oaks) planted here in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and still grow in the park. Currently, there are numerous children's attractions and catering establishments. The water of the spring source is sent to artificial waterfalls that flow into decorative ponds, then the water is redistributed through the channels. Waterfowl and decorative fish can be spotted in the water. **Central Park** This park (formerly the Public City Garden) is also located on Kazybek Bi Street near Ken Baba Park. It was built at the end of the 19th century, almost simultaneously with the Cathedral Garden. **Dendropark** The Dendropark was built in 1980 at the outskirts of the city. Because of the fast growth of the city it is now inside of the city and located at the Prospekt Baydibek Bi. The park cover a area of 150 ha and there are about half of million trees and shrubs of 1360 different types. Most of them are rare and exotic types from different regions of the world. In the center of the park is a huge pond where visitors can rent Pedalos or Rowing boats to discover the park by boat. The park additional offers a [Cycling|cycling] and running track, some small drink and food shops and a bike rental shop. **Abay Park** The Abay Park is named after the Kazakh poet Abay and is located in the heart of the city. A museum and a monument about Abay is located near the south entrance at the Zheltoqsan Street. In the center of the park is a huge World War II memorial with an eternal flame. A art gallery and a public swimming pool are located in the northern part of Abay Park. **Independence Park** The *Independence Park* was created for the 20th anniversary of Kazakhstan's Independence in 2011. The park offers a Singing fountain, a 50 metres high flagpole, pavilions, playgrounds and the monument named *Altyn Shanyraq*. The park is located near the Citadel, the *Ordabasy Square* and the train station. ### Landmarks **Koshkar Ata mosque** The *Koshkar Ata mosque* also known as *Zhami Mosque* was built in 1850–1856. It was erected by Ferghana masters in the style of quarterly mosques of frontal composition. Initially, the building was built of mud brick, but due to flooding by the river, it collapsed over time. Therefore, in 1891–1893 the mosque was rebuilt with burnt bricks. The main facade was made in the form of a three-arch structure, the building had a right and left wing. In 2009, the left wing was destroyed despite the fact that the mosque is protected by law as a monument of architecture. **Old city** The old city began to appear thanks to artisans and farmers who began to settle at the foot of the citadel of the ancient city of Shymkent in the 16th century. Today, the streets of the Old City follow the outlines of the streets of past centuries. But only two architectural objects of the century before last have survived - the Koshkar Ata mosque and the house of the district chief. In the late period of the Soviet Union, a plan was created to preserve the Old City as an open-air museum with special requirements for newly erected buildings to combine the historical and modern architectural style. After the fall of the Soviet Union the plans were not realized. Sport ----- * FC Ordabasy - Men's football team (Currently playing in Kazakhstan Premier League) * BIIK Kazygurt - Women's football team Kazhymukan Munaitpasov Stadium is the main stadium in the city. Its capacity is 20,000. It is the base of FC Ordabasy. Notable people -------------- * Iordanis Pechlivanidis (born 1986), footballer Twin cities ----------- Twin Cities is the name of the sister cities program. | City | Country | Year | | --- | --- | --- | | Mogilev | Belarus Belarus | | | Stevenage | United Kingdom United Kingdom | 1990 | | Acharnes | Greece Greece | | | İzmir | Turkey Turkey | 2004 | | Pattaya | Thailand Thailand | 2017 | | Grosseto | Italy Italy | | | Baiyin | China China | | | Khujand | Tajikistan Tajikistan | | | Eskişehir | Turkey Turkey | | Gallery ------- * Russian Drama Theater at Al-Farabi SquareRussian Drama Theater at Al-Farabi Square * View to Ordabassy Square from the stairs to the Independence ParkView to Ordabassy Square from the stairs to the Independence Park * Shopping mall "Mega Planet" in Shymkent, KazakhstanShopping mall "Mega Planet" in Shymkent, Kazakhstan * Palace of MetallurgistsPalace of Metallurgists * Temple of the Icon of Kazan Mother of GodTemple of the Icon of Kazan Mother of God * Train station forecourtTrain station forecourt * Monument of Baidibek BiMonument of Baidibek Bi * Arch at Independence ParkArch at Independence Park * Residential complex «Kazakhstan» on Kunayev BoulevardResidential complex «Kazakhstan» on Kunayev Boulevard * Residential buildings on Kunaev BoulevardResidential buildings on Kunaev Boulevard * View of the crossroads of Tauke-khan Avenue and Kunaev Boulevard from "Mega Center Shymkent" shopping mallView of the crossroads of Tauke-khan Avenue and Kunaev Boulevard from "Mega Center Shymkent" shopping mall * View on shopping mall in Shymkent, called ЦУМ in the Russian/Soviet styleView on shopping mall in Shymkent, called ЦУМ in the Russian/Soviet style * Fountains near the Central Department store (ЦУМ)Fountains near the Central Department store (ЦУМ) * Al-Farabi st., the view of the local Medical AcademyAl-Farabi st., the view of the local Medical Academy * Turkestan st. (улица Туркестанская)Turkestan st. (улица Туркестанская) * Aksu Canyon on the outskirts of ShymkentAksu Canyon on the outskirts of Shymkent

Shymkent

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shymkent

The **beech marten** (***Martes foina***), also known as the **stone marten**, **house marten** or **white breasted marten**, is a species of marten native to much of Europe and Central Asia, though it has established a feral population in North America. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List on account of its wide distribution, its large population, and its presence in a number of protected areas. It is superficially similar to the European pine marten, but differs from it by its smaller size and habitat preferences. While the pine marten is a forest specialist, the beech marten is a more generalist and adaptable species, occurring in a number of open and forest habitats. Evolution --------- Its most likely ancestor is *Martes vetus*, which also gave rise to the pine marten. The earliest *M. vetus* fossils were found in deposits dated to the Würm glaciation in Lebanon and Israel. The beech marten likely originated in the Near East or southwestern Asia, and may have arrived in Europe by the Late Pleistocene or the early Holocene. Thus, the beech marten differs from most other European mustelids of the Quaternary, as all other species (save for the European mink) appeared during the Middle Pleistocene. Comparisons between fossil animals and their descendants indicate that the beech marten underwent a decrease in size beginning in the Würm period. Beech martens indigenous to the Aegean Islands represent a relic population with primitive Asiatic affinities. The skull of the beech marten suggests a higher adaptation than the pine marten toward hypercarnivory, as indicated by its smaller head, shorter snout and its narrower post-orbital constriction and lesser emphasis on cheek teeth. Selective pressures must have acted to increase the beech marten's bite force at the expense of gape. These traits probably acted on male beech martens as a mechanism to avoid both intraspecific competition with females and interspecific competition with the ecologically overlapping pine marten. ### Subspecies As of 2005[update], eleven subspecies are recognised. | Subspecies | Trinomial authority | Description | Range | Synonyms | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **European beech marten** *Martes f. foina* (Nominate subspecies) | Erxleben, 1777 | A small subspecies, with an average-sized skull. In winter, its back varies from light greyish tawny to completely dark brown. The guard hairs are tawny or chestnut brown, while the underfur is very light, pale-grey. The flanks and withers are slightly lighter than the back, and the belly darker. The legs are dark brown and the throat patch pure white. The patch is variable in size and shape. | European Russia, Western Europe (except the Balkan Peninsula) and the Iberian Peninsula | *alba* (Bechstein, 1801) *domestica* (Pinel, 1792) *fagorum* (Fatio, 1869) | | **Balkan beech marten** *Martes f. bosniaca* | Brass, 1911 | | Balkan Peninsula | | | **Cretan beech marten** *Martes f. bunites* | Bate, 1906 | A smaller subspecies than *foina*, with a less defined throat patch, which may be absent in some specimens. | Crete, Skopelos, Naxos, Erimomilos, Karpathos, Samothrake, Seriphos and Kythnos | | | **Middle Asian beech marten** *Martes f. intermedia* | Severtzov, 1873 | A smaller subspecies than *nehringi*, with lighter fur. The back is moderately dark greyish-tawny. The flanks are lighter, but of the same tone as the back. The guard hairs are dark-tawny, while the underfur is almost white. The tail is dark brown. The throat patch is very variable, being sometimes completely undefined. | Montane Middle Asia, from Kopet Dag and Bolshoi Balkhas to Tarbagatai (in the Khangai Mountains) and Altai. Outside the former Soviet Union, its range includes northern Iran, Afghanistan, western Pakistan, western Himalayas, Tien Shan, Tibet and northern Mongolia | *altaica* (Satunin, 1914) *leucolachnaea* (Blanford, 1879) | | **Tibetan beech marten** *Martes f. kozlovi* | Ognev, 1931 | | Eastern Tibet | | | **Iberian beech marten** *Martes f. mediterranea* | Barrett-Hamilton, 1898. | A lighter, less drab coloured form than *foina*. | Iberian Peninsula | | | **Rhodes beech marten** *Martes f. milleri* | Festa, 1914 | | Rhodes | | | **Caucasian beech marten** *Martes f. nehringi* | Satunin, 1906 | A large subspecies with a massive skull. The winter coat is quite dark, brownish-tawny or dark tawny with a greyish tint. The flanks are lighter than the back, and the tail and feet are dark brown. The throat patch varies in form and size, but shows a tendency towards reduction. | Caucasus and contiguous parts of Turkey and Iran | | | **Crimean beech marten** *Martes f. rosanowi* | Martino and Martino, 1917 | A smaller subspecies than *foina*, but with near identical colours. | Montane Crimea | | | **Syrian beech marten** *Martes f. syriaca* | Nehring, 1902 | A pale coloured subspecies with a smaller skull than the nominative form | Syria | | | **Lhasa beech marten** *Martes f. toufoeus* | Hodgson, 1842 | | Lhasa, Tibet | | | Description ----------- The beech marten is superficially similar to the pine marten, but has a somewhat longer tail, a more elongated and angular head and has shorter, more rounded and widely spaced ears. Its nose is also of a light peach or grey colour, whereas that of the pine marten is dark black or greyish-black. Its feet are not as densely furred as those of the pine marten, thus making them look less broad, with the paw pads remaining visible even in winter. Because of its shorter limbs, the beech marten's manner of locomotion differs from that of the pine marten; the beech marten moves by creeping in a polecat-like manner, whereas the pine marten and sable move by bounds. The load per 1 cm2 of the supporting surface of the beech marten's foot (30.9 g) is double that of the pine marten (15.2 g), thus it is obliged to avoid snowy regions. Its skull is similar to that of the pine marten, but differs in its shorter facial region, more convex profile, its larger carnassials and smaller molars. The beech marten's penis is larger than the pine marten's, with the bacula of young beech martens often outsizing those of old pine martens. Males measure 430–590 mm in body length, while females measure 380–470 mm. The tail measures 250–320 mm in males and 230–275 mm in females. Males weigh 1.7–1.8 kg in winter and 2–2.1 kg in summer, while females weigh 1.1–1.3 kg in winter and 1.4–1.5 kg in summer. The beech marten's fur is coarser than the pine marten's, with elastic guard hairs and less dense underfur. Its summer coat is short, sparse and coarse, and the tail is sparsely furred. The colour tone is lighter than the pine marten's. Unlike the pine marten, its underfur is whitish, rather than greyish. The tail is dark-brown, while the back is darker than that of the pine marten. The throat patch of the beech marten is always white. The patch is large and generally has two projections extending backwards to the base of the forelegs and upward on the legs. The dark colour of the belly juts out between the forelegs as a line into the white colour of the chest and sometimes into the neck. In the pine marten, by contrast, the white colour between the forelegs juts backwards as a protrusion into the belly colour. Behaviour and ecology --------------------- The beech marten is mainly a crepuscular and nocturnal animal, though to a much lesser extent than the European polecat. It is especially active during moonlit nights. Being a more terrestrial animal than the pine marten, the beech marten is less arboreal in its habits, though it can be a skilled climber in heavily forested areas. It is a skilled swimmer, and may occasionally be active during daytime hours, particularly in the summer, when nights are short. It typically hunts on the ground. During heavy snowfalls, the beech marten moves through paths made by hares or skis. ### Social and territorial behaviours In an area of northeastern Spain, where the beech marten still lives in relatively unmodified habitats, one specimen was recorded to have had a home range of 52.5 ha (130 acres) with two centres of activity. Its period of maximum activity occurred between 6 PM and midnight. Between 9 AM and 6 PM, the animal was found to be largely inactive. In urban areas, beech marten's dens are almost entirely in buildings, particularly during winter. The beech marten does not dig burrows, nor does it occupy those of other animals. Instead, it nests in naturally occurring fissures and clefts in rocks, spaces between stones in rock slides and inhabited or uninhabited stone structures. It may live in tree holes at a height of up to 9 metres. ### Reproduction and development Estrus and copulation occur at the same time as in the pine marten. Copulation can last longer than 1 hour. Mating occurs in the June–July period, and takes place in the morning or in moonlit nights on the ground or on the roofs of houses. The gestation period lasts as long as the pine marten's, lasting 236–237 days in the wild, and 254–275 days in fur farms. Parturition takes place in late March-early April, with the average litter consisting of 3-7 kits. The kits are born blind, and begin to see at the age of 30–36 days. The lactation period lasts 40–45 days. In early July, the young are indistinguishable from the adults. ### Diet The beech marten's diet includes a much higher quantity of plant food than that of the pine marten and sable. Plant foods eaten by the beech marten include cherries, apples, pears, plums, black nightshade, tomatoes, grapes, raspberries and mountain ash. Plant food typically predominates during the winter months. Rats, mice and chickens are also eaten. Among bird species preyed upon by the beech marten, sparrow-like birds predominate, though snowcocks and partridges may also be taken. The marten likes to plunder nests of birds including passerines, galliformes and small owls, preferring to kill the parents in addition to the fledglings. Although it rarely attacks poultry, some specimens may become specialized poultry raiders, even when wild prey is abundant. Males tend to target large, live prey more than females, who feed on small prey and carrion with greater frequency. ### Relationships with other predators In areas where the beech marten is sympatric with the pine marten, the two species avoid competing with one another by assuming different ecological niches; the pine marten feeds on birds and rodents more frequently, while the beech marten feeds on fruits and insects. However, in one case, a subadult beech marten being killed by a pine marten. The beech marten has been known to kill European polecats on rare occasions. Red foxes, lynxes, mountain lions, golden eagles, and Eurasian eagle-owls may prey on adults, and juveniles are vulnerable to attack by birds of prey and wildcats. There is, however, one case, from Germany, of a beech marten killing a domestic cat. Range ----- The beech marten is a widespread species which occurs throughout much of Europe and Central Asia. It occurs from Spain and Portugal in the west, through Central and Southern Europe, the Middle East and Central Asia, extending as far east as the Altai and Tien Shan mountains and northwest China. Within Europe, the species is absent in the British Isles, Scandinavian peninsula, Finland, the northern Baltic and northern European Russia. It occurs in Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan and was recently confirmed to inhabit northern Burma. ### Introduction in North America The beech marten is present in Wisconsin, particularly near the urban centres surrounding Milwaukee. It is also present in several wooded, upland areas in the Kettle Moraine State Forest, and in nearby woodlands of Walworth, Racine, Waukesha and probably Jefferson Counties. North American beech martens are likely descended from feral animals that escaped a private fur farm in Burlington during the 1940s. They have also been listed as being released or having escaped in 1972. Relationships with humans ------------------------- ### Tameability British zoologist George Rolleston theorised that the "domestic cat" of the Ancient Greeks and Romans was in fact the beech marten. Pioneering marine biologist Jeanne Villepreux-Power kept two tame beech martens. ### Hunting and fur use Although the beech marten is a valuable animal to the fur trade, its pelt is inferior in quality to that of the pine marten and sable. Beech marten skins on the fur markets of the Soviet Union accounted for only 10-12% of the market presence of pine marten skins. Beech martens were caught only in the Caucasus, in the Montane part of Crimea and (in very small numbers) in the rest of Ukraine, and in the republics of Middle Asia. Because animals with more valuable pelts are rare in those areas, the beech marten is of value to hunters on the local market. Beech martens are captured with jaw traps, or, for live capture, with cage traps. The shooting of beech martens is inefficient, and trailing them with dogs is only successful when the animal can be trapped in a tree hollow. ### Car damage Since the mid-1970s, the beech marten has been known to occasionally cause damage to cars. Cars attacked by martens typically have cut tubes and cables. The reason for this behaviour is not fully known, as the damaged items are not eaten. There is, however, a seasonal peak in marten attacks on cars in spring, when young martens explore their surroundings more often and have yet to learn which items in their habitat are edible or not. ### Large Hadron Collider On 29 April and 21 November 2016, two beech martens shut down the Large Hadron Collider, the world's most powerful particle accelerator, by climbing on 18–66 kV electrical transformers located above ground near the LHCb and ALICE experiments, respectively. The second marten was stuffed and put on display in the Rotterdam Natural History Museum.

Beech marten

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beech_marten

**Sialkot** (Punjabi, Urdu: سيالكوٹ) is a city located in Punjab, Pakistan. It is the capital of the Sialkot District and is the 13th most populous city in Pakistan. The boundaries of Sialkot are joined with Jammu (the winter capital of Indian administered Jammu and Kashmir) in the north east, the districts of Narowal in the southeast, Gujranwala in the southwest and Gujrat in the northwest. Sialkot is believed to be the successor of Sagala, the capital of the Madra kingdom razed by Alexander the Great in 326 BCE, and then made the capital of the Indo-Greek kingdom by Menander I in the 2nd century BCE—a time during which the city greatly prospered as a major center for trade and Buddhist thought. In 6th century, it was again made capital of the Taank Kingdom, which ruled Punjab for the next two centuries. Sialkot continued to be a major political centre until it was eclipsed by Lahore around the turn of the first millennium. The city rose again in prominence during the British era and is now one of Pakistan's most important industrial centers. The city is also the birthplace of Muhammad Iqbal, Pakistan's national poet. The city has been noted for its entrepreneurial spirit and productive business climate that has made Sialkot an example of a small Pakistani city that has emerged as a "world-class manufacturing hub." The relatively small city exported approximately $2.5 billion worth of goods in 2017, or about 10% of Pakistan's total exports. The city has been labelled as the *Football manufacturing capital of the World*, as it produces over 70% of footballs manufactured in the world. Sialkot is also home to the Sialkot International Airport; Pakistan's first privately owned public airport. Along with the nearby cities of Gujranwala and Gujrat, Sialkot forms part of the so-called "Golden Triangle" of industrial cities with export-oriented economies. Through exports, Sialkot-based industries are obtaining foreign exchange to more than $2.5 billion annually to strengthen the national exchequer. Sialkot has a GDP(nominal) of $13 Billions, which make it 4th largest in Pakistan. History ------- ### Ancient #### Founding Sialkot is likely the capital of the Madra Kingdom Sagala, Sakala (Sanskrit: साकला), or Sangala (Ancient Greek: Σάγγαλα) mentioned in the *Mahabharata*, a Sanskrit epic of ancient India, as occupying a similar area as Greek accounts of Sagala. The city may have been inhabited by the *Saka*, or Scythians, from Central Asia who had migrated into the Subcontinent. The region was noted in the *Mahabharata* for the "loose and Bacchanalian" women who lived in the woods there. The city was said to have been located in the *Sakaladvipa* region between the Chenab and Ravi rivers, now known as the *Rechna* Doab. #### Greek The *Anabasis of Alexander*, written by the Roman-Greek historian Arrian, recorded that Alexander the Great captured ancient Sialkot, recorded as **Sagala,** from the *Cathaeans,* who had entrenched themselves there. The city had been home to 80,000 residents on the eve of Alexander's invasion, but was razed as a warning against any other nearby cities that might resist his invasion. #### Indo-Greek The ancient city was rebuilt, and made capital by the Indo-Greek king Menander I of the Euthydemid dynasty, in the 2nd century BCE. The rebuilt city was shifted slightly from the older city, as rebuilding on exactly the same spot was considered inauspicious. Under Menander's rule, the city greatly prospered as a major trading centre renowned for its silk. Menander embraced Buddhism in Sagala, after an extensive debating with the Buddhist monk Nagasena, as recorded in the Buddhist text *Milinda Panha*. the text offers an early description of the city's cityscape and status as a prosperous trade centre with numerous green spaces. Following his conversion, Sialkot developed as a major centre for Buddhist thought. Ancient Sialkot was recorded by Ptolemy in his 1st century CE work, *Geography,* in which he refers to the city as Euthymedia (*Εύθυμέδεια*). #### Alchon Huns Around 460 CE, the Alchon Huns invaded the region from Central Asia, forcing the ruling family of nearby Taxila to seek refuge in Sialkot. Sialkot itself was soon captured, and the city was made capital of the Alchon Huns around 515, during the reign of Toramana. During the reign of his son, Mihirakula, the empire reached its zenith. The Alchon Huns were defeated in 528 by a coalition of princes led by Prince Yashodharman #### Late antiquity The city was visited by the Chinese traveller Xuanzang in 633, who recorded the city's name the *She-kie-lo.* Xuanzang reported that the city had been rebuilt approximately 15 *li,* or 2.5 miles, away from the city ruined by Alexander the Great. During this time, Sialkot served as the political nucleus of the Punjab region. The city was then invaded in 643 by princes from Jammu, who held the city until the Muslim invasions during the medieval era. ### Medieval Around the year 1000, Sialkot began to decline in importance as the nearby city of Lahore rose to prominence. Following to fall of Lahore to the Ghaznavid Empire in the early 11th century, the capital of the Hindu Shahi empire was shifted from Lahore to Sialkot. Ghaznavid expansion in northern Punjab encouraged local Khokhar tribes to stop paying tribute to the Rajas of Jammu. Sialkot became a part of the medieval Sultanate of Delhi after Muhammad Ghauri conquered Punjab in 1185. Ghauri was unable to conquer the larger city of Lahore, but deemed Sialkot important enough to warrant a garrison. He also extensively repaired the Sialkot Fort around the time of his conquest of Punjab, and left the region in charge of Hussain Churmali while he returned to Ghazni. Sialkot was then quickly laid siege to by Khokhar tribesmen, and Khusrau Malik, the last Ghaznavid sultan, though he was defeated during Ghauri's return to Punjab in 1186. In the 1200s, Sialkot was the only area of western Punjab that was ruled by the Mamluk Sultanate in Delhi. The area had been captured by the Ghauri prince Yildiz, but was recaptured by Sultan Iltutmish in 1217. Around 1223, Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, the last king of the Khwarazmian dynasty of Central Asia that had fled invasion of Genghis Khan there, briefly captured Sialkot and Lahore, before being driven out by Iltutmish's forces towards Uch Sharif. During the 13th century, Imam Ali-ul-Haq, Sialkot's most revered Sufi warrior-saint, arrived from Arabia, and began his missionary work in the region that successfully converted large numbers of Hindus to Islam, thereby transforming Sialkot into a largely Muslim city. The saint later died in battle, and is revered as a martyr. Sialkot fell to Shaikha Khokhar around 1414. Sialkot's population continued to grow in the 1400s under the rule of Sultan Bahlul Lodi, who had granted custodianship of the city to Jammu's Raja Biram Dev, after he helped Lodhi defeat the Khokhars. Sialkot was sacked during the Lodhi period by Malik Tazi Bhat of Kashmir, who attacked Sialkot after the governor of Punjab, Tatar Khan, had left the city undefended during one of his military campaigns. Sialkot was captured by armies of the Babur in 1520, when the Mughal commander Usman Ghani Raza advanced towards Delhi during the initial conquest of Babur. Babur recorded a battle with Gujjar raiders, who had attacked Sialkot, and allegedly mistreated its inhabitants. In 1525–1526, Alam Khan, uncle of Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, invaded from Afghanistan, and was able to capture Sialkot with the aid of Mongol forces. ### Pre-modern #### Mughal During the early Mughal era, Sialkot was made part of the *subah,* or "province," of Lahore. According to Sikh tradition, Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, visited the city, sometime in the early 16th century. He is said to have met Hamza Ghaus, a prominent Sufi mystic based in Sialkot, at a site now commemorated by the city's Gurdwara Beri Sahib. During the Akbar era, Sialkot's *pargana* territory was placed in the *jagir* custodianship of Raja Man Singh, who would repair the city's fort, and sought to increase its population and develop its economy. In 1580 Yousuf Shah Chak of Kashmir sought refuge in the city during his exile from the Valley of Kashmir. Paper-makers from Kashmir migrated to the city during the Akbar period, and Sialkot later became renowned as the source of the prized Mughal *Hariri* paper – known for its brilliant whiteness and strength. The city's metalworkers also provided the Mughal crown with much of its weaponry. During the reign of Jahangir, the post was given to Safdar Khan, who rebuilt the city's fort, and oversaw a further increase in Sialkot's prosperity. Numerous fine houses and gardens were built in the city during the Jehangir period. During the Shah Jahan period, the city was placed under the rule of Ali Mardan Khan. The last Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb, appointed Ganga Dhar as *faujdar* of the city until 1654. Rahmat Khan was then placed in charge of the city, and would build a mosque in the city. Under Aurangzeb's reign, Sialkot became known as a great centre of Islamic thought and scholarship, and attracted scholars because of the widespread availability of paper in the city. #### Post-Mughal Following the decline of the Mughal empire after the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, Sialkot and its outlying districts were left undefended and forced to defend itself. In 1739, the city was captured by Nader Shah of Persia during his invasion of the Mughal Empire. The city was placed under the governorship of Zakariya Khan, the Mughal Viceroy of Lahore, who in return for the city promised to pay tribute to the Persian crown. In the wake of the Persian invasion, Sialkot fell under the control of Pashtun powerful families from Multan and Afghanistan – the Kakayzais and Sherwanis. Sialkot was crept upon by Ranjit Deo of Jammu, who pledged nominal allegiance to the Mughal crown in Delhi. Ranjit Deo did not conquer Sialkot city from the Pashtun families which held the city, but switched allegiance to the Pashtun ruler Ahmed Shah Durrani in 1748, effectively ending Mughal influence in Sialkot. The city and three nearby districts were amalgamated into the Durrani Empire. #### Sikh Sikh chieftains of the Bhangi *Misl* state encroached upon Sialkot, and had gained full control of the Sialkot region by 1786, Sialkot was portioned into 4 quarters, under the control of Sardar Jiwan Singh, Natha Singh, Sahib Singh, and Mohar Singh, who invited the city's dispersed residents back to the city. The Bhangi rulers engaged in feuds with the neighbouring Sukerchakia *Misl* state by 1791, and would eventually lose control of the city. The Sikh Empire of Ranjit Singh captured Sialkot from Sardar Jiwan Singh in 1808. Sikh forces then occupied Sialkot until the arrival of the British in 1849. ### Modern #### British Sialkot, along with Punjab as a whole, was captured by the British following their victory over the Sikhs at the Battle of Gujrat in February 1849. During the British era, an official is known as The Resident who would, in theory, advise the Maharaja of Kashmir would reside in Sialkot during the wintertime. During the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, the two Bengal regiments based in Sialkot rebelled against the East India Company, while their native servants also took up arms against the British. In 1877, the Sialkot poet Allama Iqbal, who is credited for inspiring the Pakistan Movement, was born into a Kashmiri family that had converted to Islam from Hinduism in the early 1400s. British India's first bagpipe works opened in Sialkot, and today there are 20 pipe bands in the city. Sialkot's modern prosperity began during the colonial era. The city had been known for its paper making and ironworks prior to the colonial era, and became a centre of metalwork in the 1890s. Surgical instruments were being manufactured in Sialkot for use throughout British India by the 1920s. The city also became a centre for sports goods manufacturing for British troops stationed along with the North West Frontier due to the availability of nearby timber reserves. As a result of the city's prosperity, large numbers of migrants from Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir came to the city in search of employment. At the end of World War II, the city was considered the second most industrialised in Punjab, after Amritsar. Much of the city's infrastructure was paid for by local taxes, and the city was one of the few in British India to have its own electric utility company. #### Partition The first communal riots between Hindus/Sikhs and Muslims took place on 24 June 1946, a day after the resolution calling for the establishment of Pakistan as a separate state. Sialkot remained peaceful for several months while communal riots had erupted in Lahore, Amritsar, Ludhiana, and Rawalpindi. The predominantly Muslim population supported Muslim League and the Pakistan Movement. While Muslim refugees had poured into the city escaping riots elsewhere, Sialkot's Hindu and Sikh communities began fleeing in the opposite direction towards India. They initially congregated in fields outside the city, where some of Sialkot's Muslims would bid farewell to departing friends. Hindu and Sikh refugees were unable to exit Pakistan towards Jammu on account of conflict in Kashmir, and were instead required to transit via Lahore. #### Post-independence After independence in 1947 the Hindu and Sikh minorities migrated to India, while Muslim refugees from India settled in Sialkot. The city had suffered significant losses as a result of communal rioting that erupted because of Partition. 80% of Sialkot's industry had been destroyed or abandoned, and the working capital fell by an estimated 90%. The city was further stressed by the arrival of 200,000 migrants, mostly from Jammu, who had arrived in the city. Following the demise of industry in the city, the government of West Pakistan prioritised the re-establishment of Punjab's decimated industrial base. The province lead infrastructure projects in the area, and allotted abandoned properties to newly arrived refugees. Local entrepreneurs also rose to fill the vacuum created by the departure of Hindu and Sikh businessmen. By the 1960s, the provincial government laid extensive new roadways in the district, and connected it to trunk roads to link the region to the seaport in Karachi. During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, when Pakistani troops arrived in Kashmir, the Indian Army counterattacked in the Sialkot Sector. The Pakistan Army successfully defended the city and the people of Sialkot came out in full force to support the troops. In 1966, Government of Pakistan awarded a special flag of Hilal-e-Istaqlal to Sialkot, along with Lahore and Sargodha in Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]for showing severe resistance in front of enemy as these cities were target of enemy's advances. Every year on Defence Day, this flag is hoisted in these cities as a symbol of recognition of the will, courage and perseverance of the dwellers of these cities. The armoured battles in the Sialkot sector like the Battle of Chawinda were the most intense since the Second World War. Geography --------- ### Climate Sialkot features a humid subtropical climate (*Cwa*) under the Köppen climate classification, with four seasons. The post-monsoon season from mid-September to mid-November remains hot during the daytime, but nights are cooler with low humidity. In the winter from mid-November to March, days are mild to warm, with occasionally heavy rainfalls occurring. Temperatures in winter may drop to 0 °C or 32 °F, but maxima are very rarely less than 15 °C or 59 °F. | Climate data for Sialkot, Pakistan | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 26.1(79.0) | 30.0(86.0) | 35.0(95.0) | 42.2(108.0) | 47.3(117.1) | 48.9(120.0) | 44.4(111.9) | 41.1(106.0) | 39.0(102.2) | 37.2(99.0) | 33.3(91.9) | 27.2(81.0) | 48.9(120.0) | | Average high °C (°F) | 18.5(65.3) | 21.0(69.8) | 25.7(78.3) | 32.8(91.0) | 38.0(100.4) | 39.9(103.8) | 34.9(94.8) | 33.6(92.5) | 33.6(92.5) | 31.7(89.1) | 26.1(79.0) | 20.1(68.2) | 29.7(85.5) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 11.6(52.9) | 13.8(56.8) | 18.6(65.5) | 25.0(77.0) | 30.0(86.0) | 32.2(90.0) | 29.8(85.6) | 29.0(84.2) | 27.9(82.2) | 23.7(74.7) | 17.8(64.0) | 12.8(55.0) | 22.6(72.7) | | Average low °C (°F) | 5.0(41.0) | 7.1(44.8) | 11.8(53.2) | 17.3(63.1) | 22.0(71.6) | 25.1(77.2) | 25.1(77.2) | 24.8(76.6) | 22.3(72.1) | 16.0(60.8) | 9.6(49.3) | 5.6(42.1) | 16.0(60.8) | | Record low °C (°F) | −3(27) | −1.0(30.2) | 3.0(37.4) | 9.0(48.2) | 13.4(56.1) | 18.0(64.4) | 19.5(67.1) | 18.7(65.7) | 13.3(55.9) | 8.5(47.3) | 3.0(37.4) | −0.6(30.9) | −3(27) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 41.1(1.62) | 43.8(1.72) | 53.7(2.11) | 30.1(1.19) | 28.0(1.10) | 65.6(2.58) | 312.6(12.31) | 277.1(10.91) | 94.1(3.70) | 14.5(0.57) | 9.1(0.36) | 30.4(1.20) | 1,000.1(39.37) | | Source: NOAA (1971–1990) | ### Cityscape Sialkot's core is composed of the densely populated old city, while north of the city lies the vast colonial era Sialkot Cantonment – characterised by wide streets and large lawns. The city's industries have evolved in a "ribbon-like" pattern along the cities main arteries, and are almost entirely dedicated to export. The city's sporting good firms are not concentrated in any part of the city, but are instead spread throughout Sialkot. Despite the city's overall prosperity, the local government has failed to meet Sialkot's basic infrastructure needs. Demographics ------------ ### Religion Religious groups in Sialkot City (1891−2017)| Religiousgroup | 1891 | 1901 | 1911 | 1921 | 1931 | 1941 | 2017 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | | Islam | 31,920 | 57.94% | 39,350 | 67.9% | 40,613 | 62.61% | 44,846 | 63.5% | 69,700 | 69.03% | 90,706 | 65.39% | 653,346 | 95.96% | | Hinduism | 17,978 | 32.64% | 13,433 | 23.18% | 15,417 | 23.77% | 15,808 | 22.38% | 18,670 | 18.49% | 29,661 | 21.38% | 1,102 | 0.16% | | Christianity | 2,283 | 4.14% | 1,650 | 2.85% | 3,222 | 4.97% | 5,033 | 7.13% | 6,095 | 6.04% | 5,157 | 3.72% | 25,433 | 3.74% | | Sikhism | 1,797 | 3.26% | 2,236 | 3.86% | 4,290 | 6.61% | 3,433 | 4.86% | 4,931 | 4.88% | 8,431 | 6.08% | — | — | | Jainism | 1,105 | 2.01% | 1,272 | 2.19% | 1,310 | 2.02% | 1,472 | 2.08% | 1,570 | 1.55% | 2,790 | 2.01% | — | — | | Zoroastrianism | 4 | 0.01% | 9 | 0.02% | 17 | 0.03% | 27 | 0.04% | 7 | 0.01% | — | — | — | — | | Buddhism | 0 | 0% | 6 | 0.01% | 0 | 0% | 0 | 0% | 0 | 0% | — | — | — | — | | Ahmadiyya | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 958 | 0.14% | | Others | 0 | 0% | 0 | 0% | 0 | 0% | 0 | 0% | 0 | 0% | 1,963 | 1.42% | 25 | 0% | | Total population | 55,087 | 100% | 57,956 | 100% | 64,869 | 100% | 70,619 | 100% | 100,973 | 100% | 138,708 | 100% | 680,864 | 100% | Economy ------- Sialkot is a wealthy city relative to the rest of Pakistan, with a GDP (nominal) of $13 Billions and a per capita income in 2021 estimated at $18500. The city was considered to be one of British India's most industralised cities, though its economy would later be largely decimated by violence and capital flight following the Partition. The city's economy rebounded, and Sialkot now forms part of the relatively industriazised region of northern Punjab that is sometimes referred to as the *Golden Triangle.* Sialkot has been noted by Britain's *The Economist* magazine as a "world-class manufacturing hub" with strong export industries. As of 2017, Sialkot exported US$2.5 billion worth of goods which is equal to 10% of Pakistan's total exports (US$25 billion). 250,000 residents are employed in Sialkot's industries, with most enterprises in the city being small and funded by family savings. Sialkot's Chamber of Commerce had over 6,500 members in 2010, with most active in the leather, sporting goods, and surgical instruments industry. The Sialkot Dry Port offers local producers quick access to Pakistani Customs, as well as to logistics and transportation. Despite being cut off from its historic economic heartland in Kashmir, Sialkot has managed to position itself into one of Pakistan's most prosperous cities, exporting up to 10% of all Pakistani exports. Its sporting goods firms have been particularly successful, and have produced items for global brands such as Nike, Adidas, Reebok, and Puma. Balls for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, 2018 FIFA World Cup and 2022 FIFA World Cup were made by Forward Sports, a Sialkot-based company. Sialkot's business community has joined with the local government to maintain the city's infrastructure, as the local government has limited capacity to fund such maintenance. The business community was instrumental in the establishment of Sialkot's Dry Port in 1985, and further helped re-pave the city's roads. Sialkot's business community also largely funded the Sialkot International Airport—opened in 2011 as Pakistan's first privately owned public airport. Sialkot is also the only city in Pakistan to have its very own commercial airline, Airsial. This airline is managed by the business community of Sialkot based at the Sialkot Chamber of Commerce and Industries and offers direct flights from Sialkot to Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. ### Industry Sialkot is the world's largest producer of hand-sewn footballs, with local factories manufacturing 40–60 million footballs a year, amounting to roughly 60% of world production. Since the 2014 FIFA World Cup, footballs for the official matches are being made by Forward Sports, a company based in Sialkot. Clustering of sports goods industrial units has allowed for firms in Sialkot to become highly specialised, and to benefit from joint action and external economies. There is a well-applied child labour ban, the Atlanta Agreement, in the industry since a 1997 outcry, and the local industry now funds the Independent Monitoring Association for Child Labour to regulate factories. Sialkot is also the world's largest centre of surgical instrument manufacturing. Sialkot was first noted to be a centre of metalwork in the 1890s, and the city's association with surgical instruments came from the need to repair, and subsequently manufacture, surgical instruments for the nearby Mission hospital. By the 1920s, surgical instruments were being manufactured for use throughout British India, with demand boosted by further by World War II. The city's surgical instrument manufacturing industry benefits from a clustering effect, in which larger manufacturers remain in close contact with smaller and specialised industries that can efficiently perform contracted work. The industry is made up of a few hundred small and medium size enterprises, supported by thousands of subcontractors, suppliers, and those providing other ancillary services. The bulk of exports are destined for the United States and European Union. Sialkot first became a centre for sporting goods manufacturing during the colonial era. Enterprises were initially inaugurated for the recreation of British troops stationed along the North West Frontier. Nearby timber reserves served to initially allure the industry to Sialkot. The city's Muslim craftsmen generally manufactured the goods, while Sikh and Hindu merchants of the Sindhi *Bania*, *Arora*, and Punjabi *Khatri* castes acted like middle men to bring goods to market. Sialkot now produces a wide array of sporting goods, including footballs and hockey sticks, cricket gear, gloves that are used in international games comprising the Olympics and World Cups. Sialkot is also noted for its leather goods. Leather for footballs is sourced from nearby farms, while Sialkot's leather workers craft some of Germany's most prized leather *lederhosen* trousers. Sialkot also has a large share in the agricultural sector. It predominantly produces Basmati rice varieties, wheat and sugarcane. Its area is 3,015 km2 (1,164 sq mi), at least 642,624 acres (260,061 ha) are under cultivation. Potato and sunflower were evident among the minor crops of the district. ### Public-Private Partnerships Sialkot has a productive relationship between the civic administration and the city's entrepreneurs, that dates to the colonial era. Sialkot's infrastructure was paid for by local taxes on industry, and the city was one of the few in British Raj to have its own electric utility company. Modern Sialkot's business community has assumed responsibility for developing infrastructure when the civic administration is unable to deliver requested services. The city's Chamber of Commerce established the Sialkot Dry Port, the country's first dry-port in 1985 to reduce transit times by offering faster customs services. Members of the Chamber of Commerce allowed paid fees to help resurface the city's streets. The Sialkot International Airport was established by the local businesses community, is the only private airport in Pakistan. Transportation -------------- ### Highways A dual-carriageway connects Sialkot to the nearby city of Wazirabad, with onward connections throughout Pakistan via the N-5 National Highway, while another dual carriageway connects Sialkot to Daska, and onwards to Gujranwala and Lahore. Sialkot and Lahore are also connected through the motorway M11. ### Rail The Sialkot Junction railway station is the city's main railway station and is serviced by the Wazirabad–Narowal Branch Line of the Pakistan Railways. The Allama Iqbal Express travels daily from Sialkot to Karachi via Lahore, and then back to Sialkot. ### Air The Sialkot International Airport is located about 20 km from the center of the city near Sambrial. It was established in 2007 by spending 4 billion rupees by Sialkot business community. It is Pakistan's only privately owned public airport, and offers flights throughout Pakistan, with also direct flights to Bahrain, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, France, the UK and Spain. Notable people -------------- * Dharampal Gulati, Founder of MDH * Abdul Hakim Sialkoti, Islamic scholar * Muhammad Iqbal, poet * Gulzarilal Nanda, Indian Prime Minister and politician * Muhammad Ibrahim Mir Sialkoti, Islamic scholar * Faiz Ahmed Faiz, poet * Faiz-ul Hassan Shah, Islamic religious scholar, orator, poet and writer * Akhtar Ali Vario, Politician * Rajendra Kumar, actor * Riaz Kataria, Politician and businessperson * Usman Dar, politician * Zaheer Abbas, cricketer * Shahnaz Sheikh, hockey player * Shoaib Malik, cricketer * Haris Sohail, cricketer * Khawaja Asif, politician * Firdous Ashiq Awan, politician * Armghan Subhani, politician Awards ------ In 1966, the Government of Pakistan awarded a special flag, the Hilal-i-istaqlal to Sialkot (also to Sargodha and Lahore) for showing severe resistance to the enemy during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 as these cities were targets of the Indian aggression. Every year on Defence Day (6 September), this flag is hoisted in these cities in recognition of the will, courage and perseverance of their people. Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Sialkot is twinned with: * United States Bolingbrook, Illinois, United States See also -------- * Sialkot Chamber of Commerce and Industry * List of educational institutions in Sialkot * List of cities in Punjab, Pakistan by area * Sialkot Stallions * Shivala Teja Singh temple

Sialkot

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sialkot

**Constantine I** (/ˈkɒnstəntaɪn/ *KON-stən-tyne*, also /ˈkɒnstəntiːn/ *KON-stən-teen*; Latin: *Flavius Valerius Constantinus*, Classical Latin: [kõːstanˈtiːnʊs]; Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος, translit. **Kōnstantînos**; 27 February c. 272 – 22 May 337), also known as **Constantine the Great**, was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337. He was the first emperor to convert to Christianity. Born in Naissus, Dacia Mediterranea (now Niš, Serbia), he was the son of Flavius Constantius, a Roman army officer of Illyrian origin who had been one of the four rulers of the Tetrarchy. His mother, Helena, was a Greek woman of low birth and a Christian. Later canonized as a saint, she is traditionally attributed with the conversion of her son. Constantine served with distinction under the Roman emperors Diocletian and Galerius. He began his career by campaigning in the eastern provinces (against the Persians) before being recalled in the west (in AD 305) to fight alongside his father in the province of Britannia. After his father's death in 306, Constantine was acclaimed as *imperator* by his army at Eboracum (York, England). He eventually emerged victorious in the civil wars against emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire by 324. Upon his ascension, Constantine enacted numerous reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. To combat inflation, he introduced the solidus, a new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was reorganized to consist of mobile units (*comitatenses*) and garrison troops (*limitanei*) which were capable of countering internal threats and barbarian invasions. Constantine pursued successful campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers—such as the Franks, the Alemanni, the Goths, and the Sarmatians—and resettled territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century with citizens of Roman culture. Although Constantine lived much of his life as a pagan and later as a catechumen, he began to favor Christianity beginning in 312, finally becoming a Christian and being baptized by either Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian bishop, or by Pope Sylvester I, which is maintained by the Catholic Church and the Coptic Orthodox Church. He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which declared tolerance for Christianity in the Roman Empire. He convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325 which produced the statement of Christian belief known as the Nicene Creed. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built on his orders at the purported site of Jesus' tomb in Jerusalem and was deemed the holiest place in all of Christendom. The papal claim to temporal power in the High Middle Ages was based on the fabricated Donation of Constantine. He has historically been referred to as the "First Christian Emperor" and he did favor the Christian Church. While some modern scholars debate his beliefs and even his comprehension of Christianity, he is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity, and he did much for pushing Christianity towards the mainstream of Roman culture. The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire and a pivotal moment in the transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages. He built a new imperial residence at the city of Byzantium and renamed it New Rome, later adopting the name Constantinople after himself, where it was located in modern Istanbul. It subsequently became the capital of the empire for more than a thousand years, the later Eastern Roman Empire often being referred to in English as the *Byzantine Empire*, a term never used by the Empire, invented by German historian Hieronymus Wolf. His more immediate political legacy was that he replaced Diocletian's Tetrarchy with the *de facto* principle of dynastic succession by leaving the empire to his sons and other members of the Constantinian dynasty. His reputation flourished during the lifetime of his children and for centuries after his reign. The medieval church held him up as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a prototype, a point of reference, and the symbol of imperial legitimacy and identity. Beginning with the Renaissance, there were more critical appraisals of his reign with the rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources. Trends in modern and recent scholarship have attempted to balance the extremes of previous scholarship. Sources ------- Constantine was a ruler of major importance and has always been a controversial figure. The fluctuations in his reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are abundant and detailed, but they have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period and are often one-sided; no contemporaneous histories or biographies dealing with his life and rule have survived. The nearest replacement is Eusebius's *Vita Constantini*—a mixture of eulogy and hagiography written between 335 and circa 339—that extols Constantine's moral and religious virtues. The *Vita* creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine, and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability. The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous *Origo Constantini*, a work of uncertain date which focuses on military and political events to the neglect of cultural and religious matters. Lactantius' *De mortibus persecutorum*, a political Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life. The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine's later reign. Written during the reign of Theodosius II (r. 402–450), a century after Constantine's reign, these ecclesiastical historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation, and deliberate obscurity. The contemporary writings of the orthodox Christian Athanasius and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm. The epitomes of Aurelius Victor (*De Caesaribus*), Eutropius (*Breviarium*), Festus (*Breviarium*), and the anonymous author of the *Epitome de Caesaribus* offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period. Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a favorable image of Constantine but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies. The *Panegyrici Latini*, a collection of panegyrics from the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, provides valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine. Contemporary architecture—such as the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba—epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources. Early life ---------- Constantine was born in Naissus (today Niš, Serbia), part of the Dardania province of Moesia on 27 February, c.  AD 272. His father was Flavius Constantius who was born in the same region (then called Dacia Ripensis) and a native of the province of Moesia. His original full name, as well as that of his father, is not known. His *praenomen* is variously given as Lucius, Marcus and Gaius. Whatever the case, *praenomina* had already disappeared from most public records by this time. He also adopted the name "Valerius", the *nomen* of emperor Diocletian, following his father's ascension as caesar. Constantine probably spent little time with his father who was an officer in the Roman army, part of Emperor Aurelian's imperial bodyguard. Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man, Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum, in 284 or 285. Constantine's mother was Helena, a Greek woman of low social standing from Helenopolis of Bithynia. It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine. His main language was Latin, and during his public speeches he needed Greek translators. Head from a statue of the emperor DiocletianBust of Maximian, Diocletian's co-emperor In July 285, Diocletian declared Maximian, another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant. Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum (Milan, Italy) or Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric, and both emperors could move freely throughout the empire. In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul. Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289. Diocletian divided the empire again in 293, appointing two caesars to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to his respective augustus but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius; his second was Galerius, a native of Felix Romuliana. According to Lactantius, Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian. On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar, and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus. In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege, and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's heir presumptive. ### In the East Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid, and socially mobile; in it, Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia and served in a variety of tribunates; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296 and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria in 297, as well as under Galerius in Mesopotamia in 298–299. By late 305, he had become a tribune of the first order, a *tribunus ordinis primi*. Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's "Great Persecution", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history. In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians. Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned when Diocletian accepted his court's demands for universal persecution. On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia's new church, condemned its scriptures to the flames, and had its treasures seized. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned. It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. In his later writings, he attempted to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "Worshippers of God", but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life. On 1 May 305, Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–305, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan, Maximian did the same. Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors. It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to *augusti*, while Severus and Maximinus, Galerius' nephew, were appointed their caesars respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored. Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet. It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted. ### In the West Constantine recognized the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the West. Constantius was quick to intervene. In the late spring or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake. By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught. Constantine joined his father in Gaul, at Bononia (Boulogne) before the summer of 305. From Bononia, they crossed the English Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum (York), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius' campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success. Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum. Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine to the rank of full augustus. The Alamannic king Chrocus, a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule; Hispania, which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it. Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an augustus. The portrait was wreathed in bay. He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him". Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait and messenger on fire. His advisers calmed him and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war. Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "caesar" rather than "augustus" (the latter office went to Severus instead). Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional purple robes. Constantine accepted the decision, knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy. Early rule ---------- Constantine's share of the empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, and he commanded one of the largest Roman armies which was stationed along the important Rhine frontier. He remained in Britain after his promotion to emperor, driving back the tribes of the Picts and securing his control in the northwestern dioceses. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and he ordered the repair of the region's roadways. He then left for Augusta Treverorum (Trier) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire. The Franks learned of Constantine's acclamation and invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306–307. He drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured kings Ascaric and Merogais; the kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier's amphitheatre in the *adventus* (arrival) celebrations which followed. Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and he began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall and a massive imperial bathhouse. He sponsored many building projects throughout Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum (Autun) and Arelate (Arles). According to Lactantius, Constantine followed a tolerant policy towards Christianity, although he was not yet a Christian. He probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor" Galerius. He decreed a formal end to persecution and returned to Christians all that they had lost during them. Constantine was largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him; he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda, which gave as much coverage to his father's deeds as to his. His military skill and building projects, however, soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favourably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign". Constantinian coinage, sculpture, and oratory also show a tendency for disdain towards the "barbarians" beyond the frontiers. He minted a coin issue after his victory over the Alemanni which depicts weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen, "the Alemanni conquered" beneath the phrase "Romans' rejoicing". There was little sympathy for these enemies; as his panegyrist declared, "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe." ### Maxentius' rebellion Following Galerius' recognition of Constantine as caesar, Constantine's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot and lamented his own powerlessness. Maxentius, envious of Constantine's authority, seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306. Galerius refused to recognize him but failed to unseat him. Galerius sent Severus against Maxentius, but during the campaign, Severus' armies, previously under command of Maxentius' father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned. Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine in late 307. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine and elevate him to augustan rank. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy. Constantine accepted and married Fausta in Trier in late summer 307. Constantine gave Maxentius his meagre support, offering Maxentius political recognition. Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however. Over the spring and summer of 307, he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil; now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In 308, he raided the territory of the Bructeri and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium (Cologne). In 310, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people and strengthened his power base in the West. Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–308 but soon fell out with his son. In early 308, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius' title, Maximian returned to Constantine's court. On 11 November 308, Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum (Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to caesar. Licinius, one of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed augustus in the western regions. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion and continued to style himself as augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a caesar on theirs. Maximinus was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of augustus and demanded that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine "sons of the augusti", but neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310, Galerius was referring to both men as augusti. ### Maximian's rebellion In 310, a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. When Constantine heard of the rebellion, he abandoned his campaign against the Franks and marched his army up the Rhine. At Cabillunum (Chalon-sur-Saône), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone. He disembarked at Lugdunum (Lyon). Maximian fled to Massilia (Marseille), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself. In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father's devoted son after his death. He began minting coins with his father's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death. Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. Along with using propaganda, Constantine instituted a *damnatio memoriae* on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine's public image. He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder Emperor Maximian and needed a new source of legitimacy. In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310, the anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II, a 3rd-century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasizes Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule. Indeed, the orator emphasizes ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favor, made you emperor," the orator declares to Constantine. The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules. Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. In the likeness of Apollo, Constantine recognized himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted "rule of the whole world", as the poet Virgil had once foretold. The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron. From 310 on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus, a god conventionally identified with Apollo. There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul. Civil wars ---------- ### War against Maxentius By the middle of 310, Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics. His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration. Eusebius maintains "divine providence […] took action against the perpetrator of these crimes" and gives a graphic account of Galerius' demise: "Without warning suppurative inflammation broke out round the middle of his genitals, then a deep-seated fistula ulcer; these ate their way incurably into his innermost bowels. From them came a teeming indescribable mass of worms, and a sickening smell was given off, for the whole of his hulking body, thanks to over eating, had been transformed even before his illness into a huge lump of flabby fat, which then decomposed and presented those who came near it with a revolting and horrifying sight." Galerius died soon after the edict's proclamation, destroying what little remained of the Tetrarchy. Maximinus mobilized against Licinius and seized Asia Minor. A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the Bosphorus. While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war. He fortified northern Italy and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect Eusebius as bishop of Rome,. Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage; and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa. By 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported, even among Christian Italians. In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder". To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius, Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311–312 and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support, which Maxentius accepted. According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day". Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius; even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavourable omens. Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance, ignored all these cautions. Early in the spring of 312, Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000. The first town his army encountered was Segusium (Susa, Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town and advanced into northern Italy. At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin, Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. In the ensuing Battle of Turin Constantine's army encircled Maxentius' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine's armies emerged victorious. Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead. Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to Brixia (Brescia). Brescia's army was easily dispersed, and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona where a large Maxentian force was camped. Ruricius Pompeianus, general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect, was in a strong defensive position since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige. Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force but was defeated. Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia, Mutina (Modena), and Ravenna. The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine. Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he sat in Rome and prepared for a siege. He still controlled Rome's Praetorian Guard, was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls. He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods, and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge. Constantine progressed slowly along the *Via Flaminia*, allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible. Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. On 28 October 312, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle. #### Constantine adopts the Greek letters Chi Rho for Christ's initials Maxentius' forces were still twice the size of Constantine's, and he organized them in long lines facing the battle plain with their backs to the river. Constantine's army arrived on the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on their standards and their shields. According to Lactantius "Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ. Having this sign (☧), his troops stood to arms." Eusebius describes a vision that Constantine had while marching at midday in which "he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, *In Hoc Signo Vinces*" ("In this sign thou shalt conquer"). In Eusebius's account, Constantine had a dream the following night in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign and told him to make an army standard in the form of the *labarum*. Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place, but it enters his narrative before the war begins against Maxentius. He describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ) to form ☧, representing the first two letters of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ (Christos). A medallion was issued at Ticinum in 315 which shows Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the *Chi Rho*, and coins issued at Siscia in 317/318 repeat the image. The figure was otherwise rare and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s. It was not completely unknown, however, being an abbreviation of the Greek word chrēston (good), having previously appeared on the coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes in the 3rd century BC. Following Constantine, centuries of Christians invoked the miraculous or the supernatural when justifying or describing their warfare. Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned. The battle was brief, and Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge. His horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but they broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them and attempted to cross the bridge of boats (Ponte Milvio), but he was pushed into the Tiber and drowned by the mass of his fleeing soldiers. ### In Rome Constantine entered Rome on 29 October 312 and staged a grand *adventus* in the city which was met with jubilation. Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets for all to see. After the ceremonies, the disembodied head was sent to Carthage, and Carthage offered no further resistance. Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. However, he did visit the Senatorial Curia Julia, and he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government; there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters. In response, the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant that his name would be listed first in all official documents, and they acclaimed him as "the greatest augustus". He issued decrees returning property that was lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents. An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius' image was purged from all public places. He was written up as a "tyrant" and set against an idealized image of Constantine the "liberator". Eusebius is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda. Maxentius' rescripts were declared invalid, and the honours that he had granted to leaders of the Senate were also invalidated. Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape. All structures built by him were rededicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius. At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue was erected of Constantine holding the Christian *labarum* in its hand. Its inscription bore the message which the statue illustrated: "By this sign, Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant." Constantine also sought to upstage Maxentius' achievements. For example, the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its seating capacity was 25 times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia. Maxentius' strongest military supporters were neutralized when he disbanded the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard. The tombstones of the Imperial Horse Guard were ground up and used in a basilica on the Via Labicana, and their former base was redeveloped into the Lateran Basilica on 9 November 312—barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city. The Legio II Parthica was removed from Albano Laziale, and the remainder of Maxentius' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine. ### Wars against Licinius In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan, officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the empire. The document had special benefits for Christians, legalizing their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to the divine sphere—"Divinity" and "Supreme Divinity", *summa divinitas*. The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximinus had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar; Licinius, for his part, had Constantine's statues in Emona destroyed. In either 314 or 316, the two augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae, with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317 and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II, and Licinius' son Licinianus were made *caesars*. After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium, whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323, defeating and killing their leader Rausimod. In 320, Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan and began to oppress Christians anew, generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations and sacking of Christian office-holders. Although this characterization of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful, the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine. Therefore, Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general, as the explanation offered by the Church historian Sozomen. This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Constantine's Christian eulogists present the war as a battle between Christianity and paganism; Licinius, aided by Gothic mercenaries, represented the past and ancient paganism, while Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the *labarum*. Outnumbered but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople. Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martinian, his *magister officiorum*, as nominal augustus in the West, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324. Licinius and Martinian surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius' son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was killed in 326. Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Later rule ---------- ### Foundation of Constantinople Diocletian had chosen Nicomedia in the East as his capital during the Tetrarchy—not far from Byzantium, well situated to defend Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, all of which had required his military attention. Constantine had recognized the shift of the empire from the remote and depopulated West to the richer cities of the East, and the military strategic importance of protecting the Danube from barbarian excursions and Asia from a hostile Persia in choosing his new capital as well as being able to monitor shipping traffic between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Licinius' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival centre of pagan and Greek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and Latin-speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of the Eastern Roman Empire. Among the various locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica (present-day Sofia), as he was reported saying that "*Serdica is my Rome*". Sirmium and Thessalonica were also considered. Eventually, however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium, which offered the advantage of having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism during the preceding century by Septimius Severus and Caracalla, who had already acknowledged its strategic importance. The city was thus founded in 324, dedicated on 11 May 330 and renamed *Constantinopolis* ("Constantine's City" or Constantinople in English). Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honor the event. The new city was protected by the relics of the True Cross, the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city. The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism. Constantine built the new Church of the Holy Apostles on the site of a temple to Aphrodite. Generations later there was the story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see led him on a circuit of the new walls. The capital would often be compared to the 'old' Rome as *Nova Roma Constantinopolitana*, the "New Rome of Constantinople". ### Religious policy Constantine was the first emperor to stop the persecution of Christians and to legalize Christianity, along with all other religions/cults in the Roman Empire. In February 313, he met with Licinius in Milan and developed the Edict of Milan, which stated that Christians should be allowed to follow their faith without oppression. This removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many had been martyred previously, and it returned confiscated Church property. The edict protected all religions from persecution, not only Christianity, allowing anyone to worship any deity that they chose. A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, senior emperor of the Tetrarchy, which granted Christians the right to practise their religion but did not restore any property to them. The Edict of Milan included several clauses which stated that all confiscated churches would be returned, as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians. Scholars debate whether Constantine adopted his mother Helena's Christianity in his youth or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life. Constantine possibly retained the title of *pontifex maximus* which emperors bore as heads of the ancient Roman religion until Gratian renounced the title. According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 when he finally declared himself a Christian, making it clear that he owed his successes to the protection of the Christian High God alone. Despite these declarations of being a Christian, he waited to be baptized on his deathbed, believing that the baptism would release him of any sins he committed in the course of carrying out his policies while emperor. He supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy (such as exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and returned property confiscated during the long period of persecution. His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Old St. Peter's Basilica. In constructing the Old St. Peter's Basilica, Constantine went to great lengths to erect the basilica on top of St. Peter's resting place, so much so that it even affected the design of the basilica, including the challenge of erecting it on the hill where St. Peter rested, making its complete construction time over 30 years from the date Constantine ordered it to be built. Constantine might not have patronized Christianity alone. A triumphal arch was built in 315 to celebrate his victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge which was decorated with images of the goddess Victoria, and sacrifices were made to pagan gods at its dedication, including Apollo, Diana, and Hercules. Absent from the arch are any depictions of Christian symbolism. However, the arch was commissioned by the Senate, so the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt. In 321, he legislated that the *venerable Sunday* should be a day of rest for all citizens. In 323, he issued a decree banning Christians from participating in state sacrifices. After the pagan gods had disappeared from his coinage, Christian symbols appeared as Constantine's attributes, the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum, as well on the coinage. The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the emperor to have great influence and authority in the early Christian councils, most notably the dispute over Arianism. Constantine disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring to establish an orthodoxy. His influence over the Church councils was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity; the Church's role was to determine proper worship, doctrines, and dogma. North African bishops struggled with Christian bishops who had been ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian from 313 to 316. The African bishops could not come to terms, and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute. Three regional Church councils and another trial before Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism movement in North Africa. In 317, Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property and to send Donatist clergy into exile. More significantly, in 325 he summoned the First Council of Nicaea, most known for its dealing with Arianism and for instituting the Nicene Creed. He enforced the council's prohibition against celebrating the Lord's Supper on the day before the Jewish Passover, which marked a definite break of Christianity from the Judaic tradition. From then on, the solar Julian Calendar was given precedence over the lunisolar Hebrew calendar among the Christian churches of the Roman Empire. Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews; some of them were unfavorable towards Jews, although they were not harsher than those of his predecessors. It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity. They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. On the other hand, Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy. ### Administrative reforms Beginning in the mid-3rd century, the emperors began to favor members of the equestrian order over senators, who had a monopoly on the most important offices of the state. Senators were stripped of the command of legions and most provincial governorships, as it was felt that they lacked the specialized military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense needs; such posts were given to equestrians by Diocletian and his colleagues, following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors. The emperors, however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, who were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of powerful influence and contacts at all levels. Exclusion of the old senatorial aristocracy threatened this arrangement. In 326, Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to the old aristocracy; at the same time, he elevated the rank of existing equestrian office-holders to senator, degrading the equestrian order in the process (at least as a bureaucratic rank). The title of *perfectissimus* was granted only to mid- or low-level officials by the end of the 4th century. By the new Constantinian arrangement, one could become a senator by being elected praetor or by fulfilling a function of senatorial rank. From then on, holding actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. Constantine gained the support of the old nobility with this, as the Senate was allowed to elect praetors and quaestors in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating magistrates (*adlectio*). An inscription in honor of city prefect Ceionius Rufus Albinus states that Constantine had restored the Senate "the *auctoritas* it had lost at Caesar's time". The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators had been marginalized as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century but could dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats. Some modern historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianized imperial rule; however, such an interpretation remains conjectural, given the fact that we do not have the precise numbers about pre-Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieu. Some historians suggest that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed. Constantine's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration. The military chiefs had risen from the ranks since the Crisis of the Third Century but remained outside the Senate, in which they were included only by Constantine's children. ### Monetary reforms In the 3rd century, the production of fiat money to pay for public expenses resulted in runaway inflation, and Diocletian tried unsuccessfully to re-establish trustworthy minting of silver coins, as well as silver-bronze "billon" coins (the term "billon" meaning an alloy of precious and base metals that is mostly base metal). Silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal content and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Constantine stopped minting the Diocletianic "pure" silver *argenteus* soon after 305, while the "billon" currency continued to be used until the 360s. From the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of the gold solidus, 72 of which made a pound of gold. New and highly debased silver pieces continued to be issued during his later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of retariffing, until this "billon" minting ceased in 367, and the silver piece was continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the *centenionalis*. These bronze pieces continued to be devalued, assuring the possibility of keeping fiduciary minting alongside a gold standard. The author of *De Rebus Bellicis* held that the rift widened between classes because of this monetary policy; the rich benefited from the stability in purchasing power of the gold piece, while the poor had to cope with ever-degrading bronze pieces. Later emperors such as Julian the Apostate insisted on trustworthy mintings of the bronze currency. Constantine's monetary policies were closely associated with his religious policies; increased minting was associated with the confiscation of all gold, silver, and bronze statues from pagan temples between 331 and 336 which were declared to be imperial property. Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of getting the statues and melting them for immediate minting, with the exception of a number of bronze statues that were used as public monuments in Constantinople. ### Executions of Crispus and Fausta Gold coin of Constantine's eldest son Crispus, who was executed by his fatherBust of Constantine's wife Fausta, in the Louvre, Paris Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola (Pula, Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326. In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta (stepmother of Crispus) killed in an overheated bath. Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives were eradicated from the literary record, and their memory was condemned. Eusebius, for example, edited out any praise of Crispus from later copies of *Historia Ecclesiastica*, and his *Vita Constantini* contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus. Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events, and the few that do are of later provenance and are generally unreliable. At the time of the executions, it was commonly believed that Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus or was spreading rumors to that effect. A popular myth arose, modified to allude to the Hippolytus–Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities; the largely fictional *Passion of Artemius* explicitly makes this connection. The myth rests on slim evidence as an interpretation of the executions; only late and unreliable sources allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta, and there is no evidence for the modern suggestion that Constantine's "godly" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected. Although Constantine created his apparent heirs "caesars", following a pattern established by Diocletian, he gave his creations a hereditary character, alien to the tetrarchic system: Constantine's caesars were to be kept in the hope of ascending to empire and entirely subordinated to their augustus, as long as he was alive. Adrian Goldsworthy speculates an alternative explanation for the execution of Crispus was Constantine's desire to keep a firm grip on his prospective heirs, this—and Fausta's desire for having her sons inheriting instead of their half-brother—being reason enough for killing Crispus; the subsequent execution of Fausta, however, was probably meant as a reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in "killing his own relatives when he felt this was necessary". ### Later campaigns The northern and eastern frontiers of the Roman Empire in the time of Constantine, with the territories acquired in the course of the thirty years of military campaigns between 306 and 337Gold medallion struck at Nicomedia in 336–337 to celebrate the 30th anniversary of his rule Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and permanent residence. He lived there for a good portion of his later life. In 328 construction was completed on Constantine's Bridge at Sucidava, (today Celei in Romania) in hopes of reconquering Dacia, a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths. The weather and lack of food reportedly cost the Goths dearly before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts and conscripted the rest into the army. The new frontier in Dacia was along the Brazda lui Novac line supported by new castra. Constantine took the title *Dacicus maximus* in 336. In the last years of his life, Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia. In a letter written to the king of Persia, Shapur, Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well. The letter is undatable. In response to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335. In 336, Prince Narseh invaded Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 301) and installed a Persian client on the throne. Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia. He treated the war as a Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere. Constantine planned to be baptized in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia. Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336–337, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them away. The campaign was called off, however, when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337. ### Illness and death Constantine's sons and successors: Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans From his recent illness, Constantine knew death would soon come. Within the Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself. It came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill. He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis (Altınova), on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia (present-day Gulf of İzmit). There, in a church his mother built in honor of Lucian the Martyr, he prayed, and there he realized that he was dying. Seeking purification, he became a catechumen and attempted a return to Constantinople, making it only as far as a suburb of Nicomedia. He summoned the bishops and told them of his hope to be baptized in the River Jordan, where Christ was written to have been baptized. He requested the baptism right away, promising to live a more Christian life should he live through his illness. The bishops, Eusebius records, "performed the sacred ceremonies according to custom". He chose the Arianizing bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptizer. In postponing his baptism, he followed one custom at the time which postponed baptism until after infancy. It has been thought that Constantine put off baptism as long as he did so as to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible. Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly following Pascha (or Easter), on 22 May 337. Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. Emperor Julian (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war". Similar accounts are given in the *Origo Constantini*, an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia; the *Historiae abbreviatae* of Sextus Aurelius Victor, written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians; and the *Breviarium* of Eutropius, a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens, which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia. From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius's *Vita* was edited to defend Constantine's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign. Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the *De Ceremoniis*. His body survived the plundering of the city during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 but was destroyed at some point afterwards. Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans. His sons, along with his nephew Dalmatius, had already received one division of the empire each to administer as caesars; Constantine may have intended his successors to resume a structure akin to Diocletian's Tetrarchy. A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantine's nephews Dalmatius (who held the rank of caesar) and Hannibalianus, presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena, wife of Emperor Julian. Legacy ------ Constantine reunited the empire under one emperor, and he won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–308, the Franks again in 313–314, the Goths in 332, and the Sarmatians in 334. By 336, he had reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. In the cultural sphere, Constantine revived the clean-shaven face fashion of earlier emperors, originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus (236 - 183 BCE) and changed into the wearing of the beard by Hadrian (r. 117 - 138). This new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of Phocas (r. 602 - 610) in the 7th century. The Holy Roman Empire reckoned Constantine among the venerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it became a great honor for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine"; ten emperors carried the name, including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. Charlemagne used monumental Constantinian forms in his court to suggest that he was Constantine's successor and equal. Charlemagne, Henry VIII, Philip II of Spain, Godfrey of Bouillon, House of Capet, House of Habsburg, House of Stuart, Macedonian dynasty and Phokas family claimed descent from Constantine. Geoffrey of Monmouth embroidered a tale that the legendary king of Britain, King Arthur, was also a descendant of Constantine. Constantine acquired a mythic role as a warrior against heathens. His reception as a saint seems to have spread within the Byzantine empire during wars against the Sasanian Persians and the Muslims in the late 6th and 7th century. The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name "Constantine" enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the 11th and 12th centuries. The Niš Constantine the Great Airport is named in honor of him. A large cross was planned to be built on a hill overlooking Niš, but the project was cancelled. In 2012, a memorial was erected in Niš in his honor. The *Commemoration of the Edict of Milan* was held in Niš in 2013. The Orthodox Church considers Constantine a saint (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος, Saint Constantine), having a feast day on 21 May, and calls him *isapostolos* (ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles. ### Historiography During Constantine's lifetime, Praxagoras of Athens and Libanius, pagan authors, showered Constantine with praise, presenting him as a paragon of virtue. His nephew and son-in-law Julian the Apostate, however, wrote the satire *Symposium, or the Saturnalia* in 361, after the last of his sons died; it denigrated Constantine, calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and given over to luxury and greed. Following Julian, Eunapius began – and Zosimus continued – a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the empire through his indulgence to the Christians. During the Middle Ages, European and Near-East Byzantine writers presented Constantine as an ideal ruler, the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured. The Renaissance rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a re-evaluation of his career. German humanist Johannes Leunclavius discovered Zosimus' writings and published a Latin translation in 1576. In its preface, he argues that Zosimus' picture of Constantine offered a more balanced view than that of Eusebius and the Church historians. Cardinal Caesar Baronius criticized Zosimus, favoring Eusebius' account of the Constantinian era. Baronius' *Life of Constantine* (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince. Edward Gibbon aimed to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship in his work *The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire* (1776–89) by contrasting the portraits presented by Eusebius and Zosimus. He presents a noble war hero who transforms into an Oriental despot in his old age, "degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch". Modern interpretations of Constantine's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt's *The Age of Constantine the Great* (1853, rev. 1880). Burckhardt's Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power. Henri Grégoire followed Burckhardt's evaluation of Constantine in the 1930s, suggesting that Constantine developed an interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political usefulness. Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius' *Vita*, and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work. Otto Seeck's *Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt* (1920–23) and André Piganiol's *L'empereur Constantin* (1932) go against this historiographic tradition. Seeck presents Constantine as a sincere war hero whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency. Piganiol's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era's religious syncretism. Related histories by Arnold Hugh Martin Jones (*Constantine and the Conversion of Europe*, 1949) and Ramsay MacMullen (*Constantine*, 1969) give portraits of a less visionary and more impulsive Constantine. These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity. Norman H. Baynes began a historiographic tradition with *Constantine the Great and the Christian Church* (1929) which presents Constantine as a committed Christian, reinforced by Andreas Alföldi's *The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome* (1948), and Timothy Barnes's *Constantine and Eusebius* (1981) is the culmination of this trend. Barnes' Constantine experienced a radical conversion which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire. Charles Matson Odahl's *Constantine and the Christian Empire* (2004) takes much the same tack. In spite of Barnes' work, arguments continue over the strength and depth of Constantine's religious conversion. Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T.G. Elliott's *The Christianity of Constantine the Great* (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood. Paul Veyne's 2007 work *Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien* holds a similar view which does not speculate on the origin of Constantine's Christian motivation, but presents him as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed that he was meant "to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity". ### Donation of Constantine Latin Rite Catholics considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptized only on his death bed by an unorthodox bishop, and a legend emerged by the early 4th century that Pope Sylvester I had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was baptized and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Basilica. The Donation of Constantine appeared in the 8th century, most likely during the pontificate of Pope Stephen II, in which the freshly converted Constantine gives "the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions" to Sylvester and his successors. In the High Middle Ages, this document was used and accepted as the basis for the pope's temporal power, though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by Dante Alighieri. Philologist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the document was indeed a forgery. ### Geoffrey of Monmouth's *Historia* During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd. While some of this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as emperor in Britain, there was also confusion of his family with Magnus Maximus's supposed wife Elen and her son, another Constantine (Welsh: *Custennin*). In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his *Historia Anglorum* that the Emperor Constantine's mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester. Geoffrey of Monmouth expanded this story in his highly fictionalized *Historia Regum Britanniae*, an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from their Trojan origins to the Anglo-Saxon invasion. According to Geoffrey, Cole was King of the Britons when Constantius, here a senator, came to Britain. Afraid of the Romans, Cole submits to Roman law so long as he retains his kingship. However, he dies only a month later, and Constantius takes the throne himself, marrying Cole's daughter Helena. They have their son Constantine, who succeeds his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman emperor. Historically, this series of events is extremely improbable. Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left for Britain. Additionally, no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a princess. Henry's source for the story is unknown, though it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena. Family tree ----------- | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Afranius Hannibalianus | | Eutropia | | MaximianWestern emperor | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Theodora | | | | | | | | | | | **Constantius I Chlorus**Western emperor250-305-306 | | | | | | Helena250–330 | | MaxentiusWestern emperor | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Constantia293–330∞ Licinius250-308-324-325 | | Flavius Dalmatiuscensor | | 1.Galla | | Julius Constantiusd. 337∞ 2.Basilina | | Anastasia | | Eutropia | | Fausta289–326 | | | | | | **Constantine I the Great**272-306-337 | | | | | | Minervina | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Dalmatiuscaesar | | Hannibalianus | | (1) Constantius Gallus | | (2) **Julian**331-360-363 | | Helenad. 360 | | Constantina∞ 1.Hannibalianus2.Constantius Gallus | | **Constantius II**317-337-361∞ Faustina | | **Constantine II**Western emperor316-337-340 | | **Constans I**Western emperor320-337-350 | | (daughter)∞ Justus | | Crispusd. 326 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **Jovian**331-363-364 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Marina Severa | | Valentinian IWestern emperorVALENTINIANIC DYNASTY | | Justina | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Constantia361–383 | | | | GratianWestern emperor359-367-383 | | Galla | | Theodosius IEastern emperorTHEODOSIAN DYNASTY | | | | | | | | Family of Constantine the Great | | --- | | Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti, names with a thicker border appear in both sections **1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings** | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | * Claudius Gothicus * 268–270 * *fabricated ancestry* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Julia Helena | | * Constantius I * 305–306 | | Maximiana Theodora | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | * **Constantine I** * 306–337 | | Flavius Dalmatius | | | Hannibalianus | | Flavia Julia Constantia | | * Licinius * 308–324 | | | Anastasia | | Bassianus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Galla | | Julius Constantius | | Basilina | | Licinius II | | Eutropia | | Virius Nepotianus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Hannibalianus | | Constantina | | Constantius Gallus | | * Julian * 360–363 | | Helena | | | | | | Nepotianus | | | | | **2: Constantine's children** | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Minervina | | * **Constantine I** * 306–337 | | Fausta | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Crispus | | * Constantine II * 337–340 | | | * Constans * 337–350 | | | Hannibalianus | | Constantina | | Constantius Gallus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Faustina | | * Constantius II * 337–361 | | Helena | | * Julian * 360–363 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | * Gratian * 367–383 | | Constantia | | | | See also -------- * Bronze colossus of Constantine * Colossus of Constantine * Life of Constantine * Fifty Bibles of Constantine * German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine * List of people known as the great References ---------- ### Sources #### Ancient sources * Athanasius of Alexandria. *Apologia contra Arianos* (*Defence against the Arians*) c. 349. + Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. *Apologia Contra Arianos*. 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Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Retrieved 28 September 2009. + *Oratio de Laudibus Constantini* (*Oration in Praise of Constantine*, sometimes the *Tricennial Oration*) 336. - Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. *Oration in Praise of Constantine*. From *Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers*, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Retrieved 16 August 2009. + *Vita Constantini* (*The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine*) c. 336–339. - Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. *Life of Constantine*. From *Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers*, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. 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"The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires". In Scheidel, ed., *Rome and China: Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-975835-7 * Seidel, Linda (1976). "Constantine 'and' Charlemagne". *Gesta*. **15** (1/2): 237–239. doi:10.2307/766771. JSTOR 766771. S2CID 193434433. * Southern, Pat. (2001). *The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine*. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23944-3. * Storch, Rudolph H. (1971). "The 'Eusebian Constantine'". *Church History*. **40** (2): 145–155. doi:10.2307/3162367. JSTOR 3162367. S2CID 162937055. * Treadgold, Warren (1997). *A History of the Byzantine State and Society*. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6. * Udoh, Fabian E. "Quand notre monde est devenu chretien", review, *Theological Studies*, June 2008 * Veyne, Paul. *L'Empire Gréco-Romain*, Paris: Seuil, 2005. ISBN 2-02-057798-4 * Veyne, Paul.*Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien*, Paris: Albin Michel, 2007. ISBN 978-2-226-17609-7 * Warmington, Brian. "Some Constantinian References in Ammianus." In *The Late Roman World and its Historian: Interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus*, edited by Jan Willem Drijvers and David Hunt, 166–177. London: Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0-415-20271-X * Weiss, Peter (2003). "The vision of Constantine". *Journal of Roman Archaeology*. **16**: 237–259. doi:10.1017/S1047759400013088. S2CID 162396067. * Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich (1994). "Libanius on Constantine". *The Classical Quarterly*. **44** (2): 511–524. doi:10.1017/S0009838800043962. S2CID 170876695. * Wienand, Johannes (2012). *Der Kaiser als Sieger*. doi:10.1524/9783050059044. ISBN 9783050059044. * Wienand, Johannes (ed.). *Contested Monarchy. Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD*. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015. * Williams, Stephen (1997). *Diocletian and the Roman Recovery*. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91827-8. * Woods, David (1998). "On the Death of the Empress Fausta". *Greece and Rome*. **45**: 70–86. doi:10.1093/gr/45.1.70. * Woods, D. (1997). "Where Did Constantine I Die?". *The Journal of Theological Studies*. **48** (2): 531–535. doi:10.1093/jts/48.2.531. * Wright, David H. (1987). "The True Face of Constantine the Great". *Dumbarton Oaks Papers*. **41**: 493–507. doi:10.2307/1291584. JSTOR 1291584. Further reading --------------- * Arjava, Antii. *Women and Law in Late Antiquity*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-815233-7 * Baynes, Norman H. (1930). *Constantine the Great and the Christian Church*. London: Milford. * Burckhardt, Jacob (1949). *The Age of Constantine the Great*. London: Routledge. * Cameron, Averil (1993). *The later Roman empire: AD 284–430*. London: Fontana Press. ISBN 978-0-00-686172-0. * Cowan, Ross (2016). *Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith*. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. * Eadie, John W., ed. (1971). *The conversion of Constantine*. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083645-9. * Fourlas, Benjamin (2020). "St Constantine and the Army of Heroic Men Raised by Tiberius II Constantine in 574/575. Some Thoughts on the Historical Significance of the Early Byzantine Silver Hoard at Karlsruhe". *Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums* 62, 2015 [published 2020], 341–375. doi:10.11588/jrgzm.2015.1.77142 * Harries, Jill. *Law and Empire in Late Antiquity*. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-41087-8 Paperback ISBN 0-521-42273-6 * Hartley, Elizabeth. *Constantine the Great: York's Roman Emperor*. York: Lund Humphries, 2004. ISBN 978-0-85331-928-3. * Heather, Peter J. "*Foedera* and *Foederati* of the Fourth Century." In *From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms*, edited by Thomas F.X. Noble, 292–308. New York: Routledge, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-32741-5 Paperback ISBN 0-415-32742-3 * Leithart, Peter J. Defending Constantine: The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom. Downers Grove: IL, InterVarsity Press 2010 * MacMullen, Ramsay. *Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400*. New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0-300-03642-8 * MacMullen, Ramsay. *Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries*. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-300-07148-5 * Percival J. On the Question of Constantine's Conversion to Christianity Archived 14 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Clio History Journal, 2008 * Pelikán, Jaroslav (1987). *The excellent empire: the fall of Rome and the triumph of the church*. San Francisco: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-254636-4. * Velikov, Yuliyan (2013). *Imperator et Sacerdos*. Veliko Turnovo University Press. ISBN 978-954-524-932-7 (in Bulgarian) | | | --- | | Constantine the Great **Constantinian dynasty** **Born:** 27 February 272  **Died:** 22 May 337 | | Regnal titles | | Preceded byConstantius Chlorus | **Roman emperor** 306–337 With: **Galerius, Severus II, Maxentius, Maximian, Licinius, Maximinus II, Valerius Valens & Martinian** | Succeeded byConstantine IIConstantius IIConstans | | Political offices | | Preceded byConstantius ChlorusGalerius | **Roman consul** 307*with Maximian* | Succeeded byDiocletianGalerius | | Preceded byGaleriusMaximinus | **Roman consul II–III** 312–313*with Licinius* *Maximinus* | Succeeded byC. Ceionius Rufius VolusianusPetronius Annianus | | Preceded byC. Ceionius Rufius VolusianusPetronius Annianus | **Roman consul IV** 315*with Licinius* | Succeeded byAntonius Caecina SabinusVettius Rufinus | | Preceded byLiciniusCrispus | **Roman consul V–VI** 319–320*with Licinius II* *Constantine II* | Succeeded byCrispusConstantine II | | Preceded bySex. Anicius PaulinusJulius Julianus | **Roman consul VII** 326*with Constantius II* | Succeeded byFlavius ConstantiusValerius Maximus | | Preceded byJanuarinusVettius Iustus | **Roman consul VIII** 329*with Constantine II* | Succeeded byGallicanusAurelius Valerius Symmachus Tullianus | | Legendary titles | | Preceded byConstantius Chlorus | **King of Britain** | Succeeded byOctavius |

Constantine the Great

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great

In mathematics, set *A* is a **subset** of a set *B* if all elements of *A* are also elements of *B*; *B* is then a **superset** of *A*. It is possible for *A* and *B* to be equal; if they are unequal, then *A* is a **proper subset** of *B*. The relationship of one set being a subset of another is called **inclusion** (or sometimes **containment**). *A* is a subset of *B* may also be expressed as *B* includes (or contains) *A* or *A* is included (or contained) in *B*. A ***k*-subset** is a subset with *k* elements. The subset relation defines a partial order on sets. In fact, the subsets of a given set form a Boolean algebra under the subset relation, in which the join and meet are given by intersection and union, and the subset relation itself is the Boolean inclusion relation. Definition ---------- If *A* and *B* are sets and every element of *A* is also an element of *B*, then: * *A* is a **subset** of *B*, denoted by A ⊆ B {\displaystyle A\subseteq B} A\subseteq B, or equivalently, * *B* is a **superset** of *A*, denoted by B ⊇ A . {\displaystyle B\supseteq A.} B\supseteq A. If *A* is a subset of *B*, but *A* is not equal to *B* (i.e. there exists at least one element of B which is not an element of *A*), then: * *A* is a **proper** (or **strict**) **subset** of *B*, denoted by A ⊊ B {\displaystyle A\subsetneq B} A\subsetneq B, or equivalently, * *B* is a **proper** (or **strict**) **superset** of *A*, denoted by B ⊋ A {\displaystyle B\supsetneq A} {\displaystyle B\supsetneq A}. The empty set, written { } {\displaystyle \{\}} {\displaystyle \{\}} or ∅ , {\displaystyle \varnothing ,} {\displaystyle \varnothing ,} is a subset of any set *X* and a proper subset of any set except itself, the inclusion relation ⊆ {\displaystyle \subseteq } \subseteq is a partial order on the set P ( S ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}(S)} {\mathcal {P}}(S) (the power set of *S*—the set of all subsets of *S*) defined by A ≤ B ⟺ A ⊆ B {\displaystyle A\leq B\iff A\subseteq B} {\displaystyle A\leq B\iff A\subseteq B}. We may also partially order P ( S ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}(S)} {\mathcal {P}}(S) by reverse set inclusion by defining A ≤ B  if and only if  B ⊆ A . {\displaystyle A\leq B{\text{ if and only if }}B\subseteq A.} {\displaystyle A\leq B{\text{ if and only if }}B\subseteq A.} When quantified, A ⊆ B {\displaystyle A\subseteq B} A\subseteq B is represented as ∀ x ( x ∈ A ⟹ x ∈ B ) . {\displaystyle \forall x\left(x\in A\implies x\in B\right).} {\displaystyle \forall x\left(x\in A\implies x\in B\right).} We can prove the statement A ⊆ B {\displaystyle A\subseteq B} A\subseteq B by applying a proof technique known as the element argument: > Let sets *A* and *B* be given. To prove that > > > > A > ⊆ > B > , > > > {\displaystyle A\subseteq B,} > > {\displaystyle A\subseteq B,} > > > 1. **suppose** that *a* is a particular but arbitrarily chosen element of A > 2. **show** that *a* is an element of *B*. > > > The validity of this technique can be seen as a consequence of Universal generalization: the technique shows c ∈ A ⟹ c ∈ B {\displaystyle c\in A\implies c\in B} {\displaystyle c\in A\implies c\in B} for an arbitrarily chosen element *c*. Universal generalisation then implies ∀ x ( x ∈ A ⟹ x ∈ B ) , {\displaystyle \forall x\left(x\in A\implies x\in B\right),} {\displaystyle \forall x\left(x\in A\implies x\in B\right),} which is equivalent to A ⊆ B , {\displaystyle A\subseteq B,} {\displaystyle A\subseteq B,} as stated above. The set of all subsets of A {\displaystyle A} A is called its powerset, and is denoted by P ( A ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}(A)} {\mathcal {P}}(A). The set of all k {\displaystyle k} k-subsets of A {\displaystyle A} A is denoted by ( A k ) {\displaystyle {\tbinom {A}{k}}} {\displaystyle {\tbinom {A}{k}}}, in analogue with the notation for binomial coefficients, which count the number of k {\displaystyle k} k-subsets of an n {\displaystyle n} n-element set. In set theory, the notation [ A ] k {\displaystyle [A]^{k}} {\displaystyle [A]^{k}} is also common, especially when k {\displaystyle k} k is a transfinite cardinal number. Properties ---------- * A set *A* is a **subset** of *B* if and only if their intersection is equal to A. Formally: A ⊆ B  if and only if  A ∩ B = A . {\displaystyle A\subseteq B{\text{ if and only if }}A\cap B=A.} {\displaystyle A\subseteq B{\text{ if and only if }}A\cap B=A.} * A set *A* is a **subset** of *B* if and only if their union is equal to B. Formally: A ⊆ B  if and only if  A ∪ B = B . {\displaystyle A\subseteq B{\text{ if and only if }}A\cup B=B.} {\displaystyle A\subseteq B{\text{ if and only if }}A\cup B=B.} * A **finite** set *A* is a **subset** of *B*, if and only if the cardinality of their intersection is equal to the cardinality of A. Formally: A ⊆ B  if and only if  | A ∩ B | = | A | . {\displaystyle A\subseteq B{\text{ if and only if }}|A\cap B|=|A|.} {\displaystyle A\subseteq B{\text{ if and only if }}|A\cap B|=|A|.} ⊂ and ⊃ symbols --------------- Some authors use the symbols ⊂ {\displaystyle \subset } \subset and ⊃ {\displaystyle \supset } \supset to indicate *subset* and *superset* respectively; that is, with the same meaning as and instead of the symbols ⊆ {\displaystyle \subseteq } \subseteq and ⊇ . {\displaystyle \supseteq .} {\displaystyle \supseteq .} For example, for these authors, it is true of every set *A* that A ⊂ A . {\displaystyle A\subset A.} {\displaystyle A\subset A.} Other authors prefer to use the symbols ⊂ {\displaystyle \subset } \subset and ⊃ {\displaystyle \supset } \supset to indicate *proper* (also called strict) subset and *proper* superset respectively; that is, with the same meaning as and instead of the symbols ⊊ {\displaystyle \subsetneq } \subsetneq and ⊋ . {\displaystyle \supsetneq .} {\displaystyle \supsetneq .} This usage makes ⊆ {\displaystyle \subseteq } \subseteq and ⊂ {\displaystyle \subset } \subset analogous to the inequality symbols ≤ {\displaystyle \leq } \leq and < . {\displaystyle <.} {\displaystyle <.} For example, if x ≤ y , {\displaystyle x\leq y,} {\displaystyle x\leq y,} then *x* may or may not equal *y*, but if x < y , {\displaystyle x<y,} {\displaystyle x<y,} then *x* definitely does not equal *y*, and *is* less than *y*. Similarly, using the convention that ⊂ {\displaystyle \subset } \subset is proper subset, if A ⊆ B , {\displaystyle A\subseteq B,} {\displaystyle A\subseteq B,} then *A* may or may not equal *B*, but if A ⊂ B , {\displaystyle A\subset B,} {\displaystyle A\subset B,} then *A* definitely does not equal *B*. Examples of subsets ------------------- * The set A = {1, 2} is a proper subset of B = {1, 2, 3}, thus both expressions A ⊆ B {\displaystyle A\subseteq B} A\subseteq B and A ⊊ B {\displaystyle A\subsetneq B} A\subsetneq B are true. * The set D = {1, 2, 3} is a subset (but *not* a proper subset) of E = {1, 2, 3}, thus D ⊆ E {\displaystyle D\subseteq E} {\displaystyle D\subseteq E} is true, and D ⊊ E {\displaystyle D\subsetneq E} {\displaystyle D\subsetneq E} is not true (false). * Any set is a subset of itself, but not a proper subset. ( X ⊆ X {\displaystyle X\subseteq X} {\displaystyle X\subseteq X} is true, and X ⊊ X {\displaystyle X\subsetneq X} {\displaystyle X\subsetneq X} is false for any set X.) * The set {*x*: *x* is a prime number greater than 10} is a proper subset of {*x*: *x* is an odd number greater than 10} * The set of natural numbers is a proper subset of the set of rational numbers; likewise, the set of points in a line segment is a proper subset of the set of points in a line. These are two examples in which both the subset and the whole set are infinite, and the subset has the same cardinality (the concept that corresponds to size, that is, the number of elements, of a finite set) as the whole; such cases can run counter to one's initial intuition. * The set of rational numbers is a proper subset of the set of real numbers. In this example, both sets are infinite, but the latter set has a larger cardinality (or *power*) than the former set. Another example in an Euler diagram: * A is a proper subset of B.A is a proper subset of B. * C is a subset but not a proper subset of B.C is a subset but not a proper subset of B. Other properties of inclusion ----------------------------- Inclusion is the canonical partial order, in the sense that every partially ordered set ( X , ⪯ ) {\displaystyle (X,\preceq )} {\displaystyle (X,\preceq )} is isomorphic to some collection of sets ordered by inclusion. The ordinal numbers are a simple example: if each ordinal *n* is identified with the set [ n ] {\displaystyle [n]} [n] of all ordinals less than or equal to *n*, then a ≤ b {\displaystyle a\leq b} a\leq b if and only if [ a ] ⊆ [ b ] . {\displaystyle [a]\subseteq [b].} {\displaystyle [a]\subseteq [b].} For the power set P ⁡ ( S ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {\mathcal {P}} (S)} {\displaystyle \operatorname {\mathcal {P}} (S)} of a set *S*, the inclusion partial order is—up to an order isomorphism—the Cartesian product of k = | S | {\displaystyle k=|S|} {\displaystyle k=|S|} (the cardinality of *S*) copies of the partial order on { 0 , 1 } {\displaystyle \{0,1\}} \{0,1\} for which 0 < 1. {\displaystyle 0<1.} {\displaystyle 0<1.} This can be illustrated by enumerating S = { s 1 , s 2 , … , s k } , {\displaystyle S=\left\{s\_{1},s\_{2},\ldots ,s\_{k}\right\},} {\displaystyle S=\left\{s_{1},s_{2},\ldots ,s_{k}\right\},}, and associating with each subset T ⊆ S {\displaystyle T\subseteq S} {\displaystyle T\subseteq S} (i.e., each element of 2 S {\displaystyle 2^{S}} 2^{S}) the *k*-tuple from { 0 , 1 } k , {\displaystyle \{0,1\}^{k},} {\displaystyle \{0,1\}^{k},} of which the *i*th coordinate is 1 if and only if s i {\displaystyle s\_{i}} s_{i} is a member of *T*. See also -------- * Convex subset * Inclusion order * Region * Subset sum problem * Subsumptive containment * Total subset

Subset

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subset

The **afterlife** or **life after death** is a purported existence in which the essential part of an individual's stream of consciousness or identity continues to exist after the death of their physical body. The surviving essential aspect varies between belief systems; it may be some partial element, or the entire soul or spirit, which carries with it one's personal identity. Belief in an afterlife is in contrast to the belief in oblivion after death. In some views, this continued existence takes place in a spiritual realm, while in others, the individual may be reborn into this world and begin the life cycle over again, likely with no memory of what they have done in the past. In this latter view, such rebirths and deaths may take place over and over again continuously until the individual gains entry to a spiritual realm or otherworld. Major views on the afterlife derive from religion, esotericism and metaphysics. Some belief systems, such as those in the Abrahamic tradition, hold that the dead go to a specific place (e.g. Paradise) after death, as determined by God, based on their actions and beliefs during life. In contrast, in systems of reincarnation, such as those in the Indian religions, the nature of the continued existence is determined directly by the actions of the individual in the ended life. Different metaphysical models ----------------------------- Theist immortalists generally believe some afterlife awaits people when they die. Members of some generally non-theistic religions believe in an afterlife without reference to a deity. The Sadducees were an ancient Jewish sect that generally believed that there was a God but no existence after death. Many religions, whether they believe in the soul's existence in another world like Christianity, Islam, and many pagan belief systems, or reincarnation like many forms of Hinduism and Buddhism, believe that one's status in the afterlife is a consequence of one's conduct during life. ### Reincarnation Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each death. This concept is also known as rebirth or transmigration and is part of the Saṃsāra/karma doctrine of cyclic existence. Samsara refers to the process in which souls (jivas) go through a sequence of human and animal forms. Traditional Hinduism and Buddhism teach that each life helps the soul (jivas) learn until the soul becomes purified to the point of enlightenment (unity with the cosmos). It is a central tenet of all major Indian religions, namely Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The human idea of reincarnation is found in many diverse ancient cultures, and a belief in rebirth/metempsychosis was held by historic Greek figures, such as Pythagoras and Plato. It is also a common belief of various ancient and modern religions such as Spiritism, theosophy, and Eckankar. It is found as well in many tribal societies around the world, in places such as Australia, East Asia, Siberia, and South America. Although the majority of denominations within the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not believe that individuals reincarnate, particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers of Kabbalah, the Cathars, Alawites, the Druze, and the Rosicrucians. The historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic of neoplatonism, Orphism, Hermeticism, Manicheanism, and Gnosticism of the Roman era as well as the Indian religions have been the subject of recent scholarly research. Unity Church and its founder Charles Fillmore teach reincarnation. Rosicrucians speak of a life review period occurring immediately after death and before entering the afterlife's planes of existence (before the silver cord is broken), followed by a judgment, more akin to a final review or end report over one's life. ### Heaven and Hell Heaven, the heavens, seven heavens, pure lands, Tian, Jannah, Valhalla, or the Summerland, is a common religious, cosmological, or transcendent place where beings such as gods, angels, jinn, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or live. According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to earth or incarnate, and earthly beings can ascend to heaven in the afterlife, or in exceptional cases, enter heaven alive. Heaven is often described as a "higher place", the holiest place, a paradise, in contrast to hell or the underworld or the "low places", and universally or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity, goodness, piety, faith or other virtues or right beliefs or the will of God. Some believe in the possibility of a heaven on Earth in a world to come. In Hinduism, heaven is considered as *Svarga loka*. There are seven positive regions the soul can go to after death and seven negative regions. After completing its stay in the respective region, the soul is subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its *karma*. This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves *Moksha* or *Nirvana*. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (heaven, hell, or other) is referred to as otherworld. Hell, in many religious and folkloric traditions, is a place of torment and punishment in the afterlife. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hell as an eternal destination, while religions with a cyclic history often depict a hell as an intermediary period between incarnations. Typically, these traditions locate hell in another dimension or under the Earth's surface and often include entrances to hell from the land of the living. Other afterlife destinations include purgatory and limbo. Traditions that do not conceive of the afterlife as a place of punishment or reward merely describe hell as an abode of the dead, the grave, a neutral place (for example, Sheol or Hades) located under the surface of Earth. Ancient religions ----------------- ### Ancient Egyptian religion The afterlife played an important role in Ancient Egyptian religion, and its belief system is one of the earliest known in recorded history. When the body died, parts of its soul known as *ka* (body double) and the *ba* (personality) would go to the Kingdom of the Dead. While the soul dwelt in the Fields of Aaru, Osiris demanded work as restitution for the protection he provided. Statues were placed in the tombs to serve as substitutes for the deceased. Arriving at one's reward in afterlife was a demanding ordeal, requiring a sin-free heart and the ability to recite the spells, passwords, and formulae of the Book of the Dead. In the Hall of Two Truths, the deceased's heart was weighed against the *Shu* feather of truth and justice taken from the headdress of the goddess Ma'at. If the heart was lighter than the feather, they could pass on, but if it were heavier they would be devoured by the demon Ammit. Egyptians also believed that being mummified and put in a sarcophagus (an ancient Egyptian "coffin" carved with complex symbols and designs, as well as pictures and hieroglyphs) was the only way to have an afterlife. What are referred to as the Coffin Texts, are inscribed on a coffin and serve as a guide for the challenges in the afterlife. The Coffin texts are more or less a duplication of the Pyramid Texts, which would serve as a guide for Egyptian pharaohs or queens in the afterlife. Only if the corpse had been properly embalmed and entombed in a mastaba, could the dead live again in the Fields of Yalu and accompany the Sun on its daily ride. Due to the dangers the afterlife posed, the Book of the Dead was placed in the tomb with the body as well as food, jewelry, and 'curses'. They also used the "opening of the mouth". Ancient Egyptian civilization was based on religion. The belief in the rebirth after death became the driving force behind funeral practices; for them, death was a temporary interruption rather than complete cessation of life. Eternal life could be ensured by means like piety to the gods, preservation of the physical form through mummification, and the provision of statuary and other funerary equipment. Each human consisted of the physical body, the *ka*, the *ba*, and the *akh*. The Name and Shadow were also living entities. To enjoy the afterlife, all these elements had to be sustained and protected from harm. On 30 March 2010, a spokesman for the Egyptian Culture Ministry claimed it had unearthed a large red granite door in Luxor with inscriptions by User, a powerful adviser to the 18th Dynasty Queen Hatshepsut who ruled between 1479 BC and 1458 BC, the longest of any woman. It believes the false door is a 'door to the Afterlife'. According to the archaeologists, the door was reused in a structure in Roman Egypt. ### Ancient Greek and Roman religions The Greek god Hades is known in Greek mythology as the king of the underworld, a place where souls live after death. The Greek god Hermes, the messenger of the gods, would take the dead soul of a person to the underworld (sometimes called Hades or the House of Hades). Hermes would leave the soul on the banks of the River Styx, the river between life and death. Charon, also known as the ferry-man, would take the soul across the river to Hades, if the soul had gold: Upon burial, the family of the dead soul would put coins under the deceased's tongue. Once crossed, the soul would be judged by Aeacus, Rhadamanthus and King Minos. The soul would be sent to Elysium, Tartarus, or Asphodel Fields. The Elysian Fields were for the ones that lived pure lives. It consisted of green fields, valleys and mountains, everyone there was peaceful and contented, and the Sun always shone there. Tartarus was for the people that blasphemed against the gods or were rebellious and consciously evil. In Tartarus, the soul would be punished by being burned in lava or stretched on racks. The Asphodel Fields were for a varied selection of human souls including those whose sins equaled their goodness, those who were indecisive in their lives, and those who were not judged. Some heroes of Greek legend are allowed to visit the underworld. The Romans had a similar belief system about the afterlife, with Hades becoming known as Pluto. In the ancient Greek myth about the Labours of Heracles, the hero Heracles had to travel to the underworld to capture Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog, as one of his tasks. In *Dream of Scipio*, Cicero describes what seems to be an out of body experience, of the soul traveling high above the Earth, looking down at the small planet, from far away. In Book VI of Virgil's *Aeneid*, the hero, Aeneas, travels to the underworld to see his father. By the River Styx, he sees the souls of those not given a proper burial, forced to wait by the river until someone buries them. While down there, along with the dead, he is shown the place where the wrongly convicted reside, the fields of sorrow where those who committed suicide and now regret it reside, including Aeneas' former lover, the warriors and shades, Tartarus (where the titans and powerful non-mortal enemies of the Olympians reside) where he can hear the groans of the imprisoned, the palace of Pluto, and the fields of Elysium where the descendants of the divine and bravest heroes reside. He sees the river of forgetfulness, Lethe, which the dead must drink to forget their life and begin anew. Lastly, his father shows him all of the future heroes of Rome who will live if Aeneas fulfills his destiny in founding the city. Other eschatological views populate the ancient-Greek worldview. For instance, Plato argued for reincarnation in several dialogues, including the *Timaeus*. ### Norse religion The Poetic and Prose Eddas, the oldest sources for information on the Norse concept of the afterlife, vary in their description of the several realms that are described as falling under this topic. The most well-known are: * Valhalla: (lit. "Hall of the Slain" i.e. "the Chosen Ones") Half the warriors who die in battle join the god Odin who rules over a majestic hall called Valhalla in Asgard. * Fólkvangr: (lit. "Field of the Host") The other half join the goddess Freyja in a great meadow known as Fólkvangr. * Hel: (lit. "The Covered Hall").Hel was the daughter of god loki and her kingdom was located in downward and northward. Contrary to popular belief, Hel itself isn't a "bad" place but it is instead a kind of weird immitation of life. * Niflhel: (lit. "The Dark" or "Misty Hel"). Niflhel is believed to be a place of punishment, where the oathbreakers and other wicked people go. Abrahamic religions ------------------- ### Judaism #### Sheol Sheol, in the Hebrew Bible, is a place of darkness (Job x. 21, 22) to which all the dead go, both the righteous and the unrighteous, regardless of the moral choices made in life, (Gen. xxxvii. 36; Ezek. xxxii.; Isa. xiv.; Job xxx. 23), a place of stillness, (Ps. lxxxviii. 13, xciv. 17; Eccl. ix. 10), at the longest possible distance from heaven (Job xi. 8; Amos ix. 2; Ps. cxxxix. 8). The inhabitants of Sheol were the "shades" (*rephaim*), entities without personality or strength. Under some circumstances they were thought to be able to be contacted by the living, as the Witch of Endor contacts the shade of Samuel for Saul, but such practices were forbidden (Deuteronomy 18:10). While the Hebrew Bible appears to describe Sheol as the permanent place of the dead, in the Second Temple period (roughly 500 BC – 70 AD) a more diverse set of ideas developed. In some texts, Sheol is considered to be the home of both the righteous and the wicked, separated into respective compartments; in others, it was considered a place of punishment, meant for the wicked dead alone. When the Hebrew scriptures were translated into Greek in ancient Alexandria around 200 BC, the word "Hades" (the Greek underworld) was substituted for Sheol. This is reflected in the New Testament where Hades is both the underworld of the dead and the personification of the evil it represents. #### World to Come The Talmud offers a number of thoughts relating to the afterlife. After death, the soul is brought for judgment. Those who have led pristine lives enter immediately into the *Olam Haba* or world to come. Most do not enter the world to come immediately, but experience a period of reflection of their earthly actions and are made aware of what they have done wrong. Some view this period as being a "re-schooling", with the soul gaining wisdom as one's errors are reviewed. Others view this period to include spiritual discomfort for past wrongs. At the end of this period, not longer than one year, the soul then takes its place in the world to come. Although discomforts are made part of certain Jewish conceptions of the afterlife, the concept of eternal damnation is not a tenet of the Jewish afterlife. According to the Talmud, extinction of the soul is reserved for a far smaller group of malicious and evil leaders, either whose very evil deeds go way beyond norms, or who lead large groups of people to utmost evil. This is also part of Maimonides' 13 principles of faith. Maimonides describes the *Olam Haba* in spiritual terms, relegating the prophesied physical resurrection to the status of a future miracle, unrelated to the afterlife or the Messianic era. According to Maimonides, an afterlife continues for the soul of every human being, a soul now separated from the body in which it was "housed" during its earthly existence. The Zohar describes Gehenna not as a place of punishment for the wicked but as a place of spiritual purification for souls. #### Reincarnation in Jewish tradition Although there is no reference to reincarnation in the Talmud or any prior writings, according to rabbis such as Avraham Arieh Trugman, reincarnation is recognized as being part and parcel of Jewish tradition. Trugman explains that it is through oral tradition that the meanings of the Torah, its commandments and stories, are known and understood. The classic work of Jewish mysticism, the Zohar, is quoted liberally in all Jewish learning; in the Zohar the idea of reincarnation is mentioned repeatedly. Trugman states that in the last five centuries the concept of reincarnation, which until then had been a much hidden tradition within Judaism, was given open exposure. Shraga Simmons commented that within the Bible itself, the idea [of reincarnation] is intimated in Deut. 25:5–10, Deut. 33:6 and Isaiah 22:14, 65:6. Yirmiyahu Ullman wrote that reincarnation is an "ancient, mainstream belief in Judaism". The Zohar makes frequent and lengthy references to reincarnation. Onkelos, a righteous convert and authoritative commentator of the same period, explained the verse, "Let Reuben live and not die ..." (Deuteronomy 33:6) to mean that Reuben should merit the World to Come directly, and not have to die again as a result of being reincarnated. Torah scholar, commentator and kabbalist, Nachmanides (Ramban 1195–1270), attributed Job's suffering to reincarnation, as hinted in Job's saying "God does all these things twice or three times with a man, to bring back his soul from the pit to... the light of the living' (Job 33:29, 30)." Reincarnation, called *gilgul*, became popular in folk belief, and is found in much Yiddish literature among Ashkenazi Jews. Among a few kabbalists, it was posited that some human souls could end up being reincarnated into non-human bodies. These ideas were found in a number of Kabbalistic works from the 13th century, and also among many mystics in the late 16th century. Martin Buber's early collection of stories of the Baal Shem Tov's life includes several that refer to people reincarnating in successive lives. Among well known (generally non-kabbalist or anti-kabbalist) rabbis who rejected the idea of reincarnation are Saadia Gaon, David Kimhi, Hasdai Crescas, Yedayah Bedershi (early 14th century), Joseph Albo, Abraham ibn Daud, the Rosh and Leon de Modena. Saadia Gaon, in Emunoth ve-Deoth (Hebrew: "beliefs and opinions") concludes Section VI with a refutation of the doctrine of metempsychosis (reincarnation). While rebutting reincarnation, Saadia Gaon further states that Jews who hold to reincarnation have adopted non-Jewish beliefs. By no means do all Jews today believe in reincarnation, but belief in reincarnation is not uncommon among many Jews, including Orthodox. Other well-known rabbis who are reincarnationists include Yonassan Gershom, Abraham Isaac Kook, Talmud scholar Adin Steinsaltz, DovBer Pinson, David M. Wexelman, Zalman Schachter, and many others. Reincarnation is cited by authoritative biblical commentators, including Ramban (Nachmanides), Menachem Recanti and Rabbenu Bachya. Among the many volumes of Yitzchak Luria, most of which come down from the pen of his primary disciple, Chaim Vital, are insights explaining issues related to reincarnation. His *Shaar HaGilgulim*, "The Gates of Reincarnation", is a book devoted exclusively to the subject of reincarnation in Judaism. Rabbi Naftali Silberberg of The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute notes that "Many ideas that originate in other religions and belief systems have been popularized in the media and are taken for granted by unassuming Jews." ### Christianity Mainstream Christianity professes belief in the Nicene Creed, and English versions of the Nicene Creed in current use include the phrase: "We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come." When questioned by the Sadducees about the resurrection of the dead (in a context relating to who one's spouse would be if one had been married several times in life), Jesus said that marriage will be irrelevant after the resurrection as the resurrected will be like the angels in heaven. Jesus also maintained that the time would come when the dead would hear the voice of the Son of God, and all who were in the tombs would come out; those who have heard His "[commandments] and believes in the one who sent [Him]" to the resurrection of life, but those who do not to the resurrection of condemnation. The Book of Enoch describes Sheol as divided into four compartments for four types of the dead: the faithful saints who await resurrection in Paradise, the merely virtuous who await their reward, the wicked who await punishment, and the wicked who have already been punished and will not be resurrected on Judgment Day. The Book of Enoch is considered apocryphal by most denominations of Christianity and all denominations of Judaism. The book of 2 Maccabees gives a clear account of the dead awaiting a future resurrection and judgment in addition to prayers and offerings for the dead to remove the burden of sin. The author of Luke recounts the story of Lazarus and the rich man, which shows people in Hades awaiting the resurrection either in comfort or torment. The author of the Book of Revelation writes about God and the angels versus Satan and demons in an epic battle at the end of times when all souls are judged. There is mention of ghostly bodies of past prophets, and the transfiguration. The non-canonical Acts of Paul and Thecla speak of the efficacy of prayer for the dead so that they might be "translated to a state of happiness". Hippolytus of Rome pictures the underworld (Hades) as a place where the righteous dead, awaiting in the bosom of Abraham their resurrection, rejoice at their future prospect, while the unrighteous are tormented at the sight of the "lake of unquenchable fire" into which they are destined to be cast. Gregory of Nyssa discusses the long-before believed possibility of purification of souls after death. Pope Gregory I repeats the concept, articulated over a century earlier by Gregory of Nyssa that the saved suffer purification after death, in connection with which he wrote of "purgatorial flames". The noun "purgatorium" (Latin: place of cleansing) is used for the first time to describe a state of painful purification of the saved after life. The same word in adjectival form (*purgatorius -a -um*, cleansing), which appears also in non-religious writing, was already used by Christians such as Augustine of Hippo and Pope Gregory I to refer to an after-death cleansing. During the Age of Enlightenment, theologians and philosophers presented various philosophies and beliefs. A notable example is Emanuel Swedenborg who wrote some 18 theological works which describe in detail the nature of the afterlife according to his claimed spiritual experiences, the most famous of which is *Heaven and Hell*. His report of life there covers a wide range of topics, such as marriage in heaven (where all angels are married), children in heaven (where they are raised by angel parents), time and space in heaven (there are none), the after-death awakening process in the World of Spirits (a place halfway between Heaven and Hell and where people first wake up after death), the allowance of a free will choice between Heaven or Hell (as opposed to being sent to either one by God), the eternity of Hell (one could leave but would never want to), and that all angels or devils were once people on earth. #### The Catholic Church The Catholic conception of the afterlife teaches that after the body dies, the soul is judged, the righteous and free of sin enter Heaven. However, those who die in unrepented mortal sin go to hell. In the 1990s, the Catechism of the Catholic Church defined hell not as punishment imposed on the sinner but rather as the sinner's self-exclusion from God. Unlike other Christian groups, the Catholic Church teaches that those who die in a state of grace, but still carry venial sin, go to a place called Purgatory where they undergo purification to enter Heaven. #### Limbo Despite popular opinion, Limbo, which was elaborated upon by theologians beginning in the Middle Ages, was never recognized as a dogma of the Catholic Church, yet, at times, it has been a very popular theological theory within the Church. Limbo is a theory that unbaptized but innocent souls, such as those of infants, virtuous individuals who lived before Jesus Christ was born on earth, or those that die before baptism exist in neither Heaven nor Hell proper. Therefore, these souls neither merit the beatific vision, nor are subjected to any punishment, because they are not guilty of any personal sin although they have not received baptism, so still bear original sin. So they are generally seen as existing in a state of natural, but not supernatural, happiness, until the end of time. In other Christian denominations it has been described as an intermediate place or state of confinement in oblivion and neglect. #### Purgatory The notion of purgatory is associated particularly with the Catholic Church. In the Catholic Church, all those who die in God's grace and friendship, but still imperfectly purified, are indeed assured of their eternal salvation; but after death they undergo purification, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven or the final purification of the elect, which is entirely different from the punishment of the damned. The tradition of the church, by reference to certain texts of scripture, speaks of a "cleansing fire" although it is not always called purgatory. Anglicans of the Anglo-Catholic tradition generally also hold to the belief. John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, believed in an intermediate state between death and the resurrection of the dead and in the possibility of "continuing to grow in holiness there", but Methodism does not officially affirm this belief and denies the possibility of helping by prayer any who may be in that state. #### Orthodox Christianity The Orthodox Church is intentionally reticent on the afterlife, as it acknowledges the mystery especially of things that have not yet occurred. Beyond the second coming of Jesus, bodily resurrection, and final judgment, all of which is affirmed in the Nicene Creed (325 CE), Orthodoxy does not teach much else in any definitive manner. Unlike Western forms of Christianity, however, Orthodoxy is traditionally non-dualist and does not teach that there are two separate literal locations of heaven and hell, but instead acknowledges that "the 'location' of one's final destiny—heaven or hell—as being figurative." Instead, Orthodoxy teaches that the final judgment is one's uniform encounter with divine love and mercy, but this encounter is experienced multifariously depending on the extent to which one has been transformed, partaken of divinity, and is therefore compatible or incompatible with God. "The monadic, immutable, and ceaseless object of eschatological encounter is therefore the love and mercy of God, his glory which infuses the heavenly temple, and it is the subjective human reaction which engenders multiplicity or any division of experience." For instance, St. Isaac the Syrian observes in his *Ascetical Homilies* that "those who are punished in Gehenna, are scourged by the scourge of love. ... The power of love works in two ways: it torments sinners ... [as] bitter regret. But love inebriates the souls of the sons of Heaven by its delectability." In this sense, the divine action is always, immutably, and uniformly love and if one experiences this love negatively, the experience is then one of self-condemnation because of free will rather than condemnation by God. Orthodoxy therefore uses the description of Jesus' judgment in John 3:19–21 as their model: "19 And this is the judgment: the light has come into the world, and people loved the darkness rather than the light because their works were evil. 20 For everyone who does wicked things hates the light and does not come to the light, lest his works should be exposed. 21 But whoever does what is true comes to the light, so that it may be clearly seen that his works have been carried out in God." As a characteristically Orthodox understanding, then, Fr. Thomas Hopko writes, "[I]t is precisely the presence of God's mercy and love which cause the torment of the wicked. God does not punish; he forgives... . In a word, God has mercy on all, whether all like it or not. If we like it, it is paradise; if we do not, it is hell. Every knee will bend before the Lord. Everything will be subject to Him. God in Christ will indeed be "all and in all," with boundless mercy and unconditional pardon. But not all will rejoice in God's gift of forgiveness, and that choice will be judgment, the self-inflicted source of their sorrow and pain." Moreover, Orthodoxy includes a prevalent tradition of *apokatastasis*, or the restoration of all things in the end. This has been taught most notably by Origen, but also many other Church fathers and Saints, including Gregory of Nyssa. The Second Council of Constantinople (553 CE) affirmed the orthodoxy of Gregory of Nyssa while simultaneously condemning Origen's brand of universalism because it taught the restoration back to our pre-existent state, which Orthodoxy doesn't teach. It is also a teaching of such eminent Orthodox theologians as Olivier Clément, Metropolitan Kallistos Ware, and Bishop Hilarion Alfeyev. Although apokatastasis is not a dogma of the church but instead a theologoumenon, it is no less a teaching of the Orthodox Church than its rejection. As Met. Kallistos Ware explains, "It is heretical to say that all must be saved, for this is to deny free will; but, it is legitimate to hope that all may be saved," as insisting on torment without end also denies free will. #### The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Plan of Salvation in LDS Religion Joseph F. Smith of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints presents an elaborate vision of the afterlife. It is revealed as the scene of an extensive missionary effort by righteous spirits in paradise to redeem those still in darkness—a spirit prison or "hell" where the spirits of the dead remain until judgment. It is divided into two parts: Spirit Prison and Paradise. Together these are also known as the Spirit World (also Abraham's Bosom; see Luke 16:19–25). They believe that Christ visited spirit prison (1 Peter 3:18–20) and opened the gate for those who repent to cross over to Paradise. This is similar to the Harrowing of Hell doctrine of some mainstream Christian faiths. Both Spirit Prison and Paradise are temporary according to Latter-day Saint beliefs. After the resurrection, spirits are assigned "permanently" to three degrees of heavenly glory, determined by how they lived – Celestial, Terrestrial, and Telestial. (1 Cor 15:44–42; Doctrine and Covenants, Section 76) Sons of Perdition, or those who have known and seen God and deny it, will be sent to the realm of Satan, which is called Outer Darkness, where they shall live in misery and agony forever. However, according to the beliefs of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, most persons lack the amount of knowledge to commit the Eternal sin and are therefore incapable of becoming sons of perdition. The Celestial Kingdom is believed to be a place where the righteous can live eternally with their families. Progression does not end once one has entered the Celestial Kingdom, but extends eternally. According to "True to the Faith" (a handbook on doctrines in the LDS faith), "The celestial kingdom is the place prepared for those who have "received the testimony of Jesus" and been "made perfect through Jesus the mediator of the new covenant, who wrought out this perfect atonement through the shedding of his own blood" (Doctrine and Covenants, 76:51, 69). To inherit this gift, we must receive the ordinances of salvation, keep the commandments, and repent of our sins." #### Jehovah's Witnesses Jehovah's Witnesses occasionally use terms such as "afterlife" to refer to any hope for the dead, but they understand Ecclesiastes 9:5 to preclude belief in an immortal soul. Individuals judged by God to be wicked, such as in the Great Flood or at Armageddon, are given no hope of an afterlife. However, they believe that after Armageddon there will be a bodily resurrection of "both righteous and unrighteous" dead (but not the "wicked"). Survivors of Armageddon and those who are resurrected are then to gradually restore earth to a paradise. After Armageddon, unrepentant sinners are punished with eternal death (non-existence). #### Seventh-day Adventists The Seventh-day Adventist Church's beliefs regarding the afterlife differ from other Christian churches. Rather than ascend to Heaven or descend to Hell, Adventists believe the dead "remain unconscious until the return of Christ in judgement". The concept that the dead remain dead until resurrection is one of the fundamental beliefs of Seventh-day Adventism. Adventists believe that death is an unconscious state (a "sleep"). This is based on Matt. 9:24; Mark 5:39; John 11:11-14; 1 Cor. 15:51, 52; 1 Thess. 4:13-17; 2 Peter 3:4; Eccl. 9:5, 6, 10. At death, all consciousness ends. The dead person does not know anything and does not do anything. They believe that death is a decreation, or an undoing of what was created. This is described in Ecclesiastes 12:7: "When a person dies, the body turns to dust again, and the spirit goes back to God, who gave it." The spirit of every person who dies—whether saved or unsaved—returns to God at death. The spirit that returns to God at death is the breath of life. ### Islam The Quran (the holy book of Islam), emphasizes the insignificance of worldly life (*ḥayāt ad-dunyā* usually translated as "this world") vis-a-vis the hereafter. A central doctrine of Islamic faith is the Last Day (*al-yawm al-ākhir*, also known by other names), on which the world will come to an end and God will raise all mankind (as well as the *jinn*) from the dead and evaluate their worldly actions. The resurrected will be judged according to their deeds, records of which are kept on two books compiled for every human being—one for their good deeds and one for their evil ones. Having been judged, the resurrected will cross the bridge of As-Sirāt over the pit of hell; when the condemned attempt to they will be made to fall off into hellfire below; while the righteous will have no trouble and continue on to their eternal abode of heaven. Afterlife in Islam actually begins before the Last Day. After death, humans will be questioned about their faith by two angels, Munkar and Nakīr. Those who die as martyrs go immediately to paradise. Others who have died and been buried, will receive a taste of their eternal reward from the *al-qabr* or "the grave" (compare the Jewish concept of Sheol). Those bound for hell will suffer "punishment of the grave", while those bound for heaven will find the grave "peaceful and blessed". Islamic scripture — the Quran and hadith (reports of the words and deeds of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad who is believed to have visited heaven and hell during his Isra and Mi'raj journey) -- give vivid descriptions of the pleasures of paradise (Jannah) and sufferings of hell (*Jahannam*). The gardens of jannah have cool shade [Quran 36:56-57] adorned couchs and cushions [ 18:31] rich carpets spread out, cups [ 88:10-16] full of wine [ 52:23] and every meat [ 52:22] and fruit [ 36:56-57]. Men will be provided with perpetually youthful, beautiful *ḥūr*, "untouched beforehand by man or jinn", [ 55:56] with large, beautiful eyes [ 37:48]. (In recent years some have argued that the term *ḥūr* refers both to pure men and pure women, and/or that Quranic references to "immortal boys" ( 56:17, 76:19) or "young men" ( 52:24) (*ghilmān*, *wildān*, and *suqāh*) who serve wine and meals to the blessed, are the male equivalents of hur.) In contrast, those in Jahannam will dwell in a land infested with thousands of serpents and scorpions; be "burnt" by "scorching fire" [ 88:1-7] and when "their skins are roasted through, We shall change them for fresh skins" to repeat the process forever [ 4:56]; they will have nothing to drink but "boiling water and running sores" [ 78:21-30]; their cries of remorse and pleading for forgiveness will be in vain [ 26:96-106]. Traditionally *jannah* and *jahannam* are thought to have different levels. Eight gates and eight levels in *Jannah*, where the higher the level the better it is and the happier you are. *Jahannam* possess seven layers. Each layer more horrible than the one above. The Quran teaches that the purpose of Man's creation is to worship God and God alone. Those it describes as being punished in hell are "most typically", unbelievers, including those who worship others besides Allah [ 10:24], those who deny the divine origin of the Quran [ 74:16-26], or the coming of Judgement Day [ 25:11-14]. Straightforward crimes/sins against other people are also grounds for going to hell: the murder of a believer [ 4:93] [ 3:21], usury (Q.2:275) [ 2:275], devouring the property of an orphan [ 4:10], slander [Quran 104:], particularly of a chaste woman [ 24:23]. However it is a common belief among Muslims that whatever crimes/sins Muslims may have committed, their punishment in hell will be temporary. Only unbelievers will reside in hell permanently. Thus Jahannam combines both the concept of an eternal hell (for unbelievers), and what is known in Christian Catholicism as purgatory (for believers eventually destined for heaven after punishment for their sins). The common belief holds that *Jahannam* coexists with the temporal world. Mainstream Islam teaches the continued existence of the soul and a transformed physical existence after death. The resurrection that will take place on the Last Day is physical, and is explained by suggesting that God will re-create the decayed body ("Have they not realized that Allah, Who created the heavens and the earth, can ˹easily˺ re-create them?" [ 17:99]). #### Ahmadiyya Ahmadi Muslims believe that the afterlife is not material but of a spiritual nature. According to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, founder of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on this earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth. On earth, if a person leads a righteous life and submits to the will of God, his or her tastes become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires. With this, an "embryonic soul" begins to take shape. Different tastes are said to be born which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment. For example, sacrifice of one's own rights over that of others becomes enjoyable, or that forgiveness becomes second nature. In such a state a person finds contentment and peace at heart and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape. #### Sufism The Sufi Muslim scholar Ibn 'Arabi defined Barzakh as the intermediate realm or "isthmus". It is between the world of corporeal bodies and the world of spirits, and is a means of contact between the two worlds. Without it, there would be no contact between the two and both would cease to exist. He described it as simple and luminous, like the world of spirits, but also able to take on many different forms just like the world of corporeal bodies can. In broader terms Barzakh, "is anything that separates two things". It has been called the dream world in which the dreamer is in both life and death. ### Baháʼí Faith The teachings of the Baháʼí Faith state that the nature of the afterlife is beyond the understanding of those living, just as an unborn fetus cannot understand the nature of the world outside of the womb. The Baháʼí writings state that the soul is immortal and after death it will continue to progress until it finally attains God's presence. In Baháʼí belief, souls in the afterlife will continue to retain their individuality and consciousness and will be able to recognize and communicate spiritually with other souls whom they have made deep profound friendships with, such as their spouses. The Baháʼí scriptures also state there are distinctions between souls in the afterlife, and that souls will recognize the worth of their own deeds and understand the consequences of their actions. It is explained that those souls that have turned toward God will experience gladness, while those who have lived in error will become aware of the opportunities they have lost. Also, in the Baháʼí view, souls will be able to recognize the accomplishments of the souls that have reached the same level as themselves, but not those that have achieved a rank higher than them. Indian religions ---------------- Early Indian religions were characterized by the belief in an afterlife, Ancestor worship, and related rites. These concepts started to significantly change after the period of the Upanishads. ### Buddhism Afterlife in Buddhism is complex, consisting of an intermediated spirit world, the six realms of existence, and the Pure land after achieving enlightenment. Ancestor worship, and links to one's ancestors was once an important component of early Buddhism, but became less relevant already before the formation of the different Buddhist streams. The concepts and importance of afterlife vary among modern Buddhist teachings. Buddhists maintain that rebirth takes place without an unchanging self or soul passing from one form to another. The type of rebirth will be conditioned by the moral tone of the person's actions (kamma or karma). For example, if a person has committed harmful actions by body, speech and mind based on greed, hate and delusion, would have his/her rebirth in a lower realm, i.e. an animal, a hungry ghost or a hell realm, is to be expected. On the other hand, where a person has performed skillful actions based on generosity, loving-kindness (metta), compassion and wisdom, rebirth in a happy realm, i.e. human or one of the many heavenly realms, can be expected. However, the mechanism of rebirth with Kamma is not deterministic. It depends on various levels of kamma. The most important moment that determines where a person is reborn into is the last thought moment. At that moment, heavy kamma would ripen if there were performed. If not, near death kamma would ripen, and if not death kamma, then habitual kamma would ripen. Finally if none of the above happened, then residual kamma from previous actions can ripen. According to Theravada Buddhism, there are 31 realms of existence that one can be reborn into.According to these 31 existence comprise 20 existence of supreme deities(Brahmas);6 existence of deities(Devas);the human existence(Manussa):and lastly 4 existence of deprivation or unhappiness(Apaya). Pure Land Buddhism of Mahayana believes in a special place apart from the 31 planes of existence called Pure Land. It is believed that each Buddha has their own pure land, created out of their merits for the sake of sentient beings who recall them mindfully to be able to be reborn in their pure land and train to become a Buddha there. Thus the main practice of pure land Buddhism is to chant a Buddha's name. In Tibetan Buddhism the Tibetan Book of the Dead explains the intermediate state of humans between death and reincarnation. The deceased will find the bright light of wisdom, which shows a straightforward path to move upward and leave the cycle of reincarnation. There are various reasons why the deceased do not follow that light. Some had no briefing about the intermediate state in the former life. Others only used to follow their basic instincts like animals. And some have fear, which results from foul deeds in the former life or from insistent haughtiness. In the intermediate state the awareness is very flexible, so it is important to be virtuous, adopt a positive attitude, and avoid negative ideas. Ideas which are rising from subconsciousness can cause extreme tempers and cowing visions. In this situation they have to understand, that these manifestations are just reflections of the inner thoughts. No one can really hurt them, because they have no more material body. The deceased get help from different Buddhas who show them the path to the bright light. The ones who do not follow the path after all will get hints for a better reincarnation. They have to release the things and beings on which or whom they still hang from the life before. It is recommended to choose a family where the parents trust in the Dharma and to reincarnate with the will to care for the welfare of all beings. ### Hinduism There are two major views of afterlife in Hinduism: mythical and philosophical. The philosophies of Hinduism consider each individual consists of 3 bodies: physical body compose of water and bio-matter (*sthūla śarīra*), an energetic/psychic/mental/subtle body (*sūkṣma-śarīra*) and a causal body (*kāraṇa śarīra*) comprising subliminal stuff i.e. mental impressions etc. The individual is a stream of consciousness (*Ātman*) which flows through all the physical changes of the body and at the death of the physical body, flows on into another physical body. The two components that transmigrate are the subtle body and the causal body. The thought that occupies the mind at the time of death determines the quality of our rebirth (antim smaraṇa), hence Hinduism advises to be mindful of one's thoughts and cultivate positive wholesome thoughts - Mantra chanting (Japa) is commonly practiced for this. The mythical includes the philosophical but adds heaven and hell myths. When one leaves the physical body at death he appears in the court of Lord Yama, the God of Death for an exit interview. The panel consists of Yama and Chitragupta - the cosmic accountant,he has a book which consists the history of the dead persons according to his/her mistakes the lord yama decides the punishment.and Varuna the cosmic intelligence officer. He is counseled about his life, achievements and failures and is shown a mirror in which his entire life is reflected. (Philosophically these three men are projections of one's mind) Yama the Lord of Justice then sends him to a heavenly realm (svarga) if he has been exceptionally benevolent and beneficent for a period of Rest and Recreation. his period is limited in time by the weight of his good deeds. If he has been exceptionally malevolent and caused immense suffering to other beings then he is sent to a hell realm (naraka) for his sins. After one has exhausted his karmas, he takes birth again to continue his spiritual evolution. However, belief in rebirth was not a part of early Vedic religions and texts. It was later developed by Rishis who challenged the idea of one life as being simplistic. Rebirth can take place as a god (deva), a human (manuṣya) an animal (tiryak) — but it is generally taught that the spiritual evolution takes place from lower to higher species. In certain cases of traumatic death a person can take the form of a Preta or Hungry Ghost - and remains in an earth-bound state interminably - until certain ceremonies are done to liberate them. This mythological part is extensively elaborated in the Hindu Puranas especially in the Garuda Purana. The Upanishads are the first scriptures in Hinduism which explicitly mention about Afterlife, The Bhagavad Gita, a famous Hindu script, says that just as a man discards his old clothes and wears new ones; similarly the Atman discards the old body and takes on a new one. In Hinduism, the belief is that the body is nothing but a shell, the consciousness inside is immutable and indestructible and takes on different lives in a cycle of birth and death. The end of this cycle is called *mukti* (Sanskrit: मुक्ति) and staying finally with the ultimate reality forever; is *moksha* (Sanskrit: मोक्ष) or liberation. The (diverse) views of modern Hinduism in part differ significantly from the Historical Vedic religion. ### Jainism Jainism also believes in the afterlife. They believe that the soul takes on a body form based on previous karmas or actions performed by that soul through eternity. Jains believe the soul is eternal and that the freedom from the cycle of reincarnation is the means to attain eternal bliss. ### Sikhism The essential doctrine of Sikhism is to experience the divine through simple living, meditation and contemplation while being alive. Sikhism also has the belief of being in union with God while living. Accounts of afterlife are considered to be aimed at the popular prevailing views of the time so as to provide a referential framework without necessarily establishing a belief in the afterlife. Thus while it is also acknowledged that living the life of a householder is above the metaphysical truth, Sikhism can be considered agnostic to the question of an afterlife. Some scholars also interpret the mention of reincarnation to be naturalistic akin to the biogeochemical cycles. But if one analyses the Sikh Scriptures carefully, one may find that on many occasions the afterlife and the existence of heaven and hell are mentioned in *Guru Granth Sahib* and in *Dasam Granth*, so from that it can be concluded that Sikhism does believe in the existence of heaven and hell; however, heaven and hell are created to temporarily reward and punish, and one will then take birth again until one merges in God. According to the Sikh scriptures, the human form is the closet form to God if the Guru is read and understood, and the best opportunity for a human being to attain salvation and merge back with God and fully understand Him. Sikh Gurus said that nothing dies, nothing is born, everything is ever present, and it just changes forms. Like standing in front of a wardrobe, you pick up a dress and wear it and then you discard it. You wear another one. Thus, in the view of Sikhism, your soul is never born and never dies. Your soul is a part of God and hence lives forever. Others ------ ### Gnosticism In Gnostic teachings humans contain a divine spark within them said to have been trapped in their bodies by the creator of the material universe known as the Demiurge. It was believed that this spark could be released from the material world and enter into the heavenly spiritual world beyond it if special knowledge or gnosis was attained. The Cathars, for example, viewed reincarnation as a trap made by Satan, who tricked angels from the heavenly realm into entering the physical bodies of humans. They viewed the purpose of life as a way to escape the constant cycle of spiritual incarnations by letting go of worldly attachments. ### Shinto It is common for families to participate in ceremonies for children at a shrine, yet have a Buddhist funeral at the time of death. In old Japanese legends, it is often claimed that the dead go to a place called *yomi* (黄泉), a gloomy underground realm with a river separating the living from the dead mentioned in the legend of Izanami and Izanagi. This *yomi* very closely resembles the Greek Hades; however, later myths include notions of resurrection and even Elysium-like descriptions such as in the legend of Ōkuninushi and Susanoo. Shinto tends to hold negative views on death and corpses as a source of pollution called *kegare*. However, death is also viewed as a path towards apotheosis in Shintoism as can be evidenced by how legendary individuals become enshrined after death. Perhaps the most famous would be Emperor Ōjin who was enshrined as Hachiman the God of War after his death. ### Spiritualism According to Edgar Cayce, the afterlife consisted of nine realms equated with the nine planets of astrology. The first, symbolized by Saturn, was a level for the purification of the souls. The second, Mercury's realm, gives us the ability to consider problems as a whole. The third of the nine soul realms is ruled by Earth and is associated with the Earthly pleasures. The fourth realm is where we find out about love and is ruled by Venus. The fifth realm is where we meet our limitations and is ruled by Mars. The sixth realm is ruled by Neptune, and is where we begin to use our creative powers and free ourselves from the material world. The seventh realm is symbolized by Jupiter, which strengthens the soul's ability to depict situations, to analyze people and places, things, and conditions. The eighth afterlife realm is ruled by Uranus and develops psychic ability. The ninth afterlife realm is symbolized by Pluto, the astrological realm of the unconscious. This afterlife realm is a transient place where souls can choose to travel to other realms or other solar systems, it is the souls liberation into eternity, and is the realm that opens the doorway from our solar system into the cosmos point of view. Mainstream Spiritualists postulate a series of seven realms that are not unlike Edgar Cayce's nine realms ruled by the planets. As it evolves, the soul moves higher and higher until it reaches the ultimate realm of spiritual oneness. The first realm, equated with hell, is the place where troubled souls spend a long time before they are compelled to move up to the next level. The second realm, where most souls move directly, is thought of as an intermediate transition between the lower planes of life and hell and the higher perfect realms of the universe. The third level is for those who have worked with their karmic inheritance. The fourth level is that from which evolved souls teach and direct those on Earth. The fifth level is where the soul leaves human consciousness behind. At the sixth plane, the soul is finally aligned with the cosmic consciousness and has no sense of separateness or individuality. Finally, the seventh level, the goal of each soul, is where the soul transcends its own sense of "soulfulness" and reunites with the World Soul and the universe. ### Traditional African religions Traditional African religions are diverse in their beliefs in an afterlife. Hunter-gatherer societies such as the Hadza have no particular belief in an afterlife, and the death of an individual is a straightforward end to their existence. Ancestor cults are found throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, including cultures like the Yombe, Beng, Yoruba and Ewe, "[T]he belief that the dead come back into life and are reborn into their families is given concrete expression in the personal names that are given to children....What is reincarnated are some of the dominant characteristics of the ancestor and not his soul. For each soul remains distinct and each birth represents a new soul." The Yoruba, Dogon and LoDagoa have eschatological ideas similar to Abrahamic religions, "but in most African societies, there is a marked absence of such clear-cut notions of heaven and hell, although there are notions of God judging the soul after death." In some societies like the Mende, multiple beliefs coexist. The Mende believe that people die twice: once during the process of joining the secret society, and again during biological death after which they become ancestors. However, some Mende also believe that after people are created by God they live ten consecutive lives, each in progressively descending worlds. One cross-cultural theme is that the ancestors are part of the world of the living, interacting with it regularly. ### Unitarian Universalism Some Unitarian Universalists believe in universalism: that all souls will ultimately be saved and that there are no torments of hell. Unitarian Universalists differ widely in their theology hence there is no exact same stance on the issue. Although Unitarians historically believed in a literal hell, and Universalists historically believed that everyone goes to heaven, modern Unitarian Universalists can be categorized into those believing in a heaven, reincarnation and oblivion. Most Unitarian Universalists believe that heaven and hell are symbolic places of consciousness and the faith is largely focused on the worldly life rather than any possible afterlife. ### Wicca The Wiccan afterlife is most commonly described as The Summerland. Here, souls rest, recuperate from life, and reflect on the experiences they had during their lives. After a period of rest, the souls are reincarnated, and the memory of their previous lives is erased. Many Wiccans see The Summerland as a place to reflect on their life actions. It is not a place of reward, but rather the end of a life journey at an end point of incarnations. ### Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism states that the *urvan*, the disembodied spirit, lingers on earth for three days before departing downward to the kingdom of the dead that is ruled by Yima. For the three days that it rests on Earth, righteous souls sit at the head of their body, chanting the Ustavaiti Gathas with joy, while a wicked person sits at the feet of the corpse, wails and recites the Yasna. Zoroastrianism states that for the righteous souls, a beautiful maiden, which is the personification of the soul's good thoughts, words and deeds, appears. For a wicked person, a very old, ugly, naked hag appears. After three nights, the soul of the wicked is taken by the demon Vizaresa (Vīzarəša), to Chinvat bridge, and is made to go to darkness (hell). Yima is believed to have been the first king on earth to rule, as well as the first man to die. Inside of Yima's realm, the spirits live a shadowy existence, and are dependent on their own descendants which are still living on Earth. Their descendants are to satisfy their hunger and clothe them, through rituals done on earth. Rituals which are done on the first three days are vital and important, as they protect the soul from evil powers and give it strength to reach the underworld. After three days, the soul crosses Chinvat bridge which is the Final Judgment of the soul. Rashnu and Sraosha are present at the final judgment. The list is expanded sometimes, and include Vahman and Ormazd. Rashnu is the yazata who holds the scales of justice. If the good deeds of the person outweigh the bad, the soul is worthy of paradise. If the bad deeds outweigh the good, the bridge narrows down to the width of a blade-edge, and a horrid hag pulls the soul in her arms, and takes it down to hell with her. Misvan Gatu is the "place of the mixed ones" where the souls lead a gray existence, lacking both joy and sorrow. A soul goes here if his/her good deeds and bad deeds are equal, and Rashnu's scale is equal. Parapsychology -------------- The Society for Psychical Research was founded in 1882 with the express intention of investigating phenomena relating to Spiritualism and the afterlife. Its members continue to conduct scientific research on the paranormal to this day. Some of the earliest attempts to apply scientific methods to the study of phenomena relating to an afterlife were conducted by this organization. Its earliest members included noted scientists like William Crookes, and philosophers such as Henry Sidgwick and William James. Parapsychological investigation of the afterlife includes the study of haunting, apparitions of the deceased, instrumental trans-communication, electronic voice phenomena, and mediumship. A study conducted in 1901 by physician Duncan MacDougall sought to measure the weight lost by a human when the soul "departed the body" upon death. MacDougall weighed dying patients in an attempt to prove that the soul was material, tangible and thus measurable. Although MacDougall's results varied considerably from "21 grams", for some people this figure has become synonymous with the measure of a soul's mass. The title of the 2003 movie *21 Grams* is a reference to MacDougall's findings. His results have never been reproduced, and are generally regarded either as meaningless or considered to have had little if any scientific merit. Frank Tipler has argued that physics can explain immortality, although such arguments are not falsifiable and, in Karl Popper's views, they do not qualify as science. After 25 years of parapsychological research Susan Blackmore came to the conclusion that, according to her experiences, there is not enough empirical evidence for many of these cases. ### Mediumship Mediums purportedly act as a vessel for communications from spirits in other realms. Mediumship is not specific to one culture or religion; it can be identified in several belief systems, most notably Spiritualism. While the practice gained popularity in Europe and North America in the 19th century, evidence of mediumship dates back thousands of years in Asia. Mediums who claim to have contact with deceased people include Tyler Henry and Pascal Voggenhuber. ### Near death research Research also includes the study of the near death experience. Scientists who have worked in this area include Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, Raymond Moody, Sam Parnia, Michael Sabom, Bruce Greyson, Peter Fenwick, Jeffrey Long, Susan Blackmore, Charles Tart, William James, Ian Stevenson, Michael Persinger, Pim van Lommel, Penny Sartori, Walter van Laack among others. ### Past life regression **Past life regression** is a method that uses hypnosis to recover what practitioners believe are memories of past lives or incarnations. The technique used during past-life regression involves the subject answering a series of questions while hypnotized to reveal identity and events of alleged past lives, a method similar to that used in recovered memory therapy and one that, similarly, often misrepresents memory as a faithful recording of previous events rather than a constructed set of recollections. However, medical experts and practitioners does not agree with that the past life memory gained from past life regression are truly from past life, experts generally regard claims of recovered memories of past lives as fantasies or delusions or a type of confabulation, because the use of hypnosis and suggestive questions can tend to leave the subject particularly likely to hold distorted or false memories. Philosophy ---------- ### Modern philosophy There is a view based on the philosophical question of personal identity, termed open individualism by Daniel Kolak, that concludes that individual conscious experience is illusory, and because consciousness continues after death in all conscious beings, *you* do not die. This position has allegedly been supported by physicists such as Erwin Schrödinger and Freeman Dyson. Certain problems arise with the idea of a particular person continuing after death. Peter van Inwagen, in his argument regarding resurrection, notes that the materialist must have some sort of physical continuity. John Hick also raises questions regarding personal identity in his book, *Death and Eternal Life*, using an example of a person ceasing to exist in one place while an exact replica appears in another. If the replica had all the same experiences, traits, and physical appearances of the first person, we would all attribute the same identity to the second, according to Hick. ### Process philosophy In the panentheistic model of process philosophy and theology the writers Alfred North Whitehead and Charles Hartshorne rejected the idea that the universe was made of substance, instead saying reality is composed of living experiences (occasions of experience). According to Hartshorne people do not experience subjective (or personal) immortality in the afterlife, but they do have objective immortality because their experiences live on forever in God, who contains all that was. However other process philosophers such as David Ray Griffin have written that people may have subjective experience after death. Science ------- Psychological proposals for the origin of a belief in an afterlife include cognitive disposition, cultural learning, and as an intuitive religious idea. In 2008, a large-scale study conducted by the University of Southampton involving 2060 patients from 15 hospitals in the United Kingdom, United States and Austria was launched. The AWARE (AWAreness during REsuscitation) study examined the broad range of mental experiences in relation to death. In a large study, researchers also tested the validity of conscious experiences for the first time using objective markers, to determine whether claims of awareness compatible with out-of-body experiences correspond with real or hallucinatory events. The results revealed that 40% of those who survived a cardiac arrest were aware during the time that they were clinically dead and before their hearts were restarted. One patient also had a verified out-of-body experience (over 80% of patients did not survive their cardiac arrest or were too sick to be interviewed), but his cardiac arrest occurred in a room without markers. Dr. Parnia in the interview stated, "The evidence thus far suggests that in the first few minutes after death, consciousness is not annihilated." The AWARE study drew the following primary conclusions: 1. In some cases of cardiac arrest, memories of visual awareness compatible with so called out-of-body experiences may correspond with actual events. 2. A number of NDErs may have vivid death experiences, but do not recall them due to the effects of brain injury or sedative drugs on memory circuits. 3. The recalled experience surrounding death merits a genuine investigation without prejudice. Studies have also been done on the widely reported phenomenon of near death experiences. Experiencers commonly report being transported to a different "realm" or "plane of existence" and they have been shown to display a lasting positive aftereffect on most experiencers. See also -------- * Allegory of the long spoons * Astral Plane * Bardo * Brig of Dread (Bridge of Dread) * Empiricism * Epistemology * Eternal oblivion * Exaltation (Mormonism) * Fate of the unlearned * Heaven * Rebecca Hensler * Hell * Immortality * Mictlan * Mind uploading * Nirvana * Omega Point * Paradise * Phowa * Pre-existence * Purgatory * Rebirth * Reincarnation * Soul * Soul flight * Soul retrieval * *Spiritism* * Suspended animation * Spirit World * Undead * Underworld References ---------- ### Explanatory notes 1. ↑ some of the verses are: * "... but compared with the Hereafter the life of this world is but a [trifling] enjoyment" [Quran 13:26] * " ...The life of this world is nothing but the wares of delusion." [Quran 3:185-186] * " ...Know that the life of this world is mere diversion and play, glamour and mutual vainglory among you and rivalry for wealth and children" (Q.57:20) [Quran 57:20] * " ...Seek the abode of the Hereafter by means of what Allah has given you, while not forgetting your share of this world. [Quran 28:77] 2. ↑ The Last Day has a number of other names. It is also called the Encompassing Day (*al-yawm al-muḥīṭ*), more commonly known as the "Day of Resurrection" (*yawm al-qiyāma*), "Day of Judgment" (*yawm ad-dīn*), and "Day of Reckoning" (*yawm al-ḥisāb*), as well as both the "Day of Separation" (*yawm al-faṣl*) and "Day of Gathering" (*yawm al-jamʿ*), and is also referred to as *as-Sāʿah*, meaning "the Hour" signaled by the blowing of the horn/trumpet. 3. ↑ "I have created the jinn and humankind only for My worship." [ 51:56] 4. ↑ "One should note there was a near consensus among Muslim theologians of the later periods that punishment for Muslim grave sinners would only be temporary; eventually after a purgatory sojourn in hell's top layer they would be admitted into paradise." Prior to that, theologians of the Kharijite and Mu'tazilite schools insisted that the "sinful" and "unrepentant" should be punished even if they were believers, but this position has been "lastingly defeated and erased" by mainstream Islam. Further reading --------------- * Hasker, William. "Afterlife". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). *Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy*. * *The Destiny of the Soul: A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life* at Project Gutenberg (Extensive 1878 text by William Rounseville Alger) * Jennings, Ken (2023). *100 Places to See After You Die: A Travel Guide to the Afterlife*. New York: Scribner. ISBN 9781501131585. OCLC 1347430851.

Afterlife

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife

**Serbo-Croatian** (/ˌsɜːrboʊkroʊˈeɪʃən/ ()) – also called **Serbo-Croat** (/ˌsɜːrboʊˈkroʊæt/), **Serbo-Croat-Bosnian** (**SCB**), **Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian** (**BCS**), and **Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin-Serbian** (**BCMS**) – is a South Slavic language and the primary language of Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro. It is a pluricentric language with four mutually intelligible standard varieties, namely Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin. South Slavic languages historically formed a continuum. The turbulent history of the area, particularly due to expansion of the Ottoman Empire, resulted in a patchwork of dialectal and religious differences. Due to population migrations, Shtokavian became the most widespread dialect in the western Balkans, intruding westwards into the area previously occupied by Chakavian and Kajkavian (which further blend into Slovenian in the northwest). Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs differ in religion and were historically often part of different cultural circles, although a large part of the nations have lived side by side under foreign overlords. During that period, the language was referred to under a variety of names, such as "Slavic" in general or "Serbian", "Croatian" or "Bosnian" in particular. In a classicizing manner, it was also referred to as "Illyrian". The process of linguistic standardization of Serbo-Croatian was originally initiated in the mid-19th-century Vienna Literary Agreement by Croatian and Serbian writers and philologists, decades before a Yugoslav state was established. From the very beginning, there were slightly different literary Serbian and Croatian standards, although both were based on the same dialect of Shtokavian, Eastern Herzegovinian. In the 20th century, Serbo-Croatian served as the lingua franca of the country of Yugoslavia, being the sole official language in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (when it was called "Serbo-Croato-Slovenian"), and afterwards the official language of four out of six republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The breakup of Yugoslavia affected language attitudes, so that social conceptions of the language separated along ethnic and political lines. Since the breakup of Yugoslavia, Bosnian has likewise been established as an official standard in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and there is an ongoing movement to codify a separate Montenegrin standard. Like other South Slavic languages, Serbo-Croatian has a simple phonology, with the common five-vowel system and twenty-five consonants. Its grammar evolved from Common Slavic, with complex inflection, preserving seven grammatical cases in nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. Verbs exhibit imperfective or perfective aspect, with a moderately complex tense system. Serbo-Croatian is a pro-drop language with flexible word order, subject–verb–object being the default. It can be written in either localized variants of Latin (Gaj's Latin alphabet, Montenegrin Latin) or Cyrillic (Serbian Cyrillic, Montenegrin Cyrillic), and the orthography is highly phonemic in all standards. Despite many linguistical similarities, the traits that separate all standardized varieties are clearly identifiable. Name ---- Serbo-Croatian is typically referred to by names of its standardized varieties: Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin; it is rarely referred to by names of its sub-dialects, such as Bunjevac. In the language itself, it is typically known as *srpskohrvatski*/српскохрватски "Serbo-Croatian", *hrvatskosrpski*/хрватскoсрпски "Croato-Serbian", or informally *naški*/нашки "ours". Throughout the history of the South Slavs, the vernacular, literary, and written languages (e.g. Chakavian, Kajkavian, Shtokavian) of the various regions and ethnicities developed and diverged independently. Prior to the 19th century, they were collectively called "Illyric", "Slavic", "Slavonian", "Bosnian", "Dalmatian", "Serbian" or "Croatian". Since the nineteenth century the term *Illyrian* or *Illyric* was used quite often (thus creating confusion with the Illyrian language). Although the word *Illyrian* was used on a few occasions before, its widespread usage began after Ljudevit Gaj and several other prominent linguists met at Ljudevit Vukotinović's house to discuss the issue in 1832. The term *Serbo-Croatian* was first used by Jacob Grimm in 1824, popularized by the Viennese philologist Jernej Kopitar in the following decades, and accepted by Croatian Zagreb grammarians in 1854 and 1859. At that time, Serb and Croat lands were still part of the Ottoman and Austrian Empires. Officially, the language was called variously *Serbo-Croat, Croato-Serbian, Serbian and Croatian, Croatian and Serbian, Serbian or Croatian, Croatian or Serbian.* Unofficially, Serbs and Croats typically called the language "Serbian" or "Croatian", respectively, without implying a distinction between the two, and again in independent Bosnia and Herzegovina, "Bosnian", "Croatian", and "Serbian" were considered to be three names of a single official language. Croatian linguist Dalibor Brozović advocated the term *Serbo-Croatian* as late as 1988, claiming that in an analogy with Indo-European, Serbo-Croatian does not only name the two components of the same language, but simply charts the limits of the region in which it is spoken and includes everything between the limits ('Bosnian' and 'Montenegrin'). Today, use of the term "Serbo-Croatian" is controversial due to the prejudice that nation and language must match. It is still used for lack of a succinct alternative, though alternative names have emerged, such as *Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian* (BCS), which is often seen in political contexts such as the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. History ------- ### Early development In the 9th century, Old Church Slavonic was adopted as the language of the liturgy in churches serving various Slavic nations. This language was gradually adapted to non-liturgical purposes and became known as the Croatian version of Old Slavonic. The two variants of the language, liturgical and non-liturgical, continued to be a part of the Glagolitic service as late as the middle of the 19th century. The earliest known Croatian Church Slavonic Glagolitic manuscripts are the *Glagolita Clozianus* and the *Vienna Folia* from the 11th century. Speech example An example of Old Croatian used in Baška tablet. --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* The beginning of written Serbo-Croatian can be traced from the tenth century and on when Serbo-Croatian medieval texts were written in five scripts: Latin, Glagolitic, Early Cyrillic, Bosnian Cyrillic (*bosančica/bosanica*), and Arebica, the last principally by Bosniak nobility. Serbo-Croatian competed with the more established literary languages of Latin and Old Slavonic in the west and Persian and Arabic in the east. Old Slavonic developed into the Serbo-Croatian variant of Church Slavonic between the 12th and 16th centuries. Among the earliest attestations of Serbo-Croatian are: the Humac tablet, dating from the 10th or 11th century, written in Bosnian Cyrillic and Glagolitic; the Plomin tablet, dating from the same era, written in Glagolitic; the Valun tablet, dated to the 11th century, written in Glagolitic and Latin; and the Inscription of Župa Dubrovačka, a Glagolitic tablet dated to the 11th century. The Baška tablet from the late 11th century was written in Glagolitic. It is a large stone tablet found in the small Church of St. Lucy, Jurandvor on the Croatian island of Krk that contains text written mostly in Chakavian in the Croatian angular Glagolitic script. The Charter of Ban Kulin of 1189, written by Ban Kulin of Bosnia, was an early Shtokavian text, written in Bosnian Cyrillic. The luxurious and ornate representative texts of Serbo-Croatian Church Slavonic belong to the later era, when they coexisted with the Serbo-Croatian vernacular literature. The most notable are the "Missal of Duke Novak" from the Lika region in northwestern Croatia (1368), "Evangel from Reims" (1395, named after the town of its final destination), Hrvoje's Missal from Bosnia and Split in Dalmatia (1404), and the first printed book in Serbo-Croatian, the Glagolitic Missale Romanum Glagolitice (1483). During the 13th century Serbo-Croatian vernacular texts began to appear, the most important among them being the "Istrian land survey" of 1275 and the "Vinodol Codex" of 1288, both written in the Chakavian dialect. The Shtokavian dialect literature, based almost exclusively on Chakavian original texts of religious provenance (missals, breviaries, prayer books) appeared almost a century later. The most important purely Shtokavian vernacular text is the Vatican Croatian Prayer Book (c. 1400). Both the language used in legal texts and that used in Glagolitic literature gradually came under the influence of the vernacular, which considerably affected its phonological, morphological, and lexical systems. From the 14th and the 15th centuries, both secular and religious songs at church festivals were composed in the vernacular. Writers of early Serbo-Croatian religious poetry (*začinjavci*) gradually introduced the vernacular into their works. These *začinjavci* were the forerunners of the rich literary production of the 16th-century literature, which, depending on the area, was Chakavian-, Kajkavian-, or Shtokavian-based. The language of religious poems, translations, miracle and morality plays contributed to the popular character of medieval Serbo-Croatian literature. One of the earliest dictionaries, also in the Slavic languages as a whole, was the *Bosnian–Turkish Dictionary* of 1631 authored by Muhamed Hevaji Uskufi and was written in the Arebica script. ### Standardization In the mid-19th century, Serbian (led by self-taught writer and folklorist Vuk Stefanović Karadžić) and most Croatian writers and linguists (represented by the Illyrian movement and led by Ljudevit Gaj and Đuro Daničić), proposed the use of the most widespread dialect, Shtokavian, as the base for their common standard language. Karadžić standardised the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet, and Gaj and Daničić standardized the Croatian Latin alphabet, on the basis of vernacular speech phonemes and the principle of phonological spelling. In 1850 Serbian and Croatian writers and linguists signed the Vienna Literary Agreement, declaring their intention to create a unified standard. Thus a complex bi-variant language appeared, which the Serbs officially called "Serbo-Croatian" or "Serbian or Croatian" and the Croats "Croato-Serbian", or "Croatian or Serbian". Yet, in practice, the variants of the conceived common literary language served as different literary variants, chiefly differing in lexical inventory and stylistic devices. The common phrase describing this situation was that Serbo-Croatian or "Croatian or Serbian" was a single language. In 1861, after a long debate, the Croatian Sabor put up several proposed names to a vote of the members of the parliament; "Yugoslavian" was opted for by the majority and legislated as the official language of the Triune Kingdom. The Austrian Empire, suppressing Pan-Slavism at the time, did not confirm this decision and legally rejected the legislation, but in 1867 finally settled on "Croatian or Serbian" instead. During the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the language of all three nations in this territory was declared "Bosnian" until the death of administrator von Kállay in 1907, at which point the name was changed to "Serbo-Croatian". With unification of the first the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes – the approach of Karadžić and the Illyrians became dominant. The official language was called "Serbo-Croato-Slovenian" (*srpsko-hrvatsko-slovenački*) in the 1921 constitution. In 1929, the constitution was suspended, and the country was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, while the official language of Serbo-Croato-Slovene was reinstated in the 1931 constitution. In June 1941, the Nazi puppet Independent State of Croatia began to rid the language of "Eastern" (Serbian) words, and shut down Serbian schools. The totalitarian dictatorship introduced a language law that promulgated Croatian linguistic purism as a policy that tried to implement a complete elimination of Serbisms and internationalisms. On January 15, 1944, the Anti-Fascist Council of the People's Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) declared Croatian, Serbian, Slovene, and Macedonian to be equal in the entire territory of Yugoslavia. In 1945 the decision to recognize Croatian and Serbian as separate languages was reversed in favor of a single Serbo-Croatian or Croato-Serbian language. In the Communist-dominated second Yugoslavia, ethnic issues eased to an extent, but the matter of language remained blurred and unresolved. In 1954, major Serbian and Croatian writers, linguists and literary critics, backed by Matica srpska and Matica hrvatska signed the Novi Sad Agreement, which in its first conclusion stated: "Serbs, Croats and Montenegrins share a single language with two equal variants that have developed around Zagreb (western) and Belgrade (eastern)". The agreement insisted on the equal status of Cyrillic and Latin scripts, and of Ekavian and Ijekavian pronunciations. It also specified that *Serbo-Croatian* should be the name of the language in official contexts, while in unofficial use the traditional *Serbian* and *Croatian* were to be retained. Matica hrvatska and Matica srpska were to work together on a dictionary, and a committee of Serbian and Croatian linguists was asked to prepare a *pravopis*. During the sixties both books were published simultaneously in Ijekavian Latin in Zagreb and Ekavian Cyrillic in Novi Sad. Yet Croatian linguists claim that it was an act of unitarianism. The evidence supporting this claim is patchy: Croatian linguist Stjepan Babić complained that the television transmission from Belgrade always used the Latin alphabet— which was true, but was not proof of unequal rights, but of frequency of use and prestige. Babić further complained that the Novi Sad Dictionary (1967) listed side by side words from both the Croatian and Serbian variants wherever they differed, which one can view as proof of careful respect for both variants, and not of unitarism. Moreover, Croatian linguists criticized those parts of the Dictionary for being unitaristic that were written by Croatian linguists. And finally, Croatian linguists ignored the fact that the material for the *Pravopisni rječnik* came from the Croatian Philological Society. Regardless of these facts, Croatian intellectuals brought the Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language in 1967. On occasion of the publication's 45th anniversary, the Croatian weekly journal *Forum* published the Declaration again in 2012, accompanied by a critical analysis. West European scientists judge the Yugoslav language policy as an exemplary one: although three-quarters of the population spoke one language, no single language was official on a federal level. Official languages were declared only at the level of constituent republics and provinces, and very generously: Vojvodina had five (among them Slovak and Romanian, spoken by 0.5 per cent of the population), and Kosovo four (Albanian, Turkish, Romany and Serbo-Croatian). Newspapers, radio and television studios used sixteen languages, fourteen were used as languages of tuition in schools, and nine at universities. Only the Yugoslav People's Army used Serbo-Croatian as the sole language of command, with all other languages represented in the army's other activities—however, this is not different from other armies of multilingual states, or in other specific institutions, such as international air traffic control where English is used worldwide. All variants of Serbo-Croatian were used in state administration and republican and federal institutions. Both Serbian and Croatian variants were represented in respectively different grammar books, dictionaries, school textbooks and in books known as *pravopis* (which detail spelling rules). Serbo-Croatian was a kind of soft standardisation. However, legal equality could not dampen the prestige Serbo-Croatian had: since it was the language of three quarters of the population, it functioned as an unofficial lingua franca. And within Serbo-Croatian, the Serbian variant, with twice as many speakers as the Croatian, enjoyed greater prestige, reinforced by the fact that Slovene and Macedonian speakers preferred it to the Croatian variant because their languages are also Ekavian. This is a common situation in other pluricentric languages, e.g. the variants of German differ according to their prestige, the variants of Portuguese too. Moreover, all languages differ in terms of prestige: "the fact is that languages (in terms of prestige, learnability etc.) are not equal, and the law cannot make them equal". ### Modern developments In 2017, the "Declaration on the Common Language" (*Deklaracija o zajedničkom jeziku*) was signed by a group of NGOs and linguists from former Yugoslavia. It states that all standardized variants belong to a common polycentric language with equal status. Demographics ------------ About 19 million people declare their native language as either 'Bosnian', 'Croatian', 'Serbian', 'Montenegrin', or 'Serbo-Croatian'. Serbian is spoken by 10 million people around the world, mostly in Serbia (7.8 million), Bosnia and Herzegovina (1.2 million), and Montenegro (300,000). Serbian minorities are found in Kosovo, North Macedonia and in Romania. In Serbia, there are about 760,000 second-language speakers of Serbian, including Hungarians in Vojvodina and the 400,000 estimated Roma. In Kosovo, Serbian is spoken by the members of the Serbian minority which approximates between 70,000 and 100,000. Familiarity of Kosovo Albanians with Serbian varies depending on age and education, and exact numbers are not available. Croatian is spoken by 6.8 million people in the world, including 4.1 million in Croatia and 600,000 in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A small Croatian minority that lives in Italy, known as Molise Croats, have somewhat preserved traces of Croatian. In Croatia, 170,000, mostly Italians and Hungarians, use it as a second language. Bosnian is spoken by 2.7 million people worldwide, chiefly Bosniaks, including 2.0 million in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 200,000 in Serbia and 40,000 in Montenegro. Montenegrin is spoken by 300,000 people globally. The notion of Montenegrin as a separate standard from Serbian is relatively recent. In the 2011 census, around 229,251 Montenegrins, of the country's 620,000, declared Montenegrin as their native language. That figure is likely to increase, due to the country's independence and strong institutional backing of the Montenegrin language. Serbo-Croatian is also a second language of many Slovenians and Macedonians, especially those born during the time of Yugoslavia. According to the 2002 Census, Serbo-Croatian and its variants have the largest number of speakers of the minority languages in Slovenia. Outside the Balkans, there are over two million native speakers of the language(s), especially in countries which are frequent targets of immigration, such as Australia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Sweden, and the United States. Grammar ------- Serbo-Croatian is a highly inflected language. Traditional grammars list seven cases for nouns and adjectives: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, locative, and instrumental, reflecting the original seven cases of Proto-Slavic, and indeed older forms of Serbo-Croatian itself. However, in modern Shtokavian the locative has almost merged into dative (the only difference is based on accent in some cases), and the other cases can be shown declining; namely: * For all nouns and adjectives, the instrumental, dative, and locative forms are identical (at least orthographically) in the plural: *ženama*, *ženama*, *ženama*; *očima*, *očima*, *očima*; *riječima*, *riječima*, *riječima*. * There is an accentual difference between the genitive singular and genitive plural of masculine and neuter nouns, which are otherwise homonyms (*seljáka*, *seljaka*) except that on occasion an "a" (which might or might not appear in the singular) is filled between the last letter of the root and the genitive plural ending (*kapitalizma*, *kapitalizama*). * The old instrumental ending "ju" of the feminine consonant stems and in some cases the "a" of the genitive plural of certain other sorts of feminine nouns is fast yielding to "i": *noći* instead of *noćju*, *borbi* instead of *boraba* and so forth. * Almost every Shtokavian number is indeclinable, and numbers after prepositions have not been declined for a long time. Like most Slavic languages, there are mostly three genders for nouns: masculine, feminine, and neuter, a distinction which is still present even in the plural (unlike Russian and, in part, the Čakavian dialect). They also have two numbers: singular and plural. However, some consider there to be three numbers (paucal or *dual,* too), since (still preserved in closely related Slovene) after two (*dva*, *dvije*/*dve*), three (*tri*) and four (*četiri*), and all numbers ending in them (e.g. twenty-two, ninety-three, one hundred four, but not twelve through fourteen) the genitive singular is used, and after all other numbers five (*pet*) and up, the genitive plural is used. (The number one [*jedan*] is treated as an adjective.) Adjectives are placed in front of the noun they modify and must agree in both case and number with it. There are seven tenses for verbs: past, present, future, exact future, aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect; and three moods: indicative, imperative, and conditional. However, the latter three tenses are typically used only in Shtokavian writing, and the time sequence of the exact future is more commonly formed through an alternative construction. In addition, like most Slavic languages, the Shtokavian verb also has one of two aspects: perfective or imperfective. Most verbs come in pairs, with the perfective verb being created out of the imperfective by adding a prefix or making a stem change. The imperfective aspect typically indicates that the action is unfinished, in progress, or repetitive; while the perfective aspect typically denotes that the action was completed, instantaneous, or of limited duration. Some Štokavian tenses (namely, aorist and imperfect) favor a particular aspect (but they are rarer or absent in Čakavian and Kajkavian). Actually, aspects "compensate" for the relative lack of tenses, because verbal aspect determines whether the act is completed or in progress in the referred time. Phonology --------- ### Vowels The Serbo-Croatian vowel system is simple, with only five vowels in Shtokavian. All vowels are monophthongs. The oral vowels are as follows: | **Latin script** | **Cyrillic script** | **IPA** | **Description** | **English approximation** | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **a** | **а** | /a/ | open central unrounded | *f**a**ther* | | **e** | **е** | /e/ | mid front unrounded | *d**e**n* | | **i** | **и** | /i/ | close front unrounded | *s**ee**k* | | **o** | **о** | /o/ | mid back rounded | *l**o**rd* | | **u** | **у** | /u/ | close back rounded | *p**oo**l* | The vowels can be short or long, but the phonetic quality does not change depending on the length. In a word, vowels can be long in the stressed syllable and the syllables following it, never in the ones preceding it. ### Consonants The consonant system is more complicated, and its characteristic features are series of affricate and palatal consonants. As in English, voice is phonemic, but aspiration is not. | **Latin script** | **Cyrillic script** | **IPA** | **Description** | **English approximation** | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | trill | | **r** | **р** | /r/ | alveolar trill | rolled (vibrating) **r** as in *ca**rr**amba* | | approximants | | **v** | **в** | /ʋ/ | labiodental approximant | roughly between ***v**ortex* and ***w**ar* | | **j** | **ј** | /j/ | palatal approximant | ***y**ear* | | laterals | | **l** | **л** | /l/ | alveolar lateral approximant | ***l**ight* | | **lj** | **љ** | /ʎ/ | palatal lateral approximant | roughly *batta**li**on* | | nasals | | **m** | **м** | /m/ | bilabial nasal | ***m**an* | | **n** | **н** | /n/ | alveolar nasal | ***n**ot* | | **nj** | **њ** | /ɲ/ | palatal nasal | British ***n**ews* or American *ca**ny**on* | | fricatives | | **f** | **ф** | /f/ | voiceless labiodental fricative | ***f**ive* | | **z** | **з** | /z/ | voiced dental sibilant | ***z**ero* | | **s** | **с** | /s/ | voiceless dental sibilant | ***s**ome* | | **ž** | **ж** | /ʒ/ | voiced postalveolar fricative | *televi**si**on* | | **š** | **ш** | /ʃ/ | voiceless postalveolar fricative | ***sh**arp* | | **h** | **х** | /x/ | voiceless velar fricative | *lo**ch*** | | affricates | | **c** | **ц** | /t͡s/ | voiceless dental affricate | *po**ts*** | | **dž** | **џ** | /d͡ʒ/ | voiced postalveolar affricate | as English **j**am | | **č** | **ч** | /t͡ʃ/ | voiceless postalveolar affricate | as English ***ch**eck* | | **đ** | **ђ** | /d͡ʑ/ | voiced alveolo-palatal affricate | roughly ***j**eans* | | **ć** | **ћ** | /t͡ɕ/ | voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate | roughly ***ch**eese* | | plosives | | **b** | **б** | /b/ | voiced bilabial plosive | ***b**ook* | | **p** | **п** | /p/ | voiceless bilabial plosive | *to**p*** | | **d** | **д** | /d/ | voiced dental plosive | ***d**og* | | **t** | **т** | /t/ | voiceless dental plosive | *s**t**op* | | **g** | **г** | /ɡ/ | voiced velar plosive | ***g**ood* | | **k** | **к** | /k/ | voiceless velar plosive | *du**ck*** | In consonant clusters all consonants are either voiced or voiceless. All the consonants are voiced if the last consonant is normally voiced or voiceless if the last consonant is normally voiceless. This rule does not apply to approximants – a consonant cluster may contain voiced approximants and voiceless consonants; as well as to foreign words (*Washington* would be transcribed as *VašinGton*), personal names and when consonants are not inside of one syllable. /r/ can be syllabic, playing the role of the syllable nucleus in certain words (occasionally, it can even have a long accent). For example, the tongue-twister *navrh brda vrba mrda* involves four words with syllabic /r/. A similar feature exists in Czech, Slovak, and Macedonian. Very rarely other sonorants can be syllabic, like /l/ (in *bicikl*), /ʎ/ (surname *Štarklj*), /n/ (unit *njutn*), as well as /m/ and /ɲ/ in slang. ### Pitch accent Apart from Slovene, Serbo-Croatian is the only Slavic language with a pitch accent (simple tone) system. This feature is present in some other Indo-European languages, such as Norwegian, Ancient Greek, and Punjabi. Neo-Shtokavian Serbo-Croatian, which is used as the basis for standard Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian, has four "accents", which involve either a rising or falling tone on either long or short vowels, with optional post-tonic lengths: Serbo-Croatian accent system| Slavicistsymbol | IPAsymbol | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | **e** | [e] | non-tonic short vowel | | **ē** | [eː] | non-tonic long vowel | | **è** | [ě] | short vowel with rising tone | | **é** | [ěː] | long vowel with rising tone | | **ȅ** | [ê] | short vowel with falling tone | | **ȇ** | [êː] | long vowel with falling tone | The tone stressed vowels can be approximated in English with *set* vs. *setting?* said in isolation for a short tonic *e,* or *leave* vs. *leaving?* for a long tonic *i,* due to the prosody of final stressed syllables in English. General accent rules in the standard language: 1. Monosyllabic words may have only a falling tone (or no accent at all – enclitics); 2. Falling tone may occur only on the first syllable of polysyllabic words; 3. Accent can never occur on the last syllable of polysyllabic words. There are no other rules for accent placement, thus the accent of every word must be learned individually; furthermore, in inflection, accent shifts are common, both in type and position (the so-called "mobile paradigms"). The second rule is not strictly obeyed, especially in borrowed words. Comparative and historical linguistics offers some clues for memorising the accent position: If one compares many standard Serbo-Croatian words to e.g. cognate Russian words, the accent in the Serbo-Croatian word will be one syllable before the one in the Russian word, with the rising tone. Historically, the rising tone appeared when the place of the accent shifted to the preceding syllable (the so-called "Neo-Shtokavian retraction"), but the quality of this new accent was different – its melody still "gravitated" towards the original syllable. Most Shtokavian (Neo-Shtokavian) dialects underwent this shift, but Chakavian, Kajkavian and the Old-Shtokavian dialects did not. Accent diacritics are not used in the ordinary orthography, but only in the linguistic or language-learning literature (e.g. dictionaries, orthography and grammar books). However, there are very few minimal pairs where an error in accent can lead to misunderstanding. Orthography ----------- Serbo-Croatian orthography is almost entirely phonetic. Thus, most words should be spelled as they are pronounced. In practice, the writing system does not take into account allophones which occur as a result of interaction between words: * bit će – pronounced *biće* (and only written separately in Bosnian and Croatian) * od toga – pronounced *otoga* (in many vernaculars) * iz čega – pronounced *iščega* (in many vernaculars) Also, there are some exceptions, mostly applied to foreign words and compounds, that favor morphological/etymological over phonetic spelling: * postdiplomski (postgraduate) – pronounced *pozdiplomski* One systemic exception is that the consonant clusters **ds** and **dš** are not respelled as **ts** and **tš** (although *d* tends to be unvoiced in normal speech in such clusters): * predstava (show) * odšteta (damages) Only a few words are intentionally "misspelled", mostly in order to resolve ambiguity: * šeststo [ʃêːsto] (six hundred) – pronounced *šesto* (to avoid confusion with "šesto" [sixth], pronounced the same) * prstni [př̩sniː] (adj., finger) – pronounced *prsni* (to avoid confusion with "prsni" [pr̩̂sniː] [adj., chest]), differentiated by tone in some areas (where the short rising tone contrasts with the short falling tone). ### Writing systems Through history, this language has been written in a number of writing systems: * Glagolitic alphabet, chiefly in Croatia. * Bosančica, Arebica (mostly in Bosnia and Herzegovina). * Cyrillic script. * various modifications of the Latin and Greek alphabets. The oldest texts since the 11th century are in Glagolitic, and the oldest preserved text written completely in the Latin alphabet is *Red i zakon sestara reda Svetog Dominika*, from 1345. The Arabic alphabet had been used by Bosniaks; Greek writing is out of use there, and Arabic and Glagolitic persisted so far partly in religious liturgies. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was revised by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić in the 19th century. The Croatian Latin alphabet (*Gajica*) followed suit shortly afterwards, when Ljudevit Gaj defined it as standard Latin with five extra letters that had diacritics, apparently borrowing much from Czech, but also from Polish, and inventing the unique digraphs ⟨lj⟩, ⟨nj⟩ and ⟨dž⟩. These digraphs are represented as ⟨ļ⟩, ⟨ń⟩ and ⟨ǵ⟩ respectively in the *Rječnik hrvatskog ili srpskog jezika*, published by the former Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb. The latter digraphs, however, are unused in the literary standard of the language. All in all, this makes Serbo-Croatian the only Slavic language to officially use both the Latin and Cyrillic scripts, albeit the Latin version is more commonly used. In both cases, spelling is phonetic and spellings in the two alphabets map to each other one-to-one: **Latin to Cyrillic**| A | a | B | b | C | c | Č | č | Ć | ć | D | d | Dž | dž | Đ | đ | E | e | F | f | G | g | H | h | I | i | J | j | K | k | | А | а | Б | б | Ц | ц | Ч | ч | Ћ | ћ | Д | д | Џ | џ | Ђ | ђ | Е | е | Ф | ф | Г | г | Х | х | И | и | Ј | ј | К | к | | | | L | l | Lj | lj | M | m | N | n | Nj | nj | O | o | P | p | R | r | S | s | Š | š | T | t | U | u | V | v | Z | z | Ž | ž | | Л | л | Љ | љ | М | м | Н | н | Њ | њ | О | о | П | п | Р | р | С | с | Ш | ш | Т | т | У | у | В | в | З | з | Ж | ж | **Cyrillic to Latin**| А | а | Б | б | В | в | Г | г | Д | д | Ђ | ђ | Е | е | Ж | ж | З | з | И | и | Ј | ј | К | к | Л | л | Љ | љ | М | м | | A | a | B | b | V | v | G | g | D | d | Đ | đ | E | e | Ž | ž | Z | z | I | i | J | j | K | k | L | l | Lj | lj | M | m | | | | Н | н | Њ | њ | О | о | П | п | Р | р | С | с | Т | т | Ћ | ћ | У | у | Ф | ф | Х | х | Ц | ц | Ч | ч | Џ | џ | Ш | ш | | N | n | Nj | nj | O | o | P | p | R | r | S | s | T | t | Ć | ć | U | u | F | f | H | h | C | c | Č | č | Dž | dž | Š | š | **Sample collation**| Latin collation order | Cyrilliccollationorder | | --- | --- | | **Latin** | Cyrillicequivalent | | Ina | Ина | Ина | | Injekcija | И**нј**екција | Инјекција | | Inverzija | Инверзија | Инверзија | | Inje | И**њ**е | Иње | The digraphs *Lj*, *Nj* and *Dž* represent distinct phonemes and are considered to be single letters. In crosswords, they are put into a single square, and in sorting, lj follows l and nj follows n, except in a few words where the individual letters are pronounced separately. For instance, *nadživ(j)eti* "to outlive" is composed of the prefix *nad-* "out, over" and the verb *živ(j)eti* "to live". The Cyrillic alphabet avoids such ambiguity by providing a single letter for each phoneme: наджив(ј)ети. *Đ* used to be commonly written as *Dj* on typewriters, but that practice led to too many ambiguities. It is also used on car license plates. Today *Dj* is often used again in place of *Đ* on the Internet as a replacement due to the lack of installed Serbo-Croat keyboard layouts. Serbian, Bosnian and Montenegrin standards officially use both alphabets, while Croatian uses the Latin only. Latin script has been rising in popularity in Serbia with the advent of the digital age and Internet in Serbia, whether due to restraints (Cyrillic letters use up twice the space and therefore cost on SMS), accessibility (intention to be readable internationally, as Latin is taught in all four countries speaking the language) or ease of use. This has been perceived by Serbian government officials as a suppression and threat for existence of the national script that is Cyrillic, with the Ministry of Culture and Information of Serbia pushing for more tight language laws on top of those stipulated by the existing Constitution. Montenegrin alphabet, adopted in 2009, provides replacements of *sj* and *zj* with digraphs ⟨ś⟩ and ⟨ź⟩ in both Latin and Cyrillic, but they remain largely unused, even by the Parliament of Montenegro which introduced them. Unicode has separate characters for the digraphs lj (LJ, Lj, lj), nj (NJ, Nj, nj) and dž (DŽ, Dž, dž). Dialects -------- South Slavic historically formed a dialect continuum, i.e. each dialect has some similarities with the neighboring one, and differences grow with distance. However, migrations from the 16th to 18th centuries resulting from the spread of Ottoman Empire on the Balkans have caused large-scale population displacement that broke the dialect continuum into many geographical pockets. Migrations in the 20th century, primarily caused by urbanization and wars, also contributed to the reduction of dialectal differences. The primary dialects are named after the most common question word for *what*: Shtokavian uses the pronoun *što* or *šta*, Chakavian uses *ča* or *ca*, Kajkavian (*kajkavski*), *kaj* or *kej*. In native terminology they are referred to as *nar(j)ečje*, which would be equivalent of "group of dialects", whereas their many subdialects are referred to as *dijalekti* "dialects" or *govori* "speeches". The pluricentric Serbo-Croatian standard language and all four contemporary standard variants are based on the Eastern Herzegovinian subdialect of Neo-Shtokavian. Other dialects are not taught in schools or used by the state media. The Torlakian dialect is often added to the list, though sources usually note that it is a transitional dialect between Shtokavian and the Bulgaro-Macedonian dialects. | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | The Serbo-Croatian dialects differ not only in the question word they are named after, but also heavily in phonology, accentuation and intonation, case endings and tense system (morphology) and basic vocabulary. In the past, Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects were spoken on a much larger territory, but have been replaced by Štokavian during the period of migrations caused by Ottoman Turkish conquest of the Balkans in the 15th and the 16th centuries. These migrations caused the koinéisation of the Shtokavian dialects, that used to form the West Shtokavian (more closer and transitional towards the neighbouring Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects) and East Shtokavian (transitional towards the Torlakian and the whole Bulgaro-Macedonian area) dialect bundles, and their subsequent spread at the expense of Chakavian and Kajkavian. As a result, Štokavian now covers an area larger than all the other dialects combined, and continues to make its progress in the enclaves where non-literary dialects are still being spoken. The differences among the dialects can be illustrated on the example of Schleicher's fable. Diacritic signs are used to show the difference in accents and prosody, which are often quite significant, but which are not reflected in the usual orthography. | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Neo-Štokavian Ijekavian/Ekavian** Óvca i kònji Óvca koja níje ìmala vȕnē vȉd(j)ela je kònje na br(ij)égu. Jèdan je òd njīh vȗkao téška kȍla, drȕgī je nòsio vèliku vrȅću, a trȅćī je nòsio čòv(j)eka. Óvca rȅče kònjima: «Sȑce me bòlī glȅdajūći čòv(j)eka kako jȁšē na kònju». A kònji rȅkoše: «Slȕšāj, ȏvco, nȃs sȑca bòlē kada vȉdīmo da čòv(j)ek, gospòdār, rȃdī vȕnu od ovácā i prȁvī òd(j)eću zá se. I ȍndā óvca nȇmā vȉše vȕnē. Čȗvši tō, óvca pȍb(j)eže ȕ polje. | **Old Štokavian (Orubica, Posavina)**: Óvca i kònji Óvca kòjā nî ìmala vȕnē vȉdla kònje na brîgu. Jèdān od njȉjū vũkō tȇška kȍla, drȕgī nosȉjo vȅlikū vrȅću, a trȅćī nosȉjo čovȉka. Óvca kȃza kȍnjima: «Svȅ me bolĩ kad glȅdām kako čòvik na kònju jȁšī». A kònji kāzȁše: «Slȕšāj, ȏvco, nãs sȑca bolũ kad vȉdīmo da čòvik, gȁzda, prȁvī vȕnu od ovãc i prȁvī rȍbu zá se od njẽ. I ȍndā ōvcȁ néma vȉšē vȕnē. Kad tȏ čȕ ōvcȁ, ȕteče ȕ polje. | **Čakavian (Matulji near Rijeka)**: Ovcȁ i konjı̏ Ovcȁ kȃ ni imȅla vȕni vȉdela je konjȉ na brȇge. Jedȃn je vȗkal tȇški vȏz, drȕgi je nosîl vȅlu vrȅt'u, a trȅt'i je nosîl čovȅka. Ovcȁ je reklȁ konjȇn: «Sȑce me bolĩ dok glȅdan čovȅka kako jȁše na konjȅ». A konjȉ su reklȉ: «Poslȕšaj, ovcȁ, nȃs sȑca bolẽ kad vȉdimo da čovȅk, gospodãr dȅla vȕnu od ovãc i dȅla rȍbu zȃ se. I ȍnda ovcȁ nĩma vȉše vȕni. Kad je tȏ čȕla, ovcȁ je pobȅgla va pȍje. | **Kajkavian (Marija Bistrica)**: õfca i kȍjni õfca tera nı̃je imȅ̩la vȕne vȉdla je kȍjne na briẽgu. Jȇn od nîh je vlẽ̩ke̩l tẽška kȍla, drȕgi je nȍsil vȅliku vrȅ̩ču, a trẽjti je nȍsil čovȅ̩ka. õfca je rȇkla kȍjnem: «Sȑce me bolĩ kad vîdim čovȅka kak jȃše na kȍjnu». A kȍjni su rȇkli: «Poslȕhni, õfca, nȃs sȑca bolĩju kad vîdime da čȍve̩k, gospodãr, dȇ̩la vȕnu ot õfci i dȇ̩la oblȅ̩ku zȃ se. I ȏnda õfca nȇma vȉše vȕne. Kad je to čȗla, õfca je pobȇ̩gla f pȍlje. | **English language** The Sheep and the Horses [On a hill,] a sheep that had no wool saw horses, one of them pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly. The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses". The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool". Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain. | | ### Division by *jat* reflex A series of isoglosses crosscuts the main dialects. The modern reflexes of the long Common Slavic vowel *jat*, usually transcribed \*ě, vary by location as /i/, /e/, and /ije/ or /je/. Local varieties of the dialects are labeled Ikavian, Ekavian, and Ijekavian, respectively, depending on the reflex. The long and short *jat* is reflected as long or short \*/i/ and /e/ in Ikavian and Ekavian, but Ijekavian dialects introduce a *ije*/*je* alternation to retain a distinction. Standard Croatian and Bosnian are based on Ijekavian, whereas Serbian uses both Ekavian and Ijekavian forms (Ijekavian for Bosnian Serbs, Ekavian for most of Serbia). Influence of standard language through state media and education has caused non-standard varieties to lose ground to the literary forms. The jat-reflex rules are not without exception. For example, when short *jat* is preceded by *r*, in most Ijekavian dialects developed into /re/ or, occasionally, /ri/. The prefix *prě-* ("trans-, over-") when long became *pre-* in eastern Ijekavian dialects but to *prije-* in western dialects; in Ikavian pronunciation, it also evolved into *pre-* or *prije-* due to potential ambiguity with *pri-* ("approach, come close to"). For verbs that had *-ěti* in their infinitive, the past participle ending *-ěl* evolved into *-io* in Ijekavian Neo-Štokavian. The following are some examples: | English | Predecessor | Ekavian | Ikavian | Ijekavian | Ijekavian development | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | beautiful | \*lěp | lep | lip | lijep | long *ě* → *ije* | | time | \*vrěme | vreme | vrime | vrijeme | | faith | \*věra | vera | vira | vjera | short *ě* → *je* | | crossing | \*prělaz | prelaz | prеlaz *or*prijelaz | prеlaz *or*prijelaz | *pr* + long *ě* → *prije* | | times | \*vrěmena | vremena | vrimena | vremena | *r* + short *ě* → *re* | | need | \*trěbati | trebati | tribat(i) | trebati | | heat | \*grějati | grejati | grijati | grijati | *r* + short *ě* → *ri* | | saw | \*viděl | video | vidio | vidio | *ěl* → *io* | | village | \*selo | selo | selo | selo | *e* in root, not *ě* | Present sociolinguistic situation --------------------------------- The nature and classification of Serbo-Croatian has been the subject of long-standing sociolinguistic debate. The question is whether Serbo-Croatian should be called a single language or a cluster of closely related languages. ### Comparison with other pluricentric languages Linguist Enisa Kafadar argues that there is only one Serbo-Croatian language with several varieties. This has made it possible to include all four varieties in new grammars of the language. Daniel Bunčić concludes that it is a pluricentric language, with four standard variants spoken in Serbia, Croatia, Montenegro, and Bosnia-Herzegovina. The mutual intelligibility between their speakers "exceeds that between the standard variants of English, French, German, or Spanish". "There is no doubt of the near 100% mutual intelligibility of (standard) Croatian and (standard) Serbian, as is obvious from the ability of all groups to enjoy each others' films, TV and sports broadcasts, newspapers, rock lyrics etc." Other linguists have argued that the differences between the variants of Serbo-Croatian are less significant than those between the variants of English, German, Dutch, and Hindustani. Among pluricentric languages, Serbo-Croatian was the only one with a pluricentric standardisation within one state. The dissolution of Yugoslavia has made Serbo-Croatian even more of a typical pluricentric language, since the variants of other pluricentric languages are also spoken in different states. As in other pluricentric languages, all Serbo-Croatian standard varieties are based on the same dialect (the Eastern Herzegovinian subdialect of the Shtokavian dialect) and consequently, according to the sociolinguistic definitions, constitute a single pluricentric language (and not, for example, several Ausbau languages). According to linguist John Bailyn, "An examination of all the major 'levels' of language shows that BCS is clearly a single language with a single grammatical system." In 2017, numerous prominent writers, scientists, journalists, activists and other public figures from Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia signed the Declaration on the Common Language, which states that in Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro a common polycentric standard language is used, consisting of several standard varieties, such as German, English or Spanish. ### Contemporary names The use of *Serbo-Croatian* as a linguistic label has been the subject of long-standing controversy. Linguist Wayles Browne calls it a "term of convenience" and notes the difference of opinion as to whether it comprises a single language or a cluster of languages. Ronelle Alexander refers to the national standards as three separate languages, but also notes that the reasons for this are complex and generally non-linguistic. She calls BCS (her term for Serbo-Croatian) a single language for communicative linguistic purposes, but three separate languages for symbolic non-linguistic purposes. The current Serbian constitution of 2006 refers to the official language as *Serbian*, while the Montenegrin constitution of 2007 proclaimed *Montenegrin* as the primary official language, but also grants other languages and dialects the right of official use. * Most Bosniaks refer to their language as *Bosnian*. * Most Croats refer to their language as *Croatian*. * Most Serbs refer to their language as *Serbian*. * Montenegrins refer to their language either as *Serbian* or *Montenegrin*. * Ethnic Bunjevci refer to their language as *Croatian*, or *Bunjevac*, or as a sub-dialect of Serbo-Croatian. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has specified different Universal Decimal Classification (UDC) numbers for Croatian *(UDC 862,* abbreviation **hr**) and Serbian *(UDC 861*, abbreviation **sr**), while the cover term *Serbo-Croatian* is used to refer to the combination of original signs (*UDC 861/862,* abbreviation **sh**). Furthermore, the *ISO 639* standard designates the Bosnian language with the abbreviations **bos** and **bs**. While it operated, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, which had English and French as official languages, translated court proceedings and documents into what it referred to as "Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian", usually abbreviated as BCS. Translators were employed from all regions of the former Yugoslavia and all national and regional variations were accepted, regardless of the nationality of the person on trial (sometimes against a defendant's objections), on the grounds of mutual intelligibility. For utilitarian purposes, Serbo-Croatian is often called "*naš jezik*" ("our language") or "*naški*" (sic. "ourish" or "ourian") by native speakers. This term is frequently used to describe Serbo-Croatian by those who wish to avoid nationalistic and linguistic discussions. Native speakers traditionally describe their language as "*jedan ali ne jedinstven*"—"one but not uniform". ### Views of linguists in the former Yugoslavia #### Serbian linguists In 2021, the Board for Standardization of the Serbian Language issued an opinion that Serbo-Croatian is one language, and that it should be referred to as "Serbian language", while "Croatian", "Bosnian" and "Montenegrin" are to be considered merely local names for Serbian language. This opinion was widely criticized by Croatian government and representatives of the Croatian minority in Serbia. Serbian linguist Ranko Bugarski called this opinion "absurd" and "legacy of the 19th century linguistics". He said that Serbo-Croatian should be considered one language in a scientific sense under the "Serbo-Croatian" label, but four different languages in an administrative sense. Legally, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin are all officially recognized minority languages in Serbia. the Serbian Government also officially recognized Bunjevac language as a standard minority language in 2018 and was approved by the Serbian Ministry of Education for learning in schools. #### Croatian linguists The opinion of the majority of Croatian linguists is that there has never been a Serbo-Croatian language, but two different standard languages that overlapped sometime in the course of history. However, Croatian linguist Snježana Kordić has been leading an academic discussion on this issue in the Croatian journal *Književna republika* from 2001 to 2010. In the discussion, she shows that linguistic criteria such as mutual intelligibility, the huge overlap in the linguistic system, and the same dialect basis of the standard language are evidence that Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian and Montenegrin are four national variants of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language. Igor Mandić states: "During the last ten years, it has been the longest, the most serious and most acrid discussion (…) in 21st-century Croatian culture". Inspired by that discussion, a monograph on language and nationalism has been published. The view of the majority of Croatian linguists that there is no single Serbo-Croatian language but several different standard languages has been sharply criticized by German linguist Bernhard Gröschel in his monograph *Serbo-Croatian Between Linguistics and Politics*. A more detailed overview, incorporating arguments from Croatian philology and contemporary linguistics, would be as follows: *Serbo-Croatian is a language* One still finds many references to Serbo-Croatian, and proponents of Serbo-Croatian who deny that Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks and Montenegrins speak different languages. The usual argument generally goes along the following lines: * Standard Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin are completely mutually intelligible. In addition, they use two alphabets that perfectly match each other (Latin and Cyrillic), thanks to Ljudevit Gaj and Vuk Karadžić. Croats exclusively use Latin script and Serbs equally use both Cyrillic and Latin. Although Cyrillic is taught in Bosnia, most Bosnians, especially non-Serbs (Bosniaks and Croats), favor Latin. * The list of 100 words of the basic Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin vocabulary, as set out by Morris Swadesh, shows that all 100 words are identical. According to Swadesh, 81 per cent are sufficient to be considered as a single language. * Typologically and structurally, these standard variants have virtually the same grammar, i.e. morphology and syntax. * Serbo-Croatian was standardised in the mid-19th century, and all subsequent attempts to dissolve its basic unity have not succeeded. * The affirmation of distinct Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin languages is *politically* motivated. * According to phonology, morphology and syntax, these standard variants are essentially one language because they are based on the same, Štokavian dialect. *Serbo-Croatian is not a language* Similar arguments are made for other official standards which are drawn from identical or nearly identical material bases and which therefore constitute pluricentric languages, such as Malaysian (Malaysian Malay), and Indonesian (together called Malay), or Standard Hindi and Urdu (together called Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu). However, some argue that these arguments have flaws: * Phonology, morphology, and syntax are not the only dimensions of a language: other fields (semantics, pragmatics, stylistics, lexicology, etc.) also differ slightly. However, it is the case with other pluricentric languages. A comparison is made to the closely related North Germanic languages (or dialects, if one prefers), though these are not fully mutually intelligible as the Serbo-Croatian standards are. A closer comparison may be General American and Received Pronunciation in English, which are closer to each other than the latter is to other dialects which are subsumed under "British English". * Since the Croatian as recorded in Držić and Gundulić's works (16th and 17th centuries) is virtually the same as the contemporary standard Croatian (understandable archaisms apart), it is evident that the 19th-century formal standardization was just the final touch in the process that, as far as Croatian is concerned, had lasted more than three centuries. The radical break with the past, characteristic of modern Serbian (whose vernacular was likely not as similar to Croatian as it is today), is a trait completely at variance with Croatian linguistic history. In short, formal standardization processes for Croatian and Serbian had coincided chronologically (and, one could add, ideologically), but they have not produced a unified standard language. Gundulić did not write in "Serbo-Croatian", nor did August Šenoa. Marko Marulić and Marin Držić wrote in a sophisticated idiom of Croatian some 300–350 years before "Serbo-Croatian ideology" appeared. Marulić explicitly called his Čakavian-written *Judita* as *u uerish haruacchi slosena* ("arranged in Croatian stanzas") in 1501, and the Štokavian grammar and dictionary of Bartol Kašić written in 1604 unambiguously identifies the ethnonyms *Slavic* and *Illyrian* with *Croatian*. The linguistic debate in this region is more about politics than about linguistics per se. The topic of language for writers from Dalmatia and Dubrovnik prior to the 19th century made a distinction only between speakers of Italian or Slavic, since those were the two main groups that inhabited Dalmatian city-states at that time. Whether someone spoke Croatian or Serbian was not an important distinction then, as the two languages were not distinguished by most speakers. However, most intellectuals and writers from Dalmatia who used the Štokavian dialect and practiced the Catholic faith saw themselves as part of a Croatian nation as far back as the mid-16th to 17th centuries, some 300 years before Serbo-Croatian ideology appeared. Their loyalty was first and foremost to Catholic Christendom, but when they professed an ethnic identity, they referred to themselves as "Slovin" and "Illyrian" (a sort of forerunner of Catholic baroque pan-Slavism) **and** Croat – these 30-odd writers over the span of c. 350 years always saw themselves as Croats first and never as part of a Serbian nation. It should also be noted that, in the pre-national era, Catholic religious orientation did not necessarily equate with Croat ethnic identity in Dalmatia. A Croatian follower of Vuk Karadžić, Ivan Broz, noted that for a Dalmatian to identify oneself as a Serb was seen as foreign as identifying oneself as Macedonian or Greek. Vatroslav Jagić pointed out in 1864: > As I have mentioned in the preface, history knows only two national names in these parts—Croatian and Serbian. As far as Dubrovnik is concerned, the Serbian name was never in use; on the contrary, the Croatian name was frequently used and gladly referred to ... > > > > At the end of the 15th century [in Dubrovnik and Dalmatia], sermons and poems were exquisitely crafted in Croatian by those men whose names are widely renowned by deep learning and piety. > > — *The History of the Croatian Language*, Zagreb, 1864. On the other hand, the opinion of Jagić from 1864 is argued not to have firm grounds. When Jagić says "Croatian", he refers to a few cases referring to the Dubrovnik vernacular as *ilirski* (Illyrian). This was a common name for all Slavic vernaculars in Dalmatian cities among the Roman inhabitants. In the meantime, other written monuments are found that mention *srpski*, *lingua serviana* (= Serbian), and some that mention Croatian. By far the most competent Serbian scientist[*editorializing*] on the Dubrovnik language issue, Milan Rešetar, who was born in Dubrovnik himself, wrote behalf of language characteristics: "The one who thinks that Croatian and Serbian are two separate languages must confess that Dubrovnik always (linguistically) used to be Serbian." Finally, the former *medieval* texts from Dubrovnik and Montenegro dating before the 16th century were neither true Štokavian nor Serbian, but mostly specific a Jekavian-Čakavian that was nearer to actual Adriatic islanders in Croatia. ### Political connotations Nationalists have conflicting views about the language(s). The nationalists among the Croats conflictingly claim either that they speak an entirely separate language from Serbs and Bosniaks or that these two peoples have, due to the longer lexicographic tradition among Croats, somehow "borrowed" their standard languages from them. Bosniak nationalists claim that both Croats and Serbs have "appropriated" the Bosnian language, since Ljudevit Gaj and Vuk Karadžić preferred the Neo-Štokavian Ijekavian dialect, widely spoken in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as the basis for language standardization, whereas the nationalists among the Serbs claim either that any divergence in the language is artificial, or claim that the Štokavian dialect is theirs and the Čakavian Croats'— in more extreme formulations Croats have "taken" or "stolen" their language from the Serbs. Proponents of unity among Southern Slavs claim that there is a single language with normal dialectal variations. The term "Serbo-Croatian" (or synonyms) is not officially used in any of the successor countries of former Yugoslavia. In Serbia, the Serbian standard has an official status countrywide, while both Serbian and Croatian are official in the province of Vojvodina. A large Bosniak minority is present in the southwest region of Sandžak, but the "official recognition" of Bosnian is moot. Bosnian is an optional course in first and second grade of the elementary school, while it is also in official use in the municipality of Novi Pazar. However, its nomenclature is controversial, as there is incentive that it is referred to as "Bosniak" (*bošnjački*) rather than "Bosnian" (*bosanski*) (see Bosnian language#Controversy and recognition for details). Croatian is the official language of Croatia, while Serbian is also official in municipalities with significant Serb population. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, all three standard languages are recorded as official. Confrontations have on occasion been absurd. The academic Muhamed Filipović, in an interview to Slovenian television, told of a local court in a Croatian district requesting a paid translator to translate from Bosnian to Croatian before the trial could proceed. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia referred to the language as "Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian", usually abbreviated as BCS. Translators were employed from all regions of the former Yugoslavia and all national and regional variations were accepted, regardless of the nationality of the person on trial (sometimes against a defendant's objections), on the grounds of mutual intelligibility. ### ISO classification Since the year 2000, ISO 639 classification recognizes *Serbo-Croatian* only as a 'macrolanguage', having removed its original codes from ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-2 standards. That left the ISO 639-3 'macrolanguage' (a book-keeping device in the ISO 639-3 standard to keep track of which ISO 639-3 codes correspond with which ISO 639-2 codes) stranded without a corresponding ISO 639-2 code. Words of Serbo-Croatian origin ------------------------------ * *Cravat*, from French *cravate* "Croat", by analogy with Flemish *Krawaat* and German *Krabate*, from Serbo-Croatian *Hrvat*, as cravats were characteristic of Croatian dress * *Polje*, from Serbo-Croatian *polje* "field" * *Slivovitz*, from German *Slibowitz*, from Bulgarian *slivovitza* or Serbo-Croatian *šljivovica* "plum brandy", from Old Slavic \*sliva "plum" (cognate with English sloe) * *Tamburitza*, Serbo-Croatian diminutive of *tambura*, from Turkish, from Persian *ṭambūr* "tanbur" * *Uvala*, from Serbo-Croatian *uvala* "hollow" * *Vampire*, from Serbo-Croatian *vampir* via German *Vampir* or French *Vampire* Sample text ----------- Article 1 of the *Universal Declaration of Human Rights* in Serbo-Croatian, written in the Latin alphabet: *Sva ljudska bića rađaju se slobodna i jednaka u dostojanstvu i pravima. Ona su obdarena razumom i sv(ij)ešću i treba jedni prema drugima da postupaju u duhu bratstva.* Article 1 of the *Universal Declaration of Human Rights* in Serbo-Croatian, written in the Cyrillic script: *Сва људска бића рађају се слободна и једнака у достојанству и правима. Она су обдарена разумом и св(иј)ешћу и треба једни према другима да поступају у духу братства.* Article 1 of the *Universal Declaration of Human Rights* in English: *All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.* See also -------- * Ausbau languages * Comparison of standard Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian * Declaration on the Common Language 2017 * Dialects of Serbo-Croatian * Language secessionism in Serbo-Croatian * Pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language * Serbo-Croatian relative clauses * Serbo-Croatian kinship References ---------- ### Sources * Alexander, Ronelle (2006). *Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, a Grammar: With Sociolinguistic Commentary*. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299211936. * Alexander, Ronelle (2013). "Language and Identity: The Fate of Serbo-Croatian". *Entangled Histories of the Balkans*. Vol. 1. Leiden, South Holland; Boston, MA: Brill. pp. 341–417. ISBN 9789004250765. * Ammon, Ulrich (1995). *Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz: das Problem der nationalen Varietäten* [*German Language in Germany, Austria and Switzerland: The Problem of National Varieties*] (in German). Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter. p. 575. OCLC 33981055. * Blum, Daniel (2002). *Sprache und Politik : Sprachpolitik und Sprachnationalismus in der Republik Indien und dem sozialistischen Jugoslawien (1945–1991)* [*Language and Policy: Language Policy and Linguistic Nationalism in the Republic of India and the Socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1991)*]. Beiträge zur Südasienforschung (in German). Vol. 192. Würzburg: Ergon. p. 200. ISBN 978-3-89913-253-3. OCLC 51961066. * Brown, Edward Keith; Anderson, Anne, eds. (2006). *Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics*. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-044299-0. OCLC 3945869. * Bugarski, Ranko; Hawkesworth, Celia, eds. (2006). *Language in the Former Yugoslav Lands*. Bloomington: Slavica Publishers. p. 325. ISBN 978-0-89357-298-3. OCLC 52858529. * Greenberg, Robert D. (2004). *Language and Identity in the Balkans: Serbo-Croatian and its Disintegration* (1st ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191514555. * Greenberg, Robert D. (2008). *Language and Identity in the Balkans: Serbo-Croatian and its Disintegration* (2nd updated ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199208753. * Gröschel, Bernhard (2003). "Postjugoslavische Amtssprachenregelungen – Soziolinguistische Argumente gegen die Einheitlichkeit des Serbokroatischen?" [Post-Yugoslav Official Languages Regulations – Sociolinguistic Arguments Against Consistency of Serbo-Croatian?]. *Srpski Jezik* (in German). **8** (1–2): 135–196. ISSN 0354-9259. Retrieved 18 May 2015. (COBISS-Sr). * Gröschel, Bernhard (2009). *Das Serbokroatische zwischen Linguistik und Politik: mit einer Bibliographie zum postjugoslavischen Sprachenstreit* [*Serbo-Croatian Between Linguistics and Politics: With a Bibliography of the Post-Yugoslav Language Dispute*]. Lincom Studies in Slavic Linguistics (in German). Vol. 34. Munich: Lincom Europa. p. 451. ISBN 978-3-929075-79-3. LCCN 2009473660. OCLC 428012015. OL 15295665W. COBISS 43144034. Contents. * Kordić, Snježana (2006), *Serbo-Croatian*, Languages of the World/Materials, vol. 148, Munich & Newcastle: Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-161-1, OCLC 37959860, OL 2863538W, CROSBI 426503 * Kordić, Snježana (2010). *Jezik i nacionalizam* [*Language and Nationalism*] (PDF). Rotulus Universitas (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Durieux. p. 430. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3467646. ISBN 978-953-188-311-5. LCCN 2011520778. OCLC 729837512. OL 15270636W. S2CID 220918333. CROSBI 475567. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 June 2012. Retrieved 21 April 2022. * Lencek, Rado (1976). "A few remarks for the history of the term 'Serbocroatian' language". *Zbornik Za Filologiju I Lingvistiku*. **19** (1): 45–53. ISSN 0514-6143. * Mappes-Niediek, Norbert (2005). *Die Ethno-Falle: der Balkan-Konflikt und was Europa daraus lernen kann* [*The Ethnic Trap: the Balkan conflict and what Europe can learn from it*] (in German). Berlin: Christoph Links Verlag. p. 224. ISBN 978-3-86153-367-2. OCLC 61665869. * Pohl, Hans-Dieter (1996). "Serbokroatisch – Rückblick und Ausblick" [Serbo-Croatian – Looking backward and forward]. In Ohnheiser, Ingeborg (ed.). *Wechselbeziehungen zwischen slawischen Sprachen, Literaturen und Kulturen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart : Akten der Tagung aus Anlaß des 25jährigen Bestehens des Instituts für Slawistik an der Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, 25. – 27. Mai 1995*. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft, Slavica aenipontan (in German). Vol. 4. Innsbruck: Non Lieu. pp. 205–219. OCLC 243829127. * Thomas, Paul-Louis (2003). "Le serbo-croate (bosniaque, croate, monténégrin, serbe): de l'étude d'une langue à l'identité des langues" [Serbo-Croatian (Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, Serbian): from the study of a language to the identity of languages]. *Revue des études slaves* (in French). **74** (2–3): 311–325. doi:10.3406/slave.2002.6801. ISSN 0080-2557. OCLC 754204160. ZDB-ID 208723-6. Further reading --------------- * Banac, Ivo: *Main Trends in the Croatian Language Question*. Yale University Press, 1984. * Bunčić, D., 2016. Serbo-Croatian/Serbian: Cyrillic and Latin. Biscriptality: A Sociolinguistic Typology, pp. 231–246. * Franolić, Branko: *A Historical Survey of Literary Croatian*. Nouvelles éditions Latines, Paris, 1984. * Franolić, B., 1983. The development of literary Croatian and Serbian. Buske Verlag. * Franolić, Branko (1988). *Language Policy in Yugoslavia with special reference to Croatian*. Paris: Nouvelles Editions Latines. * Franolić, Branko; Žagar, Mateo (2008). *A Historical Outline of Literary Croatian & The Glagolitic Heritage of Croatian Culture*. London & Zagreb: Erasmus & CSYPN. ISBN 978-953-6132-80-5. * Greenberg, Robert D. (1999). "In the Aftermath of Yugoslavia's Collapse: The Politics of Language Death and Language Birth". *International Politics*. **36** (2): 141–158. * Greenberg, Robert D. (2013). "Language, Religion, and Nationalism: The Case of the Former Serbo-Croatian". *Typen slavischer Standardsprachen: Theoretische, methodische und empirische Zugaenge*. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 217–231. ISBN 9783447100281. * Ivić, Pavle: *Die serbokroatischen Dialekte*. the Hague, 1958. * Jakobsen, Per (2008). "O strukturalno-lingvističkim konstantama srpskohrvatskog jezika (inventar fonema i fonotaktička struktura)" [Serbocroatian structural-linguistic constants (inventory of phonemes and phonotactic structure)]. In Ostojić, Branislav (ed.). *Jezička situacija u Crnoj Gori – norma i standardizacija* (in Serbo-Croatian). Podgorica: Crnogorska akademija nauka i umjetnosti. pp. 25–34. ISBN 978-86-7215-207-4. (COBISS-CG) Archived 2018-10-05 at the Wayback Machine. * Kristophson, Jürgen (2000). "Vom Widersinn der Dialektologie: Gedanken zum Štokavischen" [Dialectological Nonsense: Thoughts on Shtokavian]. *Zeitschrift für Balkanologie* (in German). **36** (2): 178–186. ISSN 0044-2356. ZDB-ID 201058-6. * Magner, Thomas F.: *Zagreb Kajkavian dialect*. Pennsylvania State University, 1966. * Magner, Thomas F. (1991). *Introduction to the Croatian and Serbian Language* (Revised ed.). Pennsylvania State University. * Merk, Hening (2008). "Neka pragmatična zapažanja o postojanju srpskohrvatskog jezika". In Ostojić, Branislav (ed.). *Jezička situacija u Crnoj Gori – norma i standardizacija* (in Serbo-Croatian). Podgorica: Crnogorska akademija nauka i umjetnosti. pp. 295–299. ISBN 978-86-7215-207-4. (COBISS-CG) Archived 2018-10-05 at the Wayback Machine. * Murray Despalatović, Elinor: *Ljudevit Gaj and the Illyrian Movement*. Columbia University Press, 1975. * Spalatin, C., 1966. Serbo-Croatian or Serbian and Croatian?: Considerations on the Croatian Declaration and Serbian Proposal of March 1967. Journal of Croatian Studies, 7, pp. 3–13. * Zekovic, Sreten & Cimeša, Boro: *Elementa montenegrina*, Chrestomatia 1/90. CIP, Zagreb 1991.

Serbo-Croatian

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbo-Croatian

**Kingston** may refer to: Places ------ * List of places called Kingston, including the five most populated: + Kingston, Jamaica + Kingston upon Hull, England + City of Kingston, Victoria, Australia + Kingston, Ontario, Canada + Kingston upon Thames, England Animals ------- * Kingston (horse) (1884–1912), an American Thoroughbred racehorse * Kingston parakeets, feral parakeets in the UK Music ----- * Kingston (band), a New Zealand pop/rock band * Kingston (country music band), an American duo * Kingston Maguire, known as Kingston, of hip hop duo Blue Sky Black Death * The Kingston Trio, an American folk and pop music group People ------ * Kingston (surname), a surname, including a list of people with the name * Earl of Kingston and Baron Kingston and Viscount Kingston, a title in the Peerage of Ireland * Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull, a title in the Peerage of Great Britain, and Earl of Kingston-upon-Hull, a title in the Peerage of England Rivers ------ * Kingston Brook, a small river in central England * Kingston Creek, a small river in San Mateo County, California Other uses ---------- * Kingston (biscuit), an Australian sweet biscuit * Kingston clan, or The Latter Day Church of Christ, a Mormon fundamentalist denomination * Kingston Cricket Club, an 18th-century team in Kingston upon Thames, England * Kingston FC, a soccer team in Ontario, Canada * Kingston station (Rhode Island), a historic American railway station * Kingston Technology, an American multinational computer technology corporation * Kingston (Upper Marlboro, Maryland), a historic home in the U.S. * List of ships named *Kingston* * HM Prison Kingston, former prison in Portsmouth, England * Kingston University, a university based in Kingston upon Thames See also -------- * All pages with titles beginning with *Kingston* * All pages with titles containing *Kingston* * Kingston Airport (disambiguation) * Kingston Road (disambiguation) * Kingston Bridge (disambiguation) * Kingston College (disambiguation) * Kingston Hill (disambiguation) * Kingston House (disambiguation) * Kingston station (disambiguation) * Kingstone (disambiguation) * Kington (disambiguation) * Kingtown (disambiguation) * Kingstown (disambiguation) * Kinston (disambiguation) * Kingston courthouse shooting, a 2005 incident in Kingston, Tennessee, U.S. * *Kingston: Confidential*, an American TV drama * *Kingston v Preston*, an English contract law case * Kingston valve, fitted in the bottom of a ship Disambiguation iconThis disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title **Kingston**. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Kingston

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingston

The **Sustainable Development Goals** or **Global Goals** are a collection of seventeen interlinked objectives designed to serve as a "shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future". The SDGs are: no poverty; zero hunger; good health and well-being; quality education; gender equality; clean water and sanitation; affordable and clean energy; decent work and economic growth; industry, innovation and infrastructure; reduced inequalities; sustainable cities and communities; responsible consumption and production; climate action; life below water; life on land; peace, justice, and strong institutions; and partnerships for the goals. The SDGs emphasize the interconnected environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainable development by putting sustainability at their center. The SDGs were formulated in 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) as part of the Post-2015 Development Agenda, which sought to create a future global development framework to succeed the Millennium Development Goals, which ended that year. They were formally articulated and adopted in a UNGA resolution called the **2030 Agenda**, known colloquially as **Agenda 2030**. On 6 July 2017, the SDGs were made more actionable by a UNGA resolution that identifies specific targets for each goal and provides indicators to measure progress. Most targets are to be achieved by 2030, although some have no end date. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has also taken the initiative to achieve the SDGs by offering their support to developing countries. For example, the IMF works to reduce poverty in low-income developing countries by offering financial support during the COVID-19 pandemic. There are cross-cutting issues and synergies between the different goals; for example, for SDG 13 on climate action, the IPCC sees robust synergies with SDGs 3 (health), 7 (clean energy), 11 (cities and communities), 12 (responsible consumption and production) and 14 (oceans). Conversely, critics and observers have also identified trade-offs between the goals,such as between ending hunger and promoting environmental sustainability. Other concerns include there being too many goals (resulting in compounding trade-offs), a weak emphasis on environmental sustainability, and difficulties tracking qualitative indicators. The SDGs are monitored by the UN (United Nations) High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF), an annual forum held under the auspices of the United Nations Economic and Social Council. However, the HLPF comes with its own set of problems due to a lack of political leadership and divergent national interests. To facilitate monitoring of progress on SDG implementation, the online SDG Tracker was launched in June 2018 to present all available data across all indicators. The COVID-19 pandemic had serious negative impacts on all 17 SDGs in 2020. A scientific assessment on the political impacts of the SDGs found in 2022 that the SDGs have only had limited *transformative political impact* thus far. At the very least, they have affected the way actors understand and communicate about sustainable development. Adoption -------- On 25 September 2015, the 193 countries of the UN General Assembly adopted the 2030 Development Agenda titled "Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development". This agenda has 92 paragraphs. Paragraph 59 outlines the 17 Sustainable Development Goals and the associated 169 targets and 232 indicators. The UN-led process involved its 193 Member States and global civil society. The resolution is a broad intergovernmental agreement that acts as the Post-2015 Development Agenda. The SDGs build on the principles agreed upon in Resolution A/RES/66/288, entitled "The Future We Want". This was a non-binding document released as a result of Rio+20 Conference held in 2012. Implementation -------------- Implementation of the SDGs started worldwide in 2016. This process can also be called *Localizing the SDGs*. In 2019 António Guterres (secretary-general of the United Nations) issued a global call for a *Decade of Action* to deliver the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. This decade will last from 2020 to 2030. The plan is that the secretary general of the UN will convene an annual platform for driving the Decade of Action. There are two main types of actors for implementation of the SDGs: state and non-state actors. State actors include national governments and sub-national authorities, whereas non-state actors are corporations and civil society. Civil society participation and empowerment is important but there are also diverse interests in this group. Building new partnerships is useful. However, the SDGs are not legally binding and purposefully designed to provide much leeway for actors. Therefore, they can interpret the goals differently and often according to their interests. Content of the 17 goals ----------------------- ### Structure of goals, targets and indicators The lists of targets and indicators for each of the 17 SDGs was published in a UN resolution in July 2017. Each goal typically has 8–12 targets, and each target has between one and four indicators used to measure progress toward reaching the targets, with the average of 1.5 indicators per target. The targets are either *outcome targets* (circumstances to be attained) or *means of implementation* targets. The latter targets were introduced late in the process of negotiating the SDGs to address the concern of some Member States about how the SDGs were to be achieved. Goal 17 is wholly about how the SDGs will be achieved. The numbering system of targets is as follows: Outcome targets use numbers, whereas means of implementation targets use lower case letters. For example, SDG 6 has a total of 8 targets. The first six are outcome targets and are labeled Targets 6.1 to 6.6. The final two targets are means of implementation targets and are labeled as Targets 6.a and 6.b. The United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) website provides a current official indicator list which includes all updates until the 51st session Statistical Commission in March 2020. The indicators for the targets have varying levels of methodological development and availability of data at the global level. Initially, some indicators (called Tier 3 indicators) had no internationally established methodology or standards. Later, the global indicator framework was adjusted so that Tier 3 indicators were either abandoned, replaced or refined. As of 17 July 2020, there were 231 unique indicators. Data or information must address all vulnerable groups such as children, elderly folks, persons with disabilities, refugees, indigenous peoples, migrants, and internally-displaced persons. #### Reviews of indicators The indicator framework was comprehensively reviewed at the 51st session of the United Nations Statistical Commission in 2020. It will be reviewed again in 2025. At the 51st session of the Statistical Commission (held in New York City from 3–6 March 2020) a total of 36 changes to the global indicator framework were proposed for the commission's consideration. Some indicators were replaced, revised or deleted. Between 15 October 2018 and 17 April 2020, other changes were made to the indicators. Yet their measurement continues to be fraught with difficulties. ### Listing of 17 goals with their targets and indicators #### Goal 1: No poverty SDG 1 is to: "End poverty in all its forms everywhere". Achieving SDG 1 would end extreme poverty globally by 2030. One of its indicators is the proportion of population living below the poverty line. The data gets analyzed by sex, age, employment status, and geographical location (urban/rural). The goal has seven targets and 13 indicators to measure progress. The five *outcome targets* are: eradication of extreme poverty; reduction of all poverty by half; implementation of social protection systems; ensuring equal rights to ownership, basic services, technology and economic resources; and the building of resilience to environmental, economic and social disasters. The two targets related to *means of implementation* SDG 1 are mobilization of resources to end poverty; and the establishment of poverty eradication policy frameworks at all levels. #### Goal 2: Zero hunger (No hunger) SDG 2 is to: "End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture". Indicators for this goal are for example the prevalence of undernourishment, prevalence of severe food insecurity, and prevalence of stunting among children under five years of age. SDG 2 has eight targets and 14 indicators to measure progress. The five *outcome targets* are: ending hunger and improving access to food; ending all forms of malnutrition; agricultural productivity; sustainable food production systems and resilient agricultural practices; and genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals; investments, research and technology. The three *means of implementation targets* include: addressing trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets and food commodity markets and their derivatives. #### Goal 3: Good health and well-being SDG 3 is to: "Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages". Important indicators here are life expectancy as well as child and maternal mortality. Further indicators are for example deaths from road traffic injuries, prevalence of current tobacco use, suicide mortality rate. SDG 3 has 13 targets and 28 indicators to measure progress toward targets. The first nine targets are *outcome targets*. Those are: reduction of maternal mortality; ending all preventable deaths under five years of age; fight communicable diseases; ensure reduction of mortality from non-communicable diseases and promote mental health; prevent and treat substance abuse; reduce road injuries and deaths; grant universal access to sexual and reproductive care, family planning and education; achieve universal health coverage; and reduce illnesses and deaths from hazardous chemicals and pollution. The four *means of implementation targets* are: implement the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control; support research, development and universal access to affordable vaccines and medicines; increase health financing and support health workforce in developing countries; and improve early warning systems for global health risks. #### Goal 4: Quality education SDG 4 is to: "Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all". The indicators for this goal are for example attendance rates at primary schools, completion rates of primary school education, participation in tertiary education and so forth. In each case, parity indices are looked at to ensure that disadvantaged students do not miss out (data is collected on "female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and others such as disability status, indigenous peoples") . There is also an indicator around the facilities that the school buildings have (access to electricity, the internet, computers, drinking water, toilets etc.). SDG 4 has ten targets which are measured by 11 indicators. The seven *outcome targets* are: free primary and secondary education; equal access to quality pre-primary education; affordable technical, vocational and higher education; increased number of people with relevant skills for financial success; elimination of all discrimination in education; universal literacy and numeracy; and education for sustainable development and global citizenship. The three *means of implementation targets* are: build and upgrade inclusive and safe schools; expand higher education scholarships for developing countries; and increase the supply of qualified teachers in developing countries. #### Goal 5: Gender equality SDG 5 is to: "Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls". Indicators include for example having suitable legal frameworks and the representation by women in national parliament or in local deliberative bodies. Numbers on forced marriage and female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) are also included in another indicator. Through the pledge to "Leave No One Behind", countries have committed to fast-track progress for those furthest behind, first. SDG 5 aims to grant women and girls equal rights, opportunities to live free without discrimination including workplace discrimination or any violence. This is to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. #### Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation SDG 6 is to: "Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all". The Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO and UNICEF is responsible for monitoring progress to achieve the first two targets of this goal. Important indicators for this goal are the percentages of the population that uses safely managed drinking water, and has access to safely managed sanitation. The JMP reported in 2017 that 4.5 billion people do not have safely managed sanitation. Another indicator looks at the proportion of domestic and industrial wastewater that is safely treated. The six *outcome targets* include: Safe and affordable drinking water; end open defecation and provide access to sanitation, and hygiene, improve water quality, wastewater treatment and safe reuse, increase water-use efficiency and ensure freshwater supplies, implement IWRM, protect and restore water-related ecosystems. The two *means of implementation targets* are to expand water and sanitation support to developing countries, and to support local engagement in water and sanitation management. #### Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy SDG 7 is to: "Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all". One of the indicators for this goal is the percentage of population with access to electricity (progress in expanding access to electricity has been made in several countries, notably India, Bangladesh, and Kenya). Other indicators look at the renewable energy share and energy efficiency. The goal has five targets to be achieved by 2030. Progress towards the targets is measured by six indicators. Three out of the five targets are *outcome targets*: Universal access to modern energy; increase global percentage of renewable energy; double the improvement in energy efficiency. The remaining two targets are *means of implementation targets*: to promote access to research, technology and investments in clean energy; and expand and upgrade energy services for developing countries. In other words, these targets include access to affordable and reliable energy while increasing the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix. They also focus on improving energy efficiency, international cooperation and investment in clean energy infrastructure. #### Goal 8: Decent work and economic growth SDG 8 is to: "Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all". Important indicators for this goal include economic growth in least developed countries and the rate of real GDP per capita. Further examples are rates of youth unemployment and occupational injuries or the number of women engaged in the labor force compared to men. SDG 8 has twelve targets in total to be achieved by 2030. Some targets are for 2030; others are for 2020. The first ten are *outcome targets*. These are; "sustainable economic growth; diversify, innovate and upgrade for economic productivity", "promote policies to support job creation and growing enterprises", "improve resource efficiency in consumption and production", 'full employment and decent work with equal pay', 'promote youth employment, education and training', 'end modern slavery, trafficking, and child labour', 'protect labour rights and promote safe working environments', 'promote beneficial and sustainable tourism', universal access to banking, insurance and financial services. In addition, there are also two targets for *means of implementation*, which are: Increase aid for trade support; develop a global youth employment strategy. #### Goal 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure SDG 9 is to: "Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation". Indicators in this goal include for example the proportion of people who are employed in manufacturing activities or who are living in areas covered by a mobile network or who have access to the internet. An indicator that is connected to climate change is "CO2 emissions per unit of value added". SDG 9 has eight targets, and progress is measured by twelve indicators. The first five targets are *outcome targets*: develop sustainable, resilient and inclusive infrastructures; promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization; increase access to financial services and markets; upgrade all industries and infrastructures for sustainability; enhance research and upgrade industrial technologies. The remaining three targets are *means of implementation* *targets*: Facilitate sustainable infrastructure development for developing countries; support domestic technology development and industrial diversification; universal access to information and communications technology. #### Goal 10: Reduced inequality SDG 10 is to: "Reduce income inequality within and among countries". Important indicators for this SDG are income disparities, aspects of gender and disability, as well as policies for migration and mobility of people. The Goal has ten targets to be achieved by 2030. Progress towards targets will be measured by indicators. The first seven targets are *outcome targets*: Reduce income inequalities; promote universal social, economic and political inclusion; ensure equal opportunities and end discrimination; adopt fiscal and social policies that promotes equality; improved regulation of global financial markets and institutions; enhanced representation for developing countries in financial institutions; responsible and well-managed migration policies. The other three targets are *means of implementation targets*: Special and differential treatment for developing countries; encourage development assistance and investment in least developed countries; reduce transaction costs for migrant remittances. #### Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities SDG 11 is to: "Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable". Important indicators for this goal are the number of people living in urban slums, the proportion of the urban population who has convenient access to public transport, and the extent of built-up area per person. SDG 11 has 10 targets to be achieved, and this is being measured with 15 indicators. The seven *outcome targets* include safe and affordable housing, affordable and sustainable transport systems, inclusive and sustainable urbanization, protection of the world's cultural and natural heritage, reduction of the adverse effects of natural disasters, reduction of the environmental impacts of cities and to provide access to safe and inclusive green and public spaces. The three *means of implementation targets* include strong national and regional development planning, implementing policies for inclusion, resource efficiency, and disaster risk reduction in supporting the least developed countries in sustainable and resilient building. #### Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production SDG 12 is to: "Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns". One of the indicators is the number of national policy instrument to promote sustainable consumption and production patterns. Another one is global fossil fuel subsidies. An increase in domestic recycling and a reduced reliance on the global plastic waste trade are other actions that might help meet the goal. Sustainable Development Goal 12 has 11 targets. The first 8 are *outcome targets*, which are: implement the 10‑Year Framework of Programs on Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns; achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources; reducing by half the per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and the reduction of food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses; achieving the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle; reducing waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse; encourage companies to adopt sustainable practices; promote public procurement practices that are sustainable; and ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development. The three *means of implementation targets* are: support developing countries to strengthen their scientific and technological capacity; develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts; and remove market distortions, like fossil fuel subsidies, that encourage wasteful consumption. #### Goal 13: Climate action SDG 13 is to: "Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts by regulating emissions and promoting developments in renewable energy". In 2021 to early 2023, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) published its Sixth Assessment Report which assesses scientific, technical, and socio-economic information concerning climate change. SDG 13 has five targets which are to be achieved by 2030. They cover a wide range of issues surrounding climate action. The first three targets are *outcome targets*: Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related disasters; integrate climate change measures into policies and planning; build knowledge and capacity to meet climate change. The remaining two targets are *means of implementation targets*: To implement the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and to promote mechanisms to raise capacity for planning and management. Along with each target, there are indicators that provide a method to review the overall progress of each target. The UNFCCC is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change. #### Goal 14: Life below water SDG 14 is to: "Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development". The current efforts to protect oceans, marine environments and small-scale fishers are not meeting the need to protect the resources. Increased ocean temperatures and oxygen loss act concurrently with ocean acidification and constitute the *deadly trio* of climate change pressures on the marine environment. The first seven targets are *outcome targets*: Reduce marine pollution; protect and restore ecosystems; reduce ocean acidification; sustainable fishing; conserve coastal and marine areas; end subsidies contributing to overfishing; increase the economic benefits from sustainable use of marine resources. The last three targets are *means of implementation targets*: To increase scientific knowledge, research and technology for ocean health; support small scale fishers; implement and enforce international sea law. One indicator (14.1.1b) under Goal 14 specifically relates to reducing impacts from marine plastic pollution. #### Goal 15: Life on land SDG 15 is to: "Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss". The proportion of remaining forest area, desertification and species extinction risk are example indicators of this goal. The nine *outcome targets* include: Conserve and restore terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems; end deforestation and restore degraded forests; end desertification and restore degraded land; ensure conservation of mountain ecosystems, protect biodiversity and natural habitats; protect access to genetic resources and fair sharing of the benefits; eliminate poaching and trafficking of protected species; prevent invasive alien species on land and in water ecosystems; and integrate ecosystem and biodiversity in governmental planning. The three *means of implementation targets* include: Increase financial resources to conserve and sustainably use ecosystem and biodiversity; finance and incentivize sustainable forest management; combat global poaching and trafficking. #### Goal 16: Peace, justice and strong institutions SDG 16 is to: "Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels". Rates of birth registration and prevalence of bribery are two examples of indicators included in this goal. SDG 16 has ten *outcome targets*: Reduce violence; protect children from abuse, exploitation, trafficking and violence; promote the rule of law and ensure equal access to justice; combat organized crime and illicit financial and arms flows, substantially reduce corruption and bribery; develop effective, accountable and transparent institutions; ensure responsive, inclusive and representative decision-making; strengthen the participation in global governance; provide universal legal identity; ensure public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms. There are also two *means of implementation targets*: Strengthen national institutions to prevent violence and combat crime and terrorism; promote and enforce non-discriminatory laws and policies. #### Goal 17: Partnership for the goals SDG 17 is to: "Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development". Increasing international cooperation is seen as vital to achieving each of the 16 previous goals. Developing multi-stakeholder partnerships to share knowledge, expertise, technology, and financial support is seen as critical to overall success of the SDGs. The goal encompasses improving north–south and South-South cooperation, and public-private partnerships which involve civil societies are specifically mentioned. SDG 17 is a vision for improved and more equitable trade, as well as coordinated investment initiatives to promote sustainable development across borders. It is about strengthening and streamlining cooperation between nation-states, both developed and developing, using the SDGs as a shared framework and a shared vision for defining that collaborative way forward. It seeks to promote international trade and an equitable trading system. The Goal has 17 targets to be achieved by 2030, broken down into five categories: finance, technology, capacity building, trade and systemic issues. Progress towards targets will be measured by 25 indicators. All these targets are regarded as *means of implementation targets*. Cross-cutting issues and synergies ---------------------------------- To achieve sustainable development, three aspects or dimensions need to come together: The economic, socio-political, and environmental dimensions are all critically important and interdependent. Progress will require multidisciplinary and trans-disciplinary research across all three sectors. This proves difficult when major governments fail to support it. Cross cutting issues include for example gender equality, education, culture and health. These are just some examples of various interlinkages inherent in the SDGs. ### Gender equality The widespread consensus is that progress on all of the SDGs will be stalled if women's empowerment and gender equality are not prioritized, and treated holistically. The SDGs look to policy makers as well as private sector executives and board members to work toward gender equality. Statements from diverse sources, such as the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), UN Women and the World Pensions Forum, have noted that investments in women and girls have positive impacts on economies. National and global development investments in women and girls often exceed their initial scope. Gender equality is mainstreamed throughout the SDG framework by ensuring that as much sex-disaggregated data as possible are collected. ### Education and culture Education for sustainable development (ESD) is explicitly recognized in the SDGs as part of Target 4.7 of the SDG on education. UNESCO promotes the Global Citizenship Education (GCED) as a complementary approach. Education for sustainable development is important for all the other 16 SDGs. Culture is explicitly referenced in SDG 11 Target 4 ("Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world's cultural and natural heritage"). However, culture is seen as a cross-cutting theme because it impacts several SDGs. For example, culture plays a role in SDG targets where they relate to environment and resilience (within SDGs 11, 12 and 16), prosperity and livelihoods (within SDG 8), inclusion and participation (within SDG 11 and 16). ### Health SDGs 1 to 6 directly address health disparities, primarily in developing countries. These six goals address key issues in Global Public Health, Poverty, Hunger and Food security, Health, Education, Gender equality and women's empowerment, and water and sanitation. Public health officials can use these goals to set their own agenda and plan for smaller scale initiatives for their organizations. The links between the various sustainable development goals and public health are numerous and well established: * SDG 1: Living below the poverty line is attributed to poorer health outcomes and can be even worse for persons living in developing countries where extreme poverty is more common. A child born into poverty is twice as likely to die before the age of five compared to a child from a wealthier family. * SDG 2: The detrimental effects of hunger and malnutrition that can arise from systemic challenges with food security are enormous. The World Health Organization estimates that 12.9 percent of the population in developing countries is undernourished. * SDG 4 and 5: Educational equity has yet to be reached in the world. Public health efforts are impeded by this, as a lack of education can lead to poorer health outcomes. This is shown by children of mothers who have no education having a lower survival rate compared to children born to mothers with primary or greater levels of education. ### Synergies Synergies amongst the SDGs are "the good antagonists of trade-offs".With regards to SDG 13 on climate action, the IPCC sees robust synergies particularly for the SDGs 3 (health), 7 (clean energy), 11 (cities and communities), 12 (responsible consumption and production) and 14 (oceans). To meet SDG 13 and other SDGs, sustained long-term investment in green innovation is required: to decarbonize the physical capital stock – energy, industry, and transportation infrastructure – and ensure its resilience to a changing future climate; to preserve and enhance natural capital – forests, oceans, and wetlands; and to train people to work in a climate-neutral economy. Challenges ---------- ### Too many goals and overall problems Scholars have pointed out flaws in the design of the SDGs for the following aspects: "the number of goals, the structure of the goal framework (for example, the non-hierarchical structure), the coherence between the goals, the specificity or measurability of the targets, the language used in the text, and their reliance on neoliberal economic development-oriented sustainable development as their core orientation". The SDGs may simply maintain the *status quo* and fall short of delivering an ambitious development agenda. The current status quo has been described as "separating human wellbeing and environmental sustainability, failing to change governance and to pay attention to trade-offs, root causes of poverty and environmental degradation, and social justice issues". A commentary in *The Economist* in 2015 argued that 169 targets for the SDGs is too many, describing them as sprawling, misconceived and a mess compared to the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). ### Trade-offs not explicitly addressed The trade-offs among the 17 SDGs might prevent their realization. For example, these are three difficult trade-offs to consider: "How can ending hunger be reconciled with environmental sustainability? (SDG targets 2.3 and 15.2) How can economic growth be reconciled with environmental sustainability? (SDG targets 9.2 and 9.4) How can income inequality be reconciled with economic growth? (SDG targets 10.1 and 8.1)." The SDGs do not specifically address the tensions between economic growth and environmental sustainability. Instead, they emphasize "longstanding but dubious claims about decoupling and resource efficiency as technological solutions to the environmental crisis". For example, continued global economic growth of 3 percent (SDG 8) may not be reconcilable with ecological sustainability goals, because the required rate of absolute global eco-economic decoupling is far higher than any country has achieved in the past. ### Weak on environmental sustainability Scholars have criticized that the SDGs "fail to recognize that planetary, people and prosperity concerns are all part of one earth system, and that the protection of planetary integrity should not be a means to an end, but an end in itself". The SDGs "remain fixated on the idea that economic growth is foundational to achieve all pillars of sustainable development". They do not prioritize environmental protection. The SDGs include three environment-focused SDGs, which are Goal 13, 14 and 15 (climate, land and oceans), but there is no overarching environmental or planetary goal. The SDGs do not pursue planetary integrity as such. Environmental constraints and planetary boundaries are underrepresented within the SDGs. For instance, the way the current SDGs are structured leads to a negative correlation between environmental sustainability and SDGs. The SDGs have been criticized for their inability to protect biodiversity. They could unintentionally promote environmental destruction in the name of sustainable development. Certain studies also argue that the focus of the SDGs on neoliberal sustainable development is detrimental to planetary integrity and justice. Both of these ambitions (planetary integrity and justice) would require limits to economic growth. Scientists have proposed several ways to address the weaknesses regarding environmental sustainability in the SDGs: * The monitoring of essential variables to better capture the essence of coupled environmental and social systems that underpin sustainable development, helping to guide coordination and systems transformation. * More attention to the context of the biophysical systems in different places (e.g., coastal river deltas, mountain areas) * Better understanding of feedbacks across scales in space (e.g., through globalization) and time (e.g., affecting future generations) that could ultimately determine the success or failure of the SDGs. ### Ethical aspects There are concerns about the ethical orientation of the SDGs: they remain "underpinned by strong (Western) modernist notions of development: sovereignty of humans over their environment (anthropocentricism), individualism, competition, freedom (rights rather than duties), self-interest, belief in the market leading to collective welfare, private property (protected by legal systems), rewards based on merit, materialism, quantification of value, and instrumentalization of labor". Some studies warn that the SDGs could be used to camouflage business-as-usual by disguising it using SDG-related sustainability rhetoric. A meta-analysis review study in 2022 found that: "There is even emerging evidence that the SDGs might have even adverse effects, by providing a "smokescreen of hectic political activity" that blurs a reality of stagnation, dead ends and business-as-usual". ### Difficulties with tracking qualitative indicators Regarding the targets of the SDGs, there is generally weak evidence linking the means of implementation to outcomes. The targets about means of implementation (those denoted with a letter, for example, Target 6.a) are imperfectly conceptualized and inconsistently formulated, and tracking their largely qualitative indicators will be difficult. Monitoring mechanism -------------------- ### UN High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF) The High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF) replaced the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development in 2012. It should be a "regular meeting place for governments and non-state representatives to assess global progress towards sustainable development". The meetings take place under the auspices of the United Nations economic and Social Council. In July 2020 the meeting took place online for the first time due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The theme was "Accelerated action and transformative pathways: realizing the decade of action and delivery for sustainable development" and a ministerial declaration was adopted. High-level progress reports for all the SDGs are published in the form of reports by the United Nations Secretary General. The most recent one is from April 2020. However, the HLPF has a range of problems. It has not been able to promote system-wide coherence. The reasons for this include its broad and unclear mandate combined with a lack of resources and divergent national interests. Therefore, this reporting system is mainly just a platform for voluntary reporting and peer learning among governments. ### Monitoring tools and websites The online publication SDG-Tracker was launched in June 2018 and presents data across all available indicators. It relies on the Our World in Data database and is also based at the University of Oxford. The publication has global coverage and tracks whether the world is making progress towards the SDGs. It aims to make the data on the 17 goals available and understandable to a wide audience. The SDG-Tracker highlights that the world is currently (early 2019) very far away from achieving the goals. The *Global SDG Index and Dashboards Report* is the first publication to track countries' performance on all 17 Sustainable Development Goals. The annual publication, co-produced by Bertelsmann Stiftung and SDSN, includes a ranking and dashboards that show key challenges for each country in terms of implementing the SDGs. The publication also shows an analysis of government efforts to implement the SDGs. Reporting on progress --------------------- ### Overall status Reports by the United Nations (for example the *UN Global Sustainable Development Report* in 2019) and by other organizations who are tracking progress on the SDGs have repeatedly pointed out that the world is unlikely to achieve most of the targets by 2030 (or earlier for those targets that have an earlier target yet). This is called *the world is not on track*. Of particular concern - which cut across many of the SDGs - are rising inequalities, ongoing climate change and increasing biodiversity loss. In addition, there is a trade-off between the planetary boundaries of Earth and aspiration for wealth and well-being; this has been worded as follows: "the world's social and natural biophysical systems cannot support the aspirations for universal human well-being embedded in the SDGs." Due to various economic and social issues, many countries are seeing a major decline in the progress made. In Asia for example, data shows a loss of progress on goals 2, 8,10,11, and 15. Recommended approaches to still achieve the SDGs are: "Set priorities, focus on harnessing the environmental dimension of the SDGs, understand how the SDGs work as an indivisible system, and look for synergies". ### Assessing the political impact of the SDGs A scientific assessment released in 2022 analysed the political impacts of the SDGs. It reviewed over 3,000 scientific articles, mainly from the social sciences. The study looked at possible discursive, normative and institutional effects. The presence of all three types of effects throughout a political system is defined as *transformative impact*, which is the eventual goal of the 2030 Agenda. *Discursive effects* relate to changes in global and national debates that make them more aligned with the SDGs. *Normative effects* would be adjustments in legislative and regulatory frameworks and policies in line with, and because of, the SDGs. *Institutional effects* would be the creation of new departments, committees, offices or programs linked to the achievement of the SDGs or the realignment of existing institutions. The review found that the SDGs have had only limited transformative political impact thus far. They have had mainly discursive effects only. For example, the broad uptake of the principle of *leaving no one behind* in pronouncements by policymakers and civil society activists is a discursive effect. The SDGs have also led to some isolated normative and institutional reforms. However, there is widespread doubt that the SDGs can steer societies towards more ecological integrity at the planetary scale. This is because countries generally prioritize the more socioeconomic SDGs (e.g. SDGs 8 to 12) over the environmentally oriented ones (e.g. SDGs 13 to 15), which is in alignment with their long-standing national development policies. ### Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 had impacts on all 17 goals. It has become "the worst human and economic crisis in a lifetime". The pandemic threatened progress made in particular for SDG 3 (health), SDG 4 (education), SDG 6 (water and sanitation for all), SDG 10 (reduce inequality) and SDG 17 (partnerships). ### Uneven priorities of goals In 2019 five progress reports on the 17 SDGs were published. Three came from the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), one from the Bertelsmann Foundation and one from the European Union. A review of the five reports analyzed which of the 17 Goals were addressed in priority and which ones were left behind. In explanation of the findings, the Basel Institute of Commons and Economics said Biodiversity, Peace and Social Inclusion were "left behind" by quoting the official SDGs motto "Leaving no one behind". It has been argued that governments and businesses actively prioritize the social and economic goals over the environmental goals (such as Goal 14 and 15) in both rhetoric and practice. SDG preferences in the World's five major SDG reports in 2019| **SDG Topic** | **Rank** | **Average Rank** | **Mentions** | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Health | 1 | 3.2 | 1814 | | EnergyClimate Water | 2 | 4.0 | 132813281784 | | Education | 3 | 4.6 | 1351 | | Poverty | 4 | 6.2 | 1095 | | Food | 5 | 7.6 | 693 | | Economic Growth | 6 | 8.6 | 387 | | Technology | 7 | 8.8 | 855 | | Inequality | 8 | 9.2 | 296 | | Gender Equality | 9 | 10.0 | 338 | | Hunger | 10 | 10.6 | 670 | | Justice | 11 | 10.8 | 328 | | Governance | 12 | 11.6 | 232 | | Decent Work | 13 | 12.2 | 277 | | Peace | 14 | 12.4 | 282 | | Clean Energy | 15 | 12.6 | 272 | | Life on Land | 16 | 14.4 | 250 | | Life below Water | 17 | 15.0 | 248 | | Social Inclusion | 18 | 16.4 | 22 | Costs ----- ### Cost estimates The United Nations estimates that for Africa, considering the continent's population growth, yearly funding of $1.3 trillion would be needed to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals in Africa. The International Monetary Fund also estimates that $50 billion may be needed only to cover the expenses of climate adaptation. Estimates for providing clean water and sanitation for the whole population of all continents have been as high as US$200 billion. The World Bank says that estimates need to be made country by country, and reevaluated frequently over time. In 2014, UNCTAD estimated the annual costs to achieving the UN Goals at US$2.5 trillion per year. Another estimate from 2018 (by the Basel Institute of Commons and Economics, that conducts the World Social Capital Monitor) found that to reach all of the SDGs this would require between US$2.5 and $5.0 trillion per year. ### Allocation of funds In 2017 the UN launched the Inter-agency Task Force on Financing for Development (UN IATF on FfD) that invited to a public dialogue. The top-5 sources of financing for development were estimated in 2018 to be: Real new sovereign debt OECD countries, military expenditures, official increase sovereign debt OECD countries, remittances from expats to developing countries, official development assistance (ODA). The Rockefeller Foundation asserted in 2017 that "The key to financing and achieving the SDGs lies in mobilizing a greater share of the $200+ trillion in annual private capital investment flows toward development efforts, and philanthropy has a critical role to play in catalyzing this shift." Large-scale funders participating in a Rockefeller Foundation-hosted design thinking workshop concluded that "while there is a moral imperative to achieve the SDGs, failure is inevitable if there aren't drastic changes to how we go about financing large scale change". A meta-analysis published in 2022 found that there was scant evidence that governments have substantially reallocated funding to implement the SDGs, either for national implementation or for international cooperation. The SDGs do not seem to have changed public budgets and financial allocation mechanisms in any important way, except for some local governance contexts. National budgets cannot easily be reallocated. ### SDG-driven investment Capital stewardship is expected to play a crucial part in the progressive advancement of the SDG agenda to "shift the economic system towards sustainable investment by using the SDG framework across all asset classes". The notion of *SDG Driven Investment* gained further ground amongst institutional investors in 2019. In 2017, 2018 and early 2019, the World Pensions Council (WPC) held a series of ESG-focused (Environmental, Social and Governance) discussions with pension board members (trustees) and senior investment executives from across G20 nations. Many pension investment executives and board members confirmed they were in the process of adopting or developing SDG-informed investment processes, with more ambitious investment governance requirements – notably when it comes to climate action, gender equality and social fairness. Some studies, however, warn of selective implementation of SDGs and political risks linked to private investments in the context of continued shortage of public funding. Communication and advocacy -------------------------- The 2030 Agenda did not create specific authority for communicating the SDGs; however, both international and local advocacy organizations have pursued significant non-state resources to communicate the SDGS. UN agencies which are part of the United Nations Development Group decided to support an independent campaign to communicate the new SDGs to a wider audience. This campaign, Project Everyone, had the support of corporate institutions and other international organizations. Using the text drafted by diplomats at the UN level, a team of communication specialists developed icons for every goal. They also shortened the title *The 17 Sustainable Development Goals* to *Global Goals,* then ran workshops and conferences to communicate the Global Goals to a global audience. The Aarhus Convention is a United Nations convention passed in 2001, explicitly to encourage and promote effective public engagement in environmental decision making. Information transparency related to social media and the engagement of youth are two issues related to the Sustainable Development Goals that the convention has addressed. ### Advocates In 2019 and then in 2021, United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres appointed 17 SDG advocates. The role of the public figures is to raise awareness, inspire greater ambition, and push for faster action on the SDGs. They are: Co-Chairs * Mia Mottley, Prime Minister of Barbados. * Justin Trudeau, Prime Minister of Canada. Members * Queen Mathilde of the Belgians * Muhammadu Sanusi II, Emir of Kano. * Sheikha Moza bint Nasser, founder of the Education Above All Foundation. * BLACKPINK , girl K-Pop group * Richard Curtis, screenwriter, producer and film director. * Ms. Hindou Oumarou Ibrahim, environmental and indigenous rights activist. * Graça Machel, founder of Graça Machel Trust. * Dia Mirza, actress, film producer, and UN Environment Program Goodwill Ambassador for India. * Valentina Muñoz Rabanal , Chilean stem activist. * Edward Ndopu, founder of Global Strategies on Inclusive Education. * Kailash Satyarthi , Indian children's rights activist * Brad Smith , Vice Chairman and President, Microsoft. * Jeffrey Sachs, director of the Center for Sustainable Development at Columbia University. * Forest Whitaker, actor, founder and CEO of Whitaker Peace & Development Initiative. * Hamdi Ulukaya, founder of Chobani ### Global events Global Goals Week is an annual week-long event in September for action, awareness, and accountability for the Sustainable Development Goals. It is a shared commitment for over 100 partners to ensure quick action on the SDGs by sharing ideas and transformative solutions to global problems. It first took place in 2016. It is often held concurrently with Climate Week NYC. The Arctic Film Festival is an annual film festival organized by HF Productions and supported by the SDGs' Partnership Platform. Held for the first time in 2019, the festival is expected to take place every year in September in Longyearbyen, Svalbard, Norway. History ------- The Post-2015 Development Agenda was a process from 2012 to 2015 led by the United Nations to define the future global development framework that would succeed the Millennium Development Goals. The SDGs were developed to succeed the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which ended in 2015. In 1983, the United Nations created the World Commission on Environment and Development (later known as the Brundtland Commission), which defined sustainable development as "meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". In 1992, the first United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) or Earth Summit was held in Rio de Janeiro, where the first agenda for Environment and Development, also known as Agenda 21, was developed and adopted. In 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD), also known as Rio+20, was held as a 20-year follow up to UNCED. Colombia proposed the idea of the SDGs at a preparation event for Rio+20 held in Indonesia in July 2011. In September 2011, this idea was picked up by the United Nations Department of Public Information 64th NGO Conference in Bonn, Germany. The outcome document proposed 17 sustainable development goals and associated targets. In the run-up to Rio+20 there was much discussion about the idea of the SDGs. At the Rio+20 Conference, a resolution known as "The Future We Want" was reached by member states. Among the key themes agreed on were poverty eradication, energy, water and sanitation, health, and human settlement. In January 2013, the 30-member UN General Assembly Open Working Group (OWG) on Sustainable Development Goals was established to identify specific goals for the SDGs. The OWG submitted their proposal of 8 SDGs and 169 targets to the 68th session of the General Assembly in September 2014. On 5 December 2014, the UN General Assembly accepted the Secretary General's Synthesis Report, which stated that the agenda for the post-2015 SDG process would be based on the OWG proposals. Country examples ---------------- ### Asia and Pacific #### Australia The Commonwealth of Australia was one of the 193 countries that adopted the 2030 Agenda in September 2015. Implementation of the agenda is led by the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) and the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (PM&C) with different federal government agencies responsible for each of the goals. In November 2020, the Transforming Australia: SDG Progress Report stated that while Australia was performing well in health (SDG 3) and education (SDG 4) it was falling behind in the reduction of CO2 emissions (SDG 13), waste and environmental degradation (SDG 12, SDG 14 and SDG 15), and addressing economic inequality (SDG 10). ### Africa The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has collected information to show how awareness about the SDGs among government officers, civil society and others has been created in many African countries. #### Nigeria Nigeria is one of the countries that presented its Voluntary National Review (VNR) in 2017 and 2020 on the implementation of the SDGs at the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF). In 2020, Nigeria ranked 160 on the 2020 world's SDG Index. The government affirmed that Nigeria's current development priorities and objectives are focused on achieving the SDGs. ### Europe and Middle East Baltic nations, via the Council of the Baltic Sea States, have created the Baltic 2030 Action Plan. #### Lebanon Lebanon adopted the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015. It presented its first Voluntary National Review VNR in 2018 at the High Level Political Forum in New York. A national committee chaired by the Lebanese Prime Minister is leading the work on the SDGs in the country. In 2019, Lebanon's overall performance in the SDG Index ranked 6th out of 21 countries in the Arab region. #### Syria Higher education in Syria began with sustainable development steps through Damascus University. With unique environmental measures, starting from the Barada River, green space and health. #### United Kingdom The UK's approach to delivering the Global SDGs is outlined in Agenda 2030: Delivering the Global Goals, developed by the Department for International Development. In 2019, the Bond network analyzed the UK's global progress on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The Bond report highlights crucial gaps where attention and investment are most needed. The report was compiled by 49 organizations and 14 networks and working groups. See also -------- * Sustainability The offline app allows you to download all of Wikipedia's medical articles in an app to access them when you have no Internet.Wikipedia's health care articles can be viewed offline with the **Medical Wikipedia app**.

Sustainable Development Goals

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals

**Sleepwalking**, also known as **somnambulism** or **noctambulism**, is a phenomenon of combined sleep and wakefulness. It is classified as a sleep disorder belonging to the parasomnia family. It occurs during slow wave stage of sleep, in a state of low consciousness, with performance of activities that are usually performed during a state of full consciousness. These activities can be as benign as talking, sitting up in bed, walking to a bathroom, consuming food, and cleaning, or as hazardous as cooking, driving a motor vehicle, violent gestures and grabbing at hallucinated objects. Although sleepwalking cases generally consist of simple, repeated behaviors, there are occasionally reports of people performing complex behaviors while asleep, although their legitimacy is often disputed. Sleepwalkers often have little or no memory of the incident, as their consciousness has altered into a state in which memories are difficult to recall. Although their eyes are open, their expression is dim and glazed over. This may last from 30 seconds to 30 minutes. Sleepwalking occurs during slow-wave sleep (N3) of non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM sleep) cycles. It typically occurs within the first third of the night when slow-wave sleep is most prominent. Usually, it will occur once in a night, if at all. Signs and symptoms ------------------ Sleepwalking is characterized by: * partial arousal during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, typically during the first third of the night * dream content that may or may not be recalled when awake * dream-congruent motor behavior that may be simple or complex * impaired perception of the environment * impaired judgement, planning and problem-solving. Despite how it is portrayed in many cultures (eyes closed and walking with arms outstretched), the sleepwalker's eyes are open but may appear as a glassy-eyed stare or blank expression and pupils are dilated. They are often disoriented, consequent to awakening: the sleepwalker may be confused and perplexed, and might not know why or how they got out of bed; however, the disorientation will fade within minutes. They may talk while sleepwalking, but the talk typically does not make sense to the observer. There are varying degrees of amnesia associated with sleepwalking, ranging from no memory at all, vague memories or a narrative. ### Associated disorders In the study "Sleepwalking and Sleep Terrors in Prepubertal Children" it was found that, if a child had another sleep disorder – such as restless leg syndrome (RLS) or sleep-disorder breathing (SDB) – there was a greater chance of sleepwalking. The study found that children with chronic parasomnias may often also present SDB or, to a lesser extent, RLS. Furthermore, the disappearance of the parasomnias after the treatment of the SDB or RLS periodic limb movement syndrome suggests that the latter may trigger the former. The high frequency of SDB in family members of children with parasomnia provided additional evidence that SDB may manifest as parasomnias in children. Children with parasomnias are not systematically monitored during sleep, although past studies have suggested that patients with sleep terrors or sleepwalking have an elevated level of brief EEG arousals. When children receive polysomnographies, discrete patterns (e.g., nasal flow limitation, abnormal respiratory effort, bursts of high or slow EEG frequencies) should be sought; apneas are rarely found in children. Children's respiration during sleep should be monitored with nasal cannula or pressure transducer system or esophageal manometry, which are more sensitive than the thermistors or thermocouples currently used in many laboratories. The clear, prompt improvement of severe parasomnia in children who are treated for SDB, as defined here, provides important evidence that subtle SDB can have substantial health-related significance. Also noteworthy is the report of familial presence of parasomnia. Studies of twin cohorts and families with sleep terror and sleepwalking suggest genetic involvement of parasomnias. RLS and SDB have been shown to have familial recurrence. RLS has been shown to have genetic involvement. Sleepwalking may also accompany the related phenomenon of night terrors, especially in children. In the midst of a night terror, the affected person may wander in a distressed state while still asleep, and examples of sufferers attempting to run or aggressively defend themselves during these incidents have been reported in medical literature. In some cases, sleepwalking in adults may be a symptom of a psychological disorder. One study suggests higher levels of dissociation in adult sleepwalkers, since test subjects scored unusually high on the hysteria portion of the "Crown-Crisp Experiential Index". Another suggested that "A higher incidence [of sleepwalking events] has been reported in patients with schizophrenia, hysteria and anxiety neuroses". Also, patients with migraine headaches or Tourette syndrome are 4–6 times more likely to sleepwalk. ### Consequences Most sleepwalkers get injuries at some point during sleepwalking, often minor injuries such as cuts or bruises. In rare occasions, however, sleepwalkers have fractured bones and died as the result of a fall. Sleepwalkers may also face embarrassment of being found naked in public. Causes ------ The cause of sleepwalking is unknown. A number of, as yet unproven, hypotheses are suggested for why it might occur, including: delay in the maturity of the central nervous system, increased slow wave sleep, sleep deprivation, fever, and excessive tiredness. There may be a genetic component to sleepwalking. One study found that sleepwalking occurred in 45% of children who have one parent who sleepwalked, and in 60% of children if both parents sleepwalked. Thus, heritable factors may predispose an individual to sleepwalking, but expression of the behavior may also be influenced by environmental factors. Genetic studies using common fruit flies as experimental models reveal a link between night sleep and brain development mediated by evolutionary conserved transcription factors such as AP-2 Sleepwalking may be inherited as an autosomal dominant disorder with reduced penetrance. Genome-wide multipoint parametric linkage analysis for sleepwalking revealed a maximum logarithm of the odds score of 3.14 at chromosome 20q12-q13.12 between 55.6 and 61.4 cM. Sleepwalking has been hypothesized to be linked to the neurotransmitter serotonin, which also appears to be metabolized differently in migraine patients and people with Tourette syndrome, both populations being four to nine times more likely to experience an episode of sleepwalking. Hormonal fluctuations have been found to contribute to sleepwalking episodes in women, with the likeliness to sleepwalk being higher before the onset of menstruation. It also appears that hormonal changes during pregnancy decrease the likelihood of engaging in sleepwalking Medications, primarily in four classes—benzodiazepine receptor agonists and other GABA modulators, antidepressants and other serotonergic agents, antipsychotics, and β-blockers— have been associated with sleepwalking. The best evidence of medications causing sleepwalking is for Zolpidem and sodium oxybate; all other reports are based on associations noted in case reports. A number of conditions, such as Parkinson's disease, are thought to trigger sleepwalking in people without a previous history of sleepwalking.[*needs update*] Diagnosis --------- Polysomnography is the only accurate assessment of a sleepwalking episode. Because this is costly and sleepwalking episodes are usually infrequent, other measures commonly used include self-, parent-, or partner-report. Three common diagnostic systems that are generally used for sleepwalking disorders are International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), the International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD-3), and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual defines two subcategories of sleepwalking, although sleepwalking does not need to involve either behaviours: * sleepwalking with sleep-related eating. * sleepwalking with sleep-related sexual behavior (sexsomnia). Sleep eating involves consuming food while asleep. These sleep eating disorders are more often than not induced for stress related reasons. Another major cause of this sleep eating subtype of sleepwalking is sleep medication, such as Ambien for example (Mayo Clinic). There are a few others, but Ambien is a more widely used sleep aid. Because many sleep eaters prepare the food they consume, there are risks involving burns and such with ovens and other appliances. As expected, weight gain is also a common outcome of this disorder, because food that is frequently consumed contains high carbohydrates. As with sleepwalking, there are ways that sleep eating disorders can be maintained. There are some medications that calm the sleeper so they can get longer and better-quality rest, but activities such as yoga can also be introduced to reduce the stress and anxiety causing the action. ### Differential diagnoses Sleepwalking should not be confused with alcohol- or drug-induced blackouts, which can result in amnesia for events similar to sleepwalking. During an alcohol-induced blackout (drug-related amnesia), a person is able to actively engage and respond to their environment (e.g. having conversations or driving a vehicle), however the brain does not create memories for the events. Alcohol-induced blackouts can occur with blood alcohol levels higher than 0.06g/dl. A systematic review of the literature found that approximately 50% of drinkers have experienced memory loss during a drinking episode and have had associated negative consequences similar to sleepwalkers, including injury and death. Other differential diagnoses include Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder, confusional arousals, and night terrors. ### Assessment An assessment of sleepwalking via polysomnography poses the problem that sleepwalking is less likely to occur in the sleep laboratory, and if an episode occurs, it is usually less complex than what the patient experiences at home. Therefore, the diagnosis can often be made by assessment of sleep history, time-course and content of the sleep related behaviors. Sometimes, home videos can provide additional information and should be considered in the diagnostic process. Some features that should always be assessed include: * Age of onset * When the episode occurs during the sleep period * How often these episodes occur (frequency) and how long they last (duration) * Description of the episode, including behavior, emotions, and thoughts during and after the event * How responsive the patient is to external stimuli during the episode * How conscious or aware the patient is, when awakened from an episode * If the episode is remembered afterwards * The triggers or precipitating factors * Sleep–wake pattern and sleep environment * Daytime sleepiness * Other sleep disorders that might be present * Family history for NREM parasomnias and other sleep disorders * Medical, psychiatric, and neurological history * Medication and substance use history The assessment should rule out differential diagnoses. Treatment --------- There have been no clinical trials to show that any psychological or pharmacological intervention is effective in preventing sleepwalking episodes. Despite this, a wide range of treatments have been used with sleepwalkers. Psychological interventions have included psychoanalysis, hypnosis, scheduled or anticipatory waking, assertion training, relaxation training, managing aggressive feelings, sleep hygiene, classical conditioning (including electric shock), and play therapy. Pharmacological treatments have included tricyclic antidepressants (imipramine), an anticholinergic (biperiden), antiepileptics (carbamazepine, valproate), an antipsychotic (quetiapine), benzodiazepines (clonazepam, diazepam, flurazepam and triazolam), melatonin, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (paroxetine), a barbiturate (sodium amytal) and herbs. There is no evidence to show that waking sleepwalkers is harmful or not, though the sleepwalker is likely to be disoriented if awakened as sleepwalking occurs during the deepest stage of sleep. Unlike other sleep disorders, sleepwalking is not associated with daytime behavioral or emotional problems. This may be because the sleepwalker's sleep is not disturbed—unless they are woken, they are still in a sleep state while sleepwalking. Maintaining the safety of the sleepwalker and others and seeking treatment for other sleep problems is recommended. Reassurance is recommended if sleepwalking is not causing any problems. However, if it causes distress or there is risk of harm, hypnosis and scheduled waking are recommended as treatments. ### Safety planning For those whose sleepwalking episodes are hazardous, a door alarm may offer a measure of protection. There are various kinds of door alarms that can attach to a bedroom door and when the door is opened, the alarm sounds. The intention is that the sound will fully awaken the person and interrupt the sleepwalking episode, or if the sleepwalker lives with others, the sound will prompt them to check on the person. Sleepwalkers should aim to have their bedrooms on the ground floor of a home, apartment, dorm, hotel, etc. Sleepwalkers should not have easily accessible weapons (loaded guns, knives) in the bedroom or any room of the house for that matter. If there are weapons, they should be locked away with keys secluded from the sleepwalker. For partners of sleepwalkers who are violent or disturb their sleep, sleeping in another room may lead to better sleep quality and quantity. Epidemiology ------------ The lifetime prevalence of sleepwalking is estimated to be 4.6%–10.3%. A meta-analysis of 51 studies, that included more than 100,000 children and adults, found that sleepwalking is more common in children with an estimated 5%, compared with 1.5% of adults, sleepwalking at least once in the previous 12 months. The rate of sleepwalking has not been found to vary across ages during childhood. History ------- Sleepwalking has attracted a sense of mystery, but was not seriously investigated and diagnosed until the 19th century. The German chemist and parapsychologist Baron Karl Ludwig von Reichenbach (1788–1869) made extensive studies of sleepwalkers and used his discoveries to formulate his theory of the Odic force. Sleepwalking was initially thought to be a dreamer acting out a dream. For example, in one study published by the Society for Science & the Public in 1954, this was the conclusion: "Repression of hostile feelings against the father caused the patients to react by acting out in a dream world with sleepwalking, the distorted fantasies they had about all authoritarian figures, such as fathers, officers and stern superiors." This same group published an article twelve years later with a new conclusion: "Sleepwalking, contrary to most belief, apparently has little to do with dreaming. In fact, it occurs when the sleeper is enjoying his most oblivious, deepest sleep—a stage in which dreams are not usually reported." More recent research has discovered that sleepwalking is actually a disorder of NREM (non-rapid eye movement) arousal. Acting out a dream is the basis for a REM (rapid eye movement) sleep disorder called REM Behavior Disorder (or REM Sleep Behavior Disorder). More accurate data about sleep is due to the invention of technologies, such as the electroencephalogram (EEG) by Hans Berger in 1924 and BEAM by Frank Duffy in the early 1980s. In 1907, Sigmund Freud spoke about sleepwalking to the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society (Nunberg and Federn). He believed that sleepwalking was connected to fulfilling sexual wishes and was surprised that a person could move without interrupting their dream. At that time, Freud suggested that the essence of this phenomenon was the desire to go to sleep in the same area as the individual had slept in childhood. Ten years later, he speculated about somnambulism in the article "A Metapsychological Supplement to the Theory of Dreams" (1916–17 [1915]). In this essay, he clarified and expanded his hypothetical ideas on dreams. He described the dream as a fragile equilibrium that is destabilized by the repressed unconscious impulses of the unconscious system, which does not obey the wishes of the ego. Certain preconscious daytime thoughts can be resistant and these can retain a part of their cathexis as well. Unconscious impulses and day residues can come together and result in a conflict. Freud then wondered about the outcome of this wishful impulse: an unconscious instinctual demand that becomes a dream wish in the preconscious. Freud stated that this unconscious impulse could be expressed as mobility during sleep. This would be what is observed in somnambulism, though what actually makes it possible remains unknown. As of 2002, sleepwalking has not been detected in non-human primates. It is unclear whether it simply has not been observed yet, or whether sleepwalking is a uniquely human phenomenon. Society and culture ------------------- ### Opera Vincenzo Bellini's 1831 Italian opera semiseria, La sonnambula, the plot of which is centered on the question of the innocence of the betrothed and soon-to-be married Amina, who, upon having been discovered in the bedchamber of a stranger, and despite the assurances of that stranger that Amina was entirely innocent, has been rejected by her enraged fiancé, Elvino — who, then, decides to marry another. In fact, when stressed, Amina was susceptible to somnambulism; and had come to be in the stranger's bedchamber by sleep-walking along a high parapet (in full view of the opera's audience). Elvino, who later observes the (exhausted by all the fuss) Amina, sleep-walking across a very high, very unstable, and very rickety bridge at the local mill, realizes his mistake, abandons his plans of marriage to the other woman, and re-unites with Amina. #### Jenny Lind and James Braid In August 1847, the famous soprano Jenny Lind visited Manchester, and gave two performances as Amina. The outstanding difference between Lind and her contemporaries was that, "whilst the beauty of her voice was far greater than any other in living memory (thus, the *Swedish Nightingale*), what really set her apart was her outstanding ability to act"; and, moreover, in performing as Amina, rather than walking along a wide and well-protected walkway (as the others did), she routinely acrobatically balanced her way along narrow planks. While she was in Manchester—on the basis that, at the time, many characterized "*hypnotism*" as "*artificial somnambulism*", and that, from a rather different perspective, her stage performance could also be described as one of "artificial" (rather than spontaneous) somnambulism—her friends arranged for her to visit the local surgeon James Braid, who had discovered hypnotism in 1841: > Mr. Braid, surgeon, whose discoveries in hypnotism are well known, having invited the fair impersonator of a somnambulist to witness some of the abnormal feats of a real somnambulist, artificially thrown into that state, it was arranged that a private séance should take place [on Friday, 3 September 1847]. > > — *Manchester Guardian*, 8 September 1847 ### Drama * The sleepwalking scene (Act V Scene 1) from William Shakespeare's tragic play *Macbeth* (1606) is one of the most famous scenes in all of literature. * In Walley Chamberlain Oulton's two act farce *The Sleep-Walker; or, Which is the Lady* (1812), "Somno", a histrionic failed-actor-turned-manservant relives his wished-for roles when sleepwalking. ### Literature * In Bram Stoker's novel *Dracula*, the character Lucy Westenra is described as a sleepwalker. It is while sleepwalking that Count Dracula lures and attacks her. ### Sleepwalking as a legal defense As sleepwalking behaviours occur without volition, sleepwalking can be used as a legal defense, as a form of legal automatism. An individual can be accused of non-insane or insane automatism.[*where?*] The first is used as a defense for temporary insanity or involuntary conduct, resulting in acquittal. The latter results in a "special verdict of not guilty by reason of insanity." This verdict of insanity can result in a court order to attend a mental institution. In the 1963 case *Bratty v A-G for Northern Ireland*, Lord Morris stated, "Each set of facts must require a careful examination of its own circumstances, but if by way of taking an illustration it were considered possible for a person to walk in his sleep and to commit a violent crime while genuinely unconscious, then such a person would not be criminally liable for that act." While the veracity of the cases are disputed,[*by whom?*] there have been acts of homicide where the prime suspect may have committed the act while sleepwalking. Alternative explanations to homicidal or violent sleepwalking include malingering, drug-induced amnesia, and other disorders in which sleep-related violence may occur, such as REM Sleep Behavior Disorder, fugue states, and episodic wandering. #### Historical cases * 1846, Albert Tirrell used sleepwalking as a defense against charges of murdering Maria Bickford, a prostitute living in a Boston brothel. * 1961, Sergeant Willis Boshears confessed to strangling a local woman named Jean Constable in the early hours on New Years Day 1961, but claimed that he was asleep and only woke to realize what he had done. He pled not guilty on the basis of being asleep at the time he committed the offence and was acquitted. * In 1981, Steven Steinberg of Scottsdale, Arizona was accused of killing his wife and acquitted on the grounds of temporary insanity. * 1991, *R v Burgess*: Burgess was accused of hitting his girlfriend on the head with a wine bottle and then a video tape recorder. He was found not guilty at Bristol Crown Court, by reason of *insane automatism*. * 1992, *R. v. Parks*: Parks was accused of killing his mother-in-law and attempting to kill his father-in-law. He was acquitted by the Supreme Court of Canada. * 1994, *Pennsylvania v. Ricksgers*: Ricksgers was accused of killing his wife. He was sentenced to life in prison without parole. * 1999, *Arizona v. Falater*: Scott Falater, of Phoenix, Arizona, was accused of killing his wife. The court concluded that the murder was too complex to be committed while sleepwalking. Falater was convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to life with no possibility of parole. * 2001, *California v. Reitz:* Stephen Reitz killed his lover, Eva Weinfurtner. He told police he had no recollection of the attack but he had "flashbacks" of believing he was in a scuffle with a male intruder. His parents testified in court that he had been a sleepwalker from childhood. The court convicted Reitz of first-degree murder in 2004. * In 2001, Antonio Nieto murdered his wife and mother-in-law and attempted to murder his daughter and son, before being disarmed. Nieto claimed to have been asleep during the attack and dreaming that he was defending himself against aggressive ostriches. However, his children stated that he had recognized them and had told his son to not turn on the lights because their mother (gravely injured already) was sleeping. In 2007, Nieto was sentenced to 10 years internment in a psychiatric hospital and ordered to pay 171,100 euros as compensation to the victims. * Jules Lowe confessed to causing the death of his father Edward in 2004, but did not remember committing the act. Jules used automatism as his defense, and was found not guilty by reason of insanity and detained indefinitely in a secure hospital. He was released after ten months. * Brian Thomas was accused of killing his wife in 2008 while dreaming that he was fighting off intruders. He was freed in 2009 by a judge, who found him not guilty of murder. See also -------- * Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder External links --------------

Sleepwalking

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleepwalking

**Eadred** (c. 923 – 23 November 955) was King of the English from 26 May 946 until his death. He was the younger son of Edward the Elder and his third wife Eadgifu, and a grandson of Alfred the Great. His elder brother, Edmund, was killed trying to protect his seneschal from an attack by a violent thief. Edmund's two sons, Eadwig and Edgar, were then young children, so Eadred became king. He suffered from ill health in the last years of his life and he died at the age of a little over thirty, having never married. He was succeeded successively by his nephews, Eadwig and Edgar. Eadred's elder half-brother Æthelstan inherited the kingship of England south of the Humber in 924, and conquered the south Northumbrian Viking kingdom of York in 927. Edmund and Eadred both inherited kingship of the whole kingdom, lost it shortly afterwards when York accepted Viking kings, and recovered it by the end of their reigns. In 954 the York magnates expelled their last king, Erik Bloodaxe, and Eadred appointed Osullf, the Anglo-Saxon ruler of the north Northumbrian territory of Bamburgh, as the first ealdorman of the whole of Northumbria. Eadred had been very close to Edmund and inherited many of his leading advisers, such as his mother Eadgifu, Oda, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Æthelstan, ealdorman of East Anglia, who was so powerful that he was known as the 'Half-King'. Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury and future Archbishop of Canterbury, was a close friend and adviser, and Eadred appears to have authorised Dunstan to draft charters when he became too ill to attend meetings of the *witan* (King's Council) in his last years. The English Benedictine Reform did not reach fruition until the reign of Edgar, but Eadred was a strong supporter in its early stages. He was close to two of its leaders, Æthelwold, whom he appointed Abbot of Abingdon, and Dunstan. However, like earlier kings he did not share the view of the circle around Æthelwold that Benedictine monasticism was the only worthwhile religious life and he appointed Ælfsige, a married man with a son, as Bishop of Winchester. Background ---------- In the ninth century the four Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria and East Anglia came under increasing attack from Viking raids, culminating in invasion by the Danish Viking Great Heathen Army in 865. By 878, they had overrun East Anglia, Northumbria, and Mercia, and nearly conquered Wessex, but in that year the West Saxons fought back under Alfred the Great and achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Edington. In the 880s and 890s the Anglo-Saxons ruled Wessex and western Mercia, but the rest of England was under Viking rule. Alfred constructed a network of burhs (fortified sites), and these helped him to frustrate renewed Viking attacks in the 890s with the assistance of his son-in-law, Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians, and his elder son Edward, who became king when Alfred died in 899. In 909 Edward sent a force of West Saxons and Mercians to attack the Northumbrian Danes and the following year the Vikings retaliated with a raid on Mercia. While they were marching back to Northumbria, they were caught by an Anglo-Saxon army and decisively defeated at the Battle of Tettenhall, ending the threat from the Northumbrian Vikings for a generation. In the 910s Edward and Æthelflæd – his sister and Æthelred's widow – extended Alfred's network of fortresses and conquered Viking-ruled eastern Mercia and East Anglia. When Edward died in 924, he controlled all England south of the Humber. Edward was succeeded by his eldest son Æthelstan, who seized control of Northumbria in 927, thus becoming the first king of all England. Soon afterwards Welsh kings and the kings of Scotland and Strathclyde acknowledged his overlordship. After this, he styled himself in charters by titles such as "king of the English", or grandiosely, "king of the whole of Britain". In 934 he invaded Scotland and in 937 an alliance of armies of Scotland, Strathclyde and the Vikings invaded England. Æthelstan secured a decisive victory at the Battle of Brunanburh, cementing his dominant position in Britain. Æthelstan died in October 939 and he was succeeded by his half-brother and Eadred's full brother Edmund. He was the first king to succeed to the throne of all England but he soon lost control of the north. By the end of the year Anlaf Guthfrithson, the Viking king of Dublin, had crossed the sea to become king of York. He also invaded Mercia and Edmund was forced to surrender the Five Boroughs of north-east Mercia to him. Guthfrithson died in 941 and in 942 Edmund was able to recover the Five Boroughs. In 944 he recovered full control of England by expelling the Viking kings of York. On 26 May 946 he was stabbed to death trying to protect his seneschal from attack by a convicted outlaw at Pucklechurch in Gloucestershire, and as his sons were young children Eadred became king. Family and early life --------------------- Eadred's father, Edward the Elder, had three wives, eight or nine daughters, several of whom married Continental royalty, and five sons. Æthelstan, the son of Edward's first wife, Ecgwynn, was born around 894, but she probably died around the time of Alfred's death, as by 901 Edward was married to Ælfflæd. In about 919 he married Eadgifu, who had two sons, Edmund and Eadred. According to the twelfth-century chronicler William of Malmesbury, Edmund was about eighteen years old when he succeeded to the throne in 939, which dates his birth to 920–921, and their father Edward died in 924, so Eadred was born around 923. He had one or two full sisters. Eadburh was a nun at Winchester who was later venerated as a saint. William of Malmesbury gives Eadred a second full sister called Eadgifu like her mother, who married Louis, prince of Aquitaine. William's account is accepted by the historians Ann Williams and Sean Miller, but Æthelstan's biographer Sarah Foot argues that she did not exist, and that William confused her with Ælfgifu, a daughter of Ælfflæd. Eadred grew up with his brother at Æthelstan's court, and probably also with two important Continental exiles, his nephew Louis, future King of the West Franks, and Alain, future Duke of Brittany. According to William of Malmesbury, Æthelstan showed great affection towards Edmund and Eadred: "mere infants at his father's death, he brought them up lovingly in childhood, and when they grew up gave them a share in his kingdom". At a royal assembly shortly before Æthelstan's death in 939, Edmund and Eadred attested charter S 446, which granted land to their full sister, Eadburh. They both attested as *regis frater* (king's brother). This is the only charter of Æthelstan attested by Eadred. Eadgifu and Eadred attested many of Edmund's charters, showing a high degree of family cooperation; initially Eadgifu attested first, but from sometime in late 943 or early 944 Eadred took precedence, perhaps reflecting his growing authority. Eadgifu attested around one third of Edmund's charters, always as *regis mater* (king's mother), including all grants to religious institutions and individuals. Eadred attested over half, and Pauline Stafford comments: "No other adult male of the West Saxon house was ever given such prominence before his accession." Reign ----- ### Battle for control of Northumbria Like Edmund, Eadred inherited the whole English kingdom, but soon lost Northumbria and had to fight to get it back. The situation was complicated due to the number of rival factions in Northumbria. The Viking Anlaf Sihtricson (also called Olaf Sihtricson and Amlaib Cuaran) ruled Dublin and the southern Northumbrian kingdom of York at different periods. When king of York in the early 940s he had accepted baptism with Edmund as his godfather, indicating submission to his rule, and his coins followed English designs, but Edmund had expelled him in 944. Both Anlaf and the Norse (Norwegian) prince Erik Bloodaxe ruled York for periods during Eadred's reign. Erik issued coins with a Viking sword design and represented a more serious threat to West Saxon power than Anlaf. The York magnates were key players, led by the powerful Wulfstan, Archbishop of York, who periodically made bids for independence by accepting Viking kings, but submitted to southern rule at other times. In the view of the historian Marios Costambeys, Wulfstan's influence in Northumbria appears to have been greater than Erik's. Osulf, the Anglo-Saxon ruler of the north Northumbrian territory of Bamburgh, supported Eadred when it was in his own interest. The sequence of events is very unclear because different manuscripts of the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* contradict each other, and they also conflict with the evidence of charters, which are the only contemporary sources. Charters of 946, 949–50 and 955 call Eadred ruler of the Northumbrians, and these provide evidence of periods when York submitted to southern rule. Following Edmund's death, Charter S 521 states that "it happened that Eadred, his uterine brother, [was] chosen in his stead by the nobles". According to the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, he immediately "reduced all Northumbria under his rule" and obtained promises of obedience from the Scots. He may have invaded Northumbria in response to a rebellion supported by the Scots. He was crowned by Archbishop Oda of Canterbury on 16 August 946 at Kingston upon Thames, attended by Hywel Dda, king of Deheubarth in south Wales, Wulfstan and Osulf. The following year at Tanshelf, near the border between Northumbria and Mercia, Wulfstan and the other York magnates pledged allegiance to him. The York magnates soon reneged on their promises and accepted Erik as king. Eadred responded by leading an army to Ripon, where he burnt down the Minster, no doubt to punish Wulfstan, as it was at the centre of his richest estate. The Northumbrians sought revenge: according to version D of the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, "when the king was on his way home, the army (which) was in York overtook the king's army at Castleford, and they made a great slaughter there. Then the king became so angry that he wished to march back into the land and destroy it utterly. When the councillors of the Northumbrians understood that, they deserted Erik and paid to King Eadred compensation for their act." Within a year or two they again changed sides and installed Anlaf Sihtricson as king. In 952 Eadred arrested Wulfstan and in the same year Erik displaced Anlaf, but in 954 the York magnates again threw out Erik and returned to English rule, this time not due to an invasion but by the choice of the northerners, and the change proved to be permanent. Erik was assassinated shortly afterwards, possibly at the instigation of Osulf, and the historian Frank Stenton comments that the time was past when an individual adventurer could establish a dynasty in England. Wulfstan was later released, probably in early 955, but he was apparently not allowed to resume his archbishopric and instead given the bishopric of Dorchester-on-Thames. Eadred then appointed Osulf as the first ealdorman of the whole of Northumbria. Osulf's position was probably so strong that the king had no choice but to appoint him, and it was not until the next century that southern kings were able to make their own choice of ealdormen in Bamburgh itself. In his will, Eadred left 1600 pounds to be used for protection of his people from famine or to buy peace from a heathen army, showing that he did not regard England as safe from attack. ### Administration Charters issued in the 930s and the 940s suggest continuity of royal government and smooth transitions between the reigns of Æthelstan, Edmund and Eadred. Eadred's principal councillors were mainly people he had inherited from his brother Edmund, and in a few cases went back to his half-brother Æthelstan. Oda, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Ealdorman Æthelstan of East Anglia, had been advisers of King Æthelstan who had become dominant under Edmund. Ealdorman Æthelstan's power under Edmund and Eadred was so great that he became known as Æthelstan Half-King. His prestige was further increased when his wife Ælfwynn became foster-mother to Edmund's younger son Edgar following his mother's early death. The Half-King's brother Eadric was ealdorman of central Wessex, and Eadred granted him land in Sussex which Eadric gave to Abingdon Abbey. Dunstan, the Abbot of Glastonbury and a future Archbishop of Canterbury, was one of Eadred's most trusted friends and advisers, and he attested many of Eadred's charters. Eadgifu had been sidelined under the rule of her stepson Æthelstan, but she became powerful under the rule of her own sons Edmund and Eadred. Ælfgar, the father of Edmund's second wife Æthelflæd, was ealdorman of Essex from 946 to 951. Edmund presented Ælfgar with a sword decorated with gold on its hilt and silver on its sheath, which Ælfgar subsequently gave to Eadred. Ælfgar consistently attested last among the ealdormen, and he may have been subordinate to Æthelstan Half-King. Two thegns, Wulfric Cufing and another Wulfric who was Dunstan's brother, received massive grants of land from Edmund and Eadred, showing that royal patronage could transform minor local figures into great nobles. Eadred is one of the few later Anglo-Saxon kings for whom no law code is known to survive, although he may have issued the *Hundred Ordinance*. Ealdormen issued legal judgments on behalf of the king at a local level. One example during Eadred's reign concerned the theft of a woman, probably a slave. A man called Æthelstan of Sunbury was later found to have her in his possession and could not prove he had acquired her legally. He surrendered possession and paid compensation to the owner, but Ealdorman Byrhtferth ordered him to pay his *wer* (the value of his life) to the king, and when Æthelstan could not pay Byrhtferth required him to forfeit his Sunbury estate. In 952 Eadred ordered "a great slaughter" of the people of Thetford in revenge for their murder of Abbot Eadhelm, perhaps of St Augustine's, Canterbury. This was the usual punishment for crimes committed by communities. The historian Cyril Hart suggests that Eadhelm may have been trying to establish a new monastery there, against the opposition of the local inhabitants. Force was fundamental to West Saxon kings' domination of England, and the historian George Molyneaux sees the Thetford slaughter as an example of their "intermittently unleashed crude but terrifying displays of coercive power". The Anglo-Saxon court was peripatetic, travelling round the country, and there was no fixed capital. Like other later Anglo-Saxon kings, Eadred's royal estates were mainly in Wessex and he and his court travelled between them. All known locations in Eadred's itinerary were in Wessex, apart from Tanshelf. There was also no central treasury, but Eadred did travel with his sacred relics, which were in the custody of his mass priests. According to Dunstan's first biographer, Eadred "handed over to Dunstan his most valuable possessions: many land charters, the old treasure of earlier kings, and various riches of his own acquiring, all to be guarded faithfully behind the walls of his monastery". However, Dunstan was only one of the people entrusted with Eadred's treasures; there were others such as Wulfhelm, Bishop of Wells. When Eadred was dying, he sent for the property so that he could distribute it, but he died before Dunstan arrived with his share. Ceremonial was important. A charter issued at Easter 949 describes Eadred as "exalted with royal crowns", displaying the king as an exceptional and charismatic character set apart from other men. ### Charters The period between 925 and 975 was the golden age of Anglo-Saxon royal diplomas, when they were at their peak as instruments of royal government, and kings used them to project images of royal power and as the most reliable means of communication between the court and the country. Most charters between late in Æthelstan's reign and midway through Eadred's were written in the king's writing office in a style called the "diplomatic mainstream", for example, the charter which is displayed below, written by the scribe called "Edmund C". He wrote two charters dating to Edmund's reign and three in Eadred's. The style almost disappears between around 950 and the end of Eadred's reign. The number of surviving charters declines, with none dating to the years 952 and 954. Charters from this period belong to two other traditions. The reason for the dramatic change in around 950 is not known, but may be due to Eadred transferring responsibility for charter production from the royal writing office to other centres when his health declined in his last years. One alternative tradition is found in the "alliterative charters", produced between 940 and 956, which display frequent use of alliteration and unusual vocabulary, in a style influenced by Aldhelm, the seventh-century bishop of Sherborne. They are the work of a scribe who was very learned, almost certainly someone in the circle of Cenwald, bishop of Worcester or perhaps the bishop himself. They have Mercian antecedents and most relate to estates north of the Thames. Seven charters of this type survive from 949 to 951, half the total for those years, and another two are dated 955. The historian Simon Keynes comments: The "alliterative" charters represent an extraordinary body of material, intimately related to each other, and deeply interesting in their own right as works of learning and literature. Judged as diplomas, they are inventive, spirited, and delightfully chaotic. They stand apart from the diplomatic mainstream, yet they seem nonetheless to emerge from the very heart of the ceremonies of conveyance conducted at royal assemblies. The other alternative tradition is found in the "Dunstan B" charters, which are very different from the "alliterative" charters, with a style which is plain and unpretentious, and which dispenses with the usual initial invocation and proem. They are associated with Dunstan and Glastonbury Abbey, and all the ones issued in Eadred's reign are for estates in the south and west. They were produced between 951 and 986, but they appear to be foreshadowed by a charter of 949 granting Reculver minster and its lands to Christ Church, Canterbury, which claims to be written by Dunstan "with his own fingers". The document is not original and is thought to be a production of the later tenth century, but there are no anachronisms and it has many stylistic features of the "Dunstan B" charters, so it is probably an "improved" version of an original charter. Further evidence associating Dunstan with the charters is provided by commentaries on a manuscript of Caesarius of Arles's *Expositio in Apocalypsin*, written on Dunstan's order, which has a script so similar to that of the only "Dunstan B" charter to survive as an original manuscript that it is likely that both documents were written by Glastonbury scribes. The charter is described by Keynes as "well disciplined and thoroughly professional". Eight charters of all types survive dating to 953 and 955, out of which six belong to this tradition and two are "alliterative". The six "Dunstan B" charters are not witnessed by the king, and Dunstan was probably authorised to produce charters in the king's name when he was too ill to carry out his duties. In the 940s the draftsmen of "mainstream" charters used the title "king of the English" and in the early 950s "Dunstan B" charters described Eadred as "king of Albion", whereas "alliterative" charters adopted complex political analysis in the wording of Eadred's title, and only after final conquest of York described him as "king of the whole of Britain". Several "alliterative" charters, including one issued on the occasion of Eadred's coronation, use expressions such as "the government of kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxons and Northumbrians, of the pagans and the Britons". Keynes observes: "It would be dangerous, of course, to press such evidence too far; but it is interesting nonetheless to be reminded that in the eyes of at least one observer the whole was no greater than the sum of its component parts. ### Coinage Silver penny of Eadred, obverseSilver penny, obverse, inscribed 'EADRED REX'Silver penny of Eadred, reverseHT1 style reverse inscribed 'INGELGAR M' The only coin in common use in late Anglo-Saxon England was the silver penny. Halfpennies were very rare but a few have been found dating to Eadred's reign, one of which has been cut in half to make a farthing. The average weight of a penny of around 24 grains in Edward the Elder's reign gradually declined until Edgar's pre-reform coinage, and by Eadred's time the reduction was about 3 grains. With a few exceptions, the high silver content of 85 to 90% in previous reigns was maintained under Eadred. One common coin type in Eadred's reign is designated BC (bust crowned), with the king's head on the obverse. Many BC coins are based on an original style of Æthelstan's reign but are of crude workmanship. Some were produced by moneyers who had worked in the previous reign, but there were over thirty new moneyers producing BC coins, out of which nearly twenty are represented by a single coin, so it is likely that there were other moneyers producing BC coins whose coins have not yet been found. The H (Horizontal) type, with no king's bust on the obverse and the moneyer's name horizontally on the reverse, was even more common, with more than eighty moneyers known for Eadred's reign, many only from single specimens. The dominant styles in Eadred's reign were HT1 in the south and east, with trefoils top and bottom on the reverse (see right), and HR1 in the north midlands, with rosettes instead of trefoils, produced by around sixty moneyers and the most plentiful style in Eadred's reign. In Northumbria and the north-east in Eadred's reign there were a few moneyers with a large output, whereas coins in the rest of the country were produced by many different moneyers. The mint town is shown on some BC coins, but rarely on H types. A few HRs show Derby and Chester, and one HT1 coin survives with an Oxford inscription and one with Canterbury. The leading York moneyer for almost the whole of Eadred's reign was Ingelgar (see right). He produced high standard coins for Eadred, Anlaf and Erik and worked until the last months of Eadred's reign, when he was replaced by Heriger. Another large scale moneyer was Hunred, who may have operated at Derby when York was in Viking hands. ### Religion The major religious movement of the tenth century, the English Benedictine Reform, reached its peak under Edgar, but Eadred was a strong supporter in its early stages. Another proponent was Archbishop Oda, who was a monk with a strong connection with the leading Continental centre, Fleury Abbey. When Eadred came to the throne, two of the future leaders of the movement were at Glastonbury Abbey: Dunstan had been appointed abbot by Edmund, and he had been joined by Æthelwold, the future Bishop of Winchester. The reformers also had lay supporters such as Æthelstan Half-King and Eadgifu, who were especially close to Dunstan. The historian Nicholas Brooks comments: "The evidence is indirect and inadequate but may suggest that Dunstan drew much of his support from the regiment of powerful women in early tenth-century Wessex and from Eadgifu in particular." According to Dunstan's first biographer, Eadred urged Dunstan to accept the vacant see of Crediton, and when he refused Eadred got Eadgifu to invite Dunstan to a meal where she could use her "woman's gift of words" to persuade him, but her attempt was unsuccessful. During Eadred's reign Æthelwold asked for permission to go abroad to gain a deeper understanding of the scriptures and a monk's religious life, no doubt at a reformed monastery such as Fleury. He may have thought that the discipline at Glastonbury was too lax. Eadred refused on his mother's advice that he should not allow such a wise man to leave his kingdom, instead appointing him as abbot of Abingdon, which was then served by secular priests and which Æthelwold transformed into a leading Benedictine abbey. Eadred supported the community, including granting it a 100 hide royal estate at Abingdon, and Eadgifu was an even more generous donor. Eadred travelled to Abingdon to plan the monastery there and personally measured the foundations where he proposed to raise the walls. Æthelwold then invited him to dine and he accepted. The king ordered that the mead should flow plentifully and the doors were locked so that none would be seen leaving the royal dinner. Some Northumbrian thegns accompanying the king got drunk, as was their custom, and were very merry when they left. However, Eadred died before the work could be carried out, and the building was not constructed until Edgar came to the throne. Supporters of monastic reform were devoted to cults of saints and their relics. When Eadred burnt down Ripon Minster during his invasion of Northumbria, Oda had the relics of Saint Wilfrid, and Ripon's copy of the *Vita Sancti Wilfrithi* by Eddius (Stephen of Ripon), seized and brought to Canterbury. The *Vita* provided the basis for a new metrical life of Wilfrid (*Breuiloquium Vitae Wilfridi*) by Frithegod, a Frankish scholar in Oda's household, and a preface in Oda's name (although probably drafted by Frithegod) justified the theft by accusing Ripon of scandalous neglect of Wilfrid's relics. Michael Lapidge sees the destruction of the minster as providing the pretext for "a notorious *furtum sacrum*" (sacred theft). Wilfrid had been an assertively independent northern bishop and in the historian David Rollason's view the theft may have been intended to prevent the relics from becoming a focus for opposition to the West Saxon dynasty. Kings were also avid collectors of relics, which demonstrated their piety and increased their prestige, and Eadred left bequests in his will to priests he had appointed to look after his own relics. Under Edgar, the view of Æthelwold and his circle that Benedictine monasticism was the only worthwhile form of religious life became dominant, but this was not the view of earlier kings such as Eadred. In 951 he appointed Ælfsige, a married man with a son, as bishop of Winchester. Ælfsige was not a reformer and was later remembered as hostile to the cause. Eadred's reign saw a continuation of a trend away from ecclesiastical beneficiaries of charters. More than two-thirds of beneficiaries in Æthelstan's reign were ecclesiastics and two-thirds were laymen in Edmund's. Under Eadred and Eadwig, three-quarters were laymen. In the mid-tenth century, some religious noblewomen received grants of land without being members of communities of nuns. Æthelstan granted two estates, Edmund seven and Eadred four. After this the practice ceased abruptly, apart from one further donation. The significance of the donations is uncertain, but the most likely explanation is that some aristocratic women were granted the estates so that they could pursue a religious vocation in their own way, whether by establishing a nunnery or living a religious life in their own homes. In 953 Eadred granted land in Sussex to his mother, and she is described in the charter as *famula Dei*, which probably means that she adopted a religious life while retaining her own estates, and did not enter a monastery. ### Learning Glastonbury and Abingdon were leading centres of learning, and Dunstan and Æthelwold were both excellent Latinists, but little is known of the studies at their monasteries. Oda was also a competent Latin scholar and his household at Canterbury was the other main centre of learning in the mid-tenth century. The most brilliant scholar there was Frithegod. His poem *Breuiloquium Vitae Wilfridi* is described by Lapidge, an expert on medieval Latin literature, as "perhaps the most remarkable monument of tenth-century Anglo-Latin literature". It is "one of the most brilliantly ingenious – but also damnably difficult – Latin products of Anglo-Saxon England", which "may be dubiously described as the 'masterpiece' of Anglo-Latin hermeneutic style". Frithegod was a tutor to Oda's nephew Oswald, a future Archbishop of York and the third leader of the monastic reform movement. Frithegod returned to Francia when his patron Oda died in 958. Eadred's will ------------- Eadred's will is one of only two wills of Anglo-Saxon kings to survive. It reads: *In nomine Domini*. This is King Eadred's will. In the first place, he presents to the foundation wherein he desires that his body shall rest, two gold crosses and two swords with hilts of gold, and four hundred pounds. Item, he gives to the Old Minster at Winchester three estates, namely Downton, Damerham and Calne. Item, he gives to the New Minster three estates, namely Wherwell, Andover and Clere; and to the Nunnaminster, Shalbourne, Thatcham and Bradford. Item, he gives to the Nunnaminster at Winchester thirty pounds. and thirty to Wilton, and thirty to Shaftesbury. Item, he gives sixteen hundred pounds for the redemption of his soul, and the good of his people, that they may be able to purchase for themselves relief from want and from the heathen army, if they need [to do so]. Of this the Archbishop at Christchurch is to receive four hundred pounds, for the relief of the people of Kent and Surrey and Sussex and Berkshire; and if anything happen to the bishop, the money shall remain in the monastery, in the charge of the members of the council who are in that county. And Ælfsige, bishop of the see of Winchester, is to receive four hundred pounds, two hundred for Hampshire and one hundred each for Wiltshire and Dorsetshire; and if anything happen to him, it shall remain-as in a similar case mentioned above-in the charge of the members of the council who are in that county. Item, Abbot Dunstan is to receive two hundred pounds and to keep it at Glastonbury for the people of Somerset and Devon; and if anything happen to him, arrangements similar to those above shall be made. Item, Bishop Ælfsige is to receive the two hundred pounds left over, and keep [the money] at the episcopal see at Winchester, for whichever shire may need it. And Bishop Oscetel is to receive four hundred pounds, and keep it at the episcopal see at Dorchester for the Mercians, in accordance with the arrangement described above. Now Bishop Wulfhelm has that sum of four hundred pounds (?). Item, gold to the amount of two thousand mancuses is to be taken and minted into mancuses; and the archbishop is to receive one portion, and Bishop Ælfsige a second, and Bishop Oscetel a third, and they are to distribute them throughout the bishoprics for the sake of God and for the redemption of my soul. Item, I give to my mother the estates at Amesbury and Wantage and Basing, and all the booklands which I have in Sussex, Surrey and Kent, and all those which she has previously had. Item I give to the archbishop two hundred mancuses of gold, reckoning the hundred at a hundred and twenty. And to each of my bishops one hundred and twenty mancuses of gold. And to each of my earls one hundred and twenty mancuses of gold. And to each [duly] appointed seneschal, and each appointed chamberlain and butler, eighty mancuses of gold. And to each of my chaplains whom I have put in charge of my relics, fifty mancuses of gold and five pounds in silver. And five pounds to each of the other priests. And thirty muncuses of gold to each [duly] appointed steward, and to every ecclesiastic who has been appointed (?) since I succeeded to the throne, and to every member of my household, in whatever capacity he be employed, unless he be.......to the royal palaces. Item, I desire that twelve almsmen be chosen on each of the estates mentioned above, and if anything happen to any of them, another is to be put appointed his place; and this is to hold good so long as Christianity endures, to the glory of God and the redemption of my soul; and if anyone refuses to carry it out, his estate is to revert to the place where my body shall rest. The will is described by Stenton as "the chief authority for the pre-Conquest royal household". It shows that *discthegns* (seneschals) served at his table and that the other principal officers were butlers and *hræglthegns* (keepers of the wardrobe). All the estates named in the will are in Wessex, reflecting the concentration of royal property there, although he also mentions booklands in the south-east without specifying the locations. Eadwig cannot have been happy at his exclusion from the will, and it appears to have been set aside following his accession. Illness and death ----------------- Eadred suffered from ill-health at the end of his life which gradually got worse and led to his early death. Dunstan's first biographer, who probably attended court as a member of his household, wrote: Unfortunately Dunstan's beloved King Eadred was very sickly all through his reign. At mealtimes he would suck the juice out of his food, chew what was left of it for a little and then spit it out: a practice that often turned the stomachs of the thegns dining with him. He dragged on an invalid existence as best he could, despite the protests of his body (?), for quite a long time. Finally his worsening illness came over him more and more often with a thousandfold weight, and brought him unhappily to his deathbed. The eleventh-century hagiographer Herman the Archdeacon described Eadred as "*debilis pedibus*" (crippled in both feet), and in his later years he probably delegated authority to leading magnates such as Dunstan. Meetings of the *witan* were rarer when he was ill and business was limited, with no appointments of ealdormen. He did not marry, perhaps due to his poor health, and he died in his early thirties on 23 November 955, at Frome in Somerset. He was buried in the Old Minster, Winchester, although that was probably not his choice as in his will he made bequests to an unspecified location where "he wishes his body to rest", and then property to the Old Minster, implying that they were different places. Eadwig and Ælfsige, bishop of Winchester, may have decided on the burial place. The historian Nicole Marafioti suggests that Eadred may have wished to be buried at Glastonbury and Eadwig insisted on Winchester in order to prevent Eadred's supporters from using the grave as "ideological leverage" against the new regime. Assessment ---------- Domestic politics and recovering control over the whole of England were central to Eadred's rule and, unlike Æthelstan and Edmund, he is not known to have played any part in West Frankish politics, although in 949 ambassadors from Eadred attended the court of Otto I, King of East Francia at Aachen. Securing a general recognition of his authority was Eadred's primary duty, and his main preoccupation was dealing with northern rebellions. Northumbria fought for its independence against successive West Saxon kings, but the acceptance of Erik proved to be its last throw and it was finally conquered during Eadred's reign. Historians disagree on how great his role was. In the view of the historian Ben Snook, Eadred "relied on a kitchen cabinet to run the country on his behalf and seems never to have exercised much direct authority." Hart suggests that in Edmund's reign Eadgifu and Æthelstan Half-King decided much of national policy, and the position did not change much under Eadred. By contrast, in Williams's view, Eadred was "clearly an able and even energetic king, hampered by debility and (at the last) by a serious illness which brought about his early death". Eadred's attitude towards his nephews is uncertain. Some charters are attested by both Eadwig and Edgar as *cliton* (medieval Latin for prince), but others by Eadwig as *cliton* or *ætheling* (Old English for prince) and Edgar as his brother. When he acceded, Eadwig dispossessed Eadgifu and exiled Dunstan, apparently as part of an attempt to free himself from the powerful advisers of his father and uncle. The attempt failed, as within two years he was forced to share the kingdom with Edgar, who became King of the Mercians, while Eadwig retained Wessex. Eadwig died in 959 after a rule of only four years. 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Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press. pp. 1–23. ISBN 978-0-85115-301-8. * Trousdale, Alaric (2007). *Rex Augustissimus: Reassessing the Reign of King Edmund of England, 939-46* (PhD). University of Edinburgh. OCLC 646764020. * Whitelock, Dorothy, ed. (1979) [1st edition 1955]. *English Historical Documents, Volume 1, c. 500–1042* (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-14366-0. * Williams, Ann (1991). "Eadred, king of the English 946-55". In Williams, Ann; Smyth, Alfred P.; Kirby, D. P. (eds.). *A Biographical Dictionary of Dark Age Britain*. London, UK: Seaby. p. 113. ISBN 978-1-85264-047-7. * Williams, Ann (1999). *Kingship and Government in Pre-Conquest England, c. 500-1066*. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Press Ltd. ISBN 978-0-312-22090-7. * Williams, Ann (2004a). "Edmund I (920/21–946)". *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/8501. ISBN 978-0-19-861412-8. (subscription or UK public library membership required) * Williams, Ann (2004b). "Eadred [Edred] (d. 955)". *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/8510. ISBN 978-0-19-861412-8. (subscription or UK public library membership required) * Williams, Ann (2013). "Introduction". In Owen-Crocker, Gale; Schneider, Brian (eds.). *Kingship, Legislation and Power in Anglo-Saxon England*. Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press. pp. 1–14. ISBN 978-1-84383-877-7. * Winterbottom, Michael; Lapidge, Michael, eds. (2011). *The Early Lives of St Dunstan*. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960504-0. * Wood, Michael (2010). "A Carolingian Scholar in the Court of King Æthelstan". In Rollason, David; Leyser, Conrad; Williams, Hannah (eds.). *England and the Continent in the Tenth Century: Studies in Honour of Wilhelm Levison (1876–1947)*. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols. pp. 135–162. ISBN 978-2-503-53208-0. * Woolf, Alex (2007). *From Pictland to Alba: 789–1070*. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1233-8. * Yorke, Barbara (1995). *Wessex in the Early Middle Ages*. London, UK: Leicester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7185-1856-1. * Yorke, Barbara (2004). "Æthelwold [St Æthelwold, Ethelwold] (904x9–984)". *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/8920. ISBN 978-0-19-861412-8. (subscription or UK public library membership required) * Yorke, Barbara (2021). "Royal Burial in Winchester: Context and Significance". In Lavelle, Ryan; Roffey, Simon; Weikert, Katherine (eds.). *Early Medieval Winchester: Communities, Authority and Power in an Urban Space, c.800-c.1200*. Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books. pp. 59–80. ISBN 978-1-78925-623-9. | Regnal titles | | --- | | Preceded byEdmund | **King of the English** 946–955 | Succeeded byEadwig |

Eadred

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eadred

52°43′N 1°11′W / 52.717°N 1.183°W / 52.717; -1.183 **Leicestershire** (/ˈlɛstərʃɪər, -ʃər/ () *LEST-ər-sheer, -⁠shər*; postal abbreviation **Leics.**) is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in the East Midlands, England. The county borders Nottinghamshire to the north, Lincolnshire to the north-east, Rutland to the east, Northamptonshire to the south-east, Warwickshire to the south-west, Staffordshire to the west, and Derbyshire to the north-west. The border with most of Warwickshire is Watling Street, the modern A5 road. Leicestershire takes its name from the city of Leicester located at its centre and administered separately from the rest of the county. The ceremonial county – the non-metropolitan county plus the city of Leicester – has a total population of just over 1 million (2016 estimate), more than half of which lives in the Leicester Urban Area. History ------- Leicestershire was recorded in the Domesday Book in four wapentakes: Guthlaxton, Framland, Goscote, and Gartree. These later became hundreds, with the division of Goscote into West Goscote and East Goscote, and the addition of Sparkenhoe hundred. In 1087, the first recorded use of the name was as *Lægrecastrescir*. Leicestershire's external boundaries have changed little since the Domesday Survey. The Measham-Donisthorpe exclave of Derbyshire has been exchanged for the Netherseal area, and the urban expansion of Market Harborough has caused Little Bowden, previously in Northamptonshire to be annexed. In 1974, the Local Government Act 1972 abolished the county borough status of Leicester city and the county status of neighbouring Rutland, converting both to administrative districts of Leicestershire. These actions were reversed on 1 April 1997, when Rutland and the City of Leicester became unitary authorities. Rutland became a distinct Ceremonial County once again, although it continues to be policed by Leicestershire Constabulary. The symbol of the county council, Leicestershire County Cricket Club and Leicester City FC, is the fox. Leicestershire is considered to be the birthplace of fox hunting as it is known today. Hugo Meynell, who lived in Quorn, is known as the father of fox hunting. Melton Mowbray and Market Harborough have associations with fox hunting, as has neighbouring Rutland. Leicestershire was the last historic county of England to get a registered flag, the design being officiated in July 2021. The new flag features a fox and a cinquefoil – both symbols often associated with Leicestershire. Geography --------- Map [Interactive fullscreen map]This is a stopgap mapping solution, while attempts are made to resolve technical difficulties with {{OSM Location map}} Location map of Leicestershire and major towns/cities The River Soar together with its tributaries and canalisations constitutes the principal river basin of the county, although the River Avon and River Welland through Harborough and along the county's southern boundaries are also significant. The Soar rises between Hinckley and Lutterworth, towards the south of the county near the Warwickshire border, and flows northwards, bisecting the county along its north–south axis, through 'Greater' Leicester and then to the east of Loughborough where its course within the county comes to an end. It continues north marking the boundary with Nottinghamshire in the Borough of Rushcliffe for some 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) before joining the River Trent at the point where Derbyshire, Leicestershire, and Nottinghamshire meet. The geographical centre of England is in Leicestershire, near Fenny Drayton in the southwest of the county. In 2013, the Ordnance Survey calculated that the point was on land at Lindley Hall Farm; Meriden, around 10 miles (16 km) to the southwest, had been considered the traditional centre for more than 500 years. A large part of the north-west of the county, around Coalville, forms part of the new National Forest area extending into Derbyshire and Staffordshire. The highest point of the county is Bardon Hill at 278 m (912 ft), which is also a Marilyn; with other hilly/upland areas of c. 150–200 metres (490–660 ft) and above in nearby Charnwood Forest and also to the east of the county around Launde Abbey. The lowest point, at an altitude of about 20 metres (66 ft), is located at the county's northernmost tip close to Bottesford where the River Devon flowing through the Vale of Belvoir leaves Leicestershire and enters Nottinghamshire. This results in an altitude differential (AΔ|vertical) of around 257.5 metres (845 ft) and a mean altitude of 148.75 metres (488.0 ft). | | County Name (City) | Area m^2 | Lowest point m | Altitude Δ m | Average height (mean alt.) m | Vertical Shift ('Hill-Billy') index | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | A | Leicestershire (Leicester) | 2,156 | 20.5 | 257.5 | 149.25 | 12.231 | | | | | | | | | | B | Gtr London (London) | 1.569 | 0 | 245 | 122.5 | 11.092 | | C | Lothian (Edinburgh) | 1.720 | 0 | 579 | 289.5 | 17.128 | | D | S. Glamorgan (Cardiff) | 475 | 0 | 307 | 153.5 | 12.807 | | E | Antrim (Belfast) | 3046 | 0 | 551 | 275.5 | 16.631 | | G | Dublin Co (Dublin) (cf.) | 922 | 0 | 444 | 222 | 15.132 | Demographics ------------ The population of Leicestershire (excluding Leicester Unitary Authority) is 609,578 people (2001 census). The county covers an area of 2,084 km2 (804 sq mi). Its largest population centre is the city of Leicester, followed by the town of Loughborough. Other large towns include Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Coalville, Hinckley, Lutterworth, Market Harborough, Melton Mowbray, Oadby, Shepshed and Wigston. Some of the larger of villages are: Burbage (population estimated around 16,500 in 2014), Birstall (population 11,400 in 2004), Broughton Astley, Castle Donington, Kibworth Beauchamp (along with Kibworth Harcourt), Great Glen, Ibstock, Countesthorpe and Kegworth. One of the most rapidly expanding villages is Anstey, which has recently seen many development schemes. The 2001 United Kingdom census showed a total resident population for Leicester of 279,921, a 0.5% decrease from the 1991 census (this trend since reversing at the 2011 census). Approximately 62,000 were aged under 16, 199,000 were aged 16–74, and 19,000 aged 75 and over. 76.9% of Leicester's population claim they have been born in the UK, according to the 2001 UK Census. Mid-year estimates for 2006 indicate that the population of the City of Leicester stood at 289,700 making Leicester the most populous city in East Midlands. The population density is 3,814/km2 (9,880/sq mi) and for every 100 females, there were 92.9 males. Of those aged 16–74 in Leicester, 38.5% had no academic qualifications, significantly higher than 28.9% in all of England. 23.0% of Leicester's residents were born outside of the United Kingdom, more than double than the English average of 9.2%. Economy ------- ### Engineering Engineering has long been an important part of the economy of Leicestershire. John Taylor Bellfounders continues a history of bellfounding in Loughborough since the 14th century. In 1881 John Taylors cast the largest bell in Britain, "Great Paul", for St Paul's Cathedral in London. Norman & Underwood have been making sand cast sheet lead roofing and stained glass since 1825 working on many of England's major cathedrals and historic buildings, including Salisbury Cathedral, Windsor Castle, Westminster Abbey, Hampton Court Palace, and Chatsworth House. There were three coal mines that operated in Coalville from the 1820s until 1986. Abbey Pumping Station houses four enormous steam powered beam engines built in Leicester in the 1890s in the Vulcan factory owned by Josiah Gimson, whose son Ernest Gimson was an influential furniture designer and architect of the English arts and crafts movement. Engineering companies today include sports car makers Noble Automotive Ltd in Barwell and Ultima Sports Ltd in Hinckley, Triumph Motorcycles in Hinckley, Jones & Shipman (machine tools), Caterpillar Redford (Plant machinery), Plant manufacturers Metalfacture Ltd (sheet metal work), Richards Engineering (foundry equipment), Transmon Engineering (materials handling equipment), Trelleborg Industrial AVS in Beaumont Leys (industrial suspension components), Parker Plant (quarrying equipment), Aggregate Industries UK (construction materials), Infotec in Ashby-de-la-Zouch (electronic information display boards), Alstec in Whetstone, Leicestershire (airport baggage handling systems), and Brush Traction (railway locomotives) in Loughborough. There are also consultancies (including Pick Everard) in Leicestershire supporting engineering and the built environment. Local commitment to nurturing the upcoming cadre of British engineers includes apprenticeship schemes with local companies, and academic-industrial connections with the engineering departments at Leicester University, De Montfort University, and Loughborough University. The Systems Engineering Innovation Centre and Centre for Excellence for low carbon and fuel cell technologies are both based at Loughborough University. Private sector research and development organisations include PERA – the technology based consultancy in Melton Mowbray, and MIRA – the automotive research and development centre based on the outskirts of Hinckley. Automotive and aerospace engineers use the test facilities at Mallory Park, and Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome and proving ground. On 18 October 2007, the last airworthy Avro Vulcan was flown from Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome after 10 years of restoration there by aerospace engineers of the Vulcan Operating Company. ### Farming Leicestershire has a long history of livestock farming which continues today. Robert Bakewell (1725–1795) of Dishley, near Loughborough, was a revolutionary in the field of selective breeding. Bakewell's Leicester Longwool sheep was much prized by farmers across the British Empire and is today a heritage breed admired. Commercial and rare breeds associated with the descendants of Bakewell's sheep include the English Leicester, Border Leicester, Bluefaced Leicester, Scotch mule, and Welsh halfbred. The Leicestershire County Show is held on the first Bank Holiday in May each year and includes animal showings, trade exhibitions, and show jumping. Melton Mowbray Market is an important regional livestock market. Field sports remain an important part of the rural economy of Leicestershire, with stables, kennels, and gunsmiths based in the county. ### Food and drink Stilton and Red Leicester cheeses and the pork pie are the three most famous contributions to English cuisine from Leicestershire. Leicestershire food producers include Claybrooke mill, one of the very few commercially working watermills left in Britain producing a range of over 40 flours; meat from rare and minority breeds from Brockleby's; and Christmas turkey and goose from Seldom Seen Farm. Two dairies produce Red Leicester cheese in the county, Long Clawson and the Leicestershire Handmade Cheese Company. All-natural non-alcoholic fruit cordials and pressed drinks are made by Belvoir Fruit Farms and sold in supermarkets across Britain. Swithland Spring Water is sourced from the Charnwood hills. Breweries in Leicestershire and Rutland are listed on the Leicester CAMRA website. The county's largest beer brewer is Everards, and there are several microbreweries such as Belvoir Brewery in Old Dalby, Parish Brewery in Burrough on the Hill, Wicked Hathern Brewery in Loughborough, the Gas Dog Brewery at Somerby near Melton, Ellis Wood brewery in Hinckley, and the Pig Pub Brewery in Claybrooke Magna near Lutterworth. Vineyards in Leicestershire include Chevelswarde Vineyard (Lutterworth), Welland Valley Vineyard (Market Harborough), Eglantine (Loughborough) and Rothley Wines (Rothley). Melton Mowbray Sloe Gin is a liqueur with a distinctive flavour. Various markets are held across the county. Leicester Market is the largest outdoor covered marketplace in Europe and among the products on sale are fruit and vegetables sold by market stallholders, and fresh fish and meat in the Indoor Market. The annual East Midlands Food & Drink Festival held in Melton Mowbray had over 200 exhibitors and 20,000 visitors attending in 2007 making it the largest British regional food festival. Food processing in the city and county includes popular British fish and chip shop pie Pukka Pies who are based in Syston. Walkers Midshire Foods, part of the Samworth Brothers group, makes sausages and pies in its Beaumont Leys factories. Samworth Brothers has operations in Leicestershire and Cornwall (Ginsters), making a range of products from sandwiches to desserts for UK retailers under their brands as well the company's own portfolio of brands including Dickinson & Morris, producers of pork pies and Melton Hunt Cake. Walkers crisps are made in Beaumont Leys using Lincolnshire potatoes. United Biscuits have their distribution centre in Ashby-de-la-Zouch as well as a snacks factory producing brands such as Hula Hoops, Skips, Nik Naks and Space Raiders and they also have a biscuit factory in Wigston. The Masterfoods UK factory at Melton Mowbray produces petfood for brands such as Cesar, Kitekat, PAL, Pedigree, Sheba, Whiskas, Aquarian and Trill. Hand made chocolates are produced by Chocolate Perfection in Ashby-de-la-Zouch. Some 15 major Indian food manufacturers are based in Leicester including Sara Foods, Mayur Foods, Cofresh Snack Foods Ltd, Farsan, Apni Roti, and Spice n Tice. The 'Mithai' Indian sweet market is catered for by award-winning Indian restaurants – for instance the vegetable samosas approved by the Vegetarian Society sold at The Sharmilee on Belgrave Road in the Belgrave area of Leicester. The growing market for Indian food has afforded new opportunities to long-standing local companies, for example the Long Clawson dairy, a co-operative manufacturer of Stilton (cheese) now also makes Paneer cheese used in the Indian dish Mattar Paneer. Leicestershire food exported abroad includes cheese from the Long Clawson dairy, which is sold in supermarkets in Canada and the United States via a network of distributors coordinated by Taunton-based company Somerdale. Belvoir Fruit Farms cordials and pressé drinks are sold on the United States east coast in Wegmans Food Markets, World Market, Harris Teeter, Dean & DeLuca, and in specialised British food stores such as Myers of Keswick (New York City), and the British Pantry (near Washington, D.C.). The annual Leicestershire & Rutland Restaurant Awards has several categories including Leicestershire & Rutland Restaurant of the Year, Best Asian Restaurant, Best Service, Best Newcomer, Best Fine Dining Restaurant, Best Value for Money, Best Drinks/Wine List, Best Local Produce Menu, Best Gastro Pub, Best Neighbourhood Restaurant, Best Business Lunch, and Leicestershire & Rutland Young Chef of the Year. ### Clothing Leicester and Leicestershire has had a traditional industry of knitwear, hosiery and footwear, and the sheep on the county's coat of arms is recognition of this. The local manufacturing industry, which began with hand knitting in the Middle Ages, and was fully industrialised by the end of the 19th century, survived until the end of the 20th century through retailers buying UK sourced products, and government measures such as the protection of the Multi Fibre Arrangement which ended in 2004. Cheaper global competition, coupled with the 1999 slump in the UK fashion retail sector, led to the end of much of the cheaper clothing manufacturing industry. Today Leicestershire companies focus on high quality clothing and speciality textiles. Other local companies manufacture knitwear such as Commando Knitwear of Wigston, and others specialise in technical textiles for industrial or medical purposes. Clothing and fabric for the British Asian community is made here – for example the shop Saree Mandir sells silk saree's and salwar suits for women whose design patterns closely follow contemporary Indian trends. The Knitting Industries' Federation continues to be based in Leicestershire. On the creative side the design centre for next is headquartered in Enderby, and the design centre for George Clothing (Asda/Walmart) is in Lutterworth. De Montfort University has, in the form of its Fashion and Contour Design course a leading design department for female underwear. It also has the only UK University courses in Footwear Design providing future designers for local shoemakers Shoefayre, Stead and Simpson, and Shoe Zone, who all have their headquarters in the county. Gola also originates from the county. ### Healthcare University Hospitals Leicester NHS Trust employs around 11,000 at its three hospitals in the city and county, the Glenfield, the General and the Royal Infirmary. Leicestershire Partnership NHS Trust employs over 5,500 staff providing mental health, learning disability and community health services in the city and county. These services are commissioned by the three Clinical Commissioning Groups, led by local GPs. The British Psychological Society, the Institution of Occupational Safety and Health (IOSH) based in Wigston, and the National Examination Board in Occupational Safety and Health (NEBOSH) have their head offices in Leicestershire. ### Biomedical industries Pharmaceutical, biotechnology and medical instrument manufacturing companies include 3M, Bridgehead International in Melton, Fisher Scientific in Loughborough, and Ashfield Healthcare in Ashby-de-la-Zouch. ### Freight and distribution Transportation links are good. East Midlands Airport is one mile (1.6 km) south of Castle Donington, next to the M1 in north-west Leicestershire, and is the second largest freight airport in the United Kingdom after London Heathrow. DHL Aviation have a large purpose-built facility at EMA, and courier companies UPS and TNT also use the airport as a base. Lufthansa Cargo is also a regular user of East Midlands, and the airport is a primary hub for Royal Mail. The M1 is Leicestershire's other important transport hub. The start of the M6, and part of the A14 briefly intersect with the southern tip of Leicestershire. Many large retail companies have huge warehouses at the Magna Park complex near Lutterworth. The Widdowson Group make use of J21a of the M1 to provide warehousing, transportation, freight forwarding, garage services and LGV/HGV training. Pall-Ex of Ellistown provide automated palletised freight distribution services from their location off Junction 22 of the M1. The Midland Main Line provides important connections to Yorkshire and London, and the Birmingham–Stansted Line is essentially Leicestershire's east–west connection from Hinckley to Melton. ### Other Ibstock-based developer Wilson Bowden was bought in 2007 by Barratt Developments plc in a GBP2.2 billion deal. Charles Street Buildings (Leicester) and Jelson Homes are two other successful Leicester-based property companies. Hamilton-based Sofidel Group manufactures more than 600 million toilet rolls and kitchen towel rolls per year in its Leicestershire factories. Toy car company Corgi have their European operation at the Meridian Business Park, although the toys are now manufactured in China and the company is owned by Margate-based Hornby. Leicestershire is twinned with Kilkenny, Ireland. Leicester's Cultural Quarter is an ambitious plan to drive the regeneration of a large run-down area of the city. It has delivered: a new venue for the performing arts, Curve; creative workspaces for artists and designers, LCB Depot; and a Digital Media Centre. Many creative and media businesses have thrived in the region. As part of a 2002 marketing campaign, the plant conservation charity Plantlife chose the foxglove as the county flower. ### Financial and business services Financial and business service companies with operations in Leicestershire include Alliance & Leicester, Cambridge & Counties Bank, Royal Bank of Scotland, State Bank of India, HSBC, and PricewaterhouseCoopers. Pension provision company Mattioli Woods employs 170 people at its Grove Park, Enderby, HQ and has a reputation for employing graduates directly from Leicestershire Universities. Companies that have their head office in the area include Next (clothing), and British Gas Business. The Institute of Credit Management, the European Association of Trade Mark Owners, and the Point of Purchase Advertising International (POPAI) are based in Leicestershire. Key stakeholders promoting economic development formed Leicester & Leicestershire Economic Partnership in 2011. Leicestershire Chamber of Commerce is another good source for business advice. ### Business awards The Leicestershire Business Awards has categories including Investing in Leicestershire, Contribution to the Community, and Entrepreneur of the Year. Recent Leicestershire winners of the Queen's Award for Enterprise are listed on the Lord Lieutenant's website. ### Statistics This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of the non-metropolitan county of Leicestershire and Rutland (it does not include the City of Leicester) at current basic prices published (pp. 240–253) by *Office for National Statistics* with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. | Year | Regional Gross Value Added – Components may not sum to totals due to rounding | Agriculture – includes hunting and forestry | Industry – includes energy and construction | Services – includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1995 | **6,666** | 145 | 2,763 | 3,758 | | 2000 | **7,813** | 112 | 2,861 | 4,840 | | 2003 | **9,509** | 142 | 3,045 | 6,321 | Governance ---------- For lieutenancy purposes, Leicestershire consists of the non-metropolitan county and the City of Leicester. For administrative purposes, most of the county is run by the Leicestershire County Council, though the City of Leicester is run independently by the Leicester City Council. The non-metropolitan county is divided into seven districts ran by district councils: The seven district councils in Leicestershire are Blaby, Charnwood, Harborough, Hinckley & Bosworth, Melton, North West Leicestershire and Oadby & Wigston. It has been proposed by the Leicestershire County Council in 2018 to get rid of the district councils. Leicestershire County Council consists of 55 elected members, from 52 wards. The most recent election was the May 2017 elections, where all seats were up for re-election. Following these elections the current political composition of the council is 42 Conservatives, 9 Liberal Democrats and 4 Labour councillors. County Hall, in Glenfield, some 3 miles (4.8 km) north-west of central Leicester and a little over 4 miles (6.4 km) from Leicester railway station, is the seat of Leicestershire County Council and the headquarters of the county authority. Below the County Council, there are seven district councils, Blaby, Charnwood, Harborough, Hinckley and Bosworth, Melton, North West Leicestershire and Oadby and Wigston. The City of Leicester is a unitary authority which is separate from the county for local government, and provides all services in its area; the City Council meets at Leicester Town Hall. ### Parliamentary constituencies Leicestershire is represented by ten members of parliament (MPs). Three seats within the City of Leicester were won by Labour Party MPs at the last general election, though Claudia Webbe currently represents Leicester East as an independent having been suspended by the party following a criminal conviction. Andrew Bridgen had the Conservative whip suspended after tweeting about COVID-19 vaccines, and subsequently joined the Reclaim Party. The other six Leicestershire seats are represented by Conservative MPs. General Election 2019: Leicestershire & Rutland| Conser­vative | Labour | Liberal Democrat | Green | Others | *Turnout* | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 281,019 ​**(53.3%)**Increase21,216 | 169,475 ​**(32.1%)**Decrease43,696 | 51,606 ​**(9.8%)**Increase16,631 | 18,705 ​**(3.5%)**Increase7,739 | 6,885 ​**(1.3%)**Decrease5,572 | *527,692*Decrease3,762 | Overall Number of Seats as of 2019| Conser­vative | Labour | Liberal Democrat | Green | Others | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 8Steady | 3Steady | 0Steady | 0Steady | 0Steady | Education --------- Publicly funded secondary schools in Leicestershire are comprehensive. The schools are segregated by age in some areas to ages 10–14 (middle schools), and 14–16 (upper schools) or 14–18 (upper schools which also provide sixth form education). The schools, compared with other LEAs, have large numbers on the roll with school enrolment often 2000 and more. For Melton and Blaby districts, although there is division by middle and upper schools, there is only one upper school in either district, giving no choice of school. However, many students of Lutterworth College in Harborough district actually hail from Blaby district. Charnwood has the largest school population – four times the size of the Melton district. In 2007, the best-performing state school at GCSE was Beauchamp College in Oadby. No comprehensives in Leicestershire LEA were rated as poor performers, unlike in some neighbouring counties. In 2007, 7,800 pupils took GCSE exams. For A-levels, the best comprehensive school in the county was the De Lisle College in Loughborough. The best schools overall at A-level were the two private single-sex schools in Loughborough, Loughborough Grammar School and Loughborough High School. ### GCSE results by district council % of pupils gaining 5 grades A–C in 2007 including English and Maths (46.8% was the England average compared to Leicestershire's 48.9%). * Harborough 56.3 * Oadby and Wigston 55.4 * Hinckley and Bosworth 48.5 * Charnwood 47.9 * North West Leicestershire 46.5 * Melton 41.0 * Blaby 41.0 * (City of Leicester Unitary Authority 36.5) ### Independent schools Independent schools in Leicestershire include Leicester Grammar School (mixed), Leicester High School for Girls (girls), Loughborough Grammar School (boys), Loughborough High School (girls), Fairfield Preparatory School (primary school – mixed), Welbeck College (military 6th form college – mixed), Ratcliffe College (Roman Catholic – mixed), Grace Dieu Manor School (Roman Catholic – mixed), Stoneygate school (primary school – mixed), and Stoneygate College (mixed), Our Lady's Convent School (OLCS) (Roman Catholic – girls). ### Further education There are four general further education colleges operating in Leicestershire; Leicester College, Loughborough College, South Leicestershire College and Stephenson College. All offer various vocational courses as well as apprenticeships and some academic courses. Brooksby Melton College provides apprenticeships and further education training courses in animal care, countryside, equine, fisheries, and land based service engineering, at their Brooksby campus. ### Higher education Leicestershire has three universities, the University of Leicester, Loughborough University and De Montfort University. ### Educational associations Several educational associations have their head offices in Leicestershire, including the Mathematical Association, the Association of School and College Leaders, the Association for College Management, the Girls Schools Association, the National Adult School Association, the National Institute of Adult Continuing Education and the Headmasters & Headmistresses Conference. ### Sporting associations A number of UK sporting bodies have their head offices in Leicestershire, including the Institute of Sports & Recreation Management, the Institute of Swimming, Volleyball England, the Great Britain Wheelchair Basketball Association, the British Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association, the British Judo Association, the British Parachute Association, the British Triathlon Federation, the Amateur Swimming Association, the British Gliding Association, the British Motorcycle Federation, the English Indoor Bowls Association, the Youth Sport Trust and the British Isles Bowls Council. Music ----- The full range of music is performed in the county, from early medieval, European and Asian classical music, folk, jazz, blues, rock, and pop. Download Festival, a major hard rock and metal festival, is hosted at Donington Park and 110 Above Festival takes place in the north west of the county near to Twycross. ### Symphony orchestras The Leicester Symphony Orchestra and the Leicestershire Schools Symphony Orchestra are two of the larger orchestras based in the county. The Philharmonia Orchestra, though based in London, holds annual residencies in Leicester. ### Amateur orchestras Amateur orchestras include the Leicestershire Sinfonia, Loughborough Orchestra, Charnwood Orchestra, Coalville Light Orchestra and Soar Valley Music Centre Orchestra. ### Choirs and choral societies Leicester-based choirs include the Leicester Cathedral Choir, Leicester Bach Choir, Broom Leys Choral Society Whitwick, Cantamici, the Cecilian Singers, Charnwood Choral Society, Coalville and District Male Voice Choir, Coro Nostro Chamber Choir, Humberstone Choral Society, Kainé Gospel Choir, Kingfisher Chorale, Leicester Church Music Consort, Leicester City Male Voice Choir, Leicester Philharmonic Choir, Leicestershire Chorale, Loughborough Ladies Choir, Loughborough Male Voice Choir, Meridian Singers, Newtown Linford mixed voice choir, Red Leicester choir, the Scarlet choir, Shepshed Singers, Synergy Community Choir, Wigston and district male voice choir, Unity Community Choir, and the Peepul Choir. ### Early music The Longsdale Consort perform music of the renaissance and baroque periods. Leicester Recorder Society. ### Music shops Stores selling sheet music and musical instruments in Leicestershire include Music Junkie Ltd, Sona Rupa (Indian), Intasound Music Ltd and MH Music (MH Music are actually in the centre of Market Harborough). Towns and villages ------------------ Places of interest ------------------ | | | --- | | **Key** | | | Abbey/Priory/Cathedral | | Accessible open space | Accessible open space | | | Amusement/Theme Park | | | Castle | | Country Park | Country Park | | | English Heritage | | | Forestry Commission | | Heritage railway | Heritage railway | | Historic house | Historic House | | Places of Worship | Places of Worship | | Museum (free)Museum | Museum (free/not free) | | National Trust | National Trust | | | Theatre | | | Zoo | * Abbey Pumping Station * Ashby-de-la-Zouch Canal * Ashby Castle Castle English Heritage * Arnesby May Fayre * The Battlefield Line Heritage railway * Beacon Hill * Belgrave Hall & Gardens * Belvoir Castle Castle * Bosworth Battlefield * Bradgate Park & Swithland Wood * Brampton Valley Way (former railway path to Northampton) * Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome and proving ground * Burrough Hill Iron Age Hill Fort * Castle Park Castle * Charnwood Museum * Donington le Heath Manor House Museum * Donington Park and the Donington Grand Prix Collection museum * East Midlands Airport * Eyebrook Reservoir * Fosse Shopping Park * Foxton Locks * Great Glen Methodist Church * Great Central Railway (heritage railway) Heritage railway * Harborough Museum * High Cross * Kirby Muxloe Castle Castle * Launde Abbey * Leicester Cathedral * Mallory Park * Melton Carnegie Museum * Moira Furnace * Mount St. Bernard Abbey * National Space Centre * The National Forest and Conkers * Snibston & Snibston Discovery Museum * Stanford Hall Historic house * Stoney Cove the National Diving Centre * Stapleford Miniature Railway Heritage railway, Stapleford Park near Melton * The Emporium * Twycross Zoo * Ulverscroft Priory * University of Leicester Botanic Garden * Watermead Country Park Country Park * Wigston Framework Knitters Museum See also -------- * Centre points of the United Kingdom * Custos Rotulorum of Leicestershire – List of keepers of the Rolls * High Sheriff of Leicestershire * Leicestershire (UK Parliament constituency) – Historical list of MPs for the Leicestershire constituency * Leicestershire and Rutland Fire and Rescue Service * Leicestershire Police * Leicestershire Police and Crime Commissioner * List of birds of Leicestershire and Rutland * List of people from Leicester and Leicestershire * Lord Lieutenant of Leicestershire * University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust

Leicestershire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leicestershire

**Euclid** (/ˈjuːklɪd/; Greek: Εὐκλείδης; fl. 300 BC) was an ancient Greek mathematician active as a geometer and logician. Considered the "father of geometry", he is chiefly known for the *Elements* treatise, which established the foundations of geometry that largely dominated the field until the early 19th century. His system, now referred to as Euclidean geometry, involved new innovations in combination with a synthesis of theories from earlier Greek mathematicians, including Eudoxus of Cnidus, Hippocrates of Chios, Thales and Theaetetus. With Archimedes and Apollonius of Perga, Euclid is generally considered among the greatest mathematicians of antiquity, and one of the most influential in the history of mathematics. Very little is known of Euclid's life, and most information comes from the philosophers Proclus and Pappus of Alexandria many centuries later. Until the early Renaissance he was often mistaken for the earlier philosopher Euclid of Megara, causing his biography to be substantially revised. It is generally agreed that he spent his career under Ptolemy I in Alexandria and lived around 300 BC, after Plato and before Archimedes. There is some speculation that Euclid was a student of the Platonic Academy and later taught at the Musaeum. Euclid is often regarded as bridging the earlier Platonic tradition in Athens with the later tradition of Alexandria. In the *Elements*, Euclid deduced the theorems from a small set of axioms. He also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory, and mathematical rigour. In addition to the *Elements*, Euclid wrote a central early text in the optics field, *Optics*, and lesser-known works including *Data* and *Phaenomena*. Euclid's authorship of two other texts—*On Divisions of Figures*, *Catoptrics*—has been questioned. He is thought to have written many now lost works. Life ---- ### Traditional narrative The English name 'Euclid' is the anglicized version of the Ancient Greek name Εὐκλείδης. It is derived from 'eu-' (εὖ; 'well') and 'klês' (-κλῆς; 'fame'), meaning "renowned, glorious". The word 'Euclid' less commonly also means "a copy of the same", and is sometimes synonymous with 'geometry'. Like many ancient Greek mathematicians, Euclid's life is mostly unknown. He is accepted as the author of four mostly extant treatises—the *Elements*, *Optics*, *Data*, *Phaenomena*—but besides this, there is nothing known for certain of him. The historian Carl Benjamin Boyer has noted irony in that "Considering the fame of the author and of his best seller [the *Elements*], remarkably little is known of Euclid". The traditional narrative mainly follows the 5th century AD account by Proclus in his *Commentary on the First Book of Euclid's Elements*, as well as a few anecdotes from Pappus of Alexandria in the early 4th century. According to Proclus, Euclid lived after the philosopher Plato (d. 347 BC) and before the mathematician Archimedes (c. 287 – c. 212 BC); specifically, Proclus placed Euclid during the rule of Ptolemy I (r. 305/304–282 BC). In his *Collection*, Pappus indicates that Euclid was active in Alexandria, where he founded a mathematical tradition. Thus, the traditional outline—described by the historian Michalis Sialaros as the "dominant view"—holds that Euclid lived around 300 BC in Alexandria while Ptolemy I reigned. Euclid's birthdate is unknown; some scholars estimate around 330 or 325 BC, but other sources avoid speculating a date entirely. It is presumed that he was of Greek descent, but his birthplace is unknown. Proclus held that Euclid followed the Platonic tradition, but there is no definitive confirmation for this. It is unlikely he was contemporary with Plato, so it is often presumed that he was educated by Plato's disciples at the Platonic Academy in Athens. The historian Thomas Heath supported this theory by noting that most capable geometers lived in Athens, which included many of the mathematicians whose work Euclid later built on. The accuracy of these assertions has been questioned by Sialaros, who stated that Heath's theory "must be treated merely as a conjecture". Regardless of his actual attendance at the Platonic academy, the contents of his later work certainly suggest he was familiar with the Platonic geometry tradition, though they also demonstrate no observable influence from Aristotle. Alexander the Great founded Alexandria in 331 BC, where Euclid would later be active sometime around 300 BC. The rule of Ptolemy I from 306 BC onwards gave the city a stability which was relatively unique in the Mediterranean, amid the chaotic wars over dividing Alexander's empire. Ptolemy began a process of hellenization and commissioned numerous constructions, building the massive Musaeum institution, which was a leading center of education. On the basis of later anecdotes, Euclid is thought to have been among the Musaeum's first scholars and to have founded the Alexandrian school of mathematics there. According to Pappus, the later mathematician Apollonius of Perga was taught there by pupils of Euclid. Euclid's date of death is unknown; it has been estimated that he died c. 270 BC, presumably in Alexandria. ### Identity and historicity Euclid is often referred to as 'Euclid of Alexandria' to differentiate him from the earlier philosopher Euclid of Megara, a pupil of Socrates who was included in the dialogues of Plato. Historically, medieval scholars frequently confused the mathematician and philosopher, mistakenly referring to the former in Latin as 'Megarensis' (lit. 'of Megara'). As a result, biographical information on the mathematician Euclid was long conflated with the lives of both Euclid of Alexandria and Euclid of Megara. The only scholar of antiquity known to have confused the mathematician and philosopher was Valerius Maximus. However, this mistaken identification was relayed by many anonymous Byzantine sources and the Renaissance scholars Campanus of Novara and Theodore Metochites, which was included in a of 1482 translation of the latter by Erhard Ratdolt. After the mathematician Bartolomeo Zamberti [fr] (1473–1539) affirmed this presumption in his 1505 translation, all subsequent publications passed on this identification. Later Renaissance scholars, particularly Peter Ramus, reevaluated this claim, proving it false via issues in chronology and contradiction in early sources. Arab sources written many centuries after his death give vast amounts of information concerning Euclid's life, but are completely unverifiable. Most scholars consider them of dubious authenticity; Heath in particular contends that the fictionalization was done to strengthen the connection between a revered mathematician and the Arab world. There are also numerous anecdotal stories concerning to Euclid, all of uncertain historicity, which "picture him as a kindly and gentle old man". The best known of these is Proclus' story about Ptolemy asking Euclid if there was a quicker path to learning geometry than reading his *Elements*, which Euclid replied with "there is no royal road to geometry". This anecdote is questionable since a very similar interaction between Menaechmus and Alexander the Great is recorded from Stobaeus. Both the accounts were written in the 5th century AD, neither indicate their source, and neither story appears in ancient Greek literature. The traditional narrative of Euclid's activity c. 300 is complicated by no mathematicians of the 4th century BC indicating his existence. Mathematicians of the 3rd century such as Archimedes and Apollonius "assume a part of his work to be known"; however, Archimedes strangely uses an older theory of proportions, rather than that of Euclid. The *Elements* is dated to have been at least partly in circulation by the 3rd century BC. Some ancient Greek mathematician mention him by name, but he is usually referred to as "ὁ στοιχειώτης" ("the author of *Elements*"). In the Middle Ages, some scholars contended Euclid was not a historical personage and that his name arose from a corruption of Greek mathematical terms. Works ----- ### *Elements* Euclid is best known for his thirteen-book treatise, the *Elements* (Greek: Στοιχεῖα; *Stoicheia*), considered his *magnum opus*. Much of its content originates from earlier mathematicians, including Eudoxus, Hippocrates of Chios, Thales and Theaetetus, while other theorems are mentioned by Plato and Aristotle. It is difficult to differentiate the work of Euclid from that of his predecessors, especially because the *Elements* essentially superseded much earlier and now-lost Greek mathematics. The classicist Markus Asper concludes that "apparently Euclid's achievement consists of assembling accepted mathematical knowledge into a cogent order and adding new proofs to fill in the gaps" and the mathematician Serafina Cuomo described it as a "reservoir of results". Despite this, Sialaros furthers that "the remarkably tight structure of the *Elements* reveals authorial control beyond the limits of a mere editor". The *Elements* does not exclusively discuss geometry as is sometimes believed. It is traditionally divided into three topics: plane geometry (books 1–6), basic arithmetic (books 7–10:) and solid geometry (books 11–13)—though book 5 (on proportions) and 10 (on irrational lines) do not exactly fit this scheme. The heart of the text is the theorems scattered throughout. Using Aristotle's terminology, these may be generally separated into two categories: "first principles" and "second principles". The first group includes statements labeled as a "definition" (Greek: ὅρος or Greek: ὁρισμός), "postulate" (Greek: αἴτημα‎), or a "common notion" (Greek: κοινὴ ἔννοια); only the first book includes postulates—later known as axioms—and common notions. The second group consists of propositions, presented alongside mathematical proofs and diagrams. It is unknown if Euclid intended the *Elements* as a textbook, but its method of presentation makes it a natural fit. As a whole, the authorial voice remains general and impersonal. #### Contents | | | Euclid's postulates and common notions| No. | Postulates | | --- | --- | | Let the following be postulated: | | 1 | To draw a straight line from any point to any point | | 2 | To produce a finite straight line continuously in a straight line | | 3 | To describe a circle with any centre and distance | | 4 | That all right angles are equal to one another | | 5 | That, if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles | | No. | Common notions | | 1 | Things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another | | 2 | If equals be added to equals, the wholes are equal | | 3 | If equals be subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal | | 4 | Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another | | 5 | The whole is greater than the part | Book 1 of the *Elements* is foundational for the entire text. It begins with a series of 20 definitions for basic geometric concepts such as lines, angles and various regular polygons. Euclid then presents 10 assumptions (see table, right), grouped into five postulates (axioms) and five common notions. These assumptions are intended to provide the logical basis for every subsequent theorem, i.e. serve as an axiomatic system. The common notions exclusively concern the comparison of magnitudes. While postulates 1 through 4 are relatively straight forward, the 5th is known as the parallel postulate and particularly famous. Book 1 also includes 48 propositions, which can be loosely divided into those concerning basics theorems of plane geometry (1–26); theories on parallel lines (27–32); theories on parallelograms (33–45); and the Pythagorean theorem (46–48). The last of these includes the earliest surviving proof of the Pythagorean theorem, described by Sialaros as "remarkably delicate". Book 2 is traditionally understood as concerning geometric algebra, though this interpretation has been heavily debated since the 1970s; critics describe the characterization as anachronistic, since the foundations of even nascent algebra occurred many centuries later. The second book has a more focused scope and mostly provides algebraic theorems to accompany various geometric shapes. Book 3 focuses on circles, while the 4th discusses regular polygons, especially the pentagon. Book 5 is among the work's most important sections and presents what is usually termed as the "general theory of proportion". Book 6 utilizes the "theory of ratios" in the context of plane geometry. It is built almost entirely of its first proposition: "Triangles and parallelograms which are under the same height are to one another as their bases". From Book 7 onwards, the mathematician Benno Artmann [de] notes that "Euclid starts afresh. Nothing from the preceding books is used". Number theory is covered by books 7 to 10, the former beginning with a set of 22 definitions for parity, prime numbers and other arithmetic-related concepts. Book 7 includes the Euclidean algorithm, a method for finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers. The 8th book discusses geometric progressions, while book 9 includes a proof that there are an infinite amount of prime numbers. Of the *Elements*, book 10 is by far the largest and most complex, dealing with irrational numbers in the context of magnitudes. Books 11 through 13 primarily discuss solid geometry. ### Other works In addition to the *Elements*, at least five works of Euclid have survived to the present day. They follow the same logical structure as *Elements*, with definitions and proved propositions. * *Catoptrics* concerns the mathematical theory of mirrors, particularly the images formed in plane and spherical concave mirrors, though the attribution is sometimes questioned. * The *Data* (Greek: Δεδομένα), is a somewhat short text which deals with the nature and implications of "given" information in geometrical problems. * *On Divisions* (Greek: Περὶ Διαιρέσεων‎) survives only partially in Arabic translation, and concerns the division of geometrical figures into two or more equal parts or into parts in given ratios. It includes thirty-six propositions and is similar to Apollonius' *Conics*. * The *Optics* (Greek: Ὀπτικά‎) is the earliest surviving Greek treatise on perspective. It includes an introductory discussion of geometrical optics and basic rules of perspective. * The *Phaenomena* (Greek: Φαινόμενα) is a treatise on spherical astronomy, survives in Greek; it is similar to *On the Moving Sphere* by Autolycus of Pitane, who flourished around 310 BC. ### Lost works Four other works are credibly attributed to Euclid, but have been lost. * The *Conics* (Greek: Κωνικά‎) was a four-book survey on conic sections, which was later superseded by Apollonius' more comprehensive treatment of the same name. The work's existence is known primarily from Pappus, who asserts that the first four books of Apollonius' *Conics* are largely based on Euclid's earlier work. Doubt has been cast on this assertion by the historian Alexander Jones [de], owing to sparse evidence and no other corroboration of Pappus' account. * The *Pseudaria* (Greek: Ψευδάρια‎; lit. 'Fallacies'), was—according to Proclus in (70.1–18)—a text in geometrical reasoning, written to advise beginners in avoiding common fallacies. Very little is known of its specific contents aside from its scope and a few extant lines. * The *Porisms* (Greek: Πορίσματα; lit. 'Corollaries') was, based on accounts from Pappus and Proclus, probably a three-book treatise with approximately 200 propositions. The term 'porism' in this context does not refer to a corollary, but to "a third type of proposition—an intermediate between a theorem and a problem—the aim of which is to discover a feature of an existing geometrical entity, for example, to find the centre of a circle". The mathematician Michel Chasles speculated that these now-lost propositions included content related to the modern theories of transversals and projective geometry. * The *Surface Loci* (Greek: Τόποι πρὸς ἐπιφανείᾳ) is of virtually unknown contents, aside from speculation based on the work's title. Conjecture based on later accounts has suggested it discussed cones and cylinders, among other subjects. Legacy ------ Euclid is generally considered with Archimedes and Apollonius of Perga as among the greatest mathematicians of antiquity. Many commentators cite him as one of the most influential figures in the history of mathematics. The geometrical system established by the *Elements* long dominated the field; however, today that system is often referred to as 'Euclidean geometry' to distinguish it from other non-Euclidean geometries discovered in the early 19th century. Among Euclid's many namesakes are the European Space Agency's (ESA) Euclid spacecraft, the lunar crater Euclides, and the minor planet 4354 Euclides. The *Elements* is often considered after the Bible as the most frequently translated, published, and studied book in the Western World's history. With Aristotle's *Metaphysics*, the *Elements* is perhaps the most successful ancient Greek text, and was the dominant mathematical textbook in the Medieval Arab and Latin worlds. The first English edition of the *Elements* was published in 1570 by Henry Billingsley and John Dee. The mathematician Oliver Byrne published a well-known version of the *Elements* in 1847 entitled *The First Six Books of the Elements of Euclid in Which Coloured Diagrams and Symbols Are Used Instead of Letters for the Greater Ease of Learners*, which included colored diagrams intended to increase its pedagogical effect. David Hilbert authored a modern axiomatization of the *Elements*. References ---------- ### Sources Books and chapters * Artmann, Benno (2012) [1999]. *Euclid: The Creation of Mathematics*. New York: Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4612-1412-0. * Ball, W.W. Rouse (1960) [1908]. *A Short Account of the History of Mathematics* (4th ed.). Mineola: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-20630-1. * Bruno, Leonard C. (2003) [1999]. *Math and Mathematicians: The History of Math Discoveries Around the World*. Baker, Lawrence W. Detroit: U X L. ISBN 978-0-7876-3813-9. OCLC 41497065. * Boyer, Carl B. (1991) [1968]. *A History of Mathematics* (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-54397-8. * Cuomo, Serafina (2005) [2001]. *Ancient Mathematics*. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-71019-5. * Fowler, David (1999). *The Mathematics of Plato's Academy* (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850258-6. * Goulding, Robert (2010). *Defending Hypatia: Ramus, Savile, and the Renaissance Rediscovery of Mathematical History*. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-90-481-3542-4. * Heath, Thomas, ed. (1908). *The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements*. Vol. 1. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-60088-8. * Heath, Thomas, ed. (1908b). *The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements*. Vol. 2. New York: Dover Publications. * Heath, Thomas L. (1981) [1921]. *A History of Greek Mathematics*. Vol. 2 Vols. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-24073-8, 0-486-24074-6 * Jahnke, Hans Niels (2010). "The Conjoint Origin of Proof and Theoretical Physics". In Hanna, Gila; Jahnke, Hans Niels; Pulte, Helmut (eds.). *Explanation and Proof in Mathematics: Philosophical and Educational Perspectives*. Berlin: Springer US. ISBN 978-1-4419-0576-5. * Jones, Alexander, ed. (1986). *Pappus of Alexandria: Book 7 of the Collection*. Vol. Part 2: Commentary, Index, and Figures. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-96257-1. * Pickover, Clifford A. (2009). *The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics*. New York: Sterling Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4027-5796-9. * Sialaros, Michalis (2018). "How Much Does a Theorem Cost?". In Sialaros, Michalis (ed.). *Revolutions and Continuity in Greek Mathematics*. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 89–106. ISBN 978-3-11-056595-9. * Sialaros, Michalis (2020). "Euclid of Alexandria: A Child of the Academy?". In Kalligas, Paul; Balla, Vassilis; Baziotopoulou-Valavani, Chloe; Karasmanis, Effie (eds.). *Plato's Academy*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 141–152. ISBN 978-1-108-42644-2. * Smorynski, Craig (2008). *History of Mathematics: A Supplement*. New York: Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-0-387-75480-2. * Tracy, Stephen V (2000). "Demetrius of Phalerum: Who was He and Who was He Not?". In Fortenbaugh, William W.; Schütrumpf, Eckhart (eds.). *Demetrius of Phalerum: Text, Translation and Discussion*. Rutgers University Studies in Classical Humanities. Vol. IX. New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-3513-2690-2. * Venema, Gerard (2006). *The Foundations of Geometry*. Hoboken: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-143700-5. * Wolfe, Harold E. (1945). *Introduction To Non-Euclidean Geometry*. New York: Dryden Press. Journal and encyclopedia articles * Acerbi, Fabio (September 2008). "Euclid's Pseudaria". *Archive for History of Exact Sciences*. **62** (5): 511–551. doi:10.1007/s00407-007-0017-3. JSTOR 41134289. S2CID 120860272. * Asper, Markus (2010). "Euclid". In Gagarin, Michael (ed.). *The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517072-6. * Hähl, Hermann; Peters, Hanna (10 June 2022). "A Variation of Hilbert's Axioms for Euclidean Geometry". *Mathematische Semesterberichte*. **69** (2): 253–258. doi:10.1007/s00591-022-00320-3. S2CID 249581871. * Heath, Thomas Little (1911). "Pappus of Alexandria". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 470–471. * Sialaros, Michalis (2021) [2015]. "Euclid". *Oxford Classical Dictionary*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.2521. ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5. * Taisbak, Christian Marinus; Waerden, Bartel Leendert van der (5 January 2021). "Euclid". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Online * "Euclid". J. Paul Getty Museum. Retrieved 11 August 2022. * "Euclid, n". *OED Online*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 10 August 2022. (subscription required) * "Euclidean (adj.)". *Online Etymology Dictionary*. Retrieved 18 March 2015. Works The *Elements* * PDF copy, with the original Greek and an English translation on facing pages, University of Texas. * All thirteen books, in several languages as Spanish, Catalan, English, German, Portuguese, Arabic, Italian, Russian and Chinese.

Euclid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid

The **Sun** is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a nearly perfect ball of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core. The Sun radiates this energy mainly as light, ultraviolet, and infrared radiation, and is the most important source of energy for life on Earth. The Sun's radius is about 695,000 kilometers (432,000 miles), or 109 times that of Earth. Its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth, comprising about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. Roughly three-quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen (~73%); the rest is mostly helium (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron. The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star (G2V), informally called a yellow dwarf, though its light is actually white. It formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large molecular cloud. Most of this matter gathered in the center, whereas the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became the Solar System. The central mass became so hot and dense that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in its core. It is thought that almost all stars form by this process. Every second, the Sun's core fuses about 600 million tons of hydrogen into helium, and in the process converts 4 million tons of matter into energy. This energy, which can take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to escape the core, is the source of the Sun's light and heat. When hydrogen fusion in its core has diminished to the point at which the Sun is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium, its core will undergo a marked increase in density and temperature while its outer layers expand, eventually transforming the Sun into a red giant. It is calculated that the Sun will become sufficiently large to engulf the current orbits of Mercury and Venus, and render Earth uninhabitable in five billion years. After this, it will shed its outer layers and become a dense type of cooling star known as a white dwarf, and no longer produce energy by fusion, but still glow and give off heat from its previous fusion. The enormous effect of the Sun on Earth has been recognized since prehistoric times. The Sun was thought of by some cultures as a deity. The synodic rotation of Earth and its orbit around the Sun are the basis of some solar calendars. The predominant calendar in use today is the Gregorian calendar which is based upon the standard 16th-century interpretation of the Sun's observed movement as actual movement. Etymology --------- The English word *sun* developed from Old English *sunne*. Cognates appear in other Germanic languages, including West Frisian *sinne*, Dutch *zon*, Low German *Sünn*, Standard German *Sonne*, Bavarian *Sunna*, Old Norse *sunna*, and Gothic *sunnō*. All these words stem from Proto-Germanic \**sunnōn*. This is ultimately related to the word for *sun* in other branches of the Indo-European language family, though in most cases a nominative stem with an *l* is found, rather than the genitive stem in *n*, as for example in Latin *sōl*, ancient Greek ἥλιος (*hēlios*), Welsh *haul* and Czech *slunce*, as well as (with \*l > *r*) Sanskrit स्वर (*svár*) and Persian خور (*xvar*). Indeed, the *l*-stem survived in Proto-Germanic as well, as \**sōwelan*, which gave rise to Gothic *sauil* (alongside *sunnō*) and Old Norse prosaic *sól* (alongside poetic *sunna*), and through it the words for *sun* in the modern Scandinavian languages: Swedish and Danish *sol*, Icelandic *sól*, etc. The principal adjectives for the Sun in English are *sunny* for sunlight and, in technical contexts, *solar* (/ˈsoʊlər/), from Latin *sol* – the latter found in terms such as *solar day*, *solar eclipse* and *Solar System* (occasionally *Sol system*). From the Greek *helios* comes the rare adjective *heliac* (/ˈhiːliæk/). In English, the Greek and Latin words occur in poetry as personifications of the Sun, Helios (/ˈhiːliəs/) and Sol (/ˈsɒl/), while in science fiction *Sol* may be used as a name for the Sun to distinguish it from other stars. The term *sol* with a lower-case *s* is used by planetary astronomers for the duration of a solar day on another planet such as Mars. The English weekday name *Sunday* stems from Old English *Sunnandæg* "sun's day", a Germanic interpretation of the Latin phrase *diēs sōlis*, itself a translation of the ancient Greek ἡμέρα ἡλίου (*hēmera hēliou*) 'day of the sun'. The astronomical symbol for the Sun is a circle with a center dot, ☉. It is used for such units as *M*☉ (Solar mass), *R*☉ (Solar radius) and *L*☉ (Solar luminosity). General characteristics ----------------------- The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star that constitutes about 99.86% of the mass of the Solar System. The Sun has an absolute magnitude of +4.83, estimated to be brighter than about 85% of the stars in the Milky Way, most of which are red dwarfs. The Sun is a Population I, or heavy-element-rich, star. The formation of the Sun may have been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby supernovae. This is suggested by a high abundance of heavy elements in the Solar System, such as gold and uranium, relative to the abundances of these elements in so-called Population II, heavy-element-poor, stars. The heavy elements could most plausibly have been produced by endothermic nuclear reactions during a supernova, or by transmutation through neutron absorption within a massive second-generation star. The Sun is by far the brightest object in the Earth's sky, with an apparent magnitude of −26.74. This is about 13 billion times brighter than the next brightest star, Sirius, which has an apparent magnitude of −1.46. One astronomical unit (about 150,000,000 km; 93,000,000 mi) is defined as the mean distance of the Sun's center to Earth's center, though the distance varies (by about +/- 2.5 million km or 1.55 million miles) as Earth moves from perihelion on about 03 January to aphelion on about 04 July. The distances can vary between 147,098,074 km (perihelion) and 152,097,701 km (aphelion), and extreme values can range from 147,083,346 km to 152,112,126 km. At its average distance, light travels from the Sun's horizon to Earth's horizon in about 8 minutes and 20 seconds, while light from the closest points of the Sun and Earth takes about two seconds less. The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life on Earth by photosynthesis, and drives Earth's climate and weather. The Sun does not have a definite boundary, but its density decreases exponentially with increasing height above the photosphere. For the purpose of measurement, the Sun's radius is considered to be the distance from its center to the edge of the photosphere, the apparent visible surface of the Sun. By this measure, the Sun is a near-perfect sphere with an oblateness estimated at 9 millionths, which means that its polar diameter differs from its equatorial diameter by only 10 kilometers (6.2 mi). The tidal effect of the planets is weak and does not significantly affect the shape of the Sun. The Sun rotates faster at its equator than at its poles. This differential rotation is caused by convective motion due to heat transport and the Coriolis force due to the Sun's rotation. In a frame of reference defined by the stars, the rotational period is approximately 25.6 days at the equator and 33.5 days at the poles. Viewed from Earth as it orbits the Sun, the *apparent rotational period* of the Sun at its equator is about 28 days. Viewed from a vantage point above its north pole, the Sun rotates counterclockwise around its axis of spin. Composition ----------- The Sun is composed primarily of the chemical elements hydrogen and helium. At this time in the Sun's life, they account for 74.9% and 23.8%, respectively, of the mass of the Sun in the photosphere. All heavier elements, called *metals* in astronomy, account for less than 2% of the mass, with oxygen (roughly 1% of the Sun's mass), carbon (0.3%), neon (0.2%), and iron (0.2%) being the most abundant. In solar research it is more common to express the abundance of each element in dex, which is a scaled logarithmic unit. A(e) = 12+log10(ne/nH), with 'e' being the element in question and nH as 10^12 hydrogen atoms. By definition hydrogen has an abundance of 12, the helium abundance varies between roughly 10.3 and 10.5 depending on the phase of the Solar cycle, Carbon is 8.47, Neon is 8.29, Oxygen is 7.69 and iron is 7.62. The Sun's original chemical composition was inherited from the interstellar medium out of which it formed. Originally it would have contained about 71.1% hydrogen, 27.4% helium, and 1.5% heavier elements. The hydrogen and most of the helium in the Sun would have been produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis in the first 20 minutes of the universe, and the heavier elements were produced by previous generations of stars before the Sun was formed, and spread into the interstellar medium during the final stages of stellar life and by events such as supernovae. Since the Sun formed, the main fusion process has involved fusing hydrogen into helium. Over the past 4.6 billion years, the amount of helium and its location within the Sun has gradually changed. Within the core, the proportion of helium has increased from about 24% to about 60% due to fusion, and some of the helium and heavy elements have settled from the photosphere towards the center of the Sun because of gravity. The proportions of heavier elements are unchanged. Heat is transferred outward from the Sun's core by radiation rather than by convection (see Radiative zone below), so the fusion products are not lifted outward by heat; they remain in the core and gradually an inner core of helium has begun to form that cannot be fused because presently the Sun's core is not hot or dense enough to fuse helium. In the current photosphere, the helium fraction is reduced, and the metallicity is only 84% of what it was in the protostellar phase (before nuclear fusion in the core started). In the future, helium will continue to accumulate in the core, and in about 5 billion years this gradual build-up will eventually cause the Sun to exit the main sequence and become a red giant. The chemical composition of the photosphere is normally considered representative of the composition of the primordial Solar System. The solar heavy-element abundances described above are typically measured both using spectroscopy of the Sun's photosphere and by measuring abundances in meteorites that have never been heated to melting temperatures. These meteorites are thought to retain the composition of the protostellar Sun and are thus not affected by the settling of heavy elements. The two methods generally agree well. Structure and fusion -------------------- ### Core The core of the Sun extends from the center to about 20–25% of the solar radius. It has a density of up to 150 g/cm3 (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million Kelvin (K). By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is approximately 5800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above. Through most of the Sun's life, energy has been produced by nuclear fusion in the core region through the proton–proton chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. Currently, only 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from another sequence of fusion reactions called the CNO cycle, though this proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older and more luminous. The core is the only region in the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of thermal energy through fusion; 99% of the power is generated within 24% of the Sun's radius, and by 30% of the radius, fusion has stopped nearly entirely. The remainder of the Sun is heated by this energy as it is transferred outwards through many successive layers, finally to the solar photosphere where it escapes into space through radiation (photons) or advection (massive particles). The proton–proton chain occurs around 9.2×1037 times each second in the core, converting about 3.7×1038 protons into alpha particles (helium nuclei) every second (out of a total of ~8.9×1056 free protons in the Sun), or about 6.2×1011 kg/s. However, each proton (on average) takes around 9 billion years to fuse with one another using the PP chain. Fusing four free protons (hydrogen nuclei) into a single alpha particle (helium nucleus) releases around 0.7% of the fused mass as energy, so the Sun releases energy at the mass–energy conversion rate of 4.26 million metric tons per second (which requires 600 metric megatons of hydrogen), for 384.6 yottawatts (3.846×1026 W), or 9.192×1010 megatons of TNT per second. The large power output of the Sun is mainly due to the huge size and density of its core (compared to Earth and objects on Earth), with only a fairly small amount of power being generated per cubic metre. Theoretical models of the Sun's interior indicate a maximum power density, or energy production, of approximately 276.5 watts per cubic metre at the center of the core, which is about the same power density inside a compost pile. The fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers, reducing the density and hence the fusion rate and correcting the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the density and increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present rate. ### Radiative zone The radiative zone is the thickest layer of the sun, at 0.45 solar radii. From the core out to about 0.7 solar radii, thermal radiation is the primary means of energy transfer. The temperature drops from approximately 7 million to 2 million kelvins with increasing distance from the core. This temperature gradient is less than the value of the adiabatic lapse rate and hence cannot drive convection, which explains why the transfer of energy through this zone is by radiation instead of thermal convection. Ions of hydrogen and helium emit photons, which travel only a brief distance before being reabsorbed by other ions. The density drops a hundredfold (from 20 000 kg/m3 to 200 kg/m3) between 0.25 solar radii and 0.7 radii, the top of the radiative zone. ### Tachocline The radiative zone and the convective zone are separated by a transition layer, the tachocline. This is a region where the sharp regime change between the uniform rotation of the radiative zone and the differential rotation of the convection zone results in a large shear between the two—a condition where successive horizontal layers slide past one another. Presently, it is hypothesized (see Solar dynamo) that a magnetic dynamo within this layer generates the Sun's magnetic field. ### Convective zone The Sun's convection zone extends from 0.7 solar radii (500,000 km) to near the surface. In this layer, the solar plasma is not dense enough or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation. Instead, the density of the plasma is low enough to allow convective currents to develop and move the Sun's energy outward towards its surface. Material heated at the tachocline picks up heat and expands, thereby reducing its density and allowing it to rise. As a result, an orderly motion of the mass develops into thermal cells that carry the majority of the heat outward to the Sun's photosphere above. Once the material diffusively and radiatively cools just beneath the photospheric surface, its density increases, and it sinks to the base of the convection zone, where it again picks up heat from the top of the radiative zone and the convective cycle continues. At the photosphere, the temperature has dropped to 5,700 K (350-fold) and the density to only 0.2 g/m3 (about 1/10,000 the density of air at sea level, and 1 millionth that of the inner layer of the convective zone). The thermal columns of the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun giving it a granular appearance called the solar granulation at the smallest scale and supergranulation at larger scales. Turbulent convection in this outer part of the solar interior sustains "small-scale" dynamo action over the near-surface volume of the Sun. The Sun's thermal columns are Bénard cells and take the shape of roughly hexagonal prisms. ### Photosphere The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the layer below which the Sun becomes opaque to visible light. Photons produced in this layer escape the Sun through the transparent solar atmosphere above it and become solar radiation, sunlight. The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of H− ions, which absorb visible light easily. Conversely, the visible light we see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H− ions. The photosphere is tens to hundreds of kilometers thick, and is slightly less opaque than air on Earth. Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun appears brighter in the center than on the edge or *limb* of the solar disk, in a phenomenon known as limb darkening. The spectrum of sunlight has approximately the spectrum of a black-body radiating at 5,777 K (5,504 °C; 9,939 °F), interspersed with atomic absorption lines from the tenuous layers above the photosphere. The photosphere has a particle density of ~1023 m−3 (about 0.37% of the particle number per volume of Earth's atmosphere at sea level). The photosphere is not fully ionized—the extent of ionization is about 3%, leaving almost all of the hydrogen in atomic form. During early studies of the optical spectrum of the photosphere, some absorption lines were found that did not correspond to any chemical elements then known on Earth. In 1868, Norman Lockyer hypothesized that these absorption lines were caused by a new element that he dubbed *helium*, after the Greek Sun god Helios. Twenty-five years later, helium was isolated on Earth. ### Atmosphere The Sun's atmosphere is composed of four parts: the photosphere (visible under normal conditions), the chromosphere, the transition region, the corona and the heliosphere. During a total solar eclipse, the photosphere is blocked, making the corona visible. The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region extending to about 500 km above the photosphere, and has a temperature of about 4,100 K. This part of the Sun is cool enough to allow the existence of simple molecules such as carbon monoxide and water, which can be detected via their absorption spectra. The chromosphere, transition region, and corona are much hotter than the surface of the Sun. The reason is not well understood, but evidence suggests that Alfvén waves may have enough energy to heat the corona. Above the temperature minimum layer is a layer about 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines. It is called the *chromosphere* from the Greek root *chroma*, meaning color, because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of total solar eclipses. The temperature of the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, ranging up to around 20,000 K near the top. In the upper part of the chromosphere helium becomes partially ionized. Above the chromosphere, in a thin (about 200 km) transition region, the temperature rises rapidly from around 20,000 K in the upper chromosphere to coronal temperatures closer to 1,000,000 K. The temperature increase is facilitated by the full ionization of helium in the transition region, which significantly reduces radiative cooling of the plasma. The transition region does not occur at a well-defined altitude. Rather, it forms a kind of nimbus around chromospheric features such as spicules and filaments, and is in constant, chaotic motion. The transition region is not easily visible from Earth's surface, but is readily observable from space by instruments sensitive to the extreme ultraviolet portion of the spectrum. The corona is the next layer of the Sun. The low corona, near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density around 1015 m−3 to 1016 m−3. The average temperature of the corona and solar wind is about 1,000,000–2,000,000 K; however, in the hottest regions it is 8,000,000–20,000,000 K. Although no complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from magnetic reconnection. The corona is the extended atmosphere of the Sun, which has a volume much larger than the volume enclosed by the Sun's photosphere. A flow of plasma outward from the Sun into interplanetary space is the solar wind. The heliosphere, the tenuous outermost atmosphere of the Sun, is filled with the solar wind plasma. This outermost layer of the Sun is defined to begin at the distance where the flow of the solar wind becomes *superalfvénic*—that is, where the flow becomes faster than the speed of Alfvén waves, at approximately 20 solar radii (0.1 AU). Turbulence and dynamic forces in the heliosphere cannot affect the shape of the solar corona within, because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves. The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere, forming the solar magnetic field into a spiral shape, until it impacts the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun. In December 2004, the *Voyager 1* probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause. In late 2012 *Voyager 1* recorded a marked increase in cosmic ray collisions and a sharp drop in lower energy particles from the solar wind, which suggested that the probe had passed through the heliopause and entered the interstellar medium, and indeed did so August 25, 2012 at approximately 122 astronomical units (18 Tm) from the Sun. The heliosphere has a heliotail which stretches out behind it due to the Sun's movement. On April 28, 2021, during its eighth flyby of the Sun, NASA's Parker Solar Probe encountered the specific magnetic and particle conditions at 18.8 solar radii that indicated that it penetrated the Alfvén surface, the boundary separating the corona from the solar wind defined as where the coronal plasma's Alfvén speed and the large-scale solar wind speed are equal. The probe measured the solar wind plasma environment with its FIELDS and SWEAP instruments. This event was described by NASA as "touching the Sun". During the flyby, Parker Solar Probe passed into and out of the corona several times. This proved the predictions that the Alfvén critical surface is not shaped like a smooth ball, but has spikes and valleys that wrinkle its surface. ### Sunlight and neutrinos The Sun emits light across the visible spectrum, so its color is white, with a CIE color-space index near (0.3, 0.3), when viewed from space or when the Sun is high in the sky. The Solar radiance per wavelength peaks in the green portion of the spectrum when viewed from space. When the Sun is very low in the sky, atmospheric scattering renders the Sun yellow, red, orange, or magenta, and in rare occasions even green or blue. Despite its typical whiteness (white sunrays, white ambient light, white illumination of the Moon, etc.), some cultures mentally picture the Sun as yellow and some even red; the reasons for this are cultural and exact ones are the subject of debate. The Sun is a G2V star, with *G2* indicating its surface temperature of approximately 5,778 K (5,505 °C; 9,941 °F), and *V* that it, like most stars, is a main-sequence star. The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately 1,368 W/m2 (watts per square meter) at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth). Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by Earth's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to 1,000 W/m2) in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith. Sunlight at the top of Earth's atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light. The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths. Solar ultraviolet radiation ionizes Earth's dayside upper atmosphere, creating the electrically conducting ionosphere. Ultraviolet light from the Sun has antiseptic properties and can be used to sanitize tools and water. It also causes sunburn, and has other biological effects such as the production of vitamin D and sun tanning. It is also the main cause of skin cancer. Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth's ozone layer, so that the amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been partially responsible for many biological adaptations, including variations in human skin color in different regions of the Earth. High-energy gamma ray photons initially released with fusion reactions in the core are almost immediately absorbed by the solar plasma of the radiative zone, usually after traveling only a few millimeters. Re-emission happens in a random direction and usually at slightly lower energy. With this sequence of emissions and absorptions, it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun's surface. Estimates of the photon travel time range between 10,000 and 170,000 years. In contrast, it takes only 2.3 seconds for the neutrinos, which account for about 2% of the total energy production of the Sun, to reach the surface. Because energy transport in the Sun is a process that involves photons in thermodynamic equilibrium with matter, the time scale of energy transport in the Sun is longer, on the order of 30,000,000 years. This is the time it would take the Sun to return to a stable state if the rate of energy generation in its core were suddenly changed. Neutrinos are also released by the fusion reactions in the core, but, unlike photons, they rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately. For many years measurements of the number of neutrinos produced in the Sun were lower than theories predicted by a factor of 3. This discrepancy was resolved in 2001 through the discovery of the effects of neutrino oscillation: the Sun emits the number of neutrinos predicted by the theory, but neutrino detectors were missing 2⁄3 of them because the neutrinos had changed flavor by the time they were detected. Magnetic activity ----------------- The Sun has a stellar magnetic field that varies across its surface. Its polar field is 1–2 gauss (0.0001–0.0002 T), whereas the field is typically 3,000 gauss (0.3 T) in features on the Sun called sunspots and 10–100 gauss (0.001–0.01 T) in solar prominences. The magnetic field varies in time and location. The quasi-periodic 11-year solar cycle is the most prominent variation in which the number and size of sunspots waxes and wanes. The solar magnetic field extends well beyond the Sun itself. The electrically conducting solar wind plasma carries the Sun's magnetic field into space, forming what is called the interplanetary magnetic field. In an approximation known as ideal magnetohydrodynamics, plasma particles only move along the magnetic field lines. As a result, the outward-flowing solar wind stretches the interplanetary magnetic field outward, forcing it into a roughly radial structure. For a simple dipolar solar magnetic field, with opposite hemispherical polarities on either side of the solar magnetic equator, a thin current sheet is formed in the solar wind. At great distances, the rotation of the Sun twists the dipolar magnetic field and corresponding current sheet into an Archimedean spiral structure called the Parker spiral. The interplanetary magnetic field is much stronger than the dipole component of the solar magnetic field. The Sun's dipole magnetic field of 50–400 μT (at the photosphere) reduces with the inverse-cube of the distance, leading to a predicted magnetic field of 0.1 nT at the distance of Earth. However, according to spacecraft observations the interplanetary field at Earth's location is around 5 nT, about a hundred times greater. The difference is due to magnetic fields generated by electrical currents in the plasma surrounding the Sun. ### Sunspot Sunspots are visible as dark patches on the Sun's photosphere and correspond to concentrations of magnetic field where the convective transport of heat is inhibited from the solar interior to the surface. As a result, sunspots are slightly cooler than the surrounding photosphere, so they appear dark. At a typical solar minimum, few sunspots are visible, and occasionally none can be seen at all. Those that do appear are at high solar latitudes. As the solar cycle progresses towards its maximum, sunspots tend to form closer to the solar equator, a phenomenon known as Spörer's law. The largest sunspots can be tens of thousands of kilometers across. An 11-year sunspot cycle is half of a 22-year Babcock–Leighton dynamo cycle, which corresponds to an oscillatory exchange of energy between toroidal and poloidal solar magnetic fields. At solar-cycle maximum, the external poloidal dipolar magnetic field is near its dynamo-cycle minimum strength, but an internal toroidal quadrupolar field, generated through differential rotation within the tachocline, is near its maximum strength. At this point in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the convective zone forces emergence of the toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere, giving rise to pairs of sunspots, roughly aligned east–west and having footprints with opposite magnetic polarities. The magnetic polarity of sunspot pairs alternates every solar cycle, a phenomenon described by Hale's law. During the solar cycle's declining phase, energy shifts from the internal toroidal magnetic field to the external poloidal field, and sunspots diminish in number and size. At solar-cycle minimum, the toroidal field is, correspondingly, at minimum strength, sunspots are relatively rare, and the poloidal field is at its maximum strength. With the rise of the next 11-year sunspot cycle, differential rotation shifts magnetic energy back from the poloidal to the toroidal field, but with a polarity that is opposite to the previous cycle. The process carries on continuously, and in an idealized, simplified scenario, each 11-year sunspot cycle corresponds to a change, then, in the overall polarity of the Sun's large-scale magnetic field. ### Solar activity The Sun's magnetic field leads to many effects that are collectively called solar activity. Solar flares and coronal-mass ejections tend to occur at sunspot groups. Slowly changing high-speed streams of solar wind are emitted from coronal holes at the photospheric surface. Both coronal-mass ejections and high-speed streams of solar wind carry plasma and the interplanetary magnetic field outward into the Solar System. The effects of solar activity on Earth include auroras at moderate to high latitudes and the disruption of radio communications and electric power. Solar activity is thought to have played a large role in the formation and evolution of the Solar System. Long-term secular change in sunspot number is thought, by some scientists, to be correlated with long-term change in solar irradiance, which, in turn, might influence Earth's long-term climate. The solar cycle influences space weather conditions, including those surrounding Earth. For example, in the 17th century, the solar cycle appeared to have stopped entirely for several decades; few sunspots were observed during a period known as the Maunder minimum. This coincided in time with the era of the Little Ice Age, when Europe experienced unusually cold temperatures. Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of tree rings and appear to have coincided with lower-than-average global temperatures. In December 2019, a new type of solar magnetic explosion was observed, known as forced magnetic reconnection. Previously, in a process called spontaneous magnetic reconnection, it was observed that the solar magnetic field lines diverge explosively and then converge again instantaneously. Forced Magnetic Reconnection was similar, but it was triggered by an explosion in the corona. Life phases ----------- The Sun today is roughly halfway through the most stable part of its life. It has not changed dramatically for over four billion years and will remain fairly stable for more than five billion more. However, after hydrogen fusion in its core has stopped, the Sun will undergo dramatic changes, both internally and externally. It is more massive than 71 of 75 other stars within 5 pc, or in the top ~5 percent. ### Formation The Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud that consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium and that probably gave birth to many other stars. This age is estimated using computer models of stellar evolution and through nucleocosmochronology. The result is consistent with the radiometric date of the oldest Solar System material, at 4.567 billion years ago. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as iron-60, that form only in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae must have occurred near the location where the Sun formed. A shock wave from a nearby supernova would have triggered the formation of the Sun by compressing the matter within the molecular cloud and causing certain regions to collapse under their own gravity. As one fragment of the cloud collapsed it also began to rotate due to conservation of angular momentum and heat up with the increasing pressure. Much of the mass became concentrated in the center, whereas the rest flattened out into a disk that would become the planets and other Solar System bodies. Gravity and pressure within the core of the cloud generated a lot of heat as it accumulated more matter from the surrounding disk, eventually triggering nuclear fusion. The stars HD 162826 and HD 186302 share similarities with the Sun and are thus hypothesized to be its stellar siblings, formed in the same molecular cloud. ### Main sequence The Sun is about halfway through its main-sequence stage, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than four million tonnes of matter are converted into energy within the Sun's core, producing neutrinos and solar radiation. At this rate, the Sun has so far converted around 100 times the mass of Earth into energy, about 0.03% of the total mass of the Sun. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 to 11  billion years as a main-sequence star before the red giant phase of the sun. At the 8 billion year mark, the sun will be at its hottest point according to the ESA's Gaia space observatory mission in 2022. The Sun is gradually becoming hotter in its core, hotter at the surface, larger in radius, and more luminous during its time on the main sequence: since the beginning of its main sequence life, it has expanded in radius by 15% and the surface has increased in temperature from 5,620 K (5,350 °C; 9,660 °F) to 5,777 K (5,504 °C; 9,939 °F), resulting in a 48% increase in luminosity from 0.677 solar luminosities to its present-day 1.0 solar luminosity. This occurs because the helium atoms in the core have a higher mean molecular weight than the hydrogen atoms that were fused, resulting in less thermal pressure. The core is therefore shrinking, allowing the outer layers of the Sun to move closer to the center, releasing gravitational potential energy. According to the virial theorem, half this released gravitational energy goes into heating, which leads to a gradual increase in the rate at which fusion occurs and thus an increase in the luminosity. This process speeds up as the core gradually becomes denser. At present, it is increasing in brightness by about 1% every 100 million years. It will take at least 1 billion years from now to deplete liquid water from the Earth from such increase. After that, the Earth will cease to be able to support complex, multicellular life and the last remaining multicellular organisms on the planet will suffer a final, complete mass extinction. ### After core hydrogen exhaustion The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova. Instead, when it runs out of hydrogen in the core in approximately 5 billion years, core hydrogen fusion will stop, and there will be nothing to prevent the core from contracting. The release of gravitational potential energy will cause the luminosity of the Sun to increase, ending the main sequence phase and leading the Sun to expand over the next billion years: first into a subgiant, and then into a red giant. The heating due to gravitational contraction will also lead to hydrogen fusion in a shell just outside the core, where unfused hydrogen remains, contributing to the increased luminosity, which will eventually reach more than 1,000 times its present luminosity. When the Sun enters its red-giant branch (RGB) phase, it will engulf Mercury and (likely) Venus, reaching about 0.75 AU (110 million km; 70 million mi). The Sun will spend around a billion years in the RGB and lose around a third of its mass. After the red-giant branch, the Sun has approximately 120 million years of active life left, but much happens. First, the core (full of degenerate helium) ignites violently in the helium flash; it is estimated that 6% of the core—itself 40% of the Sun's mass—will be converted into carbon within a matter of minutes through the triple-alpha process. The Sun then shrinks to around 10 times its current size and 50 times the luminosity, with a temperature a little lower than today. It will then have reached the red clump or horizontal branch, but a star of the Sun's metallicity does not evolve blueward along the horizontal branch. Instead, it just becomes moderately larger and more luminous over about 100 million years as it continues to react helium in the core. When the helium is exhausted, the Sun will repeat the expansion it followed when the hydrogen in the core was exhausted. This time, however, it all happens faster, and the Sun becomes larger and more luminous, engulfing Venus if it has not already. This is the asymptotic-giant-branch phase, and the Sun is alternately reacting hydrogen in a shell or helium in a deeper shell. After about 20 million years on the early asymptotic giant branch, the Sun becomes increasingly unstable, with rapid mass loss and thermal pulses that increase the size and luminosity for a few hundred years every 100,000 years or so. The thermal pulses become larger each time, with the later pulses pushing the luminosity to as much as 5,000 times the current level and the radius to over 1 AU (150 million km; 93 million mi). According to a 2008 model, Earth's orbit will have initially expanded to at most 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) due to the Sun's loss of mass as a red giant. However, Earth's orbit will later start shrinking due to tidal forces (and, eventually, drag from the lower chromosphere) so that it is engulfed by the Sun during the tip of the red-giant branch phase, 3.8 and 1 million years after Mercury and Venus have respectively suffered the same fate. Models vary depending on the rate and timing of mass loss. Models that have higher mass loss on the red-giant branch produce smaller, less luminous stars at the tip of the asymptotic giant branch, perhaps only 2,000 times the luminosity and less than 200 times the radius. For the Sun, four thermal pulses are predicted before it completely loses its outer envelope and starts to make a planetary nebula. By the end of that phase—lasting approximately 500,000 years—the Sun will only have about half of its current mass. The post-asymptotic-giant-branch evolution is even faster. The luminosity stays approximately constant as the temperature increases, with the ejected half of the Sun's mass becoming ionized into a planetary nebula as the exposed core reaches 30,000 K (29,700 °C; 53,500 °F), as if it is in a sort of blue loop. The final naked core, a white dwarf, will have a temperature of over 100,000 K (100,000 °C; 180,000 °F), and contain an estimated 54.05% of the Sun's present-day mass. The planetary nebula will disperse in about 10,000 years, but the white dwarf will survive for trillions of years before fading to a hypothetical black dwarf. Motion and location ------------------- ### Solar System The Sun has eight known planets orbiting it. This includes four terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), two gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), and two ice giants (Uranus and Neptune). The Solar System also has nine bodies generally considered as dwarf planets and some more candidates, an asteroid belt, numerous comets, and a large number of icy bodies which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune. Six of the planets and many smaller bodies also have their own natural satellites: in particular, the satellite systems of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus are in some ways like miniature versions of the Sun's system. The Sun is moved by the gravitational pull of the planets. The center of the Sun is always within 2.2 solar radii of the barycenter. This motion of the Sun is mainly due to the four large planets. Each planet in the series Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus has about twice as much effect (moment of inertia) as the next. For some periods of several decades (when Neptune and Uranus are in opposition) the motion is rather regular, forming a trefoil pattern, whereas between these periods it appears more chaotic. After 179 years (nine times the synodic period of Jupiter and Saturn), the pattern more or less repeats, but rotated by about 24°. The orbits of the inner planets, including of the Earth, are similarly displaced by the same gravitational forces, so the movement of the Sun has little effect on the relative positions of the Earth and the Sun or on solar irradiance on the Earth as a function of time. ### Celestial neighborhood The Solar System is surrounded by the Local Interstellar Cloud, although it is not clear if it is embedded in the Local Interstellar Cloud or if it lies just outside the cloud's edge. Multiple other interstellar clouds also exist in the region within 300 light-years of the Sun, known as the Local Bubble. The latter feature is an hourglass-shaped cavity or superbubble in the interstellar medium roughly 300 light-years across. The bubble is suffused with high-temperature plasma, suggesting that it may be the product of several recent supernovae. The Local Bubble is a small superbubble compared to the neighboring wider Radcliffe Wave and *Split* linear structures (formerly Gould Belt), each of which are some thousands of light-years in length. All these structures are part of the Orion Arm, which contains most of the stars in the Milky Way that are visible to the unaided eye. The density of all matter in the local neighborhood is 0.097±0.013 *M*☉·pc−3. Within ten light-years of the Sun there are relatively few stars, the closest being the triple star system Alpha Centauri, which is about 4.4 light-years away and may be in the Local Bubble's G-Cloud. Alpha Centauri A and B are a closely tied pair of Sun-like stars, whereas the closest star to Earth, the small red dwarf Proxima Centauri, orbits the pair at a distance of 0.2 light-year. In 2016, a potentially habitable exoplanet was found to be orbiting Proxima Centauri, called Proxima Centauri b, the closest confirmed exoplanet to the Sun. The next closest known fusors to the Sun are the red dwarfs Barnard's Star (at 5.9 ly), Wolf 359 (7.8 ly), and Lalande 21185 (8.3 ly). The nearest brown dwarfs belong to the binary Luhman 16 system (6.6 ly), and the closest known rogue or free-floating planetary-mass object at less than 10 Jupiter masses is the sub-brown dwarf WISE 0855−0714 (7.4 ly). Just beyond at 8.6 ly lies Sirius, the brightest star in Earth's night sky, with roughly twice the Sun's mass, orbited by the closest white dwarf to Earth, Sirius B. Other stars within ten light-years are the binary red-dwarf system Luyten 726-8 (8.7 ly) and the solitary red dwarf Ross 154 (9.7 ly). The closest solitary Sun-like star to the Solar System is Tau Ceti at 11.9 light-years. It has roughly 80% of the Sun's mass but only about half of its luminosity. The nearest and unaided-visible group of stars beyond the immediate celestial neighborhood is the Ursa Major Moving Group at roughly 80 light-years, which is within the Local Bubble, like the nearest as well as unaided-visible star cluster the Hyades, which lie at its edge. The closest star-forming regions are the Corona Australis Molecular Cloud, the Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex and the Taurus molecular cloud; the latter lies just beyond the Local Bubble and is part of the Radcliffe wave. ### Galactic context Position of the Solar System within the Milky WayDiagram of the Milky Way with the position of the Solar System marked by a yellow arrow and a red dot in the Orion Arm, the dot roughly covering the large surrounding celestial area dominated by the Radcliffe wave and *Split* linear structures (formerly Gould Belt) The Solar System is located in the Milky Way, a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter of about 100,000 light-years containing more than 100 billion stars. The Sun resides in one of the Milky Way's outer spiral arms, known as the Orion–Cygnus Arm or Local Spur. The Sun lies about 26,660 light-years from the Galactic Center (where the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A\* is located), and its speed around the center of the Milky Way is about 220 km/s, so that it completes one revolution every 240 million years. This revolution is known as the Solar System's galactic year. The solar apex, the direction of the Sun's path through interstellar space, is near the constellation Hercules in the direction of the current location of the bright star Vega. The plane of the ecliptic lies at an angle of about 60° to the galactic plane. The Solar System's location in the Milky Way is a factor in the evolutionary history of life on Earth. Its orbit is close to circular, and orbits near the Sun are at roughly the same speed as that of the spiral arms. Therefore, the Sun passes through arms only rarely. Because spiral arms are home to a far larger concentration of supernovae, gravitational instabilities, and radiation that could disrupt the Solar System, this has given Earth long periods of stability for life to evolve. However, the changing position of the Solar System relative to other parts of the Milky Way could explain periodic extinction events on Earth, according to the Shiva hypothesis or related theories, but this remains controversial. The Solar System lies well outside the star-crowded environs of the Galactic Center. Near the center, gravitational tugs from nearby stars could perturb bodies in the Oort cloud and send many comets into the inner Solar System, producing collisions with potentially catastrophic implications for life on Earth. The intense radiation of the Galactic Center could also interfere with the development of complex life. Stellar flybys that pass within 0.8 light-years of the Sun occur roughly once every 100,000 years. The closest well-measured approach was Scholz's Star, which approached to 52+23 −14 kAU of the Sun some 70+15 −10 kya, likely passing through the outer Oort cloud. Observational history --------------------- ### Early understanding The Sun has been an object of veneration in many cultures throughout human history. Humanity's most fundamental understanding of the Sun is as the luminous disk in the sky, whose presence above the horizon causes day and whose absence causes night. In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Sun was thought to be a solar deity or other supernatural entity. The Sun has played an important part in many world religions, as described in a later section. In the early first millennium BC, Babylonian astronomers observed that the Sun's motion along the ecliptic is not uniform, though they did not know why; it is today known that this is due to the movement of Earth in an elliptic orbit around the Sun, with Earth moving faster when it is nearer to the Sun at perihelion and moving slower when it is farther away at aphelion. One of the first people to offer a scientific or philosophical explanation for the Sun was the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras. He reasoned that it was not the chariot of Helios, but instead a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the land of the Peloponnesus and that the Moon reflected the light of the Sun. For teaching this heresy, he was imprisoned by the authorities and sentenced to death, though he was later released through the intervention of Pericles. Eratosthenes estimated the distance between Earth and the Sun in the third century BC as "of stadia myriads 400 and 80000", the translation of which is ambiguous, implying either 4,080,000 stadia (755,000 km) or 804,000,000 stadia (148 to 153 million kilometers or 0.99 to 1.02 AU); the latter value is correct to within a few percent. In the first century AD, Ptolemy estimated the distance as 1,210 times the radius of Earth, approximately 7.71 million kilometers (0.0515 AU). The theory that the Sun is the center around which the planets orbit was first proposed by the ancient Greek Aristarchus of Samos in the third century BC, and later adopted by Seleucus of Seleucia (see Heliocentrism). This view was developed in a more detailed mathematical model of a heliocentric system in the 16th century by Nicolaus Copernicus. ### Development of scientific understanding Observations of sunspots were recorded during the Han Dynasty (206 BC–AD 220) by Chinese astronomers, who maintained records of these observations for centuries. Averroes also provided a description of sunspots in the 12th century. The invention of the telescope in the early 17th century permitted detailed observations of sunspots by Thomas Harriot, Galileo Galilei and other astronomers. Galileo posited that sunspots were on the surface of the Sun rather than small objects passing between Earth and the Sun. Arabic astronomical contributions include Al-Battani's discovery that the direction of the Sun's apogee (the place in the Sun's orbit against the fixed stars where it seems to be moving slowest) is changing. (In modern heliocentric terms, this is caused by a gradual motion of the aphelion of the *Earth's* orbit). Ibn Yunus observed more than 10,000 entries for the Sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe. From an observation of a transit of Venus in 1032, the Persian astronomer and polymath Ibn Sina concluded that Venus is closer to Earth than the Sun. In 1672 Giovanni Cassini and Jean Richer determined the distance to Mars and were thereby able to calculate the distance to the Sun. In 1666, Isaac Newton observed the Sun's light using a prism, and showed that it is made up of light of many colors. In 1800, William Herschel discovered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum. The 19th century saw advancement in spectroscopic studies of the Sun; Joseph von Fraunhofer recorded more than 600 absorption lines in the spectrum, the strongest of which are still often referred to as Fraunhofer lines. The 20th century brought about several specialized systems for observing the sun, especially at different narrowband wavelengths, such as those using Calcium H (396.9 nm), K (393.37 nm) and Hydrogen-alpha (656.46 nm) filtering. In the early years of the modern scientific era, the source of the Sun's energy was a significant puzzle. Lord Kelvin suggested that the Sun is a gradually cooling liquid body that is radiating an internal store of heat. Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz then proposed a gravitational contraction mechanism to explain the energy output, but the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of at least 300 million years suggested by some geological discoveries of that time. In 1890 Joseph Lockyer, who discovered helium in the solar spectrum, proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun. Not until 1904 was a documented solution offered. Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun's output could be maintained by an internal source of heat, and suggested radioactive decay as the source. However, it would be Albert Einstein who would provide the essential clue to the source of the Sun's energy output with his mass–energy equivalence relation *E* = *mc*2. In 1920, Sir Arthur Eddington proposed that the pressures and temperatures at the core of the Sun could produce a nuclear fusion reaction that merged hydrogen (protons) into helium nuclei, resulting in a production of energy from the net change in mass. The preponderance of hydrogen in the Sun was confirmed in 1925 by Cecilia Payne using the ionization theory developed by Meghnad Saha. The theoretical concept of fusion was developed in the 1930s by the astrophysicists Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and Hans Bethe. Hans Bethe calculated the details of the two main energy-producing nuclear reactions that power the Sun. In 1957, Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge, William Fowler and Fred Hoyle showed that most of the elements in the universe have been synthesized by nuclear reactions inside stars, some like the Sun. ### Solar space missions The first satellites designed for long term observation of the Sun from interplanetary space were NASA's Pioneers 6, 7, 8 and 9, which were launched between 1959 and 1968. These probes orbited the Sun at a distance similar to that of Earth, and made the first detailed measurements of the solar wind and the solar magnetic field. Pioneer 9 operated for a particularly long time, transmitting data until May 1983. In the 1970s, two Helios spacecraft and the Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount provided scientists with significant new data on solar wind and the solar corona. The Helios 1 and 2 probes were U.S.–German collaborations that studied the solar wind from an orbit carrying the spacecraft inside Mercury's orbit at perihelion. The Skylab space station, launched by NASA in 1973, included a solar observatory module called the Apollo Telescope Mount that was operated by astronauts resident on the station. Skylab made the first time-resolved observations of the solar transition region and of ultraviolet emissions from the solar corona. Discoveries included the first observations of coronal mass ejections, then called "coronal transients", and of coronal holes, now known to be intimately associated with the solar wind. In the 1970s, much research focused on the abundances of iron-group elements in the Sun. Although significant research was done, until 1978 it was difficult to determine the abundances of some iron-group elements (e.g. cobalt and manganese) via spectrography because of their hyperfine structures. The first largely complete set of oscillator strengths of singly ionized iron-group elements were made available in the 1960s, and these were subsequently improved. In 1978, the abundances of singly ionized elements of the iron group were derived. Various authors have considered the existence of a gradient in the isotopic compositions of solar and planetary noble gases, e.g. correlations between isotopic compositions of neon and xenon in the Sun and on the planets. Prior to 1983, it was thought that the whole Sun has the same composition as the solar atmosphere. In 1983, it was claimed that it was fractionation in the Sun itself that caused the isotopic-composition relationship between the planetary and solar-wind-implanted noble gases. In 1980, the Solar Maximum Mission probes were launched by NASA. This spacecraft was designed to observe gamma rays, X-rays and UV radiation from solar flares during a time of high solar activity and solar luminosity. Just a few months after launch, however, an electronics failure caused the probe to go into standby mode, and it spent the next three years in this inactive state. In 1984 Space Shuttle *Challenger* mission STS-41C retrieved the satellite and repaired its electronics before re-releasing it into orbit. The Solar Maximum Mission subsequently acquired thousands of images of the solar corona before re-entering Earth's atmosphere in June 1989. Launched in 1991, Japan's Yohkoh (*Sunbeam*) satellite observed solar flares at X-ray wavelengths. Mission data allowed scientists to identify several different types of flares and demonstrated that the corona away from regions of peak activity was much more dynamic and active than had previously been supposed. Yohkoh observed an entire solar cycle but went into standby mode when an annular eclipse in 2001 caused it to lose its lock on the Sun. It was destroyed by atmospheric re-entry in 2005. One of the most important solar missions to date has been the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, jointly built by the European Space Agency and NASA and launched on 2 December 1995. Originally intended to serve a two-year mission, a mission extension through 2012 was approved in October 2009. It has proven so useful that a follow-on mission, the Solar Dynamics Observatory, was launched in February 2010. Situated at the Lagrangian point between Earth and the Sun (at which the gravitational pull from both is equal), SOHO has provided a constant view of the Sun at many wavelengths since its launch. Besides its direct solar observation, SOHO has enabled the discovery of a large number of comets, mostly tiny sungrazing comets that incinerate as they pass the Sun. All these satellites have observed the Sun from the plane of the ecliptic, and so have only observed its equatorial regions in detail. The *Ulysses* probe was launched in 1990 to study the Sun's polar regions. It first traveled to Jupiter, to "slingshot" into an orbit that would take it far above the plane of the ecliptic. Once *Ulysses* was in its scheduled orbit, it began observing the solar wind and magnetic field strength at high solar latitudes, finding that the solar wind from high latitudes was moving at about 750 km/s, which was slower than expected, and that there were large magnetic waves emerging from high latitudes that scattered galactic cosmic rays. Elemental abundances in the photosphere are well known from spectroscopic studies, but the composition of the interior of the Sun is more poorly understood. A solar wind sample return mission, *Genesis*, was designed to allow astronomers to directly measure the composition of solar material. * Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) mission was launched in October 2006. Two identical spacecraft were launched into orbits that caused them to (respectively) pull further ahead of and fall gradually behind Earth. This enables stereoscopic imaging of the Sun and solar phenomena, such as coronal mass ejections. * Parker Solar Probe was launched in 2018 aboard a Delta IV Heavy rocket and will reach a perihelion of 0.046 AU in 2025, making it the closest-orbiting manmade satellite as the first spacecraft to fly low into the solar corona. * Solar Orbiter mission (SolO) was launched in 2020 and will reach a minimum perihelion of 0.28 AU, making it the closest satellite with sun-facing cameras. * CubeSat for Solar Particles (CuSP) was launched as a rideshare on Artemis 1 on 16 November 2022 to study particles and magnetic fields. * Indian Space Research Organisation has scheduled the launch of a 100 kg satellite named *Aditya-L1* for 2023. Its main instrument will be a coronagraph for studying the dynamics of the solar corona. ### Unsolved problems #### Coronal heating Unsolved problem in astronomy: Why is the Sun's corona so much hotter than the Sun's surface? (more unsolved problems in astronomy) The temperature of the photosphere is approximately 6,000 K, whereas the temperature of the corona reaches 1,000,000–2,000,000 K. The high temperature of the corona shows that it is heated by something other than direct heat conduction from the photosphere. It is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona is provided by turbulent motion in the convection zone below the photosphere, and two main mechanisms have been proposed to explain coronal heating. The first is wave heating, in which sound, gravitational or magnetohydrodynamic waves are produced by turbulence in the convection zone. These waves travel upward and dissipate in the corona, depositing their energy in the ambient matter in the form of heat. The other is magnetic heating, in which magnetic energy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and released through magnetic reconnection in the form of large solar flares and myriad similar but smaller events—nanoflares. Currently, it is unclear whether waves are an efficient heating mechanism. All waves except Alfvén waves have been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the corona. In addition, Alfvén waves do not easily dissipate in the corona. Current research focus has therefore shifted towards flare heating mechanisms. #### Faint young Sun Unsolved problem in astronomy: How could the early Earth have had liquid water if the Sun's output is predicted to have only been 70% as intense as it is today? (more unsolved problems in astronomy) Theoretical models of the Sun's development suggest that 3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago, during the Archean eon, the Sun was only about 75% as bright as it is today. Such a weak star would not have been able to sustain liquid water on Earth's surface, and thus life should not have been able to develop. However, the geological record demonstrates that Earth has remained at a fairly constant temperature throughout its history and that the young Earth was somewhat warmer than it is today. One theory among scientists is that the atmosphere of the young Earth contained much larger quantities of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane) than are present today, which trapped enough heat to compensate for the smaller amount of solar energy reaching it. However, examination of Archaean sediments appears inconsistent with the hypothesis of high greenhouse concentrations. Instead, the moderate temperature range may be explained by a lower surface albedo brought about by less continental area and the lack of biologically induced cloud condensation nuclei. This would have led to increased absorption of solar energy, thereby compensating for the lower solar output. Observation by eyes ------------------- The brightness of the Sun can cause pain from looking at it with the naked eye; however, doing so for brief periods is not hazardous for normal non-dilated eyes. Looking directly at the Sun (sungazing) causes phosphene visual artifacts and temporary partial blindness. It also delivers about 4 milliwatts of sunlight to the retina, slightly heating it and potentially causing damage in eyes that cannot respond properly to the brightness. Long-duration viewing of the direct Sun with the naked eye can begin to cause UV-induced, sunburn-like lesions on the retina after about 100 seconds, particularly under conditions where the UV light from the Sun is intense and well focused. Viewing the Sun through light-concentrating optics such as binoculars may result in permanent damage to the retina without an appropriate filter that blocks UV and substantially dims the sunlight. When using an attenuating filter to view the Sun, the viewer is cautioned to use a filter specifically designed for that use. Some improvised filters that pass UV or IR rays, can actually harm the eye at high brightness levels. Brief glances at the midday Sun through an unfiltered telescope can cause permanent damage. During sunrise and sunset, sunlight is attenuated because of Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering from a particularly long passage through Earth's atmosphere, and the Sun is sometimes faint enough to be viewed comfortably with the naked eye or safely with optics (provided there is no risk of bright sunlight suddenly appearing through a break between clouds). Hazy conditions, atmospheric dust, and high humidity contribute to this atmospheric attenuation. An optical phenomenon, known as a green flash, can sometimes be seen shortly after sunset or before sunrise. The flash is caused by light from the Sun just below the horizon being bent (usually through a temperature inversion) towards the observer. Light of shorter wavelengths (violet, blue, green) is bent more than that of longer wavelengths (yellow, orange, red) but the violet and blue light is scattered more, leaving light that is perceived as green. Religious aspects ----------------- Solar deities play a major role in many world religions and mythologies. Worship of the Sun was central to civilizations such as the ancient Egyptians, the Inca of South America and the Aztecs of what is now Mexico. In religions such as Hinduism, the Sun is still considered a god, he is known as Surya. Many ancient monuments were constructed with solar phenomena in mind; for example, stone megaliths accurately mark the summer or winter solstice (some of the most prominent megaliths are located in Nabta Playa, Egypt; Mnajdra, Malta and at Stonehenge, England); Newgrange, a prehistoric human-built mount in Ireland, was designed to detect the winter solstice; the pyramid of El Castillo at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is designed to cast shadows in the shape of serpents climbing the pyramid at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. The ancient Sumerians believed that the Sun was Utu, the god of justice and twin brother of Inanna, the Queen of Heaven, who was identified as the planet Venus. Later, Utu was identified with the East Semitic god Shamash. Utu was regarded as a helper-deity, who aided those in distress, and, in iconography, he is usually portrayed with a long beard and clutching a saw, which represented his role as the dispenser of justice. From at least the Fourth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, the Sun was worshipped as the god Ra, portrayed as a falcon-headed divinity surmounted by the solar disk, and surrounded by a serpent. In the New Empire period, the Sun became identified with the dung beetle, whose spherical ball of dung was identified with the Sun. In the form of the sun disc Aten, the Sun had a brief resurgence during the Amarna Period when it again became the preeminent, if not only, divinity for the Pharaoh Akhenaton. The Egyptians portrayed the god Ra as being carried across the sky in a solar barque, accompanied by lesser gods, and to the Greeks, he was Helios, carried by a chariot drawn by fiery horses. From the reign of Elagabalus in the late Roman Empire the Sun's birthday was a holiday celebrated as Sol Invictus (literally "Unconquered Sun") soon after the winter solstice, which may have been an antecedent to Christmas. Regarding the fixed stars, the Sun appears from Earth to revolve once a year along the ecliptic through the zodiac, and so Greek astronomers categorized it as one of the seven planets (Greek *planetes*, "wanderer"); the naming of the days of the weeks after the seven planets dates to the Roman era. In Proto-Indo-European religion, the Sun was personified as the goddess *\*Seh2ul*. Derivatives of this goddess in Indo-European languages include the Old Norse *Sól*, Sanskrit *Surya*, Gaulish *Sulis*, Lithuanian *Saulė*, and Slavic *Solntse*. In ancient Greek religion, the sun deity was the male god Helios, who in later times was syncretized with Apollo. In the Bible, Malachi 4:2 mentions the "Sun of Righteousness" (sometimes translated as the "Sun of Justice"), which some Christians have interpreted as a reference to the Messiah (Christ). In ancient Roman culture, Sunday was the day of the sun god. It was adopted as the Sabbath day by Christians who did not have a Jewish background. The symbol of light was a pagan device adopted by Christians, and perhaps the most important one that did not come from Jewish traditions. In paganism, the Sun was a source of life, giving warmth and illumination to mankind. It was the center of a popular cult among Romans, who would stand at dawn to catch the first rays of sunshine as they prayed. The celebration of the winter solstice (which influenced Christmas) was part of the Roman cult of the unconquered Sun (Sol Invictus). Christian churches were built with an orientation so that the congregation faced toward the sunrise in the East. Tonatiuh, the Aztec god of the sun, was usually depicted holding arrows and a shield and was closely associated with the practice of human sacrifice. The sun goddess Amaterasu is the most important deity in the Shinto religion, and she is believed to be the direct ancestor of all Japanese emperors. See also -------- * Advanced Composition Explorer – NASA satellite of the Explorer program * Analemma – Diagrammatic representation of Sun's position over a period of time * Antisolar point – Point on the celestial sphere opposite Sun * Circled dot – other uses of the Sun symbol and similar symbols * List of brightest stars – Stars sorted by apparent magnitude * List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs – Stars and brown dwarfs within 20 light years of the Solar System * Midnight sun – Natural phenomenon when daylight lasts for a whole day * Planets in astrology § Sun * Solar telescope – Telescope used to observe the Sun * Sun path – Arc-like path that the Sun appears to follow across the sky * Sun-Earth Day – NASA and ESA joint educational program * Sungazing – Staring directly at the Sun * Timeline of the far future – Scientific projections regarding the far future 1. 1 2 All numbers in this article are short scale. One billion is 109, or 1,000,000,000. 2. ↑ In astronomical sciences, the term *heavy elements* (or *metals*) refers to all chemical elements except hydrogen and helium. 3. ↑ Hydrothermal vent communities live so deep under the sea that they have no access to sunlight. Bacteria instead use sulfur compounds as an energy source, via chemosynthesis. 4. ↑ Counterclockwise is also the direction of revolution around the Sun for objects in the Solar System and is the direction of axial spin for most objects. 5. ↑ A 50 kg adult human has a volume of about 0.05 m3, which corresponds to 13.8 watts, at the volumetric power of the solar center. This is 285 kcal/day, about 10% of the actual average caloric intake and output for humans in non-stressful conditions. 6. ↑ Earth's atmosphere near sea level has a particle density of about 2×1025 m−3. 7. ↑ If ψ {\displaystyle \psi } \psi is the angle between the north pole of the ecliptic and the north galactic pole then: cos ⁡ ψ = cos ⁡ ( β g ) cos ⁡ ( β e ) cos ⁡ ( α g − α e ) + sin ⁡ ( β g ) sin ⁡ ( β e ) {\displaystyle \cos \psi =\cos(\beta \_{g})\cos(\beta \_{e})\cos(\alpha \_{g}-\alpha \_{e})+\sin(\beta \_{g})\sin(\beta \_{e})} \cos \psi =\cos(\beta _{g})\cos(\beta _{e})\cos(\alpha _{g}-\alpha _{e})+\sin(\beta _{g})\sin(\beta _{e}) where β g {\displaystyle \beta \_{g}} {\displaystyle \beta _{g}} = 27° 07′ 42.01″ and α g {\displaystyle \alpha \_{g}} \alpha _{g} = 12h 51m 26.282s are the declination and right ascension of the north galactic pole, whereas β e {\displaystyle \beta \_{e}} {\displaystyle \beta _{e}} = 66° 33′ 38.6″ and α e {\displaystyle \alpha \_{e}} \alpha_e = 18h 0m 00s are those for the north pole of the ecliptic. (Both pairs of coordinates are for J2000 epoch.) The result of the calculation is 60.19°. Further reading --------------- * Cohen, Richard (2010). *Chasing the Sun: The Epic Story of the Star That Gives Us Life*. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4000-6875-3. * Hudson, Hugh (2008). "Solar Activity". *Scholarpedia*. **3** (3): 3967. Bibcode:2008SchpJ...3.3967H. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.3967. * Thompson, M.J. (August 2004). "Solar interior: Helioseismology and the Sun's interior". *Astronomy & Geophysics*. **45** (4): 21–25. Bibcode:2004A&G....45d..21T. doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45421.x. Listen to this article (1 hour and 29 minutes) Spoken Wikipedia iconThis audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 7 June 2021 (2021-06-07), and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles)

Sun

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun

**Bashkir** (UK: /bæʃˈkɪər/, US: /bɑːʃˈkɪər/; Bashkir: Башҡортса *Bashqortsa*, Башҡорт теле *Bashqort tele*, or *Başqortsa* / *Başqort tele*, [bɑʃˈqort tɘˈlɘ] ()) is a Turkic language belonging to the Kipchak branch. It is co-official with Russian in Bashkortostan. It is spoken by approximately 1.4 million native speakers in Russia, as well as in Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Estonia and other neighboring post-Soviet states, and among the Bashkir diaspora. It has three dialect groups: Southern, Eastern and Northwestern. Speakers -------- Speakers of Bashkir mostly live in the republic of Bashkortostan (a republic within the Russian Federation). Many speakers also live in Tatarstan, Chelyabinsk, Orenburg, Tyumen, Sverdlovsk and Kurgan Oblasts and other regions of Russia. Minor Bashkir groups also live in Kazakhstan and other countries. Classification -------------- Bashkir together with Tatar belongs to the Bulgaric (Russian: кыпчакско-булгарская) subgroups of the Kipchak languages. They share the same vocalism and the vowel shifts (see below) that make both languages stand apart from most other Kipchak and Oghuz Turkic languages. However, Bashkir differs from Tatar in several important ways: * Bashkir has dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ in the place of Tatar (and other Turkic) /s/ and /z/. Bashkir /θ/ and /ð/, however, cannot begin a word (there are exceptions: ҙур *źur* 'big', and the particle/conjunction ҙа or ҙә *źa or źä*). The only other Turkic language with a similar feature is Turkmen. However, in Bashkir /θ/ and /ð/ are two independent phonemes, distinct from /s/ and /z/, whereas in Turkmen [θ] and [ð] are the two main realizations of the common Turkic /s/ and /z/. In other words, there are no /s/ and /z/ phonemes in Turkmen, unlike Bashkir which has both /s/ and /z/ and /θ/ and /ð/. * The word-initial and morpheme-initial /s/ is turned into /h/. An example of both features can be Tatar сүз *süz* [syz] and Bashkir һүҙ *hüź* [hyð], both meaning "word". * Common Turkic /tʃ/ (Tatar /ɕ/) is turned into Bashkir /s/, e.g., Turkish *ağaç* [aˈatʃ], Tatar агач *aghach* [ɑˈʁɑɕ] and Bashkir ағас *ağas* [ɑˈʁɑs], all meaning "tree". * The word-initial /ʑ/ in Tatar always corresponds to /j/ in Standard Bashkir, e.g., Tatar җылы *zhïlï* [ʑɤˈlɤ] and Bashkir йылы *yılı* [jɤˈlɤ], both meaning "warm". However, the eastern and northern dialects of Bashkir have the /j/ > /ʑ~ʒ/ shift. The Bashkir orthography is more explicit. /q/ and /ʁ/ are written with their own letters **Ҡ ҡ** and **Ғ ғ**, whereas in Tatar they are treated as positional allophones of /k/ and /ɡ/, written **К к** and **Г г**. Labial vowel harmony in Bashkir is written explicitly, e.g. Tatar тормышым *tormïshïm* and Bashkir тормошом *tormoshom*, both pronounced [tormoˈʃom], meaning "my life". Orthography ----------- After the adoption of Islam, which began in the 10th century and lasted for several centuries, the Bashkirs began to use Turki as a written language. Turki was written in a variant of the Arabic script. In 1923, a writing system based on the Arabic script was specifically created for the Bashkir language. At the same time, the Bashkir literary language was created, moving away from the older written Turkic influences. At first, it used a modified Arabic alphabet. In 1930 it was replaced with the Unified Turkic Latin Alphabet, which was in turn replaced with an adapted Cyrillic alphabet in 1939. The modern alphabet used by Bashkir is based on the Russian alphabet, with the addition of the following letters: Ә ә /æ/, Ө ө /ø/, Ү ү [y], Ғ ғ /ʁ/, Ҡ ҡ /q/, Ң ң /ŋ/, Ҙ ҙ /ð/, Ҫ ҫ /θ/, Һ һ /h/. | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | А а | Б б | В в | Г г | Ғ ғ | Д д | Ҙ ҙ | Е е | Ё ё | | Ж ж | З з | И и | Й й | К к | Ҡ ҡ | Л л | М м | Н н | | Ң ң | О о | Ө ө | П п | Р р | С с | Ҫ ҫ | Т т | У у | | Ү ү | Ф ф | Х х | Һ һ | Ц ц | Ч ч | Ш ш | Щ щ | Ъ ъ | | Ы ы | Ь ь | Э э | Ә ә | Ю ю | Я я | | | | Letters and symbols of the Bashkir Cyrillic alphabet| Cyrillic version | Pronunciation | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | | Аа | [ɑ̜], [ä] | "A" is usually pronounced as [ɑ̜] in all syllables except last, in last syllable it is pronounced as [ä]. | | Бб | [b], [β] | [β] is the intervocal allophone. | | Вв | [v], [w] | [v] in Russian loanwords, [w] in Arabic and Persian loanwords. | | Гг | [g] | | | Ғғ | [ʁ] | | | Дд | [d] | | | Ҙҙ | [ð] | | | Ее | [jɪ̞], [ɪ̞] | The letter is iotated at the beginning of a word, after a vowel or after a soft or hard sign. | | Ёё | [jo] | Only used in Russian loanwords. | | Жж | [ʐ̟] | Only occurs in loanwords and onomatopoeia. | | Зз | [z] | | | Ии | [i] | | | Йй | [j] | | | Кк | [k] | | | Ҡҡ | [q] | | | Лл | [ɭ̺], [ɫ] | In front vowel contexts occurs as apical [ɭ̺], in back vowel contexts occurs as [ɫ]. | | Мм | [m] | | | Нн | [n] | | | Ңң | [ŋ], [ɴ] | In front vowel contexts occurs as [ŋ], in back vowel contexts occurs as [ɴ]. | | Оо | [ʊ̞] | | | Өө | [ø] | | | Пп | [p] | | | Рр | [r̺] | | | Сс | [s] | | | Ҫҫ | [θ] | | | Тт | [t] | | | Уу | [u], [w] | | | Үү | [ʏ], [ɥ] | | | Фф | [f] | | | Хх | [χ] | | | Һһ | [h] | | | Цц | [ts] | | | Чч | [tɕ] | | | Шш | [ʂ̟] | Only occurs in loanwords and onomatopoeia. | | Щщ | [ɕː] | | | Ъъ | [ʔ] | Indicates the glottal stop in back vowel contexts, if placed after a vowel. | | Ыы | [ɯ], [ɨ] | | | Ьь | [ʔ] | Indicates the glottal stop in front vowel contexts, if placed after a vowel. | | Ээ | [ɪ̞] | | | Әә | [æ] | | | Юю | [ju] | | | Яя | [jɑ], [ja] | | Phonology --------- ### Vowels Bashkir has nine native vowels, and three or four loaned vowels (mainly in Russian loanwords). Phonetically, the native vowels are approximately thus (with the Cyrillic letter followed by the usual Latin romanization in angle brackets): | | Front | Back | | --- | --- | --- | | | Spread | Rounded | Spread | Rounded | | Close | **и** ⟨**i**⟩[i] | **ү** ⟨**ü**⟩[y~ʉ] | | **у** ⟨**u**⟩[u] | | Mid | **э, е** ⟨**e**⟩[ɪ̞~ɘ] | **ө** ⟨**ö**⟩[ʏ̞~ø̝] | **ы** ⟨**ı**⟩[ɯ̞~ɤ] | **о** ⟨**o**⟩[ʊ̞~o] | | Open | **ә** ⟨**ä**⟩[æ] | | **а** ⟨**a**⟩[ɑ] | | In Russian loans there are also [ɨ], [ɛ], [ɔ] and [ä], written the same as the native vowels: **ы, е/э, о, а** respectively. The mid vowels may be transcribed as lowered near-high [ɪ̞, ʏ̞, ɯ̞, ʊ̞], and the close front or close central rounded vowel [y~ʉ] may be transcribed as near-close near-front [ʏ]. In certain situations, such as monosyllabic words, the close front or close central rounded vowel is pronounced as [u], but the surrounding consonants are pronounced as their front vowel environment counterparts. For example: күл (kül) — [kul], ҡул (qul) — [quɫ] #### Historical shifts Historically, the Old Turkic mid vowels have raised from mid to high, whereas the Old Turkic high vowels have become the Bashkir reduced mid series. (The same shifts have also happened in Tatar.) | Vowel | Old Turkic | Tatar | Bashkir | Gloss | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | \*e | \*et | it | ит (it) | 'meat' | | \*ö | \*söz | süz | һүҙ (hüź) [hʏð] | 'word' | | \*o | \*sol | sul | һул (hul) | 'left' | | \*i | \*it | et | эт (et) | 'dog' | | \*ï | \*qyz | qëz [qɤ̆z] | ҡыҙ (qıź) [qɯ̞ð] | 'girl' | | \*u | \*qum | qom | ҡом (qom) | 'sand' | | \*ü | \*kül | köl | көл (köl) | 'ash' | ### Consonants **The consonants of Bashkir**| | Bilabial | Labio-dental | Dental | Alveolar | Post-alveolar/Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Nasals | **м** ⟨**m**⟩/m/ | | **н** ⟨**n**⟩/n/ | | **ң** ⟨**ñ**⟩/ŋ/ | **ң** ⟨**ñ**⟩[ɴ] | | | Plosives | Voiceless | **п** ⟨**p**⟩/p/ | | **т** ⟨**t**⟩/t/ | **к** ⟨**k**⟩[c] | **к** ⟨**k**⟩/k/ | **ҡ** ⟨**q**⟩/q/ | **ь**/**ъ** ⟨**’**⟩/ʔ/ | | Voiced | **б** ⟨**b**⟩/b/ | | **д** ⟨**d**⟩/d/ | **г** ⟨**g**⟩[ɟ] | **г** ⟨**g**⟩/ɡ/ | | | | Fricatives | Voiceless | | **ф** ⟨**f**⟩/f/ | **ҫ** ⟨**ś**⟩/θ/ | **с** ⟨**s**⟩/s/ | **ш** ⟨**ş**⟩/ʃ/ | | **х** ⟨**x**⟩/χ/ | **һ** ⟨**h**⟩/h/ | | Voiced | **б** ⟨**b**⟩[β] | **в** ⟨**v**⟩/v/ | **ҙ** ⟨**ź**⟩/ð/ | **з** ⟨**z**⟩/z/ | **ж** ⟨**j**⟩/ʒ/ | | **ғ** ⟨**ğ**⟩/ʁ/ | | | Trill | | | | **р** ⟨**r**⟩/r/ | | | | | | Approximants | | | | **л** ⟨**l**⟩/l/ | **й** ⟨**y**⟩/j/ | **у**/**ү**/**в** ⟨**w**⟩/w~ɥ/ | | | Notes **^¹** The phonemes /f/, /v/, /ʔ/ are found only in loanwords, and, in the case of /ʔ/, in a few native onomatopoeic words. **^²** /β/ is an intervocal allophone of /b/, and it is distinct from /w/. /ɴ/ is an allophone of /ŋ/ in back vowel contexts. /c/ and /ɟ/ occur as allophones of /k/ and /g/ before /i/ and /ø/, and both occur only in front vowel contexts. * /θ, ð/ are dental [θ, ð], and /r/ is apical alveolar [r̺]. The exact place of articulation of the other dental/alveolar consonants is unclear. Grammar ------- A member of the Turkic language family, Bashkir is an agglutinative, SOV language. A large part of the Bashkir vocabulary has Turkic roots; and there are many loan words in Bashkir from Russian, Arabic and Persian sources. | Russian | Arabic | Persian | | --- | --- | --- | | in Bashkir | Etymology | Translation | in Bashkir | Etymology | Translation | in Bashkir | Etymology | Translation | | минут (minut) | from "минута" (minuta) | minute | ваҡыт (waqıt) | from "وَقْت" (waqt) | time | дуҫ (duś) | from "دوست" (dost) | friend | | өҫтәл (öśtäl) | from "стол" (stol) | table, desk | вәғәҙә (väğäźä) | from "وَحْدَة" (waḥda) | promise | һәр (här) | from "هر" (har) | every | | сыр (sır) | from "сыр" (syr) | cheese | йәннәт (yännät) | from "جَنَّة" (janna) | paradise | көмбәҙ (kömbäź) | from "گنبد" (gonbad) | cupola | ### Plurality The form of the plural suffix is heavily dependent on the letter which comes immediately before it. When it's a consonant, there is a four-way distinction between "л" (l), "т" (t), "ҙ" (ź) and "д" (d); The vowel's distinction is two-way between "а" (after back vowels "а" (a), "ы" (ı), "о" (o), "у" (u)) and "ә" (after front vowels "ә" (ä), "е" (e), "и" (i), "ө" (ö), "ү" (ü)). Some nouns are also less likely to be used with their plural forms such as "һыу" (hıw, "water") or "ҡом" (qom, "sand"). | suffix consonant | preceding letters | "а" column | "ә" column | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | back vowels | front vowels | | **-лар, -ләр** | after all vowels except for и (i) | **баҡса** (baqsa), "garden" Pl.: баҡса**лар** (baqsalar) | **сәскә** (säskä), "flower" Pl.: сәскә**ләр** (säskälär) | | **-тар, -тәр** | mostly after hard consonants - б (b), д (d), г (g), ф (f), х (x), һ (h), к (k), ҡ (q), п (p), с (s), ш (ş), ҫ (ś), т (t) | **дуҫ** (duś), "friend" Pl.: дуҫ**тар** (duśtar) | **төҫ** (töś), "colour" Pl.: төҫ**тәр** (töśtär) | | **-ҙар, -ҙәр** | after approximants and some others - ҙ (ź), и (i), р (r), у (w), й (y) | **тау** (taw), "mountain" Pl.: тау**ҙар** (tawźar) | **өй** (öy), "house" Pl.: өй**ҙәр** (öyźär) | | **-дар, -дәр** | after nasals and some others - ж (j), л (l), м (m), н (n), ң (ñ), з (z) | **һан** (han), "number" Pl.: һан**дар** (handar) | **көн** (kön), "day" Pl.: көн**дәр** (köndär) | ### Declension table | | suffix | consonant alteration (see the "plurality" table) | after the plural suffix | examples | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Nominative | | | Genitive | -нең | "н" (n), "д" (d), "т" (t) and "ҙ" (ź) | -ҙең | тел**дең** (teldeñ), "the language's" | | -ның | -ҙың | баш**тың** (baştıñ), "the head's" | | -ноң | -ҙың | тоҙ**ҙоң** (toźźoñ), "the salt's" | | -нөң | -ҙең | төш**төң** (töştöñ), "the dream's" | | Dative | -гә | | -гә | тел**гә** (telgä), "(to) the language" | | -кә | төш**кә** (töşkä), "(to) the dream" | | -ға | -ға | тоҙ**ға** (toźğa), "(to) the salt" | | -ҡа | баш**ҡа** (başqa), "(to) the head" | | Accusative | -не | "н" (n), "д" (d), "т" (t) and "ҙ" (ź) | -ҙе | тел**де** (telde), "the language" | | -ны | -ҙы | баш**ты** (baştı), "the head" | | -но | -ҙы | тоҙ**ҙо** (toźźo), "the salt" | | -нө | -ҙе | төш**тө** (töştö), "the dream" | | Locative | -лә | "л" (l), "д" (d), "т" (t) and "ҙ" (ź) | -ҙә | тел**дә** (teldä), "in the language" | | -ла | -ҙа | баш**та** (başta), "in the head" | | Ablative | -нән | "н" (n), "д" (d), "т" (t) and "ҙ" (ź) | -ҙән | тел**дән** (teldän), "from the language" | | -нан | -ҙан | баш**тан** (baştan), "from the head" | Declension of pronouns | | Interrogative pronouns | Personal pronouns | | --- | --- | --- | | Case | who | what | Singular | Plural | | I | you (thou) | he, she, it | we | you | they | | Nominative | кем*kem* | нимә*nimä* | мин*min* | һин*hin* | ул*ul* | беҙ*bedh* | һеҙ*hedh* | улар*ular* | | Genitive | кемдең*kemdeng* | нимәнең*nimäneng* | минең*mineng* | һинең*hineng* | уның*unyng* | беҙҙең*bedhdheng* | һеҙҙең*hedhdheng* | уларҙың*ulardhïng* | | Dative | кемгә*kemgä* | нимәгә*nimägä* | миңә*mingä* | һиңә*hingä* | уға*ugha* | беҙгә*bedhgä* | һеҙгә*hedhgä* | уларға *ulargha* | | Accusative | кемде*kemde* | нимәне*nimäne* | мине*mine* | һине*hine* | уны*unı* | беҙҙе*bedhdhe* | һеҙҙе*hedhdhe* | уларҙы*ulardhï* | | Locative | кемдә*kemdä* | нимәлә*nimälä* | миндә*mindä* | һиндә*hindä* | унда*unda* | беҙҙә*bedhdhä* | һеҙҙә*hedhdhä* | уларҙа*ulardha* | | Ablative | кемдән*kemdän* | нимәнән*nimänän* | минән*minän* | һинән*hinän* | унан*unan* | беҙҙән*bedhdhän* | һеҙҙән*hedhdhän* | уларҙан*ulardhan* | | Demonstrative pronouns| Case | Singular | Plural | | --- | --- | --- | | this | that | these | those | | Nominative | был*byl* | ошо*osho* | шул*shul* | теге*tege* | былар*bylar* | ошолар*osholar* | шулар*shular* | тегеләр*tegelär* | | Genitive | бының*bynyng* | ошоноң*oshonong* | шуның*shunyng* | тегенең*tegeneng* | быларҙың*bylardhıng* | ошоларҙың*osholardhïng* | шуларҙың*shulardhïng* | тегеләрҙең*tegelärdheng* | | Dative | быға*bygha* | ошоға*oshogha* | шуға*shugha* | тегегә*tegegä* | быларға*bylargha* | ошоларға*osholargha* | шуларға*shulargha* | тегеләргә*tegelärgä* | | Accusative | быны*byny* | ошоно*oshona* | шуны*shuny* | тегене*tegene* | быларҙы*bylardhy* | ошоларҙы*osholardhy* | шуларҙы*shulardhy* | тегеләрҙе*tegelärdhe* | | Locative | бында*bynda* | ошонда*oshonda* | шунда*shunda* | тегендә*tegenda* | быларҙа*bylardha* | ошоларҙа*osholardha* | шуларҙа*shulardha* | тегеләрҙә*tegelärdhä* | | Ablative | бынан*bynan* | ошонан*oshonan* | шунан*shunan* | тегенән*tegenän* | быларҙан*bylardhan* | ошоларҙан*osholardhan* | шуларҙан*shulardhan* | тегеләрҙән*tegelärdhän* | | Further reading --------------- * Poppe, Nicholas (1997) [1964]. *Bashkir Manual*. Routledge. p. 186. ISBN 978-0-7007-0836-9. * *Грамматика современного башкирского литературного языка* (in Russian). Москва: Наука. 1981. * Дмитриев, Н. К. (1948). *Грамматика башкирского языка* (in Russian). Из-во АН СССР.

Bashkir language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashkir_language

The **Apache** (/əˈpætʃi/) are a group of culturally related Native American tribes in the Southwestern United States, which include the Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Lipan, Mescalero, Mimbreño, Ndendahe (Bedonkohe or Mogollon and Nednhi or Carrizaleño and Janero), Salinero, Plains (Kataka or Semat or "Kiowa-Apache") and Western Apache (Aravaipa, Pinaleño, Coyotero, Tonto). Distant cousins of the Apache are the Navajo, with whom they share the Southern Athabaskan languages. There are Apache communities in Oklahoma and Texas, and reservations in Arizona and New Mexico. Apache people have moved throughout the United States and elsewhere, including urban centers. The Apache Nations are politically autonomous, speak several different languages, and have distinct cultures. Historically, the Apache homelands have consisted of high mountains, sheltered and watered valleys, deep canyons, deserts, and the southern Great Plains, including areas in what is now Eastern Arizona, Northern Mexico (Sonora and Chihuahua) and New Mexico, West Texas, and Southern Colorado. These areas are collectively known as Apacheria. The Apache tribes fought the invading Spanish and Mexican peoples for centuries. The first Apache raids on Sonora appear to have taken place during the late 17th century. In 19th-century confrontations during the American-Indian wars, the U.S. Army found the Apache to be fierce warriors and skillful strategists. Contemporary tribes ------------------- The following Apache tribes are federally recognized: * Apache of Oklahoma * Fort Sill Apache, Oklahoma * Jicarilla Apache, New Mexico * Mescalero, New Mexico * San Carlos Apache, Arizona * Tonto Apache, Arizona * White Mountain Apache of the Fort Apache Reservation, Arizona * Yavapai-Apache, of the Camp Verde Reservation, Arizona The Jicarilla are headquartered in Dulce, New Mexico, while the Mescalero are headquartered in Mescalero, New Mexico. The Western Apache, located in Arizona, is divided into several reservations, which crosscut cultural divisions. The Western Apache reservations include the Fort Apache Indian Reservation, San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation, Yavapai-Apache Nation and Tonto-Apache Reservation. The Chiricahua were divided into two groups after they were released from being prisoners of war. The majority moved to the Mescalero Reservation and form, with the larger Mescalero political group, the Mescalero Apache Tribe of the Mescalero Apache Reservation, along with the Lipan Apache. The other Chiricahua are enrolled in the Fort Sill Apache Tribe of Oklahoma, headquartered in Apache, Oklahoma. The Plains Apache are located in Oklahoma, headquartered around Anadarko, and are federally recognized as the Apache Tribe of Oklahoma. Name ---- The people who are known today as *Apache* were first encountered by the conquistadors of the Spanish crown, and thus the term *Apache* has its roots in the Spanish language. The Spanish first used the term *Apachu de Nabajo* (Navajo) in the 1620s, referring to people in the Chama region east of the San Juan River. By the 1640s, they applied the term to southern Athabaskan peoples from the Chama on the east to the San Juan on the west. The ultimate origin is uncertain and lost to Spanish history. Modern Apache people use the Spanish term to refer to themselves and tribal functions, and so does the US government. However, Apache language speakers also refer to themselves and their people in the Apache term *Indé* meaning 'person' or 'people'. Distant cousins and Apache subgroup the Navajo, in their language, refer to themselves as the *Diné*. The first known written record in Spanish is by Juan de Oñate in 1598. The most widely accepted origin theory suggests *Apache* was borrowed and transliterated from the Zuni word *ʔa·paču* meaning "Navajos" (the plural of *paču* "Navajo"). Another theory suggests the term comes from Yavapai *ʔpačə* meaning "enemy". The Zuni and Yavapai sources are less certain because Oñate used the term before he had encountered any Zuni or Yavapai. A less likely origin may be from Spanish *mapache*, meaning "raccoon". The fame of the tribes' tenacity and fighting skills, probably bolstered by dime novels, was widely known among Europeans. In early 20th century Parisian society, the word *Apache* was adopted into French, essentially meaning an outlaw. The term *Apachean* includes the related Navajo people. ### Difficulties in naming Many of the historical names of Apache groups that were recorded by non-Apache are difficult to match to modern-day tribes or their subgroups. Over the centuries, many Spanish, French and English-speaking authors did not differentiate between Apache and other semi-nomadic non-Apache peoples who might pass through the same area. Most commonly, Europeans learned to identify the tribes by translating their exonym, what another group whom the Europeans encountered first called the Apache peoples. Europeans often did not learn what the peoples called themselves, their autonyms. While anthropologists agree on some traditional major subgrouping of Apaches, they have often used different criteria to name finer divisions, and these do not always match modern Apache groupings. Some scholars do not consider groups residing in what is now Mexico to be Apache. In addition, an Apache individual has different ways of identification with a group, such as a band or clan, as well as the larger tribe or language grouping, which can add to the difficulties in an outsider comprehending the distinctions. In 1900, the US government classified the members of the Apache tribe in the United States as Pinal Coyotero, Jicarilla, Mescalero, San Carlos, Tonto, and White Mountain Apache. The different groups were located in Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma. In the 1930s, the anthropologist Greenville Goodwin classified the Western Apache into five groups (based on his informants' views of dialect and cultural differences): White Mountain, Cibecue, San Carlos, North Tonto, and South Tonto. Since then, other anthropologists (e.g. Albert Schroeder) consider Goodwin's classification inconsistent with pre-reservation cultural divisions. Willem de Reuse finds linguistic evidence supporting only three major groupings: White Mountain, San Carlos, and Dilzhe'e (Tonto). He believes San Carlos is the most divergent dialect, and that Dilzhe'e is a remnant, intermediate member of a dialect continuum that previously spanned from the Western Apache language to the Navajo. John Upton Terrell classifies the Apache into western and eastern groups. In the western group, he includes Toboso, Cholome, Jocome, Sibolo or Cibola, Pelone, Manso, and Kiva or Kofa. He includes Chicame (the earlier term for Hispanized Chicano or New Mexicans of Spanish/Hispanic and Apache descent) among them as having definite Apache connections or names which the Spanish associated with the Apache. In a detailed study of New Mexico Catholic Church records, David M. Brugge identifies 15 tribal names which the Spanish used to refer to the Apache. These were drawn from records of about 1000 baptisms from 1704 to 1862. List of names ------------- The list below is based on Foster and McCollough (2001), Opler (1983b, 1983c, 2001), and de Reuse (1983). The term *Apache* refers to six major Apache-speaking groups: Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Lipan, Mescalero, Plains Apache, and Western Apache. Historically, the term was also used for Comanches, Mojaves, Hualapais, and Yavapais, none of whom speak Apache languages. ### Chiricahua – Mimbreño – Ndendahe * **Chiricahua** historically lived in Southeastern Arizona. Chíshí (also Tchishi) is a Navajo word meaning "Chiricahua, southern Apaches in general". + **Ch'úúkʾanén**, true Chiricahua (Tsokanende, also Č'ók'ánéń, Č'ó·k'anén, Chokonni, Cho-kon-nen, Cho Kŭnĕ́, Chokonen) is the Eastern Chiricahua band identified by Morris Opler. The name is an autonym from the Chiricahua language. + **Gileño** (also Apaches de Gila, Apaches de Xila, Apaches de la Sierra de Gila, Xileños, Gilenas, Gilans, Gilanians, Gila Apache, Gilleños) referred to several different Apache and non-Apache groups at different times. *Gila* refers to either the Gila River or the Gila Mountains. Some of the Gila Apaches were probably later known as the Mogollon Apaches, a Central Apache sub-band, while others probably coalesced into the Chiricahua proper. But, since the term was used indiscriminately for all Apachean groups west of the Rio Grande (i.e. in southeast Arizona and western New Mexico), the reference in historical documents is often unclear. After 1722, Spanish documents start to distinguish between these different groups, in which case *Apaches de Gila* refers to the Western Apache living along the Gila River (synonymous with *Coyotero*). American writers first used the term to refer to the Mimbres (another Central Apache subdivision). * **Mimbreño** are the Tchihende, not a *Chiricahua* band but a central Apache division sharing the same language with the Chiricahua and the Mescalero divisions, the name being referred to a central Apache division improperly considered as a section of Opler's "*Eastern Chiricahua* band", and to Albert Schroeder's *Mimbres*, or *Warm Springs* and *Copper Mines* "Chiricahua" bands in southwestern New Mexico. + **Copper Mines Mimbreño** (also Coppermine) were located on upper reaches of Gila River, New Mexico, having their center in the Pinos Altos area. (See also *Gileño* and *Mimbreño*.) + **Warm Springs Mimbreño** (also Warmspring) were located on upper reaches of Gila River, New Mexico, having their center in the Ojo Caliente area. (See also *Gileño* and *Mimbreño*.) * **Ndendahe** were a division comprising the Bedonkohe (Mogollon) group and the Nedhni (Carrizaleño and Janero) group, incorrectly called, sometimes, *Southern Chirichua*. + **Mogollon** was considered by Schroeder to be a separate pre-reservation Chiricahua band, while Opler considered the Mogollon to be part of his *Eastern Chiricahua* band in New Mexico. + **Nedhni** were the southernest group of the Central Apache, having their center in the Carrizal (Carrizaleño) and Janos (Janero) areas, in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. ### Jicarilla Jicarilla primarily live in Northern New Mexico, Southern Colorado, and the Texas Panhandle. The term *jicarilla* comes from the Spanish word for "little gourd." * **Carlana** (also Carlanes, Sierra Blanca) is Raton Mesa in Southeastern Colorado. In 1726, they joined the Cuartelejo and Paloma, and by the 1730s, they lived with the Jicarilla. The Llanero band of the Jicarilla or the Dáchizh-ó-zhn Jicarilla (defined by James Mooney) might be descendants of the Carlana, Cuartelejo, and Paloma. Parts of the group were called Lipiyanes or Llaneros. In 1812, the term *Carlana* was used to mean Jicarilla. The Flechas de Palo might have been a part of or absorbed by the Carlana (or Cuartelejo). ### Lipan **Lipan** (also Ypandis, Ypandes, Ipandes, Ipandi, Lipanes, Lipanos, Lipaines, Lapane, Lipanis, etc.) live in Western Texas today. They traveled from the Pecos River in Eastern New Mexico to the upper Colorado River, San Saba River and Llano River of central Texas across the Edwards Plateau southeast to the Gulf of Mexico. They were close allies of the Natagés. They were also called Plains Lipan (Golgahį́į́, Kó'l kukä'ⁿ, "Prairie Men"), not to be confused with *Lipiyánes* or *Le Panis* (French for the Pawnee). They were first mentioned in 1718 records as being near the newly established town of San Antonio, Texas. * **Pelones** ("Bald Ones") lived far from San Antonio and far to the northeast of the Ypandes near the Red River of the South of North-Central Texas, although able to field 800 warriors, more than the *Ypandes* and *Natagés* together, they were described as less warlike because they had fewer horses than the Plains Lipan, their population were estimated between 1,600 and 2,400 persons, were the *Forest Lipan* division (*Chishį́į́hį́į́*, *Tcici*, *Tcicihi* – "People of the Forest", after 1760 the name Pelones was never used by the Spanish for any Texas Apache group, the Pelones had fled for the Comanche south and southwest, but never mixed up with the Plains Lipan division – retaining their distinct identity, so that Morris Opler was told by his Lipan informants in 1935 that their tribal name was "People of the Forest") ### Mescalero Mescaleros primarily live in Eastern New Mexico. * **Faraones** (also Apaches Faraone, Paraonez, Pharaones, Taraones, or Taracones) is derived from Spanish *Faraón* meaning "Pharaoh." Before 1700, the name was vague. Between 1720 and 1726, it referred to Apache between the Rio Grande, the Pecos River, the area around Santa Fe, and the Conchos River. After 1726, *Faraones* only referred to the groups of the north and central parts of this region. The Faraones like were part of the modern-day Mescalero or merged with them. After 1814, the term *Faraones* disappeared and was replaced by *Mescalero*. * **Sierra Blanca Mescaleros** were a northern Mescalero group from the Sierra Blanca Mountains, who roamed in what is now eastern New Mexico and western Texas. * **Sacramento Mescaleros** were a northern Mescalero group from the Sacramento and Organ Mountains, who roamed in what is now eastern New Mexico and western Texas. * **Guadalupe Mescaleros**. were a northern Mescalero group from the Guadalupe Mountains, who roamed in what is now eastern New Mexico and western Texas. * **Limpia Mescaleros** were a southern Mescalero group from the Limpia Mountains (later named as Davis Mountains) and roamed in what is now eastern New Mexico and western Texas. * **Natagés** (also *Natagees*, *Apaches del Natafé*, *Natagêes*, *Yabipais Natagé*, *Natageses*, *Natajes*) is a term used from 1726 to 1820 to refer to the Faraón, Sierra Blanca, and Siete Ríos Apaches of southeastern New Mexico. In 1745, the Natagé are reported to have consisted of the Mescalero (around El Paso and the Organ Mountains) and the Salinero (around Rio Salado), but these were probably the same group, were oft called by the Spanish and Apaches themselves *true Apaches*, had had a considerable influence on the decision making of some bands of the Western Lipan in the 18th century. After 1749, the term became synonymous with Mescalero, which eventually replaced it. #### Ethnobotany A full list of documented plant uses by the Mescalero tribe can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/11/ (which also includes the Chiricahua; 198 documented plant uses) and http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/12/ (83 documented uses). ### Plains Apache Plains Apache (Kiowa-Apache, Naisha, Naʼishandine) are headquartered in Southwest Oklahoma. Historically, they followed the Kiowa. Other names for them include Ná'įįsha, Ná'ęsha, Na'isha, Na'ishandine, Na-i-shan-dina, Na-ishi, Na-e-ca, Ną'ishą́, Nadeicha, Nardichia, Nadíisha-déna, Na'dí'į́shą́ʼ, Nądí'įįshąą, and Naisha. * **Querechos** referred to by Coronado in 1541, possibly Plains Apaches, at times maybe Navajo. Other early Spanish might have also called them Vaquereo or Llanero. ### Western Apache Western Apache include Northern Tonto, Southern Tonto, Cibecue, White Mountain and San Carlos groups. While these subgroups spoke the same language and had kinship ties, Western Apaches considered themselves as separate from each other, according to Goodwin. Other writers have used this term to refer to all non-Navajo Apachean peoples living west of the Rio Grande (thus failing to distinguish the Chiricahua from the other Apacheans). Goodwin's formulation: "all those Apache peoples who have lived within the present boundaries of the state of Arizona during historic times with the exception of the Chiricahua, Warm Springs, and allied Apache, and a small band of Apaches known as the Apache Mansos, who lived in the vicinity of Tucson." * **Cibecue** is a Western Apache group, according to Goodwin, from north of the Salt River between the Tonto and White Mountain Apache, consisting of Ceder Creek, Carrizo, and Cibecue (proper) bands. * **San Carlos**. A Western Apache group that ranged closest to Tucson according to Goodwin. This group consisted of the Apache Peaks, Arivaipa, Pinal, San Carlos (proper) bands. + **Arivaipa** (also Aravaipa) is a band of the San Carlos Apache. Schroeder believes the Arivaipa were a separate people in pre-reservation times. *Arivaipa* is a Hispanized word from the O'odham language. The Arivaipa are known as *Tsézhiné* ("Black Rock") in the Western Apache language. + **Pinal** (also *Pinaleño*). One of the bands of the San Carlos group of Western Apache, described by Goodwin. Also used along with *Coyotero* to refer more generally to one of two major Western Apache divisions. Some Pinaleño were referred to as the *Gila Apache*. * **Tonto**. Goodwin divided into Northern Tonto and Southern Tonto groups, living in the north and west areas of the Western Apache groups according to Goodwin. This is north of Phoenix, north of the Verde River. Schroeder has suggested that the Tonto are originally Yavapais who assimilated Western Apache culture. Tonto is one of the major dialects of the Western Apache language. Tonto Apache speakers are traditionally bilingual in Western Apache and Yavapai. Goodwin's Northern Tonto consisted of Bald Mountain, Fossil Creek, Mormon Lake, and Oak Creek bands; Southern Tonto consisted of the Mazatzal band and unidentified "semi-bands". * **White Mountain** are the easternmost group of the Western Apache, according to Goodwin, who included the Eastern White Mountain and Western White Mountain Apache. + **Coyotero** refers to a southern pre-reservation White Mountain group of the Western Apache, but has also been used more widely to refer to the Apache in general, Western Apache, or an Apache band in the high plains of Southern Colorado to Kansas. #### Ethnobotany * A full list of 134 ethnobotany plant uses for Western Apache can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/14/. * A full list of 165 ethnobotany plant uses for White Mountain Apache can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/15/. * A full list of 14 ethnobotany plant uses for the San Carlos Apache can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/13/. ### Other terms * **Llanero** is a Spanish-language borrowing meaning "plains dweller". The name referred to several different groups who hunted buffalo on the Great Plains. (See also *Carlanas*.) * **Lipiyánes** (also Lipiyán, Lipillanes). A coalition of splinter groups of Nadahéndé (Natagés), Guhlkahéndé, and Lipan of the 18th century under the leadership of Picax-Ande-Ins-Tinsle ("Strong Arm"), who fought the Comanche on the Plains. This term is not to be confused with *Lipan*. History ------- ### Entry into the Southwest The Apache and Navajo tribal groups of the North American Southwest speak related languages of the Athabaskan language family. Other Athabaskan-speaking people in North America continue to reside in Alaska, western Canada, and the Northwest Pacific Coast. Anthropological evidence suggests that the Apache and Navajo peoples lived in these same northern locales before migrating to the Southwest sometime between AD 1200 and 1500. The Apaches' nomadic way of life complicates accurate dating, primarily because they constructed less substantial dwellings than other Southwestern groups. Since the early 21st century, substantial progress has been made in dating and distinguishing their dwellings and other forms of material culture. They left behind a more austere set of tools and material goods than other Southwestern cultures. The Athabaskan-speaking group probably moved into areas that were concurrently occupied or recently abandoned by other cultures. Other Athabaskan speakers, perhaps including the Southern Athabaskan, adapted many of their neighbors' technology and practices in their own cultures. Thus sites where early Southern Athabaskans may have lived are difficult to locate and even more difficult to firmly identify as culturally Southern Athabaskan. Recent advances have been made in the regard in the far southern portion of the American Southwest. There are several hypotheses about Apache migrations. One[*who?*] posits that they moved into the Southwest from the Great Plains. In the mid-16th century, these mobile groups lived in tents, hunted bison and other game, and used dogs to pull travois loaded with their possessions. Substantial numbers of the people and a wide range were recorded by the Spanish in the 16th century. In April 1541, while traveling on the plains east of the Pueblo region, Francisco Coronado referred to the people as "dog nomads." He wrote: > After seventeen days of travel, I came upon a 'rancheria' of the Indians who follow these cattle (bison). These natives are called Querechos. They do not cultivate the land, but eat raw meat and drink the blood of the cattle they kill. They dress in the skins of the cattle, with which all the people in this land clothe themselves, and they have very well-constructed tents, made with tanned and greased cowhides, in which they live and which they take along as they follow the cattle. They have dogs which they load to carry their tents, poles, and belongings. > > The Spanish described Plains dogs as very white, with black spots, and "not much larger than water spaniels." Plains dogs were slightly smaller than those used for hauling loads by modern Inuit and northern First Nations people in Canada. Recent experiments show these dogs may have pulled loads up to 50 lb (20 kg) on long trips, at rates as high as two or three miles per hour (3 to 5 km/h). The Plains migration theory associates the Apache peoples with the Dismal River culture, an archaeological culture known primarily from ceramics and house remains, dated 1675–1725, which has been excavated in Nebraska, eastern Colorado, and western Kansas. Although the first documentary sources mention the Apache, and historians have suggested some passages indicate a 16th-century entry from the north, archaeological data indicate they were present on the plains long before this first reported contact. A competing theory[*who?*] posits their migration south, through the Rocky Mountains, ultimately reaching the American Southwest by the 14th century or perhaps earlier. An archaeological material culture assemblage identified in this mountainous zone as ancestral Apache has been referred to as the "Cerro Rojo complex". This theory does not preclude arrival via a plains route as well, perhaps concurrently, but to date the earliest evidence has been found in the mountainous Southwest. The Plains Apache have a significant Southern Plains cultural influence. When the Spanish arrived in the area, trade between the long established Pueblo peoples and the Southern Athabaskan was well established. They reported the Pueblo exchanged maize and woven cotton goods for bison meat, and hides and materials for stone tools. Coronado observed the Plains people wintering near the Pueblo in established camps. Later Spanish sovereignty over the area disrupted trade between the Pueblo and the diverging Apache and Navajo groups. The Apache quickly acquired horses, improving their mobility for quick raids on settlements. In addition, the Pueblo were forced to work Spanish mission lands and care for mission flocks; they had fewer surplus goods to trade with their neighbors. In 1540, Coronado reported that the modern Western Apache area was uninhabited, although some scholars have argued that he simply did not see the American Indians. Other Spanish explorers first mention "Querechos" living west of the Rio Grande in the 1580s. To some historians, this implies the Apaches moved into their current Southwestern homelands in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Other historians note that Coronado reported that Pueblo women and children had often been evacuated by the time his party attacked their dwellings, and that he saw some dwellings had been recently abandoned as he moved up the Rio Grande. This might indicate the semi-nomadic Southern Athabaskan had advance warning about his hostile approach and evaded encounter with the Spanish. Archaeologists are finding ample evidence of an early proto-Apache presence in the Southwestern mountain zone in the 15th century and perhaps earlier. The Apache presence on both the Plains and in the mountainous Southwest indicate that the people took multiple early migration routes. ### Conflict with Mexico and the United States In general, the recently arrived Spanish colonists, who settled in villages, and Apache bands developed a pattern of interaction over a few centuries. Both raided and traded with each other. Records of the period seem to indicate that relationships depended on the specific villages and bands: a band might be friends with one village and raid another. When war occurred, the Spanish would send troops; after a battle both sides would "sign a treaty" and go home. The traditional and sometimes treacherous relationships continued after the independence of Mexico in 1821. By 1835 Mexico had placed a bounty on Apache scalps (see scalping), but certain villages still traded with some bands. When Juan José Compà, the leader of the Copper Mines Mimbreño Apaches, was killed for bounty money in 1837, *Mangas Coloradas* (Red Sleeves) or *Dasoda-hae* (He just sits there) became the principal chief and war leader; also in 1837 Soldado Fiero (a.k.a. Fuerte), leader of the Warm Springs Mimbreño Apaches, was killed by Mexican soldiers near Janos, and his son *Cuchillo Negro* (Black Knife) became the principal chief and war leader. They (being now Mangas Coloradas the first chief and Cuchillo Negro the second chief of the whole Tchihende or Mimbreño people) conducted a series of retaliatory raids against the Mexicans. By 1856, authorities in horse-rich Durango would claim that Indian raids (mostly Comanche and Apache) in their state had taken nearly 6,000 lives, abducted 748 people, and forced the abandonment of 358 settlements over the previous 20 years. When the United States went to war against Mexico in 1846, many Apache bands promised U.S. soldiers safe passage through their lands. When the U.S. claimed former territories of Mexico in 1846, *Mangas Coloradas* signed a peace treaty with the nation, respecting them as conquerors of the Mexicans' land. An uneasy peace with U.S. citizens held until the 1850s. An influx of gold miners into the Santa Rita Mountains led to conflict with the Apache. This period is sometimes called the Apache Wars. United States' concept of a reservation had not been used by the Spanish, Mexicans or other Apache neighbors before. Reservations were often badly managed, and bands that had no kinship relationships were forced to live together. No fences existed to keep people in or out. It was common for a band to be allowed to leave for a short period of time. Other times a band would leave without permission, to raid, return to their homeland to forage, or to simply get away. The U.S. military usually had forts nearby to keep the bands on the reservations by finding and returning those who left. The reservation policies of the U.S. caused conflict and war with the various Apache bands who left the reservations for almost another quarter century. War between the Apache peoples and Euro-Americans has led to a stereotypical focus on certain aspects of Apache cultures. These have often been distorted through misunderstanding of their cultures, as noted by anthropologist Keith Basso: > Of the hundreds of peoples that lived and flourished in native North America, few have been so consistently misrepresented as the Apacheans of Arizona and New Mexico. Glorified by novelists, sensationalized by historians, and distorted beyond credulity by commercial film makers, the popular image of 'the Apache' — a brutish, terrifying semi-human bent upon wanton death and destruction — is almost entirely a product of irresponsible caricature and exaggeration. Indeed, there can be little doubt that the Apache has been transformed from a native American into an American legend, the fanciful and fallacious creation of a non-Indian citizenry whose inability to recognize the massive treachery of ethnic and cultural stereotypes has been matched only by its willingness to sustain and inflate them. > > ### Forced removal In 1875, United States military forced the removal of an estimated 1500 Yavapai and Dilzhe'e Apache (better known as *Tonto Apache*) from the Rio Verde Indian Reserve and its several thousand acres of treaty lands promised to them by the United States government. At the orders of Indian Commissioner L.E. Dudley, U.S. Army troops made the people, young and old, walk through winter-flooded rivers, mountain passes and narrow canyon trails to get to the Indian Agency at San Carlos, 180 miles (290 km) away. The trek killed several hundred people. The people were interned there for 25 years while white settlers took over their land. Only a few hundred ever returned to their lands. At the San Carlos reservation, the Buffalo soldiers of the 9th Cavalry Regiment—replacing the 8th Cavalry who were being stationed to Texas—guarded the Apaches from 1875 to 1881. Beginning in 1879, an Apache uprising against the reservation system led to Victorio's War between Chief Victorio's band of Apaches and the 9th Cavalry. ### Defeat Most United States' histories of this era report that the final defeat of an Apache band took place when 5,000 US troops forced Geronimo's group of 30 to 50 men, women and children to surrender on September 4, 1886, at Skeleton Canyon, Arizona. The Army sent this band and the Chiricahua scouts who had tracked them to military confinement in Florida at Fort Pickens and, subsequently, Ft. Sill, Oklahoma. Many books were written on the stories of hunting and trapping during the late 19th century. Many of these stories involve Apache raids and the failure of agreements with Americans and Mexicans. In the post-war era, the US government arranged for Apache children to be taken from their families for adoption by white Americans in assimilation programs. Pre-reservation culture ----------------------- ### Social organization All Apache peoples lived in extended family units (or *family clusters*); they usually lived close together, with each nuclear family in separate dwellings. An extended family generally consisted of a husband and wife, their unmarried children, their married daughters, their married daughters' husbands, and their married daughters' children. Thus, the extended family is connected through a lineage of women who live together (that is, matrilocal residence), into which men may enter upon marriage (leaving behind his parents' family). When a daughter married, a new dwelling was built nearby for her and her husband. Among the Navajo, residence rights are ultimately derived from a head mother. Although the Western Apache usually practiced matrilocal residence, sometimes the eldest son chose to bring his wife to live with his parents after marriage. All tribes practiced sororate and levirate marriages. Apache men practiced varying degrees of "avoidance" of his wife's close relatives, a practice often most strictly observed by distance between mother-in-law and son-in-law. The degree of avoidance differed by Apache group. The most elaborate system was among the Chiricahua, where men had to use indirect polite speech toward and were not allowed to be within visual sight of the wife's female relatives, whom he had to avoid. His female Chiricahua relatives through marriage also avoided him. Several extended families worked together as a "local group", which carried out certain ceremonies, and economic and military activities. Political control was mostly present at the local group level. Local groups were headed by a chief, a male who had much influence due to his effectiveness and reputation. The position was not hereditary, and was often filled by members of different extended families. The chief's influence was as strong as he was evaluated to be—no group member was obliged to follow the chief. Western Apache criteria for a good chief included: industriousness, generosity, impartiality, forbearance, conscientiousness, and eloquence in language. Many Apache peoples joined several local groups into "bands". Banding was strongest among the Chiricahua and Western Apache, and weak among the Lipan and Mescalero. The Navajo did not organize into bands, perhaps because of the requirements of the sheepherding economy. However, the Navajo did have "the outfit", a group of relatives that was larger than the extended family, but smaller than a local group community or a band. On a larger level, Western Apache bands organized into what Grenville Goodwin called "groups". He reported five groups for the Western Apache: Northern Tonto, Southern Tonto, Cibecue, San Carlos, and White Mountain. The Jicarilla grouped their bands into "moieties", perhaps influenced by the northeastern Pueblo. The Western Apache and Navajo also had a system of matrilineal "clans" organized further into *phratries* (perhaps influenced by the western Pueblo). The notion of "tribe" in Apache cultures is very weakly developed; essentially it was only a recognition "that one owed a modicum of hospitality to those of the same speech, dress, and customs." The six Apache tribes had political independence from each other and even fought against each other. For example, the Lipan once fought against the Mescalero. #### Kinship systems The Apache tribes have two distinctly different kinship term systems: a *Chiricahua type* and a *Jicarilla type.* The Chiricahua-type system is used by the Chiricahua, Mescalero, and Western Apache. The Western Apache system differs slightly from the other two systems, and has some similarities to the Navajo system. The Jicarilla type, which is similar to the Dakota–Iroquois kinship systems, is used by the Jicarilla, Navajo, Lipan, and Plains Apache. The Navajo system is more divergent among the four, having similarities with the Chiricahua-type system. The Lipan and Plains Apache systems are very similar. ##### Chiricahua The Chiricahua language has four words for grandparent: *-chú* "maternal grandmother", *-tsúyé* "maternal grandfather", *-chʼiné* "paternal grandmother", *-nálé* "paternal grandfather". Additionally, a grandparent's siblings are identified by the same word; thus, one's maternal grandmother, one's maternal grandmother's sisters, and one's maternal grandmother's brothers are all called *-chú*. Furthermore, the grandchild terms are reciprocal, that is, one uses the same term to refer to their grandchild. For example, a person's maternal grandmother is called *-chú* and that grandmother also calls that granddaughter *-chú* (i.e. *-chú* can mean the child of either your own daughter or your sibling's daughter.) Chiricahua cousins are not distinguished from siblings through kinship terms. Thus, the same word refers to either a sibling or a cousin (there are not separate terms for parallel-cousin and cross-cousin). The terms depend on the sex of the speaker (unlike the English terms *brother* and *sister*): *-kʼis* "same-sex sibling or same-sex cousin", *-´-ląh* "opposite-sex sibling or opposite-sex cousin". This means if one is a male, then one's brother is called *-kʼis* and one's sister is called *-´-ląh*. If one is a female, then one's brother is called *-´-ląh* and one's sister is called *-kʼis*. Chiricahuas in a *-´-ląh* relationship observed great restraint and respect toward that relative; cousins (but not siblings) in a *-´-ląh* relationship may practice total *avoidance*. Two different words are used for each parent according to sex: *-mááʼ* "mother", *-taa* "father". Likewise, there are two words for a parent's child according to sex: *-yáchʼeʼ* "daughter", *-gheʼ* "son". A parent's siblings are classified together regardless of sex: *-ghúyé* "maternal aunt or uncle (mother's brother or sister)", *-deedééʼ* "paternal aunt or uncle (father's brother or sister)". These two terms are reciprocal like the grandparent/grandchild terms. Thus, *-ghúyé* also refers to one's opposite-sex sibling's son or daughter (that is, a person will call their maternal aunt *-ghúyé* and that aunt will call them *-ghúyé* in return). ##### Jicarilla Unlike the Chiricahua system, the Jicarilla have only two terms for grandparents according to sex: *-chóó* "grandmother", *-tsóyéé* "grandfather". They do not have separate terms for maternal or paternal grandparents. The terms are also used of a grandparent's siblings according to sex. Thus, *-chóó* refers to one's grandmother or one's grand-aunt (either maternal or paternal); *-tsóyéé* refers to one's grandfather or one's grand-uncle. These terms are not reciprocal. There is a single word for grandchild (regardless of sex): *-tsóyí̱í̱*. There are two terms for each parent. These terms also refer to that parent's same-sex sibling: *-ʼnííh* "mother or maternal aunt (mother's sister)", *-kaʼéé* "father or paternal uncle (father's brother)". Additionally, there are two terms for a parent's opposite-sex sibling depending on sex: *-daʼá̱á̱* "maternal uncle (mother's brother)", *-béjéé* "paternal aunt (father's sister). Two terms are used for same-sex and opposite-sex siblings. These terms are also used for parallel-cousins: *-kʼisé* "same-sex sibling or same-sex parallel cousin (i.e. same-sex father's brother's child or mother's sister's child)", *-´-láh* "opposite-sex sibling or opposite parallel cousin (i.e. opposite-sex father's brother's child or mother's sister's child)". These two terms can also be used for cross-cousins. There are also three sibling terms based on the age relative to the speaker: *-ndádéé* "older sister", *-´-naʼá̱á̱* "older brother", *-shdá̱zha* "younger sibling (i.e. younger sister or brother)". Additionally, there are separate words for cross-cousins: *-zeedń* "cross-cousin (either same-sex or opposite-sex of speaker)", *-iłnaaʼaash* "male cross-cousin" (only used by male speakers). A parent's child is classified with their same-sex sibling's or same-sex cousin's child: *-zhácheʼe* "daughter, same-sex sibling's daughter, same-sex cousin's daughter", *-gheʼ* "son, same-sex sibling's son, same-sex cousin's son". There are different words for an opposite-sex sibling's child: *-daʼá̱á̱* "opposite-sex sibling's daughter", *-daʼ* "opposite-sex sibling's son". ### Housing Apache lived in three types of houses. Teepees were common in the plains. Wickiups were common in the highlands; these were 8-foot-tall (2.4 m) framed of wood held together with yucca fibers and covered in brush. If a family member died, the wickiup would be burned. Apache of the desert of northern Mexico lived in hogans, an earthen structure for keeping cool. Below is a description of Chiricahua wickiups recorded by anthropologist Morris Opler: > The home in which the family lives is made by the women and is ordinarily a circular, dome-shaped brush dwelling, with the floor at ground level. It is seven feet high at the center and approximately eight feet in diameter. To build it, long fresh poles of oak or willow are driven into the ground or placed in holes made with a digging stick. These poles, which form the framework, are arranged at one-foot intervals and are bound together at the top with yucca-leaf strands. Over them a thatching of bundles of big bluestem grass or bear grass is tied, shingle style, with yucca strings. A smoke hole opens above a central fireplace. A hide, suspended at the entrance, is fixed on a cross-beam so that it may be swung forward or backward. The doorway may face in any direction. For waterproofing, pieces of hide are thrown over the outer hatching, and in rainy weather, if a fire is not needed, even the smoke hole is covered. In warm, dry weather much of the outer roofing is stripped off. It takes approximately three days to erect a sturdy dwelling of this type. These houses are 'warm and comfortable, even though there is a big snow.' The interior is lined with brush and grass beds over which robes are spread ... > > > > The woman not only makes the furnishings of the home but is responsible for the construction, maintenance, and repair of the dwelling itself and for the arrangement of everything in it. She provides the grass and brush beds and replaces them when they become too old and dry ... However, formerly 'they had no permanent homes, so they didn't bother with cleaning.' The dome-shaped dwelling or wickiup, the usual home type for all the Chiricahua bands, has already been described ... Said a Central Chiricahua informant. > > > > > Both the teepee and the oval-shaped house were used when I was a boy. The oval hut was covered with hide and was the best house. The more well-to-do had this kind. The tepee type was just made of brush. It had a place for a fire in the center. It was just thrown together. Both types were common even before my time ... > > > A house form that departs from the more common dome-shaped variety is recorded for the Southern Chiricahua as well: > > > > > ... When we settled down, we used the wickiup; when we were moving around a great deal, we used this other kind ... > > Recent research has documented the archaeological remains of Chiricahua Apache wickiups as found on protohistoric and at historical sites, such as Canon de los Embudos where C.S. Fly photographed Geronimo, his people, and dwellings during surrender negotiations in 1886, demonstrating their unobtrusive and improvised nature." ### Food Apache people obtained food from four main sources: * hunting wild animals, * gathering wild plants, * growing domesticated plants * trading with or raiding neighboring tribes for livestock and agricultural products. Particular types of foods eaten by a group depending upon their respective environment. #### Hunting Hunting was done primarily by men, although there were sometimes exceptions depending on animal and culture (e.g. Lipan women could help in hunting rabbits and Chiricahua boys were also allowed to hunt rabbits). Hunting often had elaborate preparations, such as fasting and religious rituals performed by medicine men before and after the hunt. In Lipan culture, since deer were protected by Mountain Spirits, great care was taken in Mountain Spirit rituals to ensure smooth hunting. Slaughter follows religious guidelines (many of which are recorded in religious stories) prescribing cutting, prayers, and bone disposal. Southern Athabascan hunters often distributed successfully slaughtered game. For example, among the Mescalero a hunter was expected to share as much as half of his kill with a fellow hunter and needy people at the camp. Feelings of individuals about this practice spoke of social obligation and spontaneous generosity. The most common hunting weapon before the introduction of European guns was the bow and arrow. Various hunting techniques were used. Some involved wearing animal head masks as a disguise. Whistles were sometimes used to lure animals closer. Another technique was the relay method where hunters positioned at various points would chase the prey in turns in order to tire the animal. A similar method involved chasing the prey down a steep cliff. Eating certain animals was taboo. Although different cultures had different taboos, common examples included bears, peccaries, turkeys, fish, snakes, insects, owls, and coyotes. An example of taboo differences: the black bear was a part of the Lipan diet (although less common as buffalo, deer, or antelope), but the Jicarilla never ate bear because it was considered an evil animal. Some taboos were a regional phenomenon, such as fish, which was taboo throughout the southwest (e.g. in certain Pueblo cultures like the Hopi and Zuni) and considered to resemble a snake (an evil animal) in physical appearance. Western Apache hunted deer and pronghorns mostly in the ideal late fall. After the meat was smoked into jerky around November, they migrated from the farm sites in the mountains along stream banks to winter camps in the Salt, Black, Gila river and even the Colorado River valleys. The Chiricahua mostly hunted deer followed by pronghorn. Lesser game included cottontail rabbits (but not jack rabbits), opossums, squirrels, surplus horses, surplus mules, *wapiti* (elk), wild cattle and wood rats. The Mescalero primarily hunted deer. Other game includes: bighorn sheep, buffalo (for those living closer to the plains), cottontail rabbits, elk, horses, mules, opossums, pronghorn, wild steers and wood rats. Beavers, minks, muskrats, and weasels were hunted for their hides but body parts but were not eaten. The Jicarilla primarily hunted bighorn sheep, buffalo, deer, elk and pronghorn. Other game included beaver, bighorn sheep, chief hares, chipmunks, doves, ground hogs, grouse, peccaries, porcupines, prairie dogs, quail, rabbits, skunks, snow birds, squirrels, turkeys and wood rats. Burros and horses were only eaten in emergencies. Minks, weasels, wildcats and wolves were not eaten but hunted for their body parts. The Lipan ate mostly buffalo with a three-week hunt during the fall and smaller hunts until the spring. The second most utilized animal was deer. Fresh deer blood was drunk for health. Other animals included beavers, bighorns, black bears, burros, ducks, elk, fish, horses, mountain lions, mourning doves, mules, prairie dogs, pronghorns, quail, rabbits, squirrels, turkeys, turtles and wood rats. Skunks were eaten only in emergencies. Plains Apache hunters hunted primarily buffalo and deer. Other game were badgers, bears, beavers, fowls, geese, opossums, otters, rabbits and turtles. ### Clothing Influenced by the Plains Indians, Western Apaches wore animal hide decorated with seed beads for clothing. These beaded designs historically resembled that of the Great Basin Paiute and is characterized by linear patterning. Apache beaded clothing was bordered with narrow bands of glass seed beads in diagonal stripes of alternating colors. They made buckskin shirts, ponchos, skirts and moccasins and decorated them with colorful beadwork. ### Undomesticated plants and other food sources The gathering of plants and other food was primarily done by women. The men's job was usually to hunt animals such as deer, buffalo, and small game. However, men helped in certain gathering activities, such as of heavy agave crowns. Numerous plants were used as both food and medicine and in religious ceremonies. Other plants were used for only their religious or medicinal value. In May, the Western Apache baked and dried agave crowns pounded into pulp and formed into rectangular cakes. At the end of June and beginning of July, saguaro, prickly pear, and cholla fruits were gathered. In July and August, mesquite beans, Spanish bayonet fruit, and Emory oak acorns were gathered. In late September, gathering was stopped as attention moved to harvesting cultivated crops. In late fall, juniper berries and pinyon nuts were gathered. The most important plant food for the Chiricahua was the Century plant (also known as mescal or agave). The crowns (the tuberous base portion) were baked in large underground ovens and sun-dried. The shoots were also eaten. Other plants used by the Chiricahua include: agarita (or algerita) berries, alligator juniper berries, anglepod seeds, banana yucca (or datil, broadleaf yucca) fruit, chili peppers, chokecherries, cota (used for tea), currants, dropseed grass seeds, Gambel oak acorns, Gambel oak bark (used for tea), grass seeds (of various varieties), greens (of various varieties), hawthorne fruit, Lamb's-quarters leaves, lip ferns (used for tea), live oak acorns, locust blossoms, locust pods, maize kernels (used for tiswin), and mesquite beans. Also eaten were mulberries, narrowleaf yucca blossoms, narrowleaf yucca stalks, nipple cactus fruit, one-seed juniper berries, onions, pigweed seeds, pinyon nuts, pitahaya fruit, prickly pear fruit, prickly pear juice, raspberries, screwbean (or tornillo) fruit, saguaro fruit, spurge seeds, strawberries, sumac (*Rhus trilobata*) berries, sunflower seeds, tule rootstocks, tule shoots, pigweed tumbleweed seeds, unicorn plant seeds, walnuts, western yellow pine inner bark (used as a sweetener), western yellow pine nuts, whitestar potatoes (*Ipomoea lacunosa*), wild grapes, wild potatoes (*Solanum jamesii*), wood sorrel leaves, and yucca buds (unknown species). Other items include: honey from ground hives and hives found within agave, sotol, and narrowleaf yucca plants. The abundant agave (mescal) was also important to the Mescalero, who gathered the crowns in late spring after reddish flower stalks appeared. The smaller sotol crowns were also important. The crowns of both plants were baked and dried. Other plants include: acorns, agarita berries, amole stalks (roasted and peeled), aspen inner bark (used as a sweetener), bear grass stalks (roasted and peeled), box elder inner bark (used as a sweetener), banana yucca fruit, banana yucca flowers, box elder sap (used as a sweetener), cactus fruits (of various varieties), cattail rootstocks, chokecherries, currants, dropseed grass seeds (used for flatbread), elderberries, gooseberries (*Ribes leptanthum* and *R. pinetorum*), grapes, hackberries, hawthorne fruit, and hops (used as condiment). They also used horsemint (as a condiment), juniper berries, Lamb's-quarters leaves, locust flowers, locust pods, mesquite pods, mint (as a condiment), mulberries, pennyroyal (as a condiment), pigweed seeds (for flatbread), pine inner bark (as a sweetener), pinyon pine nuts, prickly pear fruit (dethorned and roasted), purslane leaves, raspberries, sage (as a condiment), screwbeans, sedge tubers, shepherd's purse leaves, strawberries, sunflower seeds, tumbleweed seeds (for flatbread), vetch pods, walnuts, western white pine nuts, western yellow pine nuts, white evening primrose fruit, wild celery (as a condiment), wild onion (as a condiment), wild pea pods, wild potatoes, and wood sorrel leaves. The Jicarilla used acorns, chokecherries, juniper berries, mesquite beans, pinyon nuts, prickly pear fruit, yucca fruit, and many other kinds of fruits, acorns, greens, nuts, and seed grasses. The Lipan heavily used agave (mescal) and sotol. Other plants include agarita, blackberries, cattails, devil's claw, elderberries, gooseberries, hackberries, hawthorn, juniper, Lamb's-quarters, locust, mesquite, mulberries, oak, palmetto, pecan, pinyon, prickly pears, raspberries, screwbeans, seed grasses, strawberries, sumac, sunflowers, Texas persimmons, walnuts, western yellow pine, wild cherries, wild grapes, wild onions, wild plums, wild potatoes, wild roses, yucca flowers, and yucca fruit. Other gathered food includes salt obtained from caves and honey. The Plains Apache gathered chokecherries, blackberries, grapes, prairie turnips, wild onions, and wild plums, and many other fruits, vegetables, and tuberous roots. #### Ethnobotany A list of 198 ethnobotany plant uses for the Chiricahua can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/11/, which also includes the Mescalero. A list of 54 ethnobotany plant uses for the uncategorized Apache can also be found here. http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/10/. ### Crop cultivation The Navajo practiced the most crop cultivation, the Western Apache, Jicarilla, and Lipan less. The one Chiricahua band (of Opler's) and the Mescalero practiced very little cultivation. The other two Chiricahua bands and the Plains Apache did not grow any crops. ### Trade, raids, and war Interchanges between the Apache and European-descended explorers and settlers included trading. The Apache found they could use European and American goods. Unlike Europeans and Euro-Americans, Apaches distinguished raiding from war. Raiding was done in small parties with a specific economic purpose. War was waged in large parties (often clan members), usually to achieve retribution. Raiding was traditional for the Apache, but Mexican settlers objected to their stock being stolen. As tensions grew between the Apache and settlers, the Mexican government passed laws offering cash rewards for Apache scalps. ### Religion Apache religious stories relate to two culture heroes (one of the Sun/fire:"Killer-Of-Enemies/Monster Slayer", and one of Water/Moon/thunder: "Child-Of-The-Water/Born For Water") who destroy several creatures harmful to humankind. Another story is of a hidden ball game, where good and evil animals decide whether or not the world should be forever dark. Coyote, the trickster, is an important being that often has inappropriate behavior (such as marrying his own daughter, etc.) in which he overturns social convention. The Navajo, Western Apache, Jicarilla, and Lipan have an emergence or Creation Story, while this is lacking in the Chiricahua and Mescalero. Most Southern Athabascan gods are personified natural forces that run through the universe. They may be used for human purposes through ritual ceremonies. The following is a formulation by the anthropologist Keith Basso of the Western Apache's concept of *diyí'*: > The term *diyí'* refers to one or all of a set of abstract and invisible forces which are said to derive from certain classes of animals, plants, minerals, meteorological phenomena, and mythological figures within the Western Apache universe. Any of the various powers may be acquired by man and, if properly handled, used for a variety of purposes. > > Medicine men learn the ceremonies, which can also be acquired by direct revelation to the individual. Different Apache cultures had different views of ceremonial practice. Most Chiricahua and Mescalero ceremonies were learned through the transmission of personal religious visions, while the Jicarilla and Western Apache used standardized rituals as the more central ceremonial practice. Important standardized ceremonies include the puberty ceremony (Sunrise Dance) of young women, Navajo chants, Jicarilla "long-life" ceremonies, and Plains Apache "sacred-bundle" ceremonies. Certain animals - owls, snakes, bears, and coyotes - are considered spiritually evil and prone to cause sickness to humans. . Many Apache ceremonies use masked representations of religious spirits. Sandpainting is an important ceremony in the Navajo, Western Apache, and Jicarilla traditions, in which healers create temporary, sacred art from colored sands. Anthropologists believe the use of masks and sandpainting are examples of cultural diffusion from neighboring Pueblo cultures. The Apaches participate in many religious dances, including the rain dance, dances for the crop and harvest, and a spirit dance. These dances were mostly for influencing the weather and enriching their food resources. Languages --------- The five Apache languages are Apachean languages, which in turn belong to the Athabaskan branch of the Eyak-Athabaskan language family. All Apache languages are endangered. Lipan is reported extinct. The Southern Athabascan branch was defined by Harry Hoijer primarily according to its merger of stem-initial consonants of the Proto-Athabascan series *\*k̯* and *\*c* into *\*c* (in addition to the widespread merger of *\*č* and *\*čʷ* into *\*č* also found in many Northern Athabascan languages). | Proto-Athabascan | | Navajo | WesternApache | Chiricahua | Mescalero | Jicarilla | Lipan | PlainsApache | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | \*k̯uʔs | "handle fabric-like object" | *-tsooz* | *-tsooz* | *-tsuuz* | *-tsuudz* | *-tsoos* | *-tsoos* | *-tsoos* | | \*ce· | "stone" | *tsé* | *tséé* | *tsé* | *tsé* | *tsé* | *tsí* | *tséé* | Hoijer (1938) divided the Apache sub-family into an eastern branch consisting of Jicarilla, Lipan, and Plains Apache and a Western branch consisting of Navajo, Western Apache (San Carlos), Chiricahua, and Mescalero based on the merger of Proto-Apachean *\*t* and *\*k* to *k* in the Eastern branch. Thus, as can be seen in the example below, when the Western languages have noun or verb stems that start with *t*, the related forms in the Eastern languages will start with a *k*: | | *Western* | *Eastern* | | --- | --- | --- | | | Navajo | WesternApache | Chiricahua | Mescalero | Jicarilla | Lipan | PlainsApache | | "water" | *tó* | *tū* | *tú* | *tú* | *kó* | *kó* | *kóó* | | "fire" | *kǫʼ* | *kǫʼ* | *kųų* | *kų* | *ko̱ʼ* | *kǫǫʼ* | *kǫʼ* | He later revised his proposal in 1971 when he found that Plains Apache did not participate in the *\*k̯/\*c* merger to consider Plains Apache as a language equidistant from the other languages, now called Southwestern Apachean. Thus, some stems that originally started with *\*k̯* in Proto-Athabascan start with *ch* in Plains Apache while the other languages start with *ts*. | Proto-Athabascan | | Navajo | Chiricahua | Mescalero | Jicarilla | PlainsApache | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | \*k̯aʔx̣ʷ | "big" | *-tsaa* | *-tsaa* | *-tsaa* | *-tsaa* | *-cha* | Morris Opler (1975) has noted cultural similarities of Jicarilla and Lipan with Eastern Apache language speakers and differences from Western Apache speakers, supporting Hojier's initial classification. Other linguists, particularly Michael Krauss (1973), have noted that a classification based only on the initial consonants of noun and verb stems is arbitrary and when other sound correspondences are considered the relationships between the languages appear more complex. Apache languages are tonal. Regarding tonal development, all Apache languages are *low-marked*, which means that stems with a "constricted" syllable rime in the proto-language developed low tone while all other rimes developed high tone. Other Northern Athabascan languages are *high-marked*: their tonal development is the reverse. In the example below, if low-marked Navajo and Chiricahua have a low tone, then the high-marked Northern Athabascan languages, Slavey and Chilcotin, have a high tone, and if Navajo and Chiricahua have a high tone, then Slavey and Chilcotin have a low tone. | | | *Low-Marked* | *High-Marked* | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Proto-Athabascan | | Navajo | Chiricahua | Slavey | Chilcotin | | \*taʔ | "father" | *-taaʼ* | *-taa* | *-táʼ* | *-tá* | | \*tu· | "water" | *tó* | *tú* | *tù* | *tù* | Notable historic Apache ----------------------- Contemporary Apache people are listed under their specific tribes. * Mangas Coloradas, Chief * Cochise, Chief * Victorio, Chief * Geronimo, Leader * Chatto, scout * Dahteste, female warrior * Gouyen, female warrior * Lozen, female warrior * Loco, Chief * Naiche, Chief * Nana, Chief * Taza, Chief * **Eleven Medal of Honor recipients:** *see List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients*. See also -------- * Athabascan languages * Battle of Apache Pass * Battle of Cieneguilla * Camp Grant massacre * Chiricahua * *Fort Apache*, a movie in the genre of historical fiction about encounters between the US Army and Cochise's band * Jicarilla Apache * Lipan Apache people * Mescalero * Native American tribe * Native Americans in the United States * Navajo people * *Neoapachella*, a monotypic genus of North American mygalomorph spiders in the Euctenizidae named in their honor. * Plains Apache * Southern Athabascan languages * Western Apache Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. ↑ Other Zuni words identifying specific Apache groups are *wilacʔu·kʷe* "White Mountain Apache" and *čišše·kʷe* "San Carlos Apache" (Newman, pp. 32, 63, 65; de Reuse, p. 385). J. P. Harrington reports that *čišše·kʷe* can also be used to refer to the Apache in general. 2. ↑ All kinship terms in Apache languages are inherently possessed, which means they must be preceded by a possessive prefix. This is signified by the preceding hyphen. 3. ↑ The name *Mescalero* is, in fact, derived from the word *mescal*, a reference to their use of this plant as food. General bibliography -------------------- * Soledad, Nell David S (2009). "Eastern Apache Wizardcraft", *Mythical papers of the University of Cebu* (No.14). Philippines: University Of Cebu Press, * Basso, Keith H. (1969). "Western Apache witchcraft", *Anthropological papers of the University of Arizona* (No. 15). Tucson: University of Arizona Press, * Brugge, David M. (1968). *Navajos in the Catholic Church Records of New Mexico 1694–1875*. Window Rock, Arizona: Research Section, The Navajo Tribe. * Brugge, David M. (1983). "Navajo prehistory and history to 1850", in A. Ortiz (Ed.), *Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest* (Vol. 10, pp. 489–501). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. * Cordell, Linda S. *Ancient Pueblo Peoples*. St. Remy Press and Smithsonian Institution, 1994. ISBN 0-89599-038-5. * Etulain, Richard W. *New Mexican Lives: A Biographical History*, University of New Mexico Center for the American West, University of New Mexico Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8263-2433-9 * Foster, Morris W; & McCollough, Martha. (2001). "Plains Apache", in R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), *Handbook of North American Indians: Plains* (Vol. 13, pp. 926–939). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. * Gatewood, Charles B. (Edited by Louis Kraft). *Lt. Charles Gatewood & His Apache Wars Memoir.* University of Nebraska Press 2005. ISBN 978-0-8032-2772-9. * Goodwin, Greenville (1969) [1941]. *The Social Organization of the Western Apache*. Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press. LCCN 76-75453. * Gunnerson, James H. (1979). "Southern Athapaskan archeology", in A. Ortiz (Ed.), *Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest* (Vol. 9, pp. 162–169). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. * Haley, James L. *Apaches: A History and Culture Portrait*. University of Oklahoma Press, 1997. ISBN 0-8061-2978-6. * Hammond, George P., & Rey, Agapito (Eds.). (1940). *Narratives of the Coronado Expedition 1540–1542.* Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. * Henderson, Richard. (1994). "Replicating dog 'travois' travel on the northern plains", *Plains Anthropologist*, *39*, 145–59. * Hodge, F. W. (Ed.). (1907). *Handbook of American Indians*. Washington. * Hoijer, Harry. (1938). "The southern Athapaskan languages", *American Anthropologist*, *40* (1), 75–87. * Hoijer, Harry. (1971). "The position of the Apachean languages in the Athapaskan stock", in K. H. Basso & M. E. Opler (Eds.), *Apachean culture history and ethnology* (pp. 3–6). Anthropological papers of the University of Arizona (No. 21). Tucson: University of Arizona Press. * Huld, Martin E. (1983). "Athapaskan bears", *International Journal of American Linguistics*, *49* (2), 186–195. * Krauss, Michael E. (1973). "Na-Dene", in T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), *Linguistics in North America* (pp. 903–978). *Current trends in linguistics* (Vol. 10). The Hague: Mouton. (Reprinted 1976). * Landar, Herbert J. (1960). "The loss of Athapaskan words for fish in the Southwest", *International Journal of American Linguistics*, *26* (1), 75–77. * Miles, General Nelson Appleton. (1897). *Personal Recollections and Observations of General Nelson A. Miles embracing a brief view of the Civil War, or, From New England to the Golden Gate : and the story of his Indian campaigns, with comments on the exploration, development and progress of our great western empire*. Chicago: The Werner Company. * Newman, Stanley. (1958). *Zuni dictionary*. Bloomington: Indiana University. * Newman, Stanley. (1965). *Zuni grammar*. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. * Opler, Morris E. (1936a). "A summary of Jicarilla Apache culture", *American Anthropologist*, *38* (2), 202–223. * Opler, Morris E. (1936b). "The kinship systems of the Southern Athapaskan-speaking tribes", *American Anthropologist*, *38* (4), 620–633. * Opler, Morris E. (1941). *An Apache life-way: The economic, social, and religious institutions of the Chiricahua Indians*. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. * Opler, Morris E. (1975). "Problems in Apachean cultural history, with special reference to the Lipan Apache", *Anthropological Quarterly*, *48* (3), 182–192. * Opler, Morris E. (1983a). "The Apachean culture pattern and its origins", in A. Ortiz (Ed.), *Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest* (Vol. 10, pp. 368–392). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. * Opler, Morris E. (1983b). "Chiricahua Apache", in A. Ortiz (Ed.), *Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest* (Vol. 10, pp. 401–418). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. * Opler, Morris E. (1983c). "Mescalero Apache", in A. Ortiz (Ed.), *Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest* (Vol. 10, pp. 419–439). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. * Opler, Morris E. (2001). "Lipan Apache", in R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), *Handbook of North American Indians: Plains* (Vol. 13, pp. 941–952). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. * Plog, Stephen. (1997). *Ancient peoples of the American Southwest.* London: Thames and London, LTD. ISBN 0-500-27939-X. * Reuse, Willem J., de. (1983). "The Apachean culture pattern and its origins: Synonymy", in A. Ortiz (Ed.), *Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest* (Vol. 10, pp. 385–392). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. * Schroeder, Albert H. (1963). "Navajo and Apache relationships west of the Rio Grande", *El Palacio*, *70* (3), 5–23. * Schroeder, Albert H. (1974a). "A study of the Apache Indian: Parts 1–3", in *American Indian ethnology: Indians of the Southwest*. New York: Garland. * Schroeder, Albert H. (1974b). "A study of the Apache Indian: Parts 4–5", *American Indian ethnology: Indians of the Southwest*. New York: Garland. * Schroeder, Albert H. (1974c). "The Jicarilla Apache", *American Indian ethnology: Indians of the Southwest*. New York: Garland. * Seymour, Deni J. (2004) "A Ranchería in the Gran Apachería: Evidence of Intercultural Interaction at the Cerro Rojo Site", *Plains Anthropologist* 49(190):153–192. * Seymour, Deni J. (2009a) "Nineteenth-Century Apache Wickiups: Historically Documented Models for Archaeological Signatures of the Dwellings of Mobile People", *Antiquity* 83(319):157–164. * Seymour, Deni J.(2009b) "Evaluating Eyewitness Accounts of Native Peoples along the Coronado Trail from the International Border to Cibola", *New Mexico Historical Review* 84(3):399–435. * Seymour, Deni J. (2010a) "Contextual Incongruities, Statistical Outliers, and Anomalies: Targeting Inconspicuous Occupational Events", *American Antiquity* 75(1):158–176. * Seymour, Deni J. (2010b) "Cycles of Renewal, Transportable Assets: Aspects of Ancestral Apache Housing", *Plains Anthropologist* (Spring or Summer issue) * Sweeney, Edwin R. (1998). *Mangas Coloradas: Chief of the Chiricahua Apaches*. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3063-6 * Terrell, John Upton. (1972). *Apache chronicle*. World Publishing. ISBN 0-529-04520-6. * Tiller, Veronica E. (1983). "Jicarilla Apache", in A. Ortiz (Ed.), *Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest* (Vol. 10, pp. 440–461). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. * Witherspoon, Gary. (1983). "Navajo social organization", in A. Ortiz (Ed.), *Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest* (Vol. 10, pp. 524–535). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. * Worcester, Donald E. (1992). *The Apaches: Eagles of the Southwest', University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1495-9* Further reading --------------- * Conrad, Paul (2021). *The Apache Diaspora: Four Centuries of Displacement and Survival*. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-9954-0. External links -------------- ### Tribal websites * Apache Tribe of Oklahoma, archive of official website * Fort Sill Apache Tribe, official website * Jicarilla Apache Nation, official website * Mescalero Apache Tribe, official website * San Carlos Apache Tribe, official website * White Mountain Apache Tribe, official website * Yavapai-Apache Nation, official website ### Other external links * Apache, Museum of Northern Arizona * Apache Indians, Texas State Historical Association * Apache Tribe of Oklahoma, Oklahoma Historical Society * Apache, Fort Sill, Oklahoma Historical Society * Apache, Lipan, Oklahoma Historical Society * Tonto Apache Tribe, Inter Tribal Council of Arizona

Apache

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache

**Google Maps** is a web mapping platform and consumer application offered by Google. It offers satellite imagery, aerial photography, street maps, 360° interactive panoramic views of streets (Street View), real-time traffic conditions, and route planning for traveling by foot, car, bike, air (in beta) and public transportation. As of 2020[update], Google Maps was being used by over one billion people every month around the world. Google Maps began as a C++ desktop program developed by brothers Lars and Jens Rasmussen at Where 2 Technologies. In October 2004, the company was acquired by Google, which converted it into a web application. After additional acquisitions of a geospatial data visualization company and a real-time traffic analyzer, Google Maps was launched in February 2005. The service's front end utilizes JavaScript, XML, and Ajax. Google Maps offers an API that allows maps to be embedded on third-party websites, and offers a locator for businesses and other organizations in numerous countries around the world. Google Map Maker allowed users to collaboratively expand and update the service's mapping worldwide but was discontinued from March 2017. However, crowdsourced contributions to Google Maps were not discontinued as the company announced those features would be transferred to the Google Local Guides program. Google Maps' satellite view is a "top-down" or bird's-eye view; most of the high-resolution imagery of cities is aerial photography taken from aircraft flying at 800 to 1,500 feet (240 to 460 m), while most other imagery is from satellites. Much of the available satellite imagery is no more than three years old and is updated on a regular basis, according to a 2011 report. Google Maps previously used a variant of the Mercator projection, and therefore could not accurately show areas around the poles. In August 2018, the desktop version of Google Maps was updated to show a 3D globe. It is still possible to switch back to the 2D map in the settings. Google Maps for Android and iOS devices was released in September 2008 and features GPS turn-by-turn navigation along with dedicated parking assistance features. By 2013, it was found to be the world's most popular smartphone app, with over 54% of global smartphone owners using it. In 2017, the app was reported to have two billion users on Android, along with several other Google services including YouTube, Chrome, Gmail, Search, and Google Play. History ------- ### Acquisitions Google Maps first started as a C++ program designed by two Danish brothers, Lars and Jens Eilstrup Rasmussen, and Noel Gordon and Stephen Ma, at Sydney-based Where 2 Technologies. It was first designed to be separately downloaded by users, but the company later pitched the idea for a purely Web-based product to Google management, changing the method of distribution. In October 2004, the company was acquired by Google Inc. where it transformed into the web application Google Maps. In the same month, Google acquired Keyhole, a geospatial data visualization company (with investment from the CIA), whose marquee application suite, Earth Viewer, emerged as the Google Earth application in 2005 while other aspects of its core technology were integrated into Google Maps. In September 2004, Google acquired ZipDash, a company that provided real-time traffic analysis. ### 2005–2010 The launch of Google Maps was first announced on the Google Blog on February 8, 2005. In September 2005, in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, Google Maps quickly updated its satellite imagery of New Orleans to allow users to view the extent of the flooding in various parts of that city. As of 2007, Google Maps is equipped with a miniature view with a draggable rectangle that denotes the area shown in the main viewport, and "Info windows" for previewing details about locations on maps. On November 28, 2007, Google Maps for Mobile 2.0 was released. It featured a beta version of a "My Location" feature, which uses the GPS / Assisted GPS location of the mobile device, if available, supplemented by determining the nearest wireless networks and cell sites. The software looks up the location of the cell site using a database of known wireless networks and sites. By triangulating the different signal strengths from cell transmitters and then using their location property (retrieved from the database), My Location determines the user's current location. On September 23, 2008, coinciding with the announcement of the first commercial Android device, Google announced that a Google Maps app had been released for its Android operating system. In October 2009, Google replaced Tele Atlas as their primary supplier of geospatial data in the US version of Maps and used their own data. ### 2011–2015 On April 19, 2011, Map Maker was added to the American version of Google Maps, allowing any viewer to edit and add changes to Google Maps. This provides Google with local map updates almost in real-time instead of waiting for digital map data companies to release more infrequent updates. On January 31, 2012, Google, due to offering its Maps for free, was found guilty of abusing the dominant position of its Google Maps application and ordered by a court to pay a fine and damages to Bottin Cartographer, a French mapping company. This ruling was overturned on appeal. In June 2012, Google started mapping the UK's rivers and canals in partnership with the Canal and River Trust. The company has stated that "it would update the program during the year to allow users to plan trips which include locks, bridges and towpaths along the 2,000 miles of river paths in the UK." In December 2012, the Google Maps application was separately made available in the App Store, after Apple removed it from its default installation of the mobile operating system version iOS 6 in September 2012. On January 29, 2013, Google Maps was updated to include a map of North Korea. As of May 3, 2013[update], Google Maps recognizes Palestine as a country, instead of redirecting to the Palestinian territories. In August 2013, Google Maps removed the Wikipedia Layer, which provided links to Wikipedia content about locations shown in Google Maps using Wikipedia geocodes. On April 12, 2014, Google Maps was updated to reflect the annexation of Ukrainian Crimea by Russia. Crimea is shown as the Republic of Crimea in Russia and as the Autonomous Republic of Crimea in Ukraine. All other versions show a dotted disputed border. In April 2015, on a map near the Pakistani city of Rawalpindi, the imagery of the Android logo urinating on the Apple logo was added via Map Maker and appeared on Google Maps. The vandalism was soon removed and Google publicly apologized. However, as a result, Google disabled user moderation on Map Maker, and on May 12, disabled editing worldwide until it could devise a new policy for approving edits and avoiding vandalism. On April 29, 2015, users of the classic Google Maps were forwarded to the new Google Maps with the option to be removed from the interface. On July 14, 2015, the Chinese name for Scarborough Shoal was removed after a petition from the Philippines was posted on Change.org. ### 2016–2018 On June 27, 2016, Google rolled out new satellite imagery worldwide sourced from Landsat 8, comprising over 700 trillion pixels of new data. In September 2016, Google Maps acquired mapping analytics startup Urban Engines. In 2016, the Government of South Korea offered Google conditional access to the country's geographic database – access that already allows indigenous Korean mapping providers high-detail maps. Google declined the offer, as it was unwilling to accept restrictions on reducing the quality around locations the South Korean Government felt were sensitive. On October 16, 2017, Google Maps was updated with accessible imagery of several planets and moons such as Titan, Mercury, and Venus, as well as direct access to imagery of the Moon and Mars. In May 2018, Google announced major changes to the API structure starting June 11, 2018. This change consolidated the 18 different endpoints into three services and merged the basic and premium plans into one pay-as-you-go plan. This meant a 1400% price raise for users on the basic plan, with only six weeks of notice. This caused a harsh reaction within the developers community. In June, Google postponed the change date to July 16, 2018. In August 2018, Google Maps designed its overall view (when zoomed out completely) into a 3D globe dropping the Mercator projection that projected the planet onto a flat surface. ### 2019–present In January 2019, Google Maps added speed trap and speed camera alerts as reported by other users. On October 17, 2019, Google Maps was updated to include incident reporting, resembling a functionality in Waze which was acquired by Google in 2013. In December 2019, Incognito mode was added, allowing users to enter destinations without saving entries to their Google accounts. In February 2020, Maps received a 15th anniversary redesign. It notably added a brand-new app icon, which now resembles the original icon in 2005. On September 23, 2020, Google announced a COVID-19 Layer update for Google maps, which is designed to offer a seven-day average data of the total COVID-19-positive cases per 100,000 people in the area selected on the map. It also features a label indicating the rise and fall in the number of cases. In January 2021, Google announced that it would be launching a new feature displaying COVID-19 vaccination sites. In January 2021 Google announced updates to the route planner that would accommodate drivers of electric vehicles. Routing would take into account the type of vehicle, vehicle status including current charge, and the locations of charging stations. In June 2022, Google Maps added a layer displaying air quality for certain countries. In September 2022, Google silently removed the COVID-19 Layer from Google Maps due to little usage of the feature. Functionality ------------- ### Directions and transit Google Maps provides a route planner, allowing users to find available directions through driving, public transportation, walking, or biking. Google has partnered globally with over 800 public transportation providers to adopt GTFS (General Transit Feed Specification), making the data available to third parties. The app can indicate users' transit route, thanks to an October 2019 update. The incognito mode, eyes-free walking navigation features were released earlier. A July 2020 update provided bike share routes. ### Traffic conditions In 2007, Google began offering traffic data as a colored overlay on top of roads and motorways to represent the speed of vehicles on particular roads. Crowdsourcing is used to obtain the GPS-determined locations of a large number of cellphone users, from which live traffic maps are produced. Google has stated that the speed and location information it collects to calculate traffic conditions is anonymous. Options available in each phone's settings allow users not to share information about their location with Google Maps. Google stated, "Once you disable or opt out of My Location, Maps will not continue to send radio information back to Google servers to determine your handset's approximate location".[*failed verification*] ### Street View On May 25, 2007, Google released Google Street View, a feature of Google Maps providing 360° panoramic street-level views of various locations. On the date of release, the feature only included five cities in the U.S. It has since expanded to thousands of locations around the world. In July 2009, Google began mapping college campuses and surrounding paths and trails. Street View garnered much controversy after its release because of privacy concerns about the uncensored nature of the panoramic photographs, although the views are only taken on public streets. Since then, Google has blurred faces and license plates through automated facial recognition. In late 2014, Google launched Google Underwater Street View, including 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) of the Australian Great Barrier Reef in 3D. The images are taken by special cameras which turn 360 degrees and take shots every 3 seconds. In 2017, in both Google Maps and Google Earth, Street View navigation of the International Space Station interior spaces became available. ### Immersive View It was announced at the Google I/O 2022 event that 3D images would be created using Street View. It was to be initially in five cities worldwide, with plans to add it to other cities later on. Immersive View was to be available initially in the following locations: Locations with Immersive View| Country | Locations | | --- | --- | |  Argentina | Buenos Aires | |  Australia | Melbourne, Sydney | |  Austria | Vienna | |  Belgium | Brussels | |  Brazil | Brasilia, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo | |  Canada | Montreal, Toronto, Vancouver | |  Chile | Santiago | |  Czech Republic | Prague | |  France | Nice, Paris | |  Germany | Berlin, Cologne, Frankfurt, Munich | |  Greece | Athens | |  Hong Kong | Hong Kong | |  Hungary | Budapest | |  Italy | Florence, Milan, Rome, Venice | |  Japan | Kyoto, Nagoya, Osaka, Tokyo | |  Mexico | Guadalajara, Mexico City | |  Netherlands | Amsterdam | |  Norway | Oslo | |  Poland | Warsaw | |  Portugal | Lisbon, Porto | |  Romania | Bucharest | |  Singapore | Singapore | |  South Africa | Cape Town, Johannesburg | |  Spain | Barcelona, Madrid | |  Sweden | Stockholm | |  Switzerland | Zurich | |  Taiwan | Taichung, Taipei | |  United Kingdom | Edinburgh, London | |  United States | Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York City, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Seattle | |   Vatican City | Vatican City | ### Landmark Icons Google added icons of city attractions like on Apple Maps on October 3, 2019. In the first stage, such icons were added to 9 cities. Landmark Icons was to be available initially in the following locations: Locations with Landmark Icons| Locations | Country | City attractions | | --- | --- | --- | | Amsterdam |  The Netherlands | Anne Frank House, Het Scheepvaartmuseum, Magna Plaza, NEMO, Oude Kerk, Rembrandt House Museum, Rijksmuseum, Royal Palace of Amsterdam, Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam, Van Gogh Museum | | Bangkok |  Thailand | Asiatique, Jim Thompson House, Yaowarat Chinatown Heritage Center, Wat Arun, Wat Benchamabophit, Wat Pho, Wat Phra Kaew, Wat Saket | | Barcelona |  Spain | Camp Nou, Casa Milà, Plaça de Catalunya, Sagrada Família | | Berlin |  Germany | Berlin Cathedral, Brandenburg Gate, Fernsehturm Berlin, Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church, Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe, Pergamon Museum, Reichstag building, The Wall Museum, Victory Column | | Budapest |  Hungary | Buda Castle, Great Market Hall, Heroes' Square, Hungarian Parliament, Hungarian State Opera House, Matthias Church, St. Stephen's Basilica | | Dubai |  United Arab Emirates | Burj Khalifa, Dubai Frame, Dubai Museum, Jumeirah Mosque, The Dubai Fountain | | Florence |  Italy | Florence Cathedral, Palazzo Pitti, Santa Croce | | Istanbul |  Turkey | Sultan Abdul Samad Building, Blue Mosque, Chora Church, Dolmabahçe Palace, Galata Tower, Hagia Sophia, Maiden's Tower, Topkapı Palace | | Kuala Lumpur |  Malaysia | Batu Caves, Independence Square, Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia, Jamek Mosque, Kuala Lumpur Tower, National Mosque of Malaysia, Petronas Towers, Thean Hou Temple | | Kyoto |  Japan | Heian Shrine, Ginkaku-ji, Kinkaku-ji, Kiyomizu-dera, Kyoto Imperial Palace, Kyoto Tower, Nanzen-ji, Nijō Castle, Tenryū-ji, Tō-ji, Yasaka Shrine | | London |  United Kingdom | Big Ben, British Museum, Buckingham Palace, Kensington Palace, London Eye, St Paul's Cathedral, Tower of London, Westminster Abbey | | Los Angeles |  United States | Getty Center, Getty Villa, Grauman's Chinese Theatre, Griffith Observatory, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Santa Monica Pier, Walt Disney Concert Hall | | Madrid |  Spain | Almudena Cathedral, Madrid Royal Conservatory, Museo del Prado, Palacio de Cristal del Retiro, Plaza de España, Plaza Mayor, Puerta de Alcalá, Santiago Bernabéu Stadium | | Milan |  Italy | Basilica of San Lorenzo, Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio, Castello Sforzesco, Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, La Scala, Milan Cathedral, Pinacoteca di Brera, Royal Palace of Milan, Santa Maria delle Grazie | | Mumbai |  India | Basilica of Our Lady of the Mount, Gateway of India, Global Vipassana Pagoda, Haji Ali Dargah, Siddhivinayak Temple | | Munich |  Germany | Alte Pinakothek, BMW Welt, Frauenkirche, Hofbräuhaus am Platzl, Munich Residenz, New Town Hall, Nymphenburg Palace, Olympiapark, St. Peter's Church | | New York City |  United States | Empire State Building, Flatiron Building, One World Trade Center, Rockefeller Center, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, St. Patrick's Cathedral, Statue of Liberty | | Osaka |  Japan | Osaka Aquarium Kaiyukan, Osaka Castle, Osaka Science Museum, Osaka Tenmangū, Sumiyoshi Taisha, Tower of the Sun, Tsūtenkaku, Umeda Sky Building | | Paris |  France | Arc de Triomphe, Eiffel Tower, Les Invalides, Louvre, Notre-Dame de Paris, Palais Garnier, Panthéon, Place de la Concorde, Sacré-Cœur, Sainte-Chapelle | | Prague |  Czech Republic | Church of Our Lady before Týn, Dancing House, National Museum, Petřín Lookout Tower, Powder Tower, Prague Astronomical Clock, Prague Castle, Vyšehrad | | Rome |  Italy | Campitelli, Castel Sant'Angelo, Colosseum, Pantheon, Piazza Navona, Piazza Venezia, Roman Forum, Santa Maria Maggiore, Trevi Fountain | | San Francisco |  United States | Alcatraz Island, Coit Tower, Painted ladies, Palace of Fine Arts, San Francisco Ferry Building, Transamerica Pyramid | | Sydney |  Australia | Museum of Contemporary Art Australia, Sea Life Sydney Aquarium, St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney Observatory, Sydney Opera House, Sydney Town Hall | | Tokyo |  Japan | Meiji Shrine, Roppongi Hills Mori Tower, Sensō-ji, Tokyo Imperial Palace, Tokyo National Museum, Tokyo Skytree, Tokyo Tower | | Vatican City |   Vatican City | St. Peter's Basilica | | Vienna |  Austria | Albertina, Belvedere, Hofburg Place, Karlskirche, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna City Hall, Vienna State Opera, Wiener Riesenrad | ### 45° imagery In December 2009, Google introduced a new view consisting of 45° angle aerial imagery, offering a "bird's-eye view" of cities. The first cities available were San Jose and San Diego. This feature was initially available only to developers via the Google Maps API. In February 2010, it was introduced as an experimental feature in Google Maps Labs. In July 2010, 45° imagery was made available in Google Maps in select cities in South Africa, the United States, Germany and Italy. ### Business listings Google collates business listings from multiple on-line and off-line sources. To reduce duplication in the index, Google's algorithm combines listings automatically based on address, phone number, or geocode, but sometimes information for separate businesses will be inadvertently merged with each other, resulting in listings inaccurately incorporating elements from multiple businesses. Google allows business owners to create and verify their own business data through *Google Business Profile, formerly Google My Business*. Owners are encouraged to provide Google with Business information including; address, phone number, business category and photos. Google has staff in India who check and correct listings remotely as well as support businesses with issues. Google also has teams on the ground in most countries that validate physical addresses in person. After the business listing has been verified, business owners can further optimize their profile by logging into their Google account and GMB dashboard. In mid-August 2020 Google made it more convenient for business owners to edit their business profile directly from search, simply by typing the word My business or their company name. Google Business Profile, formerly Google My Business allows businesses to create a website for free. Google Maps can be manipulated by businesses which are not physically located in the area in which they record a listing. There are cases of people abusing Google Maps to overtake their competition by placing unverified listings on online directory sites knowing the information will roll across to Google (duplicate sites). The people who update these listings do not use a registered business name. Keywords and location details are placed on their Google Maps business title which can overtake credible business listings. In Australia in particular, genuine companies and businesses are noticing a trend of fake business listings in a variety of industries. Genuine business owners can also optimize their business listings to gain greater visibility in Google Maps, through a type of search engine marketing called local search engine optimization. ### Indoor maps In March 2011, indoor maps were added to Google Maps, giving users the ability to navigate themselves within buildings such as airports, museums, shopping malls, big-box stores, universities, transit stations, and other public spaces (including underground facilities). Google encourages owners of public facilities to submit floor plans of their buildings in order to add them to the service. Map users can view different floors of a building or subway station by clicking on a level selector that is displayed near any structures which are mapped on multiple levels. ### My Maps My Maps is a feature in Google Maps launched in April 2007 that enables users to create custom maps for personal use or sharing. Users can add points, lines, shapes, notes and images on top of Google Maps using a WYSIWYG editor. An Android app for My Maps, initially released in March 2013 under the name Google Maps Engine Lite, was available until its removal from the Play Store in October 2021. ### Google Local Guides Google Local Guides is a volunteer program launched by Google Maps to enable users to contribute to Google Maps when registered. It sometimes provides them additional perks and benefits for their collaboration. Users can achieve Level 1 to 10, and be awarded with badges. The program is partially a successor to Google Map Maker as features from the former program became integrated into the website and app. The program consists of adding reviews, photos, basic information, and videos; and correcting information such as wheelchair accessibility. Adding reviews, photos, videos, new places, new roads or providing useful information gives points to the users. The level of users is upgraded when they get a certain amount of points. Starting with Level 4, a star is shown near the avatar of the user. ### Timelapse Earth Timelapse, released in April 2021, is a program in which users can see how the earth has been changed in the last 37 years. They combined the 15 million satellite images (roughly ten quadrillion pixels) to create the 35 global cloud-free Images for this program. Implementation -------------- As the user drags the map, the grid squares are downloaded from the server and inserted into the page. When a user searches for a business, the results are downloaded in the background for insertion into the side panel and map; the page is not reloaded. A hidden iframe with form submission is used because it preserves browser history. Like many other Google web applications, Google Maps uses JavaScript extensively. The site also uses protocol buffers for data transfer rather than JSON, for performance reasons. The version of Google Street View for classic Google Maps required Adobe Flash. In October 2011, Google announced MapsGL, a WebGL version of Maps with better renderings and smoother transitions. Indoor maps use JPG, .PNG, .PDF, .BMP, or .GIF, for floor plans. Users who are logged into a Google Account can save locations so that they are overlaid on the map with various colored "pins" whenever they browse the application. These "Saved places" can be organized into default groups or user named groups and shared with other users. "Starred places" is one default group example. It previously automatically created a record within the now-discontinued product Google Bookmarks. ### Map data and imagery The Google Maps terms and conditions state that usage of material from Google Maps is regulated by Google Terms of Service and some additional restrictions. Google has either purchased local map data from established companies, or has entered into lease agreements to use copyrighted map data. The owner of the copyright is listed at the bottom of zoomed maps. For example, street maps in Japan are leased from Zenrin. Street maps in China are leased from AutoNavi. Russian street maps are leased from Geocentre Consulting and Tele Atlas. Data for North Korea is sourced from the companion project Google Map Maker. Street map overlays, in some areas, may not match up precisely with the corresponding satellite images. The street data may be entirely erroneous, or simply out of date: "The biggest challenge is the currency of data, the authenticity of data," said Google Earth representative Brian McClendon. As a result, in March 2008 Google added a feature to edit the locations of houses and businesses. Restrictions have been placed on Google Maps through the apparent censoring of locations deemed potential security threats. In some cases the area of redaction is for specific buildings, but in other cases, such as Washington, D.C., the restriction is to use outdated imagery. ### Google Maps API Google Maps API, now called Google Maps Platform, hosts about 17 different APIs, which are themed under the following categories: Maps, Places and Routes. After the success of reverse-engineered mashups such as chicagocrime.org and housingmaps.com, Google launched the Google Maps API in June 2005 to allow developers to integrate Google Maps into their websites. It was a free service that didn't require an API key until June 2018 (changes went into effect on July 16), when it was announced that an API key linked to a Google Cloud account with billing enabled would be required to access the API. The API currently[update] does not contain ads, but Google states in their terms of use that they reserve the right to display ads in the future. By using the Google Maps API, it is possible to embed Google Maps into an external website, onto which site-specific data can be overlaid. Although initially only a JavaScript API, the Maps API was expanded to include an API for Adobe Flash applications (but this has been deprecated), a service for retrieving static map images, and web services for performing geocoding, generating driving directions, and obtaining elevation profiles. Over 1,000,000 web sites use the Google Maps API, making it the most heavily used web application development API. In September 2011, Google announced it would deprecate the Google Maps API for Flash. The Google Maps API was free for commercial use, provided that the site on which it is being used is publicly accessible and did not charge for access, and was not generating more than 25,000 map accesses a day. Sites that did not meet these requirements could purchase the Google Maps API for Business. As of June 21, 2018, Google increased the prices of the Maps API and requires a billing profile. ### Google Maps in China Due to restrictions on geographic data in China, Google Maps must partner with a Chinese digital map provider in order to legally show Chinese map data. Since 2006, this partner has been AutoNavi. Within China, the State Council mandates that all maps of China use the GCJ-02 coordinate system, which is offset from the WGS-84 system used in most of the world. google.*cn*/maps (formerly Google Ditu) uses the GCJ-02 system for both its street maps and satellite imagery. google.*com*/maps also uses GCJ-02 data for the street map, but uses WGS-84 coordinates for satellite imagery, causing the so-called China GPS shift problem. Frontier alignments also present some differences between google.*cn*/maps and google.*com*/maps. On the latter, sections of the Chinese border with India and Pakistan are shown with dotted lines, indicating areas or frontiers in dispute. However, google.*cn* shows the Chinese frontier strictly according to Chinese claims with no dotted lines indicating the border with India and Pakistan. For example, the South Tibet region claimed by China but administered by India as a large part of Arunachal Pradesh is shown inside the Chinese frontier by google.*cn*, with Indian highways ending abruptly at the Chinese claim line. Google.*cn* also shows Taiwan and the South China Sea Islands as part of China. Google Ditu's street map coverage of Taiwan no longer omits major state organs, such as the Presidential Palace, the five Yuans, and the Supreme Court. Feature-wise, google.*cn*/maps does not feature My Maps. On the other hand, while google.*cn* displays virtually all text in Chinese, google.*com*/maps displays most text (user-selectable real text as well as those on map) in English. This behavior of displaying English text is not consistent but intermittent – sometimes it is in English, sometimes it is in Chinese. The criteria for choosing which language is displayed are not known publicly. Criticism and controversies --------------------------- ### Incorrect location naming There are cases where Google Maps had added out-of-date neighborhood monikers. Thus, in Los Angeles, the name "Brooklyn Heights" was revived from its 1870s usage and "Silver Lake Heights" from its 1920s usage, or mistakenly renamed areas (in Detroit, the neighborhood "Fiskhorn" became "Fishkorn"). Because many companies utilize Google Maps data, these previously obscure or incorrect names then gain traction; the names are often used by realtors, hotels, food delivery sites, dating sites, and news organizations. Google has said it created its maps from third-party data, public sources, satellites, and users, but many names used have not been connected to any official record. According a former Google Maps employee (who was not authorized to speak publicly), users can submit changes to Google Maps, but some submissions are ruled upon by people with little local knowledge of a place, such as contractors in India. Critics maintain that names likes "BoCoCa" (for the area in Brooklyn between Boerum Hill, Cobble Hill and Carroll Gardens), are "just plain puzzling" or simply made up. Some names used by Google have been traced to non-professionally made maps with typographical errors that survived on Google Maps. ### Potential misuse In 2005 the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) complained about the potential for terrorists to use the satellite images in planning attacks, with specific reference to the Lucas Heights nuclear reactor; however, the Australian Federal government did not support the organization's concern. At the time of the ANSTO complaint, Google had colored over some areas for security (mostly in the U.S.), such as the rooftop of the White House and several other Washington, D.C. buildings. In October 2010, Nicaraguan military commander Edén Pastora stationed Nicaraguan troops on the Isla Calero (in the delta of the San Juan River), justifying his action on the border delineation given by Google Maps. Google has since updated its data which it found to be incorrect. On January 27, 2014, documents leaked by Edward Snowden revealed that the NSA and the GCHQ intercepted Google Maps queries made on smartphones, and used them to locate the users making these queries. One leaked document, dating to 2008, stated that "[i]t effectively means that anyone using Google Maps on a smartphone is working in support of a GCHQ system." In May 2015, searches on Google Maps for offensive racial epithets for African Americans such as "nigger", "nigger king", and "nigger house" pointed the user to the White House; Google apologized for the incident. In February 2020, a Google Maps user used 99 cell phones to fake a Google Maps traffic jam. Discontinued features --------------------- ### Google Latitude Google Latitude was a feature that let users share their physical locations with other people. This service was based on Google Maps, specifically on mobile devices. There was an iGoogle widget for desktops and laptops as well. Some concerns were expressed about the privacy issues raised by the use of the service. On August 9, 2013, this service was discontinued, and on March 22, 2017, Google incorporated the features from Latitude into the Google Maps app. ### Google Map Maker In areas where Google Map Maker was available, for example, much of Asia, Africa, Latin America and Europe as well as the United States and Canada, anyone who logged into their Google account could directly improve the map by fixing incorrect driving directions, adding biking trails, or adding a missing building or road. General map errors in Australia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Liechtenstein, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, Switzerland, and the United States could be reported using the Report a Problem link in Google Maps and would be updated by Google. For areas where Google used Tele Atlas data, map errors could be reported using Tele Atlas map insight. If imagery was missing, outdated, misaligned, or generally incorrect, one could notify Google through their contact request form. In November 2016, Google announced the discontinuation of Google Map Maker as of March 2017. Mobile app ---------- Google Maps is available as a mobile app for the Android and iOS mobile operating systems. The Android app was first released in September 2008, though the GPS-localization feature had been in testing on cellphones since 2007. Up until iOS 6, the built-in maps application on the iOS operating system was powered by Google Maps. However, with the announcement of iOS 6 in June 2012, Apple announced that they had created their own Apple Maps mapping service, which officially replaced Google Maps when iOS 6 was released on September 19, 2012. However, at launch, Apple Maps received significant criticism from users due to inaccuracies, errors and bugs. One day later, *The Guardian* reported that Google was preparing its own Google Maps app, which was released on December 12, 2012. Within two days, the application had been downloaded over ten million times. ### Features The Google Maps apps for iOS and Android have many of the same features, including turn-by-turn navigation, street view, and public transit information. Turn-by-turn navigation was originally announced by Google as a separate beta testing app exclusive to Android 2.0 devices in October 2009. The original standalone iOS version did not support the iPad, but tablet support was added with version 2.0 in July 2013. An update in June 2012 for Android devices added support for offline access to downloaded maps of certain regions, a feature that was eventually released for iOS devices, and made more robust on Android, in May 2014. At the end of 2015 Google Maps announced its new offline functionality, but with various limitations – downloaded area cannot exceed 120,000 square kilometers and require a considerable amount of storage space. In January 2017, Google added a feature exclusively to Android that will, in some U.S. cities, indicate the level of difficulty in finding available parking spots, and on both Android and iOS, the app can, as of an April 2017 update, remember where users parked. In August 2017, Google Maps for Android was updated with new functionality to actively help the user in finding parking lots and garages close to a destination. In December 2017, Google added a new two-wheeler mode to its Android app, designed for users in India, allowing for more accessibility in traffic conditions. In 2019 the Android version introduced the new feature called live view that allows to view directions directly on the road thanks to augmented reality Google Maps won the 2020 Webby Award for Best User Interface in the category Apps, Mobile & Voice. In March 2021, Google added a feature in which users can draw missing roads. In June 2022, Google implemented support for toll calculation. Both iOS and Android apps report how much the user has to pay in tolls when a route that includes toll roads is input. The feature is available for roads in the USA, India, Japan and Indonesia with further expansion planned. As per reports the total number of toll roads covered in this phase is around 2000. ### Reception *USA Today* welcomed the application back to iOS, saying: "The reemergence in the middle of the night of a Google Maps app for the iPhone is like the return of an old friend. Only your friend, who'd gone missing for three months, comes back looking better than ever." Jason Parker of *CNET*, calling it "the king of maps", said, "With its iOS Maps app, Google sets the standard for what mobile navigation should be and more." Bree Fowler of the Associated Press compared Google's and Apple's map applications, saying: "The one clear advantage that Apple has is style. Like Apple devices, the maps are clean and clear and have a fun, pretty element to them, especially in 3-D. But when it comes down to depth and information, Google still reigns superior and will no doubt be welcomed back by its fans." *Gizmodo* gave it a ranking of 4.5 stars, stating: "Maps Done Right". According to *The New York Times*, Google "admits that it's [iOS app is] even better than Google Maps for Android phones, which has accommodated its evolving feature set mainly by piling on menus". Google Maps' location tracking is regarded by some as a threat to users' privacy, with Dylan Tweney of *VentureBeat* writing in August 2014 that "Google is probably logging your location, step by step, via Google Maps", and linked users to Google's location history map, which "lets you see the path you've traced for any given day that your smartphone has been running Google Maps". Tweney then provided instructions on how to disable location history. The history tracking was also noticed, and recommended disabled, by editors at *CNET* and *TechCrunch*. Additionally, *Quartz* reported in April 2014 that a "sneaky new privacy change" would have an effect on the majority of iOS users. The privacy change, an update to the Gmail iOS app that "now supports sign-in across Google iOS apps, including Maps, Drive, YouTube and Chrome", meant that Google would be able to identify users' actions across its different apps. The Android version of the app surpassed five billion installations in March 2019. By November 2021, the Android app had surpassed 10 billion installations. ### Go version Google Maps Go, a version of the app designed for lower-end devices, was released in beta in January 2018. By September 2018, the app had over 10 million installations. Artistic and literary uses -------------------------- The German "geo-novel" Senghor on the Rocks (2008) told the story as a series of spreads showing a Google map location on the left and text telling the story on the right. Annika Richterich explains that the "satellite pictures in *Senghor on the Rocks* illustrate the main character’s travel through the West-African state of Senegal". Artists have used Google StreetView in a range of ways. Emilio Vavarella's *The Google Trilogy* includes glitchy images and unintended portraits of the drivers of the Street View cars. The Japanese band group inou used Google StreetView backgrounds to make a music video for their song EYE. The US band Arcade Fire made a customized music video that used StreetView to show the viewer their own childhood home. See also -------- * Bing Maps * Comparison of web map services * GeoGuessr * *Google Maps Road Trip*, live-streaming documentary * OpenStreetMap * Terravision (computer program) * Wikiloc, a mashup that shows trails and waypoints on Google Maps * Wikimapia, a mashup combining Google Maps and a wiki aimed at "describing the whole planet earth" * Yandex Maps, popular in Russia and CIS

Google Maps

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Maps

| Delaware River | | --- | | Legend | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | East Branch Delaware River | | | | | --- | | NY | | PA | | | | | West Branch Delaware River | | | | | | Equinunk Creek | | | | | | Lordville–Equinunk Bridge | | | | | | Kellams Bridge | | | | | | Callicoon Bridge | | | | | | Cochecton–Damascus Bridge (PA 371) | | | | | | Skinners Falls–Milanville Bridge | | | | | | Narrowsburg–Darbytown Bridge (PA 652 / NY 52) | | | | | | Tusten Station Railroad Bridge (NS Rail) | | | | | | Lackawaxen River | | | | | | Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct | | | | | | Barryville–Shohola Bridge (PA 434 / NY 55) | | | | | | Shohola Creek | | | | | | Pond Eddy Bridge | | | | | | Mongaup River | | | | | | Millrift Railroad Bridge (NS Rail) | | | | | | Mid-Delaware Bridge (US 6 / US 209) | | | | | | Interstate 84 Bridge (I-84) | | PA | | | | | | | --- | | NY | | NJ | | | | | | | Neversink River | | | | | | Milford–Montague Toll Bridge (US 206) | | | | | | Dingman's Ferry Bridge | | | | | | Big Bushkill Creek (Bush Kill) | | | | | | Flat Brook | | | | | | Depew Island | | | | | | Poxono Island | | | | | | Tocks Island | | | | | | Depue Island | | | | | | Shawnee Island | | | | | | Brodhead Creek | | | | | | Schellenbergers Island | | | | | | Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge (I-80 / AT) | | | | | | Delaware Water Gap | | | | | | Delaware River Viaduct | | | | | | Portland–Columbia Pedestrian Bridge | | | | | | Portland–Columbia Toll Bridge (NJ 94) | | | | | | Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad | | | | | | Dildine Island | | | | | | Belvidere - Riverton Bridge | | | | | | Pequest River | | | | | | Foul Rift | | | | | | Roxburg Branch | | | | | | Keifer Island | | | | | | Martins Creek Branch | | | | | | Martins Creek | | | | | | Getters Island | | | | | | Bushkill Creek | | | | | | Easton–Phillipsburg Toll Bridge (US 22) | | | | | | Northampton Street Bridge | | | | | | Lehigh River | | | | | | Delaware Canal | | | | | | Lehigh and Hudson River Railway | | | | | | Central Railroad of New Jersey Bridge | | | | | | Lehigh Valley Railroad | | | | | | Interstate 78 Toll Bridge (I-78) | | | | | | Whippoorwill Island | | | | | | Raubs Island | | | | | | Riegelsville Bridge | | | | | | Musconetcong River | | | | | | Upper Black Eddy–Milford Bridge | | | | | | Uhlerstown–Frenchtown Bridge (NJ 12) | | | | | | Marshall Island | | | | | | Treasure Island | | | | | | Prahls Island | | | | | | Tohickon Creek | | | | | | Delaware & Raritan Canal | | | | | | Lumberville Wing Dam | | | | | | Bull's Island | | | | | | Paunnacussing Creek | | | | | | Lumberville–Raven Rock Bridge | | | | | | Lockatong Creek | | | | | | Hendrick Island | | | | | | Wickecheoke Creek | | | | | | Centre Bridge–Stockton Bridge (PA 263) | | | | | | New Hope–Lambertville Toll Bridge (US 202) | | | | | | New Hope–Lambertville Bridge (PA 179 / NJ 179) | | | | | | Lambertville Wing Dam | | | | | | Washington's Crossing | | | | | | Washington Crossing Bridge | | | | | | Scudder Falls Bridge (I-295) | | | | | | West Trenton Railroad Bridge WTR | | | | | | Rotary Island | | | | | | Calhoun Street Bridge | | | | | | *To the Raritan River in New Brunswick* | | | | | | *To Bristol* | | | | | | Assunpink Creek | | | | | | Lower Trenton Bridge (US 1 Bus.) | | | | | | Trenton–Morrisville Toll Bridge (US 1) | | | | | | Morrisville–Trenton Railroad Bridge TRE Northeast Corridor | | | | | | Falls of the Delaware | | | --- | | Limit of tidal river | | and navigability | | | | | | | Biles Creek | | | | | | Crosswicks Creek | | | | | | Newbold Island | | | | | | Scotts Creek | | | | | | Tullytown Cove | | | | | | Delaware River–Turnpike Toll Bridge (I-95) | | | | | | Burlington Island | | | | | | Mill Creek | | | | | | Assiscunk Creek | | | | | | | | | | | | Burlington–Bristol Bridge (PA 413 / NJ 413) | | | | | | Neshaminy Creek | | | | | | Mud Island Shoal | | | | | | Poquessing Creek | | | | | | Rancocas River | | | | | | Pennypack Creek | | | | | | Pompeston Creek | | | | | | Tacony–Palmyra Bridge (PA 73 / NJ 73) | | | | | | Palmyra Cove | | | | | | Pennsauken Creek | | | | | | Betsy Ross Bridge (NJ 90) | | | | | | Frankford Creek | | | | | | Delair Bridge ACL | | | | | | Petty Island | | | | | | 36th Street Bridge | | | | | | Cooper River | | | | | | | | | | | | Benjamin Franklin Bridge (I-676 / US 30 / PATCO) | | | | | | RiverLink Ferry *Summer only* | | | | | | Walt Whitman Bridge (I-76) | | | | | | Newton Creek | | | | | | Little Timber Creek | | | | | | Big Timber Creek | | | | | | Schuylkill River | | | | | | Woodbury Creek | | | | | | Little Mantua Creek | | | | | | Mantua Creek | | | | | | Little Tinicum Island | | | | | | Darby Creek | | | | | | Crum Creek | | | | | | Ridley Creek | | | | | | Chester Island | | | | | | Chester Creek | | | | | | Old Canal | | | | | | Commodore Barry Bridge (US 322 / CR 536) | | | | | | Raccoon Creek | | | | | --- | | PA | | DE | | | | | NJ | | | | | | Naamans Creek | | | | | | Oldmans Creek | | | | | | Shellpot Creek | | | | | | Christiana River | | | | | | Salem Canal | | | | | | Delaware Memorial Bridge (I-295 / US 40) | | | | | | Pea Patch Island | | | | | | Forts Ferry Crossing *Summer only* | | | | | | Branch Canal | | | | | | Salem River | | | | | | | | | --- | | Chesapeake & Delaware Canal | | to the Chesapeake Bay | | | | | | | Reedy Island | | | | | | Alloway Creek | | | | | | Delaware Bay | | | | | | Cape May–Lewes Ferry (US 9) | | | | | | Atlantic Ocean | | | | | | | | | | The **Delaware River** is a major river in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. From the meeting of its branches in Hancock, New York, the river flows for 282 miles (454 km) along the borders of New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware, before emptying into Delaware Bay. It is the longest free-flowing river in the Eastern United States. The river has been recognized by the National Wildlife Federation as one of the country's Great Waters and has been called the "Lifeblood of the Northeast." Its watershed drains an area of 13,539 square miles (35,070 km2) and provides drinking water for 17 million people, including half of New York City via the Delaware Aqueduct. The Delaware River has two branches that rise in the Catskill Mountains of New York: the West Branch at Mount Jefferson in Jefferson, Schoharie County, and the East Branch at Grand Gorge, Delaware County. The branches merge to form the main Delaware River at Hancock, New York. Flowing south, the river remains relatively undeveloped, with 152 miles (245 km) protected as the Upper, Middle, and Lower Delaware National Scenic Rivers. At Trenton, New Jersey, the Delaware becomes tidal, navigable, and significantly more industrial. This section forms the backbone of the Delaware Valley metropolitan area, serving the port cities of Philadelphia, Camden, New Jersey, and Wilmington, Delaware. The river flows into Delaware Bay at Liston Point, 48 miles (77 km) upstream of the bay's outlet to the Atlantic Ocean between Cape May and Cape Henlopen. Before the arrival of European settlers, the river was the homeland of the Lenape Native Americans. They called the river Lenapewihittuk, or Lenape River, and Kithanne, meaning the largest river in this part of the country. In 1609, the river was visited by a Dutch East India Company expedition led by Henry Hudson. Hudson, an English navigator, was hired to find a western route to Cathay (China), but his discoveries set the stage for Dutch colonization of North America in the 17th century. Early Dutch and Swedish settlements were established along the lower section of the river and Delaware Bay. Both colonial powers called the river the *South River* (Zuidrivier), compared to the Hudson River, which was known as the *North River*. After the English expelled the Dutch and took control of the New Netherland colony in 1664, the river was renamed *Delaware* after Sir Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, an English nobleman and the Virginia colony's first royal governor who defended the colony during the First Anglo-Powhatan War. Origin of the name ------------------ The Delaware River is named in honor of Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr (1577–1618), an English nobleman and the Virginia colony's first royal governor, who defended the colony during the First Anglo-Powhatan War. Lord de la Warr waged a punitive campaign to subdue the Powhatan after they had killed the colony's council president, John Ratcliffe, and attacked the colony's fledgling settlements. Lord de la Warr arrived with 150 soldiers in time to prevent the colony's original settlers at Jamestown from giving up and returning to England and is credited with saving the Virginia colony. The name of the barony (later an earldom) is pronounced as in the current spelling form "Delaware" (/ˈdɛləwɛər/ () *DEL-ə-wair*) and is thought to derive from French *de la Guerre*. It has often been reported that the river and bay received the name "Delaware" after English forces under Richard Nicolls expelled the Dutch and took control of the New Netherland colony in 1664. However, the river and bay were known by the name *Delaware* as early as 1641. The state of Delaware was originally part of the William Penn's Pennsylvania colony. In 1682, the Duke of York granted Penn's request for access to the sea and leased him the territory along the western shore of Delaware Bay, which became known as the "Lower Counties on the Delaware". In 1704, the Lower Counties were given political autonomy to form a separate provincial assembly, but they shared Pennsylvania's provincial governor until the two colonies separated on June 15, 1776, and they remained separate as states after the establishment of the United States. The name "Delaware" also came to be used as a collective name for the Lenape, a Native American people who inhabited an area of the basins of the Susquehanna River, Delaware River, and lower Hudson River in the northeastern United States at the time of European settlement, as well as for their language. As a result of disruption following the French and Indian War, American Revolutionary War, and the later Indian removals from the eastern United States, the name "Delaware" has been spread with the Lenape's diaspora to municipalities, counties and other geographical features in the American Midwest and Canada. Watershed --------- The Delaware River's drainage basin has an area of 13,539 square miles (35,070 km2) and encompasses 42 counties and 838 municipalities in five U.S. states: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware. This total area constitutes approximately 0.4% of the land mass in the United States. In 2001, the watershed was 18% agricultural land, 14% developed land, and 68% forested land. There are 216 tributary streams and creeks comprising an estimated 14,057 miles of streams and creeks, in the watershed. While the watershed is home to 4.17 million people according to the 2000 Federal Census, these bodies of water provide drinking water to 17 million people—roughly 6% of the population of the United States. The waters of the Delaware River's basin are used to sustain "fishing, transportation, power, cooling, recreation, and other industrial and residential purposes." It is the 33rd largest river in the United States in terms of flow, but is among the nation's most heavily used rivers in daily freight tonnage. The average annual flow rate of the Delaware is 11,700 cubic feet per second at Trenton, New Jersey. With no dams or impediments on the river's main stem, the Delaware is one of the few remaining large free-flowing rivers in the United States. Course ------ ### West Branch of the Delaware The West Branch of the Delaware River, also called the Mohawk Branch, spans approximately 90 miles (140 km) from the northern Catskill Mountains to its confluence with the Delaware River's East Branch at Hancock, New York. The last 6 miles (9.7 km) forms part of the boundary between New York and Pennsylvania. The West Branch rises in Schoharie County, New York at 1,886 feet (575 m) above sea level, near Mount Jefferson, and flows tortuously through the plateau in a deep trough. The branch flows generally southwest, entering Delaware County and flowing through the towns of Stamford and Delhi. In southwestern Delaware County it flows in an increasingly winding course through the mountains, generally southwest. At Stilesville the West Branch was impounded in the 1960s to form the Cannonsville Reservoir, the westernmost of the reservoirs in the New York City water system. It is the most recently constructed New York City reservoir and began serving the city in 1964. Draining a large watershed of 455 square miles (1,180 km2), the reservoir's capacity is 95.7 billion US gallons (362,000,000 m3). This water flows over halfway through the reservoir to enter the 44-mile (71 km) West Delaware Tunnel in Tompkins, New York. Then it flows through the aqueduct into the Rondout Reservoir, where the water enters the 85 miles (137 km) Delaware Aqueduct, that contributes to roughly 50% of the city's drinking water supply. At Deposit, on the border between Broome and Delaware counties, it turns sharply to the southeast and is paralleled by New York State Route 17. It joins the East Branch at 880 feet (270 m) above sea level at Hancock to form the Delaware. ### East Branch of the Delaware Similarly, the East Branch begins from a small pond south of Grand Gorge in the town of Roxbury in Delaware County, flowing southwest toward its impoundment by New York City to create the Pepacton Reservoir, the largest reservoir in the New York City water supply system. Its tributaries are the Beaver Kill River and the Willowemoc Creek which enter into the river ten miles (16 km) before the West Branch meets the East Branch. The confluence of the two branches is just south of Hancock. The East Branch and West Branch of the Delaware River parallel each other, both flowing in a southwesterly direction. ### Upper Delaware Valley From Hancock, New York, the Delaware flows between the northern Poconos in Pennsylvania, and the lowered shale beds north of the Catskills. The river flows down a broad Appalachian valley, passing Hawk's Nest overlook on the Upper Delaware Scenic Byway. The river flows southeast for 78 miles through rural regions along the New York-Pennsylvania border to Port Jervis and Shawangunk Ridge. ### The Minisink At Port Jervis, New York, it enters the Port Jervis trough. At this point, the Walpack Ridge deflects the Delaware into the Minisink Valley, where it follows the southwest strike of the eroded Marcellus Formation beds along the Pennsylvania–New Jersey state line for 25 miles (40 km) to the end of the ridge at Walpack Bend in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area. The Minisink is a buried valley where the Delaware flows in a bed of glacial till that buried the eroded bedrock during the last glacial period. It then skirts the Kittatinny ridge, which it crosses at the Delaware Water Gap, between nearly vertical walls of sandstone, quartzite, and conglomerate, and then passes through a quiet and charming country of farm and forest, diversified with plateaus and escarpments, until it crosses the Appalachian plain and enters the hills again at Easton, Pennsylvania. From this point it is flanked at intervals by fine hills, and in places by cliffs, of which the finest are the Nockamixon Cliffs, 3 miles (5 km) long and above 200 feet (61 m) high. The Appalachian Trail, which traverses the ridge of Kittatinny Mountain in New Jersey, and Blue Mountain in Pennsylvania, crosses the Delaware River at the Delaware Water Gap near Columbia, New Jersey. ### Central Delaware Valley In Easton, Pennsylvania, the Lehigh River joins the Delaware. At Trenton, the Delaware crosses the Atlantic Seaboard Fall Line with a drop of 8 feet (2.4 m). ### Lower Delaware and Tidewater Below Trenton, the Delaware flows between Philadelphia and New Jersey before becoming a broad, sluggish inlet of the sea, with many marshes along its side, widening steadily into its great estuary, Delaware Bay. The Delaware River constitutes the boundary between Delaware and New Jersey. The Delaware-New Jersey border is actually at the easternmost river shoreline within the Twelve-Mile Circle of New Castle, rather than at mid-river, mid-channel or thalweg, so small portions of land lying west of the shoreline, but on the New Jersey side of the river, are pene-exclaves under the jurisdiction of Delaware. The rest of the borders follow a mid-channel approach. History ------- At the time of the arrival of the Europeans in the early 17th century, the area near the Delaware River was inhabited by the Native American Lenape people. They called the Delaware River "Lenape Wihittuck", which means "the rapid stream of the Lenape". The Delaware River played a key factor in the economic and social development of the Mid-Atlantic region. In the seventeenth century it provided the conduit for colonial settlement by the Dutch (New Netherland) and the Swedish (New Sweden). Beginning in 1664, the region became an English possession as settlement by Quakers established the colonies of Pennsylvania (including present-day Delaware) and West Jersey. In the eighteenth century, cities like Philadelphia, Camden (then Cooper's Ferry), Trenton, Wilmington and New Castle were established upon the Delaware and their continued commercial success into the present day has been dependent on access to the river for trade and power. The river provided the path for the settlement of northeastern Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley, and northwestern New Jersey by German Palatine immigrants—a population that became key in the agricultural development of the region. ### American Revolutionary War The strategic Delaware River was the scene of several important campaigns during the American Revolutionary War. Perhaps the most famous event was George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River with the Continental Army on the night of December 25–26, 1776, leading to a successful surprise attack and victory against the Hessian troops occupying Trenton, New Jersey, on the morning of December 26. During the Philadelphia Campaign control of the Delaware River was urgently needed by the British, allowing their naval fleet to supply troops occupying Philadelphia. To this end, the Battle of Red Bank and the Siege of Fort Mifflin were fought on and along the shores of the Delaware by the American and British navies, commanded by Commodore John Hazelwood and Admiral Francis Reynolds respectively. See historical map of that campaign. ### Canals The magnitude of the commerce of Philadelphia has made the improvements of the river below that port of great importance. Small improvements were attempted by Pennsylvania as early as 1771. Commerce was once important on the upper river, primarily prior to railway competition of 1857. * The Delaware Division of the Pennsylvania Canal, running parallel with the river from Easton to Bristol, opened in 1830. * The Delaware and Raritan Canal, which runs along the New Jersey side of the Delaware River from Bulls Island, New Jersey to Trenton, unites the waters of the Delaware and Raritan rivers as it empties the waters of the Delaware River via the canal outlet in New Brunswick. This canal water conduit is still used as a water supply source by the State of New Jersey. * The Morris Canal (now abandoned and almost completely filled in) and the Delaware and Hudson Canal connected the Delaware and Hudson rivers. * The Chesapeake and Delaware Canal joins the waters of the Delaware with those of the Chesapeake Bay. ### Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area The Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area came about as a result of the failure of a controversial plan to build a dam on the Delaware River at Tocks Island, just north of the Delaware Water Gap to control water levels for flood control and hydroelectric power generation. The dam would have created a 37-mile (60 km) lake in the center of present park for use as a reservoir. Starting in 1960, the present-day area of the Recreation Area was acquired for the Army Corps of Engineers through eminent domain. Between 3,000 and 5,000 dwellings were demolished, including historical sites, and about 15,000 people were displaced by the project. Because of massive environmental opposition, dwindling funds, and an unacceptable geological assessment of the dam's safety, the government transferred the property to the National Park Service in 1978. The National Park Service found itself as the caretaker of the previously endangered territory, and with the help of the federal government and surrounding communities, developed recreational facilities and worked to preserve the remaining historical structures. The nearby Shawnee Inn, was identified in the 1990s as the only resort along the banks of the Delaware River. America Rivers, an environmental advocacy group, named the Delaware River as the river of the year for 2020. Commerce -------- ### Wine regions In 1984, the U.S. Department of the Treasury authorized the creation of a wine region or "American Viticultural Area" called the Central Delaware Valley AVA located in southeastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey. The wine appellation includes 96,000 acres (38,850 ha) surrounding the Delaware River north of Philadelphia and Trenton, New Jersey. In Pennsylvania, it consists of the territory along the Delaware River in Bucks County; in New Jersey, the AVA spans along the river in Hunterdon County and Mercer County from Titusville, New Jersey, just north of Trenton, northward to Musconetcong Mountain. As of 2013, there are no New Jersey wineries in the Central Delaware Valley AVA. ### Shipping In the Project of 1885, the U.S. government undertook systematically the formation of a 26-foot (7.9 m) channel 600 feet (180 m) wide from Philadelphia to deep water in Delaware Bay. The River and Harbor Act of 1899 provided for a 30-foot (9.1 m) channel 600 feet (180 m) wide from Philadelphia to the deep water of the bay. Since 1941, the Delaware River Main Channel was maintained at a depth of 40 ft (12 m). There is an effort underway to deepen the 102.5-mile stretch of this federal navigation channel, from Philadelphia and Camden to the mouth of the Delaware Bay to 45 feet. The Delaware River port complex refers to the ports and energy facilities along the river in the tri-state PA-NJ-DE Delaware Valley region. They include the Port of Salem, the Port of Wilmington, the Port of Chester, the Port of Paulsboro, the Port of Philadelphia and the Port of Camden. Combined they create one of the largest shipping areas of the United States. In 2015, the ports of Philadelphia, Camden, and Wilmington handled 100 million tons of cargo from 2,243 ship arrivals, and supported 135,000 direct or indirect jobs. The biggest category of imports was fruit, carried by 490 ships, followed by petroleum, and containers, with 410 and 381 ships, respectively. The biggest category of exports was of shipping was containers, with 470 ships. In 2016, 2,427 ships arrived at Delaware River port facilities. Fruit ships were counted at 577, petroleum at 474, and containerized cargo at 431. At one time it was a center for petroleum and chemical products and included facilities such as the Delaware City Refinery, the Dupont Chambers Works, Oceanport Terminal at Claymont, the Marcus Hook Refinery, the Trainer Refinery, the Paulsboro Asphalt Refinery, Paulsboro Refinery, Eagle Point Refinery, and Sunoco Fort Mifflin. As of 2011, crude oil was the largest single commodity transported on the Delaware River, accounting for half of all annual cargo tonnage. ### Crossings The Delaware River is a major barrier to travel between New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Most of the larger bridges are tolled only westbound, and are owned by the Delaware River and Bay Authority, Delaware River Port Authority, Burlington County Bridge Commission or Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission. Environmental issues -------------------- ### New York City water supply After New York City built 15 reservoirs to supply water to the city's growing population, it was unable to obtain permission to build an additional five reservoirs along the Delaware River's tributaries. As a result, in 1928 the city decided to draw water from the Delaware River, putting them in direct conflict with villages and towns across the river in Pennsylvania which were already using the Delaware for their water supply. The two sides eventually took their case to the U.S. Supreme Court, and in 1931, New York City was allowed to draw 440 million US gallons (1,700,000 m3) of water a day from the Delaware and its upstream tributaries. ### Pollution The Delaware River has been attached to areas of high pollution. The Delaware River in 2012 was named the 5th most polluted river in the United States, explained by PennEnvironment and Environment New Jersey. The activist groups claim that there is about 7–10 million pounds of toxic chemicals flowing through the waterways due to dumping by DuPont Chambers Works. PennEnvironment also claims that the pollutants in the river can cause birth defects, infertility among women, and have been linked to cancer. In 2015, the EPA saw the Delaware River as a concern for mass pollution especially in the Greater Philadelphia and Chester, Pennsylvania area. The EPA was involved after accusations that the river met standards made illegal by the Clean Water Act. In complying with the Clean Water Act, the EPA involved the Delaware County Regional Water Authority (DELCORA) where they set up a plan to spend around $200 million to help rid the waterway of about 740 million gallons of sewage and pollution. DELCORA was also fined about $1.4 million for allowing the Delaware River to have so much pollution residing in the river in the first place and for not complying with the Clean Water Act. Part of the Clean Water Act explains how conditions of the river should be stable enough for human fishing and swimming. Even though the river has had success with the cleanup of pollution, the Delaware River still does not meet that standard of swimmable or fishable conditions in the Philadelphia/Chester region. In March 2023, a pipe rupture at a Trinseo chemical plant in Bristol, Pennsylvania, released over 8,000 gallons of latex finishing material into the Otter Creek tributary, leading to a water advisory in Philadelphia. ### Flooding With the failure of the dam project to come to fruition, the lack of flood control on the river left it vulnerable, and it has experienced a number of serious flooding events as the result of snow melt or rain run-off from heavy rainstorms. Record flooding occurred in August 1955, in the aftermath of the passing of the remnants of two separate hurricanes over the area within less than a week: first Hurricane Connie and then Hurricane Diane, which was, and still is, the wettest tropical cyclone to have hit the northeastern United States. The river gauge at Riegelsville, Pennsylvania recorded an all-time record crest of 38.85 feet (11.84 m) on August 19, 1955. More recently, moderate to severe flooding has occurred along the river. The same gauge at Riegelsville recorded a peak of 30.95 feet (9.43 m) on September 23, 2004, 34.07 feet (10.38 m) on April 4, 2005, and 33.62 feet (10.25 m) on June 28, 2006, all considerably higher than the flood stage of 22 feet (6.7 m). Since the upper Delaware basin has few population centers along its banks, flooding in this area mainly affects natural unpopulated flood plains. Residents in the middle part of the Delaware basin experience flooding, including three major floods in the three years (2004–2006) that have severely damaged their homes and land. The lower part of the Delaware basin from Philadelphia southward to the Delaware Bay is tidal and much wider than portions further north, and is not prone to river-related flooding (although tidal surges can cause minor flooding in this area). The Delaware River Basin Commission, along with local governments, is working to try to address the issue of flooding along the river. As the past few years have seen a rise in catastrophic floods, most residents of the river basin feel that something must be done. The local governments have worked in association with FEMA to address many of these problems, however, due to insufficient federal funds, progress is slow. ### Oil spills A number of oil spills have taken place in the Delaware over the years. * Jan 31, 1975 – around 11,172,000 US gallons (42,290 m3) of crude oil spilled from the *Corinthos* tanker * Sep 28, 1985 – 435,000 US gallons (1,650 m3) of crude oil spilled from the *Grand Eagle* tanker after running aground on Marcus Hook Bar * Jun 24, 1989 – 306,000 US gallons (1,160 m3) of crude oil spilled from the *Presidente Rivera* tanker after running aground on Claymont Shoal * Nov 26, 2004 – 265,000 US gallons (1,000 m3) of crude oil spilled from the *Athos 1* tanker; the tanker's hull had been punctured by a submerged, discarded anchor at the Port of Paulsboro. In 2020, the Supreme Court ruled that Citgo had failed to provide a safe berth for the vessel and was therefore jointly responsible for clean up costs. The company was ordered to pay $143 million. ### Atlantic sturgeon The National Marine Fisheries Service is considering designating sixteen rivers as endangered habitat for the Atlantic sturgeon which would require more attention to be given to uses of the rivers that affect the fish. ### National Wild and Scenic River The river is part of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System. See also -------- * Foul Rift, rapids just south of Belvidere, New Jersey * List of municipalities on the Delaware River * List of crossings of the Delaware River * List of rivers of Delaware * List of rivers of New Jersey * List of rivers of New York * List of rivers of Pennsylvania * Partnership for the Delaware Estuary * Upper Delaware Scenic and Recreational River * Geography of Pennsylvania ### Historical content * Marine Railway and Sectional Floating Dry Dock, Delaware River, Philadelphia, 1893 by D.J. Kennedy, Historical Society of Pennsylvania Archived November 19, 2012, at the Wayback Machine * Winter on the River Delaware, 1856. Shows "U.S.S. Powhatan" by D.J. Kennedy, HSP Archived May 7, 2012, at the Wayback Machine * "Map of the South River in New Netherland" from ca. 1639 via the World Digital Library * Socioeconomic Value of the Delaware River Basin in Delaware, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania ### Encyclopedias * "Delaware, a river of the United States". *Collier's New Encyclopedia*. 1921. * "Delaware River". *The New Student's Reference Work*. 1914. * "Delaware. A river of the Eastern United States". *New International Encyclopedia*. 1905.

Delaware River

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaware_River

An **exclusive economic zone** (**EEZ**), as prescribed by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, is an area of the sea in which a sovereign state has special rights regarding the exploration and use of marine resources, including energy production from water and wind. It stretches from the outer limit of the territorial sea (12 nautical miles from the baseline) out to 200 nautical miles (nmi) from the coast of the state in question. It is also referred to as a **maritime continental margin** and, in colloquial usage, may include the continental shelf. The term does not include either the territorial sea or the continental shelf beyond the 200 nautical mile limit. The difference between the territorial sea and the exclusive economic zone is that the first confers full sovereignty over the waters, whereas the second is merely a "sovereign right" which refers to the coastal state's rights below the surface of the sea. The surface waters are international waters. Definition ---------- Generally, a state's exclusive economic zone is an area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea, extending seaward to a distance of no more than 200 nmi (370 km) out from its coastal baseline. The exception to this rule occurs when exclusive economic zones would overlap; that is, state coastal baselines are less than 400 nmi (740 km) apart. When an overlap occurs, it is up to the states to delineate the actual maritime boundary. Generally, any point within an overlapping area defaults to the nearest state. A state's exclusive economic zone starts at the seaward edge of its territorial sea and extends outward to a distance of 200 nmi (370 km) from the baseline. The exclusive economic zone stretches much further into sea than the territorial waters, which end at 12 nmi (22 km) from the coastal baseline (if following the rules set out in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea). Thus, the exclusive economic zones includes the contiguous zone. States also have rights to the seabed of what is called the continental shelf up to 350 nmi (650 km) from the coastal baseline, beyond the exclusive economic zones, but such areas are not part of their exclusive economic zones. The legal definition of the continental shelf does not directly correspond to the geological meaning of the term, as it also includes the continental rise and slope, and the entire seabed within the exclusive economic zone. Origin and history ------------------ The idea of allotting nations' EEZs to give them more control of maritime affairs outside territorial limits gained acceptance in the late 20th century. Initially, a country's sovereign territorial waters extended 3 nmi or 5.6 km (range of cannon shot) beyond the shore. In modern times, a country's sovereign territorial waters extend to 12 nmi (22 km) beyond the shore. One of the first assertions of exclusive jurisdiction beyond the traditional territorial seas was made by the United States in the Truman Proclamation of 28 September 1945. However, it was Chile and Peru respectively that first claimed maritime zones of 200 nautical miles with the Presidential Declaration Concerning Continental Shelf of 23 June 1947 (El Mercurio, Santiago de Chile, 29 June 1947) and Presidential Decree No. 781 of 1 August 1947 (El Peruano: Diario Oficial. Vol. 107, No. 1983, 11 August 1947). It was not until 1982 with the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea that the 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone was formally adopted. Disputes -------- The exact extent of exclusive economic zones is a common source of conflicts between states over marine waters. * The South China Sea is the setting for several ongoing disputes between regional powers including China, Taiwan, Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia. * Croatia's ZERP (Ecological and Fisheries Protection Zone) in the Adriatic Sea caused friction with Italy and Slovenia, and caused problems during the accession of Croatia to the European Union. * A wedge-shaped section of the Beaufort Sea is disputed between Canada and the United States, as the area reportedly contains substantial oil reserves. * Mauritius claims an EEZ for Tromelin Island from France and an EEZ in respect of the British Indian Ocean Territory from the UK. An Exclusive Economic Zone covering 2.3 million square kilometres is claimed by Mauritius. * Turkey claims a portion of Cyprus's claimed EEZ based on Turkey's definition that no islands, including Cyprus, can have a full EEZ and should only be entitled to 12 nautical miles. Furthermore, the internationally unrecognized Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) also claims portions of Cyprus's claimed EEZ. Cyprus, intergovernmental organizations, and other territories, such as the European Union, United States, Russia, Israel, Switzerland, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia do not acknowledge the Turkish claims on Cyprus's land and claimed sea, and urge Turkey to restrain itself from "illegal" drilling for gas in the island's claimed EEZ. The EU has threatened Turkey with economic and political sanctions for violating Cyprus's claimed EEZ. * Greece claims a continental shelf and EEZ for all of its islands in the Aegean Sea (including Kastellorizo that has 11.98 km2 surface area) but Turkey refuses to recognize this, arguing that this claim is in violation of the principle of fairness of international law. * Greece claims that the maritime deal between the internationally recognized GNA government of Libya and Turkey is illegal and it signed a counter agreement with Egypt. * Lebanon claims that the agreement between Cyprus and Israel overlapped its own EEZ. * Japan claims an EEZ around Okinotorishima, but this is disputed by China, Taiwan, and South Korea, who claim it is an islet which is incapable of generating an EEZ. ### Potential disputes Regions, where a permanent ice shelf extends beyond the coastline, are also a source of potential dispute. ### Resolved disputes * The Cod Wars between the United Kingdom and Iceland occurred periodically over many decades until they were resolved with a final agreement in 1976. * In 1992, the Canada–France Maritime Boundary Case, which centred on the EEZ around the French islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, was decided by an arbitral tribunal that concurred on the whole with the arguments put forth by Canada. France was awarded 18% of the area it had originally claimed. * In 1999, following the Hanish Islands conflict, the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled that the EEZs of Yemen and Eritrea should be demarcated equidistantly between the mainlands of the two nations, without taking account of sovereignty over the islands. * In 2009, in a dispute between Romania and Ukraine over Snake Island, the UN International Court of Justice decided that Snake Island has no EEZ beyond 12 nautical miles of its own land. * In 2010 the Norway and Russia dispute of both territorial sea and EEZ with regard to the Svalbard archipelago as it affects Russia's EEZ due to its unique treaty status was resolved. A treaty was agreed in principle in April 2010 between the two states and subsequently officially ratified, resolving this demarcation dispute. The agreement was signed in Murmansk on 15 September 2010. * In 2014, the Netherlands and Germany resolved an old border dispute regarding the exact location of the border in the Dollart Bay. Transboundary stocks -------------------- Fisheries management, usually adhering to guidelines set by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), provides significant practical mechanisms for the control of EEZs. Transboundary fish stocks are an important concept in this control. Transboundary stocks are fish stocks that range in the EEZs of at least two countries. Straddling stocks, on the other hand, range both within an EEZ as well as in the high seas, outside any EEZ. A stock can be both transboundary and straddling. By country ---------- ### Various island countries ### Algeria Algeria on 17 April 2018 established an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) off its coasts by Presidential Decree No. 18-96 of 2 Rajab 1439 corresponding to 20 March 2018. The permanent mission of Spain to the United Nations on 27 July 2018 declared its disagreement with the EEZ announced by Algeria and that the government of Spain indicated its willingness to enter into negotiations with the government of Algeria with a view to reaching a mutually acceptable agreement on the outer limits of their respective exclusive economic zones, The same was done by the Italian mission on 28 November 2018. The two countries indicated that the Algerian measure had been taken unilaterally and without consulting them. On 25 November 2018, the Algerian Ministry of Foreign Affairs sent an oral note in response to the Spanish protest, explaining that the Algerian government does not recognize the largely exorbitant coordinates contained in Royal Decree 236/2013, which overlap with the coordinates of Presidential Decree n° 18–96 establishing an exclusive economic zone off the coast of Algeria. The Algerian government wished to emphasize that the unilateral delimitation carried out by Spain is not in conformity with the letter of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and has not taken into consideration the configuration, the specific characteristics, and the special circumstances of the Mediterranean Sea, in particular for the case of the two countries whose coasts are located face to face, as well as the objective rules and relevant principles of international law to govern the equitable delimitation of the maritime areas between Algeria and Spain, in accordance with article 74 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Algeria expressed its willingness to negotiate for a just solution. On 20 June 2019, a communication from Algeria was sent. It was addressed to the Italian embassy and the Spanish embassy in Algiers to show their eligibility in Algeria's exclusive economic zone. ### Argentina Considering the maritime areas claimed, the total area of Argentina reaches 3,849,756 km2. The recognized Argentine EEZ area is 1,159,063 km2. ### Australia Australia's Exclusive Economic Zone was declared on 1 August 1994, and extends from 12 to 200 nautical miles (22 to 370 kilometres) from the coastline of Australia and its external territories, except where a maritime delimitation agreement exists with another state. To the 12 nautical miles boundary is Australia's territorial waters. Australia has the third largest exclusive economic zone, behind France and the United States, but ahead of Russia, with a total area of 8,148,250 square kilometres, which actually exceeds its land territory. The United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) confirmed, in April 2008, Australia's rights over an additional 2.5 million square kilometres of seabed beyond the limits of Australia's EEZ. Australia also claimed, in its submission to the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, additional Continental Shelf past its EEZ from the *Australian Antarctic Territory*, but these claims were deferred on Australia's request. However, Australia's EEZ from its Antarctic Territory is approximately 2 million square kilometres. | Region | EEZ Area (km2) | | --- | --- | | Mainland Australia (5 States and 3 Territories of the Australian Federation), Tasmania, and other minor islands | 6,048,681 | | Macquarie Island | 471,837 | |  Christmas Island | 463,371 | |  Norfolk Island | 428,618 | | Heard Island and McDonald Islands | 410,722 | |  Cocos Islands | 325,021 | | *Australian Antarctic Territory* | *2,000,000* | | **Total** | **8,148,250** | ### Brazil Brazil's EEZ includes areas around the Fernando de Noronha Islands, Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, and the Trindade and Martim Vaz Islands. It is called the Blue Amazon. | Region | EEZ Area (km2) | | --- | --- | | Mainland Brazil (9 States of the Brazilian Federation) | 2,570,917 | | Trindade and Martim Vaz Islands | 468,599 | | Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago | 413,636 | | Fernando de Noronha Islands | 363,362 | | **Total** | **3,830,955** | In 2004, Brazil submitted its claims to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) to extend its maritime continental margin. ### Canada Canada is unusual in that its exclusive economic zone, covering 5,599,077 km2 (2,161,816 sq mi), is slightly smaller than its territorial waters. The latter generally extend only 12 nautical miles from the shore but also include inland marine waters such as Hudson Bay (about 300 nautical miles (560 km; 350 mi) across), the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the internal waters of the Arctic Archipelago. ### Chile Chile's EEZ includes areas around the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, and the Juan Fernández Islands. | Region | EEZ Area (km2) | Land Area (km2) | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Mainland Chile | 1,987,371 | 755,757 | 2,743,128 | | Easter Island | 720,412 | 164 | 720,576 | | Juan Fernández Islands | 502,524 | 100 | 502,624 | | Desventuradas Islands | 449,836 | 5 | 449,841 | | **Total** | **3,660,143** | **756,102.4** | **4,416,245.4** | In 2020 and 2022, Chile submitted its partial claims to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) to extend its maritime continental margin. ### China The first figure excludes all disputed waters, while the last figure indicates China's claimed boundaries, and does not take into account adjacent powers' claims. ### Croatia Croatia proclaimed Ecological and Fisheries Protection Zone in 2003, but it was not enforced toward other European Union states especially Italy and Slovenia. The zone was upgraded to EEZ in 2021 together with Italy and Slovenia. Territorial waters has 18,981 km2, while internal waters located within the baseline cover an additional 12,498 km2, and EEZ covers 24,482km2 for a total of 55,961km2. ### Cyprus Cyprus EEZ covers 98,707 square km (38,100 square miles). Cyprus' EEZ borders those of Greece, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Egypt. ### Denmark The Kingdom of Denmark includes the constituent country (*selvstyre*) of Greenland and the constituent country (*hjemmestyre*) of the Faroe Islands. | Region | EEZ & TW Area (km2) | Land area | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Denmark | 105 989 | 42 506 | 149 083 | |  Faroe Islands | 260 995 | 1 399 | 262 394 | |  Greenland | 2,184,254 | 2,166,086 | 4,350,340 | | **Total** | **2,551,238** | **2,210,579** | **4,761,817** | ### Ecuador **Area:** 1,077,231 km2 ### France Due to its numerous overseas departments and territories scattered on all oceans of the planet, France possesses the largest EEZ in the world, covering 11.7 million km2. The EEZ of France covers approximately 9% of the total surface of all the EEZs of the world, whereas the land area of the French Republic is only 0.45% of the total land area of Earth. ### Germany The Federal Republic of Germany declared the entry into force of the convention with effect from 1 January 1995, the establishment of a German Exclusive Economic Zone in the North and Baltic Seas. The relevant German legal provisions that are applicable within the exclusive economic zone include the Maritime Task Act (Seeaufgabengesetz) from 1965, the Maritime Facilities Act (Seeanlagengesetz) from 2017, before that the Sea Facilities Ordinance (Seeanlagenverordnung) since 1997, the Federal Mining Act (Bundesberggesetz) and the Regional Planning Act (Raumordnungsgesetz). The German EEZ has an area of 32,982 km². 70% of the EEZ is the entire German North Sea area and about 29% is the entire German Baltic Sea area. ### Greece Greece forms the southernmost part of the Balkan peninsula in the Mediterranean Sea. It includes many small islands which vary between 1,200 and 6,000 in the Aegean Sea and the Ionian Sea. The largest islands are Crete, Euboea, Lesbos, Rhodes and Chios. Greece's EEZ is bordered to the west by Albania and Italy, to the south by Libya and Egypt, and to the east by Cyprus and Turkey. EEZ Area of Greece| Territory | km2 | sq mi | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Total | 505,572 | 195,202 | | ### India | EEZ | Area (km2) | | --- | --- | | Mainland India (9 States and 2 Union Territories of the Indian Federation) and Lakshadweep | 1,641,514 km2 | | Andaman and Nicobar Islands | 663,629 km2 | | Total | 2,305,143 km2 | India is currently seeking to extend its EEZ to 350 miles. ### Indonesia Indonesia has the 6th largest exclusive economic zone in the world. The total size is 6,159,032 km2 (2,378,016 sq mi). It claims an EEZ of 200 nautical miles (370 km) from its shores. This is due to the 13,466 islands of the Indonesian Archipelago. It has the 2nd largest coastline of 54,720 km (34,000 mi). The five main islands are: Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, and Western New Guinea. There are two major island groups (Nusa Tenggara and the Maluku Islands) and sixty smaller island groups. ### Ireland The Irish Exclusive Economic Zone was announced to be the location of a Russian military exercise in January 2022. The exercise was then moved outside the economic zone. ### Israel In 2010, an agreement was signed with Cyprus concerning the limit of territorial waters between Israel and Cyprus at the maritime halfway point, a clarification essential for safeguarding Israel's rights to oil and underwater gas reservoirs. The agreement was signed in Nicosia by Israeli Infrastructure Minister Uzi Landau and the Cypriot Foreign Minister Markos Kyprianou. The two countries agreed to cooperate in the development of any cross-border resources discovered and to negotiate an agreement on dividing joint resources. ### Italy Italy has the world's 48th largest EEZ, with an area of 541,915 km2 (209,235 sq mi). It claims an EEZ of 200 nmi (370.4 km; 230.2 mi) from its shores, which has long coastlines with the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west, the Ionian Sea to the south and the Adriatic Sea to the east. Its EEZ is limited by maritime boundaries with neighboring countries to the northwest, east and southeast. Italy's western sea territory stretches from the west coast of Italy in the Tyrrhenian Sea including the island Sardinia. The island Sicily is in the southernmost area. Lampedusa is Italy's southernmost point. It shares treaty-defined maritime boundaries with France, Spain, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Malta, Greece, Albania, Montenegro, Croatia and Slovenia. ### Japan Japan has the 8th largest exclusive economic zone of 4,479,674 km2 (1,729,612 sq mi). It claims an EEZ of 200 nautical miles (370 km) from its shores. EEZ Areas of Japan| Region | EEZ Area (km2) | EEZ Area (sq mi) | | --- | --- | --- | | Ryukyu Islands | 1,394,676 | 538,487 | | Pacific Ocean (Japan) | 1,162,334 | 448,780 | | Nanpō Islands | 862,782 | 333,122 | | Sea of Japan | 630,721 | 243,523 | | Minami-Tori-shima | 428,875 | 165,590 | | Sea of Okhotsk | 235 | 91 | | Daitō Islands | 44 | 17 | | *Senkaku Islands* | 7 | 2.7 | | Total | 4,479,674 | 1,729,612 | Japan has disputes over its EEZ boundaries with all its Asian neighbors (China, Russia, South Korea, and Taiwan). The above, and relevant maps at the Sea Around Us Project both indicate Japan's claimed boundaries, and do not take into account the claims of adjacent jurisdictions. Japan also refers to various categories of "shipping area" – Smooth Water Area, Coasting Area, Major or Greater Coasting Area, Ocean Going Area – but it is unclear whether these are intended to have any territorial or economic implications. ### Malaysia ### Mexico Mexico's exclusive economic zones cover a total surface area of 3,144,295 km2, and places Mexico among the countries with the largest areas in the world. This puts Mexico's total territory as 5,153,735 km2. ### New Zealand New Zealand's EEZ covers 4,083,744 km2 (1,576,742 sq mi), which is approximately fifteen times the land area of the country. Sources vary significantly on the size of New Zealand's EEZ; for example, a recent government publication gave the area as roughly 4,300,000 km2. These figures are for the EEZ of New Zealand proper, and do not include the EEZs of other territories in the Realm of New Zealand (the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, and the *Ross Dependency*). ### North Korea The exclusive economic zone of North Korea stretches 200 nautical miles from its basepoints in both the West Sea (Yellow Sea) and the Sea of Japan. The EEZ was declared in 1977 after North Korea had contested the validity of the Northern Limit Lines (NLL) set up after the Korean War as maritime borders. The EEZ has not been codified in law and North Korea has never specified its coordinates, making it difficult to determine its specific scope. In the West Sea, the EEZ remains unspecified in the Korea Bay because China has not determined its own EEZ in the area. The border between the North Korean and South Korean EEZs in the West Sea cannot be determined because of potential overlap and disputes over certain islands. In the Sea of Japan, the North Korean EEZ can be approximated to be trapezoidal-shaped. The border between North Korea and Russia's respective EEZs is the only such border that has been determined in East Asia. Here, the EEZ does not cause many problems, even with regards to South Korea, because the sea is not thought to be rich in resources. ### Norway Norway has a large exclusive economic zone of 819,620 km2 around its coast. The country has a fishing zone of 1,878,953 km2, including fishing zones around Svalbard and Jan Mayen. In April 2009, the United Nations Commission for the Limits of the Continental Shelf approved Norway's claim to an additional 235,000 square kilometres of continental shelf. The commission found that Norway and Russia both had valid claims over a portion of the shelf in the Barents Sea. | Region | EEZ and TerritorialWaters Area (km2) | Land Area (km2) | Total (km2) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Mainland Norway | 1,273,482 | 323,802 | 1,597,284 | | Svalbard | 402,574 | 61,002 | 463,576 | | Jan Mayen | 273,118 | 373 | 273,491 | | Bouvet Island | 436,004 | 49 | 436,053 | | **Total** | **2,385,178** | **385,226** | **2,770,404** | ### Pakistan **Area:** 290,000 km2 Pakistan coast is a 1046 km long coast, extending from Sir Creek in the east to Gwadar Bay in the west and the EEZ extends up to 290,000sqkm which is more than 30% of its land area and ranks sixty-sixth in the world by area. Pakistan had an EEZ of 240,000sq km before their case was accepted by UNCLCS. Pakistan Navy with the help of the National Oceanographic Organization (NIO) initiated the continental shelf case at ministerial level in 1995. On 26 Aug 2013, a seven-member sub-commission with members from Japan, China, Mozambique, Kenya, Demark, Georgia and Argentina was formulated at UNCLCS to evaluate the technical details of Pakistan's case and after a year accepted Pakistan's claim. On 13 March 2015, UN Commission on the Limits of Continental Shelf (UNCLCS) accepted recommendations for extension of the outer limits of the continental shelf on Pakistan's case so far 80 countries had submitted claims to UNCLCS out of which recommendations of 22 countries including Pakistan had been finalised. It was a historic event in the country's history when Pakistan became the first country in the region to have its continental shelf extended to 350 nm. Some of the claimed territories overlapped the Omani claim. It is believed that the verdict in favour of Pakistan was announced after successful negotiation with Oman. ### Peru **Area:** 906,454 km2 ### Philippines The Philippines' EEZ covers 2,263,816 km2 (874,064 sq mi). ### Poland The Polish EEZ covers the area of 30,533 km2 (11,789 sq mi) within the Baltic Sea. ### Portugal Portugal has the 20th largest EEZ in the world. Presently, it is divided in three non-contiguous sub-zones: * Continental Portugal 327,667 km2 * Azores 953,633 km2 * Madeira 446,108 km2 * Total : 1,727,408 km2 Portugal submitted a claim to extend its jurisdiction over an additional 2.15 million square kilometres of the adjacent continental shelf in May 2009, resulting in an area with a total of more than 3,877,408 km2. The submission, as well as a detailed map, can be found in the Task Group for the extension of the Continental Shelf website. Spain previously objected to the EEZ's southern border, maintaining that it should be drawn halfway between Madeira and the Canary Islands. But Portugal exercises sovereignty over the Savage Islands, a small archipelago north of the Canaries, claiming an EEZ border further south. Spain has no longer disputed the Portuguese claim since 2015. ### Romania **Area:** 23,627 km2 ### Russia 4th largest * Kaliningrad (Baltic Sea) – 11,634 km2 * Saint Petersburg (Baltic Sea) – 12,759 km2 * Barents Sea – 1,308,140 km2 * Black Sea (without the Crimean EEZ) – 66,854 km2 * Pacific – 3,419,202 km2 * Siberia – 3,277,292 km2 * Total – 8,095,881 km2 ### Senegal **Area:** 158,861 km2 ### Somalia **Area:** 825,052 km2 ### South Africa South Africa's EEZ includes both that next to the African mainland and that around the Prince Edward Islands, totalling 1,535,538 km2. * Mainland – 1,068,659 km2 * Prince Edward islands – 466,879 km2 ### South Korea **Area:** 300,851 (225,214) km2 ### Spain **Area:** 1,039,233 km2 ### Thailand ### Turkey Turkey's EEZ is bordered by Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Romania and Bulgaria in the Black Sea to the north, Greece in the Aegean Sea to the west, and Cyprus and Syria in the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Turkey is one of the few countries to not have signed UNCLOS and disputes Greece's and Cyprus' EEZ. ### United Kingdom The United Kingdom has the fifth largest exclusive economic zone of 6,805,586 km2 (2,627,651 sq mi) square km. It comprises the EEZs surrounding the United Kingdom, the Crown Dependencies, and the British Overseas Territories. The figure does not include the EEZ of the British Antarctic Territory. The EEZ associated with the Falkland Islands and South Georgia are disputed by Argentina. The EEZ of the Chagos Archipelago, also known as the British Indian Ocean Territory, is also disputed with Mauritius which considers the archipelago as a part of its territory. The EEZ areas of the United Kingdom, Crown Dependencies and British Overseas Territories (in decreasing size)| Territory | EEZ Area (km2) | EEZ Area (sq mi) | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands | 1,449,532 | 559,667 | Disputed with  Argentina. | |  Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands | 836,108 | 322,823 | | |  United Kingdom | 773,676 | 298,718 | Including the  Isle of Man. | |  Tristan da Cunha† | 754,720 | 291,400 | Including Gough Island. | |  British Indian Ocean Territory | 638,568 | 246,552 | Disputed with  Mauritius. | |  Falkland Islands | 550,872 | 212,693 | Disputed with  Argentina. | |  Bermuda | 450,370 | 173,890 | | |  Saint Helena† | 444,916 | 171,783 | | |  Ascension Island† | 441,658 | 170,525 | | |  Turks and Caicos Islands | 154,068 | 59,486 | | |  Cayman Islands | 119,137 | 45,999 | | |  Anguilla | 92,178 | 35,590 | | |  British Virgin Islands | 80,117 | 30,933 | | | Channel Islands | 11,658 | 4,501 | Including  Guernsey and  Jersey. | |  Montserrat | 7,582 | 2,927 | | |  Gibraltar | 426 | 164 | Disputed with  Spain. | |  Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia | 0 | 0 | No EEZ area. The relevant EEZ areas around Cyprus Island are claimed by the  Republic of Cyprus and  Northern Cyprus. | | Total | 6,805,586 | 2,627,651 | | † A part of the overseas territory of  Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, which together has an EEZ of 1,641,294 square km. ### United States The United States' exclusive economic zone is the second largest in the world, covering 11,351,000 km2. Areas of its EEZ are located in three oceans, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. The EEZ (including territorial sea) areas of the territories of the U.S. (in decreasing size)| Territory | EEZ Area (km2) | EEZ Area (sq mi) | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Alaska | 3,770,021 | 1,455,613 | A non-contiguous state in the northwest extremity of the North American continent. | |  Hawaii – Northwestern Islands | 1,579,538 | 609,863 | Including Midway Atoll, these islands form the Leeward Islands of the Hawaiian island chain. | | U.S. East Coast | 915,763 | 353,578 | The mainland coastal states of the Eastern United States. As a region, this term most often refers to the coastal states of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and the Atlantic Coast of Florida. | |  Hawaii – Southeastern Islands | 895,346 | 345,695 | These islands form the Windward Islands of the Hawaiian island chain. | | U.S. West Coast | 825,549 | 318,746 | The mainland coastal states of the Western United States. As a region, this term most often refers to the coastal states of California, Oregon, Washington. | |  Northern Mariana Islands | 749,268 | 289,294 | An organized unincorporated Commonwealth of the United States. | | U.S. Gulf Coast | 707,832 | 273,295 | The mainland coastal states of the Southern United States. As a region, this term most often refers to the coastal states of Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and the Gulf Coast of Florida | |  Johnston Atoll | 442,635 | 170,902 | A National Wildlife Refuge in the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands. | | Howland and Baker Islands | 434,921 | 167,924 | Including Howland Island and Baker Island, both territories are National Wildlife Refuges in the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands. | |  Wake Island | 407,241 | 157,237 | A National Wildlife Refuge in the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands. | |  American Samoa | 404,391 | 156,136 | The only inhabited unorganized unincorporated territory of the United States. | | Palmyra Atoll and Kingman Reef | 352,300 | 136,000 | Both territories are National Wildlife Refuges in the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands. | | Jarvis Island | 316,665 | 122,265 | A National Wildlife Refuge in the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands. | |  Guam | 221,504 | 85,523 | An organized unincorporated territory of the United States. | |  Puerto Rico | 177,685 | 68,605 | An organized unincorporated Commonwealth of the United States. | |  U.S. Virgin Islands | 33,744 | 13,029 | An organized unincorporated territory of the United States. | | Navassa Island | N/A | N/A | A National Wildlife Refuge in the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands. A joint Cuba–Haiti Maritime Boundary Agreement signed at Havana in 1977 bilaterally divides the waters between both local nations and Cuba's maritime boundary places the island within Haitian waters and doesn't recognize any local U.S. claim in the area. | | Total | 11,351,000 | 4,383,000 | | Note, the totals in the table actually add up to 12,234,403 square km and 4,723,705 square miles. ### Vietnam Vietnam claims an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 1,395,096 km2 (538,650 sq mi) with 200 nautical miles (370.4 km; 230.2 mi) from its shores. Excluding all disputed waters, Vietnam has an undisputed exclusive economic zone of 417,663 km2 (161,261 sq mi). This figure does not include the claimed EEZ areas of the Paracel Islands and the Spratly Islands. Vietnam has disputes mainly with the People's Republic of China due to the nine-dash line. Rankings by area ---------------- This list includes dependent territories (including uninhabited territories) within their sovereign states, but does not include various claims on Antarctica. EEZ+TIA is exclusive economic zone (EEZ) plus total internal area (TIA) which includes territorial land and internal waters. | Rank | Country | EEZ km2 | Shelf km2 | EEZ+TIA km2 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  France | 11,691,000 | 730,745 | 12,366,417 | | 2 |  United States | 11,351,000 | 2,193,526 | 21,814,306 | | 3 |  Australia | 9,025,053 | 2,194,008 | 16,197,464 | | 4 |  Russia | 7,566,673 | 3,817,843 | 24,664,915 | | 5 | United Kingdom | 6,805,586 | 872,891 | 7,048,486 | | 6 |  Indonesia | 6,159,032 | 2,039,381 | 8,063,601 | | 7 |  Canada | 5,599,077 | 2,644,795 | 15,607,077 | | 8 |  Japan | 4,479,388 | 214,976 | 4,857,318 | | 9 | New Zealand | 4,420,565 | 272,898 | 4,688,285 | | 10 |  Brazil | 3,830,955 | 774,563 | 12,345,832 | | 11 |  Chile | 3,681,989 | 252,947 | 4,431,381 | | 12 |  Kiribati | 3,441,810 | 7,523 | 3,442,536 | | 13 |  Mexico | 3,269,386 | 419,102 | 5,141,968 | | 14 |  Federated States of Micronesia | 2,996,419 | 19,403 | 2,997,121 | | 15 | Denmark | 2,551,238 | 495,657 | 4,761,811 | | 16 |  Papua New Guinea | 2,402,288 | 191,256 | 2,865,128 | | 17 |  Norway | 2,385,178 | 434,020 | 2,770,404 | | 18 |  India | 2,305,143 | 402,996 | 5,592,406 | | 19 |  Marshall Islands | 1,990,530 | 18,411 | 1,990,711 | | – | *Cook Islands* | 1,960,027 | 1,213 | 1,960,267 | | 20 |  Portugal | 1,727,408 | 28,000 | 1,819,498 | | 21 |  Philippines | 1,590,780 | 272,921 | 1,890,780 | | 22 |  Solomon Islands | 1,589,477 | 36,282 | 1,618,373 | | 23 |  South Africa | 1,535,538 | 156,337 | 2,756,575 | | 24 |  Seychelles | 1,336,559 | 39,063 | 1,337,014 | | 25 |  Mauritius | 1,284,997 | 29,061 | 1,287,037 | | 26 |  Fiji | 1,282,978 | 47,705 | 1,301,250 | | 27 |  Madagascar | 1,225,259 | 101,505 | 1,812,300 | | 28 |  Argentina | 1,159,063 | 856,346 | 3,939,463 | | 29 |  Ecuador | 1,077,231 | 41,034 | 1,333,600 | | 30 |  Spain | 1,039,233 | 77,920 | 1,545,225 | | 31 |  Maldives | 923,322 | 34,538 | 923,622 | | 32 |  Peru | 906,454 | 82,000 | 2,191,670 | | 33 |  China | 877,019 | 231,340 | 10,473,980 | | 34 |  Somalia | 825,052 | 55,895 | 1,462,709 | | 35 |  Colombia | 808,158 | 53,691 | 1,949,906 | | 36 |  Cape Verde | 800,561 | 5,591 | 804,594 | | 37 |  Iceland | 751,345 | 108,015 | 854,345 | | 38 |  Tuvalu | 749,790 | 3,575 | 749,816 | | 39 |  Vanuatu | 663,251 | 11,483 | 675,440 | | 40 |  Tonga | 659,558 | 8,517 | 660,305 | | 41 |  Bahamas | 654,715 | 106,323 | 668,658 | | 42 |  Palau | 603,978 | 2,837 | 604,437 | | 43 |  Mozambique | 578,986 | 94,212 | 1,380,576 | | 44 |  Morocco | 575,230 | 115,157 | 1,287,780 | | 45 |  Costa Rica | 574,725 | 19,585 | 625,825 | | 46 |  Namibia | 564,748 | 86,698 | 1,388,864 | | 47 |  Yemen | 552,669 | 59,229 | 1,080,637 | | 48 |  Italy | 541,915 | 116,834 | 843,251 | | 49 |  Oman | 533,180 | 59,071 | 842,680 | | 50 |  Myanmar | 532,775 | 220,332 | 1,209,353 | | 51 |  Sri Lanka | 532,619 | 32,453 | 598,229 | | 52 |  Angola | 518,433 | 48,092 | 1,765,133 | | 53 |  Greece | 505,572 | 81,451 | 637,529 | | 54 |  South Korea | 475,469 | 342,522 | 575,469 | | 55 |  Venezuela | 471,507 | 98,500 | 1,387,950 | | 56 |  Vietnam | 417,663 | 365,198 | 748,875 | | 57 |  Ireland | 410,310 | 139,935 | 480,583 | | 58 |  Libya | 351,589 | 64,763 | 2,111,129 | | 59 |  Cuba | 350,751 | 61,525 | 460,637 | | 60 |  Panama | 335,646 | 53,404 | 411,163 | | 61 |  Malaysia | 334,671 | 323,412 | 665,474 | | – | *Niue* | 316,584 | 284 | 316,844 | | 62 |  Nauru | 308,480 | 41 | 308,501 | | 63 |  Equatorial Guinea | 303,509 | 7,820 | 331,560 | | 64 |  Thailand | 299,397 | 230,063 | 812,517 | | 65 |  Pakistan | 290,000 | 51,383 | 1,117,911 | | 66 |  Egypt | 263,451 | 61,591 | 1,265,451 | | 67 |  Turkey | 261,654 | 56,093 | 1,045,216 | | 68 |  Jamaica | 258,137 | 9,802 | 269,128 | | 69 |  Dominican Republic | 255,898 | 10,738 | 304,569 | | 70 |  Liberia | 249,734 | 17,715 | 361,103 | | 71 |  Honduras | 249,542 | 68,718 | 362,034 | | 72 |  Tanzania | 241,888 | 25,611 | 1,186,975 | | 73 |  Ghana | 235,349 | 22,502 | 473,888 | | 74 |  Saudi Arabia | 228,633 | 107,249 | 2,378,323 | | 75 |  Nigeria | 217,313 | 42,285 | 1,141,081 | | 76 |  Sierra Leone | 215,611 | 28,625 | 287,351 | | 77 |  Gabon | 202,790 | 35,020 | 470,458 | | 78 |  Barbados | 186,898 | 426 | 187,328 | | 79 |  Côte d'Ivoire | 176,254 | 10,175 | 498,717 | | 80 |  Iran | 168,718 | 118,693 | 1,797,468 | | 81 |  Mauritania | 165,338 | 31,662 | 1,190,858 | | 82 |  Comoros | 163,752 | 1,526 | 165,987 | | 83 |  Sweden | 160,885 | 154,604 | 602,255 | | 84 |  Senegal | 158,861 | 23,092 | 355,583 | | 85 | Netherlands | 154,011 | 77,246 | 192,345 | | 86 |  Ukraine | 147,318 | 79,142 | 750,818 | | 87 |  Uruguay | 142,166 | 75,327 | 318,381 | | 88 |  Guyana | 137,765 | 50,578 | 352,734 | | 89 |  São Tomé and Príncipe | 131,397 | 1,902 | 132,361 | | 90 |  Samoa | 127,950 | 2,087 | 130,781 | | 91 |  Suriname | 127,772 | 53,631 | 291,592 | | 92 |  Haiti | 126,760 | 6,683 | 154,510 | | 93 |  Algeria | 126,353 | 9,985 | 2,508,094 | | 94 |  Nicaragua | 123,881 | 70,874 | 254,254 | | 95 |  Guinea-Bissau | 123,725 | 39,339 | 159,850 | | 96 |  Bangladesh | 118,813 | 66,438 | 230,390 | | 97 |  Kenya | 116,942 | 11,073 | 697,309 | | 98 |  Guatemala | 114,170 | 14,422 | 223,059 | | 99 |  North Korea | 113,888 | 50,337 | 234,428 | | 100 |  Antigua and Barbuda | 110,089 | 4,128 | 110,531 | | 101 |  Tunisia | 101,857 | 67,126 | 265,467 | | 102 |  Cyprus | 98,707 | 4,042 | 107,958 | | 103 |  El Salvador | 90,962 | 16,852 | 112,003 | | 104 |  Finland | 87,171 | 85,109 | 425,590 | | 105 |  Republic of China (Taiwan) | 83,231 | 43,016 | 119,419 | | 106 |  Eritrea | 77,728 | 61,817 | 195,328 | | 107 |  Trinidad and Tobago | 74,199 | 25,284 | 79,329 | | 108 |  East Timor | 70,326 | 25,648 | 85,200 | | 109 |  Sudan | 68,148 | 19,827 | 1,954,216 | | 110 |  Cambodia | 62,515 | 62,515 | 243,550 | | 111 |  Guinea | 59,426 | 44,755 | 305,283 | | 112 |  Croatia | 59,032 | 50,277 | 115,626 | | 113 |  United Arab Emirates | 58,218 | 57,474 | 141,818 | | 114 |  Germany | 57,485 | 57,485 | 414,599 | | 115 |  Malta | 54,823 | 5,301 | 55,139 | | 116 |  Estonia | 36,992 | 36,992 | 82,219 | | 117 |  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 36,302 | 1,561 | 36,691 | | 118 |  Belize | 35,351 | 13,178 | 58,317 | | 119 |  Bulgaria | 34,307 | 10,426 | 145,186 | | 120 |  Benin | 33,221 | 2,721 | 145,843 | | 121 |  Qatar | 31,590 | 31,590 | 43,176 | | 122 |  Republic of the Congo | 31,017 | 7,982 | 373,017 | | 123 |  Poland | 29,797 | 29,797 | 342,482 | | 124 |  Dominica | 28,985 | 659 | 29,736 | | 125 |  Latvia | 28,452 | 27,772 | 93,011 | | 126 |  Grenada | 27,426 | 2,237 | 27,770 | | 127 |  Israel | 26,352 | 3,745 | 48,424 | | 128 |  Romania | 23,627 | 19,303 | 262,018 | | 129 |  Gambia | 23,112 | 5,581 | 34,407 | | 130 |  Georgia | 21,946 | 3,243 | 91,646 | | 131 |  Lebanon | 19,516 | 1,067 | 29,968 | | 132 |  Cameroon | 16,547 | 11,420 | 491,989 | | 133 |  Saint Lucia | 15,617 | 544 | 16,156 | | 134 |  Albania | 13,691 | 6,979 | 42,439 | | 135 |  Togo | 12,045 | 1,265 | 68,830 | | 136 |  Kuwait | 11,026 | 11,026 | 28,844 | | 137 |  Syria | 10,503 | 1,085 | 195,683 | | 138 |  Bahrain | 10,225 | 10,225 | 10,975 | | 139 |  Brunei | 10,090 | 8,509 | 15,855 | | 140 |  Saint Kitts and Nevis | 9,974 | 653 | 10,235 | | 141 |  Montenegro | 7,745 | 3,896 | 21,557 | | 142 |  Djibouti | 7,459 | 3,187 | 30,659 | | 143 |  Lithuania | 7,031 | 7,031 | 72,331 | | 144 |  Belgium | 3,447 | 3,447 | 33,975 | | 145 |  Democratic Republic of the Congo | 1,606 | 1,593 | 2,346,464 | | 146 |  Singapore | 1,067 | 1,067 | 1,772 | | 147 |  Iraq | 771 | 771 | 439,088 | | 148 |  Monaco | 288 | 2 | 290 | | 149 |  Palestine | 256 | 256 | 6,276 | | 150 |  Slovenia | 220 | 220 | 20,493 | | 151 |  Jordan | 166 | 59 | 89,508 | | 152 |  Bosnia and Herzegovina | 50 | 50 | 51,259 | | – |  Kazakhstan | | | 2,724,900 | | – |  Mongolia | | | 1,564,100 | | – |  Chad | | | 1,284,000 | | – |  Niger | | | 1,267,000 | | – |  Mali | | | 1,240,192 | | – |  Ethiopia | | | 1,104,300 | | – |  Bolivia | | | 1,098,581 | | – |  Zambia | | | 752,612 | | – |  Afghanistan | | | 652,090 | | – |  Central African Republic | | | 622,984 | | – |  South Sudan | | | 619,745 | | – |  Botswana | | | 582,000 | | – |  Turkmenistan | | | 488,100 | | – |  Uzbekistan | | | 447,400 | | – |  Paraguay | | | 406,752 | | – |  Zimbabwe | | | 390,757 | | – |  Burkina Faso | | | 274,222 | | – |  Uganda | | | 241,038 | | – |  Laos | | | 236,800 | | – |  Belarus | | | 207,600 | | – |  Kyrgyzstan | | | 199,951 | | – |    Nepal | | | 147,181 | | – |  Tajikistan | | | 143,100 | | – |  Malawi | | | 118,484 | | – |  Hungary | | | 93,028 | | – |  Azerbaijan | | | 86,600 | | – |  Austria | | | 83,871 | | – |  Czech Republic | | | 78,867 | | – |  Serbia | | | 77,474 | | – |  Slovakia | | | 49,035 | | – |  Switzerland | | | 41,284 | | – |  Bhutan | | | 38,394 | | – |  Moldova | | | 33,846 | | – |  Lesotho | | | 30,355 | | – |  Armenia | | | 29,743 | | – |  Burundi | | | 27,834 | | – |  Rwanda | | | 26,338 | | – |  North Macedonia | | | 25,713 | | – |  Eswatini | | | 17,364 | | – |  Kosovo | | | 10,887 | | – |  Luxembourg | | | 2,586 | | – |  Andorra | | | 468 | | – |  Liechtenstein | | | 160 | | – |  San Marino | | | 61 | | – |   Vatican City | | | 0.44 | | **Total** | **United Nations** | **137,926,515** | **25,149,113** | **274,891,722** | See also -------- * Air defense identification zone * Baseline * Continental shelf * International waters * *R v Marshall* * Special economic zone * Territorial waters | | | --- | | a. | 1. ↑ "Part V – Exclusive Economic Zone, Article 56". *Law of the Sea*. United Nations. Retrieved 28 August 2011. 2. ↑ "Part V – Exclusive Economic Zone, Articles 55, 56". *Law of the Sea*. United Nations. 3. ↑ Urbina, Ian (17 February 2016). "Palau v. The Poachers". *The New York Times*. Retrieved 21 February 2016. 4. ↑ William R. Slomanson, 2006. Fundamental Perspectives on International Law, 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson-Wadsworth, 294. 5. ↑ UN Convention on the Law of The Sea. 6. ↑ 1982 UN Convention on the Law of The Sea. 7. ↑ The Exclusive Economic Zone: A Historical Perspective. Fao.org. Retrieved 23 July 2013. 8. ↑ "Turkey sends non-paper to EU, warning to stay away from Cyprus EEZ". KeepTalkingGreece. 23 June 2019. Retrieved 11 July 2019. 9. ↑ "Greece's maritime claims 'maximalist,' violate international boundaries law". *Daily Sabah*. 13 June 2019. Retrieved 11 July 2019. 10. ↑ "Wess Mitchell sends clear message to Turkey over Cyprus". *Kathimerini*. 21 December 2018. Retrieved 18 July 2019. 11. ↑ "Gas Partnership: Netanyahu Visits Cyprus". Retrieved 1 April 2017. 12. ↑ Makris, A. (18 February 2012). "Cyprus Calls on Turkey to Steer Away From Threats – GreekReporter.com". Retrieved 1 April 2017. 13. ↑ "Athens, Paris, Moscow and Cairo urge Ankara not to violate Cyprus' sovereignty". *Kathimerini*. 9 July 2019. Retrieved 10 July 2017. 14. ↑ "Saudi Arabia: 'We support our ally Cyprus against Turkey's activities in Mediterranean'". Middle East Monitor. 13 September 2019. Retrieved 17 February 2020. 15. ↑ Butler, Daren (6 May 2019). "U.S. and EU concerned by Turkey's plans to drill off Cyprus". *Reuters*. Retrieved 10 July 2019. 16. ↑ "Southern EU leaders express support for Cyprus amid Turkish energy ambitions". *Kathimerini*. Retrieved 10 July 2019. 17. ↑ "EPP Group urges prompt EU answer to Turkish actions in Cyprus". eppgroup.eu. Retrieved 10 July 2019. 18. ↑ "France Urges Turkey to Halt 'Illegal Activities' in Cyprus". *Asharq Al-Awsat*. Retrieved 10 July 2019. 19. ↑ "France sends strict warning to Turkey on Cyprus EEZ- EP President also expresses support". balkaneu.com. Retrieved 10 July 2019. 20. ↑ "US urges Turkey against drilling off Cyprus". France 24. 6 May 2019. Retrieved 10 July 2019. 21. ↑ "Armenia urges Turkey to cease all activities within Cyprus EEZ". panorama.am. Retrieved 10 July 2019. 22. ↑ "Israel backs Cyprus as Turkey vows to continue drilling in its waters". *The Times of Israel*. Retrieved 10 July 2019. 23. ↑ "Israel gives Cyprus 'full support' in gas drilling dispute with Turkey". *The Jerusalem Post*. Retrieved 10 July 2019. 24. ↑ "EEZ: Switzerland's Foreign Minister on Cyprus's side: (original: "ΑΟΖ: Στο πλευρό της Κύπρου και ο Ελβετός ΥΠΕΞ")". onalert.gr. 10 July 2019. Retrieved 10 July 2019. 25. ↑ "Saudi Arabia: 'We support our ally Cyprus against Turkey's activities in Mediterranean'". Middle East Monitor. 13 September 2019. Retrieved 15 September 2019. 26. ↑ "EU leaders blast Turkey over Cyprus' EEZ, order list of sanctions". tovima.gr. 21 June 2019. Retrieved 10 July 2019. 27. ↑ "Turkey's East Med ambitions facing EU roadblock – Bloomberg". ahvalnews.com. Retrieved 10 July 2019. 28. ↑ "Turkey threatens Greece over disputed Mediterranean territorial claims". *Deutsche Welle*. 5 September 2020. 29. ↑ "The Legal Status of Ice in the Antarctic Region". Archived from the original on 27 February 2006. 30. ↑ "AWARD OF THE ARBITRAL TRIBUNAL IN THE SECOND STAGE OF THE PROCEEDINGS (MARITIME DELIMITATION)". Permanent Court of Arbitration. Archived from the original on 12 April 2015. Retrieved 12 April 2015. 31. ↑ Kwiatkowska, Barbara (January 2001). "The Eritrea-Yemen Arbitration: Landmark Progress in the Acquisition of Territorial Sovereignty and Equitable Maritime Boundary Delimitation". *Ocean Development and International Law*. **32** (1): 1–25. doi:10.1080/00908320150502177. S2CID 154096546. 32. ↑ United Nations International Court of Justice Archived 16 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine Decision year: 2009 33. ↑ Russia and Norway Reach Accord on Barents Sea, *The New York Times*, 28 April 2010. Retrieved 28 April 2010 34. ↑ Russia and Norway resolve Arctic border dispute, *The Guardian*, 15 September 2010. Retrieved 21 September 2010 35. ↑ "Germany and the Netherlands end centuries-old border dispute | DW | 24.10.2014". *DW.COM*. 36. ↑ "Germany and the Netherlands end Ems River border dispute - Durham University". *www.dur.ac.uk*. 37. ↑ FAO: The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2006 *Part3: highlights of Special studies* Archived 29 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine Rome. ISBN 978-92-5-105568-7 38. ↑ FAO (2007) Report of the FAO workshop on vulnerable ecosystems and destructive fishing in deep sea fisheries[*permanent dead link*] Rome, Fisheries Report No. 829. 39. ↑ "Deposit by Algeria of a list of geographical coordinates of points, pursuant to article 75, paragraph 2, of the Convention" (PDF). 40. ↑ "Presidential Decree No. 18-96 of 2 Rajab 1439 corresponding to March 20, 2018 establishing an exclusive economic zone off the Algerian coast" (PDF). 41. ↑ "Letter from Spain to the Secretary-General of 27 July 2018" (PDF). 42. ↑ "Letter from Italy to the Secretary-General of November 28, 2018" (PDF). 43. ↑ "**oral note** of the Algerian Ministry of Foreign Affairs response to the Spanish protest" (PDF). 44. ↑ "Communication from Algeria addressed to Italy dated 20 June 2019" (PDF). 45. ↑ "Communication from Algeria addressed to Spain dated 20 June 2019" (PDF). 46. ↑ "The Australian Fishing Zone - Department of Agriculture". 47. ↑ Geoscience Australia. 2005. Maritime Boundary Definitions Archived 5 April 2005 at the Wayback Machine. 48. ↑ UN confirms Australia's rights over extra 2.5 million square kilometres of seabed. Archived 25 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine Minister for Resources and Energy, The Hon Martin Ferguson AM MP, Media Release, 21 April 2008."Minister for Resources and Energy, Minister for Tourism". Archived from the original on 27 August 2008. Retrieved 13 November 2008. 49. 1 2 3 "Oceans and Seas". *Geoscience Australia*. Australian Government. 15 May 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2020. 50. ↑ Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, Submission by Australia 51. ↑ See Around Us Project (n.d.). "Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)". Retrieved 3 June 2015. EEZ waters of: Mainland Brazil 2,570,917 km2, Fernando de Noronha Islands 363,362 km2, Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago 413,636 km2, and the Trindade and Martim Vaz Islands 468,599 km2 52. ↑ "UN Continental Shelf and UNCLOS Article 76: Brazilian Submission" (PDF). 53. ↑ Wildlife Habitat Canada. Canada's Marine Waters: Integrating the Boundaries of Politics and Nature Archived 21 December 2005 at the Wayback Machine. 54. ↑ See Around Us Project (n.d.). "Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)". Retrieved 3 June 2015. EEZ waters of: Mainland Chile 1,975,760 km2, the Desventuradas Islands 449,836 km2, Easter Island 720,412 km2, the Juan Fernández, Felix and Ambrosio Islands 502,524 km2 55. ↑ - China undisputed EEZ. 56. ↑ EEZ and shelf areas of Taiwan – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization. 57. ↑ EEZ and shelf areas of China – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization. 58. ↑ "Hrvatska proglasila svoj Isključivi gospodarski pojas u Jadranskom moru: Zastupnici jednoglasno podržali odluku" [Croatia declared its Exclusive Economic Zone in the Adriatic Sea: MPs unanimously supported the decision]. *Novi List* (in Croatian). 5 February 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2023. 59. ↑ "Hrvatska i Italija potpisale Ugovor o razgraničenju isključivih gospodarskih pojaseva. U odnosu na ZERP donosi dva nova prava" [Croatia and Italy signed the Agreement on Demarcation of Exclusive Economic Zones. In relation to ZERP, it brings two new rights.]. *tportal.hr* (in Croatian). 25 May 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2023. 60. ↑ "Danish foreign ministry". Archived from the original on 23 November 2008. 61. ↑ "UKNDA DISCUSSION PAPER" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 28 September 2020. 62. ↑ "Bundesgesetzblatt BGBL. Online-Archiv 1949 - 2022 | Bundesanzeiger Verlag" (PDF). 63. ↑ "Nationale Meeresschutzgebiete | BFN". 64. ↑ Marker, Sherry; Kerasiotis, Peter (2010). "Greece in depth". In Nadeau, Mark (ed.). *Frommer's Greece*. Hoboken: Wiley. p. 12. 65. 1 2 3 4 5 "Sea Around Us – Fisheries, Ecosystems and Biodiversity". Retrieved 1 April 2017. 66. ↑ Sunderarajan, P. (12 June 2011). "India hopes to double its EEZ". *The Hindu*. Retrieved 1 April 2017. 67. ↑ "Hanya ada 13.466 Pulau di Indonesia". *National Geographic Indonesia* (in Indonesian). 8 February 2012. 68. ↑ Murphy, Ray (25 January 2022). "Why are Russian naval and air forces setting up off the Irish coast?". RTÉ News. Retrieved 30 January 2022. 69. ↑ "Russia to move military drills outside Ireland's EEZ". RTÉ News. 30 January 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2022. 70. ↑ "海洋白書 2004". Nippon Foundation. Retrieved 11 February 2008. 71. ↑ Including areas recommended by the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf "CLCS". 72. ↑ EEZ and shelf areas of Japan (main islands) – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization. 73. ↑ EEZ and shelf areas of Japan (Daitō Islands) – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization. 74. ↑ EEZ and shelf areas of Japan (Ogasawara Islands) – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization. 75. ↑ "Geographic location". Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. 76. 1 2 3 EEZ and shelf areas of New Zealand (mainland) – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization. 77. 1 2 3 EEZ and shelf areas of New Zealand (Kermadec Islands) – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization. 78. ↑ New Zealand Ministry for the Environment (2007). Improving Regulation of Environmental Effects in New Zealand's Exclusive Economic Zone: Discussion Paper – Introduction Archived 7 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Published August 2007, Publication number ME824. ISBN 0-978-478-30160-1 Accessed 2006-01-07. 79. ↑ Prescott & Schofield 2001, p. 25. 80. ↑ Kim 2017, p. 20. 81. ↑ Kim 2017, pp. 20, 71–72. 82. ↑ Kim 2017, p. 77. 83. ↑ Kotch & Abbey 2003, p. 179. 84. 1 2 Van Dyke 2009, p. 42. 85. ↑ Kim 2017, p. 51. 86. ↑ Statistisk årbok 2007 Accessed January 2008 87. ↑ UN backs Norway claim to Arctic seabed extension Archived 11 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Canwest News Service, 15 April 2009. Retrieved 13 May 2009. 88. ↑ EEZ and shelf areas of the Philippines – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization. 89. ↑ "Exploration and Extraction of Sand and Gravel Resources in the Polish Exclusive Economical Zone of the Baltic Sea" (PDF). Advanced Solutions International Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 March 2004. Retrieved 1 April 2017. 90. ↑ "Task Group for the Extension of the Portuguese Continental Shelf". Archived from the original on 18 December 2009. 91. ↑ Portugal applies to UN to Extend Its Continental Shelf Zone. Retrieved 3 July 2011 92. ↑ United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and The Law of The Sea 93. ↑ Communications received with regard to the submission made by Portugal to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf 94. ↑ "Sea Around Us Project – Data and Visualization". Archived from the original on 27 April 2006. Retrieved 1 April 2017. 95. ↑ 10 Downing Street. "Countries within a country". Archived from the original on 16 April 2010. Retrieved 16 January 2010. 96. ↑ "The Exclusive Economic Zone Order 2013" at Legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 20 July 2014. 97. ↑ EEZ and shelf areas of the Republic of Cyprus – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization. 98. ↑ EEZ and shelf areas of Northern Cyprus – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization. 99. ↑ Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) Archived 2 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Seaaroundus.org. Retrieved 23 July 2013. 100. ↑ "Sea Around Us | Fisheries, Ecosystems and Biodiversity". *www.seaaroundus.org*. 101. ↑ "Sea Around Us | Fisheries, Ecosystems and Biodiversity". *www.seaaroundus.org*. 102. ↑ "Field Listing :: Maritime claims — The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency". *www.cia.gov*. Archived from the original on 9 January 2019. 103. ↑ EEZ and shelf areas of Vietnam – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization. 104. ↑ "Marine Regions". *www.marineregions.org*. 105. 1 2 EEZ and shelf areas of Tokelau – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization. 106. ↑ "FAO Country Profiles:New Zealand". *Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations*. 107. ↑ "FAO Country Profiles:Tokelau". *Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations*. 108. ↑ If the claimed *Argentine Antarctica* and its associated EEZ area are included, the total internal area of Argentina plus its EEZ area reaches 6,581,500 km2. 109. 1 2 EEZ and shelf areas of North Korea (Yellow Sea) – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization. 110. 1 2 EEZ and shelf areas of North Korea (Sea of Japan) – Sea Around Us Project – Fisheries, Ecosystems & Biodiversity – Data and Visualization. 111. ↑ "FAO Country Profiles:Democratic People's Republic of Korea". *Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations*. **Works cited:** * Suk Kyoon Kim (2017). *Maritime Disputes in Northeast Asia: Regional Challenges and Cooperation*. Leiden: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-34422-8. * Kotch, John Barry; Abbey, Michael (2003). "Ending naval clashes on the Northern Limit Line and the quest for a West Sea peace regime" (PDF). *Asian Perspectives*. **27** (2): 175–204. doi:10.1353/apr.2003.0024. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 July 2011. * Prescott, John Robert Victor; Schofield, Clive H. (2001). Furness, Shelagh (ed.). "Undelimited Maritime Boundaries of the Asian Rim in the Pacific Ocean". *Maritime Briefing*. Durham: International Boundaries Research Unit, University of Durham. **3** (1). ISBN 978-1-897643-43-3. * Van Dyke, Jon M. (2009). "Disputes Over Islands and Maritime Boundaries in East Asia". In Seoung Yong Hong, Jon M.; Van Dyke (eds.). *Maritime Boundary Disputes, Settlement Processes, and the Law of the Sea*. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 39–76. ISBN 978-90-04-17343-9.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Exclusive economic zone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone

**Zadar** (US: /ˈzɑːdɑːr/ *ZAH-dar*, Croatian: [zâdar] (); historically known as **Zara** (from Venetian and Italian, pronounced [ˈdzaːra]; see also other names), is the oldest continuously inhabited city in Croatia. It is situated on the Adriatic Sea, at the northwestern part of Ravni Kotari region. Zadar serves as the seat of Zadar County and of the wider northern Dalmatian region. The city proper covers 25 km2 (9.7 sq mi) with a population of 75,082 in 2011[update], making it the second-largest city of the region of Dalmatia and the fifth-largest city in the country. Today, Zadar is a historical center of Dalmatia, Zadar County's principal political, cultural, commercial, industrial, educational, and transportation centre. Zadar is also the episcopal see of the Archdiocese of Zadar. Because of its rich heritage, Zadar is today one of the most popular Croatian tourist destinations, named "entertainment center of the Adriatic" by *The Times* and "Croatia's new capital of cool" by *The Guardian*. UNESCO's World Heritage Site list included the fortified city of Zadar as part of Venetian Works of Defence between 15th and 17th centuries: *Stato da Terra* – western *Stato da Mar* in 2017. Etymology and historical names ------------------------------ The name of the city of Zadar emerged as *Iadera* and *Iader* in ancient times. It was most probably related to a hydrographical term, coined by an ancient Mediterranean people and their Pre-Indo-European language. They transmitted it to later settlers, the Liburnians. The name of the Liburnian settlement was first mentioned by a Greek inscription from Pharos (Stari grad) on the island of Hvar in 384 BC, where the citizens of Zadar were noted as Ίαδασινοί (*Iadasinoi*). According to the Greek source Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax the city was Ίδασσα (*Idassa*), probably a Greek transcription of the original Liburnian expression. During Antiquity the name was often recorded in sources in Latin in two forms: *Iader* in the inscriptions and in the writings of classic writers, *Iadera* predominantly among the late Antiquity writers, while usual ethnonyms were *Iadestines* and *Iadertines*. The accent was on the first syllable in both Iader and Iadera forms, which influenced the early-Medieval Dalmatian forms *Jadra*, *Jadera* and *Jadertina*, where the accent kept its original place. In Dalmatian, *Jadra* (*Jadera*) was pronounced *Zadra* (*Zadera*), due to the phonetic transformation of *Ja*- to *Za*-.[*needs IPA*] That change was also reflected in the Croatian name *Zadar* (recorded as *Zader* in the 12th century), developed from masculine *Zadъrъ*. An ethnonym graphic *Jaderani* from the legend of Saint Chrysogonus in the 9th century, was identical to the initial old-Slavic form *Zadъrane*, or Renaissance Croatian *Zadrani*. The Dalmatian names *Jadra*, *Jadera* were transferred to other languages; in Venetian *Jatara* (hyper-urbanism in the 9th century) and *Zara*, Hungarian *Zára*, Tuscan *Giara*, Latin *Iadora* and *Diadora* (Constantine VII in *De Administrando Imperio*, 10th century, probably an error in the transcription of *di iadora*), Old French *Jadres* (Geoffroy de Villehardouin in the chronicles of the Fourth Crusade in 1202), Arabic *Jādhara* (جاذَرة) and *Jādara* (جادَرة) (Al-Idrisi, 12th century), *Iadora* (Guido, 12th century), Catalan *Jazara*, *Jara*, *Sarra* (14th century) and the others. Jadera became Zara when it fell under the authority of the Republic of Venice in the 15th century. Zara was later used by the Austrian Empire in the 19th century, but it was provisionally changed to Zadar/Zara from 1910 to 1920; from 1920 to 1947 the city became part of Italy as Zara, and finally was named *Zadar* in 1947. Geography --------- Zadar faces the islands of Ugljan and Pašman (part of the Zadar Archipelago), from which it is separated by the narrow Zadar Strait. The promontory on which the old city stands used to be separated from the mainland by a deep moat which has since been filled. The harbour, to the north-east of the town, is safe and spacious. ### Climate Zadar has a borderline humid subtropical (*Cfa*) and Mediterranean climate (*Csa*). Zadar has mild, wet winters and very warm, humid summers. July and August are the hottest months, with an average high temperature around 29–30 °C (84–86 °F). The highest temperature ever was 40.0 °C (104.0 °F) on 5 August 2017 at the Zadar Zemunik station (records since 1981) and 39.0 °C (102.2 °F) at the old Zadar climate station on 6 August 2022 (records since 1961). Temperatures can consistently reach over 30 °C (86 °F) during the summer months, but during spring and autumn may also reach 30 °C almost every year. Temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F) are rare, and are not maintained for more than a few days. January is the coldest month, with an average temperature around 7.7 °C (46 °F). The recorded the lowest temperature ever in Zadar was −12.0 °C (10.4 °F) on 28 February 2018 at the Zadar Zemunik weather station and −9.1 °C (15.6 °F) on 23 January 1963 at the old Zadar climate station. Through July and August temperature has never dropped below 10 °C (50 °F). October and November are the wettest months, with a total precipitation of about 114 and 119 mm (4.49 and 4.69 in), respectively. July is the driest month, with a total precipitation of around 35 mm (1.38 in). Winter is the wettest season, however it can rain in Zadar at any time of the year. Snow is exceedingly rare, but it may fall in December, January, February and much more rarely in March. On average Zadar has 1.4 days of snow a year, but it is more likely that the snow does not fall. Also the sea temperature is from 10 °C (50 °F) in February to 25 °C (77 °F) in July and August, but is possible to swim from May until October, sometimes even by November. Sometimes in February the sea temperature can drop to only 7 °C (45 °F) and in July exceed 29 °C (84 °F). | Climate data for Zadar (Puntamika Borik) 1971–2000, extremes 1961–2020 | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 17.4(63.3) | 21.2(70.2) | 22.5(72.5) | 26.5(79.7) | 32.0(89.6) | 35.3(95.5) | 36.1(97.0) | 39.0(102.2) | 34.1(93.4) | 27.2(81.0) | 25.0(77.0) | 18.7(65.7) | 39.0(102.2) | | Average high °C (°F) | 10.8(51.4) | 11.3(52.3) | 13.6(56.5) | 16.6(61.9) | 21.3(70.3) | 25.2(77.4) | 28.2(82.8) | 28.2(82.8) | 24.3(75.7) | 20.0(68.0) | 15.1(59.2) | 11.9(53.4) | 18.9(66.0) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 7.3(45.1) | 7.5(45.5) | 9.7(49.5) | 12.9(55.2) | 17.5(63.5) | 21.3(70.3) | 23.9(75.0) | 23.7(74.7) | 19.9(67.8) | 15.9(60.6) | 11.4(52.5) | 8.5(47.3) | 14.9(58.8) | | Average low °C (°F) | 4.3(39.7) | 4.3(39.7) | 6.3(43.3) | 9.3(48.7) | 13.5(56.3) | 17.0(62.6) | 19.3(66.7) | 19.3(66.7) | 16.0(60.8) | 12.5(54.5) | 8.3(46.9) | 5.5(41.9) | 11.3(52.3) | | Record low °C (°F) | −9.1(15.6) | −6.4(20.5) | −6.8(19.8) | 0.5(32.9) | 3.4(38.1) | 8.2(46.8) | 12.7(54.9) | 11.5(52.7) | 8.0(46.4) | 2.3(36.1) | −1.8(28.8) | −6.5(20.3) | −9.1(15.6) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 72.6(2.86) | 62.5(2.46) | 63.5(2.50) | 70.0(2.76) | 64.7(2.55) | 54.4(2.14) | 30.4(1.20) | 49.6(1.95) | 104.0(4.09) | 106.7(4.20) | 105.6(4.16) | 95.2(3.75) | 879.2(34.61) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 10.0 | 8.5 | 8.9 | 10.4 | 9.5 | 8.2 | 5.3 | 5.9 | 8.7 | 9.8 | 11.2 | 10.4 | 106.8 | | Average snowy days (≥ 1.0 cm) | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 1.1 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 72.4 | 70.0 | 71.2 | 72.7 | 73.8 | 71.2 | 67.2 | 69.3 | 73.4 | 73.8 | 73.5 | 72.8 | 71.8 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 114.7 | 146.9 | 186.0 | 207.0 | 275.9 | 303.0 | 350.3 | 322.4 | 246.0 | 182.9 | 123.0 | 108.5 | 2,566.6 | | Source: Croatian Meteorological and Hydrological Service | History ------- Historical affiliations > > > * Liburnia (9th century BC – 59 BC) > * Roman Empire (59 BC – 476) > * Byzantine Empire (476–800) > * Carolingian Empire (800–812) > * Byzantine Empire (812 – 10th century) > * Kingdom of Croatia (10th century – 1202) > * Republic of Venice (1202–1358) > * Kingdom of Croatia (1358–1409) > * Republic of Venice (1409–1797) > * Austrian Empire Habsburg monarchy (1797–1804) > * Austrian Empire Austrian Empire (1804–1805) > * Napoleonic Italy (1806–1809) > * France Illyrian Provinces (1809–1813) > * Austrian Empire Austrian Empire late Austria-Hungary (1813–1918) > * State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (1918) > * Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (1918–1920) > * Kingdom of Italy (1920–1944) > * Yugoslavia ( SR Croatia) (1944–1991) > * Croatia (1991–present) > > > > ### Prehistory The district of present-day Zadar has been populated since prehistoric times. The earliest evidence of human life comes from the Late Stone Age, while numerous settlements have been dated as early as the Neolithic. Before the Illyrians, the area was inhabited by an ancient Mediterranean people of a pre-Indo-European culture. They assimilated with the Indo-Europeans who settled between the 4th and 2nd millennium BC into a new ethnical unity, that of the Liburnians. Zadar was a Liburnian settlement, laid out in the 9th century BC, built on a small stone islet and embankments where the old city stands and tied to the mainland by the overflown narrow isthmus, which created a natural port in its northern strait. ### Antiquity The Liburnians, an Illyrian tribe, were known as great sailors and merchants, but also had a reputation for piracy in the later years. By the 7th century BC, Zadar had become an important centre for their trading activities with the Phoenicians, Etruscans, Ancient Greeks and other Mediterranean peoples. Its population at that time is estimated at 2,000. From the 9th to the 6th century there was certain cultural unity in the Adriatic Sea, with the general Liburninan seal, whose naval supremacy meant both political and economical authority through several centuries. Due to its geographical position, Zadar developed into a main seat of the Liburnian thalassocracy and took a leading role in the Liburnian *tetradekapolis*, an organization of 14 communes. The people of Zadar, *Iadasinoi*, were first mentioned in 384 BC as the allies of the natives of Hvar and the leaders of an eastern Adriatic coast coalition in the fight against the Greek colonizers. An expedition of 10,000 men in 300 ships sailed out from Zadar and laid siege to the Greek colony Pharos in the island of Hvar, but the Syracusan fleet of *Dionysus* was alerted and attacked the siege fleet. The naval victory went to the Greeks which allowed them relatively safer further colonization in the southern Adriatic. The archaeological remains have shown that the main centres of Liburnian territorial units or municipalities were already urbanized in the last centuries BC; before the Roman conquest, Zadar held a territory of more than 600 km2 (230 sq mi) in the 2nd century BC. In the middle of the 2nd century BC, the Romans began to gradually invade the region. Although being first Roman enemies in the Adriatic Sea, the Liburnians, mostly stood aside in more than 230 years of Roman wars with the Illyrians, to protect their naval and trade connections in the sea. In 59 BC, Illyricum was assigned as a *provincia* (zone of responsibility) to Julius Caesar and Liburnian Iadera became a Roman municipium. The Liburnian naval force was dragged into the Roman civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey in 49 BC, partially by force, partially because of the local interests of the participants, the Liburnian cities. Caesar was supported by the urban Liburnian centres, like *Iader* (Zadar), *Aenona* (Nin) and *Curicum* (Krk), while the city of *Issa* (Vis) and the rest of the Liburnians gave their support to Pompey. In 49 BC near the island of Krk, the "Navy of Zadar", equipped by the fleets of a few Liburnian cities and supported by some Roman ships, lost an important naval battle against Pompey supporting the "Liburnian navy". The civil war was prolonged until the end of 48 BC, when Caesar rewarded his supporters in Liburnian *Iader* and Dalmatian *Salona*, by giving the status of the Roman colonies to their communities. Thus the city was granted the title *colonia Iulia Iader*, after its founder, and in the next period some of the Roman colonists (mostly legionary veterans) settled there. The real establishment of the Roman province of Illyricum occurred not earlier than 33 BC and Octavian's military campaign in Illyria and Liburnia, when the Liburnians finally lost their naval independence and their galleys and sailors were incorporated into the Roman naval fleets. From the early days of Roman rule, Zadar gained its Roman urban character and developed into one of the most flourishing centres on the eastern Adriatic coast, a state of affairs which lasted for several hundred years. The town was organised according to the typical Roman street system with a rectangular street plan, a forum, thermae, a sewage and water supply system that came from lake Vrana, by way of a 40 kilometres (25 miles) long aqueduct. It did not play a significant role in the Roman administration of Dalmatia, although the archaeological finds tell us about a significant growth of economy and culture. Christianity did not bypass the Roman province of Dalmatia. Already by the end of the 3rd century Zadar had its own bishop and founding of its Christian community took place; a new religious centre was built north of the forum together with a basilica and a baptistery, as well as other ecclesiastical buildings. According to some estimates, in the 4th century it had probably around ten thousand citizens, including the population from its *ager*, the nearby islands and hinterland, an admixture of the indigenous Liburnians and Roman colonists. ### Early Middle Ages During the Migration Period and the Barbarian invasions, Zadar was one of the remaining Dalmatian city-states, but it stagnated. In 441 and 447 Dalmatia was ravaged by the Huns, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, in 481 Dalmatia became part of the Ostrogothic kingdom, which, besides Italy, already included the more northerly parts of Illyricum, i.e. Pannonia and Noricum. In the 5th century, under the rule of the Ostrogothic Kingdom, Zadar became poor with many civic buildings ruined due to its advanced age. About the same time (6th century) it was hit by an earthquake, which destroyed entire complexes of monumental Roman architecture, whose parts would later serve as material for building houses. This caused a loss of population and created demographic changes in the city, then gradually repopulated by the inhabitants from its hinterland. However, during six decades of Gothic rule, the Goths saved those old Roman Municipal institutions that were still in function, while religious life in Dalmatia even intensified in the last years, so that there was a need for the foundation of additional bishoprics. In 536, the Byzantine emperor Justinian the Great started a military campaign to reconquer the territories of the former Western Empire (see Gothic War); and in 553 Zadar passed to the Byzantine Empire. In 568, Dalmatia was devastated by an Avar invasion; although further waves of attacks by Avar and Slav tribes kept up the pressure, it was the only city which survived due to its protective belt of inland plains. The Dalmatian capital Salona was captured and destroyed in the 640s, so Zadar became the new seat of the Byzantine archonty of Dalmatia, territorially reduced to a few coastal cities with their agers and municipal lands at the coast and the islands nearby. The prior of Zadar had jurisdiction over all Byzantine Dalmatia, so Zadar enjoyed metropolitan status at the eastern Adriatic coast. At this time rebuilding began to take place in the city. At the beginning of the 9th century the Zadar bishop Donatus and the city duke Paul mediated in the dispute between the Holy Roman empire under Pepin and the Byzantine Empire. The Franks held Zadar for a short time, but the city was returned to Byzantium by a decision of the 812 Treaty of Aachen. Zadar's economy revolved around the sea, fishing and sea trade in the first centuries of the Middle Ages. Thanks to saved Antique ager, adjusted municipal structure and a new strategic position, it became the most important city between the Kvarner islands and Kaštela Bay. Byzantine Dalmatia was not territorially unified, but an alliance of city municipalities headed by Zadar, and the large degree of city autonomy allowed the development of Dalmatian cities as free communes. Forced to turn their attention seawards, the inhabitants of Zadar focused on shipping, and the city became a naval power to rival Venice. The citizens were Dalmatian speakers, but from the 7th century Croatian started to spread in the region, becoming predominant in the inland and the islands to the end of the 9th century. The Mediterranean and Adriatic cities developed significantly during a period of peace from the last decades of the 9th to the middle of the 10th century. Especially favourable conditions for navigation in the Adriatic Sea occurred since the Saracen raids had finished. Also the adjustment of relations with the Croats enabled Zadar merchants to trade with its rich agriculture hinterland where the Kingdom of Croatia had formed, and trade and political links with Zadar began to develop. Croatian settlers began to arrive, becoming commonplace by the 10th century, occupying all city classes, as well as important posts, like those of prior, judge, priest and others. In 925, Tomislav, the Duke of Croatian Dalmatia, united Croatian Dalmatia and Pannonia establishing the Croatian Kingdom. Following the dynastic struggle between the descendants of king Stjepan Držislav after his death in 997, the city was besieged in 998 by the army of the Bulgarian emperor Samuel but managed to defend itself. ### High Middle Ages At the time of Zadar's medieval development, the city became a threat to Venice's ambitions, because of its strategic position at the centre of the eastern Adriatic coast. In 998, Zadar sought Venetian protection against the Neretvian pirates. The Venetians were quick to fully exploit this opportunity: in 998 a fleet commanded by Doge Pietro Orseolo II, after having defeated pirates, landed in Korčula and Lastovo. Dalmatia was taken by surprise and offered little serious resistance. Trogir was the exception and was subjected to Venetian rule only after a bloody struggle, whereas Dubrovnik was forced to pay tribute. Tribute previously paid by Zadar to Croatian kings, was redirected to Venice, a state of affairs which lasted for several years. Zadar citizens started to work for the full independence of Zadar and from the 1030s the city was formally a vassal of the Byzantine Empire. The head of this movement was the mightiest Zadar patrician family – the Madi. After negotiations with Byzantium, Zadar was attached to the Croatian state led by king Petar Krešimir IV in 1069. Later, after the death of king Dmitar Zvonimir in 1089 and ensuing dynastic run-ins, in 1105 Zadar accepted the rule of the first Croato-Hungarian king, Coloman, King of Hungary. In the meantime Venice developed into a true trading force in the Adriatic and started attacks on Zadar. The city was repeatedly invaded by Venice between 1111 and 1154 and then once more between 1160 and 1183, when it finally rebelled, appealing to the Pope and to the Croato-Hungarian throne for protection. Zadar was especially devastated in 1202 after the Venetian Doge Enrico Dandolo used the crusaders, on their Fourth Crusade to Palestine, to lay siege to the city. The crusaders were obliged to pay Venice for sea transport to Egypt. As they were not able to produce enough money, the Venetians used them to initiate the Siege of Zadar, when the city was ransacked, demolished and robbed. Emeric, king of Croatia and Hungary, condemned the crusade, because of an argument about the possible heresy committed by God's army in attacking a Christian city. Nonetheless, Zadar was devastated and captured, with the population escaping into the surrounding countryside. Pope Innocent III excommunicated the Venetians and crusaders involved in the siege. Two years later (1204), under the leadership of the Croatian nobleman Domald from Šibenik, most of the refugees returned and liberated the city from what remained of the crusader force. In 1204 Domald was *comes* (duke) of Zadar, but the following year (1205) Venetian authority was re-established and a peace agreement signed with hard conditions for the citizens. The only profit which the Communal Council of Zadar derived from this was one third of the city's harbour taxes, probably insufficient even for the most indispensable communal needs. This did not break the spirit of the city, however. Its commerce was suffering due to a lack of autonomy under Venice, while it enjoyed considerable autonomy under the much more feudal Kingdom of Croatia-Hungary. A number of insurrections followed (1242–1243, 1320s, 1345–1346 – the latter resulted in a sixteen-month-long Venetian siege) which finally resulted in Zadar coming back under the crown of King Louis I of Croatia-Hungary under the Treaty of Zadar, in 1358. After the War of Chioggia between Genoa and Venice, Chioggia concluded on 14 March 1381 an alliance with Zadar and Trogir against Venice, and finally Chioggia became better protected by Venice in 1412, because Šibenik became in 1412 the seat of the main customs office and the seat of the salt consumers office with a monopoly on the salt trade in Chioggia and on the whole Adriatic Sea. After the death of Louis, Zadar recognized the rule of king Sigismund, and after him, that of Ladislaus of Naples. During his reign Croatia-Hungary was enveloped in a bloody civil war. In 1409, Venice, seeing that Ladislaus was about to be defeated, and eager to exploit the situation despite its relative military weakness, offered to buy his "rights" on Dalmatia for a mere 100,000 ducats. Knowing he had lost the region in any case, Ladislaus accepted. Zadar was, thus sold back to the Venetians for a paltry sum. The population of Zadar during the Medieval period was predominantly Croatian, according to numerous archival documents, and Croatian was used in liturgy, as shown by the writings of cardinal Boson, who followed Pope Alexander III en route to Venice in 1177. When the papal ships took shelter in the harbour of Zadar, the inhabitants greeted the Pope by singing lauds and canticles in Croatian. Even though interspersed by sieges and destruction, the time between the 11th and 14th centuries was the golden age of Zadar. Thanks to its political and trading achievements, and also to its skilled seamen, Zadar played an important role among the cities on the east coast of the Adriatic. This affected its appearance and culture: many churches, rich monasteries and palaces for powerful families were built, together with the Chest of Saint Simeon. One of the best examples of the culture and prosperity of Zadar at that time was the founding of the University of Zadar, built in 1396 by the Dominican Order (the oldest university in present-day Croatia). ### 15th to 18th centuries After the death of Louis I, Zadar came under the rule of Sigmund of Luxembourg and later Ladislaus of Naples, who, witnessing his loss of influence in Dalmatia, sold Zadar and his dynasty's rights to Dalmatia to Venice for 100,000 ducats on 31 July 1409. Venice therefore obtained control over Zadar without a fight, but was confronted by the resistance and tensions of important Zadar families. These attempts were met with persecution and confiscation. Zadar remained the administrative seat of Dalmatia, but this time under the rule of Venice, which expanded over the whole Dalmatia, except the Republic of Ragusa/Dubrovnik. During that time Giorgio da Sebenico, a renaissance sculptor and architect, famous for his work on the Cathedral of Šibenik, was born in Zadar. Other important people followed, such as Luciano and Francesco Laurana, known worldwide for their sculptures and buildings. The 16th and 17th centuries were noted in Zadar for Ottoman attacks. Ottomans captured the continental part of Zadar at the beginning of the 16th century and the city itself was all the time in the range of Turkish artillery. Due to that threat, the construction of a new system of castles and walls began. These defense systems changed the way the city looked. To make place for the pentagon castles many houses and churches were taken down, along with an entire suburb: Varoš of St. Martin. After the 40-year-long construction Zadar became the biggest fortified city in Dalmatia, empowered by a system of castles, bastions and canals filled with seawater. The city was supplied by the water from public city cisterns. During the complete makeover of Zadar, many new civic buildings were built, such as the City Lodge and City Guard on the Gospodski Square, several army barracks, but also some large new palaces. In contrast to the insecurity and Ottoman sieges and destruction, an important culture evolved midst the city walls. During the 16th and the 17th centuries Zadar was still under the influence of the Renaissance, which had created an environment in which arts and literature could flourish, despite the ongoing conflicts outside the city walls. This period saw the rise of many important Italian Renaissance figures, such as the painters Giorgio Ventura and Andrea Meldolla, and the humanist scholar Giovanni Francesco Fortunio, who wrote the first Italian grammar book. Meanwhile, the activity of the Croatian writers and poets became prolific (Jerolim Vidolić, Petar Zoranić, Brne Karnarutić, Juraj Baraković, Šime Budinić). During the continuous Ottoman danger the population stagnated by a significant degree along with the economy. During the 16th and 17th centuries several large-scale epidemics of bubonic plague erupted in the city. After more than 150 years of Turkish threat Zadar was not only scarce in population, but also in material wealth. Venice sent new colonists and, under the firm hand of archbishop Vicko Zmajević, the Arbanasi (Catholic Albanian refugees) settled in the city, forming a new suburb. Despite the shortage of money, the Teatro Nobile (Theater for Nobility) was built in 1783. It functioned for over 100 years. ### 19th and 20th centuries In 1797 with the Treaty of Campo Formio, the Republic of Venice, including Zadar, came under the Austrian crown. In 1806 it was briefly given to the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, until in 1809 it was added to the French Illyrian Provinces. In November 1813 an Austrian force blockaded the town with the assistance of two British Royal Navy frigates HMS *Havannah* and *Weazle* under the 3rd Earl of Cadogan. On 9 December the French garrison of Zadar capitulated, and by the end of the year all of Dalmatia was brought back under the control of the Austrian Empire. After the Congress of Vienna (1815) until 1918, the town (bilingual name *Zara – Zadar* ) remained part of the Austrian monarchy (Austria side after the compromise of 1867), head of the district of the same name, one of the 13 *Bezirkshauptmannschaften* in Dalmatia. The Italian name was officially used before 1867. It remained also the capital of Dalmatia province (*Kronland*). Although during the first half of the 19th century the city population stagnated due to low natural increase, the city started to spread from the old center; citizens from the old city created the new suburb of Stanovi in the north. During the second half of the 19th century, there was constant increase of population due to economic growth and immigration. Under the pressure of the population increase, the city continued to spread to Voštarnica and Arbanasi quarters, and the bridge in the city port was built. Except being the administrative center of the province, agriculture, industry of liqueurs and trade were developed, many brotherhoods were established, similar to the Central European trade guilds. The southern city walls were torn down, new coastal facilities were built and Zadar became an *open port*. As the city developed economically, it developed culturally. A large number of printshops, new libraries, archives, and theatres sprung up. At the end of the 19th century there was also stronger industrial development, with 27 small or big factories before the World War I. After 1848, Italian and Croatian nationalistic ideas arrived in the city, which became divided between the Croats and the Italians, both of whom founded their respective political parties. There are conflicting sources for both sides claiming to have formed the majority in Zadar in this period. The archives of the official Austro-Hungarian censuses conducted around the end of 19th century show that Italian was the primary language spoken by the majority of the people in the city (9,018 Italians and 2,551 Croatians in 1900), but only by a third of the population in the entire county (9,234 vs. 21,753 the same year). During the 19th century, the conflict between Zadar's Italian and Croatian communities grew in intensity and changed its nature. Until the beginning of the century it had been of moderate intensity and mainly of a class nature (under Venetian rule the Italians were employed in the most profitable activities, such as trade and administration). With the development of the modern concept of national identity across Europe, national conflicts started to mark the political life of Zadar. During the second part of the 19th century, Zadar was subject to the same policy enacted by the Austrian Empire in South-Tyrol, the Austrian Littoral and Dalmatia and consisting in fostering the local German or Croatian culture at the expense of the Italian. In Zadar and generally throughout Dalmatia, the Austrian policy had the objective to reduce the possibility of any future territorial claim by the Kingdom of Italy. ### Italy (1918–1947) In 1915, Italy entered World War I under the provisions set in the Treaty of London. In exchange for its participation with the Triple Entente and in the event of victory, Italy was to obtain the following territory in northern Dalmatia, including Zadar, Šibenik and most of the Dalmatian islands, except Krk and Rab. At the end of the war, Italian military forces invaded Dalmatia and seized control of Zara, with Admiral Enrico Millo being proclaimed the governor of Dalmatia. Famous Italian nationalist Gabriele d'Annunzio supported the seizure of Dalmatia, and proceeded to Zadar in an Italian warship in December 1918. During 1918, political life in Zadar intensified. The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy led to the renewal of national conflicts in the city. With the arrival of an Italian army of occupation in the city on 4 November 1918, the Italian faction gradually assumed control, a process which was completed on 5 December when it took over the governorship. With the Treaty of Versailles (10 January 1920) Italian claims on Dalmatia contained in the Treaty of London were nullified, but later on the agreements between the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes set in the Treaty of Rapallo (12 November 1920) gave Zadar with other small local territories to Italy. The Zadar enclave, a total of 104 square kilometres (40 square miles), included the city of Zadar, the municipalities of Bokanjac, Arbanasi, Crno, part of Diklo (a total of 51 km2 of territory and 17,065 inhabitants) and the islands of Lastovo and Palagruža (53 square kilometres (20 square miles), 1,710 inhabitants). The territory was organized into a small Italian province, the province of Zara. According to the 1921 census, in the *comune* of Zara there were 12,075 Dalmatian Italians and 1,255 Croatians. ### World War II Germany, Italy, and other Axis Powers, invaded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941. Zadar held a force of 9,000 and was one of the starting points of the invasion. The force reached Šibenik and Split on 15 April (2 days before surrender). Civilians were previously evacuated to Ancona and Pula. Occupying Mostar and Dubrovnik, on 17 April they met invading troops that had started out from Italian-occupied Albania. On 17 April the Yugoslav government surrendered, faced with the Wehrmacht's overwhelming superiority. Mussolini required the newly formed Nazi puppet-state, the so-called Independent State of Croatia (NDH) to hand over almost all of Dalmatia (including Split) to Italy under the Rome Treaties. The city became the center of a new Italian territorial entity, the Governorate of Dalmatia, including the enlarged province of Zara (now Zadar), the province of Cattaro (now Kotor), and the province of Spalato (Split). Under Italian rule, the Croats were subjected to a policy of forced assimilation. This created immense resentment among the Yugoslav people. The Yugoslav Partisan movement took root in Zadar, even though more than 70% of population of Zadar was Italian. After Mussolini was removed from power on 25 July 1943, Italy signed an armistice with the Allies, which was announced on 8 September 1943, and the Italian army collapsed. Then on 12 September 1943, Mussolini was rescued by the Germans, and formed the Nazi-puppet Italian Social Republic. German troops (114th Jäger Division) entered Zadar on 10 September and took over. This avoided a temporary liberation by Partisans, as was the case in Split and Šibenik. Zadar was placed under the control of the Italian Social Republic. The NDH proclaimed the Treaty of Rome to be void and occupied Dalmatia with German support. But the NDH was prevented from taking over Zadar on the grounds that Zadar itself was not subject to the conditions of the 1941 Treaty of Rome. Despite this, NDH leader Ante Pavelić designated Zadar as the capital of the Sidraga-Ravni Kotari County, although the county administrator could not enter the city. During World War II, Zadar was bombed by the Allies, from November 1943 to October 1944. Estimated fatalities range from under 1,000, up to as many as 4,000 of the city's 20,000 inhabitants. Over the course of the bombing, 80% of the city's buildings were destroyed. Zadar has been called the "Dresden of the Adriatic" because of perceived similarities to the Allied bombing of Dresden. In late October 1944, the German army and most of the Italian civilian administration abandoned the city, except the Vice Prefect Giacomo Vuxani. On 31 October 1944, the Partisans seized the city, until then a part of Mussolini's Italian Social Republic. At the start of World War II, Zadar had a population of 24,000; by the end of 1944, this had decreased to 6,000. Though controlled by the Partisans, Zadar remained under nominal Italian sovereignty until the Paris Peace Treaties that took effect on 15 September 1947. After the war Dalmatian Italians of Zadar left Yugoslavia towards Italy (Istrian–Dalmatian exodus). ### SFR Yugoslavia (1947–1991) In 1947, Zadar became part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Socialist Republic of Croatia. In the first decade after the war, the city's population increase was slow and still did not reach its pre-war numbers. The Italian exodus from the city continued and in a few years was almost total. It is estimated that around 10,000 Italians emigrated from Zadar. In October 1953, the last Italian schools in the area were closed. Today the Italian community counts only a few hundred people, gathered into a local community (*Comunità degli Italiani di Zara*). The city recorded a large population increase in the late 1950s and the 1960s, mainly due to immigration as the government encouraged migration from rural areas to urban centers and their industrial development. Construction of the Adriatic Highway, railway and civil airport contributed to the development of tourism and the accessibility of Zadar. Population growth slowed down in the following decades. In the late 1980s, due to the economic crisis in Yugoslavia, Zadar's economy began stagnating. ### Croatian War of Independence (1991–1995) In 1990, Serb separatists from Dalmatian Hinterland sealed roads and effectively blocked Dalmatia from the rest of Croatia during the Log Revolution. In March 1991, the Croatian War of Independence broke out that affected Zadar and its surroundings. A number of non-Serbs were expelled from the area and several Croatian policemen were killed resulting in the 1991 anti-Serb riot in Zadar. Serbs at that time accounted for about 14% of the population. The Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and forces of the SAO Krajina occupied parts of Zadar's hinterland, converged on the city and subjected it to artillery bombardment during the Battle of Zadar. Along with other Croatian towns in the area, Serb forces shelled Zadar sporadically, damaging buildings and homes as well as UNESCO protected sites. Serb forces also attacked a number of nearby towns and villages, the most brutal attack being the Škabrnja massacre in which Krajina Territorial Defense troops killed 62 Croatian civilians and five prisoners of war. Land connections with Zagreb were severed for over a year. The only link between the north and south of the country was via the island of Pag. The siege of the city lasted from 1991 until January 1993 when Zadar and the surrounding area came under the control of Croatian forces and the bridge link with the rest of Croatia was reestablished in Operation Maslenica. Attacks on the city continued until the end of the war in 1995. Some of the countryside along the No. 8 highway running north east is still sectioned off due to land mines. Main sights ----------- ### Architecture Zadar gained its urban structure in Roman times; during the time of Julius Caesar and Emperor Augustus, the town was fortified and the city walls with towers and gates were built. On the western side of the town were the forum, the basilica and the temple, while outside the town were the amphitheatre and cemeteries. The aqueduct which supplied the town with water is partially preserved. Inside the ancient town, a medieval town had developed with a series of churches and monasteries being built. During the Middle Ages, Zadar fully gained its urban aspect, which has been maintained until today. In the first half of the 16th century, Venice fortified the town with a new system of defensive walls on the side facing land. In the course of the century architectural building in the Renaissance style was continued and defensive trenches (Foša) were also built. They were completely buried during the Italian occupation until that in 1873, under Austrian rule, the ramparts of Zadar were converted from fortifications into elevated promenades commanding extensive seaward and landward views, thus being the wall lines preserved; of its four old gates one, the Porta Marina, incorporates the relics of a Roman arch, and another, the Porta di Terraferma, was designed in the 16th century by the Veronese artist Michele Sanmicheli. In the bombardments during the Second World War entire blocks were destroyed, but some structures survived. Most important landmarks include: * Roman Forum – the largest on the eastern side of the Adriatic, founded by the first Roman Emperor Augustus, as shown by two stone inscriptions about its completion dating from the 3rd century. * Most Roman remains were used in the construction of the fortifications, but two squares are embellished with lofty marble columns; a Roman tower stands on the eastern side of the town; and some remains of a Roman aqueduct may be seen outside the ramparts. * Church of St. Donatus – a monumental round building from the 9th century in pre-Romanesque style, traditionally but erroneously said to have been erected on the site of a temple of Juno. It is the most important preserved structure of its period in Dalmatia; the massive dome of the rotunda is surrounded by a vaulted gallery in two stories which also extends around the three apses to the east. The church treasury contains some of the finest Dalmatian metalwork; notably the pastoral staff of Bishop Valaresso (1460). * St. Anastasia's Cathedral (Croatian: *Sv. Stošija*), basilica in Romanesque style built in the 12th to 13th century (high Romanesque style), the largest cathedral in Dalmatia. * The churches of St. Chrysogonus and St. Simeon are also architectural examples in the Romanesque style. The latter houses the ark or reliquary of St. Simeon (1380), made in gilted silver by Francesco Antonio da Milano under commission of queen Elizabeth of Hungary. * St Chrysogonus's Church – monumental Romanesque church of very fine proportions and refined Romanesque ornaments. * St Elijah's Church (Croatian: *Sv. Ilija*) * St Francis' Church, Gothic styled church, site of the signing of the Zadar Peace Treaty 1358. Its choir is home to several carved stalls, executed in 1394 by the Venetian Giovanni di Giacomo da Borgo San Sepolcro. * Five Wells Square * St Mary's Church, which retains a fine Romanesque campanile from 1105, belongs to a Benedictine Convent founded in 1066 by a noblewoman of Zadar by the name of Cika with the permanent Ecclesiastical art exhibition "The Gold and Silver of Zadar". * The Citadel. Built in 1409 southwest of the Land Gate, it has remained the same to this day. * The Land Gate – built to a design by the Venetian architect Michele Sanmicheli in 1543 * The unique sea organ * The Great Arsenal * Among the other chief buildings are the Loggia del Comune, rebuilt in 1565, and containing a public library; the old palace of the priors, now the governor's residence; and the episcopal palaces. ### Culture The first university of Zadar was mentioned in writing as early as in 1396 and it was a part of a Dominican monastery. It closed in 1807. Between the 15th and 17th centuries Zadar was an important Renaissance center, producing an array of Italian Dalmatia architects, sculptors, painters and scholars such as Giorgio da Sebenico, Laurana and Francesco Laurana, Giorgio Ventura, Andrea Meldolla and Giovanni Francesco Fortunio (who wrote the first Italian grammar book). Zadar was, along with Split and Dubrovnik, also one of the centres of the development of Croatian literature. The 15th and 16th centuries were marked by important activities of Croatians writing in the national language: Jerolim Vidolić, Petar Zoranić (who wrote the first Croatian novel, Planine), Brne Karnarutić, Juraj Baraković, Šime Budinić. Under French rule (1806–1810), the first Dalmatian newspaper *Il Regio Dalmata – Kraglski Dalmatin* was published in Zadar. It was printed in Italian and Croatian; the latter used for the first time in a newspaper. In the second half of the 19th century, Zadar was a centre of the movement for the cultural and national revivals in Dalmatia (Italian and Croatian). Today Zadar's cultural institutions include: * The Croatian Theatre House * The National Museum * The Archaeological Museum (established in 1830) * The Museum of Ancient Glass * The University of Zadar (founded in 1396, active until 1807 and refounded in 2002) * The Maritime Museum * Permanent Exhibition of Sacral Art * Croatian Singing Musical Society Zoranić (established 1885) * Musical Evenings in St. Donatus (established 1961) * International Choirs Competition (established 1997) * Arsenal Zadar Notable people -------------- * Tullio Carminati (1894–1971), actor * Arturo Colautti (1851–1914), journalist * Gianni Garko (born 1935), actor * Pope John IV (died 642), pope * Tomislav Karamarko (born 1959), politician * Brne Karnarutić (1515–1573), poet * Francesco Laurana (c. 1430–1502), sculptor * Dominik Livaković (born 1995), footballer * Luka Modrić (born 1985), footballer * Dado Pršo (born 1974), footballer * Giorgio da Sebenico (c. 1410–1473), sculptor * Savo Štrbac (born 1949), lawyer and author * Danijel Subašić (born 1984), footballer * Enrico Tivaroni (1841–1925), magistrate * Giorgio Ventura (16th-17th centuries), painter City government --------------- The administrative area of the City of Zadar includes the nearby villages of Babindub, Crno, Kožino and Petrčane, as well as the islands of Ist, Iž, Molat, Olib, Premuda, Rava and Silba. The total city area, including the islands, covers 194 km2. Zadar is divided into 21 local districts: Arbanasi, Bili Brig, Bokanjac, Brodarica, Crvene Kuće, Diklo, Dračevac, Jazine I, Jazine II, Maslina, Novi Bokanjac, Poluotok, Ploča, Puntamika, Ričina, Sinjoretovo, Smiljevac, Stanovi, Vidikovac, Višnjik, Voštarnica. The current mayor of Zadar is Branko Dukić (HDZ). He was elected for a second term on local elections held on 21 May 2021. The City Council is composed of 27 representatives. ### Mayoral election | | | | Candidates | First round | Runoff | | Candidate | Party | Votes | % | Votes | % | | | Branko Dukić | Croatian Democratic Union | 9,683 | 38.57 | **13,091** | **53.87** | | | Marko Vučetić | Social Democratic Party of Croatia | 6,624 | 26.32 | 15,795 | 43.99 | | | Enio Meštrović | Independent | 5,913 | 23.49 | | | Damir Biloglav | Homeland Movement | 1,281 | 5.09 | | | Rade Škarica | The Bridge | 896 | 3.56 | | | Mario Skelin | Croatian People's Party – Liberal Democrats | 229 | 0.91 | | | **Valid votes:** | | 24,626 | 97.89 | **24,301** | **97.31** | | **Invalid votes** | | 530 | 2.11 | 671 | 2.69 | | **Turnout:** | | 25,156 | 39.23 | 24,972 | 38.94 | | **Registered voters:** | | 64,126 | | 64,125 | | | Source: Grad Zadar (*Election results*) | The City Council is composed of 27 representatives from the following political parties: | Political party | Seats won | Government | | --- | --- | --- | | HDZ | 11 / 27 | Government | | SDP | 8 / 27 | Opposition | | Independents | 7 / 27 | Opposition | | Homeland Movement | 1 / 27 | Opposition | | ### Minority councils and representatives Directly elected minority councils and representatives are tasked with consulting tasks for the local or regional authorities in which they are advocating for minority rights and interests, integration into public life and participation in the management of local affairs. At the 2023 Croatian national minorities councils and representatives elections Albanians, Bosniaks and Serbs of Croatia fulfilled legal requirements to each elect their own 15 members minority councils of the City of Zadar while Slovenes of Croatia elected their individual representative. Population ---------- Historical populations of Zadar (municipal)| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1880 | 19,778 | —     | | 1890 | 21,933 | +10.9% | | 1900 | 24,778 | +13.0% | | 1910 | 27,426 | +10.7% | | 1921 | 26,241 | −4.3% | | 1931 | 26,882 | +2.4% | | 1948 | 23,610 | −12.2% | | 1953 | 25,465 | +7.9% | | 1961 | 33,464 | +31.4% | | 1971 | 50,520 | +51.0% | | 1981 | 67,154 | +32.9% | | 1991 | 80,355 | +19.7% | | 2001 | 72,718 | −9.5% | | 2011 | 75,062 | +3.2% | | Source: Naselja i stanovništvo Republike Hrvatske 1857–2001, DZS, Zagreb, 2005 | Zadar is the fifth largest city in Croatia and the second largest in Dalmatia, with a population of 75,082 according to the 2011 census. The 2001 census showed Zadar with a population of 72,718, with 93% of its citizens being ethnic Croats. **City of Zadar**: Population trends 1857–2021 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | population | 15190 | 16775 | 19778 | 21933 | 24778 | 27426 | 26241 | 26882 | 23610 | 25465 | 33464 | 50520 | 67154 | 80355 | 72718 | 75062 | 70829 | | | 1857 | 1869 | 1880 | 1890 | 1900 | 1910 | 1921 | 1931 | 1948 | 1953 | 1961 | 1971 | 1981 | 1991 | 2001 | 2011 | 2021 | **Sources**: Croatian Bureau of Statistics publications Economy ------- Major industries include tourism, traffic, seaborne trade, agriculture, fishing and fish farming activities; metal manufacturing and mechanical engineering industries; chemicals and non-metal industry; and banking. Some of the largest companies with headquarters in Zadar are: * Tankerska plovidba (maritime transport) * Cromaris (food industry) * Bakmaz (retail) * Sonik (retail) * Turisthotel (tourism) * Maraska (food industry) * Punta Sakla (tourism) * Intermod (furniture retail and tourism) * Adria, Mardešić (fish production) * Vodovod (water supply) * OTP Bank Hrvatska (finance industry) * SAS (machine tools) * Aluflexpack (production of flexible packaging) * Arsenal Holdings (tourism) * Liburnija (transportation) The farmland just northeast of Zadar, *Ravni Kotari*, is a well known source of marasca cherries. Distilleries in Zadar have produced Maraschino since the 16th century. Education --------- There are nine primary schools and 16 secondary schools, including six gymnasiums, in Zadar. ### University University of Zadar was founded by the Dominicans in 1396 as *Universitas Iadertina*, a theological seminary. It was the first institute of higher learning in the country. In 1807 it ceased to become an independent institution and its functions were taken over by other local universities. In 1956 the University of Zagreb, the country's second oldest university, re-established it as its satellite Faculty of Arts campus. The Faculty later became a part of the University of Split, and in 2003, a full-fledged independent university. University comprises 25 departments with more than 6.000 students. Science ------- In 1998, Zadar hosted the Central European Olympiad in Informatics (CEOI). Transportation -------------- In the 20th century, roads became more important than sea routes, but Zadar remained an important traffic point. The main road along the Adriatic passes through the city. In the immediate vicinity, there is the Zagreb–Dubrovnik highway, finished up to Split in 2005. Zadrans can access to the highway by two interchanges: Zadar 1 exit in the north and Zadar 2 highway hub near Zemunik in the south. The southern interchange is connected to Zadar port of Gaženica by the D424 expressway. Today, buses are the only kind of ground public transportation with which one can reach Zadar. Zadar's bus station is used by both inter-city buses (which provide Zadar's connection with the rest of the country) and buses operated by the company "Liburnija" which provide public transit to the city of Zadar and its suburbs. Since 1966, during the time of Yugoslavia, railway has linked Zadar with Knin, where it joins the mainline from Zagreb to Split.  However, all passenger trains between Knin and Zadar were since 2013 replaced with the buses that ran in organisation of the national railway company Croatian Railways. As the company discounted bus-replacement service in 2020, Zadar has officially become the city without passenger railway connections. Zadar also has an international ferry line to Ancona in Italy. Ships also connect Zadar with islands of its archipelago from two ferry ports: one located in the town center serving catamaran services and the other one located in the south suburb of Gaženica serving ferry and distant services. Zadar International Airport is located in Zemunik, around 14 kilometres (9 miles) to the east of Zadar and accessible via the expressway. The airport is experiencing year on year[*when?*] an average of 30% increase in passenger traffic mainly due to arrivals of lowcost carriers (Ryanair, InterSky, JobAir, etc.) connecting Zadar from the end of March through October with over 20 cities throughout Europe. Sports ------ The basketball club is KK Zadar, the football club NK Zadar, and the local handball club RK Zadar. The bowling club Kuglački klub Zadar is also very successful. Zadar is also the hometown of Croatian handball player Ivan Ninčević and football players Luka Modrić, Dado Pršo, Šime Vrsaljko and Danijel Subašić. Other Sports: Badminton: Badminton club Zadar International relations ----------------------- Zadar is twinned, or maintains cultural, economic and educational ties with: * Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom * Reggio Emilia, Italy * Romans-sur-Isère, France * Fürstenfeldbruck, Germany * Székesfehérvár, Hungary * Padua, Italy * Iquique, Chile * Banská Bystrica, Slovakia * Milwaukee, United States See also -------- * Archdiocese of Zadar * Stato da Màr * Bombing of Zadar in World War II * Siege of Zadar (1345–46) * History of Croatia * History of Dalmatia * Krešimir Ćosić Hall * Liburnia * Ottavio Missoni * The church and monastery of St. Michael in Zadar - Croatia * List of people from Zadar County

Zadar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zadar

**Pluto** (minor-planet designation: **134340 Pluto**) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. It is the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object to directly orbit the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume, by a small margin, but is slightly less massive than Eris. Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is made primarily of ice and rock and is much smaller than the inner planets. Pluto has only one sixth the mass of Earth's moon, and one third its volume. Pluto has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit, ranging from 30 to 49 astronomical units (4.5 to 7.3 billion kilometers; 2.8 to 4.6 billion miles) from the Sun. Light from the Sun takes 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its orbital distance of 39.5 AU (5.91 billion km; 3.67 billion mi). Pluto's eccentric orbit periodically brings it closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance prevents them from colliding. Pluto has five known moons: Charon, the largest, whose diameter is just over half that of Pluto; Styx; Nix; Kerberos; and Hydra. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body, and they are tidally locked. The *New Horizons* mission was the first spacecraft to visit Pluto and its moons, making a flyby on July 14, 2015 and taking detailed measurements and observations. Pluto was discovered in 1930, the first object in the Kuiper belt. It was immediately hailed as the ninth planet, but it was always the odd object out, and its planetary status was questioned when it was found to be much smaller than expected. These doubts increased following the discovery of additional objects in the Kuiper belt starting in the 1990s, and particularly the more massive scattered disk object Eris in 2005. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally redefined the term *planet* to exclude dwarf planets such as Pluto. Many planetary astronomers, however, continue to consider Pluto and other dwarf planets to be planets. History ------- ### Discovery In the 1840s, Urbain Le Verrier used Newtonian mechanics to predict the position of the then-undiscovered planet Neptune after analyzing perturbations in the orbit of Uranus. Subsequent observations of Neptune in the late 19th century led astronomers to speculate that Uranus's orbit was being disturbed by another planet besides Neptune. In 1906, Percival Lowell—a wealthy Bostonian who had founded Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, in 1894—started an extensive project in search of a possible ninth planet, which he termed "Planet X". By 1909, Lowell and William H. Pickering had suggested several possible celestial coordinates for such a planet. Lowell and his observatory conducted his search, using mathematical calculations made by Elizabeth Williams, until his death in 1916, but to no avail. Unknown to Lowell, his surveys had captured two faint images of Pluto on March 19 and April 7, 1915, but they were not recognized for what they were. There are fourteen other known precovery observations, with the earliest made by the Yerkes Observatory on August 20, 1909. Percival's widow, Constance Lowell, entered into a ten-year legal battle with the Lowell Observatory over her husband's legacy, and the search for Planet X did not resume until 1929. Vesto Melvin Slipher, the observatory director, gave the job of locating Planet X to 23-year-old Clyde Tombaugh, who had just arrived at the observatory after Slipher had been impressed by a sample of his astronomical drawings. Tombaugh's task was to systematically image the night sky in pairs of photographs, then examine each pair and determine whether any objects had shifted position. Using a blink comparator, he rapidly shifted back and forth between views of each of the plates to create the illusion of movement of any objects that had changed position or appearance between photographs. On February 18, 1930, after nearly a year of searching, Tombaugh discovered a possible moving object on photographic plates taken on January 23 and 29. A lesser-quality photograph taken on January 21 helped confirm the movement. After the observatory obtained further confirmatory photographs, news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on March 13, 1930. As one Plutonian year corresponds to 247.94 Earth years, Pluto will complete its first orbit since its discovery in 2178. ### Name and symbol The name *Pluto* is for the Roman god of the underworld, from a Greek epithet for Hades. Upon the announcement of the discovery, Lowell Observatory received over a thousand suggestions for names. Three names topped the list: Minerva, Pluto and Cronus. 'Minerva' was the Lowell staff's first choice but was rejected because it had already been used for an asteroid; Cronus was disfavored because it was promoted by an unpopular and egocentric astronomer, Thomas Jefferson Jackson See. A vote was taken, and 'Pluto' was the unanimous choice. To make sure the name stuck, and that the planet would not suffer changes in its name as Uranus had, Lowell Observatory proposed the name to the American Astronomical Society and the Royal Astronomical Society; both approved it unanimously. The name was published on May 1, 1930. The name 'Pluto' had received some 150 nominations among the letters and telegrams sent to Lowell. The first had been from Venetia Burney (1918–2009), an eleven-year-old schoolgirl in Oxford, England, who was interested in classical mythology. She had suggested it to her grandfather Falconer Madan when he read the news of Pluto's discovery to his family over breakfast; Madan passed the suggestion to astronomy professor Herbert Hall Turner, who cabled it to colleagues at Lowell on March 16, three days after the announcement. The name 'Pluto' was mythologically appropriate: the god Pluto was one of six surviving children of Saturn, and the others had already all been chosen as names of planets (his brothers Jupiter and Neptune, and his sisters Ceres, Juno and Vesta). Both the god and the planet inhabited "gloomy" regions, and the god was able to make himself invisible, as the planet had been for so long. The choice was further helped by the fact that the first two letters of *Pluto* were the initials of Percival Lowell; indeed, 'Percival' had been one of the more popular suggestions for a name for the new planet. Pluto's planetary symbol ⟨♇⟩ was then created as a monogram of the letters "PL". This symbol is rarely used in astronomy anymore, though it is still common in astrology. However, the most-common astrological symbol for Pluto, occasionally used in astronomy as well, is an orb (possibly representing Pluto's invisibility cap) over Pluto's bident ⟨⯓⟩, which dates to the early 1930s. The name 'Pluto' was soon embraced by wider culture. In 1930, Walt Disney was apparently inspired by it when he introduced for Mickey Mouse a canine companion named Pluto, although Disney animator Ben Sharpsteen could not confirm why the name was given. In 1941, Glenn T. Seaborg named the newly created element plutonium after Pluto, in keeping with the tradition of naming elements after newly discovered planets, following uranium, which was named after Uranus, and neptunium, which was named after Neptune. Most languages use the name "Pluto" in various transliterations. In Japanese, Houei Nojiri suggested the calque *Meiōsei* (冥王星, "Star of the King (God) of the Underworld"), and this was borrowed into Chinese and Korean. Some languages of India use the name Pluto, but others, such as Hindi, use the name of *Yama*, the God of Death in Hinduism. Polynesian languages also tend to use the indigenous god of the underworld, as in Māori *Whiro*. Vietnamese might be expected to follow Chinese, but does not because the Sino-Vietnamese word 冥 *minh* "dark" is homophonous with 明 *minh* "bright". Vietnamese instead uses Yama, which is also a Buddhist deity, in the form of *Sao Diêm Vương* 星閻王 "Yama's Star", derived from Chinese 閻王 *Yán Wáng / Yìhm Wòhng* "King Yama". ### Planet X disproved Once Pluto was found, its faintness and lack of a viewable disc cast doubt on the idea that it was Lowell's Planet X. Estimates of Pluto's mass were revised downward throughout the 20th century. Mass estimates for Pluto| Year | Mass | Estimate by | | --- | --- | --- | | 1915 | 7 Earths | Lowell (prediction for Planet X) | | 1931 | 1 Earth | Nicholson & Mayall | | 1948 | 0.1 (1/10) Earth | Kuiper | | 1976 | 0.01 (1/100) Earth | Cruikshank, Pilcher, & Morrison | | 1978 | 0.0015 (1/650) Earth | Christy & Harrington | | 2006 | 0.00218 (1/459) Earth | Buie et al. | Astronomers initially calculated its mass based on its presumed effect on Neptune and Uranus. In 1931, Pluto was calculated to be roughly the mass of Earth, with further calculations in 1948 bringing the mass down to roughly that of Mars. In 1976, Dale Cruikshank, Carl Pilcher and David Morrison of the University of Hawaiʻi calculated Pluto's albedo for the first time, finding that it matched that for methane ice; this meant Pluto had to be exceptionally luminous for its size and therefore could not be more than 1 percent the mass of Earth. (Pluto's albedo is 1.4–1.9 times that of Earth.) In 1978, the discovery of Pluto's moon Charon allowed the measurement of Pluto's mass for the first time: roughly 0.2% that of Earth, and far too small to account for the discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus. Subsequent searches for an alternative Planet X, notably by Robert Sutton Harrington, failed. In 1992, Myles Standish used data from *Voyager 2'*s flyby of Neptune in 1989, which had revised the estimates of Neptune's mass downward by 0.5%—an amount comparable to the mass of Mars—to recalculate its gravitational effect on Uranus. With the new figures added in, the discrepancies, and with them the need for a Planet X, vanished. As of 2000[update] the majority of scientists agree that Planet X, as Lowell defined it, does not exist. Lowell had made a prediction of Planet X's orbit and position in 1915 that was fairly close to Pluto's actual orbit and its position at that time; Ernest W. Brown concluded soon after Pluto's discovery that this was a coincidence. ### Classification From 1992 onward, many bodies were discovered orbiting in the same volume as Pluto, showing that Pluto is part of a population of objects called the Kuiper belt. This made its official status as a planet controversial, with many questioning whether Pluto should be considered together with or separately from its surrounding population. Museum and planetarium directors occasionally created controversy by omitting Pluto from planetary models of the Solar System. In February 2000 the Hayden Planetarium in New York City displayed a Solar System model of only eight planets, which made headlines almost a year later. Ceres, Pallas, Juno and Vesta lost their planet status after the discovery of many other asteroids. Similarly, objects increasingly closer in size to Pluto were discovered in the Kuiper belt region. On July 29, 2005, astronomers at Caltech announced the discovery of a new trans-Neptunian object, Eris, which was substantially more massive than Pluto and the most massive object discovered in the Solar System since Triton in 1846. Its discoverers and the press initially called it the tenth planet, although there was no official consensus at the time on whether to call it a planet. Others in the astronomical community considered the discovery the strongest argument for reclassifying Pluto as a minor planet. #### IAU classification The debate came to a head in August 2006, with an IAU resolution that created an official definition for the term "planet". According to this resolution, there are three conditions for an object in the Solar System to be considered a planet: * The object must be in orbit around the Sun. * The object must be massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity. More specifically, its own gravity should pull it into a shape defined by hydrostatic equilibrium. * It must have cleared the neighborhood around its orbit. Pluto fails to meet the third condition. Its mass is substantially less than the combined mass of the other objects in its orbit: 0.07 times, in contrast to Earth, which is 1.7 million times the remaining mass in its orbit (excluding the moon). The IAU further decided that bodies that, like Pluto, meet criteria 1 and 2, but do not meet criterion 3 would be called dwarf planets. In September 2006, the IAU included Pluto, and Eris and its moon Dysnomia, in their Minor Planet Catalogue, giving them the official minor-planet designations "(134340) Pluto", "(136199) Eris", and "(136199) Eris I Dysnomia". Had Pluto been included upon its discovery in 1930, it would have likely been designated 1164, following 1163 Saga, which was discovered a month earlier. There has been some resistance within the astronomical community toward the reclassification. Alan Stern, principal investigator with NASA's *New Horizons* mission to Pluto, derided the IAU resolution. He also stated that because less than five percent of astronomers voted for it, the decision was not representative of the entire astronomical community. Marc W. Buie, then at the Lowell Observatory, petitioned against the definition. Others have supported the IAU, for example Mike Brown, the astronomer who discovered Eris. Public reception to the IAU decision was mixed. A resolution introduced in the California State Assembly facetiously called the IAU decision a "scientific heresy". The New Mexico House of Representatives passed a resolution in honor of Tombaugh, a longtime resident of that state, that declared that Pluto will always be considered a planet while in New Mexican skies and that March 13, 2007, was Pluto Planet Day. The Illinois Senate passed a similar resolution in 2009, on the basis that Clyde Tombaugh, the discoverer of Pluto, was born in Illinois. The resolution asserted that Pluto was "unfairly downgraded to a 'dwarf' planet" by the IAU." Some members of the public have also rejected the change, citing the disagreement within the scientific community on the issue, or for sentimental reasons, maintaining that they have always known Pluto as a planet and will continue to do so regardless of the IAU decision. In 2006, in its 17th annual words-of-the-year vote, the American Dialect Society voted *plutoed* as the word of the year. To "pluto" is to "demote or devalue someone or something". Researchers on both sides of the debate gathered in August 2008, at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory for a conference that included back-to-back talks on the IAU definition of a planet. Entitled "The Great Planet Debate", the conference published a post-conference press release indicating that scientists could not come to a consensus about the definition of planet. In June 2008, the IAU had announced in a press release that the term "plutoid" would henceforth be used to refer to Pluto and other planetary-mass objects that have an orbital semi-major axis greater than that of Neptune, though the term has not seen significant use. Orbit ----- Pluto's orbital period is about 248 years. Its orbital characteristics are substantially different from those of the planets, which follow nearly circular orbits around the Sun close to a flat reference plane called the ecliptic. In contrast, Pluto's orbit is moderately inclined relative to the ecliptic (over 17°) and moderately eccentric (elliptical). This eccentricity means a small region of Pluto's orbit lies closer to the Sun than Neptune's. The Pluto–Charon barycenter came to perihelion on September 5, 1989, and was last closer to the Sun than Neptune between February 7, 1979, and February 11, 1999. Although the 3:2 resonance with Neptune (see below) is maintained, Pluto's inclination and eccentricity behave in a chaotic manner. Computer simulations can be used to predict its position for several million years (both forward and backward in time), but after intervals much longer than the Lyapunov time of 10–20 million years, calculations become unreliable: Pluto is sensitive to immeasurably small details of the Solar System, hard-to-predict factors that will gradually change Pluto's position in its orbit. The semi-major axis of Pluto's orbit varies between about 39.3 and 39.6 au with a period of about 19,951 years, corresponding to an orbital period varying between 246 and 249 years. The semi-major axis and period are presently getting longer. ### Relationship with Neptune Despite Pluto's orbit appearing to cross that of Neptune when viewed from directly above, the two objects' orbits do not intersect. When Pluto is closest to the Sun, and close to Neptune's orbit as viewed from above, it is also the farthest above Neptune's path. Pluto's orbit passes about 8 AU above that of Neptune, preventing a collision. This alone is not enough to protect Pluto; perturbations from the planets (especially Neptune) could alter Pluto's orbit (such as its orbital precession) over millions of years so that a collision could be possible. However, Pluto is also protected by its 2:3 orbital resonance with Neptune: for every two orbits that Pluto makes around the Sun, Neptune makes three. Each cycle lasts about 495 years. (There are many other objects in this same resonance, called plutinos.) This pattern is such that, in each 495-year cycle, the first time Pluto is near perihelion, Neptune is over 50° behind Pluto. By Pluto's second perihelion, Neptune will have completed a further one and a half of its own orbits, and so will be nearly 130° ahead of Pluto. Pluto and Neptune's minimum separation is over 17 AU, which is greater than Pluto's minimum separation from Uranus (11 AU). The minimum separation between Pluto and Neptune actually occurs near the time of Pluto's aphelion. The 2:3 resonance between the two bodies is highly stable and has been preserved over millions of years. This prevents their orbits from changing relative to one another, and so the two bodies can never pass near each other. Even if Pluto's orbit were not inclined, the two bodies could never collide. The long term stability of the mean-motion resonance is due to phase protection. When Pluto's period is slightly shorter than 3/2 of Neptune, its orbit relative to Neptune will drift, causing it to make closer approaches behind Neptune's orbit. The gravitational pull between the two then causes angular momentum to be transferred to Pluto, at Neptune's expense. This moves Pluto into a slightly larger orbit, where it travels slightly more slowly, according to Kepler's third law. After many such repetitions, Pluto is sufficiently slowed that Pluto's orbit relative to Neptune drifts in the opposite direction until the process is reversed. The whole process takes about 20,000 years to complete. #### Other factors Numerical studies have shown that over millions of years, the general nature of the alignment between the orbits of Pluto and Neptune does not change. There are several other resonances and interactions that enhance Pluto's stability. These arise principally from two additional mechanisms (besides the 2:3 mean-motion resonance). First, Pluto's argument of perihelion, the angle between the point where it crosses the ecliptic and the point where it is closest to the Sun, librates around 90°. This means that when Pluto is closest to the Sun, it is at its farthest above the plane of the Solar System, preventing encounters with Neptune. This is a consequence of the Kozai mechanism, which relates the eccentricity of an orbit to its inclination to a larger perturbing body—in this case, Neptune. Relative to Neptune, the amplitude of libration is 38°, and so the angular separation of Pluto's perihelion to the orbit of Neptune is always greater than 52° (90°–38°). The closest such angular separation occurs every 10,000 years. Second, the longitudes of ascending nodes of the two bodies—the points where they cross the ecliptic—are in near-resonance with the above libration. When the two longitudes are the same—that is, when one could draw a straight line through both nodes and the Sun—Pluto's perihelion lies exactly at 90°, and hence it comes closest to the Sun when it is highest above Neptune's orbit. This is known as the *1:1 superresonance*. All the Jovian planets, particularly Jupiter, play a role in the creation of the superresonance. Rotation -------- Pluto's rotation period, its day, is equal to 6.387 Earth days. Like Uranus and 2 Pallas, Pluto rotates on its "side" in its orbital plane, with an axial tilt of 120°, and so its seasonal variation is extreme; at its solstices, one-fourth of its surface is in continuous daylight, whereas another fourth is in continuous darkness. The reason for this unusual orientation has been debated. Research from the University of Arizona has suggested that it may be due to the way that a body's spin will always adjust to minimise energy. This could mean a body reorienting itself to put extraneous mass near the equator and regions lacking mass tend towards the poles. This is called *polar wander*. According to a paper released from the University of Arizona, this could be caused by masses of frozen nitrogen building up in shadowed areas of the dwarf planet. These masses would cause the body to reorient itself, leading to its unusual axial tilt of 120°. The buildup of nitrogen is due to Pluto's vast distance from the Sun. At the equator, temperatures can drop to −240 °C (−400.0 °F; 33.1 K), causing nitrogen to freeze as water would freeze on Earth. The same effect seen on Pluto would be observed on Earth were the Antarctic ice sheet several times larger. Geology ------- ### Surface The plains on Pluto's surface are composed of more than 98 percent nitrogen ice, with traces of methane and carbon monoxide. Nitrogen and carbon monoxide are most abundant on the anti-Charon face of Pluto (around 180° longitude, where Tombaugh Regio's western lobe, Sputnik Planitia, is located), whereas methane is most abundant near 300° east. The mountains are made of water ice. Pluto's surface is quite varied, with large differences in both brightness and color. Pluto is one of the most contrastive bodies in the Solar System, with as much contrast as Saturn's moon Iapetus. The color varies from charcoal black, to dark orange and white. Pluto's color is more similar to that of Io with slightly more orange and significantly less red than Mars. Notable geographical features include Tombaugh Regio, or the "Heart" (a large bright area on the side opposite Charon), Cthulhu Macula, or the "Whale" (a large dark area on the trailing hemisphere), and the "Brass Knuckles" (a series of equatorial dark areas on the leading hemisphere). Sputnik Planitia, the western lobe of the "Heart", is a 1,000 km-wide basin of frozen nitrogen and carbon monoxide ices, divided into polygonal cells, which are interpreted as convection cells that carry floating blocks of water ice crust and sublimation pits towards their margins; there are obvious signs of glacial flows both into and out of the basin. It has no craters that were visible to *New Horizons*, indicating that its surface is less than 10 million years old. Latest studies have shown that the surface has an age of 180000+90000 −40000 years. The New Horizons science team summarized initial findings as "Pluto displays a surprisingly wide variety of geological landforms, including those resulting from glaciological and surface–atmosphere interactions as well as impact, tectonic, possible cryovolcanic, and mass-wasting processes." In Western parts of Sputnik Planitia there are fields of transverse dunes formed by the winds blowing from the center of Sputnik Planitia in the direction of surrounding mountains. The dune wavelengths are in the range of 0.4–1 km and likely consist of methane particles 200–300 μm in size. * Distribution of over 1000 craters of all ages in the northern anti-Charon quadrant of Pluto. The variation in density (with none found in Sputnik Planitia) indicates a long history of varying geological activity. The lack of crater on the left and right of the map is due to low-resolution coverage of those sub-Charon regions.Distribution of over 1000 craters of all ages in the northern anti-Charon quadrant of Pluto. The variation in density (with none found in Sputnik Planitia) indicates a long history of varying geological activity. The lack of crater on the left and right of the map is due to low-resolution coverage of those sub-Charon regions. * Geologic map of Sputnik Planitia and surroundings (context), with convection cell margins outlined in blackGeologic map of Sputnik Planitia and surroundings (context), with convection cell margins outlined in black * Regions where water ice has been detected (blue regions)Regions where water ice has been detected (blue regions) ### Internal structure Pluto's density is 1.860±0.013 g/cm3. Because the decay of radioactive elements would eventually heat the ices enough for the rock to separate from them, scientists expect that Pluto's internal structure is differentiated, with the rocky material having settled into a dense core surrounded by a mantle of water ice. The pre–*New Horizons* estimate for the diameter of the core is 1700 km, 70% of Pluto's diameter. Pluto has no magnetic field. It is possible that such heating continues, creating a subsurface ocean of liquid water 100 to 180 km thick at the core–mantle boundary. In September 2016, scientists at Brown University simulated the impact thought to have formed Sputnik Planitia, and showed that it might have been the result of liquid water upwelling from below after the collision, implying the existence of a subsurface ocean at least 100 km deep. In June 2020, astronomers reported evidence that Pluto may have had a subsurface ocean, and consequently may have been habitable, when it was first formed. In March 2022, they concluded that peaks on Pluto are actually a merger of "ice volcanoes", suggesting a source of heat on the body at levels previously thought not possible. Mass and size ------------- Pluto's diameter is 2376.6±3.2 km and its mass is (1.303±0.003)×1022 kg, 17.7% that of the Moon (0.22% that of Earth). Its surface area is 1.774443×107 km2, or just slightly bigger than Russia or Antarctica. Its surface gravity is 0.063 *g* (compared to 1 *g* for Earth and 0.17 *g* for the Moon). The discovery of Pluto's satellite Charon in 1978 enabled a determination of the mass of the Pluto–Charon system by application of Newton's formulation of Kepler's third law. Observations of Pluto in occultation with Charon allowed scientists to establish Pluto's diameter more accurately, whereas the invention of adaptive optics allowed them to determine its shape more accurately. With less than 0.2 lunar masses, Pluto is much less massive than the terrestrial planets, and also less massive than seven moons: Ganymede, Titan, Callisto, Io, the Moon, Europa, and Triton. The mass is much less than thought before Charon was discovered. Pluto is more than twice the diameter and a dozen times the mass of Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt. It is less massive than the dwarf planet Eris, a trans-Neptunian object discovered in 2005, though Pluto has a larger diameter of 2,376.6 km compared to Eris's approximate diameter of 2,326 km. Determinations of Pluto's size have been complicated by its atmosphere and hydrocarbon haze. In March 2014, Lellouch, de Bergh et al. published findings regarding methane mixing ratios in Pluto's atmosphere consistent with a Plutonian diameter greater than 2,360 km, with a "best guess" of 2,368 km. On July 13, 2015, images from NASA's *New Horizons* mission Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI), along with data from the other instruments, determined Pluto's diameter to be 2,370 km (1,470 mi), which was later revised to be 2,372 km (1,474 mi) on July 24, and later to 2374±8 km. Using radio occultation data from the *New Horizons* Radio Science Experiment (REX), the diameter was found to be 2376.6±3.2 km. The masses of Pluto and Charon compared to other dwarf planets (Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Orcus, Ceres) and to the icy moons Triton (Neptune I), Titania (Uranus III), Oberon (Uranus IV), Rhea (Saturn V) and Iapetus (Saturn VIII). The unit of mass is ×1021 kg. Atmosphere ---------- Pluto has a tenuous atmosphere consisting of nitrogen (N2), methane (CH4), and carbon monoxide (CO), which are in equilibrium with their ices on Pluto's surface. According to the measurements by *New Horizons*, the surface pressure is about 1 Pa (10 μbar), roughly one million to 100,000 times less than Earth's atmospheric pressure. It was initially thought that, as Pluto moves away from the Sun, its atmosphere should gradually freeze onto the surface; studies of *New Horizons* data and ground-based occultations show that Pluto's atmospheric density increases, and that it likely remains gaseous throughout Pluto's orbit. *New Horizons* observations showed that atmospheric escape of nitrogen to be 10,000 times less than expected. Alan Stern has contended that even a small increase in Pluto's surface temperature can lead to exponential increases in Pluto's atmospheric density; from 18 hPa to as much as 280 hPa (three times that of Mars to a quarter that of the Earth). At such densities, nitrogen could flow across the surface as liquid. Just like sweat cools the body as it evaporates from the skin, the sublimation of Pluto's atmosphere cools its surface. Pluto has no or almost no troposphere; observations by *New Horizons* suggest only a thin tropospheric boundary layer. Its thickness in the place of measurement was 4 km, and the temperature was 37±3 K. The layer is not continuous. In July 2019, an occultation by Pluto showed that its atmospheric pressure, against expectations, had fallen by 20% since 2016. In 2021, astronomers at the Southwest Research Institute confirmed the result using data from an occultation in 2018, which showed that light was appearing less gradually from behind Pluto's disc, indicating a thinning atmosphere. The presence of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, in Pluto's atmosphere creates a temperature inversion, with the average temperature of its atmosphere tens of degrees warmer than its surface, though observations by *New Horizons* have revealed Pluto's upper atmosphere to be far colder than expected (70 K, as opposed to about 100 K). Pluto's atmosphere is divided into roughly 20 regularly spaced haze layers up to 150 km high, thought to be the result of pressure waves created by airflow across Pluto's mountains. Satellites ---------- Pluto has five known natural satellites. The closest to Pluto is Charon. First identified in 1978 by astronomer James Christy, Charon is the only moon of Pluto that may be in hydrostatic equilibrium. Charon's mass is sufficient to cause the barycenter of the Pluto–Charon system to be outside Pluto. Beyond Charon there are four much smaller circumbinary moons. In order of distance from Pluto they are Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra. Nix and Hydra were both discovered in 2005, Kerberos was discovered in 2011, and Styx was discovered in 2012. The satellites' orbits are circular (eccentricity < 0.006) and coplanar with Pluto's equator (inclination < 1°), and therefore tilted approximately 120° relative to Pluto's orbit. The Plutonian system is highly compact: the five known satellites orbit within the inner 3% of the region where prograde orbits would be stable. The orbital periods of all Pluto's moons are linked in a system of orbital resonances and near resonances. When precession is accounted for, the orbital periods of Styx, Nix, and Hydra are in an exact 18:22:33 ratio. There is a sequence of approximate ratios, 3:4:5:6, between the periods of Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra with that of Charon; the ratios become closer to being exact the further out the moons are. The Pluto–Charon system is one of the few in the Solar System whose barycenter lies outside the primary body; the Patroclus–Menoetius system is a smaller example, and the Sun–Jupiter system is the only larger one. The similarity in size of Charon and Pluto has prompted some astronomers to call it a double dwarf planet. The system is also unusual among planetary systems in that each is tidally locked to the other, which means that Pluto and Charon always have the same hemisphere facing each other — a property shared by only one other known system, Eris and Dysnomia. From any position on either body, the other is always at the same position in the sky, or always obscured. This also means that the rotation period of each is equal to the time it takes the entire system to rotate around its barycenter. In 2007, observations by the Gemini Observatory of patches of ammonia hydrates and water crystals on the surface of Charon suggested the presence of active cryo-geysers. Pluto's moons are hypothesized to have been formed by a collision between Pluto and a similar-sized body, early in the history of the Solar System. The collision released material that consolidated into the moons around Pluto. ### Quasi-satellite In 2012, it was calculated that 15810 Arawn could be a quasi-satellite of Pluto, a specific type of co-orbital configuration. According to the calculations, the object would be a quasi-satellite of Pluto for about 350,000 years out of every two-million-year period. Measurements made by the *New Horizons* spacecraft in 2015 made it possible to calculate the orbit of Arawn more accurately, and confirmed the earlier ones. However, it is not agreed upon among astronomers whether Arawn should be classified as a quasi-satellite of Pluto based on its orbital dynamics, since its orbit is primarily controlled by Neptune with only occasional perturbations by Pluto. Origin ------- Pluto's origin and identity had long puzzled astronomers. One early hypothesis was that Pluto was an escaped moon of Neptune knocked out of orbit by Neptune's largest moon, Triton. This idea was eventually rejected after dynamical studies showed it to be impossible because Pluto never approaches Neptune in its orbit. Pluto's true place in the Solar System began to reveal itself only in 1992, when astronomers began to find small icy objects beyond Neptune that were similar to Pluto not only in orbit but also in size and composition. This trans-Neptunian population is thought to be the source of many short-period comets. Pluto is the largest member of the Kuiper belt, a stable belt of objects located between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun. As of 2011, surveys of the Kuiper belt to magnitude 21 were nearly complete and any remaining Pluto-sized objects are expected to be beyond 100 AU from the Sun. Like other Kuiper-belt objects (KBOs), Pluto shares features with comets; for example, the solar wind is gradually blowing Pluto's surface into space. It has been claimed that if Pluto were placed as near to the Sun as Earth, it would develop a tail, as comets do. This claim has been disputed with the argument that Pluto's escape velocity is too high for this to happen. It has been proposed that Pluto may have formed as a result of the agglomeration of numerous comets and Kuiper-belt objects. Though Pluto is the largest Kuiper belt object discovered, Neptune's moon Triton, which is larger than Pluto, is similar to it both geologically and atmospherically, and is thought to be a captured Kuiper belt object. Eris (see above) is about the same size as Pluto (though more massive) but is not strictly considered a member of the Kuiper belt population. Rather, it is considered a member of a linked population called the scattered disc. Many Kuiper belt objects, like Pluto, are in a 2:3 orbital resonance with Neptune. KBOs with this orbital resonance are called "plutinos", after Pluto. Like other members of the Kuiper belt, Pluto is thought to be a residual planetesimal; a component of the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into a full-fledged planet. Most astronomers agree that Pluto owes its position to a sudden migration undergone by Neptune early in the Solar System's formation. As Neptune migrated outward, it approached the objects in the proto-Kuiper belt, setting one in orbit around itself (Triton), locking others into resonances, and knocking others into chaotic orbits. The objects in the scattered disc, a dynamically unstable region overlapping the Kuiper belt, are thought to have been placed in their positions by interactions with Neptune's migrating resonances. A computer model created in 2004 by Alessandro Morbidelli of the Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur in Nice suggested that the migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt may have been triggered by the formation of a 1:2 resonance between Jupiter and Saturn, which created a gravitational push that propelled both Uranus and Neptune into higher orbits and caused them to switch places, ultimately doubling Neptune's distance from the Sun. The resultant expulsion of objects from the proto-Kuiper belt could also explain the Late Heavy Bombardment 600 million years after the Solar System's formation and the origin of the Jupiter trojans. It is possible that Pluto had a near-circular orbit about 33 AU from the Sun before Neptune's migration perturbed it into a resonant capture. The Nice model requires that there were about a thousand Pluto-sized bodies in the original planetesimal disk, which included Triton and Eris. Observation and exploration --------------------------- ### Observation Pluto's distance from Earth makes its in-depth study and exploration difficult. Pluto's visual apparent magnitude averages 15.1, brightening to 13.65 at perihelion. To see it, a telescope is required; around 30 cm (12 in) aperture being desirable. It looks star-like and without a visible disk even in large telescopes, because its angular diameter is maximum 0.11". The earliest maps of Pluto, made in the late 1980s, were brightness maps created from close observations of eclipses by its largest moon, Charon. Observations were made of the change in the total average brightness of the Pluto–Charon system during the eclipses. For example, eclipsing a bright spot on Pluto makes a bigger total brightness change than eclipsing a dark spot. Computer processing of many such observations can be used to create a brightness map. This method can also track changes in brightness over time. Better maps were produced from images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), which offered higher resolution, and showed considerably more detail, resolving variations several hundred kilometers across, including polar regions and large bright spots. These maps were produced by complex computer processing, which finds the best-fit projected maps for the few pixels of the Hubble images. These remained the most detailed maps of Pluto until the flyby of *New Horizons* in July 2015, because the two cameras on the HST used for these maps were no longer in service. ### Exploration The *New Horizons* spacecraft, which flew by Pluto in July 2015, is the first and so far only attempt to explore Pluto directly. Launched in 2006, it captured its first (distant) images of Pluto in late September 2006 during a test of the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager. The images, taken from a distance of approximately 4.2 billion kilometers, confirmed the spacecraft's ability to track distant targets, critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects. In early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from Jupiter. *New Horizons* made its closest approach to Pluto on July 14, 2015, after a 3,462-day journey across the Solar System. Scientific observations of Pluto began five months before the closest approach and continued for at least a month after the encounter. Observations were conducted using a remote sensing package that included imaging instruments and a radio science investigation tool, as well as spectroscopic and other experiments. The scientific goals of *New Horizons* were to characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and its moon Charon, map their surface composition, and analyze Pluto's neutral atmosphere and its escape rate. On October 25, 2016, at 05:48 pm ET, the last bit of data (of a total of 50 billion bits of data; or 6.25 gigabytes) was received from *New Horizons* from its close encounter with Pluto. Since the *New Horizons* flyby, scientists have advocated for an orbiter mission that would return to Pluto to fulfill new science objectives. They include mapping the surface at 9.1 m (30 ft) per pixel, observations of Pluto's smaller satellites, observations of how Pluto changes as it rotates on its axis, investigations of a possible subsurface ocean, and topographic mapping of Pluto's regions that are covered in long-term darkness due to its axial tilt. The last objective could be accomplished using laser pulses to generate a complete topographic map of Pluto. *New Horizons* principal investigator Alan Stern has advocated for a *Cassini*-style orbiter that would launch around 2030 (the 100th anniversary of Pluto's discovery) and use Charon's gravity to adjust its orbit as needed to fulfill science objectives after arriving at the Pluto system. The orbiter could then use Charon's gravity to leave the Pluto system and study more KBOs after all Pluto science objectives are completed. A conceptual study funded by the NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) program describes a fusion-enabled Pluto orbiter and lander based on the Princeton field-reversed configuration reactor. *New Horizons* imaged all of Pluto's northern hemisphere, and the equatorial regions down to about 30° South. Higher southern latitudes have only been observed, at very low resolution, from Earth. Images from the Hubble Space Telescope in 1996 cover 85% of Pluto and show large albedo features down to about 75° South. This is enough to show the extent of the temperate-zone maculae. Later images had slightly better resolution, due to minor improvements in Hubble instrumentation. The equatorial region of the sub-Charon hemisphere of Pluto has only been imaged at low resolution, as *New Horizons* made its closest approach to the anti-Charon hemisphere. Some albedo variations in the higher southern latitudes could be detected by *New Horizons* using Charon-shine (light reflected off Charon). The south polar region seems to be darker than the north polar region, but there is a high-albedo region in the southern hemisphere that may be a regional nitrogen or methane ice deposit. See also -------- * *How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming* * List of geological features on Pluto * Pluto in astrology * Pluto in fiction * Stats of planets in the Solar System Further reading --------------- * Codex Regius (2016), *Pluto & Charon*, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform ISBN 978-1534960749 * Stern, S A and Tholen, D J (1997), *Pluto and Charon*, University of Arizona Press ISBN 978-0816518401 * Stern, Alan; Grinspoon, David (2018). *Chasing New Horizons: Inside the Epic First Mission to Pluto*. Picador. ISBN 978-125009896-2. * Stern, S. Alan (August 10, 2021). *The Pluto System After New Horizons*. University of Arizona Press. p. 688. ISBN 978-0816540945. External links -------------- * *New Horizons* homepage * Pluto Profile at NASA's Solar System Exploration site * NASA Pluto factsheet * Website of the observatory that discovered Pluto * Earth telescope image of Pluto system * Keck infrared with AO of Pluto system * Video – Pluto – viewed through the years (GIF) (NASA; animation; July 15, 2015). * Video – Pluto – "FlyThrough" (00:22; MP4) (YouTube) (NASA; animation; August 31, 2015). * "A Day on Pluto Video made from July 2015 New Horizon Images" Scientific American * NASA CGI video of Pluto flyover (July 14, 2017) * CGI video simulation of rotating Pluto by Seán Doran (see album for more) * Google Pluto 3D, interactive map of the dwarf planet * "Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the Plutonian system". Archived from the original on June 11, 2020.

Pluto

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto

**Aerodynamics**, from Ancient Greek: ἀήρ *aero* (air) + Ancient Greek: δυναμική (dynamics), is the study of the motion of air, particularly when affected by a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It involves topics covered in the field of fluid dynamics and its subfield of gas dynamics. The term *aerodynamics* is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, the difference being that "gas dynamics" applies to the study of the motion of all gases, and is not limited to air. The formal study of aerodynamics began in the modern sense in the eighteenth century, although observations of fundamental concepts such as aerodynamic drag were recorded much earlier. Most of the early efforts in aerodynamics were directed toward achieving heavier-than-air flight, which was first demonstrated by Otto Lilienthal in 1891. Since then, the use of aerodynamics through mathematical analysis, empirical approximations, wind tunnel experimentation, and computer simulations has formed a rational basis for the development of heavier-than-air flight and a number of other technologies. Recent work in aerodynamics has focused on issues related to compressible flow, turbulence, and boundary layers and has become increasingly computational in nature. History ------- Modern aerodynamics only dates back to the seventeenth century, but aerodynamic forces have been harnessed by humans for thousands of years in sailboats and windmills, and images and stories of flight appear throughout recorded history, such as the Ancient Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus. Fundamental concepts of continuum, drag, and pressure gradients appear in the work of Aristotle and Archimedes. In 1726, Sir Isaac Newton became the first person to develop a theory of air resistance, making him one of the first aerodynamicists. Dutch-Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli followed in 1738 with *Hydrodynamica* in which he described a fundamental relationship between pressure, density, and flow velocity for incompressible flow known today as Bernoulli's principle, which provides one method for calculating aerodynamic lift. In 1757, Leonhard Euler published the more general Euler equations which could be applied to both compressible and incompressible flows. The Euler equations were extended to incorporate the effects of viscosity in the first half of the 1800s, resulting in the Navier–Stokes equations. The Navier–Stokes equations are the most general governing equations of fluid flow but are difficult to solve for the flow around all but the simplest of shapes. In 1799, Sir George Cayley became the first person to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight (weight, lift, drag, and thrust), as well as the relationships between them, and in doing so outlined the path toward achieving heavier-than-air flight for the next century. In 1871, Francis Herbert Wenham constructed the first wind tunnel, allowing precise measurements of aerodynamic forces. Drag theories were developed by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Gustav Kirchhoff, and Lord Rayleigh. In 1889, Charles Renard, a French aeronautical engineer, became the first person to reasonably predict the power needed for sustained flight. Otto Lilienthal, the first person to become highly successful with glider flights, was also the first to propose thin, curved airfoils that would produce high lift and low drag. Building on these developments as well as research carried out in their own wind tunnel, the Wright brothers flew the first powered airplane on December 17, 1903. During the time of the first flights, Frederick W. Lanchester, Martin Kutta, and Nikolai Zhukovsky independently created theories that connected circulation of a fluid flow to lift. Kutta and Zhukovsky went on to develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding upon the work of Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited with developing the mathematics behind thin-airfoil and lifting-line theories as well as work with boundary layers. As aircraft speed increased designers began to encounter challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds near the speed of sound. The differences in airflow under such conditions lead to problems in aircraft control, increased drag due to shock waves, and the threat of structural failure due to aeroelastic flutter. The ratio of the flow speed to the speed of sound was named the Mach number after Ernst Mach who was one of the first to investigate the properties of the supersonic flow. Macquorn Rankine and Pierre Henri Hugoniot independently developed the theory for flow properties before and after a shock wave, while Jakob Ackeret led the initial work of calculating the lift and drag of supersonic airfoils. Theodore von Kármán and Hugh Latimer Dryden introduced the term transonic to describe flow speeds between the critical Mach number and Mach 1 where drag increases rapidly. This rapid increase in drag led aerodynamicists and aviators to disagree on whether supersonic flight was achievable until the sound barrier was broken in 1947 using the Bell X-1 aircraft. By the time the sound barrier was broken, aerodynamicists' understanding of the subsonic and low supersonic flow had matured. The Cold War prompted the design of an ever-evolving line of high-performance aircraft. Computational fluid dynamics began as an effort to solve for flow properties around complex objects and has rapidly grown to the point where entire aircraft can be designed using computer software, with wind-tunnel tests followed by flight tests to confirm the computer predictions. Understanding of supersonic and hypersonic aerodynamics has matured since the 1960s, and the goals of aerodynamicists have shifted from the behaviour of fluid flow to the engineering of a vehicle such that it interacts predictably with the fluid flow. Designing aircraft for supersonic and hypersonic conditions, as well as the desire to improve the aerodynamic efficiency of current aircraft and propulsion systems, continues to motivate new research in aerodynamics, while work continues to be done on important problems in basic aerodynamic theory related to flow turbulence and the existence and uniqueness of analytical solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations. Fundamental concepts -------------------- Understanding the motion of air around an object (often called a flow field) enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the object. In many aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the fundamental forces of flight: lift, drag, thrust, and weight. Of these, lift and drag are aerodynamic forces, i.e. forces due to air flow over a solid body. Calculation of these quantities is often founded upon the assumption that the flow field behaves as a continuum. Continuum flow fields are characterized by properties such as flow velocity, pressure, density, and temperature, which may be functions of position and time. These properties may be directly or indirectly measured in aerodynamics experiments or calculated starting with the equations for conservation of mass, momentum, and energy in air flows. Density, flow velocity, and an additional property, viscosity, are used to classify flow fields. ### Flow classification Flow velocity is used to classify flows according to speed regime. Subsonic flows are flow fields in which the air speed field is always below the local speed of sound. Transonic flows include both regions of subsonic flow and regions in which the local flow speed is greater than the local speed of sound. Supersonic flows are defined to be flows in which the flow speed is greater than the speed of sound everywhere. A fourth classification, hypersonic flow, refers to flows where the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree on the precise definition of hypersonic flow. Compressible flow accounts for varying density within the flow. Subsonic flows are often idealized as incompressible, i.e. the density is assumed to be constant. Transonic and supersonic flows are compressible, and calculations that neglect the changes of density in these flow fields will yield inaccurate results. Viscosity is associated with the frictional forces in a flow. In some flow fields, viscous effects are very small, and approximate solutions may safely neglect viscous effects. These approximations are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity is not neglected are called viscous flows. Finally, aerodynamic problems may also be classified by the flow environment. External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes (e.g. around an airplane wing), while internal aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages inside solid objects (e.g. through a jet engine). #### Continuum assumption Unlike liquids and solids, gases are composed of discrete molecules which occupy only a small fraction of the volume filled by the gas. On a molecular level, flow fields are made up of the collisions of many individual of gas molecules between themselves and with solid surfaces. However, in most aerodynamics applications, the discrete molecular nature of gases is ignored, and the flow field is assumed to behave as a continuum. This assumption allows fluid properties such as density and flow velocity to be defined everywhere within the flow. The validity of the continuum assumption is dependent on the density of the gas and the application in question. For the continuum assumption to be valid, the mean free path length must be much smaller than the length scale of the application in question. For example, many aerodynamics applications deal with aircraft flying in atmospheric conditions, where the mean free path length is on the order of micrometers and where the body is orders of magnitude larger. In these cases, the length scale of the aircraft ranges from a few meters to a few tens of meters, which is much larger than the mean free path length. For such applications, the continuum assumption is reasonable. The continuum assumption is less valid for extremely low-density flows, such as those encountered by vehicles at very high altitudes (e.g. 300,000 ft/90 km) or satellites in Low Earth orbit. In those cases, statistical mechanics is a more accurate method of solving the problem than is continuum aerodynamics. The Knudsen number can be used to guide the choice between statistical mechanics and the continuous formulation of aerodynamics. ### Conservation laws The assumption of a fluid continuum allows problems in aerodynamics to be solved using fluid dynamics conservation laws. Three conservation principles are used: Conservation of massConservation of mass requires that mass is neither created nor destroyed within a flow; the mathematical formulation of this principle is known as the mass continuity equation. Conservation of momentumThe mathematical formulation of this principle can be considered an application of Newton's Second Law. Momentum within a flow is only changed by external forces, which may include both surface forces, such as viscous (frictional) forces, and body forces, such as weight. The momentum conservation principle may be expressed as either a vector equation or separated into a set of three scalar equations (x,y,z components). Conservation of energyThe energy conservation equation states that energy is neither created nor destroyed within a flow, and that any addition or subtraction of energy to a volume in the flow is caused by heat transfer, or by work into and out of the region of interest. Together, these equations are known as the Navier–Stokes equations, although some authors define the term to only include the momentum equation(s). The Navier–Stokes equations have no known analytical solution and are solved in modern aerodynamics using computational techniques. Because computational methods using high speed computers were not historically available and the high computational cost of solving these complex equations now that they are available, simplifications of the Navier–Stokes equations have been and continue to be employed. The Euler equations are a set of similar conservation equations which neglect viscosity and may be used in cases where the effect of viscosity is expected to be small. Further simplifications lead to Laplace's equation and potential flow theory. Additionally, Bernoulli's equation is a solution in one dimension to both the momentum and energy conservation equations. The ideal gas law or another such equation of state is often used in conjunction with these equations to form a determined system that allows the solution for the unknown variables. Branches of aerodynamics ------------------------ Aerodynamic problems are classified by the flow environment or properties of the flow, including flow speed, compressibility, and viscosity. *External* aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes. Evaluating the lift and drag on an airplane or the shock waves that form in front of the nose of a rocket are examples of external aerodynamics. *Internal* aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in solid objects. For instance, internal aerodynamics encompasses the study of the airflow through a jet engine or through an air conditioning pipe. Aerodynamic problems can also be classified according to whether the flow speed is below, near or above the speed of sound. A problem is called subsonic if all the speeds in the problem are less than the speed of sound, transonic if speeds both below and above the speed of sound are present (normally when the characteristic speed is approximately the speed of sound), supersonic when the characteristic flow speed is greater than the speed of sound, and hypersonic when the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree over the precise definition of hypersonic flow; a rough definition considers flows with Mach numbers above 5 to be hypersonic. The influence of viscosity on the flow dictates a third classification. Some problems may encounter only very small viscous effects, in which case viscosity can be considered to be negligible. The approximations to these problems are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity cannot be neglected are called viscous flows. ### Incompressible aerodynamics An incompressible flow is a flow in which density is constant in both time and space. Although all real fluids are compressible, a flow is often approximated as incompressible if the effect of the density changes cause only small changes to the calculated results. This is more likely to be true when the flow speeds are significantly lower than the speed of sound. Effects of compressibility are more significant at speeds close to or above the speed of sound. The Mach number is used to evaluate whether the incompressibility can be assumed, otherwise the effects of compressibility must be included. #### Subsonic flow Subsonic (or low-speed) aerodynamics describes fluid motion in flows which are much lower than the speed of sound everywhere in the flow. There are several branches of subsonic flow but one special case arises when the flow is inviscid, incompressible and irrotational. This case is called potential flow and allows the differential equations that describe the flow to be a simplified version of the equations of fluid dynamics, thus making available to the aerodynamicist a range of quick and easy solutions. In solving a subsonic problem, one decision to be made by the aerodynamicist is whether to incorporate the effects of compressibility. Compressibility is a description of the amount of change of density in the flow. When the effects of compressibility on the solution are small, the assumption that density is constant may be made. The problem is then an incompressible low-speed aerodynamics problem. When the density is allowed to vary, the flow is called compressible. In air, compressibility effects are usually ignored when the Mach number in the flow does not exceed 0.3 (about 335 feet (102 m) per second or 228 miles (366 km) per hour at 60 °F (16 °C)). Above Mach 0.3, the problem flow should be described using compressible aerodynamics. ### Compressible aerodynamics According to the theory of aerodynamics, a flow is considered to be compressible if the density changes along a streamline. This means that – unlike incompressible flow – changes in density are considered. In general, this is the case where the Mach number in part or all of the flow exceeds 0.3. The Mach 0.3 value is rather arbitrary, but it is used because gas flows with a Mach number below that value demonstrate changes in density of less than 5%. Furthermore, that maximum 5% density change occurs at the stagnation point (the point on the object where flow speed is zero), while the density changes around the rest of the object will be significantly lower. Transonic, supersonic, and hypersonic flows are all compressible flows. #### Transonic flow The term Transonic refers to a range of flow velocities just below and above the local speed of sound (generally taken as Mach 0.8–1.2). It is defined as the range of speeds between the critical Mach number, when some parts of the airflow over an aircraft become supersonic, and a higher speed, typically near Mach 1.2, when all of the airflow is supersonic. Between these speeds, some of the airflow is supersonic, while some of the airflow is not supersonic. #### Supersonic flow Supersonic aerodynamic problems are those involving flow speeds greater than the speed of sound. Calculating the lift on the Concorde during cruise can be an example of a supersonic aerodynamic problem. Supersonic flow behaves very differently from subsonic flow. Fluids react to differences in pressure; pressure changes are how a fluid is "told" to respond to its environment. Therefore, since sound is, in fact, an infinitesimal pressure difference propagating through a fluid, the speed of sound in that fluid can be considered the fastest speed that "information" can travel in the flow. This difference most obviously manifests itself in the case of a fluid striking an object. In front of that object, the fluid builds up a stagnation pressure as impact with the object brings the moving fluid to rest. In fluid traveling at subsonic speed, this pressure disturbance can propagate upstream, changing the flow pattern ahead of the object and giving the impression that the fluid "knows" the object is there by seemingly adjusting its movement and is flowing around it. In a supersonic flow, however, the pressure disturbance cannot propagate upstream. Thus, when the fluid finally reaches the object it strikes it and the fluid is forced to change its properties – temperature, density, pressure, and Mach number—in an extremely violent and irreversible fashion called a shock wave. The presence of shock waves, along with the compressibility effects of high-flow velocity (see Reynolds number) fluids, is the central difference between the supersonic and subsonic aerodynamics regimes. #### Hypersonic flow In aerodynamics, hypersonic speeds are speeds that are highly supersonic. In the 1970s, the term generally came to refer to speeds of Mach 5 (5 times the speed of sound) and above. The hypersonic regime is a subset of the supersonic regime. Hypersonic flow is characterized by high temperature flow behind a shock wave, viscous interaction, and chemical dissociation of gas. Associated terminology ---------------------- The incompressible and compressible flow regimes produce many associated phenomena, such as boundary layers and turbulence. ### Boundary layers The concept of a boundary layer is important in many problems in aerodynamics. The viscosity and fluid friction in the air is approximated as being significant only in this thin layer. This assumption makes the description of such aerodynamics much more tractable mathematically. ### Turbulence In aerodynamics, turbulence is characterized by chaotic property changes in the flow. These include low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and flow velocity in space and time. Flow that is not turbulent is called laminar flow. Aerodynamics in other fields ---------------------------- ### Engineering design Aerodynamics is a significant element of vehicle design, including road cars and trucks where the main goal is to reduce the vehicle drag coefficient, and racing cars, where in addition to reducing drag the goal is also to increase the overall level of downforce. Aerodynamics is also important in the prediction of forces and moments acting on sailing vessels. It is used in the design of mechanical components such as hard drive heads. Structural engineers resort to aerodynamics, and particularly aeroelasticity, when calculating wind loads in the design of large buildings, bridges, and wind turbines. The aerodynamics of internal passages is important in heating/ventilation, gas piping, and in automotive engines where detailed flow patterns strongly affect the performance of the engine. ### Environmental design Urban aerodynamics are studied by town planners and designers seeking to improve amenity in outdoor spaces, or in creating urban microclimates to reduce the effects of urban pollution. The field of environmental aerodynamics describes ways in which atmospheric circulation and flight mechanics affect ecosystems. Aerodynamic equations are used in numerical weather prediction. ### Ball-control in sports Sports in which aerodynamics are of crucial importance include soccer, table tennis, cricket, baseball, and golf, in which most players can control the trajectory of the ball using the "Magnus effect". See also -------- * Aeronautics * Aerostatics * Aviation * Insect flight – how bugs fly * List of aerospace engineering topics * List of engineering topics * Nose cone design * Fluid dynamics * Computational fluid dynamics Further reading --------------- **General aerodynamics** * Anderson, John D. (2007). *Fundamentals of Aerodynamics* (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-125408-3. OCLC 60589123. * Bertin, J. J.; Smith, M. L. (2001). *Aerodynamics for Engineers* (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-064633-4. OCLC 47297603. * Smith, Hubert C. (1991). *Illustrated Guide to Aerodynamics* (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-8306-3901-2. OCLC 24319048. * Craig, Gale (2003). *Introduction to Aerodynamics*. Regenerative Press. ISBN 0-9646806-3-7. OCLC 53083897. **Subsonic aerodynamics** * Katz, Joseph; Plotkin, Allen (2001). *Low-Speed Aerodynamics* (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66552-3. OCLC 43970751. * Obert, Ed (2009). *Aerodynamic Design of Transport Aircraft* at Google Books. Delft; About practical aerodynamics in industry and the effects on design of aircraft. ISBN 978-1-58603-970-7. **Transonic aerodynamics** * Moulden, Trevor H. (1990). *Fundamentals of Transonic Flow*. Krieger Publishing Company. ISBN 0-89464-441-6. OCLC 20594163. * Cole, Julian D; Cook, L. Pamela (1986). *Transonic Aerodynamics*. North-Holland. ISBN 0-444-87958-7. OCLC 13094084. **Supersonic aerodynamics** * Ferri, Antonio (2005). *Elements of Aerodynamics of Supersonic Flows* (Phoenix ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-44280-2. OCLC 58043501. * Shapiro, Ascher H. (1953). *The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, Volume 1*. Ronald Press. ISBN 978-0-471-06691-0. OCLC 11404735. * Anderson, John D. (2004). *Modern Compressible Flow*. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-124136-1. OCLC 71626491. * Liepmann, H. W.; Roshko, A. (2002). *Elements of Gasdynamics*. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41963-0. OCLC 47838319. * von Mises, Richard (2004). *Mathematical Theory of Compressible Fluid Flow*. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-43941-0. OCLC 56033096. * Hodge, B. K.; Koenig K. (1995). *Compressible Fluid Dynamics with Personal Computer Applications*. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-308552-X. OCLC 31662199. **Hypersonic aerodynamics** * Anderson, John D. (2006). *Hypersonic and High Temperature Gas Dynamics* (2nd ed.). AIAA. ISBN 1-56347-780-7. OCLC 68262944. * Hayes, Wallace D.; Probstein, Ronald F. (2004). *Hypersonic Inviscid Flow*. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-43281-5. OCLC 53021584. **History of aerodynamics** * Chanute, Octave (1997). *Progress in Flying Machines*. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-29981-3. OCLC 37782926. * von Karman, Theodore (2004). *Aerodynamics: Selected Topics in the Light of Their Historical Development*. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-43485-0. OCLC 53900531. * Anderson, John D. (1997). *A History of Aerodynamics: And Its Impact on Flying Machines*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45435-2. OCLC 228667184. **Aerodynamics related to engineering** *Ground vehicles* * Katz, Joseph (1995). *Race Car Aerodynamics: Designing for Speed*. Bentley Publishers. ISBN 0-8376-0142-8. OCLC 181644146. * Barnard, R. H. (2001). *Road Vehicle Aerodynamic Design* (2nd ed.). Mechaero Publishing. ISBN 0-9540734-0-1. OCLC 47868546. *Fixed-wing aircraft* * Ashley, Holt; Landahl, Marten (1985). *Aerodynamics of Wings and Bodies* (2nd ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-64899-0. OCLC 12021729. * Abbott, Ira H.; von Doenhoff, A. E. (1959). *Theory of Wing Sections: Including a Summary of Airfoil Data*. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-60586-8. OCLC 171142119. * Clancy, L.J. (1975). *Aerodynamics*. Pitman Publishing Limited. ISBN 0-273-01120-0. OCLC 16420565. *Helicopters* * Leishman, J. Gordon (2006). *Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics* (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85860-7. OCLC 224565656. * Prouty, Raymond W. (2001). *Helicopter Performance, Stability, and Control*. Krieger Publishing Company Press. ISBN 1-57524-209-5. OCLC 212379050. * Seddon, J.; Newman, Simon (2001). *Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics: An Account of First Principles in the Fluid Mechanics and Flight Dynamics of the Single Rotor Helicopter*. AIAA. ISBN 1-56347-510-3. OCLC 47623950. *Missiles* * Nielson, Jack N. (1988). *Missile Aerodynamics*. AIAA. ISBN 0-9620629-0-1. OCLC 17981448. *Model aircraft* * Simons, Martin (1999). *Model Aircraft Aerodynamics* (4th ed.). Trans-Atlantic Publications, Inc. ISBN 1-85486-190-5. OCLC 43634314. **Related branches of aerodynamics** *Aerothermodynamics* * Hirschel, Ernst H. (2004). *Basics of Aerothermodynamics*. Springer. ISBN 3-540-22132-8. OCLC 228383296. * Bertin, John J. (1993). *Hypersonic Aerothermodynamics*. AIAA. ISBN 1-56347-036-5. OCLC 28422796. *Aeroelasticity* * Bisplinghoff, Raymond L.; Ashley, Holt; Halfman, Robert L. (1996). *Aeroelasticity*. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-69189-6. OCLC 34284560. * Fung, Y. C. (2002). *An Introduction to the Theory of Aeroelasticity* (Phoenix ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-49505-1. OCLC 55087733. *Boundary layers* * Young, A. D. (1989). *Boundary Layers*. AIAA. ISBN 0-930403-57-6. OCLC 19981526. * Rosenhead, L. (1988). *Laminar Boundary Layers*. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-65646-2. OCLC 17619090. *Turbulence* * Tennekes, H.; Lumley, J. L. (1972). *A First Course in Turbulence*. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-20019-8. OCLC 281992. * Pope, Stephen B. (2000). *Turbulent Flows*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-59886-9. OCLC 174790280.

Aerodynamics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamics

**Dublin** (/ˈdʌblɪn/; Irish: *Baile Átha Cliath*, pronounced [ˈbˠalʲə aːhə ˈclʲiə] or [ˌbʲlʲaː ˈclʲiə]) is the capital and largest city of Ireland. On a bay at the mouth of the River Liffey, it is in the province of Leinster, bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, a part of the Wicklow Mountains range. At the 2016 census it had a population of 1,173,179, while the 2022 census recorded that County Dublin as a whole had a population of 1,458,154, and that the population of the Greater Dublin Area was over 2 million, or roughly 40% of the Republic of Ireland's total population. A settlement was established in the area by the Gaels during or before the 7th century, followed by the Vikings. As the Kingdom of Dublin grew, it became Ireland's principal settlement by the 12th century Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest in the British Empire and sixth largest in Western Europe after the Acts of Union in 1800. Following independence in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, renamed Ireland in 1937. Dublin is a centre for education, arts and culture, administration, and industry. As of 2018[update], the city was listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) as a global city, with a ranking of "Alpha minus", which places it as one of the top thirty cities in the world. Etymology --------- The name *Dublin* derives from the Irish word *Duibhlinn*, early Classical Irish *Dubhlind*/*Duibhlind*, from *dubh* ([d̪uβ], [d̪uw], [d̪uː]) meaning "black, dark", and *linn* ([lʲiɲ(d̪ʲ)]) "pool", referring to a dark tidal pool. This tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is *Duibhlinn*, and Irish rhymes from County Dublin show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced *Duílinn* [ˈd̪ˠiːlʲiɲ]. The original pronunciation is preserved in the names for the city in other languages such as Old English *Di**f**elin*, Old Norse *Dy**f**lin*, modern Icelandic *Dy**f**linn* and modern Manx *Di**v**lyn* as well as Welsh *Du**lyn*** and Breton *Du**lenn***. Other localities in Ireland also bear the name *Duibhlinn*, variously anglicised as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote *bh* with a dot over the *b*, rendering Duḃlinn or Duiḃlinn. Those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as *Dublin*. Variations on the name are also found in traditionally Gaelic-speaking areas of Scotland (Gàidhealtachd, cognate with Irish Gaeltacht), such as *An Linne Dhubh* ("the black pool"), which is part of Loch Linnhe. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as *Duibhlinn*, from which *Dyflin* took its name. Beginning in the 9th and 10th centuries, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The Viking settlement of about 841, *Dyflin*, and a Gaelic settlement, Áth Cliath ("ford of hurdles") further up the river, at the present-day Father Mathew Bridge (also known as Dublin Bridge), at the bottom of Church Street. **Baile Átha Cliath**, meaning "town of the hurdled ford", is the common name for the city in modern Irish. **Áth Cliath** is a place name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. **Baile Átha Cliath** was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, currently occupied by Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church. There are other towns of the same name, such as *Àth Cliath* in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is anglicised as Hurlford. The city is also referred to as **Bleá Cliath** and **Blea Cliath** in Irish, particularly when spoken. These are contracted versions of **Baile Átha Cliath**. History ------- The area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times, fish traps discovered from excavations during the construction of the Convention Centre Dublin indicate human habitation as far back as 6,000 years ago. Further traps were discovered closer to the old settlement of the city of Dublin on the south quays near St. James's Gate which also indicate mesolithic human activity. The writings of Ptolemy (the Greco-Roman astronomer and cartographer) in about 140 AD provide possibly the earliest reference to a settlement near Dublin. He called it *Eblana polis* (Greek: Ἔβλανα πόλις). Dublin celebrated its 'official' millennium in 1988, meaning the Irish government recognised 988 as the year in which the city was settled and that this first settlement would later become the city of Dublin. It is now thought the Viking settlement of about 841 was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as *Duibhlinn*, from which *Dyflin* took its name. Evidence indicating that Anglo-Saxons occupied Dublin before the Vikings arrived in 841 has been found in an archaeological dig in Temple Bar. Beginning in the 9th and 10th centuries, there were two settlements which later became modern Dublin. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay. The Dubhlinn was a pool on the lowest stretch of the Poddle, where ships used to moor. This pool was finally fully infilled during the early 18th century, as the city grew. The Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library within Dublin Castle. *Táin Bó Cuailgne* ("The Cattle Raid of Cooley") refers to *Dublind rissa ratter Áth Cliath*, meaning "Dublin, which is called Ath Cliath". ### Middle Ages In 841, the Vikings established a fortified base in Dublin. The town grew into a substantial commercial center under Olaf Guthfrithson in the mid-to-late 10th century and, despite a number of attacks by the native Irish, it remained largely under Viking control until the Norman invasion of Ireland was launched from Wales in 1169. It was upon the death of Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn in early 1166 that Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, King of Connacht, proceeded to Dublin and was inaugurated *King of Ireland* without opposition. According to some historians, part of the city's early economic growth is attributed to a trade in slaves. Slavery in Ireland and Dublin reached its pinnacle in the 9th and 10th centuries. Prisoners from slave raids and kidnappings, which captured men, women and children, brought revenue to the Gaelic Irish Sea raiders, as well as to the Vikings who had initiated the practice. The victims came from Wales, England, Normandy and beyond. The King of Leinster, Diarmait Mac Murchada, after his exile by Ruaidhrí, enlisted the help of Strongbow, the Earl of Pembroke, to conquer Dublin. Following Mac Murrough's death, Strongbow declared himself King of Leinster after gaining control of the city. In response to Strongbow's successful invasion, King Henry II of England affirmed his ultimate sovereignty by mounting a larger invasion in 1171 and pronounced himself Lord of Ireland. Around this time, the *county of the City of Dublin* was established along with certain liberties adjacent to the city proper. This continued down to 1840 when the barony of Dublin City was separated from the barony of Dublin. Since 2001, both baronies have been redesignated as the *City of Dublin*. Dublin Castle, which became the centre of Anglo-Norman power in Ireland, was founded in 1204 as a major defensive work on the orders of King John of England. Following the appointment of the first Lord Mayor of Dublin in 1229, the city expanded and had a population of 8,000 by the end of the 13th century. Dublin prospered as a trade centre, despite an attempt by King Robert I of Scotland to capture the city in 1317. It remained a relatively small walled medieval town during the 14th century and was under constant threat from the surrounding native clans. In 1348, the Black Death, a lethal plague which had ravaged Europe, took hold in Dublin and killed thousands over the following decade. Dublin was the heart of the area known as the Pale, a narrow strip of English settlement along the eastern coast, under the control of the English Crown. The Tudor conquest of Ireland in the 16th century spelt a new era for Dublin, with the city enjoying a renewed prominence as the centre of administrative rule in Ireland where English control and settlement had become much more extensive. Determined to make Dublin a Protestant city, Queen Elizabeth I of England established Trinity College in 1592 as a solely Protestant university and ordered that the Catholic St. Patrick's and Christ Church cathedrals be converted to the Protestant church. The earliest map of the city of Dublin dates from 1610, and was by John Speed. The city had a population of 21,000 in 1640 before a plague from 1649 to 1651 wiped out almost half of the inhabitants. However, the city prospered again soon after as a result of the wool and linen trade with England and reached a population of over 50,000 in 1700. By 1698 the manufacture of wool employed 12,000 people. ### Early modern As the city continued to prosper during the 18th century, Georgian Dublin became, for a short period, the second-largest city of the British Empire and the fifth largest city in Europe, with the population exceeding 130,000. While some medieval streets and layouts (including the areas around Temple Bar, Aungier Street, Capel Street and Thomas Street) were less affected by the wave of Georgian reconstruction, much of Dublin's architecture and layout dates from this period. Dublin grew even more dramatically during the 18th century, with the construction of many new districts and buildings, such as Merrion Square, Parliament House and the Royal Exchange. The Wide Streets Commission was established in 1757 at the request of Dublin Corporation to govern architectural standards on the layout of streets, bridges and buildings. In 1759, the Guinness brewery was founded; and would eventually grow to become the largest brewery in the world and the largest employer in Dublin. During the 1700s, linen was not subject to the same trade restrictions with England as wool, and became the most important Irish export. Over 1.5 million yards of linen was exported from Ireland in 1710, rising to almost 19 million yards by 1779. ### Late modern and contemporary Dublin suffered a period of political and economic decline during the 19th century following the Acts of Union 1800, under which the seat of government was transferred to the Westminster Parliament in London. The city played no major role in the Industrial Revolution, but remained the centre of administration and a transport hub for most of the island. Ireland had no significant sources of coal, the fuel of the time, and Dublin was not a centre of ship manufacturing, the other main driver of industrial development in Britain and Ireland. Belfast developed faster than Dublin during this period on a mixture of international trade, factory-based linen cloth production and shipbuilding. By 1814, the population of Dublin was 175,319 as counted under the Population Act, making the population of Dublin higher than all other towns in England bar London. The Easter Rising of 1916, the Irish War of Independence, and the subsequent Irish Civil War resulted in a significant amount of physical destruction in central Dublin. The Government of the Irish Free State rebuilt the city centre and located the new parliament, the Oireachtas, in Leinster House. Since the beginning of Norman rule in the 12th century, the city has functioned as the capital in varying geopolitical entities: Lordship of Ireland (1171–1541), Kingdom of Ireland (1541–1800), as part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922), and the Irish Republic (1919–1922). Following the partition of Ireland in 1922, it became the capital of the Irish Free State (1922–1937) and now is the capital of Ireland. One of the memorials to commemorate that time is the Garden of Remembrance. Dublin was also a victim of the Northern Irish Troubles, although during this 30-year conflict, violence mainly occurred within Northern Ireland. A Loyalist paramilitary group, the Ulster Volunteer Force, bombed the city during this time – notably in an atrocity known as the Dublin and Monaghan bombings in which 34 people died, mainly in central Dublin. Large parts of Georgian Dublin were demolished or substantially redeveloped in the mid-20th century during a boom in office building. After this boom, the recessions of the 1970s and 1980s slowed down the pace of building. Cumulatively, this led to a large decline in the number of people living in the centre of the city, and by 1985 the city had approximately 150 acres of derelict land which had been earmarked for development and 10 million square feet (900 thousand square metres) of office space. Since 1997, the landscape of Dublin has changed. The city was at the forefront of Ireland's economic expansion during the Celtic Tiger period, with private sector and state development of housing, transport and business. Following an economic decline during the Great Recession, Dublin has rebounded and as of 2017[update] has close to full employment, but has a significant problem with housing supply in both the city and surrounds. Government ---------- ### Local Dublin City Council is a unicameral assembly of 63 members elected every five years from local electoral areas. It is presided over by the Lord Mayor, who is elected for a yearly term and resides in Dublin's Mansion House. Council meetings occur at Dublin City Hall, while most of its administrative activities are based in the Civic Offices on Wood Quay. The party or coalition of parties with the majority of seats assigns committee members, introduces policies, and proposes the Lord Mayor. The Council passes an annual budget for spending on areas such as housing, traffic management, refuse, drainage, and planning. The Dublin City Manager is responsible for implementing City Council decisions but also has considerable executive power. ### National As the capital city, Dublin is the seat of the national parliament of Ireland, the Oireachtas. It is composed of the President of Ireland, Dáil Éireann as the house of representatives, and Seanad Éireann as the upper house. The President resides in Áras an Uachtaráin in Phoenix Park, while both houses of the Oireachtas meet in Leinster House, a former ducal residence on Kildare Street. It has been the home of the Irish parliament since the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922. The old Irish Houses of Parliament of the Kingdom of Ireland, which dissolved in 1801, are located in College Green. Government Buildings house the Department of the Taoiseach, the Council Chamber, the Department of Finance and the Office of the Attorney General. It consists of a main building (completed 1911) with two wings (completed 1921). It was designed by Thomas Manley Dean and Sir Aston Webb as the Royal College of Science. The First Dáil originally met in the Mansion House in 1919. The Irish Free State government took over the two wings of the building to serve as a temporary home for some ministries, while the central building became the College of Technology until 1989. Although both it and Leinster House were intended to be temporary locations, they became the permanent homes of parliament from then on. For elections to Dáil Éireann, there are five constituencies that are wholly or predominantly in the Dublin City area: Dublin Central (4 seats), Dublin Bay North (5 seats), Dublin North-West (3 seats), Dublin South-Central (4 seats) and Dublin Bay South (4 seats). Twenty TDs are elected in total. The constituency of Dublin West (4 seats) is partially in Dublin City, but predominantly in Fingal. At the 2020 general election, the Dublin city area elected 5 Sinn Féin, 3 Fine Gael, 3 Fianna Fáil, 3 Green Party, 3 Social Democrats, 1 Right to Change, 1 Solidarity–People Before Profit and 1 Labour TDs. Geography --------- ### City boundaries From 1842, the boundaries of the city were comprehended by the baronies of Dublin City and the barony of Dublin. Over time, the city has absorbed area previously administered as part of County Dublin (now the three counties of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin), with a change in 1985 also returning area to the county. Changes to city boundaries| Year | Changes | | --- | --- | | 1900 | Transfer of former urban districts of Clontarf, Drumcondra, Clonliffe and Glasnevin, and New Kilmainham from County Dublin | | 1930 | Transfer of former urban districts of Pembroke and Rathmines and Rathgar from County Dublin | | 1931 | Transfer of Drumcondra, Glasnevin, Donnybrook and Terenure from County Dublin | | 1941 | Transfer of Crumlin from County Dublin | | 1942 | Transfer of former urban district of Howth from County Dublin | | 1953 | Transfer of Finglas, Coolock and Ballyfermot from County Dublin. | | 1985 | Transfer of Santry and Phoenix Park from County Dublin;transfer of Howth, Sutton and parts of Kilbarrack including Bayside to County Dublin | | 1994 | Alterations to western boundaries of Ballyfermot and Cabra on establishment of new counties | ### Landscape Dublin is situated at the mouth of the River Liffey and encompasses a land area of approximately 117.8 square kilometres (45.5 sq mi) in east-central Ireland. It is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range and sub range of the Wicklow Mountains, to the south and surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west. #### Watercourses The River Liffey divides the city in two, between the Northside and the Southside. The Liffey bends at Leixlip from a northeasterly route to a predominantly eastward direction, and this point also marks the transition to urban development from more agricultural land usage. The city itself was founded where the River Poddle met the Liffey, and the early Viking settlement was also facilitated by the small Stein or Steyne River, the larger Camac and the Bradogue, in particular. Two secondary rivers further divide the city: the River Tolka, running southeast into Dublin Bay, and the River Dodder running northeast to near the mouth of the Liffey, and these and the Liffey have multiple tributaries. A number of lesser rivers and streams also flow to the sea within the suburban parts of the city. Two canals – the Grand Canal on the southside and the Royal Canal on the northside – ring the inner city on their way from the west and the River Shannon. ### Cultural divide A north–south division once, to some extent, traditionally existed, with the River Liffey as the divider. The southside was, in recent times, generally seen as being more affluent and genteel than the northside. There have also been some social divisions evident between the coastal suburbs in the east of the city, and the newer developments further to the west. In some tourism and real-estate marketing contexts, inner Dublin is sometimes divided into a number of quarters or districts. These include the Medieval Quarter (in the area of Dublin Castle, Christ Church and St Patrick's Cathedral and the old city walls), the Georgian Quarter (including the area around St Stephen's Green, Trinity College, and Merrion Square), the Docklands Quarter (around the Dublin Docklands and Silicon Docks), the Cultural Quarter (around Temple Bar), and Creative Quarter (between South William Street and George's Street). ### Climate Similar to much of the rest of northwestern Europe, Dublin experiences a maritime climate (*Cfb*) with mild-warm summers, cool winters, and a lack of temperature extremes. At Merrion Square, the coldest month is February, with an average minimum temperature of 4.1 °C (39.4 °F), and the warmest month is July, with an average maximum temperature of 20.1 °C (68.2 °F). Due to the urban heat island effect, Dublin city has the warmest summertime nights in Ireland. The average minimum temperature at Merrion Square in July is 13.5 °C (56.3 °F), and the lowest July temperature ever recorded at the station was 7.8 °C (46.0 °F) on 3 July 1974. Dublin's sheltered location on the east coast makes it the driest place in Ireland, receiving only about half the rainfall of the west coast. Ringsend in the south of the city records the lowest rainfall in the country, with an average annual precipitation of 683 mm (27 in), with the average annual precipitation in the city centre being 726 mm (29 in). The main precipitation in winter is rain; however snow showers do occur between November and March. Hail is more common than snow. The city experiences long summer days and short winter days. Strong Atlantic winds are most common in autumn. These winds can affect Dublin, but due to its easterly location, it is least affected compared to other parts of the country. However, in winter, easterly winds render the city colder and more prone to snow showers. In the 20th century, smog and air-pollution were an issue in the city, precipitating a ban on bituminous fuels across Dublin. The ban was implemented in 1990 to address black smoke concentrations, that had been linked to cardiovascular and respiratory deaths in residents. Since the ban, non-trauma death rates, respiratory death rates and cardiovascular death rates have declined – by an estimated 350 deaths annually. | Climate data for Dublin Airport (DUB), 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1881–present | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 17.5(63.5) | 18.1(64.6) | 23.4(74.1) | 22.7(72.9) | 26.8(80.2) | 28.7(83.7) | 33.1(91.6) | 30.6(87.1) | 27.6(81.7) | 24.2(75.6) | 19.4(66.9) | 17.1(62.8) | 33.1(91.6) | | Average high °C (°F) | 8.1(46.6) | 8.3(46.9) | 10.2(50.4) | 12.1(53.8) | 14.8(58.6) | 17.6(63.7) | 19.5(67.1) | 19.2(66.6) | 17.0(62.6) | 13.6(56.5) | 10.3(50.5) | 8.3(46.9) | 13.3(55.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.3(41.5) | 5.3(41.5) | 6.8(44.2) | 8.3(46.9) | 10.9(51.6) | 13.6(56.5) | 15.6(60.1) | 15.3(59.5) | 13.4(56.1) | 10.5(50.9) | 7.4(45.3) | 5.6(42.1) | 9.8(49.6) | | Average low °C (°F) | 2.4(36.3) | 2.3(36.1) | 3.4(38.1) | 4.6(40.3) | 6.9(44.4) | 9.6(49.3) | 11.7(53.1) | 11.5(52.7) | 9.8(49.6) | 7.3(45.1) | 4.5(40.1) | 2.8(37.0) | 6.4(43.5) | | Record low °C (°F) | −15.6(3.9) | −13.4(7.9) | −9.8(14.4) | −7.2(19.0) | −5.6(21.9) | −0.7(30.7) | 1.8(35.2) | 0.6(33.1) | −1.7(28.9) | −5.6(21.9) | −9.3(15.3) | −15.7(3.7) | −15.7(3.7) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 62.6(2.46) | 48.8(1.92) | 52.7(2.07) | 54.1(2.13) | 59.5(2.34) | 66.7(2.63) | 56.2(2.21) | 73.3(2.89) | 59.5(2.34) | 79.0(3.11) | 72.9(2.87) | 72.7(2.86) | 758.0(29.84) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 12 | 10 | 11 | 10 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 11 | 10 | 11 | 11 | 12 | 129 | | Average snowy days | 4.6 | 4.2 | 2.8 | 1.2 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.8 | 2.9 | 16.6 | | Average relative humidity (%) (at 15:00 UTC) | 80.6 | 75.7 | 71.0 | 68.3 | 68.0 | 68.3 | 69.0 | 69.3 | 71.5 | 75.1 | 80.3 | 83.1 | 73.3 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 59.2 | 76.1 | 109.1 | 157.4 | 195.2 | 173.3 | 164.1 | 160.1 | 129.8 | 103.9 | 71.0 | 52.8 | 1,452 | | Source: Met Éireann | | Climate data for Merrion Square, Dublin, (1991–2020), elevation: 13 m (43 ft) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 17.5(63.5) | 17.2(63.0) | 19.6(67.3) | 22.7(72.9) | 24.1(75.4) | 27.7(81.9) | 29.1(84.4) | 30.0(86.0) | 26.2(79.2) | 22.5(72.5) | 18.6(65.5) | 16.6(61.9) | 30.0(86.0) | | Average high °C (°F) | 8.8(47.8) | 9.1(48.4) | 10.7(51.3) | 12.6(54.7) | 15.4(59.7) | 18.1(64.6) | 20.1(68.2) | 19.6(67.3) | 17.4(63.3) | 14.2(57.6) | 11.1(52.0) | 9.2(48.6) | 13.9(57.0) | | Average low °C (°F) | 4.1(39.4) | 4.2(39.6) | 5.1(41.2) | 6.6(43.9) | 9.1(48.4) | 11.7(53.1) | 13.5(56.3) | 13.3(55.9) | 11.3(52.3) | 8.9(48.0) | 6.1(43.0) | 4.4(39.9) | 8.2(46.8) | | Record low °C (°F) | −8.1(17.4) | −4.6(23.7) | −4.2(24.4) | −2.5(27.5) | 0.4(32.7) | 4.2(39.6) | 7.8(46.0) | 6.4(43.5) | 3.6(38.5) | 0.1(32.2) | −5.1(22.8) | −7.6(18.3) | −8.1(17.4) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 61.2(2.41) | 49.0(1.93) | 50.0(1.97) | 48.5(1.91) | 53.6(2.11) | 60.4(2.38) | 57.9(2.28) | 64.1(2.52) | 60.6(2.39) | 75.0(2.95) | 80.6(3.17) | 65.5(2.58) | 726.4(28.6) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) | 12.0 | 9.9 | 9.0 | 9.9 | 9.6 | 8.8 | 10.5 | 9.7 | 9.5 | 11.0 | 11.6 | 11.8 | 123.3 | | Source 1: Met Éireann | | Source 2: European Climate Assessment & Dataset | | Climate data for Dublin | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average sea temperature °C (°F) | 9.6(49.3) | 8.8(47.8) | 8.4(47.1) | 9.1(48.4) | 10.4(50.7) | 12.3(54.1) | 14.1(57.4) | 14.9(58.8) | 14.8(58.6) | 14.1(57.4) | 13.1(55.6) | 11.3(52.3) | 11.7(53.1) | | Mean daily daylight hours | 8.0 | 10.0 | 12.0 | 14.0 | 16.0 | 17.0 | 16.0 | 15.0 | 13.0 | 11.0 | 9.0 | 8.0 | 12.4 | | Average Ultraviolet index | 0 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 3 | | Source: Weather Atlas | 1. ↑ Weather station is located 5.1 miles (8.2 km) from the Dublin city centre. 2. ↑ Extremes are recorded at multiple stations near Dublin, including Dublin Airport, Casement, Phoenix Park and Merrion Square. Places of interest ------------------ ### Landmarks Dublin has many landmarks and monuments dating back hundreds of years. One of the oldest is Dublin Castle, which was first founded as a major defensive work on the orders of England's King John in 1204, shortly after the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169, when it was commanded that a castle be built with strong walls and good ditches for the defence of the city, the administration of justice, and the protection of the King's treasure. Largely complete by 1230, the castle was of typical Norman courtyard design, with a central square without a keep, bounded on all sides by tall defensive walls and protected at each corner by a circular tower. Sited to the south-east of Norman Dublin, the castle formed one corner of the outer perimeter of the city, using the River Poddle as a natural means of defence. One of Dublin's newest monuments is the Spire of Dublin, officially entitled the "Monument of Light." It is a 121.2-metre (398 ft) conical spire made of stainless steel, located on O'Connell Street where it meets Henry Street and North Earl Street. It replaces Nelson's Pillar and is intended to mark Dublin's place in the 21st century. The spire was designed by Ian Ritchie Architects, who sought an "Elegant and dynamic simplicity bridging art and technology". The base of the monument is lit and the top is illuminated to provide a beacon in the night sky across the city. The Old Library of Trinity College Dublin, holding the Book of Kells, is one of the city's most visited sites. The Book of Kells is an illustrated manuscript created by Irish monks circa 800 AD. The Ha'penny Bridge, an iron footbridge over the River Liffey, is one of the most photographed sights in Dublin and is considered to be one of Dublin's most iconic landmarks. Other landmarks and monuments include Christ Church Cathedral and St Patrick's Cathedral, the Mansion House, the Molly Malone statue, the complex of buildings around Leinster House, including part of the National Museum of Ireland and the National Library of Ireland, The Custom House and Áras an Uachtaráin. Other sights include the Anna Livia monument. The Poolbeg Towers are also landmark features of Dublin, and visible from various spots around the city. ### Parks There are 302 parks and 66 green spaces within the Dublin City Council area as of 2018, with the council managing over 1,500 hectares (3,700 acres) of parks. Public parks include the Phoenix Park, Herbert Park, St Stephen's Green, Saint Anne's Park and Bull Island. The Phoenix Park is about 3 km (2 miles) west of the city centre, north of the River Liffey. Its 16-kilometre (10 mi) perimeter wall encloses 707 hectares (1,750 acres), making it one of the largest walled city parks in Europe. It includes large areas of grassland and tree-lined avenues, and since the 17th century has been home to a herd of wild fallow deer. The residence of the President of Ireland (Áras an Uachtaráin), which was built in 1751, is located in the park. The park is also home to Dublin Zoo, Ashtown Castle, and the official residence of the United States Ambassador. Music concerts are also sometimes held in the park. St Stephen's Green is adjacent to one of Dublin's main shopping streets, Grafton Street, and to a shopping centre named after it, while on its surrounding streets are the offices of a number of public bodies. Saint Anne's Park is a public park and recreational facility, shared between Raheny and Clontarf, both suburbs on the Northside. The park, the second largest municipal park in Dublin, is part of a former 2-square-kilometre (0.8 sq mi; 500-acre) estate assembled by members of the Guinness family, beginning with Benjamin Lee Guinness in 1835 (the largest municipal park is nearby (North) Bull Island, also shared between Clontarf and Raheny), featuring a 5 km beach. Economy ------- The Dublin region is the economic centre of Ireland, and was at the forefront of the country's economic expansion during the Celtic Tiger period. In 2009, Dublin was listed as the fourth richest city in the world by purchasing power and 10th richest by personal income. According to *Mercer's 2011 Worldwide Cost of Living Survey*, Dublin is the 13th most expensive city in the European Union (down from 10th in 2010) and the 58th most expensive place to live in the world (down from 42nd in 2010). As of 2017[update], approximately 874,400 people were employed in the Greater Dublin Area. Around 60% of people who are employed in Ireland's financial, ICT, and professional sectors are located in this area. A number of Dublin's traditional industries, such as food processing, textile manufacturing, brewing, and distilling have gradually declined, although Guinness has been brewed at the St. James's Gate Brewery since 1759. Economic improvements in the 1990s attracted a number of global pharmaceutical, information and communications technology companies to the city and Greater Dublin Area. Companies such as Microsoft, Google, Amazon, eBay, PayPal, Yahoo!, Facebook, Twitter, Accenture, TikTok and Pfizer now have European headquarters and/or operational bases in the city, with several located in enterprise clusters like the Digital Hub and Silicon Docks. The presence of these companies has driven economic expansion in the city and led to Dublin sometimes being referred to as the "Tech Capital of Europe". Financial services have also become important to the city since the establishment of Dublin's International Financial Services Centre in 1987. More than 500 operations are approved to trade under the IFSC programme. The centre is host to half of the world's top 50 banks and to half of the top 20 insurance companies. Many international firms have established major headquarters in the city, such as Citibank. The Irish Stock Exchange (ISEQ), Internet Neutral Exchange (INEX) and Irish Enterprise Exchange (IEX) are also located in Dublin. Dublin has been positioned as one of the main cities vying to host Financial Services companies hoping to retain access to the Eurozone after Brexit. The Celtic Tiger also led to a temporary boom in construction, with large redevelopment projects in the Dublin Docklands and Spencer Dock. Completed projects include the Convention Centre, the 3Arena, and the Bord Gáis Energy Theatre. In the second quarter of 2018, Dublin touched its lowest unemployment rate in a decade, when it fell down to 5.7% as reported by the Dublin Economic Monitor. In November 2022, Dublin was ranked as one of the worst cities in the world for travel, health and cost of living. On September 24, 2022, thousands took to the streets in protest against the cost of living crisis. Transport --------- ### Road The road network in Ireland is primarily focused on Dublin. The M50 motorway, a semi-ring road which runs around the south, west and north of the city, connects important national primary routes to the rest of the country. In 2008, the West-Link toll bridge was replaced by the eFlow barrier-free tolling system, with a three-tiered charge system based on electronic tags and car pre-registration. The first phase of a proposed eastern bypass for the city is the Dublin Port Tunnel, which officially opened in 2006 to mainly cater for heavy vehicles. The tunnel connects Dublin Port and the M1 motorway close to Dublin Airport. The city is also surrounded by an inner and outer orbital route. The inner orbital route runs approximately around the heart of the Georgian city and the outer orbital route runs primarily along the natural circle formed by Dublin's two canals, the Grand Canal and the Royal Canal, as well as the North and South Circular Roads. The 2016 TomTom Traffic Index ranked Dublin the 15th most congested city in the world and the 7th most congested in Europe. #### Bus Dublin is served by a network of nearly 200 bus routes which cover the city and suburbs. The majority of these are provided by Dublin Bus, with a modest number having been transferred to Go Ahead Ireland in 2018. A number of smaller companies also operate. Fares are generally calculated on a stage system based on distance travelled. There are several different levels of fares, which apply on most services. A "Real Time Passenger Information" system was introduced at Dublin Bus bus stops in 2012 in which signs relay display the projected time of the next buses' arrival based on its GPS position. The National Transport Authority is responsible for integration of bus and rail services in Dublin and has been involved in introducing a pre-paid smart card, called a TFI Leap Card, which can be used on all of Dublin's public transport services. #### Cycling The 2011 Census showed that 5.9 percent of commuters in Dublin cycled. A 2013 report by Dublin City Council on traffic flows crossing the canals in and out of the city found that just under 10% of all traffic was made up of cyclists, representing an increase of 14.1% over 2012 and an 87.2% increase over 2006 levels and is attributed to measures, such as, the Dublinbikes bike rental scheme, the provision of cycle lanes, public awareness campaigns to promote cycling and the introduction of the 30 km/h city centre speed limit. Dublin City Council began installing cycle lanes and tracks throughout the city in the 1990s, and as of 2012[update] the city had over 200 kilometres (120 mi) of specific on- and off-road tracks for cyclists. In 2011, the city was ranked 9th of major world cities on the *Copenhagenize Index of Bicycle-Friendly Cities*. The same index showed a fall to 15th in 2015, and Dublin was outside the top 20 in 2017. Dublinbikes is a self-service bicycle rental scheme which has been in operation in Dublin since 2009. Sponsored by JCDecaux and Just Eat, the scheme consists of hundreds of unisex bicycles stationed at 44 terminals throughout the city centre. Users must make a subscription for either an annual Long Term Hire Card or purchase a three-day ticket. As of 2018[update], Dublinbikes had over 66,000 long-term subscribers making over 2 million journeys per year. ### Rail Heuston and Connolly stations are the two main railway termini in Dublin. Operated by Iarnród Éireann, the Dublin Suburban Rail network consists of five railway lines serving the Greater Dublin Area and commuter towns such as Drogheda and Dundalk in County Louth, Gorey in County Wexford, and extending as far as Portlaoise and once a day, Newry. One of the five lines is the electrified Dublin Area Rapid Transit (DART) line, which runs primarily along the coast of Dublin, comprising 31 stations, from Malahide and Howth southwards as far as Greystones in County Wicklow. Commuter rail operates on the other four lines using Irish Rail diesel multiple units. In 2013, passengers for DART and Dublin Suburban lines were 16 million and 11.7 million, respectively (around 75% of all Irish Rail passengers). Dublin once had an extensive system of trams but this was largely phased out by 1949. A new light rail system, often described as a tram system, the Luas, was launched in 2004, and is run by Transdev Ireland (under contract from Transport Infrastructure Ireland), carrying over 34 million passengers annually. The network consists of two interconnecting lines; the Red Line links the Docklands and city centre with the south-western suburbs of Tallaght and Saggart, while the Green Line connects northern inner city suburbs and the main city centre with suburbs to the south of the city including Sandyford and Brides Glen. Together these lines comprise a total 67 stations and 44.5 kilometres (27.7 mi) of track. Construction of a 6 km extension to the Green Line, bringing it into the north of the city, commenced in June 2013 and was opened for passenger travel on 9 December 2017. A metro service is proposed under the name of Metrolink, and planned to run from Dublin's northside to Sandyford via Dublin Airport and St. Stephen's Green. ### Rail and ferry Dublin Connolly is connected by bus to Dublin Port and ferries run by Irish Ferries and Stena Line to Holyhead for connecting trains on the North Wales Coast Line to Chester, Crewe and London Euston. Dublin Connolly to Dublin Port can be reached via Amiens Street, Dublin into Store Street or by Luas via Busáras where Dublin Bus operates services to the Ferry Terminal. ### Air #### Dublin Airport Dublin Airport (owned and operated by DAA) is located north of Dublin city, near Swords in the administrative county of Fingal. The headquarters of Ireland's flag carrier Aer Lingus and regional airline CityJet are located there, and those of low-cost carrier Ryanair nearby. The airport offers a short and medium-haul network, domestic services to regional airports in Ireland, and long-haul services to the United States, Canada, the Middle East and Hong Kong. Dublin Airport is the 11th busiest in the European Union, and by far the busiest airport on the island of Ireland. In 2014, Dublin Airport was the 18th busiest airport in Europe, serving over 21 million passengers. By 2016 this increased to 27.9 million passengers passing through the airport, establishing an all-time record supported by growth in both short- and long-haul networks. In 2015 and 2016, transatlantic traffic grew, with 158 summer flights a week to North America, making it the sixth largest European hub for that route over the year. Transatlantic traffic was also the fastest-growing segment of the market for the airport in 2016, in which a 16% increase from 2015 brought the yearly number of passengers travelling between Dublin and North America to 2.9 million. From 2010 to 2016, Dublin Airport saw an increase of nearly 9.5 million passengers in its annual traffic, as the number of commercial aircraft movements has similarly followed a growth trend from 163,703 in 2013 to 191,233 in 2015. #### Other air transport Dublin is also served by Weston Airport and other small facilities, by a range of helicopter operators, and the military and some State services use Casement Aerodrome nearby. Education --------- Dublin is the largest centre of education in Ireland, and is home to four universities and a number of other higher education institutions. It was the European Capital of Science in 2012. The University of Dublin is the oldest university in Ireland, dating from the 16th century, and is located in the city centre. Its sole constituent college, Trinity College (TCD), was established by Royal Charter in 1592 under Elizabeth I. It was closed to Roman Catholics until 1793, and the Catholic hierarchy then banned Roman Catholics from attending until 1970. It is situated in the city centre, on College Green, and has over 18,000 students. The National University of Ireland (NUI) has its seat in Dublin, which is also the location of the associated *constituent university* of University College Dublin (UCD), which has over 30,000 students. Founded in 1854, it is now the largest university in Ireland. UCD's main campus is at Belfield, about 5 km (3 mi) from the city centre, in the southeastern suburbs. As of 2019, Dublin's principal, and Ireland's largest, institution for technological education and research, Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT), with origins in 1887, has merged with two major suburban third level institutions, Institute of Technology, Tallaght and Institute of Technology, Blanchardstown, to form Technological University Dublin, Ireland's second largest university by student population. The new university offers a wide range of courses in areas include engineering, architecture, the sciences, health, journalism, digital media, hospitality, business, art and design, music and the humanities programmes, and has three long-term campuses, at Grangegorman, Tallaght and Blanchardstown. Dublin City University (DCU), formerly the National Institute for Higher Education (NIHE) Dublin, offers courses in business, engineering, science, communication courses, languages and primary education. It has around 16,000 students, and its main campus is located about 7 km (4 mi) from the city centre, in the northern suburbs. Aside from the main Glasnevin Campus, the Drumcondra campuses includes the former St. Patrick's College of Education, Drumcondra now also hosting students from the nearby Mater Dei Institute of Education and students from the Church of Ireland College of Education at the DCU Campus at All Hallows College. The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) conducts a medical school which is both a university (since 2019) and a recognised college of the NUI, and is situated at St. Stephen's Green in the city centre; there are also large medical schools within UCD and Trinity College. The National College of Art and Design (NCAD) provides education and research in art, design and media. The National College of Ireland (NCI) is also based in Dublin, as well as the Economic and Social Research Institute, a social science research institute, on Sir John Rogerson's Quay, and the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. The Institute of International and European Affairs is also in Dublin. Dublin Business School (DBS) is Ireland's largest private third level institution with over 9,000 students located on Aungier Street, and Griffith College Dublin has its main facility in Portobello. There are also smaller specialised colleges, including The Gaiety School of Acting. The Irish public administration and management training centre has its base in Dublin, the Institute of Public Administration provides a range of undergraduate and post graduate awards via the National University of Ireland and in some instances, Queen's University Belfast. Dublin is also home to the Royal Irish Academy, membership of which is considered Ireland's highest academic honour. The suburban town of Dún Laoghaire is home to the Dún Laoghaire Institute of Art, Design and Technology (IADT), which supports training and research in art, design, business, psychology and media technology. Dublin joined the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities in 2019. Demographics ------------ The City of Dublin is the area administered by Dublin City Council. The term "Dublin" is also used to the traditional County Dublin (the Dublin Region), which includes the city and the counties of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin. The population of the city of Dublin was 554,554 in the 2016 census, while the population of the urban area was 1,173,179. The County Dublin population was 1,273,069 and that of the Greater Dublin Area 1,904,806. The area's population is expanding rapidly, and it was estimated by the Central Statistics Office that it would reach 2.1 million by 2020.[*needs update*] After World War II, Italians were by far the largest immigrant group in both Dublin and Ireland and became synonymous with the catering and restaurant landscape. Since the late 1990s, Dublin has experienced a significant level of net immigration, with the greatest numbers coming from the European Union, especially the United Kingdom, Poland and Lithuania. There is also immigration from outside Europe, including from Brazil, India, the Philippines, China and Nigeria. Dublin is home to a greater proportion of newer arrivals than any other part of the country. Sixty percent of Ireland's Asian population lives in Dublin. Over 15% of Dublin's population was foreign-born in 2006. The capital attracts the largest proportion of non-Catholic migrants from other countries. Increased secularisation in Ireland has prompted a drop in regular Catholic church attendance in Dublin from over 90 percent in the mid-1970s down to 14 percent according to a 2011 survey and less than 2% in some areas According to the 2016 census, the population of Dublin was 86.2% white (including 862,381 white Irish [72.5%], 132,846 other white [13.2%] and 5,092 [0.5%] white Irish traveller), 2% black (23,892), and 4.6% Asian (46,626). Additionally, 2.7% (27,412) are from other ethnic or cultural background, while 4.9% (49,092) did not state their ethnicity. In terms of religion, 68.2% identified as Catholic, 12.7% as other stated religions, with 19.1% having no religion or no religion stated. As of July 2018[update], there were 1,367 families within the Dublin region living in homeless accommodation or other emergency housing. Culture ------- ### The arts Dublin has a significant literary history, and produced many literary figures, including Nobel laureates William Butler Yeats, George Bernard Shaw and Samuel Beckett. Other influential writers and playwrights include Oscar Wilde, Jonathan Swift and the creator of Dracula, Bram Stoker. It is also the location of key and notable works of James Joyce, including *Ulysses*, which is set in Dublin and includes much topical detail. *Dubliners* is a collection of short stories by Joyce about incidents and typical characters of the city during the early 20th century. Other renowned writers include J. M. Synge, Seán O'Casey, Brendan Behan, Maeve Binchy, John Banville and Roddy Doyle. Ireland's biggest libraries and literary museums are found in Dublin, including the National Print Museum of Ireland and National Library of Ireland. In July 2010, Dublin was named as a UNESCO City of Literature, joining Edinburgh, Melbourne and Iowa City with the permanent title. Handel's oratorio Messiah was first performed at Neal's Music Hall, in Fishamble Street, on 13 April 1742. There are several theatres within the city centre, and various well-known actors have emerged from the Dublin theatrical scene, including Noel Purcell, Michael Gambon, Brendan Gleeson, Stephen Rea, Colin Farrell, Colm Meaney and Gabriel Byrne. The best known theatres include the Gaiety, Abbey, Olympia, Gate, and Grand Canal. The Gaiety specialises in musical and operatic productions, and also opens its doors after the evening theatre production to host a variety of live music, dancing, and films. The Abbey was founded in 1904 by a group that included Yeats with the aim of promoting indigenous literary talent. It went on to provide a breakthrough for some of the city's most famous writers, such as Synge, Yeats himself and George Bernard Shaw. The Gate was founded in 1928 to promote European and American Avant Garde works. The Grand Canal Theatre is a newer 2,111 capacity theatre which opened in 2010 in the Grand Canal Dock area. Apart from being the focus of the country's literature and theatre, Dublin is also the focal point for much of Irish art and the Irish artistic scene. The Book of Kells, a world-famous manuscript produced by Celtic monks in AD 800 and an example of Insular art, is on display in Trinity College. The Chester Beatty Library houses a collection of manuscripts, miniature paintings, prints, drawings, rare books and decorative arts assembled by American mining millionaire (and honorary Irish citizen) Sir Alfred Chester Beatty (1875–1968). The collections date from 2700 BCE onwards and are drawn from Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. In addition public art galleries are found across the city and are free to visit, including the Irish Museum of Modern Art, the National Gallery, the Hugh Lane Municipal Gallery, the Douglas Hyde Gallery, the Project Arts Centre and the exhibition space of the Royal Hibernian Academy. Private galleries in Dublin include Green on Red Gallery, Kerlin Gallery, Kevin Kavanagh Gallery and Mother's Tankstation. Three branches of the National Museum of Ireland are located in Dublin: Archaeology in Kildare Street, Decorative Arts and History in Collins Barracks and Natural History in Merrion Street. Dublin is home to the National College of Art and Design, which dates from 1746, and Dublin Institute of Design, founded in 1991. Dublinia is a living history attraction showcasing the Viking and Medieval history of the city. Dublin has long had an 'underground' arts scene, with Temple Bar hosting artists in the 1980s, and spaces such as the Project Arts Centre acting as a hub for collectives and new exhibitions. *The Guardian* noted that Dublin's independent and underground arts flourished during the economic recession of c. 2010. Dublin also has many dramatic, musical and operatic companies, including Festival Productions, Lyric Opera Productions, the Pioneers' Musical & Dramatic Society, Rathmines and Rathgar Musical Society, the Glasnevin Musical Society, Third Day Chorale, Second Age Theatre Company, Irish National Opera. Dublin was shortlisted to be World Design Capital 2014. Taoiseach Enda Kenny was quoted to say that Dublin "would be an ideal candidate to host the World Design Capital in 2014". In October 2021, Dublin was shortlisted for the European Commission's 2022 European Capital of Smart Tourism award along with Bordeaux, Copenhagen, Florence, Ljubljana, Palma de Mallorca and Valencia. ### Entertainment Dublin has a vibrant nightlife and is reputedly one of Europe's most youthful cities, with an estimate of 50% of citizens being younger than 25. There are many pubs across the city centre, with the area around St. Stephen's Green and Grafton Street, especially Harcourt Street, Camden Street, Wexford Street and Leeson Street, the location of many nightclubs and pubs. The best known area for nightlife is Temple Bar, south of the River Liffey. The area has become popular among tourists, including stag and hen parties from the UK. It was developed as Dublin's cultural quarter and does retain this spirit as a centre for small arts productions, photographic and artists' studios, and in the form of street performers and small music venues; however, it has been criticised as overpriced, false and dirty by Lonely Planet. The areas around Leeson Street, Harcourt Street, South William Street and Camden/George's Street are popular nightlife spots for locals. ### Music Live music is played on streets and at venues throughout Dublin, and the city has produced several musicians and groups of international success, including The Dubliners, Thin Lizzy, The Boomtown Rats, U2, The Script, Sinéad O'Connor, Boyzone, Kodaline, Fontaines D.C. and Westlife. Dublin has several mid-range venues that host live music throughout the week, including Whelans and Vicar Street. The 3Arena venue in the Dublin Docklands plays host to visiting global performers. ### Shopping Dublin city centre is a popular shopping destination for both locals and tourists. The city has numerous shopping districts, particularly around Grafton Street and Henry Street. The city centre is also the location of large department stores, including Arnotts, Brown Thomas and (prior to its 2015 closure) Clerys. While the city has seen the loss of some traditional market sites, Moore Street remains one of the city's oldest trading districts. There has also been some growth in local farmers' markets and other markets. In 2007, Dublin Food Co-op relocated to a warehouse in The Liberties area, where it is home to market and community events. Suburban Dublin has several modern retail centres, including Dundrum Town Centre, Blanchardstown Centre, the Square in Tallaght, Liffey Valley Shopping Centre in Clondalkin, Omni Shopping Centre in Santry, Nutgrove Shopping Centre in Rathfarnham, Northside Shopping Centre in Coolock and Swords Pavilions in Swords. ### Media Dublin is the centre of both media and communications in Ireland, with many newspapers, radio stations, television stations and telephone companies based there. RTÉ is Ireland's national state broadcaster, and is based in Donnybrook. Fair City is RTÉ's soap opera, located in the fictional Dublin suburb of *Carraigstown*. Virgin Media Television, eir Sport, MTV Ireland and Sky News are also based in the city. The headquarters of An Post and telecommunications companies such as Eir, as well as mobile operators Vodafone and 3 are all located there. Dublin is also the headquarters of national newspapers such as *The Irish Times* and *Irish Independent*, as well as local newspapers such as *The Evening Herald*. As well as being home to RTÉ Radio, Dublin also hosts the national radio networks Today FM and Newstalk, and local stations. Commercial radio stations based in the city include 4fm (94.9 MHz), Dublin's 98FM (98.1 MHz), Radio Nova 100FM (100.3 MHz), Q102 (102.2 MHz), SPIN 1038 (103.8 MHz), FM104 (104.4 MHz), Sunshine 106.8 (106.8 MHz). There are also numerous community and special interest stations, including Dublin City FM (103.2 MHz), Dublin South FM (93.9 MHz), Liffey Sound FM (96.4 MHz), Near FM (90.3 MHz), and Raidió Na Life (106.4 MHz). ### Sport #### GAA Croke Park is the largest sport stadium in Ireland. The headquarters of the Gaelic Athletic Association, it has a capacity of 82,300. It is the third-largest stadium in Europe after Nou Camp in Barcelona and Wembley Stadium in London. It hosts the premier Gaelic football and hurling games, international rules football and irregularly other sporting and non-sporting events including concerts. Muhammad Ali fought there in 1972 and it played host to the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2003 Special Olympics. It also has conference and banqueting facilities. There is a GAA Museum there and tours of the stadium are offered, including a rooftop walk of the stadium. During the redevelopment of Lansdowne Road, Croke Park played host to the Irish Rugby Union Team and Republic of Ireland national football team as well as hosting the Heineken Cup rugby 2008–09 semi-final between Munster and Leinster, which set a world record attendance for a club rugby match. The Dublin GAA team plays most of their home league hurling games at Parnell Park. #### Rugby Union IRFU Stadium Lansdowne Road was laid out in 1874. This was the venue for home games of both the Irish Rugby Union Team and the Republic of Ireland national football team. A joint venture between the Irish Rugby Football Union, the FAI and the Government, saw it redeveloped into a new state-of-the-art 50,000 seat Aviva Stadium, which opened in May 2010. Lansdowne Road/Aviva Stadium hosted the Heineken Cup final in 1999, 2003, and 2013, and is also due to host the 2023 final. Rugby union team Leinster Rugby play their competitive home games in the RDS Arena & the Aviva Stadium while Donnybrook Stadium hosts their friendlies and A games, Ireland A and Women, Leinster Schools and Youths and the home club games of All Ireland League clubs Old Wesley and Bective Rangers. County Dublin is home for 13 of the senior rugby union clubs in Ireland including 5 of the 10 sides in the top division 1A. #### Association football Dublin is home to five League of Ireland association football clubs: Bohemian, Shamrock Rovers, Shelbourne, St Patrick's Athletic and University College Dublin. The first Irish side to reach the group stages of a European competition (2011–12 UEFA Europa League group stage) are Shamrock Rovers, who play at Tallaght Stadium in South Dublin. Bohemian F.C play at Dalymount Park, the oldest football stadium in the country, and home ground for the Ireland football team from 1904 to the 1970s. St Patrick's Athletic play at Richmond Park; University College Dublin at the UCD Bowl in Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown; and Shelbourne at Tolka Park. Tolka Park, Dalymount Park, UCD Bowl and Tallaght Stadium, along with the Carlisle Grounds in Bray, hosted all Group 3 games in the intermediary round of the 2011 UEFA Regions' Cup. Aviva Stadium hosted the 2011 UEFA Europa League Final. #### Cricket Dublin has two ODI cricket grounds in Castle Avenue (Clontarf Cricket Club) and Malahide Cricket Club Ground. College Park has Test status and played host to Ireland's first Test cricket match, a women's match against Pakistan in 2000. The men's Irish cricket team also played their first Test match against Pakistan at Malahide Cricket Club Ground during 2018. Leinster Lightning play their home inter-provincial matches in Dublin at College Park. #### Other The Dublin Marathon has been run since 1980 at the end of October. The Women's Mini Marathon has been run since 1983 on the first Monday in June, which is also a bank holiday in Ireland. It is said to be the largest all female event of its kind in the world. The Great Ireland Run takes place in Dublin's Phoenix Park in mid-April. Two Dublin baseball clubs compete in the Irish Baseball League. The Dublin Spartans and the Dublin Bay Hurricanes are both based at The O'Malley Fields at Corkagh Park. The Portmarnock Red Rox, from outside the city, competes in the Baseball Ireland B League. The Dublin area hosts greyhound racing at Shelbourne Park and horse racing at Leopardstown. The Dublin Horse Show takes place at the RDS, which hosted the Show Jumping World Championships in 1982. The national boxing arena is located in The National Stadium on the South Circular Road. The National Basketball Arena is located in Tallaght, is the home of the Irish basketball team, the venue for the basketball league finals, and has also hosted boxing and wrestling events. The National Aquatic Centre in Blanchardstown is Ireland's largest indoor water leisure facility. There are also Gaelic Handball, hockey and athletics stadia, most notably Morton Stadium in Santry, which held the athletics events of the 2003 Special Olympics. ### Cuisine As of the 2022 Michelin Guide, six Dublin restaurants shared nine Michelin stars – including Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud, Liath and Chapter One with two. Irish-born Kevin Thornton was awarded two Michelin stars in 2001 – though his restaurant, Thornton's, closed in 2016. The Dublin Institute of Technology commenced a bachelor's degree in culinary skills in 1999. Historically, Irish coffee houses and cafes were associated with those working in media. Since the beginning of the 21st century, with the growth of apartment living in the city, Dublin's cafés attracted younger patrons looking for an informal gathering place and an ad hoc office. Cafés became more popular in the city, and Irish-owned coffee chains like Java Republic, Insomnia, and O'Brien's Sandwich Bars now compete internationally. In 2008, Irish barista Stephen Morrissey won the title of World Barista Champion. Irish language -------------- Dublin was traditionally a city of two languages, English and Irish, a situation found also in the area around it, The Pale. The Irish of County Dublin represented the easternmost extension of a broad central dialect area which stretched between Leinster and Connacht, but had its own local characteristics. It may also have been influenced by the east Ulster dialect of County Meath and County Louth to the north. In the words of a 16th-century English administrator, William Gerard (1518–1581): "All Englishe, and the most part with delight, even in Dublin, speak Irishe". The Old English historian Richard Stanihurst (1547–1618) wrote as follows: "When their posteritie became not altogither so warie in keeping, as their ancestors were valiant in conquering, the Irish language was free dennized in the English Pale: this canker tooke such deep root, as the bodie that before was whole and sound, was by little and little festered, and in manner wholly putrified". English authorities of the Cromwellian period accepted the fact that Irish was widely spoken in the city and its surrounds. In 1655 several local dignitaries were ordered to oversee a lecture in Irish to be given in Dublin. In March 1656 a converted Catholic priest, Séamas Corcy, was appointed to preach in Irish at Bride's parish every Sunday, and was also ordered to preach at Drogheda and Athy. In 1657 the English colonists in Dublin presented a petition to the Municipal Council complaining that in Dublin itself "there is Irish commonly and usually spoken". In early 18th century Dublin, Irish was the language of a group of poets and scribes led by Seán and Tadhg Ó Neachtain. Scribal activity in Irish persisted in Dublin right through the 18th century. There were still native Irish speakers in County Dublin at the time of the 1851 census. Though the number of Irish speakers declined throughout Ireland in the 19th century, the end of the century saw a Gaelic revival, centred in Dublin and accompanied by renewed literary activity. This was the harbinger of a steady renewal of urban Irish, though with new characteristics of its own. Dublin now has many thousands of habitual Irish speakers, with the 2016 census showing that daily speakers (outside the education system) numbered 14,903. They form part of an urban Irish-speaking cohort which is generally better-educated than monoglot English speakers. The Dublin Irish-speaking cohort is supported by a number of Irish-medium schools. There are 12,950 students in the Dublin region attending 34 gaelscoileanna (Irish-language primary schools) and 10 gaelcholáistí (Irish-language secondary schools). Two Irish language radio stations, Raidió Na Life and RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta, have studios in the city, and the online station Raidió Rí-Rá broadcasts from studios in the city. A number of Irish language agencies are also located in the capital. Conradh na Gaeilge offers language classes, has a book shop and is a meeting place for different groups. The closest Gaeltacht to Dublin is the County Meath Gaeltacht of Ráth Cairn and Baile Ghib which is 55 km (34 mi) away. International relations ----------------------- Dublin city council has an International Relations Unit, established in 2007. It works on hosting of international delegations, staff exchanges, international promotion of the city, twinning and partnerships, work with multi-city organisations such as Eurocities, economic partnerships and advice to other Council units. ### Twin and partner cities Dublin is twinned with four places: | City | Nation | Since | | --- | --- | --- | | **San Jose** | United States | 1986 | | **Liverpool** | United Kingdom | 1997 | | **Barcelona** | Spain | 1998 | | **Beijing** | China | 2011 | The city also has "friendship" or "co-operation agreements" with a number of other cities: Moscow (2009−) and St Petersburg (2010−) in Russia and Guadalajara in Mexico (2013−), and has previously proposed an agreement with Rio de Janeiro also. Previous agreements have included those with Mexico City (2014−2018), Tbilisi in Georgia (2014−2017) and Wuhan in China (2016−2019). Notable people -------------- See also -------- * Dublin English * List of people from Dublin * List of subdivisions of County Dublin **Sources** * Maxwell, Constantia (1997). *Dublin Under the Georges*. Lambay Books. ISBN 0-7089-4497-3. Further reading --------------- * John Flynn and Jerry Kelleher, *Dublin Journeys in America* (High Table Publishing, 2003) ISBN 0-9544694-1-0 * Pat Liddy, *Dublin A Celebration: From the 1st to the 21st century* (Dublin City Council, 2000) ISBN 0-946841-50-0 * Maurice Craig, *The Architecture of Ireland from the Earliest Times to 1880* (Batsford, Paperback edition 1989) ISBN 0-7134-2587-3 * Frank McDonald, *Saving the City: How to Halt the Destruction of Dublin* (Tomar Publishing, 1989) ISBN 1-871793-03-3 * Edward McParland, *Public Architecture in Ireland 1680–1760* (Yale University Press, 2001) ISBN 0-300-09064-1

Dublin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin

In a multicellular organism, an **organ** is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In the hierarchy of life, an organ lies between tissue and an organ system. Tissues are formed from same type cells to act together in a function. Tissues of different types combine to form an organ which has a specific function. The intestinal wall for example is formed by epithelial tissue and smooth muscle tissue. Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, also called a biological system or body system. An organ's tissues can be broadly categorized as parenchyma, the functional tissue, and stroma, the structural tissue with supportive, connective, or ancillary functions. For example, the gland's tissue that makes the hormones is the parenchyma, whereas the stroma includes the nerves that innervate the parenchyma, the blood vessels that oxygenate and nourish it and carry away its metabolic wastes, and the connective tissues that provide a suitable place for it to be situated and anchored. The main tissues that make up an organ tend to have common embryologic origins, such as arising from the same germ layer. Organs exist in most multicellular organisms. In single-celled organisms such as bacteria, the functional analogue of an organ is known as an organelle. In plants, there are three main organs. In the study of anatomy, **viscera** (singular viscus) refers to the **internal organs** of the abdominal, thoracic, and pelvic cavities. The abdominal organs may be classified as **solid organs**, or **hollow organs**. The solid organs are the liver, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, and adrenal glands. The hollow organs of the abdomen are the stomach, intestines, gallbladder, bladder, and rectum. In the thoracic cavity the heart is a hollow, muscular organ. The number of organs in any organism depends on the definition used. By one widely adopted definition, 79 organs have been identified in the human body. Animals ------- Except for placozoans, multicellular animals including humans have a variety of organ systems. These specific systems are widely studied in human anatomy. The functions of these organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine system both operate via a shared organ, the hypothalamus. For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system. The same is true for the musculoskeletal system because of the relationship between the muscular and skeletal systems. * Cardiovascular system: pumping and channeling blood to and from the body and lungs with heart, blood and blood vessels. * Digestive system: digestion and processing food with salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, colon, mesentery, rectum and anus. * Endocrine system: communication within the body using hormones made by endocrine glands such as the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal body or pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroids and adrenals, i.e., adrenal glands. * Excretory system: kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in fluid balance, electrolyte balance and excretion of urine. * Lymphatic system: structures involved in the transfer of lymph between tissues and the blood stream, the lymph and the nodes and vessels that transport it including the immune system: defending against disease-causing agents with leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids, thymus and spleen. * Integumentary system: skin, hair and nails of mammals. Also scales of fish, reptiles, and birds, and feathers of birds. * Muscular system: movement with muscles. * Nervous system: collecting, transferring and processing information with brain, spinal cord and nerves. * Reproductive system: the sex organs, such as ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vulva, vagina, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate and penis. * Respiratory system: the organs used for breathing, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and diaphragm. * Skeletal system: structural support and protection with bones, cartilage, ligaments and tendons. ### Viscera In the study of anatomy, **viscera** (singular viscus) refers to the **internal organs** of the abdominal, thoracic, and pelvic cavities. The abdominal organs may be classed as **solid organs**, or **hollow organs**. The solid organs include the liver, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, and adrenal glands. The hollow organs include the stomach, intestines, gallbladder, bladder, and rectum. In the thoracic cavity the heart is a hollow, muscular organ. Splanchnology is the study of the viscera. The term "visceral" is contrasted with the term "parietal", meaning "of or relating to the wall of a body part, organ or cavity" The two terms are often used in describing a membrane or piece of connective tissue, referring to the opposing sides. ### Origin and evolution The organ level of organisation in animals can be first detected in flatworms and the more derived phyla, i.e. the bilaterians. The less-advanced taxa (i.e. *Placozoa*, *Porifera*, *Ctenophora* and *Cnidaria*) do not show consolidation of their tissues into organs. More complex animals are composed of different organs, which have evolved over time. For example, the liver and heart evolved in the chordates about 550-500 million years ago, while the gut and brain are even more ancient, arising in the ancestor of vertebrates, insects, molluscs, and worms about 700-650 million years ago. Given the ancient origin of most vertebrate organs, researchers have looked for model systems, where organs have evolved more recently, and ideally have evolved multiple times independently. An outstanding model for this kind of research is the placenta, which has evolved more than 100 times independently in vertebrates, has evolved relatively recently in some lineages, and exists in intermediate forms in extant taxa. Studies on the evolution of the placenta have identified a variety of genetic and physiological processes that contribute to the origin and evolution of organs, these include the re-purposing of existing animal tissues, the acquisition of new functional properties by these tissues, and novel interactions of distinct tissue types. Plants ------ The study of plant organs is covered in plant morphology. Organs of plants can be divided into vegetative and reproductive. Vegetative plant organs include roots, stems, and leaves. The reproductive organs are variable. In flowering plants, they are represented by the flower, seed and fruit. In conifers, the organ that bears the reproductive structures is called a cone. In other divisions (phyla) of plants, the reproductive organs are called strobili, in *Lycopodiophyta*, or simply gametophores in mosses. Common organ system designations in plants include the differentiation of shoot and root. All parts of the plant above ground (in non-epiphytes), including the functionally distinct leaf and flower organs, may be classified together as the shoot organ system. The vegetative organs are essential for maintaining the life of a plant. While there can be 11 organ systems in animals, there are far fewer in plants, where some perform the vital functions, such as photosynthesis, while the reproductive organs are essential in reproduction. However, if there is asexual vegetative reproduction, the vegetative organs are those that create the new generation of plants (see clonal colony). Society and culture ------------------- Many societies have a system for organ donation, in which a living or deceased donor's organ are transplanted into a person with a failing organ. The transplantation of larger solid organs often requires immunosuppression to prevent organ rejection or graft-versus-host disease. There is considerable interest throughout the world in creating laboratory-grown or artificial organs. ### Organ transplants Beginning in the 20th century organ transplants began to take place as scientists knew more about the anatomy of organs. These came later in time as procedures were often dangerous and difficult. Both the source and method of obtaining the organ to transplant are major ethical issues to consider, and because organs as resources for transplant are always more limited than demand for them, various notions of justice, including distributive justice, are developed in the ethical analysis. This situation continues as long as transplantation relies upon organ donors rather than technological innovation, testing, and industrial manufacturing. History ------- The English word "organ" dates back to the twelfth century and refers to any musical instrument. By the late 14th century, the musical term's meaning had narrowed to refer specifically to the keyboard-based instrument. At the same time, a second meaning arose, in reference to a "body part adapted to a certain function". Plant organs are made from tissue composed of different types of tissue. The three tissue types are ground, vascular, and dermal. When three or more organs are present, it is called an organ system. The adjective *visceral*, also *splanchnic*, is used for anything pertaining to the internal organs. Historically, viscera of animals were examined by Roman pagan priests like the haruspices or the augurs in order to divine the future by their shape, dimensions or other factors. This practice remains an important ritual in some remote, tribal societies. The term "visceral" is contrasted with the term "parietal", meaning "of or relating to the wall of a body part, organ or cavity" The two terms are often used in describing a membrane or piece of connective tissue, referring to the opposing sides. ### Antiquity Aristotle used the word frequently in his philosophy, both to describe the organs of plants or animals (e.g. the roots of a tree, the heart or liver of an animal), and to describe more abstract "parts" of an interconnected whole (e.g. his logical works, taken as a whole, are referred to as the *Organon*). Some alchemists (e.g. Paracelsus) adopted the Hermetic Qabalah assignment between the seven vital organs and the seven classical planets as follows: | | | | --- | --- | | **Planet** | **Organ** | | Sun | Heart | | Moon | Brain | | Mercury | Lungs | | Venus | Kidneys | | Mars | Gall bladder | | Jupiter | Liver | | Saturn | Spleen | See also -------- * Organoid * Organ-on-a-chip

Organ (biology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_(biology)

There are 95 moons of Jupiter with confirmed orbits as of 23 March 2023[update]. This number does not include a number of meter-sized moonlets thought to be shed from the inner moons, nor hundreds of possible kilometer-sized outer irregular moons that were only briefly captured by telescopes. All together, Jupiter's moons form a satellite system called the **Jovian system**. The most massive of the moons are the four Galilean moons: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, which were independently discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei and Simon Marius and were the first objects found to orbit a body that was neither Earth nor the Sun. Much more recently, beginning in 1892, dozens of far smaller Jovian moons have been detected and have received the names of lovers (or other sexual partners) or daughters of the Roman god Jupiter or his Greek equivalent Zeus. The Galilean moons are by far the largest and most massive objects to orbit Jupiter, with the remaining 91 known moons and the rings together composing just 0.003% of the total orbiting mass. Of Jupiter's moons, eight are regular satellites with prograde and nearly circular orbits that are not greatly inclined with respect to Jupiter's equatorial plane. The Galilean satellites are nearly spherical in shape due to their planetary mass, and are just massive enough that they would be considered major planets if they were in direct orbit around the Sun. The other four regular satellites, known as the inner moons, are much smaller and closer to Jupiter; these serve as sources of the dust that makes up Jupiter's rings. The remainder of Jupiter's moons are outer irregular satellites whose prograde and retrograde orbits are much farther from Jupiter and have high inclinations and eccentricities. The largest of these moons were likely asteroids that were captured from solar orbits by Jupiter before impacts with other small bodies shattered them into many kilometer-sized fragments, forming collisional families of moons sharing similar orbits. Jupiter is expected to have about 100 irregular moons larger than 1 km (0.6 mi) in diameter, plus around 500 more smaller retrograde moons down to diameters of 0.8 km (0.5 mi). Of the 87 known irregular moons of Jupiter, 38 of them have not yet been officially named. Characteristics --------------- The physical and orbital characteristics of the moons vary widely. The four Galileans are all over 3,100 kilometres (1,900 mi) in diameter; the largest Galilean, Ganymede, is the ninth largest object in the Solar System, after the Sun and seven of the planets, Ganymede being larger than Mercury. All other Jovian moons are less than 250 kilometres (160 mi) in diameter, with most barely exceeding 5 kilometres (3.1 mi). Their orbital shapes range from nearly perfectly circular to highly eccentric and inclined, and many revolve in the direction opposite to Jupiter's rotation (retrograde motion). Orbital periods range from seven hours (taking less time than Jupiter does to rotate around its axis), to almost three Earth years. Origin and evolution -------------------- Jupiter's regular satellites are believed to have formed from a circumplanetary disk, a ring of accreting gas and solid debris analogous to a protoplanetary disk. They may be the remnants of a score of Galilean-mass satellites that formed early in Jupiter's history. Simulations suggest that, while the disk had a relatively high mass at any given moment, over time a substantial fraction (several tens of a percent) of the mass of Jupiter captured from the solar nebula was passed through it. However, only 2% of the proto-disk mass of Jupiter is required to explain the existing satellites. Thus, several generations of Galilean-mass satellites may have been in Jupiter's early history. Each generation of moons might have spiraled into Jupiter, because of drag from the disk, with new moons then forming from the new debris captured from the solar nebula. By the time the present (possibly fifth) generation formed, the disk had thinned so that it no longer greatly interfered with the moons' orbits. The current Galilean moons were still affected, falling into and being partially protected by an orbital resonance with each other, which still exists for Io, Europa, and Ganymede: they are in a 1:2:4 resonance. Ganymede's larger mass means that it would have migrated inward at a faster rate than Europa or Io. Tidal dissipation in the Jovian system is still ongoing and Callisto will likely be captured into the resonance in about 1.5 billion years, creating a 1:2:4:8 chain. The outer, irregular moons are thought to have originated from captured asteroids, whereas the protolunar disk was still massive enough to absorb much of their momentum and thus capture them into orbit. Many are believed to have broken up by mechanical stresses during capture, or afterward by collisions with other small bodies, producing the moons we see today. History and discovery --------------------- ### Visual observations Chinese historian Xi Zezong claimed that the earliest record of a Jovian moon (Ganymede or Callisto) was a note by Chinese astronomer Gan De of an observation around 364 BC regarding a "reddish star". However, the first certain observations of Jupiter's satellites were those of Galileo Galilei in 1609. By January 1610, he had sighted the four massive Galilean moons with his 20× magnification telescope, and he published his results in March 1610. Simon Marius had independently discovered the moons one day after Galileo, although he did not publish his book on the subject until 1614. Even so, the names Marius assigned are used today: Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa. No additional satellites were discovered until E. E. Barnard observed Amalthea in 1892. ### Photographic and spacecraft observations With the aid of telescopic photography with photographic plates, further discoveries followed quickly over the course of the 20th century. Himalia was discovered in 1904, Elara in 1905, Pasiphae in 1908, Sinope in 1914, Lysithea and Carme in 1938, Ananke in 1951, and Leda in 1974. By the time that the Voyager space probes reached Jupiter, around 1979, thirteen moons had been discovered, not including Themisto, which had been observed in 1975, but was lost until 2000 due to insufficient initial observation data. The Voyager spacecraft discovered an additional three inner moons in 1979: Metis, Adrastea, and Thebe. ### Digital telescopic observations No additional moons were discovered until two decades later, with the fortuitous discovery of Callirrhoe by the Spacewatch survey in October 1999. During the 1990s, photographic plates phased out as digital charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras began emerging in telescopes on Earth, allowing for wide-field surveys of the sky at unprecedented sensitivities and ushering in a wave of new moon discoveries. Scott Sheppard, then a graduate student of David Jewitt, demonstrated this extended capability of CCD cameras in a survey conducted with the Mauna Kea Observatory's 2.2-meter (88 in) UH88 telescope in November 2000, discovering eleven new irregular moons of Jupiter including the previously lost Themisto with the aid of automated computer algorithms. From 2001 onward, Sheppard and Jewitt alongside other collaborators continued surveying for Jovian irregular moons with the 3.6-meter (12 ft) Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT), discovering an additional eleven in December 2001, one in October 2002, and nineteen in February 2003. At the same time, another independent team led by Brett J. Gladman also used the CFHT in 2003 to search for Jovian irregular moons, discovering four and co-discovering two with Sheppard. From the start to end of these CCD-based surveys in 2000–2004, Jupiter's known moon count had grown from 17 to 63. All of these moons discovered after 2000 are faint and tiny, with apparent magnitudes between 22–23 and diameters less than 10 km (6.2 mi). As a result, many could not be reliably tracked and ended up becoming lost. Beginning in 2009, a team of astronomers, namely Mike Alexandersen, Marina Brozović, Brett Gladman, Robert Jacobson, and Christian Veillet, began a campaign to recover Jupiter's lost irregular moons using the CFHT and Palomar Observatory's 5.1-meter (17 ft) Hale Telescope. They discovered two previously unknown Jovian irregular moons during recovery efforts in September 2010, prompting further follow-up observations to confirm these by 2011. One of these moons, S/2010 J 2 (now Jupiter LII), has an apparent magnitude of 24 and a diameter of only 1–2 km (0.62–1.2 mi), making it one of the faintest and smallest confirmed moons of Jupiter even as of 2023[update]. Meanwhile, in September 2011, Scott Sheppard, now a faculty member of the Carnegie Institution for Science, discovered two more irregular moons using the institution's 6.5-meter (21 ft) Magellan Telescopes at Las Campanas Observatory, raising Jupiter's known moon count to 67. Although Sheppard's two moons were followed up and confirmed by 2012, both became lost due to insufficient observational coverage. In 2016, while surveying for distant trans-Neptunian objects with the Magellan Telescopes, Sheppard serendipitously observed a region of the sky located near Jupiter, enticing him to search for Jovian irregular moons as a detour. In collaboration with Chadwick Trujillo and David Tholen, Sheppard continued surveying around Jupiter from 2016 to 2018 using the Cerro Tololo Observatory's 4.0-meter (13 ft) Víctor M. Blanco Telescope and Mauna Kea Observatory's 8.2-meter (27 ft) Subaru Telescope. In the process, Sheppard's team recovered several lost moons of Jupiter from 2003 to 2011 and reported two new Jovian irregular moons in June 2017. Then in July 2018, Sheppard's team announced ten more irregular moons confirmed from 2016 to 2018 observations, bringing Jupiter's known moon count to 79. Among these was Valetudo, which has an unusually distant prograde orbit that crosses paths with the retrograde irregular moons. Several more unidentified Jovian irregular satellites were detected in Sheppard's 2016–2018 search, but were too faint for follow-up confirmation. From November 2021 to January 2023, Sheppard discovered twelve more irregular moons of Jupiter and confirmed them in archival survey imagery from 2003 to 2018, bringing the total count to 92. Among these was S/2018 J 4, a highly-inclined prograde moon that is now known to be in same orbital grouping as the moon Carpo, which was previously thought to be solitary. On 22 February 2023, Sheppard announced three more moons discovered in a 2022 survey, now bringing Jupiter's total known moon count to 95. In a February 2023 interview with *NPR*, Sheppard has noted that he and his team are currently tracking even more moons of Jupiter, which should place Jupiter's moon count over 100 once confirmed over the next two years. Many more irregular moons of Jupiter will inevitably be discovered in the future, especially after the beginning of deep sky surveys by the upcoming Vera C. Rubin Observatory and Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope in the mid-2020s. The Rubin Observatory's 8.4-meter (28 ft) aperture telescope and 3.5 square-degree field of view will probe Jupiter's irregular moons down to diameters of 1 km (0.6 mi) at apparent magnitudes of 24.5, with the potential of increasing the known population by up to tenfold. Likewise, the Roman Space Telescope's 2.4-meter (7.9 ft) aperture and 0.28 square-degree field of view will probe Jupiter's irregular moons down to diameters of 0.3 km (0.2 mi) at magnitude 27.7, with the potential of discovering approximately 1,000 Jovian moons above this size. Discovering this many irregular satellites will help reveal their population's size distribution and collisional histories, which will place further constraints to how the Solar System formed. **Discovery of Outer Planet Moons**   Moons of Jupiter   Moons of Saturn   Moons of Uranus   Moons of Neptune Naming ------ The Galilean moons of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) were named by Simon Marius soon after their discovery in 1610. However, these names fell out of favor until the 20th century. The astronomical literature instead simply referred to "Jupiter I", "Jupiter II", etc., or "the first satellite of Jupiter", "Jupiter's second satellite", and so on. The names Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto became popular in the mid-20th century, whereas the rest of the moons remained unnamed and were usually numbered in Roman numerals V (5) to XII (12). Jupiter V was discovered in 1892 and given the name *Amalthea* by a popular though unofficial convention, a name first used by French astronomer Camille Flammarion. The other moons were simply labeled by their Roman numeral (e.g. Jupiter IX) in the majority of astronomical literature until the 1970s. Several different suggestions were made for names of Jupiter's outer satellites, but none were universally accepted until 1975 when the International Astronomical Union's (IAU) Task Group for Outer Solar System Nomenclature granted names to satellites V–XIII, and provided for a formal naming process for future satellites still to be discovered. The practice was to name newly discovered moons of Jupiter after lovers and favorites of the god Jupiter (Zeus) and, since 2004, also after their descendants. All of Jupiter's satellites from XXXIV (Euporie) onward are named after descendants of Jupiter or Zeus, except LIII (Dia), named after a lover of Jupiter. Names ending with "a" or "o" are used for prograde irregular satellites (the latter for highly inclined satellites), and names ending with "e" are used for retrograde irregulars. With the discovery of smaller, kilometre-sized moons around Jupiter, the IAU has established an additional convention to limit the naming of small moons with absolute magnitudes greater than 18 or diameters smaller than 1 km (0.6 mi). Some of the most recently confirmed moons have not received names. Some asteroids share the same names as moons of Jupiter: 9 Metis, 38 Leda, 52 Europa, 85 Io, 113 Amalthea, 239 Adrastea. Two more asteroids previously shared the names of Jovian moons until spelling differences were made permanent by the IAU: Ganymede and asteroid 1036 Ganymed; and Callisto and asteroid 204 Kallisto. Groups ------ ### Regular satellites These have prograde and nearly circular orbits of low inclination and are split into two groups: * ***Inner satellites*** or ***Amalthea group***: Metis, Adrastea, Amalthea, and Thebe. These orbit very close to Jupiter; the innermost two orbit in less than a Jovian day. The latter two are respectively the fifth and seventh largest moons in the Jovian system. Observations suggest that at least the largest member, Amalthea, did not form on its present orbit, but farther from the planet, or that it is a captured Solar System body. These moons, along with a number of seen and as-yet-unseen inner moonlets (see Amalthea moonlets), replenish and maintain Jupiter's faint ring system. Metis and Adrastea help to maintain Jupiter's main ring, whereas Amalthea and Thebe each maintain their own faint outer rings. * *Main group* or *Galilean moons*: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. They are some of the largest objects in the Solar System outside the Sun and the eight planets in terms of mass, larger than any known dwarf planet. Ganymede exceeds (and Callisto nearly equals) even the planet Mercury in diameter, though they are less massive. They are respectively the fourth-, sixth-, first-, and third-largest natural satellites in the Solar System, containing approximately 99.997% of the total mass in orbit around Jupiter, while Jupiter is almost 5,000 times more massive than the Galilean moons. The inner moons are in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance. Models suggest that they formed by slow accretion in the low-density Jovian subnebula—a disc of the gas and dust that existed around Jupiter after its formation—which lasted up to 10 million years in the case of Callisto. Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto are suspected of having subsurface water oceans, and Io may have a subsurface magma ocean. ### Irregular satellites The irregular satellites are substantially smaller objects with more distant and eccentric orbits. They form families with shared similarities in orbit (semi-major axis, inclination, eccentricity) and composition; it is believed that these are at least partially collisional families that were created when larger (but still small) parent bodies were shattered by impacts from asteroids captured by Jupiter's gravitational field. These families bear the names of their largest members. The identification of satellite families is tentative, but the following are typically listed: * Prograde satellites: + Themisto is the innermost irregular moon and is not part of a known family. + The Himalia group is confined within semi-major axes between 11–12 million km (6.8–7.5 million mi), inclinations between 27–29°, and eccentricities between 0.12 and 0.21. It has been suggested that the group could be a remnant of the break-up of an asteroid from the asteroid belt. + The Carpo group includes two known moons on very high orbital inclinations of 50° and semi-major axes between 16–17 million km (9.9–10.6 million mi). Due to their exceptionally high inclinations, the moons of the Carpo group are subject to gravitational perturbations that induce the Lidov–Kozai resonance in their orbits, which cause their eccentricities and inclinations to periodically oscillate in correspondence with each other. The Lidov–Kozai resonance can significantly the alter the orbits of these moons: for example, the eccentricity and inclination of the group's namesake Carpo can fluctuate between 0.19–0.69 and 44–59°, respectively. + Valetudo is the outermost prograde moon and is not part of a known family. Its prograde orbit crosses paths with several moons that have retrograde orbits and may in the future collide with them. * Retrograde satellites: + The Carme group is tightly confined within semi-major axes between 22–24 million km (14–15 million mi), inclinations between 164–166°, and eccentricities between 0.25 and 0.28. It is very homogeneous in color (light red) and is believed to have originated as collisional fragments from a D-type asteroid progenitor, possibly a Jupiter trojan. + The Ananke group has a relatively wider spread than the previous groups, with semi-major axes between 19–22 million km (12–14 million mi), inclinations between 144–156°, and eccentricities between 0.09 and 0.25. Most of the members appear gray, and are believed to have formed from the breakup of a captured asteroid. + The Pasiphae group is quite dispersed, with semi-major axes spread over 22–25 million km (14–16 million mi), inclinations between 141° and 157°, and higher eccentricities between 0.23 and 0.44. The colors also vary significantly, from red to grey, which might be the result of multiple collisions. Sinope, sometimes included in the Pasiphae group, is red and, given the difference in inclination, it could have been captured independently; Pasiphae and Sinope are also trapped in secular resonances with Jupiter. Based on their survey discoveries in 2000–2003, Sheppard and Jewitt predicted that Jupiter should have approximately 100 irregular satellites larger than 1 km (0.6 mi) in diameter, or brighter than magnitude 24. Survey observations by Alexandersen et al. in 2010–2011 agreed with this prediction, estimating that approximately 40 Jovian irregular satellites of this size remained undiscovered in 2012. In September 2020, researchers from the University of British Columbia identified 45 candidate irregular moons from an analysis of archival images taken in 2010 by the CFHT. These candidates were mainly small and faint, down to magnitude of 25.7 or above 0.8 km (0.5 mi) in diameter. From the number of candidate moons detected within a sky area of one square degree, the team extrapolated that the population of retrograde Jovian moons brighter than magnitude 25.7 is around 600+600 −300 within a factor of 2. Although the team considers their characterized candidates to be likely moons of Jupiter, they all remain unconfirmed due to insufficient observation data for determining reliable orbits. The true population of Jovian irregular moons is likely complete down to magnitude 23.2 at diameters over 3 km (1.9 mi) as of 2020[update]. List ---- The moons of Jupiter are listed below by orbital period. Moons massive enough for their surfaces to have collapsed into a spheroid are highlighted in bold. These are the four Galilean moons, which are comparable in size to the Moon. The other moons are much smaller, with the least massive Galilean moon being more than 7,000 times more massive than the most massive of the other moons. The irregular captured moons are shaded light gray and orange when prograde and yellow, red, and dark gray when retrograde. The orbits and mean distances of the irregular moons are highly variable over short timescales due to frequent planetary and solar perturbations, so proper orbital elements which are averaged over a period of time are preferably used. The proper orbital elements of the irregular moons listed here are averaged over a 400-year numerical integration by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Otherwise, recently-discovered irregular moons without published proper elements are temporarily listed here with inaccurate osculating orbital elements that are *italicized* to distinguish them from other irregular moons with proper orbital elements. Some of the irregular moons' proper orbital periods in this list may not scale accordingly with their proper semi-major axes due to aforementioned perturbations. The irregular moons' proper orbital elements are all based on the reference epoch of 1 January 2000. Some irregular moons have only been observed briefly for a year or two, but their orbits are known accurately enough that they will not be lost to positional uncertainties. As of February 2023[update], only three known moons of Jupiter—S/2022 J 1, S/2022 J 2, and S/2022 J 3—have observation arcs shorter than one year and are therefore at risk of becoming lost. | Key | | --- | |   Inner moons | ♠ Galilean moons | † Themisto group | ♣ Himalia group | ± Carpo group | § Valetudo group | ♦ Ananke group | ♥ Carme group | ‡ Pasiphae group | | Label | Name | Pronunciation | Image | Abs.magn. | Diameter (km) | Mass(×1016 kg) | Semi-major axis(km) | Orbital period (d) | Inclination(°) | Eccentricity | Discovery year | Year announced | Discoverer | Group | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | XVI | Metis | /ˈmiːtəs/ | | 10.5 | 43(60 × 40 × 34) | ≈ 3.6 | 128000 | +0.2948(+7h 04m 29s) | 0.060 | 0.0002 | 1979 | 1980 | Synnott(*Voyager 1*) | Inner | | XV | Adrastea | /ædrəˈstiːə/ | | 12.0 | 16.4(20 × 16 × 14) | ≈ 0.20 | 129000 | +0.2983(+7h 09m 30s) | 0.030 | 0.0015 | 1979 | 1979 | Jewitt(*Voyager 2*) | Inner | | V | Amalthea | /æməlˈθiːə/ | | 7.1 | 167(250 × 146 × 128) | 208 | 181400 | +0.4999(+11h 59m 53s) | 0.374 | 0.0032 | 1892 | 1892 | Barnard | Inner | | XIV | Thebe | /ˈθiːbiː/ | | 9.0 | 98.6(116 × 98 × 84) | ≈ 43 | 221900 | +0.6761(+16h 13m 35s) | 1.076 | 0.0175 | 1979 | 1980 | Synnott(*Voyager 1*) | Inner | | I | **Io**♠ | /ˈaɪoʊ/ | | –1.7 | 3643.2(3660 × 3637 × 3631) | 8931900 | 421800 | +1.7627(+1d 18h 18m 20s) | 0.050 | 0.0041 | 1610 | 1610 | Galileo | Galilean | | II | **Europa**♠ | /jʊəˈroʊpə/ | | –1.4 | 3121.6 | 4799800 | 671100 | +3.5255(+3d 12h 36m 40s) | 0.470 | 0.0090 | 1610 | 1610 | Galileo | Galilean | | III | **Ganymede**♠ | /ˈɡænəmiːd/ | | –2.1 | 5268.2 | 14819000 | 1070400 | +7.1556 | 0.200 | 0.0013 | 1610 | 1610 | Galileo | Galilean | | IV | **Callisto**♠ | /kəˈlɪstoʊ/ | | –1.2 | 4820.6 | 10759000 | 1882700 | +16.690 | 0.192 | 0.0074 | 1610 | 1610 | Galileo | Galilean | | XVIII | Themisto† | /θəˈmɪstoʊ/ | | 13.3 | ≈ 9 | ≈ 0.038 | 7398500 | +130.03 | 43.8 | 0.340 | 1975/2000 | 1975 | Kowal & Roemer/Sheppard et al. | Themisto | | XIII | Leda♣ | /ˈliːdə/ | | 12.7 | 21.5 | ≈ 0.52 | 11146400 | +240.93 | 28.6 | 0.162 | 1974 | 1974 | Kowal | Himalia | | LXXI | Ersa♣ | /ˈɜːrsə/ | | 16.0 | ≈ 3 | ≈ 0.0014 | 11401000 | +249.23 | 29.1 | 0.116 | 2018 | 2018 | Sheppard | Himalia | |   | S/2018 J 2♣ | | | 16.5 | ≈ 3 | ≈ 0.0014 | 11419700 | +249.92 | 28.3 | 0.152 | 2018 | 2022 | Sheppard | Himalia | | VI | Himalia♣ | /hɪˈmeɪliə/ | | 8.0 | 139.6(150 × 120) | 420 | 11440600 | +250.56 | 28.1 | 0.160 | 1904 | 1905 | Perrine | Himalia | | LXV | Pandia♣ | /pænˈdaɪə/ | | 16.2 | ≈ 3 | ≈ 0.0014 | 11481000 | +251.91 | 29.0 | 0.179 | 2017 | 2018 | Sheppard | Himalia | | X | Lysithea♣ | /laɪˈsɪθiə/ | | 11.2 | 42.2 | ≈ 3.9 | 11700800 | +259.20 | 27.2 | 0.117 | 1938 | 1938 | Nicholson | Himalia | | VII | Elara♣ | /ˈɛlərə/ | | 9.7 | 79.9 | ≈ 27 | 11712300 | +259.64 | 27.9 | 0.211 | 1905 | 1905 | Perrine | Himalia | |   | S/2011 J 3♣ | | | 16.3 | ≈ 3 | ≈ 0.0014 | 11716800 | +259.84 | 27.6 | 0.192 | 2011 | 2022 | Sheppard | Himalia | | LIII | Dia♣ | /ˈdaɪə/ | | 16.1 | ≈ 4 | ≈ 0.0034 | 12260300 | +278.21 | 29.0 | 0.232 | 2000 | 2001 | Sheppard et al. | Himalia | |   | S/2018 J 4± | | | 16.7 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 16328500 | +427.63 | 50.2 | 0.177 | 2018 | 2023 | Sheppard | Carpo | | XLVI | Carpo± | /ˈkɑːrpoʊ/ | | 16.2 | ≈ 3 | ≈ 0.0014 | 17042300 | +456.29 | 53.2 | 0.416 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Carpo | | LXII | Valetudo§ | /væləˈtjuːdoʊ/ | | 17.0 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 18694200 | +527.61 | 34.5 | 0.217 | 2016 | 2018 | Sheppard | Valetudo | | XXXIV | Euporie♦ | /ˈjuːpəriː/ | | 16.3 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 19265800 | −550.69 | 145.7 | 0.148 | 2001 | 2002 | Sheppard et al. | Ananke | | LV | S/2003 J 18♦ | | | 16.4 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 20336300 | −598.12 | 145.3 | 0.090 | 2003 | 2003 | Gladman | Ananke | | LX | Eupheme♦ | /juːˈfiːmiː/ | | 16.6 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 20768600 | −617.73 | 148.0 | 0.241 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Ananke | |   | S/2021 J 3♦ | | | 17.2 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 20776700 | −618.33 | 147.9 | 0.239 | 2021 | 2023 | Sheppard | Ananke | | LII | S/2010 J 2♦ | | | 17.4 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 20793000 | −618.84 | 148.1 | 0.248 | 2010 | 2011 | Veillet | Ananke | | LIV | S/2016 J 1♦ | | | 17.0 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 20802600 | −618.49 | 144.7 | 0.232 | 2016 | 2017 | Sheppard | Ananke | | XL | Mneme♦ | /ˈniːmiː/ | | 16.3 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 20821000 | −620.07 | 148.0 | 0.247 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard & Gladman | Ananke | | XXXIII | Euanthe♦ | /juːˈænθiː/ | | 16.4 | ≈ 3 | ≈ 0.0014 | 20827000 | −620.44 | 148.0 | 0.239 | 2001 | 2002 | Sheppard et al. | Ananke | |   | S/2003 J 16♦ | | | 16.3 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 20882600 | −622.88 | 148.0 | 0.243 | 2003 | 2003 | Gladman | Ananke | | XXII | Harpalyke♦ | /hɑːrˈpæləkiː/ | | 15.9 | ≈ 4 | ≈ 0.0034 | 20892100 | −623.32 | 147.7 | 0.232 | 2000 | 2001 | Sheppard et al. | Ananke | | XXXV | Orthosie♦ | /ɔːrˈθoʊziː/ | | 16.6 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 20901000 | −622.59 | 144.3 | 0.299 | 2001 | 2002 | Sheppard et al. | Ananke | | XLV | Helike♦ | /ˈhɛləkiː/ | | 16.0 | ≈ 4 | ≈ 0.0034 | 20915700 | −626.33 | 154.4 | 0.153 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Ananke | |   | S/2021 J 2♦ | | | 17.3 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 20926600 | −625.14 | 148.1 | 0.242 | 2021 | 2023 | Sheppard | Ananke | | XXVII | Praxidike♦ | /prækˈsɪdəkiː/ | | 14.9 | 7 | ≈ 0.018 | 20935400 | −625.39 | 148.3 | 0.246 | 2000 | 2001 | Sheppard et al. | Ananke | | LXIV | S/2017 J 3♦ | | | 16.5 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 20941000 | −625.60 | 147.9 | 0.231 | 2017 | 2018 | Sheppard | Ananke | |   | S/2021 J 1♦ | | | 17.3 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 20954700 | −627.14 | 150.5 | 0.228 | 2021 | 2023 | Sheppard | Ananke | |   | S/2003 J 12♦ | | | 17.0 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 20963100 | −627.24 | 150.0 | 0.235 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Ananke | | LXVIII | S/2017 J 7♦ | | | 16.6 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 20964800 | −626.56 | 147.3 | 0.233 | 2017 | 2018 | Sheppard | Ananke | | XLII | Thelxinoe♦ | /θɛlkˈsɪnoʊiː/ | | 16.3 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 20976000 | −628.03 | 150.6 | 0.228 | 2003 | 2004 | Sheppard & Gladman et al. | Ananke | | XXIX | Thyone♦ | /θaɪˈoʊniː/ | | 15.8 | ≈ 4 | ≈ 0.0034 | 20978000 | −627.18 | 147.5 | 0.233 | 2001 | 2002 | Sheppard et al. | Ananke | |   | S/2003 J 2♦ | | | 16.7 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 20997700 | −628.79 | 150.2 | 0.225 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Ananke | | XII | Ananke♦ | /əˈnæŋkiː/ | | 11.7 | 29.1 | ≈ 1.3 | 21034500 | −629.79 | 147.6 | 0.237 | 1951 | 1951 | Nicholson | Ananke | |   | S/2022 J 3♦ | | | 17.4 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 21047700 | −630.67 | 148.2 | 0.249 | 2022 | 2023 | Sheppard | Ananke | | XXIV | Iocaste♦ | /aɪəˈkæstiː/ | | 15.5 | ≈ 5 | ≈ 0.0065 | 21066700 | −631.59 | 148.8 | 0.227 | 2000 | 2001 | Sheppard et al. | Ananke | | XXX | Hermippe♦ | /hərˈmɪpiː/ | | 15.5 | ≈ 4 | ≈ 0.0034 | 21108500 | −633.90 | 150.2 | 0.219 | 2001 | 2002 | Sheppard et al. | Ananke | | LXX | S/2017 J 9♦ | | | 16.2 | ≈ 3 | ≈ 0.0014 | 21768700 | −666.11 | 155.5 | 0.200 | 2017 | 2018 | Sheppard | Ananke | | LVIII | Philophrosyne‡ | /fɪləˈfrɒzəniː/ | | 16.7 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 22604600 | −702.54 | 146.3 | 0.229 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Pasiphae | |   | S/2016 J 3♥ | | | 16.7 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 22719300 | −713.64 | 164.6 | 0.251 | 2016 | 2023 | Sheppard | Carme | |   | S/2022 J 1♥ | | | 17.0 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 22725200 | −738.33 | 164.5 | 0.257 | 2022 | 2023 | Sheppard | Carme | | XXXVIII | Pasithee♥ | /ˈpæsəθiː/ | | 16.8 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 22846700 | −719.47 | 164.6 | 0.270 | 2001 | 2002 | Sheppard et al. | Carme | | LXIX | S/2017 J 8♥ | | | 17.1 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 22849500 | −719.76 | 164.8 | 0.255 | 2017 | 2018 | Sheppard | Carme | |   | S/2021 J 6♥ | | | 17.3 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 22870300 | −720.97 | 164.9 | 0.271 | 2021 | 2023 | Sheppard et al. | Carme | |   | S/2003 J 24♥ | | | 16.6 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 22887400 | −721.60 | 164.5 | 0.259 | 2003 | 2021 | Sheppard et al. | Carme | | XXXII | Eurydome‡ | /jʊəˈrɪdəmiː/ | | 16.2 | ≈ 3 | ≈ 0.0014 | 22899000 | −717.31 | 149.1 | 0.294 | 2001 | 2002 | Sheppard et al. | Pasiphae | | LVI | S/2011 J 2‡ | | | 16.8 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 22909200 | −718.32 | 151.9 | 0.355 | 2011 | 2012 | Sheppard | Pasiphae | |   | S/2003 J 4‡ | | | 16.7 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 22926500 | −718.10 | 148.2 | 0.328 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Pasiphae | | XXI | Chaldene♥ | /kælˈdiːniː/ | | 16.0 | ≈ 4 | ≈ 0.0034 | 22930500 | −723.71 | 164.7 | 0.265 | 2000 | 2001 | Sheppard et al. | Carme | | LXIII | S/2017 J 2♥ | | | 16.4 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 22953200 | −724.71 | 164.5 | 0.272 | 2017 | 2018 | Sheppard | Carme | | XXVI | Isonoe♥ | /aɪˈsɒnoʊiː/ | | 16.0 | ≈ 4 | ≈ 0.0034 | 22981300 | −726.27 | 164.8 | 0.249 | 2000 | 2001 | Sheppard et al. | Carme | |   | S/2022 J 2♥ | | | 17.6 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 23013800 | −781.56 | 164.7 | 0.265 | 2022 | 2023 | Sheppard | Carme | |   | S/2021 J 4♥ | | | 17.4 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 23019700 | −728.28 | 164.6 | 0.265 | 2021 | 2023 | Sheppard | Carme | | XLIV | Kallichore♥ | /kəˈlɪkəriː/ | | 16.3 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 23021800 | −728.26 | 164.8 | 0.252 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Carme | | XXV | Erinome♥ | /ɛˈrɪnəmiː/ | | 16.0 | ≈ 3 | ≈ 0.0014 | 23032900 | −728.48 | 164.4 | 0.276 | 2000 | 2001 | Sheppard et al. | Carme | | XXXVII | Kale♥ | /ˈkeɪliː/ | | 16.3 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 23052600 | −729.64 | 164.6 | 0.262 | 2001 | 2002 | Sheppard et al. | Carme | | LVII | Eirene♥ | /aɪˈriːniː/ | | 15.8 | ≈ 4 | ≈ 0.0034 | 23055800 | −729.84 | 164.6 | 0.258 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Carme | | XXXI | Aitne♥ | /ˈeɪtniː/ | | 16.0 | ≈ 3 | ≈ 0.0014 | 23064400 | −730.10 | 164.6 | 0.277 | 2001 | 2002 | Sheppard et al. | Carme | | XLVII | Eukelade♥ | /juːˈkɛlədiː/ | | 16.0 | ≈ 4 | ≈ 0.0034 | 23067400 | −730.30 | 164.6 | 0.277 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Carme | | XLIII | Arche♥ | /ˈɑːrkiː/ | | 16.2 | ≈ 3 | ≈ 0.0014 | 23097800 | −731.88 | 164.6 | 0.261 | 2002 | 2002 | Sheppard | Carme | | XX | Taygete♥ | /teɪˈɪdʒətiː/ | | 15.6 | ≈ 5 | ≈ 0.0065 | 23108000 | −732.45 | 164.7 | 0.253 | 2000 | 2001 | Sheppard et al. | Carme | |   | S/2016 J 4‡ | | | 17.3 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 23113800 | −727.01 | 147.1 | 0.294 | 2016 | 2023 | Sheppard | Pasiphae | | LXXII | S/2011 J 1♥ | | | 16.7 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 23124500 | −733.21 | 164.6 | 0.271 | 2011 | 2012 | Sheppard | Carme | | XI | Carme♥ | /ˈkɑːrmiː/ | | 10.6 | 46.7 | ≈ 5.3 | 23144400 | −734.19 | 164.6 | 0.256 | 1938 | 1938 | Nicholson | Carme | | L | Herse♥ | /ˈhɜːrsiː/ | | 16.5 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 23150500 | −734.52 | 164.4 | 0.262 | 2003 | 2003 | Gladman et al. | Carme | | LXI | S/2003 J 19♥ | | | 16.6 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 23156400 | −734.78 | 164.7 | 0.265 | 2003 | 2003 | Gladman | Carme | | LI | S/2010 J 1♥ | | | 16.5 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 23189800 | −736.51 | 164.5 | 0.252 | 2010 | 2011 | Jacobson et al. | Carme | |   | S/2003 J 9♥ | | | 16.9 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 23199400 | −736.86 | 164.8 | 0.263 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Carme | | LXVI | S/2017 J 5♥ | | | 16.5 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 23206200 | −737.28 | 164.8 | 0.257 | 2017 | 2018 | Sheppard | Carme | | LXVII | S/2017 J 6‡ | | | 16.6 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 23245300 | −733.99 | 149.7 | 0.336 | 2017 | 2018 | Sheppard | Pasiphae | | XXIII | Kalyke♥ | /ˈkæləkiː/ | | 15.4 | 6.9 | ≈ 0.017 | 23302600 | −742.02 | 164.8 | 0.260 | 2000 | 2001 | Sheppard et al. | Carme | | XXXIX | Hegemone‡ | /həˈdʒɛməniː/ | | 15.9 | ≈ 3 | ≈ 0.0014 | 23348700 | −739.81 | 152.6 | 0.358 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Pasiphae | |   | S/2018 J 3♥ | | | 17.3 | ≈ 1 | ≈ 0.000052 | 23400300 | −747.02 | 164.9 | 0.268 | 2018 | 2023 | Sheppard | Carme | |   | S/2021 J 5♥ | | | 16.8 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 23414600 | −747.74 | 164.9 | 0.272 | 2021 | 2023 | Sheppard et al. | Carme | | VIII | Pasiphae‡ | /pəˈsɪfeɪiː/ | | 10.1 | 57.8 | ≈ 10 | 23468200 | −743.61 | 148.4 | 0.412 | 1908 | 1908 | Melotte | Pasiphae | | XXXVI | Sponde‡ | /ˈspɒndiː/ | | 16.7 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 23543300 | −748.29 | 149.3 | 0.322 | 2001 | 2002 | Sheppard et al. | Pasiphae | |   | S/2003 J 10♥ | | | 16.9 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 23576300 | −755.43 | 164.4 | 0.264 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Carme | | XIX | Megaclite‡ | /ˌmɛɡəˈklaɪtiː/ | | 15.0 | ≈ 5 | ≈ 0.0065 | 23644600 | −752.86 | 149.8 | 0.421 | 2000 | 2001 | Sheppard et al. | Pasiphae | | XLVIII | Cyllene‡ | /səˈliːniː/ | | 16.3 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 23654700 | −751.97 | 146.8 | 0.419 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Pasiphae | | IX | Sinope‡ | /səˈnoʊpiː/ | | 11.1 | 35 | ≈ 2.2 | 23683900 | −758.85 | 157.3 | 0.264 | 1914 | 1914 | Nicholson | Pasiphae | | LIX | S/2017 J 1‡ | | | 16.8 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 23744800 | −756.41 | 145.8 | 0.328 | 2017 | 2017 | Sheppard | Pasiphae | | XLI | Aoede‡ | /eɪˈiːdiː/ | | 15.6 | ≈ 4 | ≈ 0.0034 | 23778200 | −761.42 | 155.7 | 0.436 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Pasiphae | | XXVIII | Autonoe‡ | /ɔːˈtɒnoʊiː/ | | 15.5 | ≈ 4 | ≈ 0.0034 | 23792500 | −761.00 | 150.8 | 0.330 | 2001 | 2002 | Sheppard et al. | Pasiphae | | XVII | Callirrhoe‡ | /kəˈlɪroʊiː/ | | 14.0 | 9.6 | ≈ 0.046 | 23795500 | −758.87 | 145.1 | 0.297 | 1999 | 2000 | Scotti et al. | Pasiphae | |   | S/2003 J 23‡ | | | 16.6 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 23829300 | −760.00 | 144.7 | 0.313 | 2003 | 2004 | Sheppard | Pasiphae | | XLIX | Kore‡ | /ˈkɔːriː/ | | 16.6 | ≈ 2 | ≈ 0.00042 | 24205200 | −776.76 | 141.5 | 0.328 | 2003 | 2003 | Sheppard | Pasiphae | Exploration ----------- Nine spacecraft have visited Jupiter. The first were *Pioneer 10* in 1973, and *Pioneer 11* a year later, taking low-resolution images of the four Galilean moons and returning data on their atmospheres and radiation belts. The *Voyager 1* and *Voyager 2* probes visited Jupiter in 1979, discovering the volcanic activity on Io and the presence of water ice on the surface of Europa. *Ulysses* further studied Jupiter's magnetosphere in 1992 and then again in 2000. The *Galileo* spacecraft was the first to enter orbit around Jupiter, arriving in 1995 and studying it until 2003. During this period, *Galileo* gathered a large amount of information about the Jovian system, making close approaches to all of the Galilean moons and finding evidence for thin atmospheres on three of them, as well as the possibility of liquid water beneath the surfaces of Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. It also discovered a magnetic field around Ganymede. Then the *Cassini* probe to Saturn flew by Jupiter in 2000 and collected data on interactions of the Galilean moons with Jupiter's extended atmosphere. The *New Horizons* spacecraft flew by Jupiter in 2007 and made improved measurements of its satellites' orbital parameters. In 2016, the *Juno* spacecraft imaged the Galilean moons from above their orbital plane as it approached Jupiter orbit insertion, creating a time-lapse movie of their motion. With a mission extension, *Juno* has since begun close flybys of the Galileans, flying by Ganymede in 2021 followed by Europa and Io in 2022. It is planned to fly by Io again in late 2023 and once more in 2024. See also -------- * Jupiter's moons in fiction * Satellite system (astronomy) Notes ----- 1. ↑ The most-recently announced moons of Jupiter are S/2022 J 1, S/2022 J 2, and S/2022 J 3, published in MPECs 2023-D44 to 2023-D46. These add three more to the previous count of 92 from January 2023, bringing the total up to 95. 2. ↑ For comparison, the area of a sphere with diameter 250 km is about the area of Senegal and comparable to the area of Belarus, Syria and Uruguay. The area of a sphere with a diameter of 5 km is about the area of Guernsey and somewhat more than the area of San Marino. (But note that these smaller moons are not spherical.) 3. ↑ Jupiter Mass of 1.8986 × 1027 kg / Mass of Galilean moons 3.93 × 1023 kg = 4,828 4. ↑ Label refers to the Roman numeral attributed to each moon in order of their naming. 5. ↑ Diameters with multiple entries such as "60 × 40 × 34" reflect that the body is not a perfect spheroid and that each of its dimensions has been measured well enough. 6. ↑ The only satellites with measured masses are Amalthea, Himalia, and the four Galilean moons. The masses of the inner satellites are estimated by assuming a density similar to Amalthea's (0.86 g/cm3), while the rest of the irregular satellites are estimated by assuming a spherical volume and a density of 1 g/cm3. 7. ↑ Periods with negative values are retrograde. 8. ↑ "?" refers to group assignments that are not considered sure yet.

Moons of Jupiter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter

**Polybius** (/pəˈlɪbiəs/; Greek: Πολύβιος, *Polýbios*; c. 200 – c. 118 BC) was a Greek historian of the middle Hellenistic period. He is noted for his work *The Histories*, a universal history documenting the rise of Rome in the Mediterranean in the third and second centuries BC. It covered the period of 264–146 BC, recording in detail events in Italy, Iberia, Greece, Macedonia, Syria, Egypt and Africa, and documented the Punic Wars and Macedonian Wars among many others. Polybius' *Histories* is important not only for being the only Hellenistic historical work to survive in any substantial form, but also for its analysis of constitutional change and the mixed constitution. Polybius' discussion of the separation of powers in government, of checks and balances to limit power, and his introduction of "the people", all influenced Montesquieu's *The Spirit of the Laws*, John Locke's *Two Treatises of Government*, and the framers of the United States Constitution. The leading expert on Polybius for nearly a century was F. W. Walbank (1909–2008), who published studies related to him for 50 years, including a long commentary of his *Histories* and a biography. Early life ---------- Polybius was born around 200 BC in Megalopolis, Arcadia, when it was an active member of the Achaean League. The town was revived, along with other Achaean states, a century before he was born. Polybius' father, Lycortas, was a prominent, land-owning politician and member of the governing class who became *strategos* (commanding general) of the Achaean League. Consequently, Polybius was able to observe first hand during his first 30 years the political and military affairs of Megalopolis, gaining experience as a statesman. In his early years, he accompanied his father while travelling as ambassador. He developed an interest in horse riding and hunting, diversions that later commended him to his Roman captors. In 182 BC, he was given the honour of carrying the funeral urn of Philopoemen, one of the most eminent Achaean politicians of his generation. In either 170 BC or 169 BC, Polybius was elected *hipparchus* (cavalry officer) and was due to assist Rome militarily during the Third Macedonian War, although this never came about. This office was the second highest position of the Achaean League and often presaged election to the annual *strategia* (chief generalship). Polybius' political career was cut short in 168, however; as a consequence of the final defeat of the Antigonid kingdom in the Third Macedonian War, 1,000 Achaeans (including Polybius) with suspect allegiances were interned in Rome and its surrounding area. Personal experiences -------------------- Polybius' father, Lycortas, was a prominent advocate of neutrality during the Roman war against Perseus of Macedon in 171-168 BC. Lycortas attracted the suspicion of the Romans, and Polybius subsequently was one of the 1,000 Achaean nobles who were transported to Rome as hostages in 167 BC, and was detained there for 17 years. In Rome, by virtue of his high culture, Polybius was admitted to the most distinguished houses, in particular to that of Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, the conqueror in the Third Macedonian War, who entrusted Polybius with the education of his sons, Fabius and Scipio Aemilianus (who had been adopted by the eldest son of Scipio Africanus). Polybius remained on cordial terms with his former pupil Scipio Aemilianus and was among the members of the Scipionic Circle. When Scipio defeated the Carthaginians in the Third Punic War, Polybius remained his counsellor. The Achaean hostages were released in 150 BC, and Polybius was granted leave to return home, but the next year he went on campaign with Scipio Aemilianus to Africa, and was present at the Sack of Carthage in 146, which he later described. Following the destruction of Carthage, Polybius likely journeyed along the Atlantic coast of Africa, as well as Spain. After the destruction of Corinth in the same year, Polybius returned to Greece, making use of his Roman connections to lighten the conditions there. Polybius was charged with the difficult task of organizing the new form of government in the Greek cities, and in this office he gained great recognition. At Rome ------- In the succeeding years, Polybius resided in Rome, completing his historical work while occasionally undertaking long journeys through the Mediterranean countries in the furtherance of his history, in particular with the aim of obtaining firsthand knowledge of historical sites. He apparently interviewed veterans to clarify details of the events he was recording and was similarly given access to archival material. Little is known of Polybius' later life; he most likely accompanied Scipio to Spain, acting as his military advisor during the Numantine War. He later wrote about this war in a lost monograph. Polybius probably returned to Greece later in his life, as evidenced by the many existent inscriptions and statues of him there. The last event mentioned in his *Histories* seems to be the construction of the Via Domitia in southern France in 118 BC, which suggests the writings of Pseudo-Lucian may have some grounding in fact when they state, "[Polybius] fell from his horse while riding up from the country, fell ill as a result and died at the age of eighty-two". *The Histories* --------------- *The Histories* is a universal history which describes and explains the rise of the Roman Republic as a global power in the ancient Mediterranean world. The work documents in detail political and military affairs across the Hellenistic Mediterranean between 264 and 146 BC, and in its later books includes eyewitness accounts of the sack of Carthage and Corinth in 146 BC, and the Roman annexation of mainland Greece after the Achaean War. While Polybius' *Histories* covers the period from 264 BC to 146 BC, it mainly focuses on the years 221/0 to 146 BC, detailing Rome's rise to supremacy in the Mediterranean by overcoming their geopolitical rivals: Carthage, Macedonia, and the Seleucid empire. Books I-II are *The Histories*' introduction, describing events in Italy and Greece before 221/0 BC, including the First Punic War, Rome's wars with the Gauls, the rise of the Achaean League (Polybius' own constitution), and the re-establishment of Macedonian power in Greece under Antigonus III Doson and Philip V of Macedon. Books III-XXXIX describe in detail political and military affairs in the leading Mediterranean states, including affairs in ancient Rome and ancient Carthage, ancient Greece and ancient Macedonia, and the Seleucid empire and Egypt, explaining their increasing "*συμπλοκή"* (symplokē) or interconnectedness and how they each contributed to Rome's rise to dominance. Unfortunately, only books I-V survive in full; the rest are in varying states of fragmentation. Three discursive books on politics, historiography and geography break up the historical narrative: * In Book VI, Polybius outlines his famous theory of the "cycle of constitutions" (the *anacyclosis*) and describes the political, military, and moral institutions that allowed the Romans to defeat their rivals in the Mediterranean. Polybius concludes that the Romans are the pre-eminent power because they currently have customs and institutions which balance and check the negative impulses of their people and promote a deep desire for noble acts, a love of virtue, piety towards parents and elders, and a fear of the gods (*deisidaimonia*). * In Book XII, Polybius discusses how to write history and criticises the historical accounts of numerous previous historians, including Timaeus for his account of the same period of history. He asserts Timaeus' point of view is inaccurate, invalid, and biased in favour of Rome. Christian Habicht considered his criticism of Timaeus to be spiteful and biased, However, Polybius' *Histories* is also useful in analyzing the different Hellenistic versions of history and of use as a more credible illustration of events during the Hellenistic period. * Book XXXIV discussed geographical matters and the importance of geography in a historical account and in a stateman's education. Unfortunately, this book has been almost entirely lost. ### Sources Polybius held that historians should, if possible, only chronicle events whose participants the historian was able to interview, and was among the first to champion the notion of factual integrity in historical writing. In the twelfth volume of his *Histories*, Polybius defines the historian's job as the analysis of documentation, the review of relevant geographical information, and political experience. In Polybius' time, the profession of a historian required political experience (which aided in differentiating between fact and fiction) and familiarity with the geography surrounding one's subject matter to supply an accurate version of events. Polybius himself exemplified these principles as he was well travelled and possessed political and military experience. He consulted and used written sources providing essential material for the period between 264 BC to 220 BC, including, for instance, treaty documents between Rome and Carthage in the First Punic War, the history of the Greek historian Phylarchus, and the *Memoirs* of the Achaean politician, Aratus of Sicyon. When addressing events after 220 BC, he continued to examine treaty documents, the writings of Greek and Roman historians and statesmen, eye-witness accounts and Macedonian court informants to acquire credible sources of information, although rarely did he name his sources (see, exceptionally, Theopompus). As historian ------------ Polybius wrote several works, most of which are lost. His earliest work was a biography of the Greek statesman Philopoemen; this work was later used as a source by Plutarch when composing his *Parallel Lives*; however, the original Polybian text is lost. In addition, Polybius wrote an extensive treatise entitled *Tactics*, which may have detailed Roman and Greek military tactics. Small parts of this work may survive in his major *Histories*, but the work itself is lost, as well. Another missing work was a historical monograph on the events of the Numantine War. The largest Polybian work was, of course, his *Histories*, of which only the first five books survive entirely intact, along with a large portion of the sixth book and fragments of the rest. Along with Cato the Elder (234–149 BC), he can be considered one of the founding fathers of Roman historiography. Livy made reference to and uses Polybius' *Histories* as source material in his own narrative. Polybius was among the first historians to attempt to present history as a sequence of causes and effects, based upon a careful examination and criticism of tradition. He narrated his history based upon first-hand knowledge. *The Histories* capture the varied elements of the story of human behavior: nationalism, xenophobia, duplicitous politics, war, brutality, loyalty, valour, intelligence, reason and resourcefulness. Aside from the narrative of the historical events, Polybius also included three books of digressions. Book 34 was entirely devoted to questions of geography and included some trenchant criticisms of Eratosthenes, whom he accused of passing on popular preconceptions or *laodogmatika*. Book 12 was a disquisition on the writing of history, citing extensive passages of lost historians, such as Callisthenes and Theopompus. Most influential was Book 6, which describes Roman political, military, and moral institutions, which he considered key to Rome's success; it presented Rome as having a mixed constitution in which monarchical, aristocratic and popular elements existed in stable equilibrium. This enabled Rome to escape, for the time being, the cycle of eternal revolutions (*anacyclosis*) faced by those with singular constitutions (i.e. many of the Greeks and the Macedonians). While Polybius was not the first to advance this view, his account provides the most cogent illustration of the ideal for later political theorists. A key theme of *The Histories* is good leadership, and Polybius dedicates considerable time to outlining how the good statesman should be rational, knowledgeable, virtuous and composed. The character of the Polybian statesman is exemplified in that of Philip II, who Polybius believed exhibited both excellent military prowess and skill, as well as proficient ability in diplomacy and moral leadership. His beliefs about Philip's character led Polybius to reject the historian Theopompus' description of Philip's private, drunken debauchery. For Polybius, it was inconceivable that such an able and effective statesman could have had an immoral and unrestrained private life as described by Theopompus. The consequences of bad leadership are also highlighted throughout the *Histories*. Polybius saw, for instance, the character and leadership of the later Philip V of Macedon, one of Rome's leading adversaries in the Greek East, as the opposite of his earlier exemplary namesake. Philip V became increasingly tyrannical, irrational and impious following brilliant military and political success in his youth; this resulted, Polybius believed, in his abandonment by his Greek allies and his eventual defeat by Rome in 197 BC. Other important themes running throughout *The Histories* include the role of Fortune in the affairs of nations, how a leader might weather bravely these changes of fortune with dignity, the educational value of history and how it should demonstrate cause and effect (or *apodeiktike*) to provide lessons for statesmen, and that historians should be "men of action" to gain appropriate experience so as to understand how political and military affairs are likely to pan out(*pragmatikoi*). Polybius is considered by some to be the successor of Thucydides in terms of objectivity and critical reasoning, and the forefather of scholarly, painstaking historical research in the modern scientific sense. According to this view, his work sets forth the course of history's occurrences with clearness, penetration, sound judgment, and, among the circumstances affecting the outcomes, he lays special emphasis on geographical conditions. Modern historians are especially impressed with the manner in which Polybius used his sources, particularly documentary evidence as well as his citation and quotation of sources. Furthermore, there is some admiration of Polybius' meditation on the nature of historiography in Book 12. His work belongs, therefore, amongst the greatest productions of ancient historical writing. The writer of the *Oxford Companion to Classical Literature* (1937) praises him for his "earnest devotion to truth" and his systematic pursuit of causation. It has long been acknowledged that Polybius' writings are prone to a certain hagiographic tone when writing of his friends, such as Scipio, and subject to a vindictive tone when detailing the exploits of his enemies, such as Callicrates, the Achaean statesman responsible for his Roman exile. As a hostage in Rome, then as client to the Scipios, and after 146 BC, a collaborator with Roman rule, Polybius was probably in no position to freely express any negative opinions of Rome. Peter Green advises that Polybius was chronicling Roman history for a Greek audience, to justify what he believed to be the inevitability of Roman rule. Nonetheless, Green considers Polybius' *Histories* the best source for the era they cover. For Ronald Mellor, Polybius was a loyal partisan of Scipio, intent on vilifying his patron's opponents. Adrian Goldsworthy, while using Polybius as a source for Scipio's generalship, notes Polybius' underlying and overt bias in Scipio's favour. H. Ormerod considers that Polybius cannot be regarded as an 'altogether unprejudiced witness' in relation to his *bêtes noires*; the Aetolians, the Carthaginians and the Cretans. Other historians perceive considerable negative bias in Polybius' account of Crete; on the other hand, Hansen notes that the same work, along with passages from Strabo and Scylax, proved a reliable guide in the eventual rediscovery of the lost city of Kydonia. Cryptography ------------ Polybius was responsible for a useful tool in telegraphy that allowed letters to be easily signaled using a numerical system, called "the Polybius square," mentioned in Hist. X.45.6 ff.. This idea also lends itself to cryptographic manipulation and steganography. Modern implementations of the Polybius square, at least in Western European languages such as English, Spanish, French, German and Italian, generally use the Roman alphabet in which those languages are written. However, Polybius himself was writing in Greek, and would have implemented his cipher square in the Greek alphabet. Both versions are shown here. | | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | A | B | C | D | E | | 2 | F | G | H | I/J | K | | 3 | L | M | N | O | P | | 4 | Q | R | S | T | U | | 5 | V | W | X | Y | Z | | | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | A | B | Γ | Δ | E | | 2 | Z | H | Θ | I | K | | 3 | Λ | M | N | Ξ | O | | 4 | Π | P | Σ | T | Y | | 5 | Φ | X | Ψ | Ω | | In the Polybius square, letters of the alphabet were arranged left to right, top to bottom in a 5 × 5 square. When used with the 26-letter Latin alphabet two letters, usually I and J, are combined. When used with the Greek alphabet, which has exactly one less letter than there are spaces (or code points) in the square, the final "5,5" code point encodes the spaces in between words. Alternatively, it can denote the end of a sentence or paragraph when writing in continuous script. Five numbers are then aligned on the outside top of the square, and five numbers on the left side of the square vertically. Usually these numbers were arranged 1 through 5. By cross-referencing the two numbers along the grid of the square, a letter could be deduced. In *The Histories*, Polybius specifies how this cypher could be used in fire signals, where long-range messages could be sent by means of torches raised and lowered to signify the column and row of each letter. This was a great leap forward from previous fire signaling, which could send prearranged codes only (such as, 'if we light the fire, it means that the enemy has arrived'). Other writings of scientific interest include detailed discussions of the machines Archimedes created for the defense of Syracuse against the Romans, where Polybius praises the 'old man' and his engineering in the highest terms, and an analysis of the usefulness of astronomy to generals (both in the *Histories*). Influence --------- Polybius was considered a poor stylist by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, writing of Polybius' history that "no one has the endurance to reach [its] end". Nevertheless, clearly he was widely read by Romans and Greeks alike. He is quoted extensively by Strabo writing in the 1st century BC and Athenaeus in the 3rd century AD. His emphasis on explaining causes of events, rather than just recounting events, influenced the historian Sempronius Asellio. Polybius is mentioned by Cicero and mined for information by Diodorus, Livy, Plutarch and Arrian. Much of the text that survives today from the later books of *The Histories* was preserved in Byzantine anthologies. His works reappeared in the West first in Renaissance Florence. Polybius gained a following in Italy, and although poor Latin translations hampered proper scholarship on his works, they contributed to the city's historical and political discourse. Niccolò Machiavelli in his *Discourses on Livy* evinces familiarity with Polybius. Vernacular translations in French, German, Italian and English first appeared during the 16th century. Consequently, in the late 16th century, Polybius' works found a greater reading audience among the learned public. Study of the correspondence of such men as Isaac Casaubon, Jacques Auguste de Thou, William Camden and Paolo Sarpi reveals a growing interest in Polybius' works and thought during the period. Despite the existence of both printed editions in the vernacular and increased scholarly interest, however, Polybius remained an "historian's historian", not much read by the public at large. Printings of his work in the vernacular remained few in number—seven in French, five in English (John Dryden provided an enthusiastic preface to Sir Henry Sheers' edition of 1693) and five in Italian. Polybius' political analysis has influenced republican thinkers from Cicero to Charles de Montesquieu to the Founding Fathers of the United States. John Adams, for example, considered him one of the most important teachers of constitutional theory. Since the Age of Enlightenment, Polybius has in general held appeal to those interested in Hellenistic Greece and early Republican Rome, while his political and military writings have lost influence in academia. More recently, thorough work on the Greek text of Polybius, and his historical technique, has increased the academic understanding and appreciation of him as a historian. According to Edward Tufte, he was also a major source for Charles Joseph Minard's figurative map of Hannibal's overland journey into Italy during the Second Punic War. In his *Meditations On Hunting*, Spanish philosopher José Ortega y Gasset calls Polybius "one of the few great minds that the turbid human species has managed to produce", and says the damage to the *Histories* is "without question one of the gravest losses that we have suffered in our Greco-Roman heritage". The Italian version of his name, Polibio, was used as a male first name—for example, the composer Polibio Fumagalli—though it never became very common. The University of Pennsylvania has an intellectual society, the Polybian Society, which is named in his honor and serves as a non-partisan forum for discussing societal issues and policy. Editions and translations ------------------------- * Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Usher, S. (ed. and trans.) *Critical Essays, Volume II.* Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985. * *Polybii Historiae*, editionem a Ludovico Dindorfi curatam, retractavit Theodorus Büttner-Wobst, Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 4, vol. 5, 1882–1904. * Polybius (1922–1927). *Polybius: The Histories*. The Loeb Classical Library (in Ancient Greek, English, and Latin). Translated by Paton, W.R. London; New York: William Heinemann; G.P. Putnam's Sone. + —— (1922A). *Polybius*. Vol. I. ISBN 0-674-99142-7. Loeb Number L128; Books I-II. + —— (1922B). *Polybius*. Vol. II. ISBN 0-674-99152-4. Loeb Number L137; Books III-IV. + —— (1923). *Polybius*. Vol. III. ISBN 0-674-99153-2. Loeb Number L138; Books V-VIII. + —— (1925). *Polybius*. Vol. IV. ISBN 0-674-99175-3. Loeb Number L159; Books IX-XV. + —— (1926). *Polybius*. Vol. V. ISBN 0-674-99176-1. Loeb Number L160; Books XVI-XXVII. + —— (1927). *Polybius*. Vol. VI. ISBN 0-674-99178-8. Loeb Number L161; Books XXVIII-XXXIX. * Polybius (2012). *Polybius: The Histories*. The Loeb Classical Library (in Ancient Greek, English, and Latin). Translated by Paton, W.R. Chicago: University of Chicago (LacusCurtius). * *The Histories* or *The Rise of the Roman Empire* by Polybius: + At Perseus Project: English & Greek version * At "LacusCurtius": Short introduction to the life and work of Polybius * 1670 edition of Polybius' works vol.1 at the Internet archive * 1670 edition of Polybius' works vol.2 at the Internet archive * Polybius: "The Rise Of The Roman Empire", Penguin, 1979. * "Books 1–5 of History. Ethiopian Story. Book 8: From the Departure of the Divine Marcus" featuring Book I-V of *The Histories*, digitized, from the World Digital Library See also -------- * Anacyclosis * Kyklos * Polybius square * Mixed government Notes and references -------------------- 1. ↑ John Ma. (2013). *Statues and Cities: Honorific Portraits and Civic Identity in the Hellenistic World*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966891-5, pp 281-282. 2. ↑ "Polybius and the Founding Fathers: The separation of powers". 3. ↑ Gibson & Harrison: *Polybius*, pp. 1–5. 4. 1 2 Walbank, F. W. (2014). *Philip V of Macedon*. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 278. ISBN 9781107630604. 5. ↑ Marincola, John (2017). *On Writing History from Herodotus to Herodian*. Penguin UK. ISBN 9780141393582. 6. ↑ "Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 39, chapter 35". *www.perseus.tufts.edu*. Retrieved 2016-11-02. 7. 1 2 Sorek, Susan (2012). *Ancient Historians: A Student Handbook*. Continuum. p. 76. ISBN 9781441111357. 8. ↑ Polybius (~150 B.C.). The Rise of the Roman Republic. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert (1979). Penguin Books. London, England. 9. ↑ Nicholson, Emma (2023). *Philip V of Macedon in Polybius' Histories*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192866769., pp. 3, 34-58, 107-118 10. ↑ Athens from Alexander to Antony by Christian Habicht p119 11. ↑ Farrington, Scott Thomas (February 2015). "A Likely Story: Rhetoric and the Determination of Truth in Polybius' Histories." *Histos* 9: 29-66. (p. 40): *"Polybius begins his history proper with the 140th Olympiad because accounts of the remote past amount to hearsay and do not allow for safe judgements* (διαλήψεις) *and assertions* (ἀποφάσεις) *regarding the course of events.... he can relate events he saw himself, or he can use the testimony of eyewitnesses. ([footnote 34:]* Pol. *4.2.2:* ἐξ οὗ συµβαίνει τοῖς µὲν αὐτοὺς ἡµᾶς παραγεγονέναι, τὰ δὲ παρὰ τῶν ἑωρακότων ἀκηκοέναι.*)"* [archive URLs: 1 (full text), 2 (abstract & journal citation)] 12. ↑ Plb.5.9-12 and Nicholson, Emma (2023). *Philip V of Macedon in Polybius' Histories*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192866769., pp. 291-295 13. ↑ Plb. 8.9.3-4 14. ↑ Nicholson, Emma (2023). *Philip V of Macedon in Polybius' Histories*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192866769., pp. 59-100, 184-227 15. ↑ Plb. 1.1.1-2 16. ↑ Peter Green, *Alexander to Actium* 17. ↑ Ronald J. Mellor, *The Historians of Ancient Rome* 18. ↑ H. Ormerod, *Piracy in the Ancient World*, p.141 19. ↑ Mogens Herman Hansen 1995, *Sources for the Ancient Greek City-State: Symposium*, August 24–27, 1994, Kgl. Danske, Videnskabernes Selskab, 376 pages ISBN 87-7304-267-6 20. ↑ Robert Pashley, *Travels in Crete*, 1837, J. Murray 21. ↑ "C. Michael Hogan, *Cydonia*, Modern Antiquarian, January 23, 2008". Themodernantiquarian.com. Retrieved 2010-02-28. 22. ↑ Nicholson, Emma (7 March 2016). "Polybius (1), Greek historian, c. 200–c. 118 BCE". *Polybius (1), Greek historian, Oxford Classical Dictionary*. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5172. ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5. Retrieved 2023-04-26. 23. ↑ Comp. 4 24. ↑ Polybius; Frank W. Walbank; Ian Scott-Kilvert (1979). *The Rise of the Roman Empire*. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044362-2. 25. ↑ Burke, Peter (1966). "A Survey of the Popularity of Ancient Historians, 1450-1700". *History and Theory*. History and Theory, Vol. 5, No. 2. **5** (2): 135–152 [141]. doi:10.2307/2504511. JSTOR 2504511. 26. ↑ Burke, Peter (1966). "A Survey of the Popularity of Ancient Historians, 1450-1700". *History and Theory*. History and Theory, Vol. 5, No. 2. **5** (2): 135–152 [139]. doi:10.2307/2504511. JSTOR 2504511. 27. ↑ Marshall Davies Lloyd, *Polybius and the Founding Fathers: the separation of powers*, Sept. 22, 1998. 28. ↑ "Minard's figurative map of Hannibal's war". Edwardtufte.com. Retrieved 2010-02-28. Sources ------- ### Ancient sources * Titus Livius of Patavium (Livy), libri XXI — XLV * Pseudo-Lucian *Makrobioi* * Paulus Orosius libri VII of *Histories against Pagans* ### Modern sources * Champion, Craige B. (2004) *Cultural Politics in Polybius's Histories.* Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. * Davidson, James: 'Polybius' in Feldherr, Andrew ed. *The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Historians* (Cambridge University Press, 2009) * Derow, Peter S. 1979. "Polybius, Rome, and the East." *Journal of Roman Studies* 69:1–15. * Eckstein, Arthur M. (1995) *Moral Vision in the Histories of Polybius.* Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. * Farrington, Scott Thomas. 2015. "A Likely Story: Rhetoric and the Determination of Truth in Polybius' Histories. *Histos: The On-Line Journal of Ancient Historiography* 9: 29–66. * Gibson, Bruce & Harrison, Thomas (editors): *Polybius and his World: Essays in Memory of F.W. Walbank*, (Oxford, 2013). * McGing, Brian C. (2010) *Polybius: The Histories.* Oxford Approaches to Classical Literature. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. * Momigliano, Arnaldo M.: *Sesto Contributo alla Storia degli Studi Classici e del Mondo Antico* (Rome, 1980). + —— Vol. V (1974) "The Historian's Skin", 77–88 (Momigliano Bibliography no. 531) + —— Vol. VI (1973) "Polibio, Posidonio e l'imperialismo Romano", 89 (Momigliano Bibliography no. 525) (original publication: *Atti della Accademia delle Scienze di Torino*, 107, 1972–73, 693–707). * Moore, John M (1965) *The Manuscript Tradition of Polybius* (Cambridge University Press). * Moore, Daniel Walker (2020) *Polybius: Experience and the Lessons of History* (Brill, Leiden). * Nicholson, Emma (2022). "Polybius (1), Greek historian, c. 200–c. 118 BCE". *Oxford Classical Dictionary*. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5172. ISBN 9780199381135. * Nicholson, Emma (2023). *Philip V of Macedon in Polybius' Histories: Politics, History, and Fiction*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5172. ISBN 9780199381135. * Pausch, Dennis (2014) "Livy Reading Polybius: Adapting Greek Narrative to Roman History." In *Defining Greek Narrative.* Edited by Douglas L. Cairns & Ruth Scodel, 279–297. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. * Sacks, Kenneth S. (1981) *Polybius on the Writing of History.* Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. * Schepens, Guido, and Jan Bollansée, eds. 2005. *The Shadow of Polybius: Intertextuality as a Research Tool in Greek Historiography.* Leuven, Belgium: Peeters. * Walbank, Frank W.: + —— *Philip V of Macedon*, the Hare Prize Essay 1939 (Cambridge University Press, 1940) + —— *A Historical Commentary on Polybius* (Oxford University Press) - Vol. I (1957) Commentary on Books I–VI - Vol. II (1967) Commentary on Books VII–XVIII - Vol. III (1979) Commentary on Books XIX–XL + —— (1972) *Polybius* (University of California Press). + \_\_\_ (2002) *Polybius, Rome and the Hellenistic World: Essays and Reflections (Cambridge University Press).*

Polybius

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius

**Height above mean sea level** is a measure of the vertical distance (height, elevation or altitude) of a location in reference to a historic mean sea level taken as a vertical datum. In geodesy, it is formalized as *orthometric heights*. The combination of unit of measurement and the physical quantity (height) is called "metres above mean sea level" in the metric system, while in United States customary and imperial units it would be called "feet above mean sea level". Mean sea levels are affected by climate change and other factors and change over time. For this and other reasons, recorded measurements of elevation above sea level at a reference time in history might differ from the actual elevation of a given location over sea level at a given moment. Uses ---- Metres above sea level is the standard measurement of the elevation or altitude of: * Geographic locations such as towns, mountains and other landmarks. * The top of buildings and other structures. * Flying objects such as airplanes or helicopters.[*where?*] How it is determined -------------------- The elevation or altitude in metres above sea level of a location, object, or point can be determined in a number of ways. The most common include: * Global Navigation Satellite System (like GPS), where a receiver determines a location from pseudoranges to multiple satellites. A geoid is needed to convert the 3D position to sea-level elevation. * Altimeter, that measures atmospheric pressure, which decreases as altitude increases. As atmospheric pressure changes with the weather too, a recent local measure of the pressure at a known altitude is needed to calibrate the altimeter. * Stereoscopy in aerial photography. * Aerial lidar and satellite laser altimetry. * Aerial or satellite radar altimetry. * Surveying, especially levelling. Accurate measurement of historical mean sea levels is complex. Land mass subsidence (as occurs naturally in some regions) can give the appearance of rising sea levels. Conversely, markings on land masses that are uplifted due to geological processes can suggest a lowering of mean sea level. Abbreviations ------------- Often, just the abbreviation MSL is used, e.g. Mount Everest (8848 m MSL), or the reference height is omitted completely, e.g. Mount Everest (8848 m). Metres above mean sea level is commonly abbreviated mamsl or MAMSL, based on the abbreviation AMSL for "above mean sea level". Other abbreviations are m.a.s.l. and MASL for "metres above sea level". See also -------- * Depth below seafloor * Geoid * Height above average terrain * Height above ground level * List of places on land with elevations below sea level * Vertical metre

Height above mean sea level

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Height_above_mean_sea_level

**Umbriel** /ˈʌmbriəl/ is a moon of Uranus discovered on October 24, 1851, by William Lassell. It was discovered at the same time as Ariel and named after a character in Alexander Pope's 1712 poem *The Rape of the Lock*. Umbriel consists mainly of ice with a substantial fraction of rock, and may be differentiated into a rocky core and an icy mantle. The surface is the darkest among Uranian moons, and appears to have been shaped primarily by impacts. However, the presence of canyons suggests early endogenic processes, and the moon may have undergone an early endogenically driven resurfacing event that obliterated its older surface. Covered by numerous impact craters reaching 210 km (130 mi) in diameter, Umbriel is the second most heavily cratered satellite of Uranus after Oberon. The most prominent surface feature is a ring of bright material on the floor of Wunda crater. This moon, like all moons of Uranus, probably formed from an accretion disk that surrounded the planet just after its formation. The Uranian system has been studied up close only once, by the spacecraft *Voyager 2* in January 1986. It took several images of Umbriel, which allowed mapping of about 40% of the moon's surface. Discovery and name ------------------ Umbriel, along with another Uranian satellite, Ariel, was discovered by William Lassell on October 24, 1851. Although William Herschel, the discoverer of Titania and Oberon, claimed at the end of the 18th century that he had observed four additional moons of Uranus, his observations were not confirmed and those four objects are now thought to be spurious. All of Uranus's moons are named after characters created by William Shakespeare or Alexander Pope. The names of all four satellites of Uranus then known were suggested by John Herschel in 1852 at the request of Lassell. Umbriel is the "dusky melancholy sprite" in Alexander Pope's *The Rape of the Lock*, and the name suggests the Latin *umbra*, meaning *shadow*. The moon is also designated **Uranus II**. Orbit ----- Umbriel orbits Uranus at the distance of about 266,000 km (165,000 mi), being the third farthest from the planet among its five major moons. Umbriel's orbit has a small eccentricity and is inclined very little relative to the equator of Uranus. Its orbital period is around 4.1 Earth days, coincident with its rotational period. In other words, Umbriel is a synchronous or tidally locked satellite, with one face always pointing toward its parent planet. Umbriel's orbit lies completely inside the Uranian magnetosphere. This is important, because the trailing hemispheres of airless satellites orbiting inside a magnetosphere (like Umbriel) are struck by magnetospheric plasma, which co-rotates with the planet. This bombardment may lead to the darkening of the trailing hemispheres, which is actually observed for all Uranian moons except Oberon (see below). Umbriel also serves as a sink of the magnetospheric charged particles, which creates a pronounced dip in energetic particle count near the moon's orbit as observed by *Voyager 2* in 1986. Because Uranus orbits the Sun almost on its side, and its moons orbit in the planet's equatorial plane, they (including Umbriel) are subject to an extreme seasonal cycle. Both northern and southern poles spend 42 years in complete darkness, and another 42 years in continuous sunlight, with the Sun rising close to the zenith over one of the poles at each solstice. The *Voyager 2* flyby coincided with the southern hemisphere's 1986 summer solstice, when nearly the entire northern hemisphere was unilluminated. Once every 42 years, when Uranus has an equinox and its equatorial plane intersects the Earth, mutual occultations of Uranus's moons become possible. In 2007–2008 a number of such events were observed including two occultations of Titania by Umbriel on August 15 and December 8, 2007 as well as of Ariel by Umbriel on August 19, 2007. Currently Umbriel is not involved in any orbital resonance with other Uranian satellites. Early in its history, however, it may have been in a 1:3 resonance with Miranda. This would have increased Miranda's orbital eccentricity, contributing to the internal heating and geological activity of that moon, while Umbriel's orbit would have been less affected. Due to Uranus's lower oblateness and smaller size relative to its satellites, its moons can escape more easily from a mean motion resonance than those of Jupiter or Saturn. After Miranda escaped from this resonance (through a mechanism that probably resulted in its anomalously high orbital inclination), its eccentricity would have been damped, turning off the heat source. Composition and internal structure ---------------------------------- Umbriel is the third-largest and fourth-most massive of the Uranian moons. Although Umbriel is the 13th-largest moon in the Solar System, it is only the 14th-most massive. The moon's density is 1.39 g/cm3, which indicates that it mainly consists of water ice, with a dense non-ice component constituting around 40% of its mass. The latter could be made of rock and carbonaceous material including heavy organic compounds known as tholins. The presence of water ice is supported by infrared spectroscopic observations, which have revealed crystalline water ice on the surface of the moon. Water ice absorption bands are stronger on Umbriel's leading hemisphere than on the trailing hemisphere. The cause of this asymmetry is not known, but it may be related to the bombardment by charged particles from the magnetosphere of Uranus, which is stronger on the trailing hemisphere (due to the plasma's co-rotation). The energetic particles tend to sputter water ice, decompose methane trapped in ice as clathrate hydrate and darken other organics, leaving a dark, carbon-rich residue behind. Except for water, the only other compound identified on the surface of Umbriel by the infrared spectroscopy is carbon dioxide, which is concentrated mainly on the trailing hemisphere. The origin of the carbon dioxide is not completely clear. It might be produced locally from carbonates or organic materials under the influence of the energetic charged particles coming from the magnetosphere of Uranus or the solar ultraviolet radiation. This hypothesis would explain the asymmetry in its distribution, as the trailing hemisphere is subject to a more intense magnetospheric influence than the leading hemisphere. Another possible source is the outgassing of the primordial CO2 trapped by water ice in Umbriel's interior. The escape of CO2 from the interior may be a result of past geological activity on this moon. Umbriel may be differentiated into a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle. If this is the case, the radius of the core (317 km) is about 54% of the radius of the moon, and its mass is around 40% of the moon's mass—the parameters are dictated by the moon's composition. The pressure in the center of Umbriel is about 0.24 GPa (2.4 kbar). The current state of the icy mantle is unclear, although the existence of a subsurface ocean is considered unlikely. Surface features ---------------- Umbriel's surface is the darkest of the Uranian moons, and reflects less than half as much light as Ariel, a sister satellite of similar size. Umbriel has a very low Bond albedo of only about 10% as compared to 23% for Ariel. The reflectivity of the moon's surface decreases from 26% at a phase angle of 0° (geometric albedo) to 19% at an angle of about 1°. This phenomenon is called opposition surge. The surface of Umbriel is slightly blue in color, while fresh bright impact deposits (in Wunda crater, for instance) are even bluer. There may be an asymmetry between the leading and trailing hemispheres; the former appears to be redder than the latter. The reddening of the surfaces probably results from space weathering from bombardment by charged particles and micrometeorites over the age of the Solar System. However, the color asymmetry of Umbriel is likely caused by accretion of a reddish material coming from outer parts of the Uranian system, possibly, from irregular satellites, which would occur predominately on the leading hemisphere. The surface of Umbriel is relatively homogeneous—it does not demonstrate strong variation in either albedo or color. Named craters on Umbriel| Crater | Coordinates | Diameter (km) | Approved | Named after | Ref | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Alberich | 33°36′S 42°12′E / 33.6°S 42.2°E / -33.6; 42.2 | 52.0 | 1988 | Alberich (Norse) | WGPSN | | Fin | 37°24′S 44°18′E / 37.4°S 44.3°E / -37.4; 44.3 | 43.0 | 1988 | Fin (Danish) | WGPSN | | Gob | 12°42′S 27°48′E / 12.7°S 27.8°E / -12.7; 27.8 | 88.0 | 1988 | Gob (Pagan) | WGPSN | | Kanaloa | 10°48′S 345°42′E / 10.8°S 345.7°E / -10.8; 345.7 | 86.0 | 1988 | Kanaloa (Polynesian) | WGPSN | | Malingee | 22°54′S 13°54′E / 22.9°S 13.9°E / -22.9; 13.9 | 164.0 | 1988 | Malingee (Australian Aboriginal mythology) | WGPSN | | Minepa | 42°42′S 8°12′E / 42.7°S 8.2°E / -42.7; 8.2 | 58.0 | 1988 | Minepa (Makua people of Mozambique) | WGPSN | | Peri | 9°12′S 4°18′E / 9.2°S 4.3°E / -9.2; 4.3 | 61.0 | 1988 | Peri (Persian) | WGPSN | | Setibos | 30°48′S 346°18′E / 30.8°S 346.3°E / -30.8; 346.3 | 50.0 | 1988 | Setebos (Patagonian) | WGPSN | | Skynd | 1°48′S 331°42′E / 1.8°S 331.7°E / -1.8; 331.7 | 72.0 | 1988 | Skynd (Danish) | WGPSN | | Vuver | 4°42′S 311°36′E / 4.7°S 311.6°E / -4.7; 311.6 | 98.0 | 1988 | Vuver (Finnish) | WGPSN | | Wokolo | 30°00′S 1°48′E / 30°S 1.8°E / -30; 1.8 | 208.0 | 1988 | Wokolo (Bambara people of West Africa) | WGPSN | | Wunda | 7°54′S 273°36′E / 7.9°S 273.6°E / -7.9; 273.6 | 131.0 | 1988 | Wunda (Australian Aboriginal mythology) | WGPSN | | Zlyden | 23°18′S 326°12′E / 23.3°S 326.2°E / -23.3; 326.2 | 44.0 | 1988 | Zlyden (Slavic) | WGPSN | Scientists have so far recognized only one class of geological feature on Umbriel—craters. The surface of Umbriel has far more and larger craters than do Ariel and Titania. It shows the least geological activity. In fact, among the Uranian moons only Oberon has more impact craters than Umbriel. The observed crater diameters range from a few kilometers at the low end to 210 kilometers for the largest known crater, Wokolo. All recognized craters on Umbriel have central peaks, but no crater has rays. Near Umbriel's equator lies the most prominent surface feature: Wunda crater, which has a diameter of about 131 km. Wunda has a large ring of bright material on its floor, which may be an impact deposit or a deposit of pure carbon dioxide ice, which formed when the radiolytically formed carbon dioxide migrated from all over the surface of Umbriel and then got trapped in relatively cold Wunda. Nearby, seen along the terminator, are the craters Vuver and Skynd, which lack bright rims but possess bright central peaks. Study of limb profiles of Umbriel revealed a possible very large impact feature having the diameter of about 400 km and depth of approximately 5 km. Much like other moons of Uranus, the surface of Umbriel is cut by a system of canyons trending northeast–southwest. They are not, however, officially recognized due to the poor imaging resolution and generally bland appearance of this moon, which hinders geological mapping. Umbriel's heavily cratered surface has probably been stable since the Late Heavy Bombardment. The only signs of the ancient internal activity are canyons and dark polygons—dark patches with complex shapes measuring from tens to hundreds of kilometers across. The polygons were identified from precise photometry of *Voyager 2'*s images and are distributed more or less uniformly on the surface of Umbriel, trending northeast–southwest. Some polygons correspond to depressions of a few kilometers deep and may have been created during an early episode of tectonic activity. Currently there is no explanation for why Umbriel is so dark and uniform in appearance. Its surface may be covered by a relatively thin layer of dark material (so called *umbral material*) excavated by an impact or expelled in an explosive volcanic eruption. Alternatively, Umbriel's crust may be entirely composed of the dark material, which prevented formation of bright features like crater rays. However, the presence of the bright feature within Wunda seems to contradict this hypothesis. Origin and evolution -------------------- Umbriel is thought to have formed from an accretion disc or subnebula; a disc of gas and dust that either existed around Uranus for some time after its formation or was created by the giant impact that most likely gave Uranus its large obliquity. The precise composition of the subnebula is not known; however, the higher density of Uranian moons compared to the moons of Saturn indicates that it may have been relatively water-poor. Significant amounts of nitrogen and carbon may have been present in the form of carbon monoxide (CO) and molecular nitrogen (N2) instead of ammonia and methane. The moons that formed in such a subnebula would contain less water ice (with CO and N2 trapped as clathrate) and more rock, explaining the higher density. Umbriel's accretion probably lasted for several thousand years. The impacts that accompanied accretion caused heating of the moon's outer layer. The maximum temperature of around 180 K was reached at the depth of about 3 km. After the end of formation, the subsurface layer cooled, while the interior of Umbriel heated due to decay of radioactive elements present in its rocks. The cooling near-surface layer contracted, while the interior expanded. This caused strong extensional stresses in the moon's crust, which may have led to cracking. This process probably lasted for about 200 million years, implying that any endogenous activity ceased billions of years ago. The initial accretional heating together with continued decay of radioactive elements may have led to melting of the ice if an antifreeze like ammonia (in the form of ammonia hydrate) or some salt was present. The melting may have led to the separation of ice from rocks and formation of a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle. A layer of liquid water (ocean) rich in dissolved ammonia may have formed at the core–mantle boundary. The eutectic temperature of this mixture is 176 K. The ocean, however, is likely to have frozen long ago. Among Uranian moons Umbriel was least subjected to endogenic resurfacing processes, although it may like other Uranian moons have experienced a very early resurfacing event. Exploration ----------- So far the only close-up images of Umbriel have been from the *Voyager 2* probe, which photographed the moon during its flyby of Uranus in January 1986. Since the closest distance between *Voyager 2* and Umbriel was 325,000 km (202,000 mi), the best images of this moon have a spatial resolution of about 5.2 km. The images cover about 40% of the surface, but only 20% was photographed with the quality required for geological mapping. At the time of the flyby the southern hemisphere of Umbriel (like those of the other moons) was pointed towards the Sun, so the northern (dark) hemisphere could not be studied. No other spacecraft has ever visited Uranus or its moons. See also -------- * List of natural satellites

Umbriel (moon)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbriel_(moon)

The **Tbilisi Metro** (Georgian: თბილისის მეტროპოლიტენი) is a rapid transit system in the Georgian capital Tbilisi. Opened on 11 January 1966, it was the fourth metro system in the former Soviet Union. Like other ex-Soviet metros, most of the stations are very deep and vividly decorated. At present the system consists of two lines, 27.3 kilometres (17.0 mi) in total length, serving 23 stations. In 2017, the Metro transported 113.827 million passengers. The Metro is operated by the Tbilisi Transport Company, which began operation the same year as the Tbilisi Metro, in 1966. History ------- Tbilisi (officially known as Tiflis until 1936), the capital of Georgia, was considered historically to be one of the most important cities of the Soviet Union, particularly because of its political position as being the most significant city in the Caucasus and the capital of the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic which lasted until 1936. The city grew quite rapidly during the 19th and 20th centuries, and apart from being a cultural and political centre, it was an important transport hub in Transcaucasia and an industrial centre as well. Features of the historically established development of Tbilisi, stretching for more than 25 km along the Mtkvari river, densely built-up city centre, and narrow steep streets in some parts of the city, impede the development of land transport. All this contributed to the need for a rapid transit Metro system. Especially considering its geographic characteristic - Tbilisi is considerably long, which undoubtedly would simplify the coverage of most parts of the city by the underground. Construction began in 1952. Tbilisi was one of the few cities in the former USSR where work on the Metro system started before the population reached one million people. A population of over a million people was one of the main requirements for Soviet cities to build a metro system. On 11 January 1966, the Tbilisi Metro was opened: it was the first and only Metro system in Georgia and the fourth one in the former Soviet Union (after Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and Kyiv) when the first six stations were opened. Since then, the system has steadily grown to a two-line, 23-station network. Post Soviet Era --------------- During the 1990s, most of the Soviet-era station names were changed, although financial difficulties after the breakup of the Soviet Union hit the Metro particularly hard in its infrastructure, operations, and extensions. In the early-mid 1990s, the Tbilisi metro was usually not working due to the lack of electricity. Until recently, the Metro had been underfunded and operated in severe difficulties due to poor electrical supply. It had also become infamous for widespread petty crime, like pickpocketing and mugging. In addition, there have been several incidents at metro stations in recent years. On 9 October 1997, a former policeman blew himself up at Didube station. On 14 February 2000, a teenager threw a homemade hand grenade into a metro station, injuring several people. In March 2004, several people were poisoned by an unidentified gas while using the Metro. However, crime has reduced as a result of security and administration reforms in the system from 2004 to 2005. Other services have also significantly improved. Modernization Efforts --------------------- The Tbilisi Metro system is undergoing a major rehabilitation effort, including the reconstruction of the stations as well as the modernization of trains and other facilities. The city's 2006 budget allocated 16 million lari for this project. Former President of Georgia Mikheil Saakashvili promised to make the Metro a most prestigious public transport system, and charged the Director General of Tbilisi Metro, Zurab Kikalishvili, in late 2005, to bring the metro up to European standards by 2007. In 2005 began the renovation process of subway trains. As part of the modernization, the soviet-era rolling stock was overhauled, old parts were replaced with new ones, the interior of the car was changed and the exterior was given a different look. Additionally, the driver cab was equipped with a modern control panel. In subsequent years, however, the upgrade process slowed significantly, and as of July 2010, the Tbilisi metro rail was still far from its target standard. Some renovated metro stations had to be repaired again soon due to deficient planning and poor quality of the renovation. The renovation process of the system continues unfortunately slowly and there are several stations under renovation. As of 2023[update] Tbilisi City Hall purchased 10 4-car trains for Tbilisi Metro from Metrowagonmash, which will meet European standards. The extension of the Saburtalo Line to State University station began in 1985. In 1993 the construction was stopped and it went into conservation mode. In January 2012 construction was scheduled to start on a frozen extension of the Saburtalo Line from the Vazha-Pshavela station to the Sakhelmtsipo Universiteti (State University) station, of which 80% of the work was completed during the Soviet era. But it was only restarted in July 2015 with financial help from the Asian Development Bank and the station was finally opened to the public on 16 October 2017. The new State University station meets modern standards and is equipped with new technologies. Additionally, the Delisi-Vazha-Pshavela tunnel was also opened. In 2019, the complete rehabilitation of power lines and ventilation systems in the metro began. With the replacement of the 450-kilometer (280 mi) power cable, 32 new fans will be installed. The Asian Development Bank has allocated $15 million for this project. Rolling Stock Upgrades ---------------------- The government of Tbilisi, through partial funding from the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, spent more than 48 million Euros on purchasing 44, new, modern metro cars or 10 train sets in February 2023 from Metrowagonmash, bringing the system's outdated rolling stock up to date. Moreover, the depot and the connecting tunnel will be rehabilitated as a part of the project to support the new trains. This is the first major rolling stock update for the network since it began operation more than 50 years ago. In May 2023, the contract with Metrowagonmash was cancelled after the company was internationally sanctioned. Tbilisi has not lost interest in purchasing new rolling stock, and government officials are meeting with major rolling stock company representatives to start a new tender process. Network ------- Current lines | No. | Name | Opened | Length | Stations | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **1** | Akhmeteli–Varketili Line | 1966 | 19.6 km (12.2 mi) | 16 | | **2** | Saburtalo Line | 1979 | 7.7 km (4.8 mi) | 7 | | **TOTAL:** | **27.3 km (17.0 mi)** | **23** | ### Timeline | Segment | Date opened | Length | | --- | --- | --- | | Didube–Rustaveli | 11 January 1966 | 6.3 km | | Rustaveli–300 Aragveli | 6 November 1967 | 3.5 km | | 300 Aragveli–Samgori | 5 May 1971 | 2.4 km | | Sadguris Moedani–Delisi | 15 September 1979 | 5.5 km | | Samgori–Varketili | 8 November 1985 | 1.7 km | | Didube–Guramishvili | 16 November 1985 | 3.4 km | | Guramishvili–Akhmetelis Teatri | 7 January 1989 | 2.3 km | | Delisi–Vazha-Pshavela | 2 April 2000 | 1.2 km | | Vazha-Pshavela–Sakhelmtsipo Universiteti | 16 October 2017 | 1.0 km | | **Total:** | **23 stations** | **27.3 km** | Operation --------- As of 2018[update], the system consists of two lines, serving 23 stations, operating on 27.3 kilometres (17.0 mi) of the route and 62.5 kilometres (38.8 mi) of the track. Of the 23 stations, 21 stations are below ground and two are surface level. Of the subterranean stations, 17 are deep level and 4 are shallows. The former comprises 6 pylon stations, 5 columns and 6 single vaults (built to the Leningrad Technology). The shallow stations consist of three pillar trepans and one single vault (Kharkiv Technology). Due to Tbilisi's uneven landscape, the Metro, particularly the Akhmeteli-Varketili line, has one surface-level section. An estimated total of 105.6 million people used the Metro annually as of 2005, though the actual figure by 2012 was closer to 94 million. Carrying them are a fleet of 170 Soviet-built rail cars, consisting of the 81–717/714 and Еzh3 models, which have been modernised since 2000 (using the Czech blueprint of the 81-71M) and operate from two depots. Station platforms are approximately 102 meters in length, and built to accommodate five-carriage trains, though four-car trains operate on both lines of the subway system. Trains run from a little before 6:00 am (exact times vary depending on the station) until midnight, with intervals ranging between 2+1⁄2 minutes at peak times and 12 minutes later in the night. Train speeds are 60–80 kilometres per hour, while the average trip speed is slightly over 33 kilometres per hour. As of 2018 due to the State University (Tbilisi Metro) extension, new digital signaling system were installed by Siemens, controlling 2.6 km of track and three interlockings, from Delisi to State University (Tbilisi Metro), which is the only segment in the network containing Signaling systems from the post-Soviet era. Fares ----- The Tbilisi Metro uses a flat-fare system of 1 lari per journey. Tokens are no longer used, and riders must purchase for 2 lari a Metromoney Card (a stored value card available at metro stations), onto which they can add fares. The card allows riders to re-enter the system for 90 minutes upon leaving it at no charge. Future ------ * RustaveliRustaveli * transitiontransition * GotsiridzeGotsiridze * Georgian Technical UniversityGeorgian Technical University * Tbilisi State University Subway StationTbilisi State University Subway Station The system had also an advanced extension plan, with a third line, amongst other locations, encompassing the district of Vake. Forming a typical Soviet triangle with a three-line six radii layout intersecting in the city centre. However, most of the construction sites remain frozen, some dating to Soviet times. There are also plans to return a tram network in Tbilisi. In October 2018, the Prime Minister of Georgia, Mamuka Bakhtadze announced during the Georgian Dream conference that 7 new stations will form a new line connecting central Tbilisi with the outskirts of the city and Tbilisi Shota Rustaveli Airport. According to the plan, the new overground line will run from Samgori metro station to the Lilo market in the east of the city, and was planned to be opened in 2020. As of present day, the project has not been started. The new metro line was planned to use Light Rail Vehicles running at 10 minute intervals for both directions. The mayor Kakha Kaladze added, that the line is planned to be extended to Rustavi, a major city 30 km away from the capital. Although, this remains a plan up until the overground line is open. Metro Reform Plan ----------------- In October 2022, EBRD worked with the Tbilisi Mayor's Office to start and fund a project to renovate the above ground infrastructure of 11 Metro stations, adapting them to be wheelchair accessible. Along with this plan, 4 Metro stations are to have new entrances constructed. Over 50 million euros were approved for this project. A tender for this project is supposed to be announced in May of 2023. Once the winning tender is approved by the Tbilisi City Hall, works will commence and take place over 3-4 years for all the stations in the project to be modernized. See also -------- * List of Tbilisi Metro stations * List of metro systems * Trams in Tbilisi

Tbilisi Metro

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tbilisi_Metro

**Same-sex marriage**, also known as **gay marriage**, is the marriage of two people of the same legal sex. As of 2023,[update] marriage between same-sex couples is legally performed and recognized in 35 countries that have a total population of about 1.38 billion people (18% of the world's population), with the most recent being Nepal. It will become legal in a 36th country, Estonia, on 1 January 2024. Adoption rights are not necessarily covered, though most states with same-sex marriage allow those couples to jointly adopt as other married couples can. In contrast, 35 countries (as of 2023) have definitions of marriage in their constitutions that prevent marriage between couples of the same sex, most enacted in recent decades as a preventative measure. Some other countries have constitutionally mandated Islamic law, which is generally interpreted as prohibiting marriage between same-sex couples. In six of the former and most of the latter, homosexuality itself is criminalized. There are records of marriage between men dating back to the first century. It is legally recognized in a large majority of the world's developed democracies, while it is not recognized in any of the world's Islamic polities and, with the exception of Cuba, any of the Marxist-Leninist states. Some countries, such as China and Russia, ban advocacy for the legal recognition of same-sex marriages, alleging that same-sex marriage is a threat to their national culture. The first same-sex couple to be married legally in modern times were Michael McConnell and Jack Baker in 1971 in the United States; they were married in the county of Hennepin County, Minnesota. The first law providing for **marriage equality** between same-sex and opposite-sex couples was passed in the continental Netherlands in 2000 and took effect on 1 April 2001. The application of marriage law equally to same-sex and opposite-sex couples has varied by jurisdiction, and has come about through legislative change to marriage law, court rulings based on constitutional guarantees of equality, recognition that marriage of same-sex couples is allowed by existing marriage law, and by direct popular vote, such as through referendums and initiatives. Scientific studies show that the financial, psychological, and physical well-being of gay people are enhanced by marriage, and that the children of same-sex parents benefit from being raised by married same-sex couples within a marital union that is recognized by law and supported by societal institutions. Social science research indicates that the exclusion of same-sex couples from marriage stigmatizes and invites public discrimination against gay and lesbian people, with research repudiating the notion that either civilization or viable social orders depend upon restricting marriage to heterosexuals. Same-sex marriage can provide those in committed same-sex relationships with relevant government services and make financial demands on them comparable to that required of those in opposite-sex marriages, and also gives them legal protections such as inheritance and hospital visitation rights. Opposition is based on claims such as that homosexuality is unnatural and abnormal, that the recognition of same-sex unions will promote homosexuality in society, and that children are better off when raised by opposite-sex couples. These claims are refuted by scientific studies, which show that homosexuality is a natural and normal variation in human sexuality, that sexual orientation is not a choice, and that children of same-sex couples fare just as well as the children of opposite-sex couples. Terminology ----------- ### Alternative terms Some proponents of the legal recognition of same-sex marriage—such as Marriage Equality USA (founded in 1998), Freedom to Marry (founded in 2003), and Canadians for Equal Marriage - used the terms *marriage equality* and *equal marriage* to signal that their goal was for same-sex marriage to be recognized on equal ground with opposite-sex marriage. The Associated Press recommends the use of *same-sex marriage* over *gay marriage*. In deciding whether to use the term *gay marriage*, it may also be noted that not everyone in a same-sex marriage is gay - for example, some are bisexual - and therefore using the term *gay marriage* is sometimes considered erasure of such people. ### Use of the term *marriage* Anthropologists have struggled to determine a definition of marriage that absorbs commonalities of the social construct across cultures around the world. Many proposed definitions have been criticized for failing to recognize the existence of same-sex marriage in some cultures, including those of more than 30 African peoples, such as the Kikuyu and Nuer. With several countries revising their marriage laws to recognize same-sex couples in the 21st century, all major English dictionaries have revised their definition of the word marriage to either drop gender specifications or supplement them with secondary definitions to include gender-neutral language or explicit recognition of same-sex unions. The *Oxford English Dictionary* has recognized same-sex marriage since 2000. Opponents of same-sex marriage who want marriage to be restricted to pairings of a man and a woman, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Catholic Church, and the Southern Baptist Convention, use the term *traditional marriage* to mean opposite-sex marriage. History ------- ### Ancient A reference to marriage between same-sex couples appears in the Sifra, which was written in the 3rd century CE. The Book of Leviticus prohibited homosexual relations, and the Hebrews were warned not to "follow the acts of the land of Egypt or the acts of the land of Canaan" (Lev. 18:22, 20:13). The Sifra clarifies what these ambiguous "acts" were, and that they included marriage between same-sex couples: "A man would marry a man and a woman a woman, a man would marry a woman and her daughter, and a woman would be married to two men." What is arguably the first historical mention of the performance of marriages between same-sex couples occurred during the early Roman Empire according to controversial historian John Boswell. These were usually reported in a critical or satirical manner. Roman child emperor Elagabalus referred to his chariot driver, a blond slave from Caria named Hierocles, as his husband. He also married an athlete named Zoticus in a lavish public ceremony in Rome amidst the rejoicings of the citizens. According to Craig A. Williams[*disambiguation needed*], some Romans as early as the first century clearly did participate in formal ceremonies in which two males were married. These marriages were seen as atypical: Williams writes that "a marriage between two fully gendered 'men' was inconceivable; if two males were joined together, one of them had to be 'the woman.'" The first Roman emperor to have married a man was Nero, who is reported to have married two other males on different occasions. The first was with one of Nero's own freedmen, Pythagoras, with whom Nero took the role of the bride. Later, as a groom, Nero married Sporus, a young boy, to replace his wife Poppaea Sabina following her death, and married him in a very public ceremony with all the solemnities of matrimony, after which Sporus was forced to pretend to be the female concubine that Nero had killed and act as though they were really married. A friend gave the "bride" away as required by law. The marriage was celebrated in both Greece and Rome in extravagant public ceremonies. *Conubium* existed only between a *civis Romanus* and a *civis Romana* (that is, between a male Roman citizen and a female Roman citizen), so that a marriage between two Roman males (or with a slave) would have no legal standing in Roman law (apart, presumably, from the arbitrary will of the emperor in the two aforementioned cases). Furthermore, according to Susan Treggiari, "*matrimonium* was then an institution involving a mother, *mater*. The idea implicit in the word is that a man took a woman in marriage, *in matrimonium ducere*, so that he might have children by her." In 342 AD, Christian emperors Constantius II and Constans issued a law in the Theodosian Code (*C. Th.* 9.7.3) prohibiting marriage between same-sex couples in Rome and ordering execution for those so married. Professor Fontaine of Cornell University Classics Department has pointed out that there is no provision for marriage between same-sex couples in Roman Law, and the text from 342 CE is corrupt, "marries a woman" might be "goes to bed in a dishonorable manner with a man" as a condemnation of homosexual behavior between men. The Boxer Codex, dated 1590, records the normality and acceptance of same-sex marriage in the native cultures of the Philippines prior to colonization. In 1834, Anne Lister married Ann Walker prior to legalization in England. ### Contemporary The first same-sex couple to be married legally in modern times were Michael McConnell and Jack Baker in 1971, in Hennepin County, Minnesota. Historians variously trace the beginning of the modern movement in support of same-sex marriage to anywhere from around the 1980s to the 1990s. In the United States, same-sex marriage became an official request of gay rights movement after the Second National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights in 1987. In 1989, Denmark became the first country to legally recognize a relationship for same-sex couples, establishing registered partnerships, which gave those in same-sex relationships "most rights of married heterosexuals, but not the right to adopt or obtain joint custody of a child". In 2001, the continental Netherlands became the first country to broaden marriage laws to include same-sex couples. Since then, same-sex marriage has been established by law in 33 other countries, including most of the Americas and Western Europe. Yet its spread has been uneven — South Africa is the only country in Africa to take the step; Taiwan is the only one in Asia. Timeline -------- The summary table below lists in chronological order the sovereign states (United Nations member states plus Taiwan) that have legalized same-sex marriage. As of 2023, 35 states have legalized. Dates are when marriages between same-sex couples began to be officially certified. | | | | --- | --- | | 2001 | Netherlands **Netherlands** (1 April) | | 2002 | | | 2003 | * Belgium **Belgium** (1 June) * Ontario (10 June) * British Columbia (8 July) | | 2004 | * Quebec (19 March) * Massachusetts (17 May) * Yukon (14 July) * Manitoba (16 September) * Nova Scotia (24 September) * Saskatchewan (5 November) * Newfoundland and Labrador (21 December) | | 2005 | * New Brunswick (23 June) * Spain **Spain** (3 July) * Canada **Canada** [nationwide] (20 July) | | 2006 | South Africa **South Africa** (30 November) | | 2007 | | | 2008 | * California (June 16, repealed November 5) * Connecticut (12 November) | | 2009 | * Norway **Norway** (1 January) * Iowa (27 April) * Sweden **Sweden** (1 May) * Coquille Indian Tribe (20 May) * Vermont (1 September) | | 2010 | * New Hampshire (1 January) * District of Columbia (3 March) * Mexican Federal District (4 March) * Mashantucket Pequot Tribal Nation (29 April) * Portugal **Portugal** (5 June) * Iceland **Iceland** (27 June) * Argentina **Argentina** (22 July) | | 2011 | * New York (24 July) * Suquamish Tribe (1 August) * Alagoas (7 December) | | 2012 | * Quintana Roo (3 May) * Denmark **Denmark** (15 June) * Sergipe (5 July) * Santa Rita do Sapucaí, Minas Gerais (11 July) * Espírito Santo (15 August) * Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (10 October) * Bahia (26 November) * Brazilian Federal District (1 December) * Washington (6 December) * Port Gamble S'Klallam Tribe (9 December) * Piauí (15 December) * Maine (29 December) | | 2013 | * Maryland (1 January) * São Paulo (16 February) * Ceará (15 March) * Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians (15 March) * Paraná (26 March) * Mato Grosso do Sul (2 April) * Rondônia (26 April) * Santa Catarina (29 April) * Paraíba (29 April) * Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians (8 May) * Brazil **Brazil** [nationwide] (16 May) * France **France** (18 May) * Iipay Nation of Santa Ysabel (24 June) * California (28 June) * Delaware (1 July) * Minnesota (1 August) * Rhode Island (1 August) * Grand Portage Band of Chippewa (1 August) * Uruguay **Uruguay** (5 August) * New Zealand **New Zealand** (19 August) * Doña Ana County, New Mexico (21 August) * Santa Fe County, New Mexico (23 August) * Bernalillo County, New Mexico (26 August) * San Miguel County, New Mexico (27 August) * Valencia County, New Mexico (27 August) * Taos County, New Mexico (28 August) * Los Alamos County, New Mexico (4 September) * Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation (5 September) * Grant County, New Mexico (9 September) * Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes (18 October) * New Jersey (21 October) * Blue Lake Rancheria (1 November) * Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe (15 November) * Hawaii (2 December) * New Mexico [statewide] (19 December) | | 2014 | * Cook County, Illinois (21 February) * England Wales **England and Wales** (13 March) * South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (13 March) * Oregon (19 May) * Pennsylvania (20 May) * Illinois [statewide] (1 June) * Akrotiri and Dhekelia (3 June) * British Indian Ocean Territory (3 June) * Puyallup Tribe of Indians (9 July) * Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa (16 July) * Confederated Tribes of Coos, Lower Umpqua and Siuslaw Indians (10 August) * Coahuila (17 September) * Oklahoma (6 October) * Virginia (6 October) * Utah (6 October) * Indiana (6 October) * Wisconsin (6 October) * Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa (6 October) * Colorado (7 October) * West Virginia (9 October) * Nevada (9 October) * Fort McDermitt Paiute and Shoshone Tribes (9 October) * North Carolina (10 October) * Alaska (12 October) * Idaho (15 October) * Arizona (17 October) * Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation (17 October) * Pascua Yaqui Tribe (17 October) * Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community (17 October) * San Carlos Apache Tribe (17 October) * Yavapai-Apache Nation (17 October) * Wyoming (21 October) * St. Louis, Missouri (5 November) * St. Louis County, Missouri (6 November) * Jackson County, Missouri (7 November) * Douglas County, Kansas (12 November) * Sedgwick County, Kansas (12 November) * Eastern Shoshone Tribe (14 November) * Northern Arapaho Tribe (14 November) * Montana (19 November) * Blackfeet Nation (19 November) * South Carolina (20 November) * Keweenaw Bay Indian Community (13 December) * Scotland **Scotland** (16 December) | | 2015 | * Luxembourg **Luxembourg** (1 January) * Miami-Dade County, Florida (5 January) * Florida [statewide] (6 January) * Central Council of the Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska (24 February) * Pitcairn Islands (14 May) * Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians (15 May) * Guam (9 June) * Oneida Tribe of Indians of Wisconsin (10 June) * Chihuahua (12 June) * United States **United States** [nationwide] (26 June) * Northern Mariana Islands (30 June) * Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians (7 July) * United States Virgin Islands (9 July) * Puerto Rico (13 July) * Santiago de Querétaro, Querétaro (21 July) * Hannahville Indian Community (3 August) * White Mountain Apache Tribe (9 September) * Republic of Ireland **Ireland** (16 November) * Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon (18 November) * Nayarit (23 December) | | 2016 | * Stockbridge-Munsee Community Band of Mohican Indians (2 February) * Greenland Greenland (1 April) * Colombia **Colombia** (28 April) * Tulalip Tribes of Washington (6 May) * Jalisco [statewide] (12 May) * Campeche (20 May) * Colima (12 June) * Michoacán (23 June) * Morelos (5 July) * Isle of Man (22 July) * San Pedro Cholula, Puebla (18 September) * British Antarctic Territory (13 October) * Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin (3 November) * Cherokee Nation (9 December) * Gibraltar (15 December) | | 2017 | * Ascension Island (1 January) * Amealco de Bonfil, Querétaro (4 January) * Cadereyta de Montes, Querétaro (4 January) * Ezequiel Montes, Querétaro (4 January) * Huimilpan, Querétaro (4 January) * Pedro Escobedo, Querétaro (4 January) * San Joaquín, Querétaro (4 January) * Tolimán, Querétaro (4 January) * Finland **Finland** (1 March) * Osage Nation (20 March) * Prairie Island Indian Community (22 March) * Falkland Islands (29 April) * Guernsey (2 May) * Bermuda (5 May, repealed 1 June 2018) * Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin (5 June) * Faroe Islands Faroe Islands (1 July) * Tristan da Cunha (4 August) * Malta **Malta** (1 September) * Germany **Germany** (1 October) * Ak-Chin Indian Community (25 October) * Baja California (3 November) * Australia **Australia** (9 December) * Saint Helena (20 December) | | 2018 | * Puebla [statewide] (16 February) * Chiapas (11 May) * Alderney (14 June) * Jersey (1 July) * Oaxaca (26 August) * Ponca Tribe of Nebraska (27 August) * Bermuda (23 November, repealed 14 March 2022) | | 2019 | * Austria **Austria** (1 January) * Zacatecas, Zacatecas (14 February) * Cuauhtémoc, Zacatecas (1 March) * Villanueva, Zacatecas (20 May) * San Luis Potosí (21 May) * Taiwan **Taiwan** (24 May) * Nuevo León (31 May) * Hidalgo (11 June) * Baja California Sur (29 June) * Miguel Auza, Zacatecas (by 5 July) * Ecuador **Ecuador** (8 July) * Oglala Sioux Tribe (8 July) * Bay Mills Indian Community (8 July) * Colorado River Indian Tribes (8 August) * Aguascalientes (16 August) | | 2020 | * Northern Ireland [final jurisdiction in the United Kingdom **United Kingdom**] (13 January) * Sark (23 April) * Costa Rica **Costa Rica** (26 May) * Fresnillo, Zacatecas (3 July) * Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians (6 August) * Tlaxcala (25 December) | | 2021 | * Sinaloa (30 June) * Sonora (22 October) * Querétaro [statewide] (13 November) * Guanajuato (20 December) * Zacatecas [statewide] (30 December) | | 2022 | * Yucatán (4 March) * Chile **Chile** (10 March) * Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska (11 April) * Chickasaw Nation (18 April) * Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians (25 May) * Veracruz (13 June) * Switzerland **Switzerland** (1 July) * Slovenia **Slovenia** (9 July) * Durango (19 September) * Cuba **Cuba** (27 September) * Tabasco (27 October) * State of Mexico (2 November) * Tamaulipas (19 November) * Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe (21 December) * Guerrero [statewide; final jurisdiction in Mexico **Mexico**] (31 December) | | 2023 | * Andorra **Andorra** (17 February) * Choctaw Nation (23 May) * Nepal **Nepal** (28 June) | | *2024* | * *Estonia **Estonia** (1 January)* | | Same-sex marriage around the world ---------------------------------- Same-sex marriage is legally performed and recognized in the following 35 countries: Andorra, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Nepal, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Uruguay. It will become legal in a 37th country, Estonia, on 1 January 2024. Same-sex marriage is under consideration by the legislature or the courts in Aruba, Curaçao, the Czech Republic, Greece, Honduras, India, Japan, Liechtenstein, Namibia, the Navajo Nation, South Korea and Venezuela. Civil unions are being considered in a number of countries, including Lithuania, Peru, the Philippines, South Korea and Ukraine. On 12 March 2015, the European Parliament passed a non-binding resolution encouraging EU institutions and member states to "[reflect] on the recognition of same-sex marriage or same-sex civil union as a political, social and human and civil rights issue". In 2018, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled that all signatory countries must allow same-sex marriage. Notable countries: * United States United States: The first country where a local jurisdiction knowingly issued a marriage license to a same-sex couple (1971) * Denmark Denmark: The first country to offer civil unions (1989) * Netherlands Netherlands: The first country to legalize same-sex marriage (2001) * Canada Canada: The first country in the Americas to legalize same-sex marriage (2005) * South Africa South Africa: The first country to legalize same-sex marriage through court ruling and the first one in Africa (2005) * Mexico Mexico: The first local jurisdiction to legalize same-sex marriage in Latin America (2010) * Argentina Argentina: The first country in South America to legalize same-sex marriage (2010) * New Zealand New Zealand: The first country in Oceania to legalize same-sex marriage (2013) * Republic of Ireland Ireland: The first country to legalize same-sex marriage through referendum (2015) * Taiwan Taiwan: The first country in Asia to legalize same-sex marriage (2019) * Estonia Estonia: The first post-Soviet state to legalize same-sex marriage (2024) * Nepal Nepal: The first internationally recognized Asian country to legalize same-sex marriage and the first least developed one (2023) In response to the international spread of same-sex marriage, a number of countries have enacted preventative constitutional bans, with the most recent being Georgia in 2018 and Russia in 2020. In other countries, constitutions have been adopted which have wording specifying that marriage is between a man and a woman, although, especially with the older constitutions, they were not necessarily worded with the intent to ban same-sex marriage. In additional countries, such restrictions and limitations are effected through legislation. ### International court rulings #### European Court of Human Rights In 2010, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled in *Schalk and Kopf v Austria*, a case involving an Austrian same-sex couple who were denied the right to marry. The court found, by a vote of 4 to 3, that their human rights had not been violated. The court further stated that same-sex unions are not protected under art. 12 of ECHR ("Right to marry"), which exclusively protects the right to marry of opposite-sex couples (without regard if the sex of the partners is the result of birth or of sex change), but they are protected under art. 8 of ECHR ("Right to respect for private and family life") and art. 14 ("Prohibition of discrimination"). Furthermore, under European Convention of Human Rights, states are not obliged to allow same-sex marriage: > The Court acknowledged that a number of Contracting States had extended marriage to same-sex partners, but went on to say that this reflected their own vision of the role of marriage in their societies and did not flow from an interpretation of the fundamental right as laid down by the Contracting States in the Convention in 1950. The Court concluded that it fell within the State's margin of appreciation as to how to regulate the effects of the change of gender on pre-existing marriages. > > — European Court of Human Rights, Schalk and Kopf v Austria British Judge Sir Nicolas Bratza, then head of the European Court of Human Rights, delivered a speech in 2012 that signaled the court was ready to declare same-sex marriage a "human right", as soon as enough countries fell into line. Article 12 of the European Convention on Human Rights states that: "Men and women of marriageable age have the right to marry and to found a family, according to the national laws governing the exercise of this right", not limiting marriage to those in a heterosexual relationship. However, the ECHR stated in *Schalk and Kopf v Austria* that this provision was intended to limit marriage to heterosexual relationships, as it used the term "men and women" instead of "everyone". #### European Union On 5 June 2018, the European Court of Justice ruled, in a case from Romania, that, under the specific conditions of the couple in question, married same-sex couples have the same residency rights as other married couples in an EU country, even if that country does not permit or recognize same-sex marriage. However, the ruling was not implemented in Romania and on 14 September 2021 the European Parliament passed a resolution calling on the European Commission to ensure that the ruling is respected across the EU. #### Inter-American Court of Human Rights On 8 January 2018, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACHR) ruled that the American Convention on Human Rights mandates and requires the legal recognition of same-sex marriage. The landmark ruling was fully binding on Costa Rica and set binding precedent in the other signatory countries. The Court recommended that governments issue temporary decrees recognizing same-sex marriage until new legislation is brought in. Among states without same-sex marriage, the ruling applies to Barbados, Bolivia, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru and Suriname. The Court said that governments "must recognize and guarantee all the rights that are derived from a family bond between people of the same sex". They also said that it was inadmissible and discriminatory for a separate legal provision to be established (such as civil unions) instead of same-sex marriage. The Court demanded that governments "guarantee access to all existing forms of domestic legal systems, including the right to marriage, in order to ensure the protection of all the rights of families formed by same-sex couples without discrimination". Recognizing the difficulty in passing such laws in countries where there is strong opposition to same-sex marriage, it recommended that governments pass temporary decrees until new legislation is brought in. The ruling has directly led to the legal recognition of same-sex marriage in Costa Rica and Ecuador. In the wake of the ruling, lawsuits regarding same-sex marriage were filed in Bolivia, Honduras, Panama, Paraguay (to recognize marriages performed abroad), and Peru, all of which are under the jurisdiction of the IACHR. ### International organizations The terms of employment of the staff of international organizations (not commercial) in most cases are not governed by the laws of the country where their offices are located. Agreements with the host country safeguard these organizations' impartiality. Despite their relative independence, few organizations recognize same-sex partnerships without condition. The agencies of the United Nations recognize same-sex marriages if the country of citizenship of the employees in question recognizes the marriage. In some cases, these organizations do offer a limited selection of the benefits normally provided to mixed-sex married couples to de facto partners or domestic partners of their staff, but even individuals who have entered into a mixed-sex civil union in their home country are not guaranteed full recognition of this union in all organizations. However, the World Bank does recognize domestic partners. Other arrangements ------------------ ### Civil unions Civil union, civil partnership, domestic partnership, registered partnership, unregistered partnership, and unregistered cohabitation statuses offer varying legal benefits of marriage. As of 28 June 2023, countries that have an alternative form of legal recognition other than marriage on a national level are: Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Montenegro and San Marino. Poland and Slovakia offer more limited rights. On a subnational level, the Dutch constituent country of Aruba allows same-sex couples to access civil unions or partnerships, but restrict marriage to couples of the opposite sex. Additionally, various cities and counties in Cambodia and Japan offer same-sex couples varying levels of benefits, which include hospital visitation rights and others. Additionally, seventeen countries that have legally recognized same-sex marriage also have an alternative form of recognition for same-sex couples, usually available to heterosexual couples as well: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, France, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, the United Kingdom and Uruguay. They are also available in parts of the United States (Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Illinois, New Jersey, Nevada and Oregon) and Canada. ### Non-sexual same-sex marriage #### Kenya Female same-sex marriage is practiced among the Gikuyu, Nandi, Kamba, Kipsigis, and to a lesser extent neighboring peoples. About 5–10% of women are in such marriages. However, this is not seen as homosexual, but is instead a way for families without sons to keep their inheritance within the family. #### Nigeria Among the Igbo people and probably other peoples in the south of the country, there are circumstances where a marriage between women is considered appropriate, such as when a woman has no child and her husband dies, and she takes a wife to perpetuate her inheritance and family lineage. Studies ------- The American Anthropological Association stated on 26 February 2004: > The results of more than a century of anthropological research on households, kinship relationships, and families, across cultures and through time, provide no support whatsoever for the view that either civilization or viable social orders depend upon marriage as an exclusively heterosexual institution. Rather, anthropological research supports the conclusion that a vast array of family types, including families built upon same-sex partnerships, can contribute to stable and humane societies. > > Research findings from 1998 to 2015 from the University of Virginia, Michigan State University, Florida State University, the University of Amsterdam, the New York State Psychiatric Institute, Stanford University, the University of California-San Francisco, the University of California-Los Angeles, Tufts University, Boston Medical Center, the Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, and independent researchers also support the findings of this study.[*vague*] ### Adolescence A study of nationwide data from across the United States (from January 1999 to December 2015) revealed that the rate of attempted suicide among school students in grades 9–12 declined by 7% and the rate of attempted suicide among high schoolers of a minority sexual orientation in grades 9–12 declined by 14% in states that established same-sex marriage, resulting in about 134,000 fewer attempting suicide each year in the United States. The researchers took advantage of the gradual manner in which same-sex marriage was established in the United States (expanding from one state in 2004 to all fifty states in 2015) to compare the rate of attempted suicide among youth in each state over the time period studied. Once same-sex marriage was established in a particular state, the reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among youth in that state became permanent. No reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among teenage youth occurred in a particular state until that state recognized same-sex marriage. The lead researcher of the study stated that "laws that have the greatest impact on gay adults may make gay kids feel more hopeful for the future". ### Parenting Professional organizations of psychologists have concluded that children stand to benefit from the well-being that results when their parents' relationship is recognized and supported by society's institutions, e.g. civil marriage. For example, the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) stated in 2006 that "parents' financial, psychological and physical well-being is enhanced by marriage and that children benefit from being raised by two parents within a legally-recognized union." The CPA has stated that the stress encountered by gay and lesbian parents and their children are more likely the result of the way society treats them than because of any deficiencies in fitness to parent. The American Academy of Pediatrics concluded in 2006, in an analysis published in the journal *Pediatrics*: > There is ample evidence to show that children raised by same-gender parents fare as well as those raised by heterosexual parents. More than 25 years of research have documented that there is no relationship between parents' sexual orientation and any measure of a child's emotional, psychosocial, and behavioral adjustment... The rights, benefits, and protections of civil marriage can further strengthen these families. > > ### Health The American Psychological Association stated in 2004: "Denial of access to marriage to same-sex couples may especially harm people who also experience discrimination based on age, race, ethnicity, disability, gender and gender identity, religion, socioeconomic status and so on." It has also averred that same-sex couples who may only enter into a civil union, as opposed to a marriage, "are denied equal access to all the benefits, rights, and privileges provided by federal law to those of married couples", which has adverse effects on the well-being of same-sex partners. As of 2006[update], the data of current psychological and other social science studies on same-sex marriage in comparison to mixed-sex marriage indicate that same-sex and mixed-sex relationships do not differ in their essential psychosocial dimensions; that a parent's sexual orientation is unrelated to their ability to provide a healthy and nurturing family environment; and that marriage bestows substantial psychological, social, and health benefits. Same-sex parents and carers and their children are likely to benefit in numerous ways from legal recognition of their families, and providing such recognition through marriage will bestow greater benefit than civil unions or domestic partnerships. In 2009, a pair of economists at Emory University tied the passage of state bans on same-sex marriage in the United States to an increase in the rates of HIV infection. The study linked the passage of a same-sex marriage ban in a state to an increase in the annual HIV rate within that state of roughly 4 cases per 100,000 population. In 2010, a Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health study examining the effects of institutional discrimination on the psychiatric health of lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) individuals found an increase in psychiatric disorders, including a more than doubling of anxiety disorders, among the LGB population living in states that instituted bans on same-sex marriage. According to the author, the study highlighted the importance of abolishing institutional forms of discrimination, including those leading to disparities in the mental health and well-being of LGB individuals. Institutional discrimination is characterized by societal-level conditions that limit the opportunities and access to resources by socially disadvantaged groups. Issues ------ While few societies have recognized same-sex unions as marriages, the historical and anthropological record reveals a large range of attitudes towards same-sex unions ranging from praise, through full acceptance and integration, sympathetic toleration, indifference, prohibition and discrimination, to persecution and physical annihilation. Opponents of same-sex marriages have argued that same-sex marriage, while doing good for the couples that participate in them and the children they are raising, undermines a right of children to be raised by their biological mother and father. Some supporters of same-sex marriages take the view that the government should have no role in regulating personal relationships, while others argue that same-sex marriages would provide social benefits to same-sex couples. The debate regarding same-sex marriages includes debate based upon social viewpoints as well as debate based on majority rules, religious convictions, economic arguments, health-related concerns, and a variety of other issues. ### Parenting Scientific literature indicates that parents' financial, psychological and physical well-being is enhanced by marriage and that children benefit from being raised by two parents within a legally recognized union (either a mixed-sex or same-sex union). As a result, professional scientific associations have argued for same-sex marriage to be legally recognized as it will be beneficial to the children of same-sex parents or carers. Scientific research has been generally consistent in showing that lesbian and gay parents are as fit and capable as heterosexual parents, and their children are as psychologically healthy and well-adjusted as children reared by heterosexual parents. According to scientific literature reviews, there is no evidence to the contrary. #### Adoption All states that allow same-sex marriage also allow the joint adoption of children by those couples with the exceptions of Ecuador and a third of states in Mexico, though such restrictions have been ruled unconstitutional in Mexico. In addition, Croatia, Israel and Liechtenstein, which do not recognize same-sex marriage nonetheless permit joint adoption by unmarried same-sex couples. Some additional states that do not recognize same-sex marriage allow stepchild adoption by couples in civil unions: Estonia, Italy (on a case-by-case basis) and San Marino. As of 2010, more than 16,000 same-sex couples were raising an estimated 22,000 adopted children in the United States, 4% of all adopted children. #### Surrogacy and IVF treatment A gay or bisexual man has the option of surrogacy, the process in which a woman bears a child for another person through artificial insemination or carries another woman's surgically implanted fertilized egg to birth. A lesbian or bisexual woman has the option of artificial insemination. Whether these arrangements are legal are subject to controversy in several jurisdictions. ### Transgender and intersex people The legal status of same-sex marriage may have implications for the marriages of couples in which one or both parties are transgender, depending on how sex is defined within a jurisdiction. Transgender and intersex individuals may be prohibited from marrying partners of the "opposite" sex or permitted to marry partners of the "same" sex due to legal distinctions. In any legal jurisdiction where marriages are defined without distinction of a requirement of a male and female, these complications do not occur. In addition, some legal jurisdictions recognize a legal and official change of gender, which would allow a transgender male or female to be legally married in accordance with an adopted gender identity. In the United Kingdom, the *Gender Recognition Act 2004* allows a person who has lived in their chosen gender for at least two years to receive a gender recognition certificate officially recognizing their new gender. Because in the United Kingdom marriages were until recently only for mixed-sex couples and civil partnerships are only for same-sex couples, a person had to dissolve their civil partnership before obtaining a gender recognition certificate, and the same was formerly true for marriages in England and Wales, and still is in other territories. Such people are then free to enter or re-enter civil partnerships or marriages in accordance with their newly recognized gender identity. In Austria, a similar provision requiring transsexual people to divorce before having their legal sex marker corrected was found to be unconstitutional in 2006. In Quebec, prior to the legalization of same-sex marriage, only unmarried people could apply for legal change of gender. With the advent of same-sex marriage, this restriction was dropped. A similar provision including sterilization also existed in Sweden, but was phased out in 2013. In the United States, transgender and intersex marriages was subject to legal complications. As definitions and enforcement of marriage are defined by the states, these complications vary from state to state, as some of them prohibit legal changes of gender. ### Divorce In the United States before the case of *Obergefell v. Hodges*, couples in same-sex marriages could only obtain a divorce in jurisdictions that recognized same-sex marriages, with some exceptions. ### Judicial and legislative There are differing positions regarding the manner in which same-sex marriage has been introduced into democratic jurisdictions. A "majority rules" position holds that same-sex marriage is valid, or void and illegal, based upon whether it has been accepted by a simple majority of voters or of their elected representatives. In contrast, a civil rights view holds that the institution can be validly created through the ruling of an impartial judiciary carefully examining the questioning and finding that the right to marry regardless of the gender of the participants is guaranteed under the civil rights laws of the jurisdiction. Public opinion -------------- Numerous polls and studies on the issue have been conducted. A trend of increasing support for same-sex marriage has been revealed across many countries of the world, often driven in large part by a generational difference in support. Polling that was conducted in developed democracies in this century shows a majority of people in support of same-sex marriage. Support for same-sex marriage has increased across every age group, political ideology, religion, gender, race and region of various developed countries in the world.[*needs update*] Various detailed polls and studies on same-sex marriage that were conducted in several countries show that support for same-sex marriage significantly increases with higher levels of education and is also significantly stronger among younger generations, with a clear trend of continually increasing support.[*needs update*] Opinion polls for same-sex marriage by country   Same-sex marriage performed nationwide   Same-sex marriage performed in some parts of the country   Civil unions or registered partnerships nationwide   Same-sex sexual activity is illegal | Country | Pollster | Year | For | Against | Neither | Marginof error | Source | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Andorra Andorra | Institut d'Estudis Andorrans | 2013 | **70%**(79%) | 19%(21%) | 11% | | | | Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda | AmericasBarometer | 2017 | 12% | – | – | | | | Argentina Argentina | Ipsos | 2023 | **70%**(81%) | 16% [8% support some rights](19%) | 14% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **67%** | 25% | 8% | ±3.6% | | | Armenia Armenia | Pew Research Center | 2015 | 3%(3%) | **96%**(97%) | 1% | ±3% | | | Aruba Aruba | | 2021 | 46% | | | | | | Australia Australia | Ipsos | 2023 | **63%**(70%) | 27% [16% support some rights](30%) | 10% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **75%** | 23% | 2% | ±3.6% | | | Austria Austria | Eurobarometer | 2019 | **66%**(69%) | 30%(31%) | 4% | | | | The Bahamas Bahamas | AmericasBarometer | 2015 | 11% | – | – | | | | Belarus Belarus | Pew Research Center | 2015 | 16%(16%) | **81%**(84%) | 3% | ±4% | | | Belgium Belgium | Ipsos | 2023 | **72%**(81%) | 17% [9% support some rights](19%) | 10% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Belize Belize | AmericasBarometer | 2014 | 8% | – | – | | | | Bolivia Bolivia | AmericasBarometer | 2017 | 35% | **65%** | – | ±1.0% | | | Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina | Pew Research Center | 2015–2016 | 13%(14%) | **84%**(87%) | 4% | ±4% | | | Brazil Brazil | Ipsos | 2023 | **51%**(64%) | 29% [15% support some rights](36%) | 20% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **52%** | 40% | 8% | ±3.6% | | | Bulgaria Bulgaria | Eurobarometer | 2019 | 16%(18%) | **74%**(82%) | 10% | | | | Cambodia Cambodia | TNS Cambodia | 2015 | **55%**(65%) | 30%(35%) | 15% | | | | Canada Canada | Ipsos | 2023 | **69%**(80%) | 17% [7% support some rights](20%) | 15% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **79%** | 15% | 6% | ±3.6% | | | Chile Chile | Ipsos | 2023 | **65%**(73%) | 24% [18% support some rights](27%) | 12% | ±3.5% | | | China China | Ipsos | 2021 | 43%(52%) | 39% [20% support some rights](48%) | 18% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Colombia Colombia | Ipsos | 2023 | 49%(60%) | 33% [21% support some rights](40%) | 18% | | | | Costa Rica Costa Rica | CIEP | 2018 | 35% | **64%** | 1% | | | | Croatia Croatia | Eurobarometer | 2019 | 39%(41%) | **55%**(59%) | 6% | | | | Cuba Cuba | Apretaste | 2019 | **63%** | 37% | – | | | | Cyprus Cyprus | Eurobarometer | 2019 | 36%(38%) | **60%**(62%) | 4% | | | | Czech Republic Czech Republic | Median agency | 2019 | **67%** | – | – | | | | Denmark Denmark | Eurobarometer | 2019 | **89%**(92%) | 8%(8%) | 3% | | | | Dominica Dominica | AmericasBarometer | 2017 | 10% | **90%** | – | ±1.1% | | | Dominican Republic Dominican Republic | CDN 37 | 2018 | 45% | **55%** | - | | | | Ecuador Ecuador | AmericasBarometer | 2019 | 23%(31%) | **51%**(69%) | 26% | | | | El Salvador El Salvador | Universidad Francisco Gavidia | 2021 | | **82.5%** | – | | | | Estonia Estonia | HumanrightsEE | 2023 | **53%**(58%) | 39%(42%) | 8% | | | | Finland Finland | Eurobarometer | 2019 | **76%**(78%) | 21%(22%) | 3% | | | | France France | Ipsos | 2023 | **66%**(73%) | 25% [15% support some rights](27%) | 9% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **82%** | 14% | 4% | ±3.6% | | | Georgia (country) Georgia | Women's Initiatives Supporting Group | 2021 | 10%(12%) | **75%**(88%) | 15% | | | | Germany Germany | Ipsos | 2023 | **62%**(71%) | 25% [12% support some rights](29%) | 14% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **80%** | 19% | 1% | ±3.6% | | | Greece Greece | Pew Research Center | 2023 | 49% | **50%** | 1% | ±3.6% | | | Grenada Grenada | AmericasBarometer | 2017 | 12% | **88%** | – | ±1.4%c | | | Guatemala Guatemala | AmericasBarometer | 2017 | 23% | **77%** | – | ±1.1% | | | Guyana Guyana | AmericasBarometer | 2017 | 21% | **79%** | – | ±1.3% | | | Haiti Haiti | AmericasBarometer | 2017 | 5% | **95%** | – | ±0.3% | | | Honduras Honduras | CID Gallup | 2018 | 17%(18%) | **75%**(82%) | 8% | | | | Hungary Hungary | Ipsos | 2023 | 47%(57%) | 36% [20% support some rights](43%) | 18% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | 31% | **64%** | 5% | ±3.6% | | | Iceland Iceland | Gallup | 2006 | **89%** | 11% | – | | | | India India | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **53%** | 43% | 4% | ±3.6% | | | Indonesia Indonesia | Pew Research Center | 2023 | 5% | **92%** | 3% | ±3.6% | | | Republic of Ireland Ireland | Ipsos | 2023 | **64%**(72%) | 25% [13% support some rights](28%) | 11% | | | | Israel Israel | Pew Research Center | 2023 | 36% | **56%** | 8% | ±3.6% | | | Italy Italy | Ipsos | 2023 | **61%**(67%) | 30% [21% support some rights](33%) | 9% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **74%** | 26% | – | ±3.6% | | | Jamaica Jamaica | AmericasBarometer | 2017 | 16% | **84%** | – | ±1.0% | | | Japan Japan | Kyodo News | 2023 | **64%**(72%) | 25%(28%) | 11% | | | | Asahi Shimbun | 2023 | **72%**(80%) | 18%(20%) | 10% | | | | Ipsos | 2023 | 38%(49%) | 40% [31% support some rights](51%) | 22% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **74%** | 24% | 2% | ±3.6% | | | Kazakhstan Kazakhstan | Pew Research Center | 2016 | 7%(7%) | **89%**(93%) | 4% | | | | Kenya Kenya | Pew Research Center | 2023 | 9% | **90%** | 1% | ±3.6% | | | Latvia Latvia | Eurobarometer | 2019 | 24%(26%) | **70%**(74%) | 6% | | | | Liechtenstein Liechtenstein | Liechtenstein Institut | 2021 | **72%** | 28% | 0% | | | | Lithuania Lithuania | Eurobarometer | 2019 | 30%(32%) | **63%**(68%) | 7% | | | | Luxembourg Luxembourg | Eurobarometer | 2019 | **85%**(90%) | 9%(10%) | 6% | | | | Malaysia Malaysia | Ipsos | 2021 | 8%(10%) | **73%** [8% support some rights](90%) | 19% not sure | ±4.8% | | | Malta Malta | Eurobarometer | 2019 | **67%**(73%) | 25%(27%) | 8% | | | | Mexico Mexico | Ipsos | 2023 | **58%**(67%) | 28% [17% support some rights](33%) | 14% not sure | ±4.8% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **63%** | 32% | 5% | ±3.6% | | | Moldova Moldova | Pew Research Center | 2015 | 5%(5%) | **92%**(95%) | 3% | ±4% | | | Mozambique Mozambique (3 cities) | Lambda | 2017 | 28%(32%) | **60%**(68%) | 12% | | | | Netherlands Netherlands | Ipsos | 2023 | **80%**(85%) | 14% [6% support some rights](15%) | 7% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **89%** | 10% | 1% | ±3.6% | | | New Zealand New Zealand | Ipsos | 2023 | **70%**(78%) | 20% [11% support some rights](22%) | 9% | ±3.5% | | | Nicaragua Nicaragua | AmericasBarometer | 2017 | 25% | **75%** | – | ±1.0% | | | Nigeria Nigeria | Pew Research Center | 2023 | 2% | **97%** | 1% | ±3.6% | | | Norway Norway | Pew Research Center | 2017 | **72%**(79%) | 19%(21%) | 9% | | | | Panama Panama | AmericasBarometer | 2017 | 22% | **78%** | – | ±1.1% | | | Paraguay Paraguay | AmericasBarometer | 2017 | 26% | **74%** | – | ±0.9% | | | Peru Peru | Ipsos | 2023 | 41%(51%) | 40% [24% support some rights](49%) | 19% | ±3.5% | | | Philippines Philippines | SWS | 2018 | 22%(26%) | **61%**(73%) | 16% | | | | Poland Poland | Ipsos | 2023 | 32%(36%) | **57%** [35% support some rights](64%) | 11% | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | 41% | **54%** | 5% | ±3.6% | | | Portugal Portugal | Ipsos | 2023 | **80%**(84%) | 15% [11% support some rights](16%) | 5% | | | | Romania Romania | Ipsos | 2023 | 25%(30%) | **59%** [26% support some rights](70%) | 17% | ±3.5% | | | Russia Russia | Ipsos | 2021 | 17%(21%) | **64%** [12% support some rights](79%) | 20% not sure | ±4.8% | | | FOM | 2019 | 7%(8%) | **85%**(92%) | 8% | ±3.6% | | | Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Kitts and Nevis | AmericasBarometer | 2017 | 9% | **91%** | – | ±1.0% | | | Saint Lucia Saint Lucia | AmericasBarometer | 2017 | 11% | **89%** | – | ±0.9% | | | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | AmericasBarometer | 2017 | 4% | **96%** | – | ±0.6% | | | Serbia Serbia | Civil Rights Defender | 2020 | 26% | – | – | ±3.33% | | | Singapore Singapore | Ipsos | 2023 | 32%(39%) | **50%** [23% support some rights](61%) | 19% | ±3.5% | | | Slovakia Slovakia | Ipsos | 2022 | 32%(36%) | **56%**(64%) | 13% | | | | Slovenia Slovenia | Eurobarometer | 2019 | **62%**(64%) | 35%(36%) | 3% | | | | South Africa South Africa | Ipsos | 2023 | **57%**(66%) | 29% [10% support some rights](34%) | 14% | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | 38% | **58%** | 4% | ±3.6% | | | South Korea South Korea | Ipsos | 2023 | 35%(45%) | **42%** [18% support some rights](55%) | 23% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | 40% | **53%** | 7% | ±3.6% | | | Spain Spain | Ipsos | 2023 | **78%**(82%) | 17% [12% support some rights](18%) | 5% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **87%** | 11% | 2% | ±3.6% | | | Suriname Suriname | AmericasBarometer | 2014 | 18% | – | – | | | | Sweden Sweden | Ipsos | 2023 | **75%**(82%) | 16% [7% support some rights](18%) | 9% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **92%** | 5% | 3% | ±3.6% | | | Switzerland Switzerland | Ipsos | 2023 | **54%**(61%) | 34% [16% support some rights](39%) | 13% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Taiwan Taiwan | CNA | 2023 | **63%** | 37% | | | | | Thailand Thailand | Ipsos | 2023 | **55%**(65%) | 29% [18% support some rights](35%) | 16% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad and Tobago | AmericasBarometer | 2014 | 16% | – | – | | | | Turkey Turkey | Ipsos | 2023 | 20%(28%) | **52%** [22% support some rights](72%) | 28% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Ukraine Ukraine | Kyiv International Institute of Sociology | 2022 | 27%(39%) | 42% (61%) | 31% | ±2.4% | | | United Kingdom United Kingdom | YouGov | 2023 | **77%** (84%) | 15% (16%) | 8% | | | | Ipsos | 2023 | **64%**(70%) | 27% [14% support some rights](30%) | 9% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **73%** | 23% | 4% | ±3.6% | | | United States United States | Ipsos | 2023 | **54%**(64%) | 31% [14% support some rights](36%) | 15% not sure | ±3.5% | | | Pew Research Center | 2023 | **63%** | 34% | 3% | ±3.6% | | | Uruguay Uruguay | Equipos Consultores | 2019 | **59%**(68%) | 28%(32%) | 13% | | | | Venezuela Venezuela | Equilibrium Cende | 2023 | **55%**(63%) | 32%(37%) | 13% | | | | Vietnam Vietnam | The iSEE Institute | 2014 | 34%(39%) | **53%**(61%) | 13% | | | See also -------- * LGBT rights by country or territory * List of same-sex married couples * Religion and sexuality * Legal status of same-sex marriage * Societal attitudes toward homosexuality Bibliography ------------ * Boswell, John (1995). *The Marriage of Likeness: Same-sex Unions in Pre-modern Europe*. New York: Simon Harper and Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-255508-1. * Boswell, John (1994). *Same-sex Unions in Premodern Europe*. New York: Villard Books. ISBN 978-0-679-43228-9. * Brownson, James V. (2013). *Bible, Gender, Sexuality: Reforming the Church's Debate on Same-Sex Relationships*. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8028-6863-3. * Calò, Emanuele (2009). *Matrimonio à la carte — Matrimoni, convivenze registrate e divorzi dopo l'intervento comunitario*. Milano: Giuffrè. * Caramagno, Thomas C. (2002). *Irreconcilable Differences? Intellectual Stalemate in the Gay Rights Debate*. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-97721-4. * Cere, Daniel (2004). *Divorcing Marriage: Unveiling the Dangers in Canada's New Social Experiment*. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-2895-6. * Chauncey, George (2004). *Why Marriage?: The History Shaping Today's Debate over Gay Equality*. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00957-2. * Dobson, James C. (2004). *Marriage Under Fire*. Sisters, Or.: Multnomah. ISBN 978-1-59052-431-2. * George, Robert P.; Elshtain, Jean Bethke, eds. (2006). *The Meaning of Marriage: Family, State, Market, And Morals*. Dallas: Spence Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-890626-64-8. * Goss, Robert E.; Strongheart, Amy Adams Squire, eds. (2008). *Our Families, Our Values: Snapshots of Queer Kinship*. New York, NY: The Harrington Park Press, An Imprint of the Haworth Press, Inc. ISBN 978-1-56023-910-9. * Greenwich, Alex; Robinson, Shirleene (2018). *Yes Yes Yes: Australia's Journey to Marriage Equality*. Australia: NewSouth Books. ISBN 9781742235998. * Larocque, Sylvain (2006). *Gay Marriage: The Story of a Canadian Social Revolution*. Toronto: James Lorimer & Company. ISBN 978-1-55028-927-5. * Laycock, Douglas; Picarello, Anthony Jr.; Wilson, Robin Fretwell, eds. (2008). *Same-Sex Marriage and Religious Liberty: Emerging Conflicts*. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7425-6326-1. * Moats, David (2004). *Civil Wars: A Battle For Gay Marriage*. New York, NY: Harcourt, Inc. ISBN 978-0-15-101017-2. * Oliver, Marilyn Tower (1998). *Gay and lesbian rights: a struggle*. Enslow Publishers. ISBN 978-0-89490-958-0. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2020. * Rauch, Jonathan (2004). *Gay Marriage: Why It Is Good for Gays, Good for Straights, and Good for America*. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company, LLC. ISBN 978-0-8050-7815-2. * Rugg, Sally (2019). *How Powerful We Are : Behind the scenes with one of Australia's leading activists*. Australia: Hachette Australia. ISBN 9780733642227. OCLC 1103918151. * Smart, Carol; Heaphy, Brian; Einarsdottir, Anna (2013). *Same sex marriages: new generations, new relationships. Genders and sexualities in the social sciences*. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230300231. * Spedale, Darren (2006). *Gay Marriage: For Better or For Worse? What We've Learned From the Evidence*. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518751-9. * Sullivan, Andrew, ed. (2004). *Same-Sex Marriage: Pro and Con — A Reader, Revised Updated Edition*. New York, NY: Vintage Books, a division of Random House, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4000-7866-0. * Truluck, Rembert S. (2000). *Steps to Recovery from Bible Abuse*. Gaithersburg, MD: Chi Rho Press, Inc. ISBN 978-1-888493-16-0. * Wolfson, Evan (2004). *Why Marriage Matters: America, Equality, and Gay People's Right to Marry*. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-6459-4.

Same-sex marriage

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Same-sex_marriage

***Star Trek*** is an American science fiction media franchise created by Gene Roddenberry, which began with the eponymous 1960s television series and quickly became a worldwide pop-culture phenomenon. The franchise has expanded into various films, television series, video games, novels, and comic books. With an estimated $10.6 billion in revenue, it is one of the most recognizable and highest-grossing media franchises of all time. The franchise began with *Star Trek: The Original Series*, which debuted in the US on September 8, 1966, and aired for three seasons on NBC. It was first broadcast on September 6, 1966, on Canada's CTV network. It followed the voyages of the crew of the starship USS *Enterprise*, a space exploration vessel built by the United Federation of Planets in the 23rd century, on a mission "to explore strange new worlds, to seek out new life and new civilizations, to boldly go where no man has gone before". In creating *Star Trek*, Roddenberry was inspired by C. S. Forester's Horatio Hornblower series of novels, Jonathan Swift's 1726 novel *Gulliver's Travels*, the 1956 film *Forbidden Planet*, and television westerns such as *Wagon Train*. The *Star Trek* canon includes the *Original Series*, 11 spin-off television series, and a film franchise; further adaptations also exist in several media. After the conclusion of the *Original Series*, the adventures of its characters continued in the 22-episode *Star Trek: The Animated Series* and six feature films. A television revival beginning in the 1980s saw three sequel series and a prequel: *The Next Generation*, following the crew of a new starship *Enterprise* a century after the original series; *Deep Space Nine* and *Voyager*, set in the same era as the *Next Generation*; and *Enterprise*, set before the original series in the early days of human interstellar travel. The adventures of the *Next Generation* crew continued in four additional feature films. In 2009, the film franchise underwent a reboot, creating an alternate continuity known as the *Kelvin* timeline; three films have been set in this continuity. The newest *Star Trek* television revival, beginning in 2017, includes the series *Discovery*, *Picard*, *Short Treks*, *Lower Decks*, *Prodigy*, and *Strange New Worlds*, streaming exclusively on digital platforms. *Star Trek* has been a cult phenomenon for decades. Fans of the franchise are called "Trekkies" or "Trekkers". The franchise spans a wide range of spin-offs including games, figurines, novels, toys, and comics. From 1998 to 2008, there was a *Star Trek*–themed attraction in Las Vegas. At least two museum exhibits of props travel the world. The constructed language Klingon was created for the franchise. Several *Star Trek* parodies have been made, and viewers have produced several fan productions. *Star Trek* is noted for its cultural influence beyond works of science fiction. The franchise is also notable for its progressive civil-rights stances. *The Original Series* included one of the first multiracial casts on US television. Conception and setting ---------------------- As early as 1964, Gene Roddenberry drafted a proposal for the science fiction series that would become *Star Trek*. Although he publicly marketed it as a Western in outer space—a so-called "*Wagon Train* to the stars"—he privately told friends that he was modeling it on Jonathan Swift's *Gulliver's Travels*, intending each episode to act on two levels: as a suspenseful adventure story and as a morality tale. Most *Star Trek* stories depict the adventures of humans and aliens who serve in Starfleet, the space-borne humanitarian and peacekeeping armada of the United Federation of Planets. The protagonists have altruistic values, and must apply these ideals to difficult dilemmas. Many of the conflicts and political dimensions of *Star Trek* are allegories of contemporary cultural realities. *The Original Series* addressed issues of the 1960s, just as later spin-offs have tackled issues of their respective decades. Issues depicted in the various series include war and peace, the value of personal loyalty, authoritarianism, imperialism, class warfare, economics, racism, religion, human rights, sexism, feminism, and the role of technology. Roddenberry stated: "[By creating] a new world with new rules, I could make statements about sex, religion, Vietnam, politics, and intercontinental missiles. Indeed, we did make them on *Star Trek*: we were sending messages and fortunately they all got by the network. If you talked about purple people on a far off planet, they (the television network) never really caught on. They were more concerned about cleavage. They actually would send a censor down to the set to measure a woman's cleavage to make sure too much of her breast wasn't showing." Roddenberry intended the show to have a progressive political agenda reflective of the emerging counter-culture of the youth movement, though he was not fully forthcoming to the networks about this. He wanted *Star Trek* to show what humanity might develop into, if it would learn from the lessons of the past, most specifically by ending violence. An extreme example is the alien species known as the Vulcans, who had a violent past but learned to control their emotions. Roddenberry also gave *Star Trek* an anti-war message and depicted the United Federation of Planets as an ideal, optimistic version of the United Nations. His efforts were opposed by the network because of concerns over marketability, e.g., they opposed Roddenberry's insistence that *Enterprise* have a racially diverse crew. History and production ---------------------- ### Timeline ### The *Original Series* era (1965–1969) In early 1964, Roddenberry presented a brief treatment for a television series to Desilu Productions, calling it "a *Wagon Train* to the stars". Desilu studio head Lucille Ball was instrumental in approving production of the series. The studio worked with Roddenberry to develop the treatment into a script, which was then pitched to NBC. NBC paid to make a pilot, "The Cage", starring Jeffrey Hunter as *Enterprise* Captain Christopher Pike. NBC rejected "The Cage", but the executives were still impressed with the concept, and made the unusual decision to commission a second pilot: "Where No Man Has Gone Before". While the show initially enjoyed high ratings, the average rating of the show at the end of its first season dropped to 52nd out of 94 programs. Unhappy with the show's ratings, NBC threatened to cancel the show during its second season. The show's fan base, led by Bjo Trimble, conducted an unprecedented letter-writing campaign, petitioning the network to keep the show on the air. NBC renewed the show, but moved it from primetime to the "Friday night death slot", and substantially reduced its budget. In protest, Roddenberry resigned as producer and reduced his direct involvement in *Star Trek*, which led to Fred Freiberger becoming producer for the show's third and final season. Despite another letter-writing campaign, NBC canceled the series after three seasons and 79 episodes. ### Post–*Original Series* rebirth (1969–1991) After the original series was canceled, Desilu, which by then had been renamed Paramount Television, licensed the broadcast syndication rights to help recoup the production losses. Reruns began in late 1969, and by the late 1970s the series aired in over 150 domestic and 60 international markets. This helped *Star Trek* develop a cult following greater than its popularity during its original run. One sign of the series' growing popularity was the first *Star Trek* convention, which occurred on January 21–23, 1972 in New York City. Although the original expectation was that only a few hundred fans would attend, several thousand turned up. *Star Trek* fans continue to attend similar conventions worldwide. The series' newfound success led to the idea of reviving the franchise. Filmation with Paramount Television produced the first post–original series show, *Star Trek: The Animated Series*, featuring the cast of the original series reprising their roles. It ran on NBC for 22 half-hour episodes over two seasons on Saturday mornings from 1973 to 1974. Although short-lived, typical for animated productions in that time slot during that period, the series garnered the franchise's only Emmy Award in a "Best Series" category—specifically Outstanding Entertainment Children's Series; later Emmy awards for the franchise would be in technical categories. Paramount Pictures and Roddenberry began developing a new series, *Star Trek: Phase II*, in May 1975 in response to the franchise's newfound popularity. Work on the series ended when the proposed Paramount Television Service folded. Following the success of the science fiction movies *Star Wars* and *Close Encounters of the Third Kind*, Paramount adapted the planned pilot episode of *Phase II* into the feature film *Star Trek: The Motion Picture*. The film opened in North America on December 7, 1979, with mixed reviews from critics. The film earned $139 million worldwide, below expectations but enough for Paramount to create a sequel. The studio forced Roddenberry to relinquish creative control of future sequels. The success of the sequel, *Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan*, reversed the fortunes of the franchise. While the sequel grossed less than the first movie, *The Wrath of Khan*'s lower production costs made it net more profit. Paramount produced six *Star Trek* feature films between 1979 and 1991, each featuring the *Original Series* cast in their original roles. In response to the popularity of *Star Trek* feature films, the franchise returned to television with *Star Trek: The Next Generation* in 1987. Paramount chose to distribute it as a first-run syndication show rather than a network show. *The Next Generation* was set a century after the original series, following the adventures of a new starship *Enterprise* with a new crew. ### Post-Roddenberry television era (1991–2005) Following *Star Trek: The Motion Picture*, Roddenberry's role was changed from producer to creative consultant with minimal input to the films while being heavily involved with the creation of *The Next Generation*. Roddenberry died on October 24, 1991, giving executive producer Rick Berman control of the franchise. *Star Trek* had become known to those within Paramount as "the franchise", because of its great success and recurring role as a tent pole for the studio when other projects failed. *The Next Generation* had the highest ratings of any *Star Trek* series and became the most syndicated show during the last years of its original seven-season run. In response to the *Next Generation*'s success, Paramount released a spin-off series, *Deep Space Nine*, in 1993. While never as popular as the *Next Generation*, the series had sufficient ratings for it to last seven seasons. In January 1995, a few months after the *Next Generation* ended, Paramount released a fourth television series, *Voyager*. *Star Trek* production reached a peak in the mid-1990s with *Deep Space Nine* and *Voyager* airing concurrently and three of the four *Next Generation*-based feature films released in 1994, 1996, and 1998. By 1998, *Star Trek* was Paramount's most important property and the profits of "the franchise" funded a significant portion of the studio's operations. *Voyager* became the flagship show of the new United Paramount Network (UPN) and thus the first major network *Star Trek* series since the original. After *Voyager* ended, UPN produced *Enterprise*, a prequel series. *Enterprise* did not enjoy the high ratings of its predecessors and UPN threatened to cancel it after the series' third season. Fans launched a campaign reminiscent of the one that saved the third season of the *Original Series*. Paramount renewed *Enterprise* for a fourth season, but moved it to the Friday night death slot. Like the *Original Series*, *Enterprise*'s ratings dropped during this time slot, and UPN cancelled *Enterprise* at the end of its fourth season. *Enterprise* aired its final episode on May 13, 2005. A fan group, "Save *Enterprise*", attempted to save the series and tried to raise $30 million to privately finance a fifth season of *Enterprise*. Though the effort garnered considerable press, the fan drive failed to save the series. The cancellation of *Enterprise* ended an eighteen-year continuous production run of *Star Trek* programming on television. The poor box office performance in 2002 of the film *Nemesis* cast an uncertain light upon the future of the franchise. Paramount relieved Berman, the franchise producer, of control of *Star Trek*. ### Reboot (*Kelvin timeline*) film series (2009–2016) Paramount hired a new creative team, in 2007, to reinvigorate the franchise on the big screen. Writers Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman and producer J. J. Abrams had the freedom to reinvent the feel of the franchise. The team created the franchise's eleventh film, *Star Trek*, releasing it in May 2009. The film featured a new cast portraying the crew of the original show. *Star Trek* was a prequel of the original series set in an alternate timeline, later named the *Kelvin* Timeline. This gave the film and sequels freedom from the need to conform to the franchise's canonical timeline and minimized the impact these films would have on CBS's portion of the franchise. The eleventh *Star Trek* film's marketing campaign targeted non-fans, stating in the film's advertisements that "this is not your father's *Star Trek*". The film earned considerable critical and financial success, grossing (in inflation-adjusted dollars) more box office sales than any previous *Star Trek* film. The plaudits include the franchise's first Academy Award (for makeup). Two sequels were released. The first sequel, *Star Trek Into Darkness*, premiered in the spring of 2013. While the film did not earn as much in the North American box office as its predecessor, internationally, in terms of box office receipts, *Into Darkness* is the most successful of the franchise. The thirteenth film, *Star Trek Beyond*, was released on July 22, 2016. The film had many pre-production problems and its script went through several rewrites. While receiving positive reviews, *Star Trek Beyond* disappointed in the box office. ### Expansion of the Star Trek Universe (2017–present) CBS turned down several proposals in the mid-2000s to restart the franchise on the small screen. Proposals included pitches from film director Bryan Singer, *Babylon 5* creator J. Michael Straczynski, and *Trek* actors Jonathan Frakes and William Shatner. While CBS was not creating new *Star Trek* for network television, the ease of access to *Star Trek* content on new streaming services such as Netflix and Amazon Prime Video introduced a new set of fans to the franchise. CBS eventually sought to capitalize on this trend, and brought the franchise back to the small screen with the series *Star Trek: Discovery* to help launch and draw subscribers to its streaming service CBS All Access. *Discovery's* first season premiered on September 24, 2017. While *Discovery* is shown in the United States exclusively on Paramount+ (formerly CBS All Access), for its first three seasons, Netflix, in exchange for funding the production costs of the show, owned the international screening rights for the show. This Netflix distribution and production deal ended right before the fourth season premiere of *Discovery* in November 2021. *Discovery* has since been exclusive to Paramount Global owned platforms. In June 2018, after becoming sole showrunner of *Discovery*, Kurtzman signed a five-year overall deal with CBS Television Studios to expand the *Star Trek* franchise beyond *Discovery* to several new series, miniseries, and animated series. Kurtzman wanted to "open this world up" and create multiple series set in the same universe but with their own "unique storytelling and distinct cinematic feel", an approach that he compared to the Marvel Cinematic Universe. However, the franchise would not tell a single story across multiple series, allowing audiences to watch each series without having to see all of the others. CBS and Kurtzman refer to this expanded franchise as the ***Star Trek* Universe**. In October 2020, Kurtzman stated that *Star Trek* series have been planned through 2027. Kurtzman cautioned that this was a preliminary plan, but it was necessary to plan so far out due to the long production schedules for each series. The second series of the expansion of the *Star Trek* Universe, *Star Trek: Picard*, features Patrick Stewart reprising the character Jean-Luc Picard from *The Next Generation*. *Picard* premiered on CBS All Access on January 23, 2020. Unlike *Discovery*, Amazon Prime Video streams *Picard* internationally. CBS has also released two seasons of *Star Trek: Short Treks*, a series of standalone mini-episodes which air between *Discovery* and *Picard* seasons. A new live-action series, *Star Trek: Strange New Worlds*, a spinoff of the second season of *Discovery* and prequel to the original series, premiered on May 5, 2022. *Lower Decks*, an animated adult comedy series, was released on August 6, 2020 on CBS All Access. Another animated series, *Star Trek: Prodigy*, premiered on the rebranded service Paramount+ first on October 28, 2021, and on December 17, 2021 on Nickelodeon. *Prodigy* is the first Star Trek series to specifically target younger audiences, and is the franchise's first fully computer animated series. The service's Executive Vice President of Development and Programming, Julie McNamara, said they were unlikely to expand the slate of Star Trek series until one of these five shows ended, which could happen when a series' story runs its course or a lead actor's contract expires. McNamara hoped to release a new season of *Star Trek* each quarter. Discussing the next phase of the franchise, Kurtzman said several projects were in development. He feels there would be opportunities for future series to be associated to other Paramount Global brands such as BET and Showtime, similar to *Prodigy* being developed for Nickelodeon. Monthly meetings with the showrunners of each new series are held to allow coordination between the different series and ensure that "they're not stepping on each other's toes" by using the same elements of the universe, according to Kurtzman. The *Star Trek Picard* series finale aired in April 2023. Discovery's final season will air early 2024. A *Star Trek: Starfleet Academy* series is in pre-production to take the place of one of these series. Paramount is also planning to create direct-to-streaming movies every two years. The first of these movies, *Section 31*, will star Michelle Yeoh, reprising her role as Empress Georgiou from *Discovery*. Television ---------- Twelve television series make up the bulk of the *Star Trek* franchise: *The Original Series*, *The Animated Series*, *The Next Generation*, *Deep Space Nine*, *Voyager*, *Enterprise*, *Discovery*, *Short Treks*, *Picard*, *Lower Decks*, *Prodigy*, and *Strange New Worlds*. All series in total amount to 883 episodes across 45 seasons of television. | Series | Seasons | Episodes | Originally released | Network | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | *The Original Series* | 3 | 79 | September 8, 1966 – June 3, 1969 (1966-09-08 – 1969-06-03) | NBC | | *The Animated Series* | 2 | 22 | September 8, 1973 – October 12, 1974 (1973-09-08 – 1974-10-12) | | *The Next Generation* | 7 | 178 | September 28, 1987 – May 23, 1994 (1987-09-28 – 1994-05-23) | Syndication | | *Deep Space Nine* | 7 | 176 | January 4, 1993 – May 31, 1999 (1993-01-04 – 1999-05-31) | | *Voyager* | 7 | 172 | January 16, 1995 – May 23, 2001 (1995-01-16 – 2001-05-23) | UPN | | *Enterprise* | 4 | 98 | September 26, 2001 – May 13, 2005 (2001-09-26 – 2005-05-13) | | *Discovery* | 4 | 55 | September 24, 2017 – present (2017-09-24 – present) | CBS All Access Paramount+ | | *Short Treks* | 2 | 10 | October 4, 2018 – January 9, 2020 (2018-10-04 – 2020-01-09) | | *Picard* | 3 | 30 | January 23, 2020 – April 20, 2023 (2020-01-23 – 2023-04-20) | | *Lower Decks* | 3 | 30 | August 6, 2020 – present (2020-08-06 – present) | | *Prodigy* | 1 | 20 | October 28, 2021 – present (2021-10-28 – present) | | *Strange New Worlds* | 2 | 13 | May 5, 2022 – present (2022-05-05 – present) | ### *The Original Series* (1966–1969) ***Star Trek: The Original Series***, frequently abbreviated as ***TOS***, debuted on NBC on September 8, 1966. The show depicts the adventures of the crew of the starship USS *Enterprise* and its five-year mission "to boldly go where no man has gone before", under the command of Captain James T. Kirk. During the series's initial run, it was nominated for Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation multiple times, and won twice. Cast included: * William Shatner as James T. Kirk * Leonard Nimoy as Spock * DeForest Kelley as Leonard McCoy * James Doohan as Scotty * Nichelle Nichols as Uhura * George Takei as Hikaru Sulu * Walter Koenig as Pavel Chekov * Majel Barrett as Christine Chapel * Grace Lee Whitney as Janice Rand NBC canceled the show after three seasons; the last original episode aired on June 3, 1969. A petition near the end of the second season to save the show signed by many Caltech students and its multiple Hugo nominations would, however, indicate that despite low Nielsen ratings, it was highly popular with science fiction fans and engineering students. The series later became popular in reruns and found a cult following. ### *The Animated Series* (1973–1974) ***Star Trek: The Animated Series***, produced by Filmation, ran for two seasons from 1973 to 1974. Most of the original cast performed the voices of their characters from the *Original Series*, and some of the writers who worked on the *Original Series* returned. While the animated format allowed the producers to create more exotic alien landscapes and life forms, animation errors and liberal reuse of shots and musical cues have tarnished the series' reputation. Gene Roddenberry often spoke of it as non-canon, though more recent productions have treated it as canonical. The cast included: * William Shatner as James T. Kirk * Leonard Nimoy as Spock * DeForest Kelley as Leonard McCoy * James Doohan as Montgomery "Scotty" Scott * Nichelle Nichols as Uhura * George Takei as Hikaru Sulu * Majel Barrett as Christine Chapel *The Animated Series* won *Star Trek*'s first Emmy Award on May 15, 1975. The series briefly returned to television in the mid-1980s on the children's cable network Nickelodeon, and again on Sci-Fi Channel in the mid-90s. The complete series was released on LaserDisc during the 1980s. The complete series was first released in the U.S. on eleven volumes of VHS tapes in 1989. All 22 episodes were released on DVD in 2006. ### *The Next Generation* (1987–1994) ***Star Trek: The Next Generation***, frequently abbreviated as ***TNG***, takes place about a century after the *Original Series* (2364–2370). It features a new starship, *Enterprise* (NCC-1701-D), and a new crew: * Patrick Stewart as Jean-Luc Picard * Jonathan Frakes as William Riker * LeVar Burton as Geordi La Forge * Denise Crosby as Tasha Yar * Michael Dorn as Worf * Gates McFadden as Beverly Crusher * Diana Muldaur as Katherine Pulaski * Marina Sirtis as Deanna Troi * Brent Spiner as Data * Wil Wheaton as Wesley Crusher The series premiered on September 28, 1987, and ran for seven seasons. It had the highest ratings of any of the *Star Trek* series and became the highest rated syndicated show near the end of its run, allowing it to act as a springboard for other series. Many relationships and races introduced in the *Next Generation* became the basis for episodes in *Deep Space Nine* and *Voyager*. The series earned several Emmy awards and nominations—including Best Dramatic Series for its final season—two Hugo Awards, and a Peabody Award for Outstanding Television Programming for one episode. ### *Deep Space Nine* (1993–1999) ***Star Trek: Deep Space Nine***, frequently abbreviated as ***DS9***, takes place during the last years of and immediately after the *Next Generation* (2369–2375). It debuted the week of January 3, 1993, and ran for seven seasons. Unlike the other *Star Trek* series, *Deep Space Nine* was set primarily on a space station of the same name rather than aboard a starship. The cast included: * Avery Brooks as Benjamin Sisko * René Auberjonois as Constable Odo * Nicole de Boer as Ezri Dax * Michael Dorn as Worf * Terry Farrell as Jadzia Dax * Cirroc Lofton as Jake Sisko * Colm Meaney as Miles O'Brien (reprising his role from the *Next Generation*) * Armin Shimerman as Quark * Alexander Siddig as Julian Bashir (Credited as Siddig El Fadil seasons 1–3) * Nana Visitor as Kira Nerys The show begins after the conclusion of the brutal Cardassian occupation of the planet Bajor, introduced in *The Next Generation*. The liberated Bajoran people ask the United Federation of Planets to help run a space station near Bajor. After the Federation takes control of the station, the protagonists of the show discover a uniquely stable wormhole that provides immediate access to the distant Gamma Quadrant, making Bajor and the station a strategically important location. The show chronicles the events of the station's crew, led by Commander Benjamin Sisko (Avery Brooks), and Major Kira Nerys (Nana Visitor). *Deep Space Nine* stands apart from earlier *Trek* series for its lengthy serialized storytelling, character conflicts, and religious themes—all elements praised by critics and audiences, but which Roddenberry had forbidden as a producer of the original series and the *Next Generation*. ### *Voyager* (1995–2001) ***Star Trek: Voyager*** ran for seven seasons, airing from January 16, 1995 to May 23, 2001. It features Kate Mulgrew as Captain Kathryn Janeway, the first female commanding officer in a leading role of a *Star Trek* series. The cast included: * Kate Mulgrew as Kathryn Janeway * Robert Beltran as Chakotay * Roxann Dawson as B'Elanna Torres * Jennifer Lien as Kes * Robert Duncan McNeill as Tom Paris * Ethan Phillips as Neelix * Robert Picardo as The Doctor * Tim Russ as Tuvok * Jeri Ryan as Seven of Nine * Garrett Wang as Harry Kim *Voyager* takes place during the same time period as *Deep Space Nine* and the years immediately following (2371–2378). The militant renegade movement known as the Maquis, introduced on *Deep Space Nine*, is part of the premise of *Voyager*. The premiere episode has the USS *Voyager* and its crew pursuing a Maquis ship; both ships become stranded in the Delta Quadrant about 70,000 light-years from Earth. Faced with a 75-year voyage to Earth, the crews must work together to overcome challenges and shorten the voyage on their long and perilous journey home. Like *Deep Space Nine*, early seasons of *Voyager* feature more conflict between its crew members than seen in *The Next Generation*. Such conflict often arose from friction between "by-the-book" Starfleet crew and rebellious Maquis fugitives forced by circumstance to work together. The starship *Voyager*, isolated from its home, faced new cultures and dilemmas not possible in shows based in the Alpha Quadrant. Later seasons brought in an influx of characters and cultures from prior shows, such as the Borg, Q, the Ferengi, Romulans, Klingons, Cardassians and cast members of the *Next Generation*. ### *Enterprise* (2001–2005) ***Star Trek: Enterprise***, originally titled ***Enterprise***, is a prequel to the original *Star Trek* series. It aired from September 26, 2001 to May 13, 2005 on UPN. *Enterprise* is set about a century earlier than *The Original Series*, early in the fictional history of humanity's space exploration and shortly before the creation of the United Federation of Planets. The show follows the crew of an earlier starship *Enterprise* (NX-01) on Earth's first deep-space exploration mission. The cast included: * Scott Bakula as Jonathan Archer * Jolene Blalock as T'Pol * John Billingsley as Phlox * Dominic Keating as Malcolm Reed * Anthony Montgomery as Travis Mayweather * Linda Park as Hoshi Sato * Connor Trinneer as Trip Tucker Initially, *Enterprise* featured self-contained episodes, much like the *Original Series*, *Next Generation* and *Voyager*. The third season comprised a single narrative arc. The fourth and final season consisted of several three- and four-episode arcs, which explored the origins of some elements of previous series, and resolved some continuity errors with *The Original Series*. Ratings for *Enterprise* started strong but declined rapidly. Although critics received the fourth season well, both fans and the cast reviled the series finale, partly because of the episode's focus on the guest appearance of members of the *Next Generation* cast. The cancellation of *Enterprise* ended an 18-year run of new *Star Trek* series, which began with the *Next Generation* in 1987. ### *Discovery* (2017–present) ***Star Trek: Discovery*** is the first series of the streaming television *Star Trek* revival; it begins as a prequel to the *Original Series*, set roughly ten years prior. It premiered September 24, 2017 in the United States and Canada on CBS. The series is shown on Paramount+ in the United States; elsewhere, Netflix distributes the series worldwide, except for Canada. The cast includes: * Sonequa Martin-Green as Michael Burnham * Doug Jones as Saru * Anthony Rapp as Paul Stamets * Mary Wiseman as Sylvia Tilly * Shazad Latif as Ash Tyler / Voq * Jason Isaacs as Gabriel Lorca * Wilson Cruz as Hugh Culber * Anson Mount as Christopher Pike * David Ajala as Cleveland Booker * Blu del Barrio as Adira Tal * Tig Notaro as Jett Reno *Discovery* is a serialized drama in which each season follows a single overarching narrative. In a departure from previous *Star Trek* series, the primary protagonist, Michael Burnham (portrayed by Martin-Green), is not the captain of the titular ship for the first few seasons. The first season follows a war between the United Federation of Planets and the Klingon Empire, instigated by Burnham, who is court-martialed, demoted, and assigned to the starship *Discovery*; later seasons follow the crew of *Discovery* on other adventures. ### *Short Treks* (2018–2020) ***Star Trek: Short Treks*** is a short film anthology companion series initially exploring settings and characters from *Discovery*. Later episodes feature the crew of the *Enterprise* under the command of Christopher Pike. The final episode of the second season serves as a teaser for *Picard.* ### *Picard* (2020–2023) ***Star Trek: Picard***, like *Discovery*, is a serialized drama created for CBS All Access; it premiered on January 23, 2020. Set about 30 years after *The Next Generation*, the series sees Patrick Stewart reprise his *TNG* role of Jean-Luc Picard. The first season follows Picard in his retirement, seeking redemption for what he sees as his past failings, as he goes on an adventure to save the daughter of his late crewmate Data. The cast includes: * Patrick Stewart as Jean-Luc Picard * Alison Pill as Agnes Jurati * Isa Briones as Dahj Asha, Soji Asha, and Kore Soong * Michelle Hurd as Raffi Musiker * Santiago Cabrera as Cristóbal "Chris" Rios * Harry Treadaway as Narek * Evan Evagora as Elnor * Jeri Ryan as Seven of Nine * Orla Brady as Laris and Tallinn * Brent Spiner as Altan Soong, Adam Soong, Lore and Data ### *Lower Decks* (2020–present) ***Star Trek: Lower Decks*** is an animated adult comedy series created by the *Rick and Morty* writer Mike McMahan. The series follows the support crew of "one of Starfleet's least important ships". The series premiered on August 6, 2020 on CBS All Access. The cast includes: * Tawny Newsome as Beckett Mariner * Jack Quaid as Brad Boimler * Noël Wells as D'Vana Tendi * Eugene Cordero as Sam Rutherford * Dawnn Lewis as Carol Freeman * Jerry O'Connell as Jack Ransom * Fred Tatasciore as Shaxs * Gillian Vigman as T'Ana ### *Prodigy* (2021–present) ***Star Trek: Prodigy*** is an animated series created by Kevin and Dan Hageman for Paramount+, and the cable channel Nickelodeon. The series follows a group of teenagers who use an abandoned starship to search for adventure. The series premiered on October 28, 2021. The cast includes: * Brett Gray as Dal * Ella Purnell as Gwyn * Jason Mantzoukas as Jankom Pog * Angus Imrie as Zero * Rylee Alazraqui as Rok-Tahk * Dee Bradley Baker as Murf * Jimmi Simpson as Drednok * John Noble as the Diviner * Kate Mulgrew as Kathryn Janeway ### *Strange New Worlds* (2022–present) ***Star Trek: Strange New Worlds*** is a spinoff of *Discovery* and a prequel to the Original Series, created by Akiva Goldsman, Alex Kurtzman, and Jenny Lumet for Paramount+. It premiered in May 2022. It portrays the adventures of the U.S.S. *Enterprise* prior to James Kirk's captaincy, and focuses on episodic storytelling in contrast to the serialized narratives of *Discovery*. The *Enterprise'*s crew in this series features several characters who were first introduced in the Original Series, now played by new actors, including Ethan Peck, Anson Mount and Rebecca Romijn reprising their *Discovery* season 2 roles as Spock, Captain Pike and Number One respectively. The cast includes: * Anson Mount as Christopher Pike * Ethan Peck as Spock * Jess Bush as Christine Chapel * Christina Chong as La'an Noonien-Singh * Celia Rose Gooding as Nyota Uhura * Melissa Navia as Erica Ortegas * Babs Olusanmokun as M'Benga * Bruce Horak as Hemmer * Rebecca Romijn as Una Chin-Riley / Number One ### In development CBS and *Star Trek* producers Alex Kurtzman and Heather Kadin have announced that further animated and live-action television series are currently in development. In February 2021, it was announced that further series would only move forward once at least one of the current slate of series (*Discovery*, *Picard*, *Lower Decks*, *Prodigy*, and *Strange New Worlds*) concludes its run. In June 2018, a series set at Starfleet Academy was reportedly in development, and in March 2023, *Starfleet Academy* was greenlit by Paramount+, which is set to go into production in 2024. Film ---- Paramount Pictures has produced thirteen *Star Trek* feature films, the most recent being released in July 2016. The first six films continue the adventures of the cast of the *Original Series*; the seventh film, *Generations*, was intended as a transition from original cast to the cast of the *Next Generation*; the next three films focused completely on the *Next Generation* cast. The eleventh film and its sequels occur in an alternate timeline with a new cast portraying the *Original Series* characters. Leonard Nimoy portrayed an elderly Spock in the films, providing a narrative link to what became known as the Prime Timeline. The alternate timeline was named "The *Kelvin* Timeline" by *Star Trek Encyclopedia* writers Michael and Denise Okuda, in honor of the starship USS *Kelvin* which was first seen in the 2009 film. List of *Star Trek* films| Film | U.S. release date | Director(s) | Screenwriter(s) | Story by | Producer(s) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | *The Original Series* | | *Star Trek: The Motion Picture* | December 7, 1979 (1979-12-07) | Robert Wise | Harold Livingston | Alan Dean Foster | Gene Roddenberry | | *Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan* | June 4, 1982 (1982-06-04) | Nicholas Meyer | Jack B. Sowards | Harve Bennett and Jack B. Sowards | Robert Sallin | | *Star Trek III: The Search for Spock* | June 1, 1984 (1984-06-01) | Leonard Nimoy | Harve Bennett | | *Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home* | November 26, 1986 (1986-11-26) | Steve Meerson, Peter Krikes, Nicholas Meyer and Harve Bennett | Harve Bennett and Leonard Nimoy | Harve Bennett | | *Star Trek V: The Final Frontier* | June 9, 1989 (1989-06-09) | William Shatner | David Loughery | William Shatner, Harve Bennett and David Loughery | | *Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country* | December 6, 1991 (1991-12-06) | Nicholas Meyer | Nicholas Meyer and Denny Martin Flinn | Leonard Nimoy, Lawrence Konner and Mark Rosenthal | Ralph Winter and Steven-Charles Jaffe | | *The Next Generation* | | *Star Trek Generations* | November 18, 1994 (1994-11-18) | David Carson | Ronald D. Moore and Brannon Braga | Rick Berman, Brannon Braga and Ronald D. Moore | Rick Berman | | *Star Trek: First Contact* | November 22, 1996 (1996-11-22) | Jonathan Frakes | Brannon Braga and Ronald D. Moore | Rick Berman, Marty Hornstein and Peter Lauritson | | *Star Trek: Insurrection* | December 11, 1998 (1998-12-11) | Michael Piller | Rick Berman and Michael Piller | Rick Berman | | *Star Trek: Nemesis* | December 13, 2002 (2002-12-13) | Stuart Baird | John Logan | John Logan, Rick Berman and Brent Spiner | | Reboot (*Kelvin Timeline*) | | *Star Trek* | May 8, 2009 (2009-05-08) | J. J. Abrams | Roberto Orci & Alex Kurtzman | J. J. Abrams and Damon Lindelof | | *Star Trek Into Darkness* | May 17, 2013 (2013-05-17) | Roberto Orci, Alex Kurtzman & Damon Lindelof | J. J. Abrams, Bryan Burk, Damon Lindelof, Alex Kurtzman and Roberto Orci | | *Star Trek Beyond* | July 22, 2016 (2016-07-22) | Justin Lin | Simon Pegg & Doug Jung | J. J. Abrams, Roberto Orci, Lindsey Weber and Justin Lin | | *Star Trek 4* | TBA | TBA | Josh Friedman & Cameron Squires and Lindsey Beer & Geneva Robertson-Dworet | J. J. Abrams and Lindsey Weber | ### Films in development Though initially reported as being placed on hold, Paramount confirmed in September 2020 that they haven't cancelled any of the *Star Trek* films that are currently in development. This includes the Tarantino film, *Star Trek 4* with the *Kelvin* Timeline cast, and Noah Hawley's film * **Untitled Mark L. Smith film**: In December 2017, an R-rated *Star Trek* film was announced as in-development with a script written by Mark L. Smith, from an original story pitch by Quentin Tarantino and J. J. Abrams. Though the studio was courting Tarantino to serve as director, the filmmaker decided to pass on the project. The plot takes place primarily on Earth during the '30s in a mobster setting, and was based on an episode from the original *Star Trek* television series. The studio is open to adapting the script with another director. * ***Star Trek 4***: In April 2018, a fourth film in *The Kelvin Timeline* was announced to be in development with S. J. Clarkson hired as director. The script co-written by J. D. Payne and Patrick McKay, focused on Captain Kirk and his deceased father, George Kirk. The project was delayed due to scheduling conflicts and additional work on the script was required. In July 2021, it was announced that the next film would be directed by Matt Shakman, using a script by Lindsey Beer and Geneva Robertson-Dworet. In February 2022, at the Paramount Global Investors' Day event, it was officially announced that *Star Trek 4* will begin production in Spring of 2022. The main cast is in negotiations to return in their respective roles. Josh Friedman and Cameron Squires were hired to do a rewrite of the previous draft of the script. The project will be a joint-venture production between Paramount Pictures and Bad Robot Productions, with J. J. Abrams and Lindsey Weber signed on as producers. * **Untitled Noah Hawley film**: In November 2019, an additional film was announced as being in-development with Noah Hawley signed onto the project as writer/director. By August 2020, the project was placed on hold, while studio executives decide which project will be green-lit first. * **Untitled Kalinda Vasquez film**: In March 2021, it was announced that another film is in development. Kalinda Vasquez, who previously worked on *Star Trek: Discovery*, will serve as screenwriter. The project will be a joint-venture production between Paramount Pictures and Bad Robot Productions, with J. J. Abrams serving as producer. * **Untitled Nicholas Meyer film project**: In March 2021, Nicholas Meyer announced that he and Steven Charles-Jaffe had written a treatment for a *Star Trek* film that takes place between *The Motion Picture* and *Wrath of Khan*. The duo had proposed the project within the prior year to Alex Kurtzman, J. J. Abrams, and Paramount Pictures' Emma Watts. * ***Section 31***: In April 2023, a film directed by Olatunde Osunsanmi from a script by Craig Sweeny was announced. *Star Trek: Section 31* is set to star Michelle Yeoh as Emperor Philippa Georgiou, a role she portrayed in the first three seasons of *Discovery*. In the film, Georgiou joins the Section 31 division of Starfleet. The project originally began development as a television series in 2017. *Section 31 i*s expected to begin filming later in 2023, for a release on the streaming service Paramount+. The Hollywood Reporter indicated that Kurtzman aims to release a new *Star Trek* film on Paramount+ every two years, as part of his expanded *Star Trek* universe. Merchandise ----------- Many licensed products are based on the *Star Trek* franchise. Merchandising is very lucrative for both studio and actors; by 1986 Nimoy had earned more than $500,000 from royalties. Products include novels, comic books, video games, and other materials, which are generally considered non-canon. *Star Trek* merchandise generated $4 billion for Paramount by 2002. ### Books Since 1967, hundreds of original novels, short stories, and television and movie adaptations have been published. The first original *Star Trek* novel was *Mission to Horatius* by Mack Reynolds, which was published in hardcover by Whitman Books in 1968. In 1968, Gene Roddenberry cooperated with Stephen Edward Poe, writing as Stephen Whitfield, on the nonfiction book *The Making of Star Trek* for Ballantine Books. Among the most recent is the Star Trek Collection of Little Golden Books. Three titles were published by Random House in 2019, a fourth is scheduled for July 2020. The first publisher of *Star Trek* fiction aimed at adult readers was Bantam Books. James Blish wrote adaptations of episodes of the original series in twelve volumes from 1967 to 1977; in 1970, he wrote the first original Star Trek novel published by Bantam, *Spock Must Die!*. Pocket Books published subsequent *Star Trek* novels. Prolific *Star Trek* novelists include Peter David, Diane Carey, Keith DeCandido, J.M. Dillard, Diane Duane, Michael Jan Friedman, and Judith and Garfield Reeves-Stevens. Several actors from the television series have also written or co-written books featuring their respective characters: William Shatner, John de Lancie, Andrew J. Robinson, J. G. Hertzler and Armin Shimerman. *Voyager* producer Jeri Taylor wrote two novels detailing the personal histories of *Voyager* characters. Screenplay writers David Gerrold, D. C. Fontana, and Melinda Snodgrass have also penned books. A 2014 scholarly work Newton Lee discussed the actualization of *Star Trek's* holodeck in the future by making extensive use of artificial intelligence and cyborgs. ### Comics *Star Trek*-based comics have been issued almost continuously since 1967, published by Marvel, DC, Malibu, Wildstorm, and Gold Key, among others. In 2009, Tokyopop produced an anthology of *Next Generation*-based stories presented in the style of Japanese manga. In 2006, IDW Publishing secured publishing rights to *Star Trek* comics and issued a prequel to the 2009 film, *Star Trek: Countdown*. In 2012, IDW published the first volume of *Star Trek – The Newspaper Strip*, featuring the work of Thomas Warkentin. As of 2020, IDS continues to produce new titles. ### Games The *Star Trek* franchise has numerous games in many formats. Beginning in 1967 with a board game based on the original series and continuing through today with online and DVD games, *Star Trek* games continue to be popular among fans. Video games based on the series include *Star Trek: Legacy* and *Star Trek: Conquest*. An MMORPG based on *Star Trek* called *Star Trek Online* was developed by Cryptic Studios and published by Perfect World. It is set during the *Next Generation* era, about 30 years after the events of *Star Trek: Nemesis*. The most recent video game was set in the alternate timeline from Abrams's *Star Trek*. On June 8, 2010, WizKids announced the development of a *Star Trek* collectible miniatures game using the HeroClix game system. On December 9, 2021, *Star Trek: Resurgence*, a narrative adventure video game set in the *Next Generation* era, was announced by Dramatic Labs. ### Magazines *Star Trek* has led directly or indirectly to the creation of a number of magazines which focus either on science fiction or specifically on *Star Trek*. *Starlog* was a magazine which was founded in the 1970s. Initially, its focus was on *Star Trek* actors, but then it expanded its scope. *Star Trek: The Magazine* was a magazine published in the U.S. that ceased publication in 2003. *Star Trek Magazine*, originally published as ***Star Trek Monthly*** by Titan Magazines for the United Kingdom market, began in February 1995. The magazine has since expanded to worldwide distribution. Other magazines through the years included professional, as well as magazines published by fans, or fanzines. Cultural impact --------------- The *Star Trek* media franchise is a multibillion-dollar industry, owned by Paramount Global. Gene Roddenberry sold *Star Trek* to NBC as a classic adventure drama; he pitched the show as "*Wagon Train* to the Stars" and as *Horatio Hornblower in Space*. The opening line, "to boldly go where no man has gone before", was taken almost verbatim from a U.S. White House booklet on space produced after the Sputnik flight in 1957. *Star Trek* and its spin-offs have proven highly popular in syndication and was broadcast worldwide. The show's cultural impact goes far beyond its longevity and profitability. *Star Trek* conventions have become popular among its fans, who call themselves "trekkie" or "trekkers". An entire subculture has grown up around the franchise, which was documented in the film *Trekkies*. *Star Trek* was ranked most popular cult show by *TV Guide*. The franchise has also garnered many comparisons of the *Star Wars* franchise being rivals in the science fiction genre with many fans and scholars. The *Star Trek* franchise inspired some designers of technologies, the Palm PDA and the handheld mobile phone. Michael Jones, Chief technologist of Google Earth, has cited the tricorder's mapping capability as one inspiration in the development of Keyhole/Google Earth. The Tricorder X Prize, a contest to build a medical tricorder device was announced in 2012. Ten finalists were selected in 2014, and the winner was to be selected in January 2016. However, no team managed to reach the required criteria. *Star Trek* also brought teleportation to popular attention with its depiction of "matter-energy transport", with the famously misquoted phrase "Beam me up, Scotty" entering the vernacular. The *Star Trek* replicator is credited in the scientific literature with inspiring the field of diatom nanotechnology. In 1976, following a letter-writing campaign, NASA named its prototype space shuttle *Enterprise*, after the fictional starship. Later, the introductory sequence to *Star Trek: Enterprise* included footage of this shuttle which, along with images of a naval sailing vessel called *Enterprise*, depicted the advancement of human transportation technology. Beyond *Star Trek*'s fictional innovations, its contributions to television history included a multicultural and multiracial cast. While more common in subsequent years, in the 1960s it was controversial to feature an Enterprise crew that included a Japanese helmsman, a Russian navigator, and a black female communications officer. Captain Kirk's and Lt. Uhura's kiss, in the episode "Plato's Stepchildren", was also daring, and is often mis-cited as being American television's first scripted, interracial kiss, even though several other interracial kisses predated this one. Nichelle Nichols, who played the communications officer, said that the day after she told Roddenberry of her plan to leave the series, she was told a big fan wanted to meet her while attending a NAACP dinner party: > I thought it was a Trekkie, and so I said, 'Sure.' I looked across the room, and there was Dr. Martin Luther King walking towards me with this big grin on his face. He reached out to me and said, 'Yes, Ms. Nichols, I am your greatest fan.' He said that *Star Trek* was the only show that he, and his wife Coretta, would allow their three little children to stay up and watch. [She told King about her plans to leave the series.] I never got to tell him why, because he said, 'You can't. You're part of history.' > > — Nichelle Nichols, *Detroit Free Press* (2016) After the show, Nichols used this public standing to speak for women and people of color and against their exclusion from the US human space program; NASA reacted by asking her to find people for its future Space Shuttle program. Nichols proceeded and successfully brought the first non-white people and women into the US space program, working in this quality for NASA from the late 1970s until the late 1980s. In 2020, the US effort to develop a vaccine to protect against COVID-19 was named Operation Warp Speed, which was suggested by a *Star Trek* fan, Peter Marks. Marks leads the unit at the Food and Drug Administration which approves vaccines and therapies. ### Parodies Early parodies of *Star Trek* included a famous sketch on *Saturday Night Live* titled "The Last Voyage of the Starship *Enterprise*", with John Belushi as Kirk, Chevy Chase as Spock and Dan Aykroyd as McCoy. In the 1980s, *Saturday Night Live* did a sketch with William Shatner reprising his Captain Kirk role in *The Restaurant Enterprise*, preceded by a sketch in which he played himself at a *Trek* convention angrily telling fans to "Get a Life", a phrase that has become part of *Trek* folklore. *In Living Color* continued the tradition in a sketch where Captain Kirk is played by a fellow Canadian Jim Carrey. A feature-length film that indirectly parodies *Star Trek* is *Galaxy Quest*. This film is based on the premise that aliens monitoring the broadcast of an Earth-based television series called *Galaxy Quest*, modeled heavily on *Star Trek*, believe that what they are seeing is real. Many *Star Trek* actors have been quoted saying that *Galaxy Quest* was a brilliant parody. *Star Trek* has been blended with Gilbert and Sullivan at least twice. The North Toronto Players presented a *Star Trek* adaptation of Gilbert & Sullivan titled *H.M.S. Starship Pinafore: The Next Generation* in 1991 and an adaptation by Jon Mullich of Gilbert and Sullivan's *H.M.S. Pinafore* that sets the operetta in the world of *Star Trek* has played in Los Angeles and was attended by series luminaries Nichelle Nichols, D.C. Fontana and David Gerrold. A similar blend of Gilbert and Sullivan and *Star Trek* was presented as a benefit concert in San Francisco by the Lamplighters in 2009. The show was titled *Star Drek: The Generation After That*. It presented an original story with Gilbert and Sullivan melodies. *The Simpsons* and *Futurama* television series and others have had many individual episodes parodying *Star Trek* or with *Trek* allusions. *Black Mirror's* *Star Trek* parody episode, "USS Callister", won four Emmy Awards, including the Outstanding Television Movie and Writing for a Limited Series, Movie or Drama, and was nominated for three more. In August 2010, the members of the Internal Revenue Service created a *Star Trek* themed training video for a conference. Revealed to the public in 2013, the spoof along with parodies of other media franchises was cited as an example of the misuse of taxpayer funds in a congressional investigation. *Star Trek* has been parodied in several non-English movies, including the German *Traumschiff Surprise – Periode 1* which features a gay version of the *Original Series* bridge crew and a Turkish film that spoofs that same series' episode "The Man Trap" in one of the series of films based on the character Turist Ömer. An entire series of films and novel parodies titled *Star Wreck* has been created in Finnish. *The Orville* is a comedy-drama science fiction television series created by Seth MacFarlane that premiered on September 10, 2017, on Fox. MacFarlane, a longtime fan of the franchise who previously guest-starred on an episode of *Enterprise*, created the series with a similar look and feel as the *Star Trek* series. MacFarlane has made references to *Star Trek* on his animated series *Family Guy*, where the *Next Generation* cast guest-starred in the episode "Not All Dogs Go to Heaven". *Other Space* is a science fiction comedy streaming series which premiered on Yahoo! Screen on April 14, 2015. Created by Paul Feig, it is set in the 22nd century and follows the dysfunctional crew of an exploratory spaceship who become trapped in an unknown universe. ### Fan productions Until 2016, Paramount Pictures and CBS permitted fan-produced films and episode-like clips to be produced. Several veteran *Star Trek* actors and writers participated in many of these productions. Several producers turned to crowdfunding, such as Kickstarter, to help with production and other costs. Popular productions include: *New Voyages* (2004–2016) and *Star Trek Continues* (2013–2017). Additional productions include: *Of Gods and Men* (2008), originally released as a three-part web series, and *Prelude to Axanar*. Audio dramatizations such as *The Continuing Mission* (2007–2016) have also been published by fans. In 2016, CBS published guidelines which restricted the scope of fan productions, such as limiting the length of episodes or films to fifteen minutes, limiting production budgets to $50,000, and preventing actors and technicians from previous *Star Trek* productions from participating. A number of highly publicized productions have since been cancelled or have gone abeyant. ### Documentaries Star Trek has been a popular subject for documentaries reviewing the history of the franchise. Some examples include: * *Journey’s End: Saga of Star Trek Next Generation,* hosted by Jonathon Frakes, it reviewed the final season of the series and the upcoming *Generations.* * *Trekkies* (1997), exploring the subculture of Star Trek fandom. * *Star Trek: Beyond the Final Frontier* (2007), exploring a giant Christie's auction of tens of thousand of *Star Trek* props, hosted by actor Leonard Nimoy. * *The Center Seat* (2016), an 85-minute special on *Star Trek* for its 50th anniversary, aired by the History network. * *For the Love of Spock* (2016), focusing on the history and impact of the character Spock. * *What We Left Behind* (2019), about the production and legacy of *Star Trek: Deep Space Nine*. * *The Center Seat: 55 Years of Star Trek* (2021), an eight-episode documentary series ordered by the cable network History covering the franchise's decades-long history. It was narrated by Gates McFadden, who was also one of the executive producers. Some documentaries have been funded by the community by money raised by crowdfunding. *What We Left Behind* raised nearly $650,000 in this way, and a planned Voyager documentary raised $450,000 in 24 hours. Awards and honors ----------------- Of the various science fiction awards for drama, only the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation dates back as far as the original series. In 1968, all five nominees for a Hugo Award were individual episodes of *Star Trek*, as were three of the five nominees in 1967, one of which won. *The Next Generation* won Hugo awards in 1993 and 1995. Nominations have also been received by *Deep Space Nine*, *Enterprise*, *Discovery*, and *Lower Decks*, as well as several of the *Star Trek* feature films and, in 2008, an episode of the fan-made series *Star Trek: Phase II*. One of the most successful films was *Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home*, which grossed a global total of $133 million against a $21 million budget.*The Voyage Home* garnered 11 nominations at the 14th annual Saturn Awards, tying *Aliens* for number of nominations. Nimoy and Shatner were nominated for best actor for their roles, and Catherine Hicks was nominated for best supporting actress. At the 59th Academy Awards, *The Voyage Home* was nominated for Best Cinematography, Sound (Terry Porter, David J. Hudson, Mel Metcalfe and Gene Cantamessa), Sound Effects Editing, and Original Score. The episode "The Big Goodbye" in the first season of *Star Trek: The Next Generation*, in recognition of its "new standard of quality for first-run syndication", the episode was honored with a Peabody Award in 1987. "The Big Goodbye" was also nominated for two Emmy Awards in the categories of Outstanding Cinematography for a Series and Outstanding Costumes for a Series, with costume designer William Ware Theiss winning the award in the latter category. *Star Trek* (2009) won the Academy Award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling, the franchise's first Academy Award. In 2016, the franchise was listed in the Guinness World Records as the most successful science fiction television franchise in the world. Examples: * List of awards and nominations received by *Star Trek: Deep Space Nine* * List of awards and nominations received by *Star Trek: Enterprise* * List of awards and nominations received by *Star Trek: The Next Generation* * List of awards and nominations received by *Star Trek: The Original Series* * List of awards and nominations received by *Star Trek: Voyager* ### Episode rankings #### *TV Guide* (1996) In 1996, *TV Guide* published the following as the ten best *Star Trek* episodes for the franchise's 30th anniversary: 1. "The City on the Edge of Forever" (*The Original Series*) 2. "Amok Time" (*The Original Series*) 3. "Mirror, Mirror" (*The Original Series*) 4. "The Doomsday Machine" (*The Original Series*) 5. "Journey to Babel" (*The Original Series*) 6. "11001001" (*The Next Generation*) 7. "Yesterday's Enterprise" (*The Next Generation*) 8. "The Best of Both Worlds" (Part I) (*The Next Generation*) 9. "Tapestry" (*The Next Generation*) 10. "The Visitor" (*Deep Space Nine*) #### 50th Anniversary Convention (2016) At the 50th Anniversary *Star Trek* Las Vegas (STLV) convention, in 2016, the following were voted by fans as the best episodes: 1. "The City on the Edge of Forever" (*The Original Series*) 2. "In the Pale Moonlight" (*Deep Space Nine*) 3. "The Inner Light" (*The Next Generation*) 4. "Amok Time" (*The Original Series*) 5. "Yesterday's Enterprise" (*The Next Generation*) 6. "The Visitor" (*Deep Space Nine*) 7. "Chain of Command" (*The Next Generation*) 8. "Balance of Terror" (*The Original Series*) 9. "In a Mirror, Darkly" (*Enterprise*) 10. "The Magnificent Ferengi" (*Deep Space Nine*) Additionally, fans voted the following as the worst episodes: 1. "These Are the Voyages..." (*Enterprise*) 2. "Code of Honor" (*The Next Generation*) 3. "Threshold" (*Voyager*) 4. "Turnabout Intruder" (*The Original Series*) 5. "Shades of Gray" (*The Next Generation*) 6. "Sub Rosa" (*The Next Generation*) 7. "And the Children Shall Lead" (*The Original Series*) 8. "Move Along Home" (*Deep Space Nine*) 9. "The Alternative Factor" (*The Original Series*) 10. "Precious Cargo" (*Enterprise*) #### Washington Post (2016) In 2016, *The Washington Post* ranked the best live-action television episodes: 1. "The Best of Both Worlds" (*The Next Generation*) 2. "Darmok" (*The Next Generation*) 3. "Balance of Terror" (*The Original Series*) 4. "In the Pale Moonlight" (*Deep Space Nine*) 5. "Chain of Command" (*The Next Generation*) 6. "Yesterday's Enterprise" (*The Next Generation*) 7. "The Doomsday Machine" (*The Original Series*) 8. "The Measure of a Man" (*The Next Generation*) 9. "Journey to Babel" (*The Original Series*) 10. "First Contact" (*The Next Generation*) Corporate ownership ------------------- *Star Trek* began as a joint-production of Norway Productions, owned by Roddenberry, and Desilu, owned by Desi Arnaz and Lucille Ball. The profit-sharing agreement for the series split proceeds between Norway, Desilu (later Paramount Television), William Shatner's production company, and the broadcast network, NBC. However, *Star Trek* lost money during its initial broadcast, and NBC did not expect to recoup its losses by selling the series into syndication, nor did Paramount. With NBC's approval, Paramount offered its share of the series to Roddenberry sometime in 1970. However, Roddenberry could not raise the $150,000 (equivalent to $1,130,334 in 2022) offered by the studio. Paramount would go on to license the series to television syndicators worldwide. NBC's remaining broadcast and distribution rights eventually returned to Paramount and Roddenberry sometime before 1986, which coincided with the development of what would become *The Next Generation*. As for Desilu, the studio was acquired by Gulf+Western. It was then reorganized as the television production division of Paramount Pictures, which Gulf+Western had acquired in 1966. Gulf+Western sold its remaining industrial assets in 1989, renaming itself Paramount Communications. Sometime before 1986, Sumner Redstone had acquired a controlling stake of Viacom via his family's theater chain, National Amusements. Viacom was established in 1952 as a division of CBS responsible for syndicating the network's in-house productions, originally called CBS Films. In 1994, Viacom and Paramount Communications were merged. Viacom then merged with its former parent, CBS Corporation, in 1999. National Amusements and the Redstone family increased their stake in the combined company between 1999 and 2005. ### Split ownership (2005–2019) In 2005, the Redstone family reorganized Viacom, spinning off the conglomerate's assets as two independent groups: the new Viacom, and the new CBS Corporation. National Amusements and the Redstone family retained approximately 80% ownership of both CBS and Viacom. *Star Trek* was split between the two entities. The terms of this split were not known. However, CBS held all copyrights, marks, production assets, and film negatives, to all *Star Trek* television series. CBS also retained the rights to all likenesses, characters, names and settings, and stories, and the right to license *Star Trek*, and its spin-offs, to merchandisers, and publishers, etc. The rights were exercised via the new CBS Television Studios, which was carved out of the former Paramount Television. Viacom, which housed Paramount Pictures, retained the feature film library, and exclusive rights to produce new feature films for a limited time. Viacom also retained home video distribution rights for all television series produced before 2005. However, home video editions of the various television series released after the split, as well as streaming video versions of episodes available worldwide, carried variants of the new CBS Television Studios livery in addition to the original Paramount Television Studios livery. It was unclear who retained the synchronization or streaming rights. Rights and distribution issues, and the fraught relationship between the leadership at CBS, Viacom, and the National Amusements' board of directors, resulted in a number of delayed and or cancelled *Star Trek* productions between 2005 and 2019. Additionally, the development and release of the new *Star Trek* film, in 2009, was met with resistance by executives at CBS, as was *Into Darkness* (2013) and *Beyond* (2016), which affected merchandising, tie-in media, and promotion for the new films. During this period, both CBS and Viacom continued to list *Star Trek* as an important asset in their prospectus to investors, and in corporate filings made to the Securities and Exchange Commission. ### Current ownership While several attempts were made to merge Viacom and CBS, power struggles between the major stakeholders of the companies prevented this from happening. In 2019, after the resignation of CBS CEO Leslie Moonves, negotiations to merge CBS and Viacom began in earnest. These negotiations were led by Shari Redstone, chairman of National Amusements, and Joe Ianniello, CEO of CBS. On August 13, 2019, CBS and Viacom boards of directors reached an agreement to reunite the conglomerates as a single entity called ViacomCBS. National Amusements' board of directors approved the merger on October 28, 2019, which was finalized on December 4, bringing the *Star Trek* franchise back under one roof. ViacomCBS was renamed Paramount Global on February 16, 2022. See also -------- * Outline of space science fiction franchises * Outline of *Star Trek* * Timeline of science fiction * Comparison of Star Wars and Star Trek Further reading --------------- * Asherman, Allan (March 20, 1981). *The Star Trek Compendium*. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-79145-1. * Barad, Judith; Robertson, Ed (December 5, 2000). *The Ethics of Star Trek*. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-019530-4. * Ellison, Harlan (January 1996). *The City on the Edge of Forever*. Benson, Maryland: Borderlands Press. ISBN 1-880325-02-0. * Greenwald, Jeff (June 1998). *Future Perfect: How Star Trek Conquered Planet Earth*. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-87399-3. * Gerrold, David (April 12, 1973). *Trouble with Tribbles*. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-23402-2. * Gerrold, David (May 1984). *The World of Star Trek* (Revised ed.). New York: Bluejay Books. ISBN 0-312-94463-2. * Krauss, Lawrence M (September 1995). *The Physics of Star Trek*. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-00559-4. * Lichtenberg, Jacqueline; Marshak, Sondra; Winston, Joan (July 1975). *Star Trek Lives!*. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-02151-6. * McIntee, David (March 9, 2000). *Delta Quadrant: The Unofficial Guide to Star Trek Voyager*. London: Virgin Books. ISBN 0-7535-0436-7. * Nichols, Nichelle (October 19, 1994). *Beyond Uhura*. New York: Putnam Adult. ISBN 0-399-13993-1. * Projansky, Sarah; Helford, Elyce Rae; Ono, Kent (August 8, 1996). Harrison, Taylor (ed.). *Enterprise Zones: Critical Positions on Star Trek*. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-2899-3. * Shatner, William; Kreski, Chris (October 1993). *Star Trek Memories*. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-017734-9. * Shatner, William; Kreski, Chris (May 1999). *Get a Life!*. New York: Pocket Books. ISBN 0-671-02131-1. * Shatner, William; Walter, Chip (July 30, 2002). *I'm Working on That: A Trek from Science Fiction to Science Fact*. New York: Pocket Books. ISBN 0-671-04737-X. * Winston, Joan (November 1977). *The Making of the Trek Conventions*. New York: Knopf Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-13112-7. Listen to this article (35 minutes) Spoken Wikipedia iconThis audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 6 January 2010 (2010-01-06), and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles)

Star Trek

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Trek

The **Proterozoic** (IPA: /ˌproʊtərəˈzoʊɪk, prɒt-, -əroʊ-, -trə-, -troʊ-/) is a geological eon spanning the time interval from 2500 to 538.8 million years ago. It is the most recent part of the Precambrian "supereon". It is also the longest eon of the Earth's geologic time scale, and it is subdivided into three geologic eras (from oldest to youngest): the Paleoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic, and Neoproterozoic. The Proterozoic covers the time from the appearance of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere to just before the proliferation of complex life (such as trilobites or corals) on the Earth. The name *Proterozoic* combines two forms of ultimately Greek origin: *protero-* meaning 'former, earlier', and *-zoic*, 'of life'. Well-identified events of this eon were the transition to an oxygenated atmosphere during the Paleoproterozoic; the evolution of eukaryotes; several glaciations, which produced the hypothesized Snowball Earth during the Cryogenian Period in the late Neoproterozoic Era; and the Ediacaran Period (635 to 538.8 Ma) which is characterized by the evolution of abundant soft-bodied multicellular organisms and provides the first obvious fossil evidence of life on Earth. The Proterozoic record ---------------------- The geologic record of the Proterozoic Eon is more complete than that for the preceding Archean Eon. In contrast to the deep-water deposits of the Archean, the Proterozoic features many strata that were laid down in extensive shallow epicontinental seas; furthermore, many of those rocks are less metamorphosed than Archean rocks, and many are unaltered. Studies of these rocks have shown that the eon continued the massive continental accretion that had begun late in the Archean Eon. The Proterozoic Eon also featured the first definitive supercontinent cycles and wholly modern[*clarify*] mountain building activity (orogeny). There is evidence that the first known glaciations occurred during the Proterozoic. The first began shortly after the beginning of the Proterozoic Eon, and evidence of at least four during the Neoproterozoic Era at the end of the Proterozoic Eon, possibly climaxing with the hypothesized Snowball Earth of the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations. The accumulation of oxygen -------------------------- One of the most important events of the Proterozoic was the accumulation of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. Though oxygen is believed to have been released by photosynthesis as far back as the Archean Eon, it could not build up to any significant degree until mineral sinks of unoxidized sulfur and iron had been exhausted. Until roughly 2.3 billion years ago, oxygen was probably only 1% to 2% of its current level. The banded iron formations, which provide most of the world's iron ore, are one mark of that mineral sink process. Their accumulation ceased after 1.9 billion years ago, after the iron in the oceans had all been oxidized. Red beds, which are colored by hematite, indicate an increase in atmospheric oxygen 2 billion years ago. Such massive iron oxide formations are not found in older rocks. The oxygen buildup was probably due to two factors: exhaustion of the chemical sinks, and an increase in carbon sequestration, which sequestered organic compounds that would have otherwise been oxidized by the atmosphere. A second surge in oxygen concentrations, known as the Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event, occurred during the Middle and Late Neoproterozoic and drove the rapid evolution of multicellular life towards the end of the era. Subduction processes -------------------- The Proterozoic Eon was a very tectonically active period in the Earth's history. The late Archean Eon to Early Proterozoic Eon corresponds to a period of increasing crustal recycling, suggesting subduction. Evidence for this increased subduction activity comes from the abundance of old granites originating mostly after 2.6 Ga. The occurrence of eclogite (a type of metamorphic rock created by high pressure, > 1 GPa), is explained using a model that incorporates subduction. The lack of eclogites that date to the Archean Eon suggests that conditions at that time did not favor the formation of high grade metamorphism and therefore did not achieve the same levels of subduction as was occurring in the Proterozoic Eon. As a result of remelting of basaltic oceanic crust due to subduction, the cores of the first continents grew large enough to withstand the crustal recycling processes. The long-term tectonic stability of those cratons is why we find continental crust ranging up to a few billion years in age. It is believed that 43% of modern continental crust was formed in the Proterozoic, 39% formed in the Archean, and only 18% in the Phanerozoic. Studies by Condie (2000) and Rino et al. (2004) suggest that crust production happened episodically. By isotopically calculating the ages of Proterozoic granitoids it was determined that there were several episodes of rapid increase in continental crust production. The reason for these pulses is unknown, but they seemed to have decreased in magnitude after every period. Tectonic history (supercontinents) ---------------------------------- * Columbia, about 1,590 MyaColumbia, about 1,590 Mya * Rodinia, about 750 MyaRodinia, about 750 Mya * Pannotia, 545 Mya (disputed[clarification needed]), centered on South PolePannotia, 545 Mya (disputed[*clarification needed*]), centered on South Pole * Gondwana 420 Mya, centered on South PoleGondwana 420 Mya, centered on South Pole Evidence of collision and rifting between continents raises the question as to what exactly were the movements of the Archean cratons composing Proterozoic continents. Paleomagnetic and geochronological dating mechanisms have allowed the deciphering of Precambrian Supereon tectonics. It is known that tectonic processes of the Proterozoic Eon resemble greatly the evidence of tectonic activity, such as orogenic belts or ophiolite complexes, we see today. Hence, most geologists would conclude that the Earth was active at that time. It is also commonly accepted that during the Precambrian, the Earth went through several supercontinent breakup and rebuilding cycles (Wilson cycle). In the late Proterozoic (most recent), the dominant supercontinent was Rodinia (~1000–750 Ma). It consisted of a series of continents attached to a central craton that forms the core of the North American Continent called Laurentia. An example of an orogeny (mountain building processes) associated with the construction of Rodinia is the Grenville orogeny located in Eastern North America. Rodinia formed after the breakup of the supercontinent Columbia and prior to the assemblage of the supercontinent Gondwana (~500 Ma). The defining orogenic event associated with the formation of Gondwana was the collision of Africa, South America, Antarctica and Australia forming the Pan-African orogeny. Columbia was dominant in the early-mid Proterozoic and not much is known about continental assemblages before then. There are a few plausible models that explain tectonics of the early Earth prior to the formation of Columbia, but the current most plausible hypothesis is that prior to Columbia, there were only a few independent cratons scattered around the Earth (not necessarily a supercontinent, like Rodinia or Columbia). Life ---- StromatolitesCochabamba, Bolivia, South AmericaZebra River Canyon, Eastern Namibia The emergence of advanced single-celled eukaryotes began after the Great Oxidation Event. This may have been due to an increase in the oxidized nitrates that eukaryotes use, as opposed to cyanobacteria. It was also during the Proterozoic that the first symbiotic relationships between mitochondria (found in nearly all eukaryotes) and chloroplasts (found in plants and some protists only) and their hosts evolved. By the late Palaeoproterozoic, eukaryotic organisms had become moderately biodiverse. The blossoming of eukaryotes such as acritarchs did not preclude the expansion of cyanobacteria; in fact, stromatolites reached their greatest abundance and diversity during the Proterozoic, peaking roughly 1200 million years ago. The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic Era, some 2,400 million years ago; these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis. Classically, the boundary between the Proterozoic and the Phanerozoic eons was set at the base of the Cambrian Period when the first fossils of animals, including trilobites and archeocyathids, as well as the animal-like *Caveasphaera*, appeared. In the second half of the 20th century, a number of fossil forms have been found in Proterozoic rocks, particularly in ones from the Ediacaran, proving that multicellular life had already become widespread tens of millions of years before the Cambrian Explosion in what is known as the Avalon Explosion. Nonetheless, the upper boundary of the Proterozoic has remained fixed at the base of the Cambrian, which is currently placed at 538.8 Ma. See also -------- * Timeline of natural history

Proterozoic

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proterozoic